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4836239	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Sound%20of%20Music%20%28film%29	The Sound of Music (film)	The Sound of Music is a 1965 American musical drama film produced and directed by Robert Wise from a screenplay written by Ernest Lehman, and starring Julie Andrews and Christopher Plummer, with Richard Haydn, Peggy Wood, Charmian Carr, and Eleanor Parker. The film is an adaptation of the 1959 stage musical, composed by Richard Rodgers, with lyrics by Oscar Hammerstein II and a book by Lindsay and Crouse. Based on the 1949 memoir The Story of the Trapp Family Singers by Maria von Trapp, the film is about a young Austrian postulant who, in 1938, is sent to the villa of a retired naval officer and widower to be governess to his seven children. Filming took place from March to September 1964 in Los Angeles and Salzburg. The Sound of Music was released on March 2, 1965, in the United States, initially as a limited roadshow theatrical release. Although initial critical response to the film was mixed, it was a major commercial success, becoming the number one box office film after four weeks, and the highest-grossing film of 1965. By November 1966, The Sound of Music had become the highest-grossing film of all-time—surpassing Gone with the Wind—and held that distinction for five years. The film was just as popular throughout the world, breaking previous box-office records in twenty-nine countries. Following an initial theatrical release that lasted four and a half years, and two successful re-releases, the film sold 283 million admissions worldwide and earned a total worldwide gross of $286million. The Sound of Music received five Academy Awards, including Best Picture and Best Director, Wise's second pair of both awards, the first being from the 1961 film West Side Story. The film also received two Golden Globe Awards, for Best Motion Picture and Best Actress, the Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directorial Achievement, and the Writers Guild of America Award for Best Written American Musical. In 1998, the American Film Institute (AFI) listed The Sound of Music as the fifty-fifth greatest American film of all time, and the fourth-greatest film musical. In 2001, the United States Library of Congress selected the film for preservation in the National Film Registry, finding it "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant". Plot Maria is a free-spirited young Austrian woman studying to become a nun at Nonnberg Abbey in Salzburg in 1938. Her youthful enthusiasm and lack of discipline cause some concern. Mother Abbess sends Maria to the villa of retired naval officer Captain Georg von Trapp to be governess to his seven children—Liesl, Friedrich, Louisa, Kurt, Brigitta, Marta and Gretl. The Captain has been raising his children alone using strict military discipline following the death of his wife. Although the children misbehave at first, Maria responds with kindness and patience, and soon the children come to trust and respect her. While the Captain is away in Vienna, Maria makes play clothes for the children out of drapes that are to be changed. She takes them around Salzburg and the mountains while teaching them how to sing. When the Captain returns to the villa with Baroness Elsa Schraeder, a wealthy socialite, and their mutual friend Max Detweiler, they are greeted by Maria and the children returning from a boat ride on the lake which concludes when their boat overturns. Displeased by his children's clothes and activities and Maria's impassioned appeal that he get closer to his children, the Captain attempts to fire Maria. However, he hears singing coming from inside the house and is astonished to see his children singing for the Baroness. Filled with emotion, the Captain joins his children, singing for the first time in years. The Captain apologizes to Maria and asks her to stay. Impressed by the children's singing, Max proposes that he enters them in the upcoming Salzburg Festival, but the Captain disapproves of letting his children sing in public. During a grand party at the villa, where guests in formal attire waltz in the ballroom, Maria and the children look on from the garden terrace. When the Captain notices Maria teaching Kurt the traditional Ländler folk dance, he steps in and partners Maria in a graceful performance, culminating in a close embrace. Confused about her feelings, Maria blushes and breaks away. Later, the Baroness, who noticed the Captain's attraction to Maria, hides her jealousy by indirectly convincing Maria that she must return to the abbey. However, Mother Abbess learns that Maria has stayed in seclusion to avoid her feelings for the Captain, so she encourages her to return to the villa to look for her purpose in life. When Maria returns to the villa, she learns about the Captain's engagement to the Baroness and agrees to stay until they find a replacement governess. However, the Baroness learns that the Captain's feelings for Maria haven't changed, so she peacefully calls off the engagement and returns to Vienna while encouraging the Captain to express his feelings for Maria, who marries him. While the couple is on their honeymoon, Max enters the children into the Salzburg Festival against their father's wishes. Having learned that Austria has been annexed by the Third Reich, the couple return to their home, where the Captain receives a telegram, ordering him to report to the German Naval base at Bremerhaven to accept a commission in the Kriegsmarine. Strongly opposed to the Nazis and their ideology, the Captain tells his family they must leave Austria immediately. That night, the von Trapp family attempt to flee to Switzerland, but they are stopped by a group of Brownshirts, led by the Gauleiter Hans Zeller, waiting outside the villa. To cover his family's tracks, the Captain maintains they are headed to the Salzburg Festival to perform. Zeller insists on escorting them to the festival, after which his men will accompany the Captain to Bremerhaven. Later that night at the festival, during their final number, the von Trapp family slips away and seeks shelter at the abbey, where Mother Abbess hides them in the cemetery crypt. Zeller and his men soon arrive and search the abbey, but the family is able to escape using the caretaker's car. When they attempt to pursue, they discover their cars will not start, as two of the nuns have sabotaged their engines. The next morning, after driving to the Swiss border, the von Trapp family make their way on foot across the frontier into Switzerland to safety and freedom. Cast Julie Andrews as Maria Christopher Plummer as Captain von Trapp Bill Lee overdubbed Plummer's singing Eleanor Parker as Baroness Elsa von Schraeder Richard Haydn as Max Detweiler Peggy Wood as Mother Abbess Charmian Carr as Liesl von Trapp Heather Menzies as Louisa von Trapp Nicholas Hammond as Friedrich von Trapp Duane Chase as Kurt von Trapp Angela Cartwright as Brigitta von Trapp Debbie Turner as Marta von Trapp Kym Karath as Gretl von Trapp Anna Lee as Sister Margaretta Portia Nelson as Sister Berthe Ben Wright as Herr Zeller Daniel Truhitte as Rolfe Norma Varden as Frau Schmidt, housekeeper Gil Stuart as Franz, butler Marni Nixon as Sister Sophia Evadne Baker as Sister Bernice Doris Lloyd as Baroness Ebberfeld The real Maria von Trapp has a brief uncredited cameo as a passerby, alongside her children Rosmarie and Werner von Trapp during "I Have Confidence". Background The Sound of Music story is based on Maria von Trapp's memoir The Story of the Trapp Family Singers, published in 1949 to help promote her family's singing group following the death of her husband Georg in 1947. Hollywood producers expressed interest in purchasing the title only, but Maria refused, wanting her entire story to be told. In 1956, German producer Wolfgang Liebeneiner purchased the film rights for $9,000 (), hired George Hurdalek and Herbert Reinecker to write the screenplay, and Franz Grothe to supervise the soundtrack, which consisted of traditional Austrian folk songs. The Trapp Family was released in West Germany on October 9, 1956, and became a major success. Two years later, Liebeneiner directed a sequel, The Trapp Family in America, and the two pictures became the most successful films in West Germany during the post-war years. Their popularity extended throughout Europe and South America. In 1956, Paramount Pictures purchased the United States film rights, intending to produce an English-language version with Audrey Hepburn as Maria. The studio eventually dropped its option, but one of its directors, Vincent J. Donehue, proposed the story as a stage musical for Mary Martin. Producers Richard Halliday and Leland Heyward secured the rights and hired playwrights Howard Lindsay and Russel Crouse, who had won the Pulitzer Prize for State of the Union. They approached Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein II to compose one song for the musical, but the composers felt the two styles—traditional Austrian folk songs and their composition—would not work together. They offered to write a completely new score for the entire production if the producers were willing to wait while they completed work on Flower Drum Song. The producers quickly responded that they would wait as long as necessary. The Sound of Music stage musical opened on November 16, 1959, at the Lunt-Fontanne Theatre in New York City and ran on Broadway for 1,443 performances, winning six Tony Awards, including Best Musical. In June 1960, Twentieth Century-Fox purchased the film adaptation rights to the stage musical for $1.25 million () against ten percent of the gross. Production Screenplay and pre-production In December 1962, 20th Century-Fox president Richard D. Zanuck hired Ernest Lehman to write the screenplay for the film adaptation of the stage musical. Lehman reviewed the original script for the stage musical, rearranged the sequence of songs, and began transforming a work designed for the stage into a film that could use the camera to emphasize action and mood and open the story up to the beautiful locations of Salzburg and the Austrian Alps. The "Do-Re-Mi" sequence in the play, for example, was originally a stagnant number; Lehman transformed it into a lively montage showing some of the beautiful sites of Salzburg, as well as showing Maria and the children growing closer over time. Lehman also eliminated two songs, "How Can Love Survive?" and "No Way to Stop It", sung by the characters of Elsa and Max. In January 1963, he saw the Fox English-dubbed version of the two German films. Not especially impressed, he decided to use the stage musical and Maria's memoir for most of his source material. While Lehman was developing the screenplay, he and Zanuck began looking for a director. Their first choice was Robert Wise, with whom Lehman had worked on the film adaptation of West Side Story, but Wise was busy preparing work for another film, The Sand Pebbles. Other directors were approached and turned down the offer, including Stanley Donen, Vincent J. Donehue, George Roy Hill, and Gene Kelly. In January 1963, Lehman invited one of his favorite directors, William Wyler, to travel to New York City with him to see the Broadway musical. After seeing the show, Wyler said he hated it, but after two weeks of Lehman's persuasion, Wyler reluctantly agreed to direct and produce the film. After hiring musical supervisor Roger Edens, Wyler, Lehman, and Edens traveled to Salzburg to scout filming locations. In two weeks they managed to see approximately seventy-five locations—an experience that helped Lehman conceptualize several important sequences. During that trip, Lehman began to have reservations about Wyler's commitment to the project and communicated this to Zanuck, who instructed the writer to finalize the first draft of the screenplay as quickly as possible. Lehman completed the first draft on September 10, 1963, and sent it to Wyler, who had no suggestions or changes to add. At that time, Lehman also secretly gave a copy of the script to the agent of Robert Wise, whom Lehman still wanted as the director. Later that month, Wyler's agent approached Zanuck asking that production on the film be delayed so Wyler could direct The Collector. Zanuck told him to tell Wyler to make the other film, and that they would move ahead on schedule with another director, ending Wyler's participation. Meanwhile, Wise, whose film The Sand Pebbles had been postponed, read Lehman's first draft, was impressed by what he read, and agreed to direct the film, joining the picture in October 1963, and flew to Salzburg with associate producer Saul Chaplin and members of his production team to scout filming locations, including many that Wyler had identified. When he returned, Wise began working on the script. Wise shared Lehman's vision of the film being centered on the music, and the changes he made were consistent with the writer's approach—mainly reducing the amount of sweetness and sentimentality found in the stage musical. He had reservations about Lehman's opening aerial sequence because West Side Story, whose screenplay Lehman had also written, had used a similar opening sequence, but he was unable to think of a better one and decided to keep Lehman's. Other changes included replacing "An Ordinary Couple" with a more romantic number, and a new song for Maria's departure from the abbey—Rodgers provided "Something Good" and "I Have Confidence", especially for the film. Lehman completed the second draft on December 20, 1963, but additional changes would be made based on input from Maria von Trapp and Christopher Plummer about the character of the Captain. Plummer especially helped change a character lacking substance into a stronger, more forceful complex figure with a wry sense of humor and a darker edge. Lehman completed his final draft on March 20, 1964. Casting and rehearsals Lehman's first and only choice for Maria was Julie Andrews. When Wise joined the project, he made a list of his choices for the role, which included Andrews as his first choice, Grace Kelly, and Shirley Jones. Wise and Lehman went to Disney Studios to view footage from Mary Poppins, which was not yet released. A few minutes into the film, Wise told Lehman, "Let's go sign this girl before somebody else sees this film and grabs her!" Andrews had some reservations—mainly about the amount of sweetness in the theatrical version—but when she learned that her concerns were shared by Wise and Lehman and what their vision was, she signed a contract with Fox to star in The Sound of Music and one other film for $225,000 (). Wise had a more difficult time casting the role of the Captain. A number of actors were considered for the part, including Bing Crosby, Yul Brynner, Sean Connery, and Richard Burton. Wise had seen Christopher Plummer on Broadway and wanted him for the role, but the stage actor turned down the offer several times. Wise flew to London to meet with Plummer and explained his concept of the film; the actor accepted after being assured that he could work with Lehman to improve the character. Wise also spent considerable time and effort on casting the secondary characters. For the role of Max Detweiler, Wise initially considered Victor Borge, Noël Coward, and Hal Holbrook among others before deciding on Richard Haydn. For the character of Baroness Elsa Schraeder, Wise looked for a "name" actress—Andrews and Plummer were not yet widely known to film audiences—and decided on Eleanor Parker. The casting of the children's characters began in November 1963 and involved over two hundred interviews and auditions throughout the United States and England. Some of the child actors interviewed or tested, who were not selected, included Mia Farrow, Patty Duke, Lesley Ann Warren, Geraldine Chaplin, Shelley Fabares, Teri Garr, Kurt Russell, and The Osmonds. Most of the actors selected had some acting, singing, or dancing experience. Charmian Carr, however, was a model who worked part-time in a doctor's office and had no ambition to pursue a career as an actress. After a friend sent her photo to Wise's office, she was asked to interview. Wise later recalled, "She was so pretty and had such poise and charm that we liked her immediately." The last person to be cast was Daniel Truhitte in the role of Rolfe. Rehearsals for the singing and dance sequences began on February 10, 1964. The husband-and-wife team of Marc Breaux and Dee Dee Wood, who had worked with Andrews on Mary Poppins, worked out the choreography with Saul Chaplin on piano—the arrangements could not be altered under Rodgers and Hammerstein's contract. The stage choreography was not used because it was too restrictive. Breaux and Wood worked out all-new choreography better suited for the film that incorporated many of the Salzburg locations and settings. They even choreographed the newly added puppet dance sequence for "The Lonely Goatherd". The choreography for the Ländler strictly followed the traditional Austrian folk dance. The musical arranger Irwin Kostal prerecorded the songs with a large orchestra and singers on a stage before the start of filming. In her book, The Sound of Music: The Making of America's Favorite Movie, Julia Antopol Hirsch says that Kostal used seven children and five adults to record the children's voices; the only scene in which the child-actors' singing is heard in the released version of the film is when they sing "The Sound of Music" on their own after Maria leaves. Charmian Carr refuted the claim that the voices of the child actors were dubbed in the film and on the soundtrack. Carr contended that all of the children who are in the film sing on the track, but four other children were added to most of the songs to give them a fuller sound; they did not replace them as singers. The voices of some of the adult actors had voice doubles, including those of Peggy Wood and Christopher Plummer. Filming and post-production Principal photography began on March 26, 1964, at 20th Century-Fox studios in Los Angeles, where scenes from Maria's bedroom and the abbey cloister and graveyard were filmed. The company then flew to Salzburg, where filming resumed on April 23 at Mondsee Abbey for the wedding scenes. From April 25 through May 22, scenes were filmed at the Felsenreitschule, Nonnberg Abbey, Mirabell Palace Gardens, Residence Fountain, and various street locations throughout the Altstadt (Old Town) area of the city. Wise faced opposition from city leaders who did not want him staging scenes with swastika banners. They relented after he threatened instead to include old newsreel footage featuring the banners. On days when it rained, a constant challenge for the company, Wise arranged for scenes to be shot at St. Margarethen Chapel and Dürer Studios (Reverend Mother's office). From May 23 to June 7, the company worked at Schloss Leopoldskron and an adjacent property called Bertelsmann for scenes representing the lakeside terrace and gardens of the von Trapp villa. From June 9 to 19, scenes were shot at Frohnburg Palace, which represented the front and back façades of the villa. Karath could not swim and was in danger during the capsizing boat scene. The "Do-Re-Mi" picnic scene in the mountains was filmed above the town of Werfen in the Salzach River valley on June 25 and 27. The opening sequence of Maria on her mountain was filmed from June 28 to July 2 at Mehlweg mountain near the town of Marktschellenberg in Bavaria. During filming, Birch trees were added and then removed. The brook she walks through was plastic filled with water which was put there during filming. The final scene of the von Trapp family escaping over the mountains was filmed on the Obersalzberg in the Bavarian Alps. The cast and crew flew back to Los Angeles and resumed filming at Fox Studios on July 6 for all remaining scenes, including those in the villa dining room, ballroom, terrace, living room, and gazebo. Following the last two scenes shot in the gazebo—for the songs "Something Good" and "Sixteen Going on Seventeen"—principal photography concluded on September 1, 1964. A total of eighty-three scenes were filmed in just over five months. Post-production work began on August 25 with three weeks of dialogue dubbing to correct lines that were ruined by various street noises and rain. In October, Christopher Plummer's singing voice was dubbed by veteran Disney playback singer Bill Lee. The film was then edited by Wise and film editor William Reynolds. Once the film was edited, Irwin Kostal, who orchestrated the musical numbers, underscored the film with background music consisting of variations on Rodgers and Hammerstein's original songs to amplify or add nuances to the visual images. When dubbing, editing, and scoring were complete, Wise arranged for two sneak-preview showings—the first one held in Minneapolis on Friday, January 15, 1965 at the Mann Theater, and the second one held the following night in Tulsa. Despite the "sensational" responses from the preview audiences, Wise made a few final editing changes before completing the film. According to the original print information for the film, the running time for the theatrical release version was 174 minutes. The film was still in release when the Motion Picture Association of America's film ratings system was implemented in 1968, and was subsequently given a "G" rating ("general audiences") in 1969. The Sound of Music was filmed in Todd-AO by Ted McCord and produced with DeLuxe Color processing. Aerial footage was photographed with an MCS-70 camera. The sound was recorded on a 70 mm six-track using a Westrex recording system. The sets used for the film were based on the storyboards of sketch artist Maurice Zuberano, who accompanied Wise to Austria to scout filming locations in November 1963. Wise met with the artist over ten weeks and explained his objective for each scene—the feeling he wanted to convey and the visual images he wanted to use. When Zuberano was finished, he provided Wise with a complete set of storyboards that illustrated each scene and set—storyboards the director used as guidance during filming. Zuberano's storyboards and location photos were also used by art director Boris Leven to design and construct all of the original interior sets at Fox studios, as well as some external sets in Salzburg. The von Trapp villa, for example, was actually filmed in several locations: the front and back façades of the villa were filmed at Frohnburg Palace, the lakeside terrace and gardens was a set constructed on a property adjacent to Schloss Leopoldskron called Bertelsmann, and the interior was a constructed set at Fox Studios. The gazebo scenes for "Something Good" and "Sixteen Going on Seventeen" were filmed on a larger reconstructed set at Fox studios, while some shots of the original gazebo were filmed on the grounds at Schloss Leopoldskron in Salzburg. Music and soundtrack album Most of the soundtrack to The Sound of Music was written by Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein II and arranged and conducted by Irwin Kostal, who also adapted the instrumental underscore passages. Both the lyrics and music for two new songs were written by Rodgers, as Hammerstein died in 1960. The soundtrack album was released by RCA Victor in 1965 and is one of the most successful soundtrack albums in history, having sold over 20 million copies worldwide. The album reached the number one position on the Billboard 200 that year in the United States. It remained in the top ten for 109 weeks, from May 1, 1965, to July 16, 1967, and remained on the Billboard 200 chart for 238 weeks. The album was the best-selling album in the United Kingdom in 1965, 1966, and 1968 and the second best-selling of the entire decade, spending a total of 70 weeks at number one on the UK Albums Chart. It also stayed 73 weeks on the Norwegian charts, becoming the seventh best-charting album of all time in that country. In 2015, Billboard named the album the second greatest album of all time. The album has been reissued several times, including anniversary editions with additional tracks in 1995, 2000, 2005, 2010, and 2015. Release and reception Marketing Robert Wise hired Mike Kaplan to direct the publicity campaign for the film. After reading the script, Kaplan decided on the ad line "The Happiest Sound in All the World", which would appear on promotional material and artwork. Kaplan also brought in outside agencies to work with the studio's advertising department to develop the promotional artwork, eventually selecting a painting by Howard Terpning of Andrews on an alpine meadow with her carpetbag and guitar case in hand with the children and Plummer in the background. In February 1964, Kaplan began placing ads in the trade papers Daily Variety, Weekly Variety, and The Hollywood Reporter to attract future exhibitor interest in the project. The studio intended the film to have an initial roadshow theatrical release in select large cities in theaters that could accommodate the 70-mm screenings and six-track stereophonic sound. The roadshow concept involved two showings a day with reserved seating and an intermission similar to Broadway musicals. Kaplan identified forty key cities that would likely be included in the roadshow release and developed a promotional strategy targeting the major newspapers of those cities. During the Salzburg production phase, 20th Century-Fox organized press junkets for American journalists to interview Wise and his team and the cast members. Critical response The film had its opening premiere on March 2, 1965, at the Rivoli Theater in New York City. Initial reviews were mixed. Bosley Crowther, in The New York Times, criticized the film's "romantic nonsense and sentiment", the children's "artificial roles", and Robert Wise's "cosy-cum-corny" direction. Judith Crist, in a biting review in the New York Herald Tribune, dismissed the movie as "icky sticky" and designed for "the five to seven set and their mommies". In her review for McCall's magazine, Pauline Kael called the film "the sugar-coated lie people seem to want to eat", and that audiences have "turned into emotional and aesthetic imbeciles when we hear ourselves humming the sickly, goody-goody songs." Wise later recalled, "The East Coast, intellectual papers and magazines destroyed us, but the local papers and the trades gave us great reviews". Indeed, reviewers such as Philip K. Scheuer of the Los Angeles Times described the film as "three hours of visual and vocal brilliance", and Variety called it "a warmly-pulsating, captivating drama set to the most imaginative use of the lilting R-H tunes, magnificently mounted and with a brilliant cast". The "wildly mixed film reviews" reflected the critical response to the stage musical, according to The Oxford Companion to the American Musical. After its Los Angeles premiere on March 10, The Sound of Music opened in 131 theaters in the United States, including a limited number of roadshow events. After four weeks, the film became the number one box office movie in the country and held that position for thirty out of the next forty-three weeks in 1965. The original theatrical release of the film in America lasted four and a half years. A few months after its United States release, The Sound of Music opened in 261 theaters in other countries, the first American movie to be completely dubbed in a foreign language, both dialogue, and music. The German, French, Italian, and Spanish versions were completely dubbed, the Japanese version had Japanese dialogue with English songs, and other versions were released with foreign subtitles. The film was a popular success in every country it opened, except the two countries where the story originated, Austria and Germany. In these two countries, the film had to compete with the much-loved Die Trapp-Familie (1956), which provided the original inspiration for the Broadway musical, and its sequel Die Trapp-Familie in Amerika (1958); both films are still widely popular in German-speaking Europe and considered the authoritative von Trapp story. Austrians took exception to the liberties taken by the filmmakers with regard to the costumes, which did not reflect the traditional style and the replacement of traditional Austrian folk songs with Broadway show tunes. The film's Nazi theme was especially unpopular in Germany, where the Munich branch manager for 20th Century-Fox approved the unauthorized cutting of the entire third act of the film following the wedding sequence—the scenes showing Salzburg following the Anschluss. Robert Wise and the studio intervened, the original film was restored, and the branch manager was fired. The Sound of Music holds an 84% "Certified Fresh" score on Rotten Tomatoes based on seventy-four reviews, with an average rating of 8.1/10. The site's consensus states: "Unapologetically sweet and maybe even a little corny, The Sound of Music will win over all but the most cynical filmgoers with its classic songs and irresistible warmth." On Metacritic, the film holds a weighted average score of 63 out of 100 based on eleven critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Box office The Sound of Music is one of the most commercially successful films of all time. Four weeks after its theatrical release, it became the number one box office movie in the United States, from revenue generated by twenty-five theaters, each screening only ten roadshow performances per week. It held the number one position for thirty of the next forty-three weeks, and ended up the highest-grossing film of 1965. One contributing factor in the film's early commercial success was the repeat business of many filmgoers. In some cities in the United States, the number of tickets sold exceeded the total population. By January 1966, the film had earned $20 million in distributor rentals from just 140 roadshow engagements in the United States and Canada. Worldwide, The Sound of Music broke previous box-office records in twenty-nine countries, including the United Kingdom, where it played for a record-breaking three years at the Dominion Theatre in London and earned £4 million in rentals and grossed £6 million—more than twice as much as any other film had taken in. It was also a major success in the Netherlands, Hong Kong, and Tokyo, where it played for as long as two years at some theaters. It was not a universal success, however, with the film only enjoying modest success in France and it was a flop in Germany. It also initially performed poorly in Italy, but a re-release after the Oscars brought better results. It was number one at the US box office for a further 11 weeks in 1966, for a total of 41 weeks at number one. By November 1966, The Sound of Music had become the highest-grossing film of all time, with over in worldwide rentals ( in gross receipts), surpassing Gone with the Wind, which held that distinction for twenty-four years. It was still in the top ten at the US box office in its 100th week of release. The Sound of Music completed its initial four-and-a-half year theatrical release run in the United States on Labor Day 1969, the longest initial run for a film in the US, having earned $68,313,000 in rentals in the United States and Canada. It played for 142 weeks at the Eglinton Theatre in Toronto. It was the first film to gross over $100 million. By December 1970, it had earned in worldwide rentals, which was over four times higher than the film's estimated break-even point of in rentals. The film was re-released in 1973, and increased its North American rentals to $78.4 million. By the end of the 1970s, it was ranked seventh in all-time North American rentals, having earned $79 million. The film's re-release in 1990 increased the total North American admissions to 142,415,400—the third-highest number of tickets sold behind Gone with the Wind and Star Wars—and about 283.3 million admissions worldwide. The Sound of Music eventually earned a total domestic gross of $163,214,076 and a total worldwide gross of $286,214,076. Adjusted for inflation, the film earned about $2.366 billion at 2014 prices—placing it among the top ten highest-grossing films of all time. Accolades American Film Institute recognition The Sound of Music has been included in numerous top film lists from the American Film Institute. AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies – No. 55 AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition) – No. 40 AFI's 100 Years...100 Cheers – No. 41 AFI's 100 Years of Musicals – No. 4 AFI's 100 Years...100 Passions – No. 27 AFI's 100 Years...100 Songs: "The Sound of Music" – No. 10 "My Favorite Things" – No. 64 "Do-Re-Mi" – No. 88 Television and home media The first American television transmission of The Sound of Music was on February 29, 1976, on ABC, which paid $15 million () for a one-time only broadcast that became one of the top 20 rated films shown on television to that point with a Nielsen rating of 33.6 and an audience share of 49%. The movie was not shown again until NBC acquired the broadcast rights in June 1977 for $21.5 million for 20 showings over 22 years and telecast the film on February 11, 1979. NBC continued to air the film annually for twenty years. During most of its run on NBC, the film was heavily edited to fit a three-hour time slot—approximately 140 minutes without commercials, which inevitably cut 30 minutes out of the original film. The film aired in its uncut form (minus the entr'acte) on April 9, 1995, on NBC. Julie Andrews hosted the four-hour telecast which presented the musical numbers in a letterboxed format. As the film's home video availability cut into its television ratings, NBC let their contract lapse in 2001. That year, the film was broadcast one time on the Fox network, in its heavily edited 140-minute version. Since 2002, the film has aired on ABC on a Sunday night prior to Christmas and has been broadcast on its sister cable network, Freeform, periodically around Easter and other holidays. Most of its more recent runs have been the full version in a four-hour time slot, complete with the entr'acte. ABC first broadcast a high-definition version on December 28, 2008. On December 22, 2013, the annual broadcast had its highest ratings since 2007; the increase in ratings were credited to NBC's broadcast of The Sound of Music Live!—a live television adaptation of the original musical which aired earlier that month. In the United Kingdom, the film rights were acquired by the BBC, who paid a corporation record $4.1 million, and it was first aired on BBC One on 25 December 1978 and, as of December 2016, fifteen times since, mostly around Christmas time. As the BBC channels in Britain are not funded by advertising there was no need to cut scenes to fit within a timeslot and the film was screened in the full 174-minute version without breaks. The film was also intended to be part of the BBC's programming during the outbreak of nuclear war. The film has been released on VHS, LaserDisc, and DVD numerous times. The first DVD version was released on August 29, 2000, to commemorate the 35th anniversary of the film's release. The film is often included in box sets with other Rodgers & Hammerstein film adaptations. A 40th anniversary DVD, with "making of" documentaries and special features, was released on November 15, 2005. The film made its debut issue on Blu-ray Disc on November 2, 2010, for its 45th anniversary. For the Blu-ray release, the original 70 mm negatives were rescanned at 8K resolution, then restored and remastered at 4K resolution for the transfer to Blu-ray, giving the most detailed copy of the film seen thus far. On March 10, 2015, 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment released The Sound of Music 50th Anniversary Ultimate Collector's Edition—a five-disc set featuring thirteen hours of bonus features, including a new documentary, The Sound of a City: Julie Andrews Returns to Salzburg. A March 2015 episode of ABC's 20/20 entitled The Untold Story of the Sound of Music featured a preview of the documentary and interviews by Diane Sawyer. In part to the acquisition of 21st Century Fox by Disney, the film was made available on the Disney+ streaming service upon its debut on November 12, 2019. Historical accuracy The Sound of Music film adaptation, like the stage musical, presents a history of the von Trapp family (a.k.a. the Trapp Family) that is not completely accurate. The musical was based on the West German film The Trapp Family (1956) rather than Maria von Trapp's 1949 memoirs, as director Vincent J. Donehue had seen the film and decided that it would make a good vehicle for Mary Martin. The musical followed the film's plot so closely that the New York Times review of the West German film noticed that it "strongly suggests 'The Sound of Music,' often scene by scene." The West German screenwriters made several significant changes to the family's story that were kept in the musical. Maria had been hired to teach just one child, but the 1956 film made her governess to all seven children. The 1965 film adaptation was influenced by other musicals of its era, such as Mary Poppins, the Rodgers and Hammerstein television production of Cinderella, and the stage production of Lerner and Loewe's Camelot (coincidentally all starring Julie Andrews). Screenwriter Ernest Lehman was inspired by the opening of West Side Story and saw the musical as "a fairy tale that's almost real". The film incorporated many "fairy tale" tropes which included the idyllic imagery (placed in the hills of Salzburg), the European villas, and the cross-class Cinderella-like romance between Maria and Captain Von Trapp. As Maria walks down the aisle to be married, the pageantry is explicitly both Guinevere and Cinderella. In keeping with this tone the filmmakers used artistic license to convey the essence and meaning of their story. Georg Ludwig von Trapp was indeed an anti-Nazi opposed to the Anschluss, and lived with his family in a villa in a district of Salzburg called Aigen. Their lifestyle depicted in the film, however, greatly exaggerated their standard of living. The actual family villa, located at Traunstraße 34, Aigen 5026, was large and comfortable but not nearly as grand as the mansion depicted in the film. The house was also not their ancestral home, as depicted in the film. The family had previously lived in homes in Zell Am See and Klosterneuburg after being forced to abandon their actual ancestral home in Pola following World War I. Georg moved the family to the Salzburg villa shortly after the death of his first wife, Agathe Whitehead, in 1922. Georg is referred to as "Captain" in the film, but he held a noble title of "Ritter" (hereditary knight), which had higher social status than a naval officer. Although Austrian nobility was legally abolished in 1919 and the nobiliary particle von was proscribed, both continued to be widely used unofficially as a matter of social courtesy. Georg was offered a position in the German Kriegsmarine; Nazi Germany was looking to expand its fleet of U-boats, and Corvette Captain von Trapp was the most successful Austro-Hungarian submarine commander of World War I, having sunk 11 Allied merchant ships totaling 47,653 GRT and two Allied warships displacing a total of 12,641 tons. With his family in desperate financial straits, he seriously considered the offer before deciding he could not serve a Nazi regime. In the film, Georg is depicted initially as a humorless, emotionally distant father. In reality, third child Maria Franziska von Trapp (called "Louisa" in the film) described her father as a doting parent who made handmade gifts for the children in his woodshop and who would often lead family musicales on his violin. She has a different recollection of her stepmother, Maria Augusta Kutschera, whom she described as moody and prone to outbursts of rage. In a 2003 interview, Maria remembered, "[She] had a terrible temper ... and from one moment to the next, you didn't know what hit her. We were not used to this. But we took it like a thunderstorm that would pass, because the next minute she could be very nice." Maria Kutschera had indeed been a novice at Nonnberg Abbey in Salzburg and had been hired by the von Trapp family. However, she was hired only to be a tutor to young Maria Franziska, who had come down with scarlet fever and needed her lessons at home, not to be a governess for all of the children. Maria and Georg married for practical reasons, rather than love and affection for each other. Georg needed a mother for his children, and Maria needed the security of a husband and family once she decided to leave the abbey. "I really and truly was not in love," Maria wrote in her memoir, "I liked him but didn't love him. However, I loved the children, so in a way I really married the children. I learned to love him more than I have ever loved before or after." They were married in 1927, not in 1938 as depicted in the film, and the couple had been married for over a decade by the time of the Anschluss and had two of their three children together by that time. Maria and Georg enjoyed a happy marriage. The von Trapp family lost most of its wealth during the worldwide depression of the early 1930s, when the Austrian national bank folded. In order to survive, the family dismissed the servants and began taking in boarders. They also started singing onstage to earn money, a fact that caused the proud Georg much embarrassment. In the film, the von Trapp family hike over the Alps from Austria to Switzerland to escape the Nazis, which would not have been possible; Salzburg is over two hundred miles from Switzerland. The von Trapp villa, however, was only a few kilometers from the Austria–Germany border, and the final scene shows the family hiking on the Obersalzberg near the German town of Berchtesgaden, within sight of Adolf Hitler's Kehlsteinhaus Eagle's Nest retreat. In reality, the family simply walked to the local train station and boarded a train to Italy. The Trapps were entitled to Italian citizenship since Georg had been born in Zadar, Dalmatia, Austria-Hungary, which had been annexed by Italy after World War I. They were able to emigrate to the United States via the United Kingdom on their Italian passports. The fictional character Max Detweiler, who acted as the scheming family music director in the film, is based on the von Trapps' family priest, the Reverend Franz Wasner, who was their musical director for over twenty years and, unlike Max, accompanied them when they left Austria. The character of Friedrich, the second oldest child in the film version, was based on Rupert, the oldest of the real von Trapp children. Liesl, the oldest child in the film, was based on Agathe von Trapp, the second oldest in the real family. The names and ages of the children were changed, in part because the third child, who would be portrayed as "Louisa", was also named Maria, and producers thought that it would be confusing to have two characters called Maria in the film. The von Trapp family had no control over how they were depicted in the film and stage musical, having given up the rights to their story to a German producer in the 1950s who then sold the rights to American producers. Robert Wise met with Maria von Trapp and made it clear, according to a memo to Richard Zanuck, that he was not making a "documentary or realistic movie" about her family, and that he would make the film with "complete dramatic freedom" in order to produce a "fine and moving film", one they could all be proud of. Legacy Although The Sound of Music is set in Salzburg, it was largely ignored in Austria upon release. The film adaptation was a blockbuster worldwide, but it ran for only three days in Salzburg movie theaters, with locals showing "disdain" for a film that "wasn't authentic." In 1966, American Express created the first Sound of Music guided tour in Salzburg. Since 1972, Panorama Tours has been the leading Sound of Music bus tour company in the city, taking approximately 50,000 tourists a year to various film locations in Salzburg and the surrounding region. Although the Salzburg tourism industry took advantage of the attention from foreign tourists, residents of the city were apathetic about "everything that is dubious about tourism." The guides on the bus tour "seem to have little idea of what really happened on the set." Even the ticket agent for the Sound of Music Dinner Show tried to dissuade Austrians from attending a performance that was intended for American tourists, saying that it "does not have anything to do with the real Austria." By 2007, The Sound of Music was drawing 300,000 visitors a year to Salzburg, more than the city's self-conception as the birthplace of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. A German translation of the musical was performed on the national stage for the first time in 2005 at the Vienna Volksoper, receiving negative reviews from Austrian critics, who called it "boring" and referred to "Edelweiss" as "an insult to Austrian musical creation." The musical finally premiered in Salzburg in 2011 at the Salzburger Landestheater, but Maria was played in the Salzburg premiere by a Dutch actress who "grew up with the songs." However, most performances in Vienna and Salzburg were sold out, and the musical is now in both companies' repertoire. A Sing-along Sound of Music revival screening was first shown at the London Lesbian and Gay Film Festival in 1999, leading to a successful run at the Prince Charles Cinema which is ongoing as of 2018. During the screenings, audience members are often dressed as nuns and von Trapp children and are encouraged to sing along to lyrics superimposed on the screen. In July 2000, Sing-along Sound of Music shows opened in Boston, Massachusetts, and Austin, Texas. Some audience members dressed up as cast members and interacted with the action shown on the screen. The film began a successful run at the Ziegfeld Theatre in New York City in September 2000, with the opening attended by cast members Charmian Carr (Liesl), Daniel Truhitte (Rolfe), and Kym Karath (Gretl). Sing-along Sound of Music screenings have since become an international phenomenon. In 2001, the United States Library of Congress selected the film for preservation in the National Film Registry, finding it "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant". The Academy Film Archive preserved The Sound of Music in 2003. Notes References Bibliography External links 1960s biographical drama films 1960s romantic musical films 1965 films 20th Century Fox films American biographical drama films American romantic musical films Best Musical or Comedy Picture Golden Globe winners Best Picture Academy Award winners 1960s English-language films Films about Catholic nuns Films about families Films about music and musicians Films about widowhood Films based on biographies Films based on musicals Films directed by Robert Wise Films featuring a Best Musical or Comedy Actress Golden Globe winning performance Puppet films Films set in the Alps Films set in convents Films set in country houses Films set in 1938 Films set in Salzburg Films shot in Austria Films that won the Best Sound Mixing Academy Award Films whose director won the Best Directing Academy Award Films whose editor won the Best Film Editing Academy Award Films with screenplays by Ernest Lehman Films that won the Best Original Score Academy Award Musical films based on actual events Trapp family United States National Film Registry films Films scored by Irwin Kostal 1965 drama films 1965 musical films Photoplay Awards film of the year winners 1960s American films Films produced by Robert Wise
4836592	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20school%20districts%20in%20Missouri	List of school districts in Missouri	This is an alphabetical list of school districts in Missouri, sorted first by the state supervisors of instruction regions, the counties each region serves, and then alphabetically. Many districts have the letters "C" or "R" in their name, followed by a numeral. These stand for "consolidated" (merged through consent of voters) and "reorganized" (merged by the state), respectively, with number indicating the historical order of the merger. Region A: St. Louis Region Jefferson County Crystal City 47 School District DeSoto 73 School District Dunklin R-V School District Festus R-VI School District Fox C-6 Consolidated School District Grandview R-2 School District Hillsboro R-3 School District Jefferson County R-7 School District Northwest R-I School District Sunrise R-9 School District Windsor C-1 School District St. Charles County Francis Howell R-III School District Fort Zumwalt R-II School District Orchard Farm R-V School District St. Charles R-VI School District Wentzville R-IV School District St. Louis City St. Louis City Public Schools St. Louis County Affton 101 School District Bayless School District Brentwood School District Clayton School District Ferguson-Florissant R-II School District Hancock Place School District Hazelwood School District Jennings School District Kirkwood R-7 School District Ladue School District Lindbergh School District Maplewood-Richmond Heights School District Mehlville R-IX School District Normandy School Collaborative Parkway C-2 School District Pattonville R-III School District Ritenour School District Riverview Gardens School District Rockwood R-VI School District Special School District St. Louis County University City School District Valley Park School District Webster Groves School District Region B: Kansas City Region Cass County Archie R-V School District (also extends into Bates County) Belton 124 School District Drexel R-IV School District East Lynne 40 School District Harrisonville R-IX School District Midway R-I School District Pleasant Hill R-3 School District Raymore-Peculiar R-II School District Sherwood Cass R-VIII School District Strasburg C-3 School District Clay County Excelsior Springs 40 School District Kearney R-1 School District Liberty 53 School District Missouri City 56 School District North Kansas City 74 School District Smithville R-II School District Jackson County Blue Springs R-IV School District Center 58 School District Fort Osage R-1 School District Grain Valley R-V School District Grandview C-4 School District Hickman Mills C-1 School District Independence 30 School District Kansas City 33 School District Lee's Summit R-VII School District Lone Jack C-6 School District Oak Grove R-VI School District (Also extends into Lafayette County) Raytown C-2 School District Platte County North Platte County R-I School District (Also extends into Buchanan County) Park Hill School District Platte County R-III School District West Platte County R-II School District Region C: Southwest Region Barry County Cassville R-IV School District Exeter R-VI School District Monett R-I School District (also extends into Lawrence County) Purdy R-II School District Shell Knob 78 School District Southwest R-V School District Wheaton R-III School District Barton County Golden City R-III School District Lamar R-I School District Liberal R-II School District Cedar County El Dorado Springs R-II School District Stockton R-1 School District Christian County Billings R-IV School District (also extends into Stone County) Chadwick R-I School District Clever R-V School District (also extends into Stone County) Nixa Public Schools Ozark R-6 School District Sparta R-III School District Spokane R-VII School District Dade County Dadeville R-II School District Everton R-III School District Greenfield R-IV School District Lockwood R-I School District Dallas County Dallas R-I County School District Douglas County Ava R-I School District (also extends into Christian, Ozark, and Wright Counties) Plainview R-VIII School District Skyline R-II School District Greene County Ash Grove R-IV School District Fair Grove R-X School District Logan-Rogersville R-VIII School District (also extends into Webster County) Republic R-III School District Springfield R-XII School District Strafford R-VI School District Walnut Grove R-V School District Willard R-II School District Jasper County Avilla R-13 School District Carl Junction R-1 School District (also extends into Newton County) Carthage R-IX School District Jasper County R-V School District (also extends into Barton County) Joplin Schools Sarcoxie R-II School District Webb City R-7 School District Laclede County Gasconade C-4 School District Laclede County C-5 School District Laclede County R-I School District Lebanon R-3 School District Lawrence County Aurora R-VIII School District Marionville R-IX School District Miller R-II School District Mount Vernon R-V School District Pierce City R-VI School District Verona R-VII School District McDonald County McDonald County R-I School District Newton County Diamond R-IV School District East Newton County R-VI School District Neosho School District Seneca R-VII School District Westview C-6 School District Ozark County Bakersfield R-IV School District (also extends into Howell County) Dora R-III School District (also extends into Douglas County) Gainesville School District Lutie R-VI School District Thornfield R-I School District Polk County Bolivar R-I School District Fair Play R-II School District Halfway R-III School District Humansville R-IV School District Marion C. Early R-V School District Pleasant Hope R-VI School District Stone County Blue Eye R-V School District Crane R-III School District (also extends into Barry County) Galena R-2 School District Hurley R-I School District Reeds Spring R-IV School District Taney County Bradleyville R-I School District (also extends into Christian, Douglas and Ozark Counties) Branson R-IV School District Forsyth R-III School District Hollister R-V School District (also extends into Stone County) Kirbyville R-VI School District Mark Twain R-VIII School District Taneyville R-II School District Vernon County Bronaugh R-VII School District Nevada R-V School District Northeast Vernon County R-I School District Sheldon R-VIII School District Webster County Fordland R-III School District Marshfield R-I School District Niangua R-V School District Seymour R-II School District Wright County Hartville R-II School District Manes R-V School District Mansfield R-IV School District Mountain Grove R-III School District Norwood R-I School District (also extends into Douglas County) Region D: Central Region Audrain County Community R-VI School District (also extends into Montgomery and Ralls Counties) Mexico 59 Public Schools Van-Far R-I School District Boone County Centralia R-VI School District (also extends into Audrain and Monroe Counties) Columbia 78 School District Hallsville R-IV School District Harrisburg R-VIII School District Southern Boone Co. R-I School District Sturgeon School District Callaway County Fulton 58 School District New Bloomfield R-III School District North Callaway County R-I School District South Callaway R-II School District Camden County Camdenton R-III School District (also extends into Dallas, Laclede and Morgan Counties) Climax Springs R-IV School District (also extends into Benton, Hickory, and Morgan Counties) Macks Creek R-V School District Stoutland R-II School District Cole County Blair Oaks R-II School District Cole County R-I School District (also extends into Moniteau County) Cole County R-V School District (also extends into Miller County) Jefferson City Public Schools (also extends into Callaway County) Cooper County Blackwater R-II School District (also extends into Saline County) Boonville R-I School District Cooper County R-IV School District Otterville R-VI School District Pilot Grove C-4 School District Prairie Home R-5 School Distric Gasconade County Gasconade County R-I School District Gasconade County R-II School District Howard County Fayette R-III School District Glasgow School District New Franklin R-1 School District Lincoln County Elsberry R-II School District Silex R-I School District Troy R-III School District Winfield R-IV School District Miller County Eldon R-1 School District Iberia R-V School District Miller County R-III School District School of the Osage School District St. Elizabeth R-IV School District Moniteau County Clarksburg C-2 School District (also extends into Cooper County) High Point R-III School District Jamestown C-1 School District Moniteau County R-I School District Moniteau County R-V School District Tipton R-VI School District Montgomery County Montgomery County R-II School District Wellsville Middletown R-I School District Morgan County Morgan County R-I School District Morgan County R-II School District Osage County Osage Co. R-I School District Osage Co. R-II School District Osage Co. R-III School District Warren County Warren County R-III School District (also extends into Montgomery County) Wright City R-II School District Region E: Southeast Region Bollinger County Leopold R-III School District Meadow Heights R-II School District Woodland R-IV School District Zalma R-V School District Butler County Neelyville R-IV School District Poplar Bluff R-1 School District Twin Rivers R-X School District Cape Girardeau County Cape Girardeau 63 School District Delta R-5 School District Jackson R-2 School District Nell Holcomb R-IV School District Oak Ridge R-VI School District Carter County East Carter County R-II School District Van Buren R-1 School District Dunklin County Campbell R-II School District Clarkton C-4 School District Holcomb R-III School District Kennett 39 School District Malden R-I School District Senath-Hornersville C-8 School District Southland C-9 School District Madison County Fredericktown R-1 School District Marquand-Zion R-VI School District Mississippi County Charleston R-I School District East Prairie R-II School District New Madrid County Gideon 37 School District New Madrid County R-I School District Portageville School District Risco R-II School District Pemiscot County Caruthersville 18 School District Cooter R-IV School District Delta C-7 School District Hayti R-II School District North Pemiscot County R-I School District Pemiscot County R-III School District Pemiscot County Special School District South Pemiscot Co. R-V School District Perry County Altenburg 48 School District Perry County 32 School District Ripley County Doniphan R-I School District Naylor R-II School District Ripley Co. R-IV School District Ripley County R-III School District St. Francois County Bismarck R-V School District Central R-III School District (also extends into Ste. Genevieve County) Farmington R-XII School District North Saint Francois County R-1 School District West Saint Francois County R-IV School District (also extends into Washington County) Ste. Genevieve County Ste. Genevieve County R-II School District Scott County Chaffee R-II School District Kelso C-7 School District Oran R-III School District Scott City R-I School District Scott Co. R-IV School District Scott County Central School District Sikeston R-6 School District Stoddard County Advance R-IV School District (also extends into Bollinger County) Bell City R-II School District Bernie R-XIII School District (also extends into Dunklin County) Bloomfield R-XIV School District Dexter R-XI School District Puxico R-VIII School District Richland R-I School District Wayne County Clearwater R-I School District (also extends into Madison and Reynolds Counties) Greenville R-II School District Region F: West Central Region Bates County Adrian R-II School District Ballard R-II School District Butler R-V School District Hudson R-IX School District Hume R-VIII School District Miami R-I School District Rich Hill R-IV School District Benton County Cole Camp R-I School District (also extends into Pettis County) Lincoln R-2 School District Warsaw R-IX School District Carroll County Bosworth R-V School District Carrollton R-VII School District Hale R-I School District Norborne R-VIII School District Tina-Avalon R-II School District Henry County Calhoun R-VIII School District Clinton School District Davis R-XII School District Henry County R-I School District Leesville R-IX School District Montrose R-XIV School District Shawnee R-III School District Hickory County Hermitage R-IV School District Hickory County R-I School District Weaubleau R-III School District Wheatland R-II School District Johnson County Chilhowee R-IV School District (also extends into Henry County) Holden R-III School District Johnson Co. R-VII School District Kingsville R-I School District Knob Noster R-8 School District Leeton R-X School District Warrensburg R-VI School District Lafayette County Concordia R-II School District (also extends into Johnson County) Lafayette County C-1 School District Lexington R-V School District Odessa R-VII School District (also extends into Johnson County) Santa Fe R-X School District Wellington-Napoleon R-IX School District Pettis County Green Ridge R-VIII School District La Monte R-IV School District Pettis County R-V School District Pettis County R-XII School District Sedalia 200 School District Smithton R-VI School District Ray County Hardin-Central C-2 School District Lawson R-XIV School District Orrick R-XI School District Richmond R-XVI School District St. Clair County Appleton City R-II School District Lakeland R-III School District Osceola School District Roscoe C-1 School District Saline County Gilliam C-4 School District Hardeman R-X School District Malta Bend R-V School District Marshall School District Miami R-I Elem. School District Orearville R-IV School District Slater School District Sweet Springs R-VII School District Region G: South Central Region Crawford County Crawford County R-I School District (also extends into Washington County) Crawford County R-II School District Steelville R-III School District Dent County Dent-Phelps R-III School District Green Forest R-II School District North Wood R-IV School District Oak Hill R-I School District Salem R-80 School District Franklin County Franklin Co. R-II School District Lonedell R-XIV School District Meramec Valley R-III School District (also extends into St. Louis County) New Haven School District Spring Bluff R-XV School District St. Clair R-XIII School District Strain Japan R-16 School District Sullivan School District (Also extends into Crawford County) Union R-XI School District Washington School District (also extends into St. Charles and Warren Counties) Howell County Fairview R-XI School District Glenwood R-VIII School District Howell Valley R-I School District Junction Hill C-12 School District Mountain View-Birch Tree R-III School District Richards R-V School District West Plains R-7 School District Willow Springs R-IV School District Iron County Arcadia Valley R-II School District (also extends into Madison County) Belleview R-III School District Iron County C-4 School District (also extend into Crawford and Washington Counties) South Iron R-I School District Maries County Maries County R-I School District Maries County R-II School District Oregon County Alton R-IV School District Couch R-I School District Oregon-Howell R-III School District Thayer R-II School District Phelps County Newburg R-2 School District Phelps County R-3 School District (also extends into Texas County) Rolla 31 Public Schools Saint James R-1 School District (also extends into Maries County) Pulaski County Crocker R-II School District Dixon R-I School District (also extends into Maries County) Laquey R-V School District Richland R-IV School District Swedeborg R-III School District Waynesville R-VI School District Reynolds County Bunker R-III School District (Dent, Reynolds and Shannon Counties) Centerville R-I School District Lesterville R-IV School District Southern Reynolds Co R-II School District Shannon County Eminence R-I School District Winona R-III School District Texas County Cabool R-IV School District (also extends into Douglas County) Houston R-I School District Licking R-VIII School District Plato R-V School District (also extends into Laclede, Pulaski, and Wright counties) Raymondville R-VII School District Success School District R-VI Summersville R-II School District Washington County Kingston K-14 School District (also extends into Jefferson County) Potosi R-3 School District Richwoods R-VII School District Valley R-VI School District Region H: Northwest Region Andrew County Avenue City R-IX School District North Andrew County R-VI School District Savannah R-III School District Atchison County Fairfax R-III School District Rock Port R-II School District Tarkio R-I School District Buchanan County Buchanan County R-IV School District East Buchanan County C-1 School District Mid-Buchanan County R-V School District Saint Joseph School District Caldwell County Braymer C-4 School District (also extends into Carroll, Ray and Livingston Counties) Breckenridge R-I School District (also extends into Daviess and Livingston Counties) Cowgill R-VI School District Hamilton R-II School District Kingston 42 School District Mirabile C-1 School District New York R-IV School District Polo R-VII School District Clinton County Cameron R-I School District (also extends into Caldwell, Davies and Dekalb Counties) Clinton County R-III School District (also extends into Clay County) Lathrop R-II School District Daviess County Gallatin R-V School District North Daviess R-III School District Pattonsburg R-II School District Tri-County R-VII School District Winston R-VI School District DeKalb County Maysville R-I School District Osborn R-0 School District Stewartsville C-2 School District Union Star R-II School District Gentry County Albany R-III School District King City R-I School District Stanberry R-II School District Grundy County Grundy County R-V School District Laredo R-VII School District Pleasant View R-VI School District Spickard R-II School District Trenton R-IX School District Harrison County Cainsville R-I School District (also extends into Mercer County) Gilman City R-IV School District North Harrison R-III School District Ridgeway R-V School District South Harrison Co. R-II School District Holt County Craig R-III School District Mound City R-II School District South Holt Co. R-I School District Livingston County Chillicothe R-II School District Livingston County R-III School District Southwest Livingston County R-I School District Mercer County North Mercer County R-III School District Princeton R-V School District Nodaway County Jefferson C-123 School District Maryville R-II School District Nodaway-Holt R-VII School District North Nodaway County R-VI School District Northeast Nodaway County R-V School District South Nodaway Co. R-IV School District West Nodaway County R-I School District Worth County Worth County R-III School District Region I: Northeast Region Adair County Adair County R-I School District Adair County R-II School District (also extends into Knox County) Kirksville R-III School District Chariton County Brunswick R-II School District (also extends into Saline County) Keytesville R-III School District Northwestern R-I School District Salisbury R-IV School District Clark County Clark County R-I School District Knox County Knox Co. R-I School District Lewis County Canton R-V School District Lewis County C-1 School District Linn County Brookfield R-III School District (also extends into Chariton County) Bucklin R-II School District (also extends into Macon County) Linn County R-I School District (also extends into Sullivan County) Marceline R-V School District Meadville R-IV School District Macon County Atlanta C-3 School District (also extends into Shelby County) Bevier C-4 School District Callao C-8 School District La Plata R-II School District Macon County R-I School District Macon County R-IV School District Marion County Hannibal 60 School District Marion County R-II School District Palmyra R-1 School District Monroe County Holliday C-2 School District Madison C-3 School District Middle Grove C-1 School District Monroe City R-I School District Paris R-II School District Pike County Boncl R-X School District Bowling Green R-I School District (also extends into Ralls County) Louisiana R-II School District Pike County R-III School District Putnam County Putnam County R-I School District Ralls County Ralls County R-II School District Randolph County Higbee R-VIII School District Moberly School District Northeast Randolph County R-IV School District Renick R-V School District Westran R-I School District Schuyler County Schuyler County R-I School District Scotland County Scotland Co. R-I School District Shelby County North Shelby School District Shelby County R-IV School District Sullivan County Green City R-I School District Milan C-2 School District Newtown-Harris R-III School District References External links Missouri Department of Elementary and Secondary Education School districts Missouri School districts
4838167	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20songs%20about%20Chicago	List of songs about Chicago	This is a list of songs about Chicago. 0–9 "1215 W. Belmont" - Carey Bell & Lurrie Bell "19th Street Blues" - Johnny Dodds & Tiny Parham "2120 South Michigan Avenue" – Rolling Stones "29th and Dearborn" – Richard M Jones "31st And State" - Johnny Griffin And Wilbur Ware With Junior Mance "39th And Indiana" - Charley Musselwhite "42 in Chicago" - Merle Kilgore "43rd Street Jump" - David "Honeyboy" Edwards, Sunnyland Slim, Big Walter Horton, Kansas City Red, Floyd Jones "47th Street Stomp" – Jimmy Bertrand's Washboard Wizards "5-3-10-4", 2000 – Maybe I'll Catch Fire - Alkaline Trio "55th Street" - Lidell Townsell "65th and Ingleside" - Chance the Rapper "70th & King Drive" – Hot Hanas Hula A "A Cicada Of Chicago" by Pepe Ahlqvist "Alpha" - Towa Tei "An Afternoon in Midway Plaisance. Fantasie for Piano.", 1893 – composer: Gustav Luders "Another Rainy Day in New York City" - Chicago "All We Know" - Chainsmokers "Angels" – Chance the Rapper from Coloring Book, 2016 (music video shows him rapping on top of the "L" train) "Apex Blues" – Jimmie Noone & His Apex Club Orchestra "Apostrophe to Chicago" – composer & lyricist: Mrs. Emily M. (Blakeslee) Boyden "Area 312" – Resurrection Band "At McKie's" – Sonny Rollins & Coleman Hawkins (McKie's was a famous Chicago jazz venue) "Ation" – Frode Gjerstad Trio With Steve Swell "Auch Chikago War Einmal Jung" – Katja Ebstein "Awake! Awake!" – composer & lyricist: Mrs. Emily M. (Blakeslee) Boyden B "Back Down On State Street" – Ben Sidran "Back One Day" - TheFatRat & NEFFEX "Back Streets of Lombard" – Ground Zero "Back to Chicago" – Styx, from Edge of the Century, 1990 "Bad, Bad Leroy Brown" – Jim Croce "The Ballad Of Jesse James" - various versions - see Jesse James (folk song) "Bamako Chicago Express" - Don Moye "Baseball Dreams" – Ralph's World "Battle of Chicago" – Berkshire Seven "Bear Down Chicago Bears" - John Frigo "The Belle of Chicago", 1892 – composer: John Philip Sousa "The Belle of Chicago Barn Dance" – composer: Theo. Bonheur "The Belle of Lincoln Park" – composer & lyricist: Geo. Maywood "Best Wishes to your Black Lung" – Less Than Jake "Big Bill the Builder" (mayor), 1928 – composers & lyricists: Milton Weil, Bernie Grossman & Larry Shay "The Big Brass Band from Brazil" by Art Mooney & His Orchestra "The Big Unit" – The Mountain Goats "Big Windy City" - Troy Shondell "The Billiken Man", 1909 – composer: Melville J. Gideon; lyricist: E. Ray Goetz; sung by Blanche Ring "Black Sox Two Step (Noir Chaussette's Two Step)" – Sidney Brown "Blank" - Disfigured "Bloody Canvas", 2021 – Polo G "Blowin' in from Chicago", 2005 – composer: Hank Hirsh; Six Perfections Music; Around and Back "Blue Line" – Local H "Blues for the South Side" – Ronnie Earl "Blues for the West Side" – Eddie Shaw "Boo’d Up" - Ella Mai "Boogie Woogie Bugle Boy" - Andrews Sisters "Boost Chicago" – composer: Armin P. Bauer "Born in Chicago" – Paul Butterfield 1965, blues "Born in Illinois (in a place they call Chicago)" - Mark "Big Poppa" Stampley "Bow to the Masta", 1999 – Kool Keith "Boy Reporter Blues, Dedicated to Horace Wade – Boy Reporter of the Chicago Evening American", 1924 – composers: Dell Lampe & J. Bodewalt Lampe; lyricist: Haven Gillespie "Break Down on Lake Shore Drive" – The Black Dog "Bryn Mawr Stomp" – Local H "Bucktown Stomp" – Johnny Dodds' Washboard Six "The Burning Iroquois" (theater), 1904 – composer: Edward Stanley; lyricist: Mathew Goodwin "The Burning of the Iroquois", 1904 – composer: Thos. R. Confare; lyricist: Morris S. Silver "Burn It All Down" - PRVIS C "Calling Me Home, Chicago", 1985 – composer: Paul David Wilson "Carry On" - Anna Tsuchiya "Casimir Pulaski Day" – Sufjan Stevens "Calling" - Metro Boomin x Nav x A Boogie with Swae "Calling Me" - Ooyy "Caliente" - Farruko, Darell, (Mr Canovas Techno Remix) "Can’t Get Enough" - Big Time Rush "Cha Cha Chicago" – Kai Winding "Chi-Chi-Chi-Chicago" – Nellie Lutcher "Chi'-Ca'-Go'" - Johnny Ross "Chi-City" – Common, featuring Kanye West, from Be, 2005 "Chi-City Boogie" - Ricardo Miranda "Chi-Town" - Jing Chi "The Chi-Town Boogie" - Casey Jones "Chi-Town Hustler" – Eddie Floyd "Chi-Town Theme" – Cleveland Eaton "Chi-Town" – The Cribs "Chi-Town" – Da Brat "Chi-Town" – Jerry Butler "Chi-Town Affair" - DJ Phats "The Chi-Town Nightlife" – Paul Johnson "Chicago" – ABC "Chicago" – Roy Ayers "Chicago" – Big D and the Kids Table "Chicago" – Birdpaula "Chicago" – Bis "Chicago" – Capital STEEZ produced by MF DOOM "Chicago" - Clueso "Chicago" - Colour Club "Chicago" - David Morales presents the Red Zone Project "Chicago" – Kiki Dee "Chicago" – Dynastie Crisis "Chicago" – The Doobie Brothers "Chicago" – Enuff Z'nuff "Chicago" – Flipturn "Chicago" – Frédéric François "Chicago" - Gabry Fasano (Italian electronic music dance producer/dj) "Chicago" – Gemini One "Chicago" – Groove Armada "Chicago" – Hieroglyphics "Chicago" – Ingram Hill "Chicago" – Michael Jackson 2014 "Chicago" – Alexz Johnson "Chicago – Ivan Kuchin "Chicago" - music by Lew Pollack; lyrics by Sidney Clare "Chicago" – Luther Allison "Chicago" – Manfred Mann's Earth Band "Chicago" – The Masterbuilders "Chicago" – Mat Kearney "Chicago" - Otis Pierce "Chicago" – Ted Mulry "Chicago (We Can Change the World)" – Graham Nash 1971, (about the 1968 Convention) "Chicago" – Des O'Connor "Chicago" – Portugal. The Man "Chicago" – The Purple Hearts "Chicago" – Django Reinhardt "Chicago" – Revolutionary Ensemble "Chicago" – Lucy Wainwright Roche "Chicago" – Rodgers & Hart "Chicago" – Alexander Rosenbaum "Chicago..." – Screeching Weasel "Chicago" – Shawnna "Chicago" – Simoncino "Chicago" – Sufjan Stevens ”Chicago” - Louis Tomlinson "Chicago" – The Tossers "Chicago" – The Uglysuit "Chicago" – Kate Voegele "Chicago" – Tom Waits "Chicago" – Sean Watkins "Chicago" – Andre Williams "Chicago - 1926" - Nanette Workman "Chicago 60616" - Kenny and the Kasuals "Chicago A"/"Chicago B" – Tirez Tirez "Chicago After Dark" – Chicago "Chicago Afterwhile" by Country Soul Revue featuring Dan Penn "Chicago Allstars Boogie" – Willie Dixon & The Chicago Allstars "Chicago at Night" – Spoon "Chicago Blues", 1946 – composers: Arthur Crudup, Ransom Knowling, Judge Riley "Chicago Blues" – Dion DiMucci "Chicago Blues" – Fletcher Henderson "Chicago Blues" – Bill Snyder "Chicago Blues" - Jim Peterik "Chicago Blues" - Oscar Peterson "The Chicago Blues" – Sally Roberts "Chicago Boogie" - Four Blazes "Chicago Bop Stepping" – The Clayton Brothers "Chicago Bound Blues", 1923 – composer & lyricist: Lovie Austin "Chicago Bound Blues" – Bessie Smith "Chicago Bound" – Canned Heat "Chicago Bound" – Jimmy Rogers "Chicago Boxcar" - Fabulous Poodles "Chicago Breakdown" – Gene Ammons "Chicago Breakdown" – Big Maceo Merriweather "Chicago Breakdown" – Doctor Ross "Chicago Bus Stop (Ooh, I Love It)" – Salsoul Orchestra "Chicago Buzz" – Junie Cobb "Chicago By Night" - Orlando Voorn "Chicago Calling" – Cyril Davies "Chicago, Chicago" – Lord Invader "Chicago, Chicago" - Teddy Phillips and His Orchestra featuring Colleen Lovett "Chicago City" – George "Harmonica" Smith "Chicago City" - The Monarchs "Chicago Concerto" - Bill Snyder "The Chicago Conspiracy" – David Peel "Chicago Cottage" – The Mirage "The Chicago Cyclist March", 1896 – composer: Hans Liné "Chicago, Damn" – Bobbi Humphrey "Chicago Dancin' Girls" - Curtis Potter "Chicago Disco" – Major Lance "Chicago Emerald City" – Dave Angel "The Chicago Express (March Two-Step)", 1905 – composer: Percy Wenrich "Chicago Fanphair '93" – Local H "Chicago Flyer" – Meade Lux Lewis "Chicago Fog Lift" - Chunky, Novi & Ernie (featuring Lauren Wood) "Chicago Function" – Sidney Bechet "Chicago Girl" – Roger Whittaker "The Chicago Girls' March or Two-Step Dance", 1895 – composer: J. W. Tate "Chicago, Glad To Be Back Home" - Louisiana Red "The Chicago Glide" – composer: Prof. Joseph Gearen "Chicago Green" – The Surfaris "Chicago Heights" - Roy Davis Jr. "Chicago Here I Come" – Willie Dixon & Johnny Winter "Chicago High Life" – Earl Hines "Chicago Hope" - Southampton Ltd (an alias of techno producer Thomas Schumacher) "The Chicago Hussar's Quickstep", 1892 – composer: A. H. Rintelman "The Chicago Hustle" - Evelyn Thomas "Chicago, Illinois" - Ben Verdery "Chicago, Illinois" - Bobby Short "Chicago, Illinois" - from the film Victor/Victoria, performed by Lesley Ann Warren, written by Leslie Bricusse and Henry Mancini "Chicago Institute" – Manfred Mann's Earth Band "Chicago Is Alive" – Dicken (of Mr Big) "Chicago Is Just That Way" – Eddie Boyd "Chicago Is Large" – Nazgul "Chicago Is Loaded With The Blues" - Chicago Blues Allstars/Willie Dixon "Chicago Is My Home" – Pierre Lacocque; sung by Lurrie Bell, from album Hattiesburg Blues; Mississippi Heat "Chicago Is So Two Years Ago" – Fall Out Boy from album Take This To Your Grave 2003 "Chicago in Mind" – Albert Ammons "Chicago Jackmaster" - K-Alexi "Chicago Light Green" - Jimmy Owens (musician) "Chicago Line" - John Mayall "Chicago Man" – Eddie Shaw "The Chicago March", 1909 – composer: Henry S. Sawyer "Chicago Melody" - Axel Zwingenberger "Chicago Meltdown" - Impakt "Chicago Mess Around" - Lovie Austin's Blues Serenaders "Chicago, Mon Amour" – Made in Sweden "Chicago Monkey-Man Blues" – Rosa Henderson "Chicago Morning" – Chris Rea "Chicago My Home Town" – Barry Goldberg "Chicago, My Home Town" – composer & lyricist: Paul S. Hargrow "Chicago, New York" – The Aislers Set "Chicago North Western" – Juicy Lucy "Chicago, Now!" – The Fall "Chicago on My Mind" – Albert Ammons "Chicago on My Mind" – Jimmy Dawkins "Chicago Party Theme" - Jesus Wayne "Chicago Post March", 1896 – composer: Ellis Brooks "Chicago, Prairie Gem of Illinois" – composer & lyricist: Laura Aborn "Chicago Rhythm" - Chicago Stompers "Chicago River Blues" - Hayden Thompson "Chicago Rockets" - Bourbon Street Barons "Chicago Seemed Tired Last Night" – The Hold Steady "Chicago, Send Her Home" - Willie Hightower "Chicago Serenade" – Eddie Harris "Chicago Sidewalk" – Arthur Adams "Chicago Slam" - K-Alexi "Chicago Slide" – Victoria Spivey "Chicago Song" – David Sanborn "Chicago Southside" - CZR (house record) "Chicago Stomp" - Pinetop Perkins "Chicago Stomp Down" – Duke Ellington "Chicago Stomps" – Jimmy Blythe "The Chicago Story" - Jimmy Snyder "Chicago Style" - Dave Specter "Chicago Style" - (from Road to Bali) "Chicago Surf" - Surf Teens "Chicago (That Toddlin' Town)", 1922 – composer & lyricist: Fred Fisher; popularized by Frank Sinatra "Chicago, the City of Today" – composer: Bill Snyder; lyricist: Ann Marsters "Chicago, the Gem on the Shore", 1923 – composer & lyricist: J. A. Johnson "Chicago, the Most Beautiful City" – composer & lyricist: Frank Padula "The Chicago Theme (Love Loop)" – Hubert Laws "Chicago Tickle" - Harry Tierney "Chicago Trane Blues" - Toby Ben "The Chicago Tribune Centennial March", 1947 – composer: Robert Trendler; lyricist: Jack La Frandre "Chicago Tribune March", 1893 – composer: W. Paris Chambers "Chicago Trip" - The Mackenzie "Chicago Twist" – Werner Baumgart "The Chicago Two-Step" – composer: J. P. Brooks "Chicago Wind" – Merle Haggard "Chicago Woman" - The Oxfords "Chicago Woman" - Sonny Turner & Sound Limited "Chicago Women" - Willie James Lyons "Chicago x 12" – Rogue Wave "Chicago's Finest" – Emmure "Chicago's Gift to a 'Nation's Hero'" (U. S. Grant) 1891 – composer & lyricist: W. C. Robey "Chicago's Queen" – Baron Longfellow "Chicagoland Twirl Polka" – Frankie Yankovic "Christmas in Chicago" – Marilyn Scott "Chronically Cautious" - Braden Bales "City in a Garden" – Fall Out Boy "City Lights" – Lucky Boys Confusion "City of CHI" – Juice "The City of Chicago" – Luka Bloom, Christy Moore "City of Promise. 1934 Century of Progress Song" – composer: Jos. Snabl-Antes; lyricist (Czech text): Vasek Niederle; lyricist (English translation): Libushka Bartusek "Clark Street" – Elmer Bernstein "Clean Up Chicago" - Josef Myrow and Mack Gordon "Closer to Our Graves" – Lucky Boys Confusion "Cold" - Nightcore (Maroon 5 ft. Future) "Cold and Windy Night" – The Fantastic Four "Cold Chicago" – Humming House "Cold Chicago Wind" - Jack Bonus "Cold Chicago Winds" - Country Boys (featuring the Willis Brothers) "Cold Windy City of Chicago" – Boxcar Willie "Columbia Fair (Grand March)" – composer: Theodore Moelling "Columbian Guards March – The Musical Hit of the World's Fair", 1892 – composer & lyricist: T. P. Brooke "Columbus Fair (Grand March)" – composer: Geo. Schleiffarth "Come On! Feel the Illinoise! – Sufjan Stevens "Come to Chicago" – composer: Dorothy Giffey; lyricist: James Andrichen "Coming from Chicago' – Angelo D'Onorio "Conover March" (dedicated to the officials of the World's Columbian Exposition) 1893 – composer: Ion Arnold "Con–" – Frode Gjerstad Trio With Steve Swell "Control" - Unknown Brain x Rival "Cook County Jail" – Tom Edwards Country Four "The Corner" – Common, featuring Kanye West, from Be, 2005 "The Count On Rush Street" - Shelly Manne Septet, 1951 - composer: Bill Russo "Crook County" – Twista, from Mobstability, 1998 "Cubs in Five" – The Mountain Goats D "Daley's Gone" – Steve Goodman "Dancing in the Street", 1964 – Martha and the Vandellas "Dead End Street" – Lou Rawls "Dead or Alive" - Empara MI & Dreamchild "Dear Chicago" – Ryan Adams "Dearborn Street Breakdown" – Charles Avery "Dearie" - Gordon MacRae & Jo Stafford "Dennehy" – Serengeti "Destination - Chicago" - Commander Tom "Dolls" - Bella Poarch "Don't Call On Me" - The Monkees “Don’t Let Me Cave In” - The Wonder Years “Don’t Tell Em” - Jeremih "Don't Be Shy" - Tiësto & Karol G “Don’t You Worry - Black Eyed Peas, Shakira, & David Quetta "Double Fantasy" - The Weekend "Down Low (Nobody Has To Know)" (It's A Long Story Mix) - R. Kelly "Down on Maxwell Street" - Micky Moody and Paul Williams (British singer) "Down On Wabash Avenue" - Josef Myrow and Mack Gordon "Downtown Chicago" - Tangerine Dream "Dr. Chicago" – Udo Lindenberg "A Dying Cubs Fan's Last Request" – Steve Goodman E "East Chicago Blues" – Sparks Brothers "East Wacker Drive" – Phil Barry "Electrified" - TheFatRat "End Of Chicago" - Shock Stars "An Esthete On Clark Street" – William Russo "Enemy" - Imagine Dragons "Enough" - NEFFEX "Enough" - Charlieonnafriday "Everything" – Dawn Xiana Moon "Everything Goes On" - Porter Robinson "The Eggplant That Ate Chicago", 1967 – Dr. West's Medicine Show and Junk Band "The EL" – Rhett Miller "El-A-Noy" by Billy Corgan 2004 "The Elements: Fire", recorded 1966, released 2011 – Brian Wilson "Epitaph Of A Small Winner" by Archie Shepp & Chicago Beau "Epidemic", 2020 - Polo G from Hall of Fame, drill "Everything is Big in Chicago" by Gustave Kerker and Frederic Ranken F "Fair Women of Chicago Waltzes", 1893 – composer: Theo. H. Northrup "Far, Far Away" – Wilco "Ferris Wheel March", 1893 – composer: Geo. Maywood "Ferris Wheel Waltz", 1893 – composer: G. Valisi; lyricist: Harry C. Clyde "First Steps", 1993 – composer: Tommy Stinson, from Bash & Pop "Fly Away" - TheFatRat "Food from Chicago" – Lord Christo "The Forest of Love and Romance, Theme song of the Black Forest Village, A Century of Progress Chicago", 1933 – composer: Ernie Kratzinger; lyricist: Charles Kallen "Forty-Seventh and State" – Bud Freeman "From Chicago to the Sky" – Seventh Avenue "From Chicago with Love" – Harlan Howard "From London to Chicago" - Wild Bob Burgos (from Matchbox (band)) & The Dreadnoughts "Full Moon" – Common "Funeral March in Memoriam, Carter H. Harrison, Mayor of Chicago", 1893, composer: W. Herbert Layon "Funk, Chicago Style" - Dick Hyman G "Get Busy" – Mr. Lee "The Girl from Chicago" – Benny Bell "Git On Up" – Fast Eddie and Sundance "Go Cubs Go" – Steve Goodman "Go Go Chicago. Wonder City Home of Mine." – composer & lyricist: Clitus M. Wickens "Go Go Gadget Flow" – Lupe Fiasco, from Lupe Fiasco's The Cool, 2007 "GO" – Ofycial & Wade White Owl, featuring Papi "Goin' Back to Chicago" – Chet Oliver "Goin' Back to Chicago" – Smokey Hogg "Goin' to Chicago Blues", 1939 – composer: Count Basie Orchestra, Lou Rawls "Goin' to Chicago" – traditional; recorded by Mike Westbrook "Golden Ring" – Tammy Wynette & George Jones "Gone To Chicago" - The Pied Pipers "Goodbye to Guyville" – Urge Overkill "Goodnight Chicago" – Rainbow Kitten Surprise "Got To Leave Chi-Town" - Chicago Blues A Living History "Grand Exposition March" – composer: Louis Falk "Grand Terrace Ballroom" - Albert Nicholas, Herb Flemming, Nelson Williams, Benny Waters, Joe Turner (jazz pianist) "Grand Terrace Rhythm" – Bob Crosby "Great Big Friendly Town Chicago" – Dora Hall "Greater Chicago March" – composer: Jacob Valentine Havener; lyricist: Agner Clark Winkler "Green Mill Garden Blues", 1920 – composer: unknown (88 key piano roll) "Greetings. Chicago's Official Song. 1833–Chicago–1933" – composer & lyricist: George D. Gaw; transcriber & arranger: Frank Barden "Growing Up" – Fall Out Boy, from Fall Out Boy's Evening Out with Your Girlfriend, 2003 "Guren no Yumiya" - NateWantsToBattle "A Guided Tour of Chicago" – The Lawrence Arms, 1999 H "Hail Chicago (March)", 1933 – composer: Stanley Kay; lyricist: A. Seaborg "Hail to Thee, Chicago" – composer: John E. King; lyricist: Estella A. Johnson-Hunt "Hail, Chicago, Hail", 1949 – composer and lyricist: Lesley Kirk "Hail, Chicago! Official Song of the Pageant of Progress", 1921 – composer: Bob Allen; lyricist: Ted Turnquist "Hands Open"– Snow Patrol "Happy Summertime" – R. Kelly, featuring Snoop Dogg, from TP.3 Reloaded, 2005 "Harder, Better, Faster, Stronger" - Daft Punk "Harlem Avenue" by Red Callender "Hastings Street" – Blind Blake "The Hat He Never Ate" – composer: Ben Harney; lyricist: Howard S. Taylor "Hello Chicago Fox-Trot", 1933 – composer: Anthony Misuraca; lyricist: Joseph Argento "Hello Chicago" – Topher Jones & Amada, featuring Ido vs. The World "Help Me Out" - Maroon 5 and Julia Micheals "Highway 55" – The O'Kanes "Hitch Hike" – The Rolling Stones, from Out Of Our Heads, 1965; originally by Marvin Gaye "Hold Me Closer" - Elton John and Britney Spears "Home" – Kanye West "Home In Chicago" - Dave Riley And Bob Corritore "Homecoming" – Kanye West, featuring Chris Martin from Graduation, 2008 (charted at #9 on UK Singles, music video features the bean sculpture in Millennium Park) "Homesick at Spacecamp" – Fall Out Boy from Take This To Your Grave, 2003 "Hometown Chicago" - John Parricelli And Stan Sulzmann I "I-94" - Jules Blattner "(I've Got the) Old Chicago Blues" – Bob Gentile "I Am Proud of Chicago" – composer & lyricist: Ben Schwartzberg "I Came Home" – Rhymefest "I Dream of Chicago" – Parlours "I Got a Mind to Go to Chicago" – Jackie Payne Steve Edmonson Band "I Got the Chicago Blues" – Jim Peterik “I Hate Chicago” - Laura Jane Grace "I Left My Mind In Chicago" - Abu Talib (musician) "I Love Chicago" - Little Mike and the Tornadoes "I Love My Radio (Midnight Radio)" – Taffy "I Might Need Security" – Chance The Rapper "I Murdered Them In Chicago' - from Glad To See You "Ignition" - Brian Tuey "I Smell Chicago" by Catfish Hodge "I Used to Work in Chicago. I Did But I Don't Anymore", 1944 – composers & lyricists: Larry Vincent & Sunny Skylar "(I Want To Go To) Chicago" - R.T. & The Rockmen Unlimited "I Was Having A Hard Time In Chicago" - Mike Martin "I–94" – Jules Blattner "I'll Meet You in Chicago (at the Fair)", 1928 – composers & lyricists: Charlie Harrison & Fred Rose "I'm a Ramblin' Man" – Waylon Jennings "I'm Dying Tomorrow" – Alkaline Trio "I'm from Chicago", 1917 – composer: Leo Edwards; lyricist: Blanche Merrill "I'm Going Right Back to Chicago" (Coon Song) 1906 – composer: Egbert Van Alstyne; lyricist: Harry Williams "I'm Strong for Chicago" (University of Chicago Songbook) composer unknown, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jfb8Q-569q8 "Immortals" - Fall Out Boy "I've Got All This Ringing in My Ears and None on My Fingers" – Fall Out Boy, from Infinity on High, 2007 "I've Got To Leave Chi-Town" - Carey Bell & Lurrie Bell "In 1933 (Where Will You Be)" – composer & lyricist: Art Kassel; arranger: Charles Adams "In Cairo Street: A Characteristic Fantasie for Piano", 1893 – composer: Geo. Schleiffarth "In Chicago" – composer & lyricist: Olive Jeane "In Old Chicago", 1937 – composers & lyricists: Mack Gordon & Harry Revel "In Tha Chi" – Shawnna, featuring Syleena Johnson, from Block Music, 2006 "In the Ghetto"– Elvis Presley (International number one pop song in 1969) "In the Kitchen – Umphrey's McGee from Anchor Drops, 2004, progressive rock "Inner Circles of Chicago" – Rodger Wilhoit "Into the Chicago Abyss" – Southall Riot "Is Chicago, Is Not Chicago" – Soul Coughing "Is There Someone Else?" - The Weekend "It's a Cold Winter" – Frankie Knuckles, Chicago house "It's a Way They Have in Chicago" (from Sinbad) 1896 – composer: Gustav Lüders; lyricist: M.E. Rourke "It's a Way They Have in Chicago" (from the Royal Chef) 1904 – composer: Ben M. Jerome; lyricists: Geo. E. Stoddard & Chas. S. Taylor J "Jackson Park El Train" by Harold Mabern Trio "Jackson Park Express" – "Weird Al" Yankovic "January Rain” - PRVIS "Jazz Music" – Gang Starr (a different song to the group's more famous "Jazz Thing") "Jazz Thing" – Gang Starr "Jesus Just Left Chicago" – ZZ Top "Joe Chicago" – Big Walter Horton "Joe Murphy's Farewell To Chicago" – Old Rope String Band "Jolly Bears, To Those on the Board of Trade of Chicago. Polka Humoristic", 1880 – composer: Geo. Schleiffarth "Jumpin' in the Pump Room" - John Kirby (musician) and his Orchestra "Just Blew in from the Windy City" – Doris Day, 1953 "Just for Money" – Paul Hardcastle K "Kaibutsu" - AmaLee "Keys to the City" – Ministry & Co Conspirators, 2008 "Kill Bill" - SZA L "Last Night" - Morgan Wallen "Let's Go, Go-Go White Sox" – Walter Jagiello "Left & Right" - Charlie Puth and Jong Kook "L.A., Goodbye" – The Ides of March "Lady From Chicago" - Neal Sharpe "Lake Effect Kid" (demo song) – Fall Out Boy, from Welcome to the New Administration, 2008 "Lake Michigan" – Rogue Wave, 2007 "Lake Shore Drive" – Aliotta Haynes Jeremiah, 1971 "Lake Shore Drive" – Art Porter Jr. "Lake Shore Drive" – E-Smoove (Eric Miller) "Lake Shore Drive" – Gerald Wilson Orchestra "Lake Shore Drive" – The Innocence Mission "Lake Shore Drive" – Theo Parrish "Lake Shore Drive Boogie" – Lefty Dizz "Lake Shore Drive (Chicago Concerto)" - 101 Strings "Lake Shore Drive (Slight Return)" – Harris Newman "Lake Shore Driving" – Duran Duran 1988 "Lakefront Blues" - Dan Burley And His Skiffle Boys "Lakeshore Cowboy" – Ramsey Lewis "The Last Day of the Fair", 1893 – composer: Frank Swain "Lawndale Blues" - Eddie Taylor Blues Band "LAX to O'Hare" – The Academy Is... "Leader of the Band" – Dan Fogelberg (from Peoria) "Leavin' Chicago, A.M.F." – Aliotta Haynes Jeremiah "Leaving Chicago" – Knockout "Lido Shuffle" – Boz Scaggs "Lifelong" - Anno Domini Beats "Lift Every Voice (Take Me Away)" - Mass Order "Lift Me Up - Rihanna "Light it Up - Robin Hustin x TobiMorrow "Lincoln Park Pirates" – Steve Goodman "Lily" - Alan Walker, K-391 & Emelie Hollow "Little Joe from Chicago", 1930 – composers: Mary Lou Williams, Henry Wells "Living in Chicago" – The Bee Gees "Lobster And Scrimp" - Timbaland featuring Jay-Z "Logan Square" - – Jimmy McPartland And Art Hodes "London House" – Billy Walker "Long Line To Chicago" - Larry Hosford "Love to Die" - Slashstreet Boys "Lovin's Been Here and Gone to Mecca Flats", 1926 – composer: Jimmy Blythe "Lost" - Maroon 5 "Lost Again" - Kings Elliot "La Vida Es Una - Karol G M "Mama Chicago" – Bonnie Koloc "Mama Chicago" – Mike Westbrook "The Man from the South with a Big Cigar in his Mouth", 1930 – composers & lyricists: Rube Bloom & Harry M. Woods "The March Maroon, University of Chicago March and Two-Step", 1906 – composer: Harry Turner "Marching on to Chicago", 1933 – composers & lyricists: Richard Daly, Thomas Parmiter & Clitus Wickens "Maxwell Street" – Chris Rea "Maxwell Street Boogie" - Rob Hoeke "Maxwell Street Shuffle" – Barry Goldberg "Mayday" - TheFatRat "Me and My Broken Heart - Rixton "Mean Old Chicago" - Bob Margolin "Mecca Flat Blues", 1924 – composer: Jimmy Blythe; lyricists: Jimmy Blythe & Priscilla Stewart "Meet Me in Chicago" – Jimmy McPartland And Art Hodes "Meet Me in Chicago" – Mat Kearney, Buddy Guy from Rhythm & Blues "Melancholium" - Aksil Beats "Memphis-Chicago Blues" – Julio Finn Band (featuring Memphis Slim) "Mercy Me" – Alkaline Trio "Miracle" - Calvin Harris, Ellie Goulding "Miss Chicago (The Great 'Pageant' Song)", 1921 – composer: Edmund Braham; lyricist: W.S. Greelish "Moon River" - Jacob Collier "Monody" - TheFatRat "Mrs. O'Leary's Cow" – Brian Wilson "The Motto" - Tiësto & Ava Max "Muddy Waters (Little Walter/Lakeshore Theme/Willie D./Otis/Whisper From Theresa's/Walkin' Up Halsted)" – Glen Hall & Gil Evans "Must Have Been The Wind" - Alec Benjamin "My Kind of Town" – Frank Sinatra, 1964 (nominated for the 1964 Academy Award for Best Original Song) N "New West Side Stroll" - Dave Specter "New York/Chicago" - Mark Imperial "New York and Chicago" - music by Albert Von Tilzer; lyrics by Junie McCree "New York - London - Paris - Chicago" - Soup "New York To Chicago" - Chubby Jackson "New York City" - Chainsmokers "The Night Chicago Died" – Paper Lace (Billboard Hot 100 #1 hit in 1974) "Night In Chicago" - Reeds "North to Chicago" – Hank Snow "Northside Cadillac" - James Cotton "Northwest 222" – Harry Chapin "Nothing Beats Chicago/Ocean is Different" – from the musical Marie Christine "Nothing is Lost" - The Weekend "Nowhere Fast" - Laurie Sargent "Never Forget You" - Zara Larsson O "Ode for the opening of the World's Fair. Held at Chicago, 1892" – composer: C. W. Chadwick; lyricist: Harriet Monroe "Oh City of a Century" – composer: Eleanor Everest Freer "Oh, Yes! Oh, Yes! Oh, Yes! Oh, Yes! The Dancing Girls will give a Show before they Start for Chicago!" from Little Christopher Columbus "Oh You Chicago, Oh You New York", 1910 – composer: Albert Von Tilzer; lyricists: Junie McCree & Sydney Rosenfeld "The Oldest Living Groupie in Chicago" – Doug Ashdown "On a Freezing Chicago Street" – Margot and the Nuclear So and So's "On the Midway, or the Jolly Bum, Bum", 1893 – composer & lyricist: Louis Ortenstein "On and On" by Cartoon (feat. Daniel Levi) "On the South Side of Chicago" – Vic Damone, Freddy Cole "One Way Ride (To Chicago)" – Lois Johnson "Only in Chicago" – Barry Manilow "The Original Chicago Blues", 1915 – composer: James White "The Osmosis Suite - Chicago Indian" - System 7 (band) "Our Chicago" (U of C), 1926 – composer & lyricist: Norman Reid "Out Running Karma" - Alec Benjamin P "Palmah House Shuffle" (Palmer House Hotel), 1903 – composer: Libbie Erickson "Pantin' in the Panther Room" – Fats Waller "The Payback" - James Brown "Peace Frog" – The Doors "Picketlines and Pepperspray" – Silent Film "Polka Lounges In Chicago" - Eddie Blazonczyk & The Versatones "Prairie Song" – Billy Corgan "Private Lawns" – Angus & Julia Stone "Pulaski at Night" – Andrew Bird "Pulaski Day" – Kidd Russell "Pump Room" - The Friendly Indians "Pump That Body" - Mr. Lee "Pump Up Chicago" – Mr. Lee "Put the Blame on Mame", 1946 – composers & lyricists: Allan Roberts, Doris Fisher Q R "Randolph Street Rag" - Chicago Rhythm Kings "Real Good Girlfriend" – The Mountain Goats "Red Hot Chicago" – Flying High, 1930; composers & lyricists: B.G. DeSylva, Lew Brown & Ray Henderson "Red Leaves of October" – Michael Peter Smith "Reflections" - Lollia & Stylosa "Relax With Chicago" - K-Alexi “Reminding Me (of Sef) - Common (rapper) "Richmond, Chicago, Mexico And Home" - Sonny Miller And The Happy Valley Boys "Ride My Face to Chicago" – Frank Zappa "Ride To Stony Island" - Stony Island Band (from Stony Island (film)) "Rise Up" - TheFatRat "Rock-Skippin' at the Blue Note" – Duke Ellington "Royal Garden Blues" (jazz standard) "The Rebirth" – Chapter 13 "Route 90" - Clarence Garlow "Run for Cover" - Gabrielle Aplin "Ruined My Life" - Coopex "The Runaway Train" - Michael Holliday S "San Francisco" – Alkaline Trio "Saying Goodbye" – Every Avenue "The Seer's Tower" – Sufjan Stevens "She Shook Him in Chicago" – (Madame Sherry 1909) – composer: Karl L. Hoschna; lyricist: Otto Hauerbach "She Was Hot" – Rolling Stones "She Was in Chicago" – John Lee Hooker "She'd Never Leave Chicago" – McKendree Spring "The Sheik of Chicago (Mustafa)", 1960 – adaptor & lyricist: Bob Merrill; recorded by the Four Lads and Archie Bleyer "The (Shipped) Gold Standard" – Fall Out Boy from Folie a Deux, 2008 "Shooting Stars" - Bag Raiders "Showtime in Chicago" – Joe Jackson "Shy-Town" – Gorillaz "Si Volvieras a Mi" - Josh Groban "Sidewalks of Chicago" – Merle Haggard "Side by Side" - Sofia Wylie "Silent Night/7 O' Clock News" – Simon & Garfunkel "Silver City" – Hey Champ "Simple Man" by Wale "Slow Down Chicago" – Canasta "Snakeheads" – The Mountain Goats "Snooze" - SZA "Snow but Faster" - Rock Guitare "So Long Toots" – Cherry Poppin' Daddies from Soul Caddy "So Long Sentiment" - Celldweller "Something from Nothing" – Foo Fighters, 2014 "Somewhere in Chicago" – Arnold McCuller "Somewhere on Fullerton" – Allister "Sounds at the Archway" – Eddie Harris "Sounds of West Side Chicago" – Jimmy Dawkins & Hip Linkchain "South Shore Drive" - Bernard Allison "South Shore Drive" - Noble "Thin Man" Watts "South Side" – Moby, featuring Gwen Stefani, 2001 (#14 on Billboard Hot 100) "South Side Irish" – Arranmore "South Side of Chicago" – Eddie Burns "South Side Shake" - Dan Burley And His Skiffle Boys "South Union" – Lucky Boys Confusion "Southbound Ryan" – Dennis DeYoung "Southside Boogie" - Dick Hyman "Southside Boogie" - James Cotton "Southside Chicago Waltz" – Black 47 "Southside Chicago" – Otis Brown & The Delights "Southside Hop" - Left Hand Frank "Southside Mojo" – JaGoFF "Southside Shuffle" – Art Hodes "Southside Stomp" - Ronnie Earl & the Broadcasters "Southside Stuff" – Jimmy Yancey "South Side To Riverside" - Lurrie Bell "Southside" – Common, featuring Kanye West, from Finding Forever, 2007 "Sorrow" - Aksil Beats "Star Eater" - Daniel Deluxe "Star Witness" – Neko Case "Startin' for Chicago" – Tracy Nelson "State Street Blues" – Synco Jazz Band (featuring Joseph Samuels) "State Street Jive" – Cow Cow Davenport "State Street" - Peter Gallway "State Street" – Sonny Knight "State Street" – Sun Ra "State Street Samba" – Cook County "State Street Special" - Johnny Parker (jazz pianist) "State Street Sweet" - Gerald Wilson Orchestra "State Street Tomorrow – Theme Song", 1930 – composers: Carelton Colby & Maurice Wetzel from the Radio Station KYW staff "Stay Chi" – Juice "Stell–" – Frode Gjerstad Trio With Steve Swell "Sting" - Fletcher "Stockyard Blues" - Floyd Jones "Stockyard Strut" - Freddie Keppard "Stony Island Band" - Stony Island Band (from Stony Island (film)) "Stratford-on-Guy" – Liz Phair, 1993 "Streamline Train" - The Vipers Skiffle Group "Strings Of Chicago" - Lidell Townsell "Stuck in Chicago" – Cate Brothers "Sunshine in Chicago" – Sun Kil Moon "Sunflower" - Post Malone and Swae Lee "Super Bowl Shuffle" – Chicago Bears Shufflin' Crew, the 1985 Chicago Bears champions "Super Fade" - Fall Out Boy from "Lake Effect Kid EP", 2018 "Sweet Chicago" – The Original Caste "Sweet Home Chicago", 1937 – composer: Robert Johnson; lyricists: Robert Johnson & Roosevelt Sykes, Blues Brothers "Sweet Spots" – The Fiery Furnaces "Swing Life Away" – Rise Against from Siren Song of the Counter Culture, 2005 "Switchboard" – Kid Sister T "Take Me Back to Chicago", 1985 – title track on Take Me Back to Chicago by Chicago "Take the Time", 1993 – Waiting for the Night by the Freddy Jones Band "Talkin' Baseball (Baseball And The Cubs)" – Terry Cashman "Taste of Chicago" – Albert Washington "Thank You Chicago" - Ricardo Miranda "That's That", 2006 – Snoop Dogg featuring R. Kelly (#3 on Hot Rap Songs chart) "The Hill I will Die On" - Alec Benjamin "The Way You Felt" - Alec Benjamin "There's No Lights On The Christmas Tree Mother They're Burning Big Louis Tonight" – Alex Harvey "This City", 2011 – Patrick Stump featuring Lupe Fiasco from Soul Punk "The Humbling River" - Puscifer "Thumbs" - Sabrina Carpenter "Ticket to Chicago" – Terry Garthwaite (once of Joy of Cooking) "To Chicago With Love" – Lois Johnson "Together Forever (Krush Groove 4)" – Run-DMC "Tonight, Tonight", 1996 – The Smashing Pumpkins (#4 on Mainstream Rock chart) "Tonight Will Last Forever", 2005 – Photographs by Mest "The Torture Doctor", 2013 – Alkaline Trio "Train to Chicago" – Mike Doughty "The Trianon March", 1934 – dedicated to the Chicago Association of Dancing Masters; composer: R. Alexander Campbell "True Enough", 2009 – Everything's Easy by Girlyman "Turn It Up Again" – Conway Brothers "Twilight Serenade", 2005 – Another Ghost by Jason Myles Goss "Two Words", 2004 – Kanye West featuring Mos Def, Freeway, and the Boys Choir of Harlem, from The College Dropout U "The University Quickstep", 1865 – inscribed to the President and Friends of the Chicago University; composer: E. M. Shaw "Underneath the Streetlights of Chicago", 2019; Riley Smith "Unstoppable" - Sia V "Vacation in Chicago" – Cold War Kids "Vernon Park" - Lil' Mark "Via Chicago", 1999 – Summerteeth by Wilco "The Viking March – Captain Andersen's Viking Ship from Norway to the World's Fair", 1893 – composer: H. C. Verner W "Wacker Drive" – Wazmo Nariz "Wailin' at the Trianon" – Lionel Hampton "Wait" - Maroon 5 "Warriors" - AJ Michalka "We Ride", 1998 – R. by R. Kelly, featuring Jay-Z "We're All Crazy in Chicago", 1986 – Jonathon Brandmeier "We're Gonna Go to Chicago" – from the musical Marie Christine "Werewolf" - Motionless in White "Welcome 2 Chicago", 2001 – Abstract Mindstate featuring Kanye West "Welcome to Chicago" - Gene Farris (British chart hit in 2003) "Welcome to Chicago" – Kill Hannah from Wake Up the Sleepers, 2009 "Welcome to the DCC" - Nothing But Thieves "Wes Cide Bluze" – Jimmy Dawkins "Wes Cide Rock" – Jimmy Dawkins "West Side Baby" - Fenton Robinson "West Side Bossman" - Otis Grand, Anson Funderburgh, Debbie Davies "West Side Shuffle" – Ronnie Earl & Duke Robillard "West Side Woman" - Lurrie Bell "Wet the Bed" - Chris Brown "Weston's March to Chicago", 1867 – composer: Edward Mack; publisher: S. Brainard & Sons, Cleveland "Wheels a-Rolling", 1948 – official song of the Chicago Railroad Fair; composer: Helen Purcell Maxwell; lyricist: Philip Maxwell "When the Levee Breaks", 1929 – composers & lyricists: Kansas Joe McCoy and Memphis Minnie; re-worked by Led Zeppelin in 1971 "When the Wind Blows in Chicago" – writers: Scott Turner, Audie Murphy; performed by both Roy Clark and Bobby Bare in 1964, and Eddy Arnold in 1970 "When You Meet a Man in Chicago" – from Sugar "When You Say You Love Me" - Josh Groban "Where We Started" - Lost Sky "Wild" - Raylee "White Sox Stomp" – Jimmy Yancey "Why" - Willow "Windy City Blues" - Ernie Hawks And The Soul Investigators "Windy City Blues" – Mike Westbrook "Windy City Boogie Woogie", c. 1941–1943 – Nat King Cole "Windy City Boogie", c. 1950–1954 – J. T. Brown "Windy City Hop" – Slim Gaillard "Windy City Soul" by Jerry Butler "Windy City" – Jack-Tronic "Windy City" – Jackie McLean "Windy City" – Phish "Windy City" - Richard Evans "Windy City" – Rodney Franklin "Windy City" – The Sweet "Windy City" – from Windy City "Windy City Blues" - Ernie Hawks & The Soul Investigators "Windy City Stomp" - Rob Hoeke "Wine-O From Chicago" - Howard Crockett "Winter in Chicago", 2012 – Toil by Flatfoot 56 "Wish You Well" - PVRIS "The Woman Downstairs", 1998 – Through the Trees by The Handsome Family "Woman in Chicago" – Jim Post "World's Columbian Exposition Waltz", 1893 – composer: Adelaide Marcelia Gluck "The World's Fair or A Voyage to Chicago", 1893 – composer & lyricist: Leonard Gautier Y "Yes Chicago Is... (Suite)" - Gerald Wilson Orchestra "You Haven't Seen The U.S.A. Until You've Seen Chicago!" - Dick Marx Orchestra "You Wake Up in the Morning in Chicago", 1915 – composer: Harry Carroll; lyricists: Ballard MacDonald and Coleman Goetz "You'll Find 'Em in Chicago" (from The Yankee Regent), 1905 – composer: Ben M. Jerome; lyricists: Chas S. Adelman and I. L. Blumenstock "You're Dead", 2001 – From Here to Infirmary by Alkaline Trio "Your the Inspiration", 1984 - Chicago 17 Z "Zelda", 2007 – Isn't This Supposed to Be Fun!? by Farewell Songs about Chicago sport teams "All the Way", 2008 – Eddie Vedder "Bear Down Chicago Bears", 1941 – composer & lyricist: Jerry Downs "Chelsea Dagger", with text modified by Blackhawks' fans, 2006 – composer and lyricist: Jon Fratelli; performers: The Fratellis "The Chicago Cubs Song – Hey Hey! Holy Mackerel!", 1969 – composer: John Frigo; lyricist: I. C. Haag "Come On You Cubs Play Ball", 1937 – composer & lyricist: Bernard "Whitey" Berquist "Cubs on Parade (The Great March and Two-Step)", 1907 – composer: H. R. Hempel; arranger: Jos. Techen "The Glory of the Cubs", 1908 – composer: Arthur Marshall; lyricist: F. R. Sweirngen "Go Cubs Go", 1984 – composer & lyricist: Steve Goodman "Here Come the Hawks", 1968 – composer: J. Swayzee; producer: The Dick Marx Orchestra and Choir "Hurrah for the Cubs", 1930 – composer: Burrell Van Buren; lyricist: Betty Douglas "Let's Go, Go-Go White Sox", 1959 – composer & lyricists: Captain Stubby and the Buccaneers "Super Bowl Shuffle", 1985 – composers: B. Daniels, L. Barry; lyricists: R. Meyer, M. Owens; performers: Chicago Bears Shufflin' Crew, the 1985 Chicago Bears "Watch the Cubs Play Ball", 1941 – composer & lyricist: Harry A. Magill "Wave the Flag (For Old Chicago)", 1929 – fight song of the University of Chicago; lyricist: Gordon Erickson "We're The Cubbies", 2012 – composer, lyricist, and audio engineer: Michael Droste CubsSong.com "White Sox Fitted", 2010 – composer & lyricist: Young General "The White Sox March", 1907 – composer: T. F. Durand References American music history Chicago in fiction Chicago-related lists American jazz songs Chicago Music of Chicago
4838188	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenians%20in%20Turkey	Armenians in Turkey	Armenians in Turkey (; , "Turkish Armenians"), one of the indigenous peoples of Turkey, have an estimated population of 50,000 to 70,000, down from a population of over 2 million Armenians between the years 1914 and 1921. Today, the overwhelming majority of Turkish Armenians are concentrated in Istanbul. They support their own newspapers, churches and schools, and the majority belong to the Armenian Apostolic faith and a minority of Armenians in Turkey belong to the Armenian Catholic Church or to the Armenian Evangelical Church. They are not considered part of the Armenian Diaspora, since they have been living in their historical homeland for more than four thousand years. Until the Armenian genocide of 1915, most of the Armenian population of Turkey (then the Ottoman Empire) lived in the eastern parts of the country that Armenians call Western Armenia (roughly corresponding to the modern Eastern Anatolia Region). Armenians are one of the four ethnic minorities officially recognized in Turkey, together with Jews, Greeks, and Bulgarians. In addition to local ethnic Armenians who are Turkish citizens, there are also many recent immigrants from Armenia in Istanbul. There is also an unknown number of officially Muslim citizens of the Republic of Turkey who have recently started to identify as Armenians based on their Armenian roots, after being Islamised decades or centuries earlier. They are referred as crypto-Armenians. History Armenians living in Turkey today are a remnant of what was once a much larger community that existed for thousands of years, long before the establishment of the Sultanate of Rum. Estimates for the number of Armenian citizens of the Ottoman Empire in the decade before World War I range between 1.3 (official Ottoman data) and 3 million (independent estimates). When Constantinople finally became part of the Ottoman Empire, financial support was given to the Apostolic Church by the Sultan, so it could build churches in the city, which prior to that the Byzantines refused as they viewed the church as heretical. Armenians in the Ottoman Empire were viewed as a separate millet, and given the status of second-class citizens, but were not usually mistreated until later in the empire's history. Many Armenians gained significant positions in the empire in professions such as banking, which they almost had a monopoly in. The oldest Turkish company, Zildjian, was founded by an Armenian in the 17th century. Starting in the late 19th century, political instability, dire economic conditions, and continuing ethnic tensions prompted the emigration of as many as 100,000 Armenians to Europe, the Americas and the Middle East. This massive exodus from the Ottoman Empire is what started the modern Armenian diaspora worldwide. There was conflict between Armenians, Turks and Kurds between 1892 and 1915. The Armenian genocide followed in 1915–1916 until 1918, during which the Ottoman government of the time ordered the deportation. These measures affected an estimated 75–80% of all the Armenians living in the Ottoman Empire during World War I. Many died directly, while others died as a result of dehydration, disease, and starvation during the death marches. As for the remaining Armenians in the east, they found refuge by 1917–1918 in the Caucasus and within the areas controlled by the newly established Democratic Republic of Armenia. They never returned to their original homes in today's Eastern Turkey (composed of six vilayets, Erzurum, Van, Bitlis, Diyarbakır, Mamuretülaziz, and Sivas). Their descendants are known as Hidden Armenians and are present throughout Western Armenia, but particularly in Dersim (Tunceli). Through the 20th century, an unknown number of Armenians living in the mountainous region of Dersim converted to Alevism. During the Armenian genocide, many of the Armenians in the region were saved by their Kurdish neighbors. According to Mihran Prgiç Gültekin, the head of the Union of Dersim Armenians, around 75% of the population of Dersim are "converted Armenians." He reported in 2012 that over 200 families in Tunceli have declared their Armenian descent, but others are afraid to do so. In April 2013, Aram Ateşyan, the acting Armenian Patriarch of Constantinople, stated that 90% of Tunceli's population is of Armenian origin. Most of the Armenian survivors from Cilicia and the southernmost areas with Armenians like Diyarbakır ended up in northern Syria and the Middle East. All those who survived the death camps in/deportations to Deir ez-Zor ended up there as well. Armenians deported from areas that were under allied control by 1918, particularly the short lived French Mandate, which had control of southeastern Turkey and all of Cilicia according to the Sykes–Picot Agreement, were able to return to their homes to gather things or search for loved ones. After the fall of French Cilicia, Some of those returnees attempted to stay permanently after the Turks gained the territory back, but were all driven away by the early 1930s due to various reasons. Those who left the Mandate ended up in Syria, France, Armenia, the Americas and the rest of Europe, in that order. The Armenian population suffered a final blow with ongoing massacres and atrocities throughout the period 1920–1923, during the Turkish War of Independence. Those suffering the most were those Armenians remaining in the east and the south of Turkey, and the Pontic Greeks in the Black Sea Region. By the end of the 1920s, only a sprinkling of non-converted Armenians left in Turkey were scattered sparsely throughout the country, with the only viable Armenian population remaining in Istanbul and its environs, Diyarbakir and Malatya, with those largely disappearing due to the Turkey-PKK War necessitating their migration to Istanbul. At the time of the establishment of the Republic of Turkey, Hatay Province was part of Syria, and is why that area still has some established and officially recognized Armenian communities. Demographics Due to the Armenian Genocide and other events in Turkey during the last century, Turkish Armenians were killed, forced into hiding, and forcibly converted to Islam, which therefore split them into different groups. There are three groups- Armenian Christians, Crypto Armenians, and Muslim Armenians. Christian Armenians are in most cases part of the recognized minority, but can also include Crypto Armenians who are not legally recognized as Armenian but identify as both Armenian and Christian, and Armenian immigrants to Turkey. Crypto Armenians are Armenians who are legally identified as Turks and are either Christian and openly recognize their identity, hide their identity and either practice Crypto-Christianity or Islam, Openly identify as Armenian but are Muslim, or don't know about their ethnicity at all. The combined total of all Armenians in Turkey is unknown, because the number of people who are Crypto Armenian is hard to determine, with numbers ranging from as low as 30,000 to several million depending on how broad the standards were to be considered Crypto Armenian in the studies made. However, the combined total of immigrant Armenians and those in the recognized minority would be estimated at 150–170,000. Another statistic could be the number of people who are members of the Armenian Patriarchate of Constantinople, being at 95,000. Armenian Christians The officially recognized Armenian Christian population is estimated to be between 50,000 and 70,000, mostly living in Istanbul and its environs. They are almost always members of the Armenian Apostolic, Armenian Catholic or Armenian Evangelical churches. The number of Armenian Christians is both diminishing due to emigration to Europe, the Americas and Australia, and increasing due to immigrants from Armenia looking for work (who are entirely Christian), and Crypto-Armenians who decide to identify openly as Armenians and convert to Christianity. However, most of that growth is not reflected in official data, because Crypto-Armenians are not listed as part of the recognized Armenian minority due to Turkish laws on the officially recognized (Armenians, Greeks, and Jews) minorities, which doesn't allow newly identified Armenians to change their Turkish identities they were given at birth. As for Armenian immigrants, most are unable to join the minority because they are illegal immigrants. Due to those factors, the de jure number of Armenian Christians is much lower than the de facto amount. The Armenian minority is recognized as a separate "millet" in the Turkish system and has its own religious, cultural, social and educational institutions along with a distinct media. The Turkish Armenian community struggles to keep its own institutions, media and schools open due to diminishing demand from emigration and quite considerable economic sacrifices. Regions with Armenian Christians Istanbul The Armenian community of Istanbul is the largest in Turkey, a catalyst being due to the fact that it was the only place that Armenian Christians were at least somewhat protected at the time of the creation of Turkey post Armenian genocide. Other factors included the Patriarchate having its headquarters in the city, and the city's economy and quality of life attracting Armenian immigrants which allowed for the community to keep stable numbers in the face of discrimination and constant migration. The three most important areas where Armenians live in Istanbul are the Kumkapı quarter, Yeşilköy and Pangalti neighborhoods, as well as the Prince Islands. Kumkapi is the location of the Armenian Patriarchate of Constantinople, and is known for its many fish restaurants and historic Churches. One of the main differences between the areas is that Kumkapi is Apostolic, While Pangalti has a mix of Armenian and Roman Catholic, and Yesilköy is mostly Armenian Catholic, Roman Catholic and Syriac Orthodox. Kumkapi is also located in the Old city, while Pangalti is in the newer part, and Yesilköy is a neighborhood within Greater Istanbul next to the outer walls of the Fatih District. Hatay Province Iskenderun has one small Armenian church, and a community of a few dozen Armenians. Vakıflı Köyü (Armenian: — Vakif) is the only remaining fully ethnic Armenian village in Turkey. This village and 6 others managed to brave past the Armenian genocide in the Musa Dagh Defense. This particular village only exists as of now due to some of the population deciding to stay after Hatay province was invaded and annexed by Turkey in 1939, while the other 6 villages populations decided to leave. It is located on the slopes of Musa Dagh in the Samandağ district of Hatay Province, the village overlooks the Mediterranean Sea and is within eyesight of the Syrian border. It is home to a community of about 130 Turkish-Armenians, and around 300 people who are from the village who come back to visit during the summer. Immigration from Armenia The Christian Armenian presence in Turkey is reinforced by a constant flow of mostly illegal immigrants from Armenia who settle in Turkey in search of better job opportunities, where the difference in pay can be quite significant. Despite a negative public opinion in Armenia of "an Armenian who works for a Turk" as a result of the century-long uneasy relationship between the two countries, by 2010, there were between 22,000 and 25,000 Armenian citizens living illegally in Istanbul alone, according to Turkish officials, and an estimated total amount of 100,000. Many of them are employed in Turkish households to provide domestic services, such as cooking and cleaning. According to a 2009 interview poll of 150 Armenian work migrants, the majority are women. In 2010, amid Armenia's push for the recognition of the 1915 Armenian genocide as a genocide, Prime Minister Erdoğan threatened to deport the illegal immigrants back to Armenia, however the situation gradually thawed. Some Armenian immigrants do not discuss ever returning to their homeland having adapted to life in Turkey. Beginning in 2011, children of the Armenian citizens living illegally in Istanbul have been allowed to attend local Armenian minority schools, but as they are not Turkish citizens, they do not receive diplomas at the end of the school term. According to the researcher Alin Ozinian number of Armenians living illegally in Turkey (in 2009) is 12,000 to 13,000 and not 70,000 to 100,000 as has previously been estimated. Aris Nalci, a journalist working for the newspaper Agos, gave a little bit higher numbers, between 12,000 and 14,000 (in 2010). Diyarbakir Province Diyarbakir (or Amida/Tigranakert) has three operating Armenian churches as of 2015– one Apostolic, one Catholic, and one Protestant- The largest amount for any city in Turkey excluding Istanbul. The city's modern Armenian community was established in the 1920s and 30s when all the Armenians that still lived in the surrounding areas consolidated by moving to Amida, forming a community consisting of 30 families in the 1980s in Sur, the historic district of Diyarbakir. It could also be assumed that many Crypto Armenians have been living here as well, because when the Apostolic church was restored in 2011 after years of abandonment, several thousand people came to celebrate mass there, including diasporans. In 2017, the Southeastern third of Sur district was leveled due to being occupied by Kurdish Insurgents. The Armenian Church was raided by what is suspected to be Grey Wolves after most of the residents of Sur were forced to leave, and the district was occupied by the Turkish Army. This part of the district is being rebuilt and resold to Turkish and foreign investors. Muslim Armenians Hemshins Also in Turkey are the Hopa Hemshinli (also designated occasionally as eastern Hemshinli in publications) are Sunni Muslims of Armenian origin and culture who converted to Islam during Ottoman and earlier rule, and mostly live in the Hopa and Borçka counties of Turkey's Artvin Province. In addition to Turkish, they speak a dialect of western Armenian they call "Homshetsma" or "Hemşince" in Turkish. Other Armenians Crypto Armenians "Hidden Armenians" and "crypto-Armenians" are umbrella terms to describe people in Turkey "of full or partial ethnic Armenian origin who generally conceal their Armenian identity from wider Turkish society." They are descendants of Armenians in Turkey who were Islamized and Turkified under the threat of either death, displacement, loss of property or a combination of those during the Armenian genocide. Ways in which they were converted included orphans being taken in by Muslim families, Armenian women being taken as wives by soldiers, and entire families converting by joining communities that accepted them. Many Cryptos are totally unaware of their Armenian ethnicity, living as Turks or Kurds, while many know they are Armenian but hide it out of fear of discrimination. Religious affiliation Considering the advanced nature of Crypto Armenians, They cannot be classified as either Muslim or Christian. Some practice Crypto-Christianity, masquerading as Muslims, while many genuinely practice Islam. Most Cryptos who later identify as Armenians are Christian as well, with a common practice among those who confess their ethnicity being to have a Christian baptism performed. Still, some who confess do not change their religion, and continue on as Muslims. Others even practice both faiths depending on where they are. That may just be due to a lack of churches, and for identified Armenians who are Muslim, a fear of Turkish extremists. Politics The wealth tax known as Varlık Vergisi, a Turkish tax levied on the non-Muslim citizens of Turkey by a law enacted on November 11, 1942, with the stated aim of raising funds for the country's defense in case of an eventual entry into World War II had devastating effect on the ethnic minorities of Turkey, and most importantly the Armenian community. The law came under harsh criticism, as property holders had to sell a lot of their assets at greatly deflated prices or such assets were confiscated by the authorities. The unpopular law was abolished on March 15, 1944. The traditional Armenian political parties were known to be very active in Ottoman political life, including the Armenian Revolutionary Federation (ARF – Dashnagtsutiun), the Social Democrat Hunchakian Party (Hunchak) and the Armenakan Party, the predecessor of the Armenian Democratic Liberal Party (Ramgavar Party). But the activities of all these Armenian parties were curtailed after the Armenian Genocide. ethnic-based political parties as well as religious-based political parties are prohibited in Turkey by law. The Armenians of Turkey were also highly critical of the activist role that the Armenian Secret Army for the Liberation of Armenia (ASALA), the Justice Commandos Against Armenian Genocide (JCAG), Armenian Revolutionary Army (ARA) and other Armenian guerrilla organizations played in targeting Turkish diplomats and interests worldwide at the height of their anti-Turkish campaign in the 1970s and 1980s. The fears of the Turkish Armenians were justified with the fact that at many times, Turkish-Armenian institutions and even religious centers were targeted by threats and actual bombings in retaliation of the acts of ASALA, JCAG, ARA and others. The Turkish-Armenian Artin Penik committed suicide in 1982 by self-immolation in protest of the terrorist attack on 7 August 1982 in Ankara's Esenboğa International Airport by the Armenian Secret Army for the Liberation of Armenia. Penik died five days after he set himself on fire in Taksim plaza, the main square of Istanbul, Turkey, and his stance was reflected by the Turkish mass media as a protest of most Turkish-Armenians against such attacks. Nine people had been killed and more than 70 wounded in the attack on the Turkish airport. Another turbulent point for the Armenian community of Turkey was the highly publicized public trial of the Armenian gunman and one of the perpetrators of the attack, the 25-year-old Levon Ekmekjian, who was found guilty and eventually hanged at Ankara's civilian prison on January 30, 1983. He had been sentenced to death in September 1982 after having confessed that he had carried out the airport attack with another gunman on behalf of ASALA, and despite the fact that he publicly condemned violent acts during his own trial and appealed to the Armenian militants to stop the violence. The Turkish Armenian Reconciliation Commission (TARC) was set up in July 2001 a joint project of a number of Turkish and Armenian intellectuals and political experts to discuss various aspects of the Turkish-Armenian relations and approving a set of recommendations to the governments of Turkey and Armenia on how to improve the strained relations between the two countries. Thousands of Turks joined Turkish intellectuals in publicly apologizing for the World War I era mass killings and deportations of Armenians in the Ottoman Empire. The unprecedented apology was initiated by a group of 200 Turkish academics, journalists, writers and artists disagreeing with the official Turkish version of what many historians consider the first genocide of the 20th century. Their petition, entitled "I apologize", was posted on a special website https://web.archive.org/web/20150815013428/http://www.ozurdiliyoruz.com/. On the occasion of a World Cup qualifying match between the two national football teams of Turkey and Armenia in the Armenian capital Yerevan, and following the Armenian President Serzh Sargsyan's invitation to attend the match, on 6 September 2008, the Turkish President Abdullah Gül paid a breakthrough landmark visit to Armenia that he said "promises hope for the future" for the two countries. Local politics The Armenians in Turkey used to be active in Turkish politics. The Turkish-Armenian Sarkis "Aghparik" Cherkezian and Aram Pehlivanyan (Nickname: Ahmet Saydan) played a pivotal role in the founding of the Communist Party of Turkey. There used to be Armenian activists in many other Turkish political parties as well. In 2015, three Turkish-Armenians, Garo Paylan (Peoples' Democratic Party), Markar Esayan (Justice and Development Party), and Selina Özuzun Doğan (Republican People's Party)—were elected, and became the first Armenians to be elected as Member of Parliament to the Grand National Assembly of Turkey since 1961. Hrant Dink, the Turkish-Armenian journalist, writer and political activist, and the chief editor and publisher of Agos had carved himself a position of that of a very prominent figure for conveying the ideas and aspirations of the Armenian community in Turkey not only for Turkish-Armenians but for many Armenians worldwide. His newspaper Agos had played an important role in presenting Armenian historical grievances through publishing of articles and opinions in the Turkish language addressed to the Turkish public opinion. His assassination in front of his newspaper offices on January 19, 2007, turned into an occasion for expression of national grief throughout Turkey and the rallying of great support for the concerns of the Armenian community in Turkey by the general Turkish public. Dink was best known for advocating Turkish-Armenian reconciliation and human and minority rights in Turkey; he was often critical of both Turkey's denial of the Armenian genocide, and of the Armenian diaspora's campaign for its international recognition. Dink was prosecuted three times for denigrating Turkishness, while receiving numerous death threats from Turkish nationalists. At his funeral, one hundred thousand mourners marched in protest of the assassination, chanting "We are all Armenians" and "We are all Hrant Dink". Criticism of Article 301 became increasingly vocal after his death, leading to parliamentary proposals for repeal of the law. Religion Religious affiliation Virtually all Armenians who are officially registered as part of the Armenian Minority are Christians, and are either of the Armenian Apostolic, Catholic, or less commonly Protestant denominations. The religion of others and those not officially part of the minority is elaborated on in the Demographics section. Armenian Patriarchate of Constantinople The Armenian Patriarchate of Istanbul (officially Armenian Patriarchate of Constantinople) is, since 1461, the religious head of the Armenian community in Turkey. The Armenian Patriarchate of Constantinople has exerted a very significant political role earlier and today still exercises a spiritual authority, which earns it considerable respect among Oriental Orthodox churches. The Armenian Patriarchate of Constantinople recognizes the primacy of the Supreme Patriarch and Catholicos of All Armenians, in the spiritual and administrative headquarters of the Armenian Church, the Mother See of Holy Etchmiadzin, Vagharshapat, Republic of Armenia, in matters that pertain to the worldwide Armenian Church. In local matters, the Patriarchal See is autonomous. Sahak II Mashalian is the 85th Armenian Patriarch of Constantinople under the authority of the Supreme Patriarch and Catholicos of All Armenians. Armenian Catholic Archdiocese of Constantinople The Armenian Catholic Archdiocese of Constantinople is based in Istanbul and in 2008 reported 3,650 followers. Christmas date, etiquette and customs Armenians celebrate Christmas at a date later than most of the Christians, on 6 January rather than 25 December. The reason for this is historical; according to Armenians, Christians once celebrated Christmas on 6 January, until the 4th century. 25 December was originally a pagan holiday that celebrated the birth of the sun. Many members of the church continued to celebrate both holidays, and the Roman church changed the date of Christmas to be 25 December and declared January 6 to be the date when the three wise men visited the baby Jesus. As the Armenian Apostolic Church had already separated from the Roman church at that time, the date of Christmas remained unchanged for Armenians. The Armenians in Turkey refer to Christmas as Surp Dzınunt (Holy Birth) and have fifty days of preparation called Hisnag before Christmas. The first, fourth and seventh weeks of Hisnag are periods of vegetarian fast for church members and every Saturday at sunset a new purple candle is lit with prayers and hymns. On the second day of Christmas, 7 January, families visit graves of relatives and say prayers. Armenian churches in Turkey Turkey has hundreds of Armenian churches. However, the majority of them are either in ruins or are being used for other purposes. Armenian churches still in active use belong to various denominations, mainly Armenian Apostolic, but also Armenian Catholic and Armenian Evangelical Protestant. Education Turkey's Armenian community faces educational problems due to the steadily decreasing number of students every school year and lack of funding. The number of Armenian schools decreases year by year. This number has fallen from 47 to 17 today with currently 3,000 Armenian students, down from 6,000 Armenian students in 1981. Schools are kindergarten through 12th grade (K–12), kindergarten through 8th grade (K-8) or 9th grade through 12th (9–12). Ermeni İlköğretim Okulu means "Armenian primary+secondary school". Ermeni Lisesi means "Armenian high school". The Armenian schools apply the full Turkish curriculum in addition to Armenian subjects, mainly Armenian language, literature and religion. In September 2011, the Turkish government recognized the right of immigrant families from Armenia to send their children to schools of the Turkey's Armenian community. This move came as a result of lobbying of Deputy Patriarch Aram Ateşyan, according to whom there were some 1,000 children of Armenian immigrants in Turkey at that time. However, as they are not Turkish citizens, at the end of the school term, they do not receive diplomas. K-8 Aramyan-Uncuyan Ermeni İlköğretim Okulu Bezciyan Ermeni İlköğretim Okulu Bomonti Ermeni İlköğretim Okulu Dadyan Ermeni İlköğretim Okulu Kalfayan Cemaran İlköğretim Okulu Karagözyan İlköğretim Okulu Kocamustafapaşa Anarat Higutyun Ermeni İlköğretim Okulu Levon Vartuhyan Ermeni İlköğretim Okulu Feriköy Ermeni İlköğretim Okulu Nersesyan-Yermonyan Ermeni İlköğretim Okulu Pangaltı Anarat Higutyun Ermeni İlköğretim Okulu Tarkmanças Ermeni İlköğretim Okulu Yeşilköy Ermeni İlköğretim Okulu 9–12 Getronagan Ermeni Lisesi Surp Haç Ermeni Lisesi K–12 Esayan Ermeni İlköğretim Okulu ve Lisesi Pangaltı Ermeni Lisesi Sahakyan-Nunyan Ermeni Lisesi Health Among other institutions, Turkish Armenians also have their own long-running hospitals: Surp Prgiç Armenian Hospital (Սուրբ Փրկիչ in Armenian – pronounced Sourp Pergitch or St Saviour). It also has its media information bulletin called "Surp Prgiç" Surp Agop Armenian Hospital (Սուրբ Յակոբ in Armenian pronounced Sourp Hagop) Language The majority of Armenians in Turkey speak Turkish. Only about 18% of them can speak Armenian, and most of that number are bilingual, with some having Armenian as their first language, and others learning it as a second language. Western Armenian Western Armenian (), , (and earlier known as , namely "Trkahayeren" ("Turkish-Armenian") are one of the two modern dialects of the modern Armenian, an Indo-European language. The Western Armenian dialect was developed in the early part of the 19th century, based on the Armenian dialect of the Armenians in Istanbul, to replace many of the Armenian dialects spoken throughout Turkey. It was widely adopted in literary Armenian writing and in Armenian media published in the Ottoman Empire, as well as large parts of the Armenian diaspora and in modern Turkey. Partly because of this, Istanbul veritably became the cultural and literary center of the Western Armenians in the 19th and early 20th century. Western Armenian is the language spoken by almost all of the Armenian diaspora. The only diaspora community that uses Eastern Armenian is the Iranian Armenian community, or those who immigrated from Armenia. Nevertheless, Western Armenian is the primary dialect of Armenian found in North and South America, Europe (except those in Russia) and most of the Middle East (except in Iran and Armenia). Western Armenian is the primary language of the diaspora because the great majority of the Armenian diaspora in all these areas (Europe, Americas, Middle East) was formed in the 19th and early 20th century by Armenian populations from the Ottoman Empire, which is where Western Armenian was historically spoken. Nevertheless, the Western Armenian language is still spoken by a small minority of the present-day Armenian community in Turkey. However, only 18 percent of the Armenian community speaks Western Armenian, while 82 percent of the Armenian community speaks Turkish. This percentage is even lower among younger people of whom only 8 percent speaks Western Armenian and 92 percent speaks Turkish. Turkish is replacing Western Armenian as a mother language, and UNESCO has added Western Armenian in its annual Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger where the Western Armenian language in Turkey is defined as a definitely endangered language. The Western Armenian language is markedly different in grammar, pronunciation and spelling from the Eastern Armenian language spoken in Armenia, Iran and Russia, although they are both mutually intelligible. Western Armenian still keeps the classical Armenian orthography known as Mashdotsian spelling, whereas Eastern Armenian adopted reformed spelling in the 1920s (Eastern Armenian in Iran did not adopt this reform then). Armeno-Turkish (Turkish in Armenian alphabet) From the early 18th century until around 1950, and for almost 250 years, more than 2000 books were printed in the Turkish language using letters of the Armenian alphabet. This is popularly known as Armeno-Turkish. Armeno-Turkish was not used just by Armenians, but also many non-Armenian elite (including the Ottoman Turkish intellectuals) could actually read the Armenian-alphabet Turkish language texts. The Armenian alphabet was also used alongside the Arabic alphabet on official documents of the Ottoman Empire, written in Ottoman Turkish. For example, the Aleppo edition of the official gazette of the Ottoman Empire, called "Frat" (Turkish and Arabic for the Euphrates) contained a Turkish section of laws printed in Armenian alphabet. Also very notably, the first novel to be written in the Ottoman Empire was 1851's Akabi Hikayesi, written by Armenian statesman, journalist and novelist Vartan Pasha (Hovsep Vartanian) in Ottoman Turkish, was published with Armenian script. Akabi Hikayesi depicted an impossible love story between two young people coming from two different communities amidst hostility and adversity. When the Armenian Duzian family managed the Ottoman mint during the reign of Abdülmecid I, they kept their records in Ottoman Turkish written in Armenian script. Great collection of Armeno-Turkish could be found in Christian Armenian worship until the late 1950s. The Bible used by many Armenians in the Ottoman Empire was not only the Bible versions printed in Armenian, but also at times the translated Turkish language Bibles using the Armenian alphabet. Usage continued in Armenian church gatherings specially for those who were Turkophones rather than Armenophones. Many of the Christian spiritual songs used in certain Armenian churches were also in Armeno-Turkish. Armenians and the Turkish language Armenians played a key role in the promotion of the Turkish language including the reforms of the Turkish language initiated by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. Bedros Keresteciyan, the Ottoman linguist completed the first etymological dictionary of the Turkish language. Armenians contributed considerably to the development of printing in Turkey: Apkar Tebir started the first printing house in Istanbul in 1567; Hovannes Muhendisian (1810–1891), known as the "Turkish Gutenberg", established a printing press in Istanbul that operated from 1839 until World War I; Boghos Arabian (1742-1835) designed the Turkish type and was appointed by Sultan Mahmut II in 1816 as the superintendent of the imperial printing press, which notably published the first Turkish daily newspaper, Takvim-i Vekayi and its translation to Armenian and other languages. Agop Martayan Dilâçar (1895–1979) was a Turkish Armenian linguist who had great contribution to the reform of Turkish language . He specialized in Turkic languages and was the first Secretary General and head specialist of the Turkish Language Association (TLA) from its establishment in 1932 until 1979. In addition to Armenian and Turkish, Martayan knew 10 other languages including English, Greek, Spanish, Latin, German, Russian and Bulgarian. He was invited on September 22, 1932, as a linguistics specialist to the First Turkish Language Congress supervised by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, together with two other Armenian linguists, İstepan Gurdikyan and Kevork Simkeşyan. He continued his work and research on the Turkish language as the head specialist and Secretary General of the newly founded Turkish Language Association in Ankara. Following the issue of the Law on Family Names in 1934, Mustafa Kemal Pasha suggested him the surname Dilaçar, meaning "language opener", which he gladly accepted. In return, Agop Martayan openly proposed the name Atatürk to Mustafa Kemal Pasha in the Grand National Assembly of Turkey. He taught history and language at Ankara University between 1936 and 1951 and was the head advisor of the Türk Ansiklopedisi (Turkish Encyclopedia), between 1942 and 1960. He held his position and continued his research in linguistics at the Turkish Language Association until his death in 1979. Culture Armenians try to keep a rich cultural life and do participate in the Turkish art scene. Music The pan-Turkish Kardeş Türküler cultural and musical formation, in addition to performing a rich selection of Turkish, Kurdish, Georgian, Arabic and gypsy musical numbers, also includes a number of beautiful interpretation of Armenian traditional music in its repertoire. It gave sold-out concerts in Armenia as part of the Turkish-Armenian Cultural Program, which was made possible with support from USAID. The "Sayat-Nova" choir was founded in 1971 under the sponsorship of the St. Children's Church of Istanbul performs traditional Armenian songs and studies and interprets Armenian folk music. In classical opera music and theatre, Toto Karaca was a major figure on the stage. In the folk tradition, the effect of Udi Hrant Kenkulian as a legendary oud player is indisputable. In contemporary music, Arto Tunçboyacıyan and his brother the late Onno Tunç are two veritable jazz musicians, composers and arrangers. The Turkish rock artist Yaşar Kurt declared he was of ethnic Armenian descent. Another famous Armenian rock musician is Hayko Cepkin. Hayko Tataryan is also well known for singing in Turkish, Armenian and Greek, so is his son Alex Tataryan. Very recently the Turkish-Armenian singer Sibil Pektorosoğlu (better known by her mononym Sibil) has become popular winning pan-Armenian music prizes for her recordings. Cinema and acting In movie acting, special mention should be made of Vahi Öz who appeared in countless movies from the 1940s until the late 1960s, Sami Hazinses (real name Samuel Agop Uluçyan) who appeared in tens of Turkish movies from the 1950s until the 1990s and Nubar Terziyan who appeared in more than 400 movies. Movie actor and director Kenan Pars (real name Kirkor Cezveciyan) and theatre and film actress Irma Felekyan (aka Toto Karaca), who was mother of Cem Karaca. Photography In photography Ara Güler is a famous photojournalist of Armenian descent, nicknamed "the Eye of Istanbul" or "the Photographer of Istanbul". Literature Turkish Armenian novelists, poets, essayists and literary critics continue to play a very important role particularly in the literary scene of the Armenian diaspora, with works of quality in Western Armenian. Robert Haddedjian chief editor of Marmara newspaper published in Istanbul remains a pivotal figure in the literary criticism scene. Zareh Yaldizciyan (1923–2007), better known by his pen name Zahrad was a renowned Western Armenian poet. A number of Turkish writers – such as Sait Faik, Kemal Tahir and Ahmed Hamdi Tanpinar – also represented Armenians in their work and, in the case of Tanpinar, actually had Armenian friends and taught in Armenian schools. Media Istanbul was home to a number of long-running and influential Armenian publications. Very notable now-defunct daily newspapers included Arevelk (1884–1915), Puzantyon (1896–1908), Sourhantag (1899–1908), Manzoume Efkyar (1912–1917), Vertchin Lour (1914–1924). Outside Istanbul, the notable daily publications included Arshalouys (1909–1914), Tashink (1909–1914) and Van (1908–1909). Presently, Istanbul has two Armenian language dailies. These two newspapers, Jamanak (established in 1908) and Marmara also have a long tradition of keeping alive the Turkish Armenian literature, which is an integral part of the Western Armenian language and Armenian literature. Jamanak (Ժամանակ in Armenian meaning time) is a long-running Armenian language daily newspaper published in Istanbul, Turkey. The daily was established in 1908 by Misak Kochounian and has been somewhat a family establishment, given that it has been owned by the Kochounian family since its inception. After Misak Kochounian, it was passed down to Sarkis Kochounian, and since 1992 is edited by Ara Kochounian. Marmara, daily in Armenian (Armenian: Մարմարա) (sometimes "Nor Marmara" – New Marmara) is an Armenian-language daily newspaper published since 1940 in Istanbul, Turkey. It was established by Armenian journalist Souren Shamlian. Robert Haddeler took over the paper in 1967. Marmara is published six times a week (except on Sundays). The Friday edition contains a section in Turkish as well. Circulation is reported at 2000 per issue. Agos, (Armenian: Ակօս, "Furrow") is a bilingual Armenian weekly newspaper published in Istanbul in Turkish and Armenian. It was established on 5 April 1996. Today, it has a circulation of around 5,000. Besides Armenian and Turkish pages, the newspaper has an on-line English edition as well. Hrant Dink was its chief editor from the newspaper's start until his assassination outside of the newspaper's offices in Istanbul in January 2007. Hrant Dink's son Arat Dink served as the executive editor of the weekly after his assassination. Lraper, (Լրաբեր in Armenian) is a trilingual periodical publication in Armenian, Turkish and English languages and is the official organ of the Armenian Patriarchate of Constantinople Other Armenian media titles include: Sourp Pergiç (St. Saviour) the magazine of the Armenian Sourp Pergiç (Pergitch) Hospital, also Kulis, Shoghagat, Norsan and the humorous Jbid (smile in Armenian) In September 2011, the Turkish government granted some financing to Jamanak, Marmara and Agos as part of a wider campaign in support of existing minority newspapers in Turkey. The Turkish Press Advertisement Agency also declared intention to publish official government advertisements in minority newspapers including Armenian ones. Famous Turkish-Armenians Turkish Armenians in the diaspora Despite leaving their homes in Turkey, the Turkish Armenians traditionally establish their own unions within the Armenian diaspora. Usually named "Bolsahay Miutyun"s (Istanbul-Armenian Associations), they can be found in their new adopted cities of important Turkish-Armenian populations. Among them are the "Organization of Istanbul Armenians of Los Angeles", the "Istanbul Armenian Association in Montreal", etc. The Turkish Ambassador to Germany, Hüseyin Avni Karslıoğlu, inaugurated in December 2012 at the Bergen-Belsen Concentration Camp a memorial stone with bronze letters (third of its kind after the Polish and Dutch similars) to the memory of eight Turkish citizens killed during the Holocaust, one of whom is a Turkish Armenian with the name Garabed Taşçıyan. See also Armenians in the Ottoman Empire Armenians in Istanbul Minorities in Turkey Kurds in Turkey General Armenian Patriarch of Constantinople Anti-Armenian sentiment in Turkey List of Armenian Patriarchs of Constantinople List of Turkish-Armenians Armenians in the Ottoman Empire Ottoman Armenian casualties Armenia–Turkey relations Confiscated Armenian Properties in Turkey Armenian cultural heritage in Turkey Varlık Vergisi Demography Diyarbakır Beyoğlu Istanbul Kumkapı Crypto-Armenians Hemshin peoples Vakıflı, Samandağ, the only remaining ethnic Armenian village in Turkey. Personalities Agop Dilâçar Vartan Pasha Hrant Dink Patriarch Shenork I Kaloustian Patriarch Karekin II Kazanjian Patriarch Mesrob II Mutafyan Media Agos Marmara (newspaper) Jamanak References Sources This article contains some text originally adapted from the public domain Library of Congress Country Study for Turkey. Further reading H. Birsen Örs, "Perception of the Army by Armenian Minorities Living in Turkey", Armed Forces & Society. Vol. 36, No. 4 (2010). External links General Istanbul Armenians site Surp Prgiç Armenian Hospital website Tessa Hofmann Organization of Istanbul Armenians of Los Angeles Ozur Diliyoruz Turkish Apology site The Armenian Genocide 1915 Houshamadyan, a project to reconstruct and preserve the memory of Armenian life in the Ottoman Empire Media Agos Armenian weekly newspaper Lraper, Armenian Patriarchate of Constantinople Bulletin Marmara Armenian daily newspaper Hye Tert Armenian site (Turkish) Ethnic groups in Turkey Armenian people
4838342	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vyborg%E2%80%93Petrozavodsk%20offensive	Vyborg–Petrozavodsk offensive	The Vyborg–Petrozavodsk offensive or Karelian offensive was a strategic operation by the Soviet Leningrad and Karelian Fronts against Finland on the Karelian Isthmus and East Karelia fronts of the Continuation War, on the Eastern Front of World War II. The Soviet forces captured East Karelia and Vyborg/Viipuri. After that, however, the fighting reached a stalemate. The operations of the strategic offensive can be divided into the following offensives: Viipuri (10–20 June) by the Leningrad Front Virojoki-Lappeenranta (21 June – 15 July) by the Leningrad Front Koivisto landing (20–25 June) by the Baltic Fleet Svir–Petrozavodsk (21 June – 9 August) by the Karelian Front Tuloksa landing (23–27 June) by the Soviet Ladoga Flotilla Background In January 1944, Soviet forces raised the Siege of Leningrad and drove the German Army Group North back to the Narva-Lake Ilmen-Pskov line. Finland had conducted peace negotiations intermittently during 1943–1944 with the Western Allies and the USSR, but no agreement had been reached. Finland asked for peace conditions again in February, but the Finnish Parliament (Eduskunta) considered the terms received impossible to fulfill. After Finland had rejected these peace conditions, and Germany halted the Soviet advance, the Stavka (Main Command of the Armed Forces of the Soviet Union) started to prepare for an offensive to force Finland's exit from the war. The plan In order to destroy the Finnish Army and to push Finland out of the war, the Stavka decided to conduct the Vyborg–Petrozavodsk offensive. The strategy called for a two-pronged offensive, one from Leningrad via Viborg to the Kymi river, and the second across the Svir River through Petrozavodsk and Sortavala past the 1940 border, preparing for an advance deep into Finland. The plan called for the Finnish army to be destroyed on the Karelian Isthmus, and the remains blocked against the western shore of Lake Ladoga between the two assaults and Lake Saimaa. The main strategic objectives of the offensive were to push Finnish forces away from the north of Leningrad, to drive Finland out of the war, and to create better conditions for a major offensive to the south against Germany. The Finnish army had been preparing defensive fortifications since 1940, and three lines of defence on the Karelian Isthmus. The first two were the "Main line", which was constructed along the frontline of 1941, and the VT-line (Vammelsuu-Taipale) running 20 km behind the main line. These lines were reinforced with numerous concrete fortifications, but the work was still ongoing. The third line, the VKT-line (Viipuri-Kuparsaari-Taipale) was still on the drawing board and the construction of the fortifications began in late May 1944 at the Viborg sector of the line. At the northern bank of the Svir River () the Finnish army had prepared a defence in depth area which was fortified with strong-points with concrete pillboxes, barbed wire, obstacles and trenches. After the Winter War, the Salpa Line was built behind the 1940 border with concrete bunkers in front of the Kymi river. To overcome these obstacles, the Stavka assigned 11 divisions and 9 tank and assault gun regiments to the Leningrad Front. That meant that there were 19 divisions, 2 division strength fortified regions, 2 tank brigades, 14 tank and assault gun regiments at the Isthmus, all of which included over 220 artillery and rocket launcher batteries (almost 3,000 guns/launchers). Around 1,500 planes from the 13th Air Army and the Baltic Fleet naval aviation also contributed to the operation which included surface and naval infantry units of the Baltic Fleet. To the east of Karelia, the Stavka planned to use 9 divisions, 2 sapper brigades, 2 tank brigades and 3 assault gun regiments, raising the whole strength to 16 divisions, 2 fortified regions, 5 separate rifle brigades, 2 tank brigades, 3 assault gun regiments and 3 tank battalions. They were supported by Lake Ladoga and Lake Onega naval flotillas and the 7th Air Army. Vyborg offensive At the Karelian Isthmus front there were on average 120 Red Army artillery pieces for every kilometer of frontline, with up to 220 artillery pieces per kilometer on the breakthrough sector at Valkeasaari. In addition to heavy coastal artillery of the Leningrad area and the guns of the capital ships of the Baltic Fleet (Oktyabrskaya Revolutsiya, , ) Stavka had also assigned heavy siege artillery (280 to 305 mm) in support of the attack. On June 9, a day before the main Soviet offensive, the 1,600-strong 13th Air Army conducted a major aerial assault. At the same time, artillery units of the Leningrad Front and the Baltic Fleet shelled Finnish positions for 10 hours. The Finnish Army was in a well-fortified position, but the Soviet air attacks surprised the defending Finnish army and undermined its resistance causing many Finnish units to retreat and suffer from thousands of desertions. Valkeasaari On June 10, the Soviet 21st Army spearheaded by 30th Guards Corps opened the offensive on the Valkeasaari sector which was defended by 1st Infantry Regiment of Finnish 10th Division. During the day, the Soviet units captured frontline trenches and destroyed fortifications, shattering the first Finnish defense line at the breakthrough sector. Kuuterselkä On June 13, the Soviet 21st Army's offensive reached the partially completed VT-line. The defensive position was breached at Kuuterselkä by June 15. Though the line was breached the Finnish resistance managed to delay further Soviet advances. Siiranmäki Simultaneous to Kuuterselkä the Soviet 23rd Army attempted to break through at a perceived weak point in the Finnish VT-line at Siiranmäki. Siiranmäki was the first place where Finnish troops were able to use Panzerfausts and Panzerschrecks imported from Germany. Though Finnish troops managed to contain the Soviet breakthrough at Siiranmäki it was not enough to keep the VT-line as Kuuterselkä had already been breached. Soviet 98th Infantry Corps fighting in Siiranmäki against Finnish 7th Regiment announced to have lost during period of June 13 to June 16: 3 784 soldiers including 887 killed in action based on their own report. Red Army and especially Guard units took heavy losses in Siiranmäki-Kuuterselkä with 20,000 KIA, MIA or WIA. Viborg The Finnish army attempted to buy time by engaging in delaying actions during its retreat so that additional forces from East Karelia would be able to reach the front, and the VKT-line could be prepared for combat. However, on June 19 forces of the first Leningrad Front had reached Viborg, and the first phase of the offensive was completed by the capture of the city on June 20, when the defending Finnish 20th Infantry Brigade fled in panic. Though Leningrad Front had managed to capture Viborg within the time table set by Stavka they had been unable to prevent retreating Finnish units from regrouping and fortifying on the VKT-line. Unlike many battles on the Eastern Front in the Karelian Isthmus the Red Army was unable to trap any large Finnish units – not even a single battalion. Finnish forces had managed to retreat. At the same time more and more Finnish reserves were arriving at the VKT-defense line, where terrain was much more favorable for defenders than for the armored Red Army units. The Soviet 21st Army also faced logistics issues after its fast 120 km advance to west. Virojoki–Lappeenranta offensive Mannerheim had asked for German help, and on June 17 Gefechtsverband Kuhlmey arrived in Finland, followed on June 21 by the 303rd Assault Gun Brigade (at half strength) and the 122nd Infantry Division. Also, new German anti-tank weapons, Panzerfausts and Panzerschrecks, were issued to Finnish army troops. Late on June 21, German foreign minister von Ribbentrop arrived to Finland in an attempt to extract political concessions from the military help. On June 21, Stavka ordered continued attacks on the Imatra–Lappeenranta–Virojoki defence line, on the Salpa Line sector of the front. Another group would attack northwards to Käkisalmi (now Priozersk, Russia) and surround the Finns defending the eastern VKT-line while preparations would be made for an advance towards Kotka, Kouvola and the Kymi river. On June 21 the Finnish government asked for Soviet peace terms. The response arrived on the next day and it demanded Finnish capitulation before any conditions could be presented. This created confusion in the Finnish government, where Ryti and Tanner were willing to repeat the inquiry about the conditions, while others opposed the capitulation. During the meeting Marshal Mannerheim was called, and he stated that the Soviet demand constituted an unconditional surrender. When Paasikivi's negotiation trip to Moscow in March 1944, which was initiated by the Soviet ambassador in Stockholm, but turned out to be a Soviet dictation of terms, was remembered, the government decided to interpret the Soviet response as a demand for unconditional surrender. It seemed that after Finnish unwillingness to accept the Soviet proposals in April 1944, owing to excessive reparation demands, Finland was to be offered only unconditional surrender. This was in line with Churchill's statement that as an Axis belligerent, Finland's surrender must be unconditional. The Soviet authorities denied this interpretation in an article published in Pravda on July 2, 1944, Furthermore, it is also known that at June 26 Stalin even told American ambassador Harriman that US diplomats could try to clarify to the Finns that he did not intend to take over the country. An unsigned draft document called "The Terms for Finnish Unconditional Surrender" was found in October 1993 in the Russian Foreign Ministry archive, which led some historians to conclude that unconditional surrender was indeed the Soviet goal. According to Baryshnikov this and similar drafts for the other countries the USSR was at war with existed since 1943, and they were replaced by new ones in the summer of 1944. With Finnish army reinforcements, there were 268,000 Finnish army troops with 2,350 guns (of which 1,030 field artillery, 393 heavy mortars), 110 tanks/assault guns and 250 planes facing the two Red Army Fronts; 40% of the men and guns, and all the tanks were on the Isthmus. In total, the Red Army had a 1.7:1 advantage in men, 5.2:1 advantage in guns, and 6–7:1 advantage in planes and tanks against the Finnish army. However Finnish forces with 14 infantry divisions (a' 13,200), one armour division (9,200), 5 infantry brigades (a' 6,700), one cavalry regiment (4,300), 7 independent front border jaeger battalions, coastal defence forces and HQ/Corps artillery units even with full strength had less than 230,000 men. Less than 40 Finnish tanks and assault guns were modern (StuG III, T-34, KV-1) and less than 60 aircraft too (Bf 109 dayfighter and Ju 88 medium bomber). With these figures Red Army material advantage was about 1:20 at mid June 1944 (armour and aircraft). The offensive continued on June 25, when the Red Army breached the VKT-line at Tali, between the Viborg Bay and the Vuoksi river. On June 26 the Finnish president Ryti gave the guarantee to Ribbentrop that Finland would fight to the end alongside Germany. When it became evident that a breakthrough was not possible at Ihantala, the Leningrad Front attempted to double envelope the defenders with the twin assaults at the Viborg Bay and Vuosalmi. However, the Finnish army was able to hold its positions on these sectors of the front. On July 12 Stavka ordered Leningrad front to release offensive elements from the Finnish front, and on July 15, the Red Army troops were ordered to assume a defensive posture, and offensive elements (mostly armor) were transferred to the German front for use in Narva offensive and Operation Bagration. The Soviet troops tried to penetrate deep west after the Battle of Ihantala: in Äyräpää until July 18 and in Karelian Front even in early August. All offensives continued until very end – when there was no chance of a final decisive breakthrough. There hardly were any "limited objectives" on the Karelian Isthmus and Karelia. In the official history of the Great Patriotic War, failed offensives usually disappeared from memory as happened with the Vyborg–Petrozavodosk offensive. After Vyborg, the plan was to reach the Kymi river. Koivisto landing operation After the Soviet offensive on the Karelian Isthmus pushed north past Koivisto, the Finnish forces defending the Koivisto Islands (or in Russian : the Beryozovye Islands) became isolated. After the Soviet 21st Army failed to attack the islands, the Leningrad front ordered the Soviet Baltic Fleet to capture the islands. The initial Soviet landing was contained but the Finnish Navy soon evacuated the defending forces. This movement was largely unopposed. Although the eagerness of the commanders to evacuate preserved the defending forces, the loss of the islands proved costly because the Soviet Baltic Fleet gained a safe route to Vyborg Bay. Tienhaara After capturing Viborg the lead elements of the Soviet 21st Army attempted to push forward along the main road leading north from Viborg but strong artillery support, narrow area of operations, and very favorable terrain made it possible for the Finnish 61st Infantry Regiment to hold the Soviet advance forcing the Soviet 21st Army to attempt to find a more suitable location for breaching the Finnish VKT-line. Tali–Ihantala After Soviet 21st Army easily cleared the defending Finnish troops from Viborg on June 20, the Soviet forces attempted to press on the offensive, but met stubborn Finnish resistance at Tali and were forced to stop. After bringing fresh troops to the front the 21st Army managed to push Finnish lines to Ihantala but failed to create any breakthroughs. The battle fought over the area is considered to be the largest battle in the history of the Nordic countries. The Soviet 23rd Army joined the offensive by attempting to break through the Finnish lines between Tali and Vuoksi towards Noskua but the repeated Soviet attacks were halted by the highly efficient Finnish artillery. In the end, the battle of Tali–Ihantala was a defensive strategic victory for the Finnish army. It blocked the possibility for the Soviet army to break through to the Finnish heartland and the road to Helsinki. Soviet military losses peaked on 28 June when Leningrad Front reported that it had lost during that single day over 5,000 soldiers including 1,800 killed in action, over 25% more than on 14 June when they reported losing almost 4,000 (including nearly 700 killed in action). The Finnish artillery caused a high proportion of these losses, concentrating deadly firepower with 250 artillery pieces sending 2,000 shells to one small target area the size of just 6 hectares in one minute. Red Army units saw no chances to penetrate through this fire power. The terrain favored the defenders forcing Soviet armor units into narrow death traps. Finnish radio intelligence intercepted many Red Army signals, giving data for effective artillery and air power counterattacks. Viborg Bay After the initial efforts of the 21st Army in Tali–Ihantala did not produce a breakthrough, the Leningrad Front ordered the 59th Army to capture the islands dominating the Viborg Bay and perform an amphibious landing on the opposing shore. Though the landings on the islands were ultimately successful, the attempted crossing failed. Vuosalmi As the 21st Army was unable to advance, the Soviet 23rd Army attempted a crossing in the Vuosalmi region of the Vuoksi waterway. Though Soviet forces successfully pushed Finnish troops from Äyräpää ridge dominating the crossing and managed to create a strong bridgehead on the opposing side, the defending Finnish troops were able to contain it. Svir–Petrozavodsk offensive The Soviet Union's Karelian Front attacked in the Olonets sector of White Karelia on June 20. Weakened Finnish forces proved unable to stop the offensive which reached Olonets on June 25 and on June 29 took Petrozavodsk, one of the main goals of the operation. The long advance and the delaying tactics of the Finnish forces sapped the Soviet strength and the main push of the 7th Army stopped at the Finnish U-line. The Soviet 7th Army and the 32nd Army tried to go around the U-line attacking further to the north but failed to break through the defending Finnish units in battles fought in the wilderness of Karelia. The last attempt to resume the offensive was made further north by two divisions of the Soviet 32nd Army which were defeated by counterattacking Finns in the Battle of Ilomantsi. Svir The Finnish Army had previously withdrawn most of its forces from the southern shore of the Svir River, so when the Red Army offensive started on 21 June, it did not achieve the desired surprise. The Karelian Front's Soviet 7th Army – 37th Guards, 4th and 99th Corps – crossed the river using amphibious vehicles on the following day and secured a bridgehead 8 km deep and 16 km wide. After securing the crossing the Soviet forces continued to chase the withdrawing Finns towards the defenses of the 'PSS'-line. Tuloksa landing operation On June 23, 70th naval infantry brigade attacked and captured a beachhead behind the Finnish lines and also beyond the 'PSS'-line between the Viteleenjoki and Tuuloksenjoki rivers, severing the main road and railroad connections along the shore of Lake Ladoga. As Finns had previously moved most of the coastal defenses to the Karelian Isthmus the Soviet landing met only skeleton defense. Finnish attempts to drive the Soviets into the Ladoga proved unsuccessful but it had pushed the defending Soviets to the difficult position as ammunition and supplies started running low. Situation in the beachhead was improved when the 3rd Naval Infantry Brigade started its landings on the evening of June 24. Bad weather hampered the efforts the brigade was finally unloaded on the June 26 and it was able to link up with the advancing 7th Army. Landing caused some trouble for the defending Finns as it cut the railroad line running along the coast of lake Ladoga. Cutting of the road was of less consequence as Finns had already previously constructed new parallel roads further inland in fear of landing. However the heavy traffic of the withdrawing forces totally ruined the new road forcing some of the equipment to be abandoned. Though the Finns managed to withdraw to the new defensive line the advancing Soviet units broke through the new line at Vitele already on June 28 forcing the Finns to continue delaying the advancing Soviets while withdrawing towards the 'U'-line. For the Red Army the Svir–Petrozavodsk offensive cost losses of at least 45,000 soldiers while Finnish losses were 11,000. The Soviets themselves estimated having captured 933 Finnish artillery pieces and 18,000 rounds of ammunition however many of the guns had been spiked. Nietjärvi The Finnish Army retreated further, delaying the Karelian Front's advance, allowing for the U-line, running northwards from Pitkäranta to Loimola and Kivijärvi, to be reinforced. The first Karelian Front 7th Army's units reached the U-line on July 10, but were fatigued following the long offensive and failed to breach the defence line. Soviet attempts to break through the U-line at Nietjärvi ended with clear Soviet failure on July 17 when a Finnish counterattack regained the lost positions on the U-line causing severe losses to the Soviet 114th Division. Once the attempts to gain breakthrough into the Finnish U-line had failed Red Army attempted to go around the line by flanking it through the frontier north of the line. As Finns countered the flanking maneuvers the fighting extended far into the frontier in a makeshift extension of the U-line however Soviet 7th Army managed neither to flank the extending Finnish line nor to break through it. Soviet losses in Nietjärvi were 7,000 KIA, MIA and WIA while Finnish forces lost 1,200 soldiers. Ilomantsi North of the U-line the Soviet 32nd Army which consisted of 176th, 289th, 313th and 368th Rifle Divisions advanced after capturing Petrozavodsk towards small Finnish town of Ilomantsi while being delayed by defending Finnish 21st Brigade. Lack of suitable roads and the slow progress of 7th Army forced 32nd Army to move 313th and 368th Rifle Divisions to support 7th Army's offensive but they were blocked by the Finnish 1st Division. The Soviet attack towards Ilomantsi with the remaining 2 divisions (176th and 289th) was initially successful, and the divisions reached the border of 1940 on July 21, (the only Soviet units which did so in the offensive), but in the ensuing battle the divisions were surrounded and forced to escape the encirclement suffering heavy losses (est. 7,000-8,000 KIA, MIA, WIA if including losses of last week of July in Ilomantsi area ) and being forced to leave their artillery and other heavy equipment behind. Aftermath The offensive succeeded in reclaiming East Karelia and driving the Finnish army to the northern side of Viborg Bay and the Vuoksi River. It also reopened the original route of the Murman Railway and the White Sea Canal to the Karelian Front forces. However, the offensive failed to breach the VKT-line and reach the Kymi River as ordered by the Stavka. In fact by the end of summer 1944 the Finnish armed forces were stronger and better equipped than ever before. Despite the losses suffered, the Finnish army managed to avoid encirclement of battalion-size units and benefited from supplies delivered by Germany. Based on documents found after 1991 in Russia the most important point of the plan - the destruction of Finnish forces in Karelian Isthmus in a determined time and reaching a certain line (Kotka) - had failed. Despite that, the psychological effect of the offensive on the Finnish leadership should not be underestimated. Even though the Finns had stopped the offensive at the Karelian Isthmus after 100 km and the Battle of Ilomantsi had shown that the Finnish army was still a viable fighting force, it was estimated that should the Soviet offensive continue at its full strength, the Finnish army would be able to last for three months at most. For Finland the overall situation required peace especially when Germans had not much chance to keep Finns on their side longer. At the same time western allies had already made their crucial breakthrough in Normandy and were driving fast to the east. During the height of the offensive in June 1944, the Finns asked for negotiations and the Soviets responded with a demand for surrender, which in Finland was interpreted as an ambiguous demand for unconditional surrender and rejected. After the fighting had reached a stalemate in August 1944, another attempt to seek peace was made by Finland. In September 1944 the Soviets offered peace terms that were roughly the same as in April 1944, though some of the demands, which had been seen by the Finns as impossible to concede to, were reduced. The $600 million war reparations were halved and the time to pay them off was extended. This was probably in part brought about by international pressure exerted on the Soviets, especially by the U.S. and Britain. However, after the ceasefire the Soviets demanded that payments be based on 1938 prices which nearly doubled the actual amount to be paid, and so the Finns complained that the Soviets only pretended to lower the reparations. Despite not achieving all of the goals set by the Stavka, the offensive forced Finland from the war and to accept Soviet peace terms, or at least was an important factor leading to the ceasefire negotiations that were resumed a month after the offensive had ended. Notes References Bibliography Further reading Ilya Moshansky: Sturm Karelskogo Vala. Vyborgsko-Petrozavodskaja strategicheskaja nastupatelnaja operazija 10 ijuna – 9 avgusta 1944 goda., "Vojennaja Letopis", BTV-MN, Moscow, 2005. Conflicts in 1944 1944 in Finland Battles and operations of the Soviet–German War Strategic operations of the Red Army in World War II Battles and operations of the Continuation War Military operations of World War II involving Germany Finland in World War II June 1944 events July 1944 events August 1944 events Karelo-Finnish Soviet Socialist Republic
4838456	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gala%20Galaction	Gala Galaction	Gala Galaction (; the pen name of Grigore or Grigorie Pisculescu ; April 16, 1879—March 8, 1961) was a Romanian Orthodox clergyman, theologian, writer, journalist, left-wing activist, as well as a political figure of the People's Republic of Romania. Contrary to political trends in interwar and WWII Romania, he was a promoter of tolerance towards the Jewish minority. Biography Early life Gala Galaction was born in the village of Didești, Teleorman County, the son of a wealthy peasant and a priest's daughter. His father had traveled throughout the Balkans on business, and had settled in Didești as an estate lessee. After completing his primary studies in his native village and in Roșiorii de Vede (1888–1890), Galaction went on to study at the Saint Sava National College in Bucharest (1890–1898), and, after a period of studying philosophy at the University of Bucharest, took a degree in Theology at Czernowitz University (now Chernivtsi University in Ukraine). During his studies, he began to take an interest in literature, and was briefly influenced by the ideas of Sâr Péladan, a French occultist and poet. Galaction made his literary debut in 1900 with the novella Moara lui Călifar ("Călifar's mill"), a sinister story on the subject of demonic temptation. His growing interest in Orthodoxy led him to abandon literature for the following ten years. After returning to writing, in 1914 his volume of collected stories, La Vulturi! ("To the vultures!") was awarded the Romanian Academy prize. Early 1900s activism Having spent his early years a disciple of the Marxist philosopher Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea, he became associated with Poporanism (an interwar left-wing nationalist political current) and, like his close friend N. D. Cocea, socialism. These tendencies established him as a leading figure on the Romanian left. According to literary critic Tudor Vianu, writing in the communist era: "The attraction towards socialism during Galaction's youth was always confessed and never was disavowed, although his religious outlook on life, formulated through the influence of his family and his immediate environment, led him to see socialists as fellow travellers rather than comrades in battle." Noted for his criticism of the violent repression of the Romanian Peasants' Revolt in 1907, Galaction soon became an active journalist. With the help of author Tudor Arghezi, he edited the journals Cronica and Spicul, which appeared during World War I (between 1915 and 1918). Like Arghezi, he displayed sympathy for the Central Powers, and collaborated with the authorities in Bucharest under German occupation. Eventually, Galaction would welcome the new political mood established by the Russian Revolution, including the increasing visibility of Romania's Socialist Party and a series of labour strikes in 1918–1919: "We witnessed with our own eyes how the old worlds are crumbling and how the new ones are born. And it seems to me that the spectacle is at its most interesting as seen from our little Romanian island. [...] The power of the many, let loose all around us, is rising, is fretting, is roaring and is looking for a new balance. Let us not delude ourselves by thinking we could ever see it return to its previous mould. It would be absurd." Around the same time, he became an enthusiastic advocate of the local labour movement. A public meeting of factory workers left a lasting impression on him: "Out of the smouldering and mud-covered suburbs, out of the humid and suffocating basements, out of the thousands of too-small cells, where the proletarian bee distills the honey of capitalist drones, out of all places high and low, the working people had come in black flocks in order to increase, standing shoulder to shoulder, the phalanx of socialist demands." Soon after the First World War, Galaction befriended Nicolae Tonitza, a painter and illustrator of socialist newspapers, who would design the cover of Galaction's collection of essays O lume nouă ("A new world") and would paint his portrait (titled "The Man of a New World"). In his memoirs, the art collector Krikor Zambaccian described the portrait: "[...] that hallucinatory portrait [...]. On a background of intense blue is profiled the mage-like figure of the writer Galaction; on the most distant plane emerge the silhouettes of industries, and rise the chimneys of factories." Interwar period In 1922, Galaction was anointed to the priesthood, and in 1926 he became Professor of Theology and New Testament Studies at the Chişinău University's School of Theology. He was dean of the School between 1928 and 1930. Together with priest Vasile Radu, Galaction worked on a new translation of the Bible into modern Romanian. The work, published in 1938, was meant as a newer and more accurate version to replace the traditional Cantacuzino Bible. Critic Tudor Vianu wrote: "[...] the new translation, accomplished through the means created by newer literary evolution and with the talent of a modern poet, presents a major philological and artistic interest." During the interwar period, Galaction was also the author of several studies, articles and commentaries on the New Testament, as well as completing a celebrated translation of William Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice. He contributed regularly to the literary magazine Viața Românească and to the newspaper Adevărul. He also contributed to the political-literary journal Sămănătorul, but was on exceptionally bad terms with the latter's founder, Nicolae Iorga. In 1936, Galaction was denounced for "communist activities" and alleged links with the Communist International (Comintern), which he dismissed as slander. Nevertheless, in 1938–1940, like other figures of the Poporanist and socialist left (among them Armand Călinescu, Petre Andrei, Mihai Ralea, Ioan Flueraș, and Mihail Ghelmegeanu), he collaborated with the fascist-inspired corporatist regime of King Carol II, the National Renaissance Front, which was created to undercut the growing influence of the fascist and antisemitic Iron Guard. Upon the invasion of Poland and subsequent outbreak of World War II, Galaction wrote: "The war has begun. Hitler, the monster or the demigod, the lever of destiny or the Devil's puppet, has again raised the banner of death amid the borders of peoples. Is he the forerunner and the prophet of better times, or the strix of downfalls and irremediable disasters? Are the Germans fighting for a better future, or for the narthex of barbarity and for the death of Europe? This is yet another pathetic scrutiny! Christian peoples turn their backs on the Calvary, disavow the laws of their upbringing and mock the Nine Joys! The de-Christianized Germans and the Roman Catholic Poles are equally vainglorious and lacking in Christian spirit." 1940s The fall of Carol's rule and the establishment of the Iron Guard's National Legionary State saw Galaction's retreat from public life, which continued after the Legionnaires' Rebellion (the attempted coup which signalled the fall of the Iron Guard) and the onset of Ion Antonescu's Nazi-aligned dictatorship. In 1944, after the overthrow of Antonescu during the August 23 coup, which saw Romania switch sides from the Axis and to the Allies, Galaction expressed his enthusiasm: "The long-awaited hour has arrived during a night when our hearts were being extinguished by fear and our houses were falling apart... It has arrived after traveling a long way, passing amongst ruins, tombs, and smoke-covered towers... It is here!... Become an epoch, become a century, you long-awaited hour!" Soon after, Galaction began collaborating with the Romanian Communist Party and its various front organizations. In 1947, he replaced the far-right Nichifor Crainic as a member of the Romanian Academy, and was elected vice-president of the Writers' Union in the same year. Galaction was himself purged from the Academy later in the same year, but readmitted as an honorary member in 1948. Decorated several times, he was also elected to the Parliament of Romania (1946–1948), and to its successor, the Great National Assembly (1948–1952). Final years One of the last causes he was involved in was the peace movement, with the intention of helping in the creation of a "supreme areopagus of peace" in the context of the Cold War. He was bedridden for the final years of his life due to a stroke; this probably accounted for the scarcity in criticism aimed at him during the Zhdanovist campaign in Romania. Selections from his diary were published two decades after his death, during the Nicolae Ceaușescu era. Newer editions contain the previously-censored discourse of an embittered Galaction, who had become heavily critical of Stalinism, while reviewing his own beliefs in an "Evangelical and cloud-like" socialism. Galaction was also noted for the support he gave to Constantin Galeriu, who later became a celebrated priest and theologian. Galeriu, who had been one of Galaction's favourite students, was rescued by the latter in 1952 after he was arrested and imprisoned at the Danube-Black Sea Canal. Galaction successfully called on Prime Minister Petru Groza to intervene in his favour. Personal life Galaction had four daughters: Maria (or Mărioara) was married to Șerban Țuculescu, the brother of painter Ion Țuculescu in 1936; another daughter was the actress Elena Galaction Stănciulescu, and the other two, Magdalena and Lucreția, married Italian citizens — the husband of Luki Galaction (Galaction Passarelli or Galaction Sciarra), who was a painter and a writer, was Domenico Sciarra, a prominent figure of the Fascist regime (whom Gala Galaction visited in Rome at the time of his denunciation). A friend of Communist politician Lucrețiu Pătrășcanu, Galaction helped his Jewish wife Herta Schwamen avoid antisemitic measures enforced in 1938 by the National Christian Party government, baptizing her Romanian Orthodox (she consequently took the Christian name Elena). Galaction was a lifelong friend of the journalist Vasile Demetrius, whom he first collaborated with during the 1910s. He was also close to Vasile's daughter, the novelist and actress Lucia Demetrius, who expressed her gratitude for the moral support he gave her family after Vasile Demetrius died. Relationship with the Jewish community Galaction published articles in several Romanian-Jewish periodicals, such as Mântuirea (1919–1922), Lumea Evree (1919–1920), Știri din Lumea Evreiască (1924–1925) and Adam (1929–1939). His contributions were later collected in the volume Sionismul la Prieteni ("Zionism among Friends"), published in 1919. Alongside his praise for Theodor Herzl, whom he considered "the greatest Israelite in the modern world", he wrote: "Whoever reads and loves the Bible cannot hate Israel." In 1930, he was a pilgrim to Jerusalem, visiting the British Mandate of Palestine together with his lifelong friend and brother-in-law of his daughter, the painter Ion Ţuculescu, and both their families. Reviewing his travel memoir În pământul făgăduinței ("In the Promised Land"), Alexandru A. Philippide, a fellow writer at Viața Românească, thought that Galaction's attitude was linked to both his own theological outlook on tolerance and the branch of Christianity he represented: "[A] tolerant character is, after all, what sets Orthodoxy apart. Father Galaction turns this into his point of honor. On the same ship as him there were many Jewish immigrants, setting for Palestine. «Brave soldiers of such a passionate and sacrifice-eager ideal!» exclaims Father Galaction. That is, indeed, an exclamation that goes beyond faith (or, in any case, stems from plaits of the soul other than faith)." In late 1947, Galaction welcomed the more decisive steps taken towards the creation of Israel. Nowadays, in remembrance of his role, a square in Jerusalem bears his name. Selected literary works Bisericuța din Răzoare. Nuvele și schițe ("The Small Church in Răzoare. Short Stories and Literary Sketches"), 1914 Eminescu ("The Life of Mihai Eminescu"), 1914 Clopotele din mănăstirea Neamțu ("Bells of the Neamț Monastery"), 1916 La țărmul mărei (Reverii. Note) ("On the Seashore. Reveries and Notes"), 1916 O lume nouă. Articole ("A New World. Articles"), 1919 Răboj pe bradul verde ("Tally on Green-Wooded Fir"), 1920 Toamne de odinioară ("Bygone Autumns"), 1924 De la noi la Cladova ("From Us to Cladova"), 1924 Caligraful Terțiu. Adevăr și închipuire ("Terțiu the Calligrapher. Truth and Make-belief"), 1929 Roxana. Roman ("Roxana. A Novel"), 1930 Papucii lui Mahmud. Roman ("Mahmud's Slippers. A Novel"), 1931 Doctorul Taifun. Roman ("Doctor Typhoon. A Novel"), 1933 La răspântie de veacuri. Roman ("At the Crossroads of Centuries. A Novel"), 2 vol., 1935 Rița Crăița. Fantezie dramatică în trei acte ("Rița Crăița. Fantasy Drama in Three Acts"), 1942 În grădinile Sf. Antonie ("In Saint Anthony's Gardens"), 1942 Vlahuță ("The Life of Alexandru Vlahuță"), 1944 Mangalia, 1947 Notes References Gala Galaction (as "Grigorie Pişculescu") biography in the Dictionary of Romanian Theologians "Făcătorul de pace" ("The Maker of Peace"), in Jurnalul Național, April 5, 2004 Gabriela Antoniu, Claudiu Târziu, "Pătrășcanu a primit un glonţ în ceafă" ("Pătrăşcanu Received a Bullet in the Back of His Neck"), in Jurnalul Național, March 8, 2004 Lucian Boia, History and Myth in Romanian Consciousness, Central European University Press, Budapest, 2001 Sabin Cernătescu, "Gala Galaction (1879–1961)", in Observatorul Florentina Dolghin, "Primele zile de război", in Magazin Istoric Victor Frunză, Istoria stalinismului în România, Humanitas, Bucharest, 1990 Florența Ivaniuc, Cristian-Robert Velescu, Ion Ţuculescu - participare la misterul creației ("Ion Țuculescu - Partaking in the Mystery of Creation") Monica Matei-Chesnoiu, Shakespeare in the Romanian Cultural Memory, Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, Madison, New Jersey, 2006 Dan C. Mihăilescu, "Lecturi la tavă – Antisovieticul Galaction" - review of Galaction's diary, in Jurnalul Național, October 15, 2006 Alexandru A. Philippide, "Recenzii. Gala Galaction" ("Reviews. Gala Galaction"), in Viața Românească, 4-5/XXII (April–May 1930) Petru Popescu Gogan, "Memento!", in Memoria Stelian Tănase, "«Pe tatăl meu denunțul nu l-a afectat cu nimic, era întotdeauna bine dispus»" ("«My Father Was Not in the Least Harmed by the Denunciation. He Was Always in a Cheerful Mood»"), interview with Elena Galaction, the daughter of Gala Galaction, in Observator CulturalFrancisco Veiga, Istoria Gărzii de Fier, 1919–1941: Mistica ultranaționalismului, Humanitas, Bucharest, 1993 Tudor Vianu, Scriitori români, Vol. III, Ed. Minerva, Bucharest, 1971 Henri Zalis, introduction to Lucia Demetrius, Album de familie. Nuvele alese (1935–1965) ("Family Album. Collected Short Stories (1935–1965)"), Editura pentru literatură, Bucharest, 1967, p.V-XXXI Krikor Zambaccian, "Chapter XII: Tonitza", in Însemnările unui amator de artă'' ("The Recordings of an Art Aficionado"), published and hosted by LiterNet External links Gala Galaction's biography at Compendium Gala Galaction Memorial House Romanian Orthodox priests Romanian theologians Poporanists 20th-century Eastern Orthodox theologians Translators of the Bible into Romanian Translators of William Shakespeare Romanian activists Romanian biographers Romanian male novelists Male biographers Romanian Christian pacifists Romanian Christian socialists Romanian dramatists and playwrights Romanian essayists Romanian magazine editors Romanian magazine founders 20th-century Romanian novelists Romanian philosophers Romanian male short story writers Romanian short story writers Romanian translators Romanian travel writers Recipients of the Order of the Star of the Romanian Socialist Republic Adevărul writers Titular members of the Romanian Academy Members of the Great National Assembly Members of the Chamber of Deputies (Romania) Saint Sava National College alumni Censorship in Romania Jewish Romanian history People from Teleorman County 1879 births 1961 deaths 20th-century biographers 20th-century Eastern Orthodox priests Eastern Orthodox socialists Christian socialist theologians University of Bucharest alumni Eastern Orthodox biblical scholars 20th-century Christian biblical scholars European biblical scholars Romanian biblical scholars Academic staff of Moldova State University Burials at Cernica Monastery Cemetery
4838458	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty%20of%20Waitangi%20claims%20and%20settlements	Treaty of Waitangi claims and settlements	Claims and settlements under the Treaty of Waitangi () have been a significant feature of New Zealand politics since the Treaty of Waitangi Act 1975 and the Waitangi Tribunal that was established by that act to hear claims. Successive governments have increasingly provided formal legal and political opportunity for Māori to seek redress for what are seen as breaches by the Crown of guarantees set out in the Treaty of Waitangi. While it has resulted in putting to rest a number of significant longstanding grievances, the process has been subject to criticisms including those who believe that the redress is insufficient to compensate for Māori losses. The settlements are typically seen as part of a broader Māori Renaissance. The Waitangi Tribunal was set up as the primary means of registering and researching claims because the Treaty of Waitangi itself has little legal standing. The primary means of settling those claims is through direct negotiations with the government of the day. History of the Treaty The Treaty of Waitangi was first signed on 6 February 1840 by representatives of the British Crown and Māori chiefs (rangatira) from the North Island of New Zealand, with a further 500 signatures added later that year, including some from the South Island. It is one of the founding documents of New Zealand. It was preceded by the Declaration of Independence or He Whakaputanga signed in 1835, where some North Island Māori proclaimed the country of New Zealand to an international audience as an independent state with full sovereign power and authority held with Māori chiefs (rangatira). The Treaty of Waitangi was written in English and translated into the Māori language (). As some words in the English treaty did not translate directly into the written Māori of the time, this text is not an exact translation of the English text, such as in relation to the meaning of having and ceding sovereignty. In the English version, Māori ceded the sovereignty of New Zealand to Britain; Māori gave the Crown the exclusive right to purchase lands they wished to sell, and, in return, Māori were guaranteed full ownership of their lands, forests, fisheries and other possessions and were given the rights of British subjects. However, in the Māori language version of the Treaty is very different, the word 'sovereignty' was translated as ('governance'). And in contradiction to the English language version, Māori retained authority and sovereignty, and did not give this to the Queen. In addition, the English version guaranteed 'undisturbed possession' of all 'properties', but the Māori version guaranteed ('full authority, sovereignty') over ('treasures'). Around 530 to 540 Māori, at least 13 of them women, signed the Māori version of the Treaty of Waitangi, known as . Only 39 signed the English version after the Māori language version was read to them. The different understandings of the content of the treaty led to disagreements between Pākeha and Māori, beginning almost immediately after the signing of the treaty, and contributed to the New Zealand Wars, which culminated in the confiscation of a large part of the Waikato and Taranaki. Early settlements and claims Matiaha Tiramōrehu made the first formal statement of Ngāi Tahu grievances in 1849, only one year after the Canterbury purchase between Ngāi Tahu and Henry Tacy Kemp, this land transaction was very large, 20 million acres for £2,000. Between the 1870s and the 1990s almost every Ngāi Tahu leader was actively pursuing the Ngāi Tahu claim in Parliament. In the 1920s, land commissions investigated the grievances of hapū whose land had been confiscated or otherwise fraudulently obtained in the previous century, and many were found to be valid. By the 1940s, settlements in the form of modest annual payments had been arranged with some hapū. However, hapū came to consider the amounts to be inadequate, especially as inflation eroded their value, and the Crown has conceded that it did not sufficiently seek the agreement of hapū to declare their claims settled. The Waitangi Tribunal During the late 1960s and 1970s the Treaty of Waitangi became the focus of a strong Māori protest movement which rallied around calls for the government to 'honour the treaty' and to 'redress treaty grievances'. Māori expressed their frustration about continuing violations of the treaty and subsequent legislation by government officials, as well as inequitable legislation and unsympathetic decisions by the Māori Land Court alienating Māori land from its Māori owners. In 1975 the Treaty of Waitangi Act established the Waitangi Tribunal to hear claims of Crown violations of the Treaty of Waitangi, to address those concerns. It allowed any Māori to lodge a claim against the Crown for breaches of the Treaty of Waitangi and its principles. Originally its mandate was limited to claims about contemporary issues, that is, those that occurred after the establishment of the Tribunal. Early claims included the "Te Reo Māori" claim. As a result of the Tribunal's report into the claim, in 1987 the government made Te Reo Māori an official language of New Zealand, and established the Maori Language Commission to foster it. The pivotal issue considered by the Tribunal was whether a language could be considered a "treasure" or "taonga", and thus protected by the Treaty. Significant research has been undertaken in New Zealand as a result of claims being put to the Waitangi Tribunal. Much of this has been generated by iwi (Māori tribal groups), a lasting example is the Ngāti Awa Research Centre established in 1989. In 1985 the Fourth Labour Government extended the Tribunal's powers to allow it to consider Crown actions dating back to 1840, including the period covered by the New Zealand Wars. The number of claims quickly rose, and during the early 1990s, the government began to negotiate settlements of historical (pre-1992) claims. Typically a negotiated Treaty settlement has 'agreed historical account, Crown acknowledgements of Treaty breach, and a Crown apology' and legal extinguishment of all claims. Featured in the Waikato-Tainui Ngāi Tahu settlements in 2009 and all subsequent settlements was redress described in these three areas: a historical account of grievances and an apology, a financial package of cash and transfer of assets (no compulsory acquisition of private land), and cultural redress, where a range of Māori interests are acknowledged which often related to sites of interest and Māori association with the environment. While early Tribunal recommendations mainly concerned a contemporary issue that could be revised or rectified by the government at the time, historical settlements raised more complex issues. The Office of Treaty Settlements was established in the Ministry of Justice to develop government policy on historical claims. In 1995, the government unilaterally developed the "Crown Proposals for the Settlement of Treaty of Waitangi Claims" to attempt to address the issues and extinguish all Māori treaty claims. A key element of the proposals was the creation of a "fiscal envelope" of $1 billion for the settlement of all historical claims, an effective limit on what the Crown would pay out in settlements. The Crown held a series of consultation hui around the country, at which Māori vehemently rejected the proposals including such a limitation in advance of the extent of claims being fully known. The concept of the fiscal envelope was subsequently dropped after the 1996 general election although it remained de facto. Despite the protest, three major settlements during were reached during the 1990s. The Minister of Justice and Treaty Negotiations at the time, Sir Douglas Graham, is credited with leading a largely conservative National government to make these breakthroughs. In 2013 the Ministry of Justice set up a Post Settlement Commitment Unit to create a central register of Treaty commitments that were created through the settlement process when it became clear that settlements were not being actioned. Government Minister Chris Finlayson was part of this and states the purpose was to create an 'institutional safeguard' to protect settlements and support them being durable and final. Finlayson's intention was that the Post Settlement Commitment Unit on completion of settlements would replace the Office of Treaty Settlements. The register was created and Finlayson states of the register, "By the time I left office, over 7000 commitments had been entered into various deeds of settlement." In 2018 the Post Settlement Commitment Unit was incorporated into a new Crown agency Te Arawhiti (Office for Māori Crown Relations). The web-portal Te Haeata was created in 2019 as a searchable record by arms of the Crown to find Treaty settlement commitments as recorded in deeds of settlement and government legislation. Settlements of the 1990s Sealord The Treaty guaranteed to Māori their lands, forests and fisheries. Over time, however, New Zealand law began to regulate commercial fisheries, so that Māori control was substantially eroded. To resolve this grievance, in 1989 an interim agreement was reached. The Crown transferred 10 percent of New Zealand's fishing quota (some 60,000 tonnes), together with shareholdings in fishing companies and $50 million in cash, to the Waitangi Fisheries Commission. This commission was responsible for holding the fisheries assets on behalf of Māori until an agreement was reached as to how the assets were to be shared among tribes. In 1992, a second part of the deal, referred to as the Sealord deal, marked full and final settlement of Māori commercial fishing claims under the Treaty of Waitangi. This included 50% of Sealord Fisheries and 20% of all new species brought under the quota system, more shares in fishing companies, and $18 million in cash. In total it was worth around $170 million. This settlement was undertaken under the leadership of the Hon. Matiu Rata and Dr. George Habib. Waikato Tainui Raupatu The first major settlement of historical confiscation, or raupatu, claims was agreed in 1995. Waikato-Tainui's confiscation claims were settled for a package worth $170 million, in a mixture of cash and Crown-owned land. The settlement was accompanied by a formal apology as part of the claims legislation, granted Royal assent by Queen Elizabeth II in person during her 1995 Royal tour of New Zealand. The Crown apologised for the Invasion of the Waikato and the subsequent indiscriminate confiscation of land. Ngāi Tahu Ngāi Tahu's claims covered a large proportion of the South Island of New Zealand, and related to the Crown's failure to meet its end of the bargain in land sales that took place from the 1840s. Chris Finlayson was one of the lawyers working for Ngāi Tahu during the mid 1990s as the negotiations were taking place, he states a litigious approach was used and was needed to keep things moving. The settlement deed was signed in 1997 in Kaikōura. Ngāi Tahu sought recognition of their relationship with the land, as well as cash and property, and a number of novel arrangements were developed to address this. Among other things, Ngāi Tahu and the Crown agreed that Mt Cook would be formally renamed Aoraki / Mount Cook, and returned to Ngāi Tahu to be gifted back to the people of New Zealand. Settlements of the 2000s The process of negotiating historical claims continued after the 1999 election and the subsequent change in government without radical change to government policy. The models developed for the early settlements remain a strong influence. The first Labour Minister of Treaty Negotiations was Margaret Wilson. On her appointment as Speaker of the House in early 2005, she was followed in the role by Mark Burton. He was replaced by Deputy Prime Minister Michael Cullen in November 2007. In June 2008, the Crown and representatives from seven Māori tribes signed an agreement relating to Crown forest land that was dubbed "Treelords" by the media, because of perceived similarities to the Sealord deal of the 1990s. Like Sealord, it relates to a single issue, but covers multiple tribes. The agreement contains only financial redress, on account against comprehensive settlements to be negotiated with each tribe within the Collective. The agreement is the largest to date, by financial value, at NZ$196 million worth of forest land in total (including the value of the Affiliate Te Arawa Iwi and hapū share). In addition, but not counted by the government as part of the redress package, the tribes will receive rentals that have accumulated on the land since 1989, valued at NZ$223 million. By July 2008, there were 23 settlements of various sizes. In November 2008, Chris Finlayson, a Wellington-based lawyer with experience in Treaty claims with Ngāi Tahu, was appointed Minister for Treaty Negotiations following the National Party victory in the 2008 election. Between 2008 and 2017, Finlayson was credited with helping to resolve 60 Treaty settlements. As well as the much publicised land and financial compensation, many of these later settlements included changing the official place names. This introduced significant numbers of macrons into official New Zealand place names for the first time. List of Treaty Settlements Mana Motuhake and the Treaty Waitangi Tribunal's Te Paparahi o te Raki inquiry The Waitangi Tribunal, in Te Paparahi o te Raki inquiry (Wai 1040) is in the process of considering the Māori and Crown understandings of He Whakaputanga o te Rangatiratanga / the 1835 Declaration of Independence and Te Tiriti o Waitangi / the Treaty of Waitangi 1840. This aspect of the inquiry raises issues as to the nature of sovereignty and whether the Māori signatories to the Treaty of Waitangi intended to transfer sovereignty. The first stage of the report was released in November 2014, and found that Māori chiefs in Northland never agreed to give up their sovereignty when they signed the Treaty of Waitangi in 1840. Although the Crown intended to negotiate the transfer of sovereignty through the Treaty, the chiefs' understanding of the agreement was they were only ceding the power for the Crown to control Pākeha and protect Māori. Tribunal manager Julie Tangaere said at the report's release to the Ngapuhi claimants: In terms of mana motuhake He Whakaputanga, creating a Māori state and government in 1835 and/or Te Tiriti o Waitangi, and those who did not sign anything, thus maintaining . In relation to the former, a summary report (entitled "Ngāpuhi Speaks") of evidence presented to the Waitangi Tribunal concluded that: Ngāpuhi did not cede their sovereignty. The Crown had recognised He Whakaputanga as a proclamation by the rangatira of their sovereignty over this country. The treaty entered into by the rangatira and the Crown — Te Tiriti o Waitangi — followed on from He Whakaputanga, establishing the role of the British Crown with respect to Pākeha. The treaty delegated to Queen Victoria’s governor the authority to exercise control over hitherto lawless Pākeha in areas of hapū land allocated to the Queen. The Crown's English language document, referred to as the Treaty of Waitangi, was neither seen nor agreed to by Ngāpuhi and instead reflects the hidden wishes of British imperial power. Non-Signatory iwi and hapū Ngāti Tūwharetoa academic Hemopereki Simon outlined a case in 2017, using Ngati Tuwharetoa as a case study, for how hapū and iwi that did not sign the Treaty still maintain mana motuhake and how the sovereignty of the Crown could be considered questionable. This work builds on the Te Paparahi o te Raki inquiry (Wai 1040) decision by the Waitangi Tribunal. Criticisms The Treaty settlement process has attracted criticisms since it began. The “fiscal envelope” decision by the Government in 1994 had a consultation period in which most Māori 'overwhelmingly rejected' the policy and sparked protests throughout New Zealand. The criticism was about the non-negotiable element of a fiscal cap as well as the amount ($1 billion) when Crown valuers assessed that the 1990 dollar loss to just Ngāi Tahu was 'between $12 billion and $15 billion' and the context of Government spending (for example the annual spending in 2018 (excluding capital investment) was about $87 billion). The Government settlement process has since 1999 focused mostly on negotiating settlements with iwi (or 'large natural groupings') which has been criticised as not seeking the 'most appropriate social structures for resolving historical Treaty breaches'. Politicians critical include Winston Peters from New Zealand First suggesting in 2002 that too many claims were being allowed. The ACT party criticised the process and the concept that 'no amount of money can undo past wrongs'. Public Access New Zealand and the One New Zealand Foundation were lobby groups formed to oppose the aspects of Treaty settlements. The Orewa Speech in 2004 saw the National Party for the first time take up the term "Treaty of Waitangi Grievance Industry". National's Māori Affairs spokeswoman Georgina te Heuheu, who was Associate Minister to Sir Douglas Graham, was replaced in the role by Gerry Brownlee. Specific criticism that members of the National Party have made against settlements is that they are not being negotiated quickly enough, that insufficient attention is being given to ensure that claimant negotiators have the support of their people, and that settlement legislation is giving inappropriate weight to the spiritual beliefs of Māori. In 2005 the Māori Party and Green Party both criticised Treaty settlements on the grounds that the Crown has too much power in negotiations, that settlements negotiated at an iwi level ignore the rights of hapū (clans or subtribes), and that settlement redress is too parsimonious. While some disagreement remains, parties unanimously supported the legislation to implement the Te Roroa, Affiliate Te Arawa and Central North Island settlements, which were passed in September 2008. Not addressing overlapping interests in claims early in the process is a criticism made in 2019 over the Pare Hauraki Treaty settlement, a criticism made by Ngāti Wai and acknowledged by Treaty Negotiations Minister Andrew Little as a failing in the process. Academic Linda Te Aho (Associate Professor, Te Piringa Faculty of Law, University of Waikato) summarises criticisms of the Treaty settlement processes as being 'too heavily weighted in the government's favour', not enough compensation for losses and that the process pits 'Māori against Māori'. Research conducted by academics Professor Margaret Mutu and Dr Tiopira McDowell of the University of Auckland found that the purpose of the settlements was to extinguish claims so that claimants cannot have State Owned Enterprise and Crown Forest lands returned to them through binding recommendations. They also interviewed more than 150 claimants and negotiators and found that 'the process has traumatized claimants, divided their communities, and returned on average less than one percent of their stolen lands' with negotiators and claimants reporting that 'despite what settlement legislation may say, the settlements are not full, not fair and not final and that, like all previous settlements, they will be revisited...the Crown adopts divide-and-rule tactics and pursues them ruthlessly...there is no negotiation, the Crown dictates...Public servants and ministers frequently mislead claimants and misrepresent facts in order to entice claimants into negotiations and then push settlements through...Negotiators frequently report being bullied by public servants and Crown agents and many report having settled under duress. As a result, many do not accept Crown apologies as they are meaningless. Academic Carwyn Jones in his PhD (published in 2016 by UBC Press, Vancouver) is critical of The Treaty of Waitangi settlement process as 'undermining Māori legal traditions' and sees this as 'impeding the reconciliation of Māori law with the New Zealand legal system'. References Further reading Simon, Hemopereki (2017). Te Arewhana Kei Roto i Te Rūma: An Indigenous Neo-Disputatio on Settler Society, Nullifying Te Tiriti, ‘Natural Resources’ and Our Collective Future in Aotearoa New Zealand, Te Kaharoa. 9 (1), https://www.tekaharoa.com/index.php/tekaharoa/article/view/6/4 Janine Hayward and Nicola R. Wheen (eds.). Treaty of Waitangi Settlements. Wellington: Bridget Williams Books. Malcolm Mulholland and Veronica Tawhai (2017). Weeping Waters: The Treaty of Waitangi and Constitutional Change. Wellington: Huia. Katarina Gray-Sharp and Veronica Tawhai (2011). Always Speaking: The Treaty of Waitangi and Public Policy. Wellington: Huia. Jones, Carwyn (2017). New Treaty, New Tradition: Reconciling New Zealand and Maori Law. Vancouver: UBC Press. McDowell, Tiopira (2018). Diverting the Sword of Damocles: Why did the Crown Choose to Settle Māori Historical Treaty Claims? Australian Journal of Politics and History 2018, 64 (4), pp. 592-607. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajph.12517 Mutu, Margaret (2019). The Treaty Claims Settlement Process in New Zealand and its Impact on Māori. Land 8(10), 152. https://www.mdpi.com/2073-445X/8/10/152 External links Key Māori claims, New Zealand Herald Politics of New Zealand Treaty of Waitangi Race relations in New Zealand Māori politics Aboriginal title in New Zealand Transitional justice
4838590	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Knights%20of%20the%20Cross	The Knights of the Cross	The Knights of the Cross or The Teutonic Knights () is a 1900 historical novel written by the Polish Positivist writer and the 1905 Nobel laureate, Henryk Sienkiewicz. Its first English translation was published in the same year as the original. The book was serialized by the magazine Tygodnik Illustrowany between 1897 and 1899 before its first complete printed edition appeared in 1900. The book was first translated into English by Jeremiah Curtin, a contemporary of Henryk Sienkiewicz. The Teutonic Knights had since been translated into 25 languages. It was the first book to be printed in Poland at the end of World War II in 1945, due to its relevance in the context of Nazi German destruction of Poland followed by mass population transfers. The book was made into a film in 1960 by Aleksander Ford. Historical background The novel was written by Sienkiewicz in 1900, when the Polish state, after being partitioned among Russian, Austrian and German empires in the late 18th century, did not exist, and most Poles were living in the Russian occupation zone named Vistula Land, formerly Congress Poland. One of Sienkiewicz's goals in writing The Knights of the Cross was to encourage and strengthen Polish national confidence against the occupying powers. To circumvent Russian censorship, he placed the plot in the Middle Ages, around Prussia and the State of the Teutonic Order. The history of the German Order of the Teutonic Knights is the backdrop for the story. From the , the Order controlled large parts of the Baltic Sea coast until its defeat at the 1410 Battle of Grunwald by the United Kingdom of Poland and Lithuania. The novel focuses extensively on the medieval life and customs of both, the cities and the countryside of Medieval Poland. In 1960, the novel was made into a Polish film of the same name by director Aleksander Ford, with Emil Karewicz as King Władysław II Jagiełło. Plot summary Krzyżacy tells the story of a young nobleman, Zbyszko of Bogdaniec, who together with his uncle Maćko of Bogdaniec returns from the war against the Order (Knights of the Cross) in nearby Lithuania. In a tavern inn Zbyszko falls in love with the lovely Danusia, who is traveling with the court of the Duchess Anna. He swears to her his knight's oath and promises to bring her "three trophies" from the Teutonic Knights. On his way to the royal city of Kraków, Zbyszko attacks Kuno von Liechtenstein, who is an official diplomatic delegate of the Teutonic Knights. The penalty is death. Yet, on the scaffold, Danusia saves him from execution when she jumps onto the platform in full view of the crowd, and promises to marry him, covering his head with her handkerchief (an old Polish tradition that carries with it a stay of execution if the couple wed). Zbyszko and Maćko return home to their estate, where they rebuild their mansion. After some time Zbyszko returns to Danuśka and marries her. However, she is soon treacherously kidnapped by four Teutonic Knights who want revenge – her father Jurand fought against the Germans. Jurand himself is soon captured by them, imprisoned and cruelly tortured and maimed. Zbyszko's quest to find and save his kidnapped Danusia continues until, at long last, he rescues her. However, it is too late already. Danuta has been driven insane because of her treatment at the hands of her captors, and eventually dies. The long-awaited war begins. The combined forces of Poland and Lithuania under the command of Polish King Ladislaus Jagiello destroy the Teutonic Order in the monumental 1410 Battle of Grunwald. This battle signals the true terminal decline of the Teutonic Order. Plot description Chapters 1 – 6 The novel opens with some wealthy Poles conversing with a knight, Maćko of Bogdaniec, in the Savage Bull inn at Tyniec. The old knight and his young nephew, Zbyszko, are returning to their birthplace after fighting for King Vitold of Lithuania against the Knights of the Cross under the command of Konrad, the Grand Master and his brother, Ulrich of Jungingen, burgomaster of Sambia. Princess Anna Danuta of Mazovia's entourage arrives at the inn on their way to Cracow and it is here that Zbyszko falls under the spell of her ward, Danusia, and makes a vow to her to lay some German peacock plumes before her. Maćko and Zbyszko, after a quarrel, decide to apply to Prince Jurand of Spychów for service against the Germans as a great war is coming and accompany Princess Anna. On the road they encounter a splendidly armed knight, who is praying. Behind him is a retinue and Zbyszko spots a German knight and attacks him with his lance but the first knight, Povala of Tachev, stops him and reveals that he is in the King's service escorting the German envoy and states that Zbyszko has committed a criminal offence and makes him swear to appear before a Cracow court. Matsko tries to beg forgiveness from the German, Kuno von Lichtenstein, but he insists they bow down before him which the Polish knights refuse to do as it goes against their honour. Matsko and Zbyshko lodge with Povala at his house on Saint Anne Street. They discuss their recent campaigns with other Polish knights and attend the royal court of Yagello and Yadviga, who is pregnant. At dinner Lichtenstein reveals that he was attacked on the road to Tynets by a knight and Povala confirms it. The king is furious; he had accepted the Polish proposal to convert to Catholicism and marry the young Queen Yadviga to halt the crusades against Lithuania by the Teutonic Knights. In a fit of fury Yagello commands to have Zbyshko's head cut off for disgracing him and he is led off to prison. At a court the death sentence is passed down by the Castellan of Cracow but execution delayed until Yadviga gives birth. The baby dies and Yagello, who has left Cracow, returns distraught and Matsko also returns from his journey to the Grand Master to beg forgiveness for Zbyshko's life. On the way, he is wounded by a German arrow from an ambush in the forest. A scaffold is erected and Princess Anna takes counsel with Yastrembets, Father Stanislav of Skarbimir and other learned men to seek a legal way out. On the day of the execution and, as Zbyshko is led out, Povala gives him Danusia who throws her veil over his head saying, ‘He is mine! He is mine!’. According to Slav custom, when an innocent maiden does this, it is a sign that she wants to marry him and he is saved from death. The nephew and uncle decide to return to Bogdanets where old Matsko needs to drink bears fat to remove the arrow-head. Yurand of Spyhov, Danusia's father, comes to the court and Zbyshko meets him but is told he cannot marry his daughter and the father and daughter return to Tsehanov. Chapters 7 – 14 The two men meet their neighbour Zyh of Zgorzelitse near Bogdanets who is hunting with his daughter, Yagenka, who admire Zbyshko for killing a huge bull bison with his crossbow. They settle into the old house and Yagenka comes to help them with furniture and food from her generous father. They also learn from her father that two young men are seeking her love, Vilk of Brozova and Stan of Rogov. Zbyshko goes to the forest to kill a bear in a nearby swamp and is nearly overcome by it but Yagenka assists in putting the fork into the ground so he can then kill it with his axe. Matko drinks the fresh fat and immediately starts to recover and finally the arrowhead is pulled out. On a beaver hunt, Yagenka asks Zbyskho about Danusia (after being told by her father about the veil incident). Later, the two men meet their distant relative, the abbot to whom their land is mortgaged, and all attend a church service with the nobility at Kresnia and Zybshko fights with Vilk and Stan for which, as enemies of the abbot, Matko receives a bag of coin from him. However, Zbyshko's vow to Danusia angers the abbot who wishes him for Yagenka of whom he is very fond and the cleric leaves in a fit of anger. Chapters 15 – 20 Zbyshko and Matsko sets of for Mazovia with their captured Turks as an escort – Zbyshko to claim Danusia as his wife from her father. He is followed by the Cheh, named Hlava, of Yagenka's. They come across a man in the forest – a German fake relic seller called Sanderus who joins the retinue and tells Zbyshko that he has seen Danusia. On the road he encounters some knights of the cross, and meets De Lorche, a knight of Lorraine, who he challenges but Yendrek, the Polish escort, forbids the fight. They finally reach the Mazovian royal court of Prince Yanush which is on a hunting expedition at Kurpie where they find Danusia with Princess Anne. On the hunt a wild bull attacks the Princess's retinue and De Lorche and Zybshko defend it but both are injured and it is Hlava who kills it with his axe. Danveld and Siegfried von Lowe, Brother Rotgier and Brother Gottfried are German envoys seeking Prince Yanush's punishment of Yurand for his deadly acts against their Order but he refuses. As a result, they hatch a plot to kidnap Danusia and use her as a ransom to capture her father. On their return to the border they are accompanied by De Fourcy who dislikes the conspiracy and the four men murder him and claim it was done by Hlava who rides up with Zbyshko's challenge; avoiding Danveld's knife, the Cheh returns to the hunting lodge to tell the true story. Chapters 25 – 33 Princess Anna receives a false letter from Yurand, written by Danveld, asking for Danusia's return to him at Spyhov. Princess Anna decides they should get married first and the ceremony takes place and then Danusia departs. Zbyshko, when recovered, makes for Prince Yanush's castle at Tsehanov and help to save Yurand from death in a severe snowstorm; on his recovery he learns that Yurand never sent the letter and Yurand is certain the Knights of the Cross have abducted his daughter and the two men set of for Spyhov. A sister of the Order and pilgrim come to Yurand and say he has to humble himself before the Order and make a ransom. After some days Zbyshko finds out from Tolima, Yurand's faithful old servant, that his master has left. At the castle in Schytno, Yurand is forced to wait outside its gate all night as the onlookers jeer at him. The next morning he is allowed to enter and is forced to kneel dressed in a hempen bag before the comtur, Danveld. At last they bring his daughter to him but it is an idiot woman and, in his rage, he kills Danveld and massacres many of the jeering on-lookers before he is severely wounded and trapped in a net. Siegfried takes charge and sends Rotgier to Prince Yanush at Tsehanov to give a false version of the events. Zbyshko challenges Rotgier and kills him in their duel. Chapters 34 – 50 Zbyshko and De Lorche set out for Malburg to challenge the Knights there and learns from the priest at Spyhov that Yurand has bequeathed all his lands to Danusia and, in case of her death, to Zbyshko. He also sends off a letter to Matsko via Hlava at Zgorzelitse. At Schytno Siegfried receives the body of Rotgier who is almost a son to him and in revenge has his mute servant, Diedrich, Yurand's tongue cut out, his one eye blinded and his right arm cut off and then he is let loose on the road. Matsko, after consulting with Hlava, decides to make for Spyhov and takes Yagenka with him disguised as a young servant. At Plotsk Matsko befriends Lichtenstein in order to get a letter of safe conduct through the Knight's territory. They receive news about Zbyshko and decide to make for Schytno. On the road they encounter the blind Yurand and, deciding to take him back to Spyhov, are able to restore him to some degree of health. At Spyhov, they learn from Father Kaleb that Zbyshko, after some at Malborg where he fell under the protection of the Grand Master's brother, has joined Prince Vitold's forces. Matsko resolves to go to Warsaw. Chapters 51 – 55 War has broken out between the Grand Prince Vitold and the Knights over the latter's treatment of the Jmud people. The forces of Skirvoillo, the leader of the Jmud men, assemble and Matsko and Hlava are reunited with Zbyshko. Skirvoillo plans an attack on a castle and Zbyshko and Matsko are instructed the ambush forces coming out of the castle, Gotteswerder, to the support of a relief column. The Germans are wiped out, De Lorche is taken prisoner but freed by Zbyshko, and they learn from Sanderus, their prisoner, that Danusia is alive and has been carried off by Siegfried and a knight, Arnold von Baden. They pursue them and capture the Germans at some tarburners’ huts but Danusia is ill and has lost her mind. They in turn are captured by German relief forces – led by Arnold's brother, Wolfgang – and Zbyshko and Matsko agree a ransom with their captors, enabling Zbyshko and Danusia to follow Hlava who was fortunately instructed to take Siegried directly to Spyhov. Hlava gets their first and recounts to Yagenka what has happened and takes his prisoner to Yurand who, by God's grace, frees him. Tolima accompanies the German to the border and the old man hangs himself from a tree, overcome by all his ill-deeds. Chapters 56 – 63 Just outside Spyhov Danusia dies. Yurand lies on his bed unable to move but smiling all the time and Zbyshko falls into a deep torpor. Tolima is sent off with a ransom to free Matsko from Malborg but is himself imprisoned in a comtur's prison and Father Kaleb and De Lorche, who has come to Spyhov to pray for Danusia, persuade Zbyshko to go. They learn about a meeting between King Yagiello and the Grand Master at Ratsiondz and Zybshko learns from Hlava, who returns to Spyhov, about Yagenka who has removed to the Bishop at Plotsk. At Plotsk, Yagiello is present and Prince Yanush and Prince Anna Danuta. Zbyshko see Yagenka who is now in the retinue of Princess Alexandra of Plotsk and she has changed greatly, transformed into a beautiful and elegant noblewoman. A great feast is held and the next day Prince Yanush commands Zbyshko and De Lorche to join his escort for the hunt. The meeting at Ratsiondz on an island on the Vistula takes place and goes badly for Grand Master Conrad and the Knights of the Order. Through Prince Yamont, Zbyshko is able to get his uncle's case raised by the King and he accompanies two other Polish knights to Malborg for the exchange of prisoners. Povala and particularly Zyndram, the leader of the Polish army, are unimpressed by the castle despite its huge size and the host of foreign knights present within its walls. Zbyshko and Matsko are reunited at last and the old man learns of Danusia's death. Chapters 64 – 69 On their return to Spyhov, Yurand dies. A decision is made to leave Hlava, along with Yagenka's handmaiden Anulka with whom he is in love, in charge of Spyhov as Matsko and Yagenka return to Bogdanets with a large stock of money and valuables – mostly captured by Yurand from the Germans in battle – and Zbyshko goes off to join Prince Vitold's forces. Many months pass as they wait for Zbyshko's return and Matsko resolves to build a castle for his nephew. Chapters 70 – 75 Matsko and old Vilk are reunited after the death of the latter's son attacking a German castle. Zbyshko returns to Bogdanets but lies ill on his bed and Matsko finally discerns that he loves Yagenka but does not know how to tell her. Finally, rising from his bed Yagenka takes responsibility for cutting his hair and the two are united. The couple live in Mochydoly while the castle is being built for them in Bogdanets and Yagenka gives birth to twins, Matsko and Yasko, and start to become renowned in the region once they move into the castle in its fifth year after all the outbuildings are completed. Chapters 76 – 81 In the same year war is afoot. Matsko leaves for Spyhov and is gone for six months. On his return, Zbyshko learns that he went on to Malborg to challenge Lichtenstein to a duel but failed as the latter had been appointed grand comtur and was not present – instead he fought and killed Lichtenstein's relative of the same name. A dispute is raised between Poland the Knights over the castle of Drezdenko that the greedy Order have captured and refused to return which Matsko thinks will result in all out war. Immense hunts are ordered by the Yagiello to supply dried meat for the army and many Mazovians flee from Prussia to escape the Knights’ iron rule. Vitold is appointed to review the dispute and adjudges it to the Poles and Jmud again breaks out in rebellion. The armies of Lithuania and Poland are united along with the regiments of Mazovia against the Germans at their camp at Sviet. A general battle is coming and, after capturing the German fortress of Dambrova, the army makes camp and the next morning reach the fields of Grunwald where the armies halt to rest. As Yagello is about to start his second mass, scouts appear confirming the arrival of the Germans. During the bloody battle, The Grand Master Ulrich is killed by Lithuanian soldiers and many famous knights of the Western Order captured. Matsko searches the field for Kuno Lichtenstein and finds him amongst some captured prisoners and, after challenging him to a duel, kills him with his misericordia. The novel ends with Matsko and Zbyshko returning to Bogdanets where the former lives a long life with his four grandsons around him and the latter witnessing the Grand Master of the Order leaving Malborg with tears in his eyes from one gate as the Polish voevoda enters through another. Sources The Knights of the Cross (Volumes I and II Illustrated Edition), Henryk Sienkiewicz, authorised and unabridged translation from the Polish by Jeremiah Curtin, Little, Brown and Company, Boston, 1918 (copyright 1918). Characters Zbyszko of Bogdaniec – a young impoverished nobleman, protagonist Maćko of Bogdaniec – Zbyszko's uncle Jurand of Spychów – a noble anti-Teutonic rebel and Danusia's father Danusia – courtier to the Duchess of Mazovia, Jurand's daughter and Zbyszko's wife Fulko de Lorche – a rich knight from Lotharingia who becomes close friends with Zbyszko King Władysław II Jagiełło – a historic person, king of the Kingdom of Poland between 1386 and 1434 Siegfried de Löwe – the komtur of Szczytno and mastermind of the evil plan to kidnap Danusia Duchess Anna – the Duchess of Masovia Janusz I – the Duke of Masovia Kuno von Liechtenstein – the Order's delegate to the King of Poland, attacked by Zbyszko Jagienka of Zgorzelice – a young girl who falls in love with Zbyszko Hlawa – a Czech bodyguard of Zbyszko, and former servant of Jagienka Sanderus – a friar who sells indulgences and constantly butts heads with Hlawa (resembles Chaucer's Pardoner) Adaptations Knights of the Teutonic Order, a film directed by Aleksander Ford Knights of the Cross, a 2002 Polish video game Notes External links Full Text Archive of The Knights of the Cross The Knights of the Cross by Henryk Sienkiewicz, at Full Books, translated from the Polish original by Samuel A. Binion. Retrieved October 8, 2011. Internet Archive Search: Sienkiewicz The Nights of the Cross. Digitized copies. German Recension The Knights of the Cross translated by Krzysztof Trelski, 2008. 1900 novels 19th-century Polish novels Novels by Henryk Sienkiewicz Novels first published in serial form Novels set in Poland Polish historical novels Polish novels Polish novels adapted into films Teutonic Order Works originally published in Polish newspapers
4838673	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Harsh%20Cry%20of%20the%20Heron	The Harsh Cry of the Heron	The Harsh Cry of the Heron is the sequel to Lian Hearn's popular Tales of the Otori trilogy, first published on March 7, 2006. The novel is set sixteen years after the events of the Trilogy, and covers a period of about two years. It chronicles the events that ultimately lead to Takeo's downfall, in accordance with the prophecy spoken of him years before. Synopsis Otori Takeo and Kaede are now the prosperous rulers of the Three Countries. Shigeko, their eldest daughter and heir, will inherit the domain of Maruyama when she comes of age, and the Three Countries upon Takeo's death. Their younger daughters Maya and Miki are seen as cursed, due to superstitions concerning twins and their formidable Tribe talents. Although shunned by many, including their mother, they are loved by Takeo and Shigeko. Takeo's only fear is the prophecy concerning his death: he can only be killed by his son. His first, illegitimate son, Hisao (by Yuki) has been raised by the exiled Kikuta family, to one day be used to assassinate Takeo. Kaede soon becomes pregnant with Takeo's second son. A new threat to Takeo has appeared. Takeo's vassal Arai Zenko and his wife Hana (Kaede's sister) have approached Saga Hideki, a warlord who has conquered most of the Eight Islands under the Emperor's mandate. Saga requests that Takeo submit himself to the Emperor and abdicate; Takeo and Kaede's son is born just before his departure for Miyako, the Imperial capital. Meanwhile, Muto Kenji, at the end of his years, attempts in vain to negotiate with Akio (the Kikuta Master) to see his grandson, Hisao. As Kenji attempts to flee with him he realizes Hisao is a ghostmaster, capable of communicating with the souls of the dead. The soul of his mother, Yuki, is haunting him. Unable to escape Akio, Kenji commits suicide. His death divides the Muto family's loyalty between Kenji's niece Shizuka (the mother of Zenko and Taku, loyal to Takeo) and Zenko, who secretly shelters Akio and Hisao in his capital of Kumamoto despite publicly submitting to Takeo. Zenko has also converted to Christianity in order to gain military support from Portuguese missionaries who Takeo has restricted to the port of Hofu. Maya, whose Tribe talents are rather volatile, absorbs the spirit of a cat and struggles to control it, becoming increasingly erratic and dangerous. She and Miki are separated, and Maya is trained under Taku and his lover, Sada. Taku and Sada are killed on Zenko's orders by Akio and Hisao, who capture Maya near Hofu. Hisao, who exercises some control over Maya's cat spirit, is finally able to communicate with Yuki's spirit, but rejects her pleas to spare Takeo's life. Maya escapes aided by Miki, and they attempt to return to Hagi (the Otori capital) to reveal Zenko's treachery. Yuki's spirit aides them along their journey. Rather than battle Saga's forces, Takeo and his retinue engage in a bowmanship contest in Miyako: the victor will rule the Three Countries. Due to Takeo's crippled hand, Shigeko takes his place. Shigeko wins, and Takeo departs in glory, leaving behind an exotic animal, a Kirin (likely a giraffe or an okapi), as a gift for the Emperor. However, the Kirin breaks free and follows Takeo's entourage, which is seen as an omen and a slight on the Emperor. Saga immediately pursues them. In the resulting battle, both sides endure great losses until Shigeko shoots Saga in the eye, and he retreats. Maya, influenced by Yuki, slips into her parents' house and accidentally kills her infant brother with the Kikuta gaze; horrified, she flees. While Kaede is overcome with grief, Hana reveals the prophecy about Takeo's death, and the existence of Hisao. Furious, Kaede orders Shigeru's house burned to the ground, then leaves with Hana and her sons as Zenko's men destroy Hagi. After abdicating in favor of Shigeko, Takeo finds Kaede and tries to reason with her, but she calls the guards. Unwilling to fight his wife, Takeo retires to the temple at Terayama with Miki and his old friend Kubo Makoto. A few weeks later, Akio and Hisao come to kill him, but Hisao, armed with a handmade pistol, freezes and is unable to kill his father. Akio grabs the pistol, but Maya (trapped in her cat form) interferes, causing the gun to explode and kill them both. Takeo places a knife in Hisao's hands and stabs himself with it, bringing the prophecy of his death to fulfillment. He is ritually beheaded by Makoto with Jato (the Otori sword) and buried with honor, next to his adopted father Shigeru. Following Takeo's abdication, Saga offers Shigeko a marriage-alliance allowing her to remain co-ruler in the Three Countries, which she accepts. The combined Saga and Otori armies defeat the Arai forces. Zenko and Hana commit seppuku, along with their youngest son, but at Kaede's request, Saga spares their other two sons as long as they renounce the Arai name. Kaede brings the boys to Terayama, where Makoto shows her his recorded account of Takeo's death. Overcome with guilt and grief, she prepares to commit suicide. Only Miki's appearance makes her decide to live, for the sake of all of Takeo's children. Characters Otori Takeo was the protagonist of The Tales of the Otori. He is married to Shirakawa Kaede, with whom he jointly rules as overlord of the Three Countries. Takeo and Kaede practice benevolent and enlightened rule, rigidly controlling foreign trade and focusing on agriculture rather than conquest. Having been raised among the Hidden, the Tribe and the warrior class, Takeo is careful to follow no particular religion in order to prevent religious persecution. Although beloved by the commonfolk throughout his realm and approved by most of his retainers and many of the Muto family, he remains hated by the Kikuta family and the Arai Clan. He has three daughters, Shigeko, Maya, and Miki, and one illegitimate son: Kikuta Hisao, conceived by Muto Yuki, a past lover. He perishes at the end of the book after abdicating in favour of Maruyama Shigeko. Otori Kaede (formerly Shirakawa Kaede) is Takeo's wife. She had a reputation of bringing death to all men that desired her, but Takeo had evaded death for some time. Kaede, despite being a woman in a male-dominated society, is proficient with both the sword and politics. She loves Shigeko dearly, but she harbors mistrust for her twin daughters and can only love them from a distance. Since she was not able to bear Takeo any sons, she is overjoyed when she later gives birth to a boy. But when the child dies mysteriously, her sister Hana tells her about Takeo's brief liaison with Muto Yuki, the son that was conceived, and the prophecy which foretells Takeo's death can only occur at the hands of his own son. Kaede violently rejects Takeo thereafter, only to mourn his death when she later recovers and proves that she still indeed loves him. She finally manages to reconcile with Miki (her only surviving child besides Shigeko) at the end of the book. Otori Shigeko (later Maruyama Shigeko) is the eldest daughter of Takeo and Kaede, a wise and reverent young woman. She had been trained as a boy as a child in hopes of her inheriting the Three Countries as she came of age. She is the heir and lady of the estates of Maruyama. Although she is much her mother's daughter, she loves her father and sisters dearly. Shigeko has always been fascinated by her sisters and always took their side of things. She is an expert archer and is in love with her senior retainer and teacher, Sugita Hiroshi. However, at the end of the novel, she becomes betrothed to Saga Hideki, the Emperor's commander, and inherits control the Three Countries and Takeo's sword, Jato. Otori Maya is the daughter of Takeo and Kaede, and the twin of Miki. As a twin, she and her sister have been feared or frowned upon because of superstitious beliefs. She is very mischievous and possesses most, if not all, of Takeo's Tribe abilities. Because her mother fears Maya and Miki being together, one of them was always with the Tribe for training. As revenge for a man heartily welcoming Shigeko and blatantly ignoring the twins, Maya kills his cat with the Kikuta gaze and ends up taking the dead cat's spirit within her. After a great deal of practice, she eventually is able to take on the cat's form, but is continually haunted by cat's spirit threatening to take control of her. She accidentally kills her baby brother with the Kikuta gaze, which horrifies her so much she retreats permanently into the cat spirit. She is mortally wounded by Akio at the end of the book in an attempt to protect her father; Miki then mercy-kills her to prevent her being a cat spirit forever. Otori Miki is the daughter of Takeo and Kaede, and the twin of Maya. She, being the younger of the two, was to be killed after she was born, but Takeo had forbidden it. Although she loves her mother, sisters, and father dearly, her mother is somewhat afraid of her. Miki had always been in the shadow of the more talented Maya, but had been quite comfortable with it. She is less mischievous and daring and more thoughtful and pragmatic than Maya; while she has a fiery temper, her twin is considered the colder and less forgiving twin. When together, they were inseparable. However, at the end of the novel, Miki was forced to kill her sister. Her mother finally accepts Miki at the end of the novel, when Kaede realizes that Miki still needs her. Kikuta Hisao is the son of Takeo and Muto Yuki, and sixteen years old and, according to a prophecy, will be the one who kills Takeo. He had grown up believing he was the son of Akio, the Kikuta Master. Despite the talents of his mother and father, Hisao possesses no obvious talents like invisibility or the Kikuta hearing and was subjected to harsh training by Akio in hopes of compensating. He is by nature gentle and loves animals, which Akio cruelly punishes him for, and is innately talented at constructing tools, even if it is as complex as a gun. Muto Kenji, his maternal grandfather, discovers only as he dies in Hisao's presence that Hisao is a ghostmaster, a rare talent of the Tribe and that Yuki's spirit remains bound to him as a result. He is not able to hear his mother's pleas until his half-sister Maya aids him in her spirit form. Akio attempts to force him to shoot Takeo with a gun at the end of the novel, but it is Takeo who guides his son's hand with a dagger to kill Takeo and fulfill the prophecy. Hisao is later taken in by the monks at Terayama. Madaren is the youngest half-sister of Takeo. She is an interpreter and lover of a visiting foreigner. After the Hidden were attacked, Madaren had been sold as a servant in one of the pleasure houses. She had learned to take advantage of them, and stole from them, eventually allowing a merchant to take her to Hofu. Returning to the pleasure houses to gain income, she was eventually bought by Don João, a Portuguese foreigner. Madaren got him to teach her their language, and she soon became fluent. She tried desperately to get her brother to convert back to the Hidden religion, with no success. She teaches Kaede the foreigners' language. As the foreigners and their religion were banished from the Three Countries by Shigeko and Saga at the end of the book, her fate is unknown. Muto Shizuka is Takeo's cousin and the mother of Taku and Zenko, married to Dr. Ishida, Takeo's personal doctor. A skilled member of the Tribe, she is close friends with Kaede and a surrogate mother to Miki and Maya. When Muto Kenji is killed by Akio and the Kikuta clan, Takeo asks that she take on the role of the Master of the Muto clan. While she is respected by the Tribe, the decision is met with dislike from the Muto, Kuroda, and Imai clans, who feel that it is wrong for the new master to be chosen from outside the Tribe and it goes against tradition for a woman to lead, especially since Taku or Zenko would be eligible. When Taku is killed and Shizuka is betrayed by Zenko, she goes to mourn for Taku and fasts at a temple. Her suffering gains her much sympathy and causes many members of the Tribe to defect from Zenko. Muto Taku is Shizuka's younger son and spymaster for the Muto, a close friend of Sugita Hiroshi. He is a talented member of the Tribe and well-trusted by Takeo. When Maya's abilities become too uncontrollable, she is entrusted to Taku and his companion (and lover) Sada, who train her to control the cat's spirit and take on its form. His relationship with Zenko is strained and the two do not get along well. Most members of the Tribe feel that Taku should have been the Muto Master instead of Shizuka and his death at the hands of Akio is a heavy loss for Takeo. Arai Zenko is Shizuka's older son, Taku's older brother, and a vassal of Takeo and husband of Kaede's sister Hana. His relationship with his mother and brother are strained, though he still welcomes them as his family. As an outward gesture of loyalty, Zenko offers his sons Sunaomi and Chikara to be adopted by Takeo, knowing that they would be ineffective collateral against him because Takeo is unwilling to harm children. He is an ambitious and bitter man who still blames Takeo for the death of his father, Arai Daiichi. Zenko conspires to overthrow Takeo by several means: converting to Christianity in order to gain military support from foreign traders, allying with Akio, and declaring himself head of the Muto family after Kenji's death. While Takeo is busy fighting Saga Hideki, Zenko attacks the defenseless Otori lands, but he finally defeated by the combined armies of Saga and the Otori (who have formed an alliance). He eventually is forced to take his own life at the end of the novel. Arai Hana (formerly Shirakawa Hana) is Kaede's youngest sister and wife of Arai Zenko, and mother of their three sons: Sunaomi, Chikara, and Hiromasa, who possesses Kikuta lines on his palms. After being rejected by Takeo in her youth, she married Zenko and came to love him and shared his ambition to overthrow Takeo and Kaede. Like her older sister, Hana is unusually beautiful, which resulted in a rivalry between Zenko, Taku, and Hiroshi as to who would marry her in their youth. She reveals to Kaede the secret of Takeo's son and the prophecy concerning Takeo's death in order to create a rift between the two and crush Takeo's spirit. Hana takes her life at the end of the book, along with her youngest son. Her two older sons are saved by Kaede and to be raised at the temple of Terayama. Sugita Hiroshi is a loyal retainer of Takeo and Kaede, who has managed Maruyama in trust for Shigeko. He is in love with Shigeko, but does not pursue her hand in marriage because of his loyalty to Takeo and has not married any one else as a result. He and Taku have been close friends since childhood. When Hiroshi is badly injured in the battle against Saga Hideki, Shigeko attempts to kill Saga as revenge. Kikuta Akio is the Kikuta Master, a cruel man who adheres too severely to the traditions of the Tribe and kills all who try to leave the Tribe. He is driven by fact he had to kill the only woman he ever loved, Muto Yuki, who did not love him in return, and his hatred of Takeo to the point of irrationality and demands all members of the Tribe refer to Takeo as the "Dog"; he kills any Tribe members who wish to negotiate with Takeo. While he has raised Hisao as his own son, Akio treats him harshly and with little kindness, brutally killing even a cat that Hisao befriended as an example. He molests Hisao habitually. He forms an alliance with Zenko, who claims mastery of the Muto family, in order to kill Takeo. Akio is ultimately cheated of his revenge when he and Hisao finally confront Takeo; he impatiently snatches a pistol away from Hisao to kill Takeo, but the gun misfires and explodes, blowing Akio's hands off and killing him. Saga Hideki is a ruthless and pragmatic warlord from beyond the Three Countries. Having been declared the Emperor's general, he has conquered nearly all the rest of the "Eight Islands" on behalf of his powerless overlord, effectively making him shōgun. Saga, prompted by Zenko and Fujiwara Kono, challenges the legitimacy of Takeo's rule, intending to either force Takeo to abdicate or to crush him in battle. This plan initially fails when Takeo wins the Emperor's favor, and his daughter Shigeko wins the bowmanship contest on which the matter was to be decided. However, when the Kirin Takeo gifted to the Emperor escapes and follows him, Saga takes the opportunity to attack, claiming the Kirin's preference of Takeo is an insult to the Emperor. After a costly battle, Saga retreats after Shigeko shoots him in the eye. Impressed by both her and Takeo, he offers a marriage-alliance with Shigeko against the Arai clan after Takeo abdicates; Shigeko agrees, on condition that they rule equally in the Three Countries. Muto Yuki (Muto Yusetsu) is the deceased mother of Kikuta Hisao and the daughter of Muto Kenji. When she was forced to kill herself, her spirit was bound to her infant son by his latent abilities as a ghostmaster. Having loved Takeo, she continually tries to contact Hisao and convince him to spare his father. Hisao is only able to communicate with his mother with the help of Maya, but ends up rejecting Yuki's request and severs her spirit. Yuki later appears to Maya and Miki as "Yusetsu" and becomes a surrogate mother to them as they try to return to Kaede and warn her of Hana and Zenko's treachery. Miki is wary of Yuki's intentions while Maya readily accepts the ghost woman's help until it is revealed that Yuki was using Maya to take revenge on Kaede. Yuki influences Maya to use the Kikuta sleep on her infant brother and steals the baby's spirit away, leaving Maya to give into the cat's spirit, devastated by the weight of her actions. Yuki nonetheless intervenes again when Hisao confronts Takeo, attempting to stop him from murdering his father. Reception In a review of The Harsh Cry of the Heron, Kirkus Reviews wrote "Previously, the series built inexorably and carefully toward the final cataclysmic confrontation, but here, it all takes too long to get moving. Only near the end of this overlong narrative do the gears begin to catch.". A Publishers Weekly review stated "Hearn seamlessly fuses fact and fantasy to create a sprawling, bewitching realm of magic." The Harsh Cry of the Heron was also reviewed by Booklist, Books+Publishing, and the Historical Novel Society. It received an honourable mention Aurealis Award for best fantasy novel, and was shortlisted in the 2007 Australian Book Industry Awards Australian General Fiction Book of the Year. See also Tales of the Otori Heaven’s Net is Wide References External links Lian Hearn's Homepage Library holdings of The Harsh Cry of the Heron 2006 Australian novels Australian fantasy novels Sequel novels Hachette (publisher) books
4839105	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cooperation%20%28evolution%29	Cooperation (evolution)	In evolution, cooperation is the process where groups of organisms work or act together for common or mutual benefits. It is commonly defined as any adaptation that has evolved, at least in part, to increase the reproductive success of the actor's social partners. For example, territorial choruses by male lions discourage intruders and are likely to benefit all contributors. This process contrasts with intragroup competition where individuals work against each other for selfish reasons. Cooperation exists not only in humans but in other animals as well. The diversity of taxa that exhibits cooperation is quite large, ranging from zebra herds to pied babblers to African elephants. Many animal and plant species cooperate with both members of their own species and with members of other species. In animals Cooperation in animals appears to occur mostly for direct benefit or between relatives. Spending time and resources assisting a related individual may at first seem destructive to an organism's chances of survival but is actually beneficial over the long-term. Since relatives share part of the helper's genetic make-up, enhancing each individual's chance of survival may actually increase the likelihood that the helper's genetic traits will be passed on to future generations. However, some researchers, such as ecology professor Tim Clutton-Brock, assert that cooperation is a more complex process. They state that helpers may receive more direct, and less indirect, gains from assisting others than is commonly reported. These gains include protection from predation and increased reproductive fitness. Furthermore, they insist that cooperation may not solely be an interaction between two individuals but may be part of the broader goal of unifying populations. Prominent biologists, such as Charles Darwin, E. O. Wilson, and W. D. Hamilton, have found the evolution of cooperation fascinating because natural selection favors those who achieve the greatest reproductive success while cooperative behavior often decreases the reproductive success of the actor (the individual performing the cooperative behavior). Hence, cooperation seemed to pose a challenging problem to the theory of natural selection, which rests on the assumption that individuals compete to survive and maximize their reproductive successes. Additionally, some species have been found to perform cooperative behaviors that may at first sight seem detrimental to their own evolutionary fitness. For example, when a ground squirrel sounds an alarm call to warn other group members of a nearby coyote, it draws attention to itself and increases its own odds of being eaten. There have been multiple hypotheses for the evolution of cooperation, all of which are rooted in Hamilton's models based on inclusive fitness. These models hypothesize that cooperation is favored by natural selection due to either direct fitness benefits (mutually beneficial cooperation) or indirect fitness benefits (altruistic cooperation). As explained below, direct benefits encompass by-product benefits and enforced reciprocity, while indirect benefits (kin selection) encompass limited dispersal, kin discrimination and the greenbeard effect. Kin selection One specific form of cooperation in animals is kin selection, which involves animals promoting the reproductive success of their kin, thereby promoting their own fitness. Different theories explaining kin selection have been proposed, including the "pay-to-stay" and "territory inheritance" hypotheses. The "pay-to-stay" theory suggests that individuals help others rear offspring in order to return the favor of the breeders allowing them to live on their land. The "territory inheritance" theory contends that individuals help in order to have improved access to breeding areas once the breeders depart. Studies conducted on red wolves support previous researchers' contention that helpers obtain both immediate and long-term gains from cooperative breeding. Researchers evaluated the consequences of red wolves' decisions to stay with their packs for extended periods of time after birth. While delayed dispersal helped other wolves' offspring, studies also found that it extended male helper wolves' life spans. This suggests that kin selection may not only benefit an individual in the long-term through increased fitness but also in the short-term through increased survival chances. Some research suggests that individuals provide more help to closer relatives. This phenomenon is known as kin discrimination. In their meta-analysis, researchers compiled data on kin selection as mediated by genetic relatedness in 18 species, including the western bluebird, pied kingfisher, Australian magpie, and dwarf mongoose. They found that different species exhibited varying degrees of kin discrimination, with the largest frequencies occurring among those who have the most to gain from cooperative interactions. In plants Cooperation exists not only in animals but also in plants. In a greenhouse experiment with Ipomoea hederacea, a climbing plant, results show that kin groups have higher efficiency rates in growth than non-kin groups do. This is expected to rise out of reduced competition within the kin groups. Explanation The inclusive fitness theory provides a good overview of possible solutions to the fundamental problem of cooperation. The theory is based on the hypothesis that cooperation helps in transmitting underlying genes to future generations either through increasing the reproductive successes of the individual (direct fitness) or of other individuals who carry the same genes (indirect fitness). Direct benefits can result from simple by-product of cooperation or enforcement mechanisms, while indirect benefits can result from cooperation with genetically similar individuals. Direct fitness benefits This is also called mutually beneficial cooperation as both actor and recipient depend on direct fitness benefits, which are broken down into two different types: by-product benefit and enforcement. By-product benefit arises as a consequence of social partners having a shared interest in cooperation. For example, in meerkats, larger group size provides a benefit to all the members of that group by increasing survival rates, foraging success and conflict wins. This is because living in groups is better than living alone, and cooperation arises passively as a result of many animals doing the same thing. By-product benefit can also arise as a consequence of subordinate animals staying and helping a nest that is dominated by leaders who often suffer high mortality rates. It has been shown that cooperation would be most advantageous for the sex that is more likely to remain and breed in the natal group. This is because the subordinate will have a higher chance to become dominant in the group as time passes. Cooperation in this scenario is often seen between non-related members of the same species, such as the wasp Polistes dominula. Prisoner's Delight, another term to describe by-product benefit, is a term coined by Kenneth Binmore in 2007 after he found that benefits can result as an automatic consequence of an otherwise "self-interested" act in cooperative hunting. He illustrated this with a scenario having two hunters, each hunter having the choice of hunting (cooperate) or not hunting (free-riding). Assuming that cooperative hunting results in greater rewards than just a one-player hunt, when hunting is not rare, both hunters and non-hunters benefit because either player is likely to be with other hunters, and thus likely to reap the rewards of a successful hunt. This situation demonstrates "Prisoner's Delight" because the food of a successful hunt is shared between the two players regardless of whether or not they participated. It has been shown that free riding, or reaping the benefits without any effort, is often a problem in collective action. Examples of free riding would be if an employee in a labor union pays no dues, but still benefits from union representation. In a study published in 1995, scientists found that female lions showed individual differences in the extent to which they participated in group-territorial conflict. Some lions consistently 'cooperated' by approaching intruders, while others 'lagged' behind to avoid the risk of fighting. Although the lead female recognized the laggards, she failed to punish them, suggesting that cooperation is not maintained by reciprocity. Cooperation is maintained in situations where free-riding is a problem through enforcement, which is the mechanism where the actor is rewarded for cooperating or punished for not cooperating. This happens when cooperation is favored in aiding those who have helped the actors in the past. Punishment for noncooperation has been documented in meerkats, where dominant females will attack and evict subordinate females who become pregnant. The pregnancy is seen as a failure to cooperate because only the dominant females are allowed to bear offspring. Dominant females will attack and kill the offspring of subordinate females if they evade eviction and eviction often leads to increased stress and decreased survival. Enforcement can also be mutually beneficial, and is often called reciprocal cooperation because the act of cooperation is preferentially directed at individuals who have helped the actor in the past (directly), or helped those who have helped the actor in the past (indirectly). Indirect fitness benefits The second class of explanations for cooperation is indirect fitness benefits, or altruistic cooperation. There are three major mechanisms that generate this type of fitness benefit: limited dispersal, kin discrimination and the green-beard effect. Hamilton originally suggested that high relatedness could arise in two ways: direct kin recognition between individuals or limited dispersal, or population viscosity, which can keep relatives together. The easiest way to generate relatedness between social partners is limited dispersal, a mechanism in which genetic similarity correlates with spatial proximity. If individuals do not move far, then kin usually surrounds them. Hence, any act of altruism would be directed primarily towards kin. This mechanism has been shown in Pseudomonas aeruginosa bacteria, where cooperation is disfavored when populations are well mixed, but favored when there is high local relatedness. Kin discrimination also influences cooperation because the actor can give aid preferentially towards related partners. Since kin usually share common genes, it is thought that this nepotism can lead to genetic relatedness between the actor and the partner's offspring, which affects the cooperation an actor might give. This mechanism is similar to what happens with the green-beard effect, but with the green-beard effect, the actor has to instead identify which of its social partners share the gene for cooperation. A green-beard system must always co-occur within individuals and alleles to produce a perceptible trait, recognition of this trait in others, and preferential treatment to those recognized. Examples of green-beard behavior have been found in hydrozoans, slime molds, yeast, and ants. An example is in side-blotch lizards, where blue-throated males preferentially establish territories next to each other. Results show that neighboring blue-throats are more successful at mate guarding. However, blue males next to larger, more aggressive orange males suffer a cost. This strategy blue has evolutionary cycles of altruism alternating with mutualism tied to the RPS game. Multi-level selection Multi-level selection theory suggests that selection operates on more than one level: for example, it may operate at an atomic and molecular level in cells, at the level of cells in the body, and then again at the whole organism level, and the community level, and the species level. Any level which is not competitive with others of the same level will be eliminated, even if the level below is highly competitive. A classic example is that of genes which prevent cancer. Cancer cells divide uncontrollably, and at the cellular level, they are very successful, because they are (in the short term) reproducing very well and out competing other cells in the body. However, at the whole organism level, cancer is often fatal, and so may prevent reproduction. Therefore, changes to the genome which prevent cancer (for example, by causing damaged cells to act co-operatively by destroying themselves) are favoured. Multi-level selection theory contends that similar effects can occur, for example, to cause individuals to co-operate to avoid behaviours which favour themselves short-term, but destroy the community (and their descendants) long term. Market effect One theory suggesting a mechanism that could lead to the evolution of co-operation is the "market effect" as suggested by Noe and Hammerstein. The mechanism relies on the fact that in many situations there exists a trade-off between efficiency obtaining a desired resource and the amount of resources one can actively obtain. In that case, each partner in a system could benefit from specializing in producing one specific resource and obtaining the other resource by trade. When only two partners exist, each can specialize in one resource, and trade for the other. Trading for the resource requires co-operation with the other partner and includes a process of bidding and bargaining. This mechanism can be relied to both within a species or social group and within species systems. It can also be applied to a multi-partner system, in which the owner of a resource has the power to choose its co-operation partner. This model can be applied in natural systems (examples exist in the world of apes, cleaner fish, and more). Easy for exemplifying, though, are systems from international trading. Arabic countries control vast amounts of oil, but seek technologies from western countries. These in turn are in need of Arab oil. The solution is co-operation by trade. Symbiosis Symbiosis refers to two or more biological species that interact closely, often over a long period of time. Symbiosis includes three types of interactions—mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism—of which only mutualism can sometimes qualify as cooperation. Mutualism involves a close, mutually beneficial interaction between two different biological species, whereas "cooperation" is a more general term that can involve looser interactions and can be interspecific (between species) or intraspecific (within a species). In commensalism, one of the two participating species benefits, while the other is neither harmed nor benefitted. In parasitism, one of the two participating species benefits at the expense of the other. Symbiosis may be obligate or facultative. In obligate symbiosis, one or both species depends on the other for survival. In facultative symbiosis, the symbiotic interaction is not necessary for the survival of either species. Two special types of symbiosis include endosymbiosis, in which one species lives inside of another, and ectosymbiosis, in which one species lives on another. Mutualism Mutualism is a form of symbiosis in which both participating species benefit. A classic example of mutualism is the interaction between rhizobia soil bacteria and legumes (Fabaceae). In this interaction, rhizobia bacteria induce root nodule formation in legume plants via an exchange of molecular signals. Within the root nodules, rhizobia fix atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia using the nitrogenase enzyme. The legume benefits from a new supply of usable nitrogen from the rhizobia, and the rhizobia benefits from organic acid energy sources from the plant as well as the protection provided by the root nodule. Since the rhizobia live within the legume, this is an example of endosymbiosis, and since both the bacteria and the plant can survive independently, it is also an example of facultative symbiosis. Lichens are another example of mutualism. Lichens consist of a fungus (the mycobiont) and a photosynthetic partner (the photobiont), which is usually a green alga or a cyanobacteria. The mycobiont benefits from the sugar products of photosynthesis generated by the photobiont, and the photobiont benefits from the increased water retention and increased surface area to capture water and mineral nutrients conferred by the mycobiont. Many lichens are examples of obligate symbiosis. In fact, one-fifth of all known extant fungal species form obligate symbiotic associations with green algae, cyanobacteria or both. Not all examples of mutualism are also examples of cooperation. Specifically, in by-product mutualism, both participants benefit, but cooperation is not involved. For example, when an elephant defecates, this is beneficial to the elephant as a way to empty waste, and it is also beneficial to a dung beetle that uses the elephant's dung. However, neither participant's behavior yields a benefit from the other, and thus cooperation is not taking place. Hidden benefits Hidden benefits are benefits from cooperation that are not obvious because they are obscure or delayed. (For example, a hidden benefit would not involve an increase in the number of offspring or offspring viability.) One example of a hidden benefit involves Malarus cyaneus, the superb fairy-wren. In M. cyaneus, the presence of helpers at the nest does not lead to an increase in chick mass. However, the presence of helpers does confer a hidden benefit: it increases the chance that a mother will survive to breed in the next year. Another example of a hidden benefit is indirect reciprocity, in which a donor individual helps a beneficiary to increase the probability that observers will invest in the donor in the future, even when the donor will have no further interaction with the beneficiary. In a study of 79 students, participants played a game in which they could repeatedly give money to others and receive from others. They were told that they would never interact with the same person in the reciprocal role. A player's history of donating was displayed at each anonymous interaction, and donations were significantly more frequent to receivers who had been generous to others in earlier interactions. Indirect reciprocity has only been shown to occur in humans. Prisoner's dilemma Even if all members of a group benefit from cooperation, individual self-interest may not favor cooperation. The prisoner's dilemma codifies this problem and has been the subject of much research, both theoretical and experimental. In its original form the prisoner's dilemma game (PDG) described two awaiting trial prisoners, A and B, each faced with the choice of betraying the other or remaining silent. The "game" has four possible outcomes: (a) they both betray each other, and are both sentenced to two years in prison; (b) A betrays B, which sets A free and B is sentenced to four years in prison; (c) B betrays A, with the same result as (b) except that it is B who is set free and the other spends four years in jail; (d) both remain silent, resulting in a six-month sentence each. Clearly (d) ("cooperation") is the best mutual strategy, but from the point of view of the individual betrayal is unbeatable (resulting in being set free, or getting only a two-year sentence). Remaining silent results in a four-year or six-month sentence. This is exemplified by a further example of the PDG: two strangers attend a restaurant together and decide to split the bill. The mutually best ploy would be for both parties to order the cheapest items on the menu (mutual cooperation). But if one member of the party exploits the situation by ordering the most expensive items, then it is best for the other member to do likewise. In fact, if the fellow diner's personality is completely unknown, and the two diners are unlikely ever to meet again, it is always in one's own best interests to eat as expensively as possible. Situations in nature that are subject to the same dynamics (rewards and penalties) as the PDG define cooperative behavior: it is never in the individual's fitness interests to cooperate, even though mutual cooperation rewards the two contestants (together) more highly than any other strategy. Cooperation cannot evolve under these circumstances. However, in 1981 Axelrod and Hamilton noted that if the same contestants in the PDG meet repeatedly (in the so-called iterated prisoner's dilemma game, IPD) then tit-for-tat (foreshadowed by Robert Trivers' 1971 reciprocal altruism theory) is a robust strategy which promotes altruism. In "tit-for-tat" both players' opening moves are cooperation. Thereafter each contestant repeats the other player's last move, resulting in a seemingly endless sequence of mutually cooperative moves. However, mistakes severely undermine tit-for-tat's effectiveness, giving rise to prolonged sequences of betrayal, which can only be rectified by another mistake. Since these initial discoveries, all the other possible IPD game strategies have been identified (16 possibilities in all, including, for instance, "generous tit-for-tat", which behaves like "tit-for-tat", except that it cooperates with a small probability when the opponent's last move was "betray".), but all can be outperformed by at least one of the other strategies, should one of the players switch to such a strategy. The result is that none is evolutionarily stable, and any prolonged series of the iterated prisoner's dilemma game, in which alternative strategies arise at random, gives rise to a chaotic sequence of strategy changes that never ends. Results from experimental economics show, however, that humans often act more cooperatively than strict self-interest would dictate. Evolutionary mechanisms suggesting that reciprocity is the result, not the cause, of the evolution of cooperation In the light of the iterated prisoner's dilemma game and the reciprocal altruism theory failing to provide full answers to the evolutionary stability of cooperation, several alternative explanations have been proposed. There are striking parallels between cooperative behavior and exaggerated sexual ornaments displayed by some animals, particularly certain birds, such as, amongst others, the peacock. Both are costly in fitness terms, and both are generally conspicuous to other members of the population or species. This led Amotz Zahavi to suggest that both might be fitness signals rendered evolutionarily stable by his handicap principle. If a signal is to remain reliable, and generally resistant to falsification, the signal has to be evolutionarily costly. Thus, if a (low fitness) liar were to use the highly costly signal, which seriously eroded its real fitness, it would find it difficult to maintain a semblance or normality. Zahavi borrowed the term "handicap principle" from sports handicapping systems. These systems are aimed at reducing disparities in performance, thereby making the outcome of contests less predictable. In a horse handicap race, provenly faster horses are given heavier weights to carry under their saddles than inherently slower horses. Similarly, in amateur golf, better golfers have fewer strokes subtracted from their raw scores than the less talented players. The handicap therefore correlates with unhandicapped performance, making it possible, if one knows nothing about the horses, to predict which unhandicapped horse would win an open race. It would be the one handicapped with the greatest weight in the saddle. The handicaps in nature are highly visible, and therefore a peahen, for instance, would be able to deduce the health of a potential mate by comparing its handicap (the size of the peacock's tail) with those of the other males. The loss of the male's fitness caused by the handicap is offset by his increased access to females, which is as much of a fitness concern as is his health. A cooperative act is, by definition, similarly costly (e.g. helping raise the young at the nest of an unrelated pair of birds versus producing and raising one's own offspring). It would therefore also signal fitness, and is probably as attractive to females as a physical handicap. If this is the case, cooperation is evolutionarily stabilized by sexual selection. There is an alternate strategy for identifying fit mates which does not rely on one gender having exaggerated sexual ornaments or other handicaps, but is probably generally applicable to most, if not all sexual creatures. It derives from the concept that the change in appearance and functionality caused by a non-silent mutation will generally stand out in a population. This is because that altered appearance and functionality will be unusual, peculiar, and different from the norm within that population. The norm against which these unusual features are judged is made up of fit attributes that have attained their plurality through natural selection, while less well adapted attributes will be in the minority or frankly rare. Since the overwhelming majority of mutant features are maladaptive, and it is impossible to predict evolution's future direction, sexual creatures would be expected to prefer mates with the fewest unusual or minority features. This will have the effect of a sexual population rapidly shedding peripheral phenotypic features, thereby canalizing the entire outward appearance and behavior of all of its members. They will all very quickly begin to look remarkably similar to one another in every detail, as illustrated in the accompanying photograph of the African pygmy kingfisher, Ispidina picta. Once a population has become as homogeneous in appearance as is typical of most species, its entire repertoire of behaviors will also be rendered evolutionarily stable, including any cooperative, altruistic and social interactions. Thus, in the example above of the selfish individual who hangs back from the rest of the hunting pack, but who nevertheless joins in the spoils, that individual will be recognized as being different from the norm, and will therefore find it difficult to attract a mate (koinophilia). Its genes will therefore have only a very small probability of being passed on to the next generation, thus evolutionarily stabilizing cooperation and social interactions at whatever level of complexity is the norm in that population. History of cooperation research One of the first references to animal cooperation was made by Charles Darwin, who noted it as a potential problem for his theory of natural selection. In most of the 19th century, intellectuals like Thomas Henry Huxley and Peter Kropotkin debated fervently on whether animals cooperate with one another and whether animals displayed altruistic behaviors. In the late 1900s, some early research in animal cooperation focused on the benefits of group-living. While living in a group produces costs in the form of increased frequency of predator attacks and greater mating competition, some animals find that the benefits outweigh the costs. Animals that practice group-living often benefit from assistance in parasite removal, access to more mates, and conservation of energy in foraging. Initially, the most obvious form of animal cooperation was kin selection, but more recent studies focus on non-kin cooperation, where benefits may seem less obvious. Non-kin cooperation often involves many strategies that include manipulation and coercion, making these interactions more complicated to study. An example of manipulation is presented by the cuckoo, a brood parasite, which lays its eggs in the nest of a bird of another species. That bird then is tricked into feeding and caring for the cuckoo offspring. Although this phenomenon may look like cooperation at first glance, it only presents benefits to one recipient. In the past, simple game theory models, such as the classic cooperative hunting and Prisoner's dilemma models, were used to determine decisions made by animals in cooperative relationships. However, complicated interactions between animals have required the use of more complex economic models such as the Nash equilibrium. The Nash equilibrium is a type of non-cooperative game theory that assumes an individual's decision is influenced by its knowledge of the strategies of other individuals. This theory was novel because it took into consideration the higher cognitive capabilities of animals. The evolutionarily stable strategy is a refined version of the Nash equilibrium in that it assumes strategies are heritable and are subject to natural selection. Economic models are useful for analyzing cooperative relationships because they provide predictions on how individuals act when cooperation is an option. Economic models are not perfect, but they provide a general idea of how cooperative relationships work. Contrary to the mainstream dogma, a recently published article. using agent-based models demonstrates that several crucial mechanisms, such as kin selection, punishment, multilevel selection, and spatial structure, cannot rescue the evolution of cooperation. The new findings revive a long-standing puzzle in the evolution theory. In addition, the work has potential therapeutic benefits for numerous incurable diseases. See also Notes References Evolutionary biology Ethology
4839173	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Info-gap%20decision%20theory	Info-gap decision theory	Info-gap decision theory seeks to optimize robustness to failure under severe uncertainty, in particular applying sensitivity analysis of the stability radius type to perturbations in the value of a given estimate of the parameter of interest. It has some connections with Wald's maximin model; some authors distinguish them, others consider them instances of the same principle. It has been developed by Yakov Ben-Haim, and has found many applications and described as a theory for decision-making under "severe uncertainty". It has been criticized as unsuited for this purpose, and alternatives proposed, including such classical approaches as robust optimization. Summary Info-gap is a theory: it assists in decisions under uncertainty. It does this by using models, each built on the last. One begins with a model for the situation, where some parameter or parameters are unknown. Then takes an estimate for the parameter, and one analyzes how sensitive the outcomes under the model are to the error in this estimate. Uncertainty model Starting from the estimate, an uncertainty model measures how far away other values of the parameter are: as uncertainty increases, the set of values increase. Robustness/opportuneness model Given an uncertainty model, then for each decision, how uncertain can you be and be confident succeeding? (robustness) Also, given a windfall, how uncertain must you be for this result to be plausible? (opportuneness) Decision-making model One optimizes the robustness on the basis of the model. Given an outcome, which decision can stand the most uncertainty and give the outcome? Also, given a windfall, which decision requires the least uncertainty for the outcome? Models Info-gap theory models uncertainty as subsets around a point estimate : the estimate is accurate, and uncertainty increases, in general without bound. The uncertainty measures the "distance" between an estimate and a plausibility – providing an intermediate measure between a point (the point estimate) and all plausibilities, and giving a sensitivity measure: what is the margin of error? Info-gap analysis gives answers to such questions as: under what level of uncertainty can specific requirements be reliably assured (robustness), and what level of uncertainty is necessary to achieve certain windfalls (opportuneness). It can be used for satisficing, as an alternative to optimizing in the presence of uncertainty or bounded rationality; see robust optimization for an alternative approach. Comparison with classical decision theory In contrast to probabilistic decision theory, info-gap analysis does not use probability distributions: it measures the deviation of errors (differences between the parameter and the estimate), but not the probability of outcomes – in particular, the estimate is in no sense more or less likely than other points, as info-gap does not use probability. Info-gap, by not using probability distributions, is robust in that it is not sensitive to assumptions on probabilities of outcomes. However, the model of uncertainty does include a notion of "closer" and "more distant" outcomes, and thus includes some assumptions, and is not as robust as simply considering all possible outcomes, as in minimax. Further, it considers a fixed universe so it is not robust to unexpected (not modeled) events. The connection to minimax analysis has occasioned some controversy: (Ben-Haim 1999, pp. 271–2) argues that info-gap's robustness analysis, while similar in some ways, is not minimax worst-case analysis, as it does not evaluate decisions over all possible outcomes, while (Sniedovich, 2007) argues that the robustness analysis can be seen as an example of maximin (not minimax). This is discussed in criticism, below, and elaborated in the classical decision theory perspective. Basic example: budget As a simple example, consider a worker. They expect to make $20 per week, while if they make under $15 they will be unable to work and will sleep in the street, otherwise they can afford a night's entertainment. Using absolute error model: where one can say the robustness is $15, and opportuneness is $20: if they make $20, they will not sleep rough nor feast, and if they make within $20 of $200. But, if they erred by $20, they may sleep rough, while for more than $30, they may find themselves dining in opulence. As stated, this example is only descriptive, and does not enable any decision making – in applications, one considers alternative decision rules, and often situations with more complex uncertainty. The worker is thinking of moving elsewhere, where accommodation is cheaper. They will earn $26 per week, but hostels costs $20, while entertainment still costs $170. In that case the robustness will be $24, and the opportuneness will be $43. The second case has less robustness and less opportuneness. But, measuring uncertainty by relative error, robustness is 20% and opportuneness is 23%, while in the other robustness is 38% and opportuneness is 60%, so moving is less opportune. Info-gap models Info-gap can be applied to spaces of functions; in that case the uncertain parameter is a function with estimate and the nested subsets are sets of functions. One way to describe such a set of functions is by requiring values of u to be close to values of for all x, using a family of info-gap models on the values. For example, the above fraction error model for values becomes the fractional error model for functions by adding a parameter x to the definition: More generally, if is a family of info-gap models of values, then one obtains an info-gap model of functions in the same way: Motivation It is common to make decisions under uncertainty. What can be done to make good (or at least the best possible) decisions under conditions of uncertainty? Info-gap robustness analysis evaluates each feasible decision by asking: how much deviation from an estimate of a parameter value, function, or set, is permitted and yet "guarantee" acceptable performance? In everyday terms, the "robustness" of a decision is set by the size of deviation from an estimate that still leads to performance within requirements when using that decision. It is sometimes difficult to judge how much robustness is needed or sufficient. However, according to info-gap theory, the ranking of feasible decisions in terms of their degree of robustness is independent of such judgments. Info-gap theory also proposes an opportuneness function which evaluates the potential for windfall outcomes resulting from favorable uncertainty. Example: resource allocation Resource allocation Suppose you are a project manager, supervising two teams: orange and white. Some revenue at the end of the year will be achieved. You have a limited timescale, and you aim to decide how to space these resources between the orange and white, so that the total revenues are large. Introducing uncertainty The actual revenue may be different. For uncertainty level we can define an envelope. Lower uncertainty would correspond to a smaller envelope. These envelopes are called info-gap models of uncertainty, since they describe one's understanding of the uncertainty surrounding the revenue functions. We can find a model for the total revenue. Figure 5 shows the info-gap model of the total revenue. Robustness High revenues would typically earn a project manager the senior management's respect, but if the total revenues are below a certain threshold, it will cost said project manager's job. We will define such a threshold as a critical revenue, since total revenues beneath the critical revenue will be considered as failure. This is shown in Figure 6. If the uncertainty will increase, the envelope of uncertainty will become more inclusive, to include instances of the total revenue function that, for the specific allocation, yields a revenue smaller than the critical revenue. The robustness measures the immunity of a decision to failure. A robust satisficer is a decision maker that prefers choices with higher robustness. If, for some allocation , the correlation between the critical revenue and the robustness is illustrated, the result is a graph somewhat similar to that in Figure 7. This graph, called robustness curve of allocation , has two important features, that are common to (most) robustness curves: The curve is non-increasing. This captures the notion that when higher requirements (higher critical revenue) are in place, failure to meet the target is more likely (lower robustness). This is the tradeoff between quality and robustness. At the nominal revenue, that is, when the critical revenue equals the revenue under the nominal model (the estimate of the revenue functions), the robustness is zero. This is since a slight deviation from the estimate may decrease the total revenue. The decision depends on the value of failure. Opportuneness As well as the threat of losing your job, the senior management offers you a carrot: if the revenues are higher than some revenue, you will be rewarded. If the uncertainty will decrease, the envelope of uncertainty will become less inclusive, to exclude all instances of the total revenue function that, for the specific allocation, yields a revenue higher than the windfall revenue. If, for some allocation , we will illustrate the correlation between the windfall revenue and the robustness, we will have a graph somewhat similar to Figure 10. This graph, called opportuneness curve of allocation , has two important features, that are common to (most) opportuneness curves: The curve is non-decreasing. This captures the notion that when we have higher requirements (higher windfall revenue), we are more immune to failure (higher opportuneness, which is less desirable). That is, we need a more substantial deviation from the estimate in order to achieve our ambitious goal. This is the tradeoff between quality and opportuneness. At the nominal revenue, that is, when the critical revenue equals the revenue under the nominal model (our estimate of the revenue functions), the opportuneness is zero. This is since no deviation from the estimate is needed in order to achieve the windfall revenue. Treatment of severe uncertainty Note that in addition to the results generated by the estimate, two "possible" true values of the revenue are also displayed at a distance from the estimate. As indicated by the picture, since info-gap robustness model applies its Maximin analysis in an immediate neighborhood of the estimate, there is no assurance that the analysis is in fact conducted in the neighborhood of the true value of the revenue. In fact, under conditions of severe uncertainty this—methodologically speaking—is very unlikely. This raises the question: how valid/useful/meaningful are the results? Aren't we sweeping the severity of the uncertainty under the carpet? For example, suppose that a given allocation is found to be very fragile in the neighborhood of the estimate. Does this mean that this allocation is also fragile elsewhere in the region of uncertainty? Conversely, what guarantee is there that an allocation that is robust in the neighborhood of the estimate is also robust elsewhere in the region of uncertainty, indeed in the neighborhood of the true value of the revenue? More fundamentally, given that the results generated by info-gap are based on a local revenue/allocation analysis in the neighborhood of an estimate that is likely to be substantially wrong, we have no other choice—methodologically speaking—but to assume that the results generated by this analysis are equally likely to be substantially wrong. In other words, in accordance with the universal Garbage In - Garbage Out Axiom, we have to assume that the quality of the results generated by info-gap's analysis is only as good as the quality of the estimate on which the results are based. The picture speaks for itself. What emerges then is that info-gap theory is yet to explain in what way, if any, it actually attempts to deal with the severity of the uncertainty under consideration. Subsequent sections of this article will address this severity issue and its methodological and practical implications. A more detailed analysis of an illustrative numerical investment problem of this type can be found in Sniedovich (2007). Uncertainty models Info-gaps are quantified by info-gap models of uncertainty. An info-gap model is an unbounded family of nested sets. For example, a frequently encountered example is a family of nested ellipsoids all having the same shape. The structure of the sets in an info-gap model derives from the information about the uncertainty. In general terms, the structure of an info-gap model of uncertainty is chosen to define the smallest or strictest family of sets whose elements are consistent with the prior information. Since there is, usually, no known worst case, the family of sets may be unbounded. A common example of an info-gap model is the fractional error model. The best estimate of an uncertain function is , but the fractional error of this estimate is unknown. The following unbounded family of nested sets of functions is a fractional-error info-gap model: At any horizon of uncertainty , the set contains all functions whose fractional deviation from is no greater than . However, the horizon of uncertainty is unknown, so the info-gap model is an unbounded family of sets, and there is no worst case or greatest deviation. There are many other types of info-gap models of uncertainty. All info-gap models obey two basic axioms: Nesting. The info-gap model is nested if implies that: Contraction. The info-gap model is a singleton set containing its center point: The nesting axiom imposes the property of "clustering" which is characteristic of info-gap uncertainty. Furthermore, the nesting axiom implies that the uncertainty sets become more inclusive as grows, thus endowing with its meaning as a horizon of uncertainty. The contraction axiom implies that, at horizon of uncertainty zero, the estimate is correct. Recall that the uncertain element may be a parameter, vector, function or set. The info-gap model is then an unbounded family of nested sets of parameters, vectors, functions or sets. Sublevel sets For a fixed point estimate an info-gap model is often equivalent to a function defined as: meaning "the uncertainty of a point u is the minimum uncertainty such that u is in the set with that uncertainty". In this case, the family of sets can be recovered as the sublevel sets of : meaning: "the nested subset with horizon of uncertainty consists of all points with uncertainty less than or equal to ". Conversely, given a function satisfying the axiom (equivalently, if and only if ), it defines an info-gap model via the sublevel sets. For instance, if the region of uncertainty is a metric space, then the uncertainty function can simply be the distance, so the nested subsets are simply This always defines an info-gap model, as distances are always non-negative (axiom of non-negativity), and satisfies (info-gap axiom of contraction) because the distance between two points is zero if and only if they are equal (the identity of indiscernibles); nesting follows by construction of sublevel set. Not all info-gap models arise as sublevel sets: for instance, if for all but not for (it has uncertainty "just more" than 1), then the minimum above is not defined; one can replace it by an infimum, but then the resulting sublevel sets will not agree with the infogap model: but The effect of this distinction is very minor, however, as it modifies sets by less than changing the horizon of uncertainty by any positive number however small. Robustness and opportuneness Uncertainty may be either pernicious or propitious. That is, uncertain variations may be either adverse or favorable. Adversity entails the possibility of failure, while favorability is the opportunity for sweeping success. Info-gap decision theory is based on quantifying these two aspects of uncertainty, and choosing an action which addresses one or the other or both of them simultaneously. The pernicious and propitious aspects of uncertainty are quantified by two "immunity functions": the robustness function expresses the immunity to failure, while the opportuneness function expresses the immunity to windfall gain. Robustness and opportuneness functions The robustness function expresses the greatest level of uncertainty at which failure cannot occur; the opportuneness function is the least level of uncertainty which entails the possibility of sweeping success. The robustness and opportuneness functions address, respectively, the pernicious and propitious facets of uncertainty. Let be a decision vector of parameters such as design variables, time of initiation, model parameters or operational options. We can verbally express the robustness and opportuneness functions as the maximum or minimum of a set of values of the uncertainty parameter of an info-gap model: {\| width="100%" border="0" \| \| (robustness) \| (1a) \|- \| \| (opportuneness) \| (2a) \|} Formally, {\| width="100%" border="0" \| \| (robustness) \| (1b) \|- \| \| (opportuneness) \| (2b) \|} We can "read" eq. (1) as follows. The robustness of decision vector is the greatest value of the horizon of uncertainty for which specified minimal requirements are always satisfied. expresses robustness — the degree of resistance to uncertainty and immunity against failure — so a large value of is desirable. Robustness is defined as a worst-case scenario up to the horizon of uncertainty: how large can the horizon of uncertainty be and still, even in the worst case, achieve the critical level of outcome? Eq. (2) states that the opportuneness is the least level of uncertainty which must be tolerated in order to enable the possibility of sweeping success as a result of decisions . is the immunity against windfall reward, so a small value of is desirable. A small value of reflects the opportune situation that great reward is possible even in the presence of little ambient uncertainty. Opportuneness is defined as a best-case scenario up to the horizon of uncertainty: how small can the horizon of uncertainty be and still, in the best case, achieve the windfall reward? The immunity functions and are complementary and are defined in an anti-symmetric sense. Thus "bigger is better" for while "big is bad" for . The immunity functions — robustness and opportuneness — are the basic decision functions in info-gap decision theory. Optimization The robustness function involves a maximization, but not of the performance or outcome of the decision: in general the outcome could be arbitrarily bad. Rather, it maximizes the level of uncertainty that would be required for the outcome to fail. The greatest tolerable uncertainty is found at which decision satisfices the performance at a critical survival-level. One may establish one's preferences among the available actions according to their robustnesses , whereby larger robustness engenders higher preference. In this way the robustness function underlies a satisficing decision algorithm which maximizes the immunity to pernicious uncertainty. The opportuneness function in eq. (2) involves a minimization, however not, as might be expected, of the damage which can accrue from unknown adverse events. The least horizon of uncertainty is sought at which decision enables (but does not necessarily guarantee) large windfall gain. Unlike the robustness function, the opportuneness function does not satisfice, it "windfalls". Windfalling preferences are those which prefer actions for which the opportuneness function takes a small value. When is used to choose an action , one is "windfalling" by optimizing the opportuneness from propitious uncertainty in an attempt to enable highly ambitious goals or rewards. Given a scalar reward function , depending on the decision vector and the info-gap-uncertain function , the minimal requirement in eq. (1) is that the reward be no less than a critical value . Likewise, the sweeping success in eq. (2) is attainment of a "wildest dream" level of reward which is much greater than . Usually neither of these threshold values, and , is chosen irrevocably before performing the decision analysis. Rather, these parameters enable the decision maker to explore a range of options. In any case the windfall reward is greater, usually much greater, than the critical reward : The robustness and opportuneness functions of eqs. (1) and (2) can now be expressed more explicitly: {\| border="0" width="100%" \| \| (3) \|- \| \| (4) \|} is the greatest level of uncertainty consistent with guaranteed reward no less than the critical reward , while is the least level of uncertainty which must be accepted in order to facilitate (but not guarantee) windfall as great as . The complementary or anti-symmetric structure of the immunity functions is evident from eqs. (3) and (4). These definitions can be modified to handle multi-criterion reward functions. Likewise, analogous definitions apply when is a loss rather than a reward. Decision rules Based on these function, one can then decided on a course of action by optimizing for uncertainty: choose the decision which is most robust (can withstand the greatest uncertainty; "satisficing"), or choose the decision which requires the least uncertainty to achieve a windfall. Formally, optimizing for robustness or optimizing for opportuneness yields a preference relation on the set of decisions, and the decision rule is the "optimize with respect to this preference". In the below, let be the set of all available or feasible decision vectors . Robust-satisficing The robustness function generates robust-satisficing preferences on the options: decisions are ranked in increasing order of robustness, for a given critical reward, i.e., by value, meaning if A robust-satisficing decision is one which maximizes the robustness and satisfices the performance at the critical level . Denote the maximum robustness by (formally for the maximum robustness for a given critical reward), and the corresponding decision (or decisions) by (formally, the critical optimizing action for a given level of critical reward): Usually, though not invariably, the robust-satisficing action depends on the critical reward . Opportune-windfalling Conversely, one may optimize opportuneness: the opportuneness function generates opportune-windfalling preferences on the options: decisions are ranked in decreasing order of opportuneness, for a given windfall reward, i.e., by value, meaning if The opportune-windfalling decision, , minimizes the opportuneness function on the set of available decisions. Denote the minimum opportuneness by (formally for the minimum opportuneness for a given windfall reward), and the corresponding decision (or decisions) by (formally, the windfall optimizing action for a given level of windfall reward): The two preference rankings, as well as the corresponding the optimal decisions and , may be different, and may vary depending on the values of and Applications Info-gap theory has generated a lot of literature. Info-gap theory has been studied or applied in a range of applications including engineering, biological conservation, theoretical biology, homeland security, economics, project management and statistics. Foundational issues related to info-gap theory have also been studied. The remainder of this section describes in a little more detail the kind of uncertainties addressed by info-gap theory. Although many published works are mentioned below, no attempt is made here to present insights from these papers. The emphasis is not upon elucidation of the concepts of info-gap theory, but upon the context where it is used and the goals. Engineering A typical engineering application is the vibration analysis of a cracked beam, where the location, size, shape and orientation of the crack is unknown and greatly influence the vibration dynamics. Very little is usually known about these spatial and geometrical uncertainties. The info-gap analysis allows one to model these uncertainties, and to determine the degree of robustness - to these uncertainties - of properties such as vibration amplitude, natural frequencies, and natural modes of vibration. Another example is the structural design of a building subject to uncertain loads such as from wind or earthquakes. The response of the structure depends strongly on the spatial and temporal distribution of the loads. However, storms and earthquakes are highly idiosyncratic events, and the interaction between the event and the structure involves very site-specific mechanical properties which are rarely known. The info-gap analysis enables the design of the structure to enhance structural immunity against uncertain deviations from design-base or estimated worst-case loads. Another engineering application involves the design of a neural net for detecting faults in a mechanical system, based on real-time measurements. A major difficulty is that faults are highly idiosyncratic, so that training data for the neural net will tend to differ substantially from data obtained from real-time faults after the net has been trained. The info-gap robustness strategy enables one to design the neural net to be robust to the disparity between training data and future real events. Biology The conservation biologist faces info-gaps in using biological models. They use info-gap robustness curves to select among management options for spruce-budworm populations in Eastern Canada. Burgman uses the fact that the robustness curves of different alternatives can intersect. Project management Project management is another area where info-gap uncertainty is common. The project manager often has very limited information about the duration and cost of some of the tasks in the project, and info-gap robustness can assist in project planning and integration. Financial economics is another area where the future is fraught with surprises, which may be either pernicious or propitious. Info-gap robustness and opportuneness analyses can assist in portfolio design, credit rationing, and other applications. Limitations In applying info-gap theory, one must remain aware of certain limitations. Firstly, info-gap makes assumptions, namely on universe in question, and the degree of uncertainty – the info-gap model is a model of degrees of uncertainty or similarity of various assumptions, within a given universe. Info-gap does not make probability assumptions within this universe – it is non-probabilistic – but does quantify a notion of "distance from the estimate". In brief, info-gap makes fewer assumptions than a probabilistic method, but does make some assumptions. For instance, a simple model of daily stock market returns – which by definition fall in the range – may include extreme moves such as Black Monday (1987) but might not model the market breakdowns following the September 11 attacks: it considers the "known unknowns", not the "unknown unknowns". This is a general criticism of much decision theory, and is by no means specific to info-gap, but info-gap is not immune to it. Secondly, there is no natural scale: is uncertainty of small or large? Different models of uncertainty give different scales, and require judgment and understanding of the domain and the model of uncertainty. Similarly, measuring differences between outcomes requires judgment and understanding of the domain. Thirdly, if the universe under consideration is larger than a significant horizon of uncertainty, and outcomes for these distant points are significantly different from points near the estimate, then conclusions of robustness or opportuneness analyses will generally be: "one must be very confident of one's assumptions, else outcomes may be expected to vary significantly from projections" – a cautionary conclusion. Disclaimer and summary The robustness and opportuneness functions can inform decision. For example, a change in decision increasing robustness may increase or decrease opportuneness. From a subjective stance, robustness and opportuneness both trade-off against aspiration for outcome: robustness and opportuneness deteriorate as the decision maker's aspirations increase. Robustness is zero for model-best anticipated outcomes. Robustness curves for alternative decisions may cross as a function of aspiration, implying reversal of preference. Various theorems identify conditions where larger info-gap robustness implies larger probability of success, regardless of the underlying probability distribution. However, these conditions are technical, and do not translate into any common-sense, verbal recommendations, limiting such applications of info-gap theory by non-experts. Criticism A general criticism of non-probabilistic decision rules, discussed in detail at decision theory: alternatives to probability theory, is that optimal decision rules (formally, admissible decision rules) can always be derived by probabilistic methods, with a suitable utility function and prior distribution (this is the statement of the complete class theorems), and thus that non-probabilistic methods such as info-gap are unnecessary and do not yield new or better decision rules. A more general criticism of decision making under uncertainty is the impact of outsized, unexpected events, ones that are not captured by the model. This is discussed particularly in black swan theory, and info-gap, used in isolation, is vulnerable to this, as are a fortiori all decision theories that use a fixed universe of possibilities, notably probabilistic ones. Sniedovich raises two points to info-gap decision theory, one substantive, one scholarly: 1. the info-gap uncertainty model is flawed and oversold One should consider the range of possibilities, not its subsets. Sniedovich argues that info-gap decision theory is therefore a "voodoo decision theory." 2. info-gap is maximin Ben-Haim states (Ben-Haim 1999, pp. 271–2) that "robust reliability is emphatically not a [min-max] worst-case analysis". Note that Ben-Haim compares info-gap to minimax, while Sniedovich considers it a case of maximin. Sniedovich has challenged the validity of info-gap theory for making decisions under severe uncertainty. Sniedovich notes that the info-gap robustness function is "local" to the region around , where is likely to be substantially in error. Maximin Symbolically, max assuming min (worst-case) outcome, or maximin. In other words, while it is not a maximin analysis of outcome over the universe of uncertainty, it is a maximin analysis over a properly construed decision space. Ben-Haim argues that info-gap's robustness model is not min-max/maximin analysis because it is not worst-case analysis of outcomes; it is a satisficing model, not an optimization model – a (straightforward) maximin analysis would consider worst-case outcomes over the entire space which, since uncertainty is often potentially unbounded, would yield an unbounded bad worst case. Stability radius Sniedovich has shown that info-gap's robustness model is a simple stability radius model, namely a local stability model of the generic form where denotes a ball of radius centered at and denotes the set of values of that satisfy pre-determined stability conditions. In other words, info-gap's robustness model is a stability radius model characterized by a stability requirement of the form . Since stability radius models are designed for the analysis of small perturbations in a given nominal value of a parameter, Sniedovich argues that info-gap's robustness model is unsuitable for the treatment of severe uncertainty characterized by a poor estimate and a vast uncertainty space. Discussion Satisficing and bounded rationality It is correct that the info-gap robustness function is local, and has restricted quantitative value in some cases. However, a major purpose of decision analysis is to provide focus for subjective judgments. That is, regardless of the formal analysis, a framework for discussion is provided. Without entering into any particular framework, or characteristics of frameworks in general, discussion follows about proposals for such frameworks. Simon introduced the idea of bounded rationality. Limitations on knowledge, understanding, and computational capability constrain the ability of decision makers to identify optimal choices. Simon advocated satisficing rather than optimizing: seeking adequate (rather than optimal) outcomes given available resources. Schwartz, Conlisk and others discuss extensive evidence for the phenomenon of bounded rationality among human decision makers, as well as for the advantages of satisficing when knowledge and understanding are deficient. The info-gap robustness function provides a means of implementing a satisficing strategy under bounded rationality. For instance, in discussing bounded rationality and satisficing in conservation and environmental management, Burgman notes that "Info-gap theory ... can function sensibly when there are 'severe' knowledge gaps." The info-gap robustness and opportuneness functions provide "a formal framework to explore the kinds of speculations that occur intuitively when examining decision options." Burgman then proceeds to develop an info-gap robust-satisficing strategy for protecting the endangered orange-bellied parrot. Similarly, Vinot, Cogan and Cipolla discuss engineering design and note that "the downside of a model-based analysis lies in the knowledge that the model behavior is only an approximation to the real system behavior. Hence the question of the honest designer: how sensitive is my measure of design success to uncertainties in my system representation? ... It is evident that if model-based analysis is to be used with any level of confidence then ... [one must] attempt to satisfy an acceptable sub-optimal level of performance while remaining maximally robust to the system uncertainties." They proceed to develop an info-gap robust-satisficing design procedure for an aerospace application. Alternatives Of course, decision in the face of uncertainty is nothing new, and attempts to deal with it have a long history. A number of authors have noted and discussed similarities and differences between info-gap robustness and minimax or worst-case methods . Sniedovich has demonstrated formally that the info-gap robustness function can be represented as a maximin optimization, and is thus related to Wald's minimax theory. Sniedovich has claimed that info-gap's robustness analysis is conducted in the neighborhood of an estimate that is likely to be substantially wrong, concluding that the resulting robustness function is equally likely to be substantially wrong. On the other hand, the estimate is the best one has, so it is useful to know if it can err greatly and still yield an acceptable outcome. This critical question clearly raises the issue of whether robustness (as defined by info-gap theory) is qualified to judge whether confidence is warranted, and how it compares to methods used to inform decisions under uncertainty using considerations not limited to the neighborhood of a bad initial guess. Answers to these questions vary with the particular problem at hand. Some general comments follow. Sensitivity analysis Sensitivity analysis – how sensitive conclusions are to input assumptions – can be performed independently of a model of uncertainty: most simply, one may take two different assumed values for an input and compares the conclusions. From this perspective, info-gap can be seen as a technique of sensitivity analysis, though by no means the only. Robust optimization The robust optimization literature provides methods and techniques that take a global approach to robustness analysis. These methods directly address decision under severe uncertainty, and have been used for this purpose for more than thirty years now. Wald's Maximin model is the main instrument used by these methods. The principal difference between the Maximin model employed by info-gap and the various Maximin models employed by robust optimization methods is in the manner in which the total region of uncertainty is incorporated in the robustness model. Info-gap takes a local approach that concentrates on the immediate neighborhood of the estimate. In sharp contrast, robust optimization methods set out to incorporate in the analysis the entire region of uncertainty, or at least an adequate representation thereof. In fact, some of these methods do not even use an estimate. Comparative analysis Classical decision theory, offers two approaches to decision-making under severe uncertainty, namely maximin and Laplaces' principle of insufficient reason (assume all outcomes equally likely); these may be considered alternative solutions to the problem info-gap addresses. Further, as discussed at decision theory: alternatives to probability theory, probabilists, particularly Bayesians probabilists, argue that optimal decision rules (formally, admissible decision rules) can always be derived by probabilistic methods (this is the statement of the complete class theorems), and thus that non-probabilistic methods such as info-gap are unnecessary and do not yield new or better decision rules. Maximin As attested by the rich literature on robust optimization, maximin provides a wide range of methods for decision making in the face of severe uncertainty. Indeed, as discussed in criticism of info-gap decision theory, info-gap's robustness model can be interpreted as an instance of the general maximin model. Bayesian analysis As for Laplaces' principle of insufficient reason, in this context it is convenient to view it as an instance of Bayesian analysis. The essence of the Bayesian analysis is applying probabilities for different possible realizations of the uncertain parameters. In the case of Knightian (non-probabilistic) uncertainty, these probabilities represent the decision maker's "degree of belief" in a specific realization. In our example, suppose there are only five possible realizations of the uncertain revenue to allocation function. The decision maker believes that the estimated function is the most likely, and that the likelihood decreases as the difference from the estimate increases. Figure 11 exemplifies such a probability distribution. Now, for any allocation, one can construct a probability distribution of the revenue, based on his prior beliefs. The decision maker can then choose the allocation with the highest expected revenue, with the lowest probability for an unacceptable revenue, etc. The most problematic step of this analysis is the choice of the realizations probabilities. When there is an extensive and relevant past experience, an expert may use this experience to construct a probability distribution. But even with extensive past experience, when some parameters change, the expert may only be able to estimate that is more likely than , but will not be able to reliably quantify this difference. Furthermore, when conditions change drastically, or when there is no past experience at all, it may prove to be difficult even estimating whether is more likely than . Nevertheless, methodologically speaking, this difficulty is not as problematic as basing the analysis of a problem subject to severe uncertainty on a single point estimate and its immediate neighborhood, as done by info-gap. And what is more, contrary to info-gap, this approach is global, rather than local. Still, it must be stressed that Bayesian analysis does not expressly concern itself with the question of robustness. Bayesian analysis raises the issue of learning from experience and adjusting probabilities accordingly. In other words, decision is not a one-stop process, but profits from a sequence of decisions and observations. Classical decision theory perspective Sniedovich raises two points to info-gap, from the point of view of classical decision theory, one substantive, one scholarly: the info-gap uncertainty model is flawed and oversold Under severe uncertainty, one should use global decision theory , not local decision theory. info-gap is maximin Ben-Haim (2006, p.xii) claims that info-gap is "radically different from all current theories of decision under uncertainty,". Ben-Haim states (Ben-Haim 1999, pp. 271–2) that "robust reliability is emphatically not a [min-max] worst-case analysis". Sniedovich has challenged the validity of info-gap theory for making decisions under severe uncertainty. In the framework of classical decision theory, info-gap's robustness model can be construed as an instance of Wald's Maximin model and its opportuneness model is an instance of the classical Minimin model. Both operate in the neighborhood of an estimate of the parameter of interest whose true value is subject to severe uncertainty and therefore is likely to be substantially wrong. Moreover, the considerations brought to bear upon the decision process itself also originate in the locality of this unreliable estimate, and so may or may not be reflective of the entire range of decisions and uncertainties. Background, working assumptions, and a look ahead Now, as portrayed in the info-gap literature, Info-Gap was designed expressly as a methodology for solving decision problems that are subject to severe uncertainty. And what is more, its aim is to seek solutions that are robust. Thus, to have a clear picture of info-gap's modus operandi and its role and place in decision theory and robust optimization, it is imperative to examine it within this context. In other words, it is necessary to establish info-gap's relation to classical decision theory and robust optimization. To this end, the following questions must be addressed: What are the characteristics of decision problems that are subject to severe uncertainty? What difficulties arise in the modelling and solution of such problems? What type of robustness is sought? How does info-gap theory address these issues? In what way is info-gap decision theory similar to and/or different from other theories for decision under uncertainty? Two important points need to be elucidated in this regard at the outset: Considering the severity of the uncertainty that info-gap was designed to tackle, it is essential to clarify the difficulties posed by severe uncertainty. Since info-gap is a non-probabilistic method that seeks to maximize robustness to uncertainty, it is imperative to compare it to the single most important "non-probabilistic" model in classical decision theory, namely Wald's Maximin paradigm (Wald 1945, 1950). After all, this paradigm has dominated the scene in classical decision theory for well over sixty years now. So, first let us clarify the assumptions that are implied by severe uncertainty. Working assumptions Info-gap decision theory employs three simple constructs to capture the uncertainty associated with decision problems: A parameter whose true value is subject to severe uncertainty. A region of uncertainty where the true value of lies. An estimate of the true value of . It should be pointed out, though, that as such these constructs are generic, meaning that they can be employed to model situations where the uncertainty is not severe but mild, indeed very mild. So it is vital to be clear that to give apt expression to the severity of the uncertainty, in the Info-Gap framework these three constructs are given specific meaning. The region of uncertainty is relatively large. In fact, Ben-Haim (2006, p. 210) indicates that in the context of info-gap decision theory most of the commonly encountered regions of uncertainty are unbounded. The estimate is a poor approximation of the true value of . That is, the estimate is a poor indication of the true value of (Ben-Haim, 2006, p. 280) and is likely to be substantially wrong (Ben-Haim, 2006, p. 281). In the picture represents the true (unknown) value of . The point to note here is that conditions of severe uncertainty entail that the estimate can—relatively speaking—be very distant from the true value . This is particularly pertinent for methodologies, like info-gap, that seek robustness to uncertainty. Indeed, assuming otherwise would—methodologically speaking—be tantamount to engaging in wishful thinking. Wald's Maximin paradigm The basic idea behind this famous paradigm can be expressed in plain language as follows: We are to adopt the alternative the worst outcome of which is superior to the worst outcome of the others.Rawls(1971, p. 152) Thus, according to this paradigm, in the framework of decision-making under severe uncertainty, the robustness of an alternative is a measure of how well this alternative can cope with the worst uncertain outcome that it can generate. Needless to say, this attitude towards severe uncertainty often leads to the selection of highly conservative alternatives. This is precisely the reason that this paradigm is not always a satisfactory methodology for decision-making under severe uncertainty (Tintner 1952). As indicated in the overview, info-gap's robustness model is a Maximin model in disguise. More specifically, it is a simple instance of Wald's Maximin model where: The region of uncertainty associated with an alternative decision is an immediate neighborhood of the estimate . The uncertain outcomes of an alternative are determined by a characteristic function of the performance requirement under consideration. Thus, aside from the conservatism issue, a far more serious issue must be addressed. This is the validity issue arising from the local nature of info-gap's robustness analysis. Local vs global robustness The validity of the results generated by info-gap's robustness analysis are contingent on the quality of the estimate . According to info-gap's own working assumptions, this estimate is poor and likely to be substantially wrong (Ben-Haim, 2006, p. 280-281). The trouble with this feature of info-gap's robustness model is brought out more forcefully by the picture. The white circle represents the immediate neighborhood of the estimate on which the Maximin analysis is conducted. Since the region of uncertainty is large and the quality of the estimate is poor, it is very likely that the true value of is distant from the point at which the Maximin analysis is conducted. So given the severity of the uncertainty under consideration, how valid/useful can this type of Maximin analysis really be? What extent a local robustness analysis a la Maximin in the immediate neighborhood of a poor estimate can aptly represent a large region of uncertainty. Robust optimization methods invariably take a far more global view of robustness. So much so that scenario planning and scenario generation are central issues in this area. This reflects a strong commitment to an adequate representation of the entire region of uncertainty in the definition of robustness and in the robustness analysis itself. This has to do with the portrayal of info-gap's contribution to the state of the art in decision theory, and its role and place vis-a-vis other methodologies. Role and place in decision theory Info-gap is emphatic about its advancement of the state of the art in decision theory (color is used here for emphasis): Info-gap decision theory is radically different from all current theories of decision under uncertainty. The difference originates in the modelling of uncertainty as an information gap rather than as a probability. Ben-Haim (2006, p.xii) In this book we concentrate on the fairly new concept of information-gap uncertainty, whose differences from more classical approaches to uncertainty are real and deep. Despite the power of classical decision theories, in many areas such as engineering, economics, management, medicine and public policy, a need has arisen for a different format for decisions based on severely uncertain evidence. Ben-Haim (2006, p. 11) These strong claims must be substantiated. In particular, a clear-cut, unequivocal answer must be given to the following question: in what way is info-gap's generic robustness model different, indeed radically different, from worst-case analysis a la Maximin? Subsequent sections of this article describe various aspects of info-gap decision theory and its applications, how it proposes to cope with the working assumptions outlined above, the local nature of info-gap's robustness analysis and its intimate relationship with Wald's classical Maximin paradigm and worst-case analysis. Invariance property The main point to keep in mind here is that info-gap's raison d'être is to provide a methodology for decision under severe uncertainty. This means that its primary test would be in the efficacy of its handling of and coping with severe uncertainty. To this end it must be established first how Info-Gap's robustness/opportuneness models behave/fare, as the severity of the uncertainty is increased/decreased. Second, it must be established whether info-gap's robustness/opportuneness models give adequate expression to the potential variability of the performance function over the entire region of uncertainty. This is particularly important because Info—Gap is usually concerned with relatively large, indeed unbounded, regions of uncertainty. So, let denote the total region of uncertainty and consider these key questions: How does the robustness/opportuneness analysis respond to an increase/decrease in the size of ? How does an increase/decrease in the size of affect the robustness or opportuneness of a decision? How representative are the results generated by info-gap's robustness/opportuneness analysis of what occurs in the relatively large total region of uncertainty ? Suppose then that the robustness has been computed for a decision and it is observed that where for some . The question is then: how would the robustness of , namely , be affected if the region of uncertainty would be say, twice as large as , or perhaps even 10 times as large as ? Consider then the following result which is a direct consequence of the local nature of info-gap's robustness/opportuneness analysis and the nesting property of info-gaps' regions of uncertainty (Sniedovich 2007): Invariance theorem The robustness of decision is invariant with the size of the total region of uncertainty for all such that {\| width="70%" border="0" \| (7) \| for some \|} In other words, for any given decision, info-gap's analysis yields the same results for all total regions of uncertainty that contain . This applies to both the robustness and opportuneness models. This is illustrated in the picture: the robustness of a given decision does not change notwithstanding an increase in the region of uncertainty from to . In short, by dint of focusing exclusively on the immediate neighborhood of the estimate info-gap's robustness/opportuneness models are inherently local. For this reason they are -- in principle -- incapable of incorporating in the analysis of and regions of uncertainty that lie outside the neighborhoods and of the estimate , respectively. To illustrate, consider a simple numerical example where the total region of uncertainty is the estimate is and for some decision we obtain . The picture is this: where the term "No man's land" refers to the part of the total region of uncertainty that is outside the region . Note that in this case the robustness of decision is based on its (worst-case) performance over no more than a minuscule part of the total region of uncertainty that is an immediate neighborhood of the estimate . Since usually info-gap's total region of uncertainty is unbounded, this illustration represents a usual case rather than an exception. Info-gap's robustness/opportuneness are by definition local properties. As such they cannot assess the performance of decisions over the total region of uncertainty. For this reason it is not clear how Info-Gap's Robustness/Opportuneness models can provide a meaningful/sound/useful basis for decision under severe uncertainty where the estimate is poor and is likely to be substantially wrong. This crucial issue is addressed in subsequent sections of this article. Maximin/Minimin: playing robustness/opportuneness games with Nature For well over sixty years now Wald's Maximin model has figured in classical decision theory and related areas – such as robust optimization - as the foremost non-probabilistic paradigm for modeling and treatment of severe uncertainty. Info-gap is propounded (e.g. Ben-Haim 2001, 2006) as a new non-probabilistic theory that is radically different from all current decision theories for decision under uncertainty. So, it is imperative to examine in this discussion in what way, if any, is info-gap's robustness model radically different from Maximin. For one thing, there is a well-established assessment of the utility of Maximin. For example, Berger (Chapter 5) suggests that even in situations where no prior information is available (a best case for Maximin), Maximin can lead to bad decision rules and be hard to implement. He recommends Bayesian methodology. And as indicated above, It should also be remarked that the minimax principle even if it is applicable leads to an extremely conservative policy. Tintner (1952, p. 25) However, quite apart from the ramifications that establishing this point might have for the utility of info-gaps' robustness model, the reason that it behooves us to clarify the relationship between info-gap and Maximin is the centrality of the latter in decision theory. After all, this is a major classical decision methodology. So, any theory claiming to furnish a new non-probabilistic methodology for decision under severe uncertainty would be expected to be compared to this stalwart of decision theory. And yet, not only is a comparison of info-gap's robustness model to Maximin absent from the three books expounding info-gap (Ben-Haim 1996, 2001, 2006), Maximin is not even mentioned in them as the major decision theoretic methodology for severe uncertainty that it is. Elsewhere in the info-gap literature, one can find discussions dealing with similarities and differences between these two paradigms, as well as discussions on the relationship between info-gap and worst-case analysis, However, the general impression is that the intimate connection between these two paradigms has not been identified. Indeed, the opposite is argued. For instance, Ben-Haim (2005) argues that info-gap's robustness model is similar to Maximin but, is not a Maximin model. The following quote eloquently expresses Ben-Haim's assessment of info-gap's relationship to Maximin and it provides ample motivation for the analysis that follows. We note that robust reliability is emphatically not a worst-case analysis. In classical worst-case min-max analysis the designer minimizes the impact of the maximally damaging case. But an info-gap model of uncertainty is an unbounded family of nested sets: , for all . Consequently, there is no worst case: any adverse occurrence is less damaging than some other more extreme event occurring at a larger value of . What Eq. (1) expresses is the greatest level of uncertainty consistent with no-failure. When the designer chooses q to maximize he is maximizing his immunity to an unbounded ambient uncertainty. The closest this comes to "min-maxing" is that the design is chosen so that "bad" events (causing reward less than ) occur as "far away" as possible (beyond a maximized value of ). Ben-Haim, 1999, pp. 271–2 The point to note here is that this statement misses the fact that the horizon of uncertainty is bounded above (implicitly) by the performance requirement and that info-gap conducts its worst-case analysis—one analysis at a time for a given -- within each of the regions of uncertainty . In short, given the discussions in the info-gap literature on this issue, it is obvious that the kinship between info-gap's robustness model and Wald's Maximin model, as well as info-gap's kinship with other models of classical decision theory must be brought to light. So, the objective in this section is to place info-gap's robustness and opportuneness models in their proper context, namely within the wider frameworks of classical decision theory and robust optimization. The discussion is based on the classical decision theoretic perspective outlined by Sniedovich (2007) and on standard texts in this area (e.g. Resnik 1987, French 1988). Certain parts of the exposition that follows have a mathematical slant. This is unavoidable because info-gap's models are mathematical. Generic models The basic conceptual framework that classical decision theory provides for dealing with uncertainty is that of a two-player game. The two players are the decision maker (DM) and Nature, where Nature represents uncertainty. More specifically, Nature represents the DM's attitude towards uncertainty and risk. Note that a clear distinction is made in this regard between a pessimistic decision maker and an optimistic decision maker, namely between a worst-case attitude and a best-case attitude. A pessimistic decision maker assumes that Nature plays against him whereas an optimistic decision maker assumes that Nature plays with him. To express these intuitive notions mathematically, classical decision theory uses a simple model consisting of the following three constructs: A set representing the decision space available to the DM. A set of sets representing state spaces associated with the decisions in . A function stipulating the outcomes generated by the decision-state pairs . The function is called objective function, payoff function, return function, cost function etc. The decision-making process (game) defined by these objects consists of three steps: Step 1: The DM selects a decision . Step 2: In response, given , Nature selects a state . Step 3: The outcome is allotted to DM. Note that in contrast to games considered in classical game theory, here the first player (DM) moves first so that the second player (Nature) knows what decision was selected by the first player prior to selecting her decision. Thus, the conceptual and technical complications regarding the existence of Nash equilibrium point are not pertinent here. Nature is not an independent player, it is a conceptual device describing the DM's attitude towards uncertainty and risk. At first sight, the simplicity of this framework may strike one as naive. Yet, as attested by the variety of specific instances that it encompasses it is rich in possibilities, flexible, and versatile. For the purposes of this discussion it suffices to consider the following classical generic setup: where and represent the DM's and Nature's optimality criteria, respectively, that is, each is equal to either or . If then the game is cooperative, and if then the game is non-cooperative. Thus, this format represents four cases: two non-cooperative games (Maximin and Minimax) and two cooperative games (Minimin, and Maximax). The respective formulations are as follows: Each case is specified by a pair of optimality criteria employed by DM and Nature. For example, Maximin depicts a situation where DM strives to maximize the outcome and Nature strives to minimize it. Similarly, the Minimin paradigm represents situations where both DM and Nature are striving to in minimize the outcome. Of particular interest to this discussion are the Maximin and Minimin paradigms because they subsume info-gap's robustness and opportuneness models, respectively. So, here they are: Step 1: The DM selects a decision with a view to maximize the outcome . Step 2: In response, given , Nature selects a state in that minimizes over . Step 3: The outcome is allotted to DM. Step 1: The DM selects a decision with a view to minimizes the outcome . Step 2: In response, given , Nature selects a state in that minimizes over . Step 3: The outcome is allotted to DM. With this in mind, consider now info-gap's robustness and opportuneness models. Info-gap's robustness model From a classical decision theoretic point of view info-gap's robustness model is a game between the DM and Nature, where the DM selects the value of (aiming for the largest possible) whereas Nature selects the worst value of in . In this context the worst value of pertaining to a given pair is a that violates the performance requirement . This is achieved by minimizing over . There are various ways to incorporate the DM's objective and Nature's antagonistic response in a single outcome. For instance, one can use the following characteristic function for this purpose: Note that, as desired, for any triplet of interest we have hence from the DM's point of view satisficing the performance constraint is equivalent to maximizing . In short, Step 1: The DM selects a horizon of uncertainty with a view to maximize the outcome . Step 2: In response, given , Nature selects a that minimizes over . Step 3: The outcome is allotted to DM. Clearly, the DM's optimal alternative is to select the largest value of such that the worst satisfies the performance requirement. Maximin Theorem As shown in Sniedovich (2007), Info-gap's robustness model is a simple instance of Wald's maximin model. Specifically, Info-gap's opportuneness model By the same token, info-gap's opportuneness model is a simple instance of the generic Minimin model. That is, where observing that, as desired, for any triplet of interest we have hence, for a given pair , the DM would satisfy the performance requirement via minimizing the outcome over . Nature's behavior is a reflection of her sympathetic stance here. Remark: This attitude towards risk and uncertainty which assumes that Nature will play with us, is rather naive. As noted by Resnik (1987, p. 32) "... But that rule surely would have few adherence...". Nevertheless, it is often used in combination with the Maximin rule in the formulation of Hurwicz's optimism-pessimisim rule (Resnik 1987, French 1988) with a view to mitigate the extreme conservatism of Maximin. Mathematical programming formulations To bring out more forcefully that info-gap's robustness model is an instance of the generic Maximin model, and info-gap's opportuneness model an instance of the generic Minimin model, it is instructive to examine the equivalent so called Mathematical Programming (MP) formats of these generic models (Ecker and Kupferschmid, 1988, pp. 24–25; Thie 1988 pp. 314–317; Kouvelis and Yu, 1997, p. 27): Thus, in the case of info-gap we have To verify the equivalence between info-gap's formats and the respective decision theoretic formats, recall that, by construction, for any triplet of interest we have This means that in the case of robustness/Maximin, an antagonistic Nature will (effectively) minimize by minimizing whereas in the case of opportuneness/Minimin a sympathetic Nature will (effectively) maximize by minimizing . Summary Info-gap's robustness analysis stipulates that given a pair , the worst element of is realized. This of course is a typical Maximin analysis. In the parlance of classical decision theory: The Robustness of decision is the largest horizon of uncertainty, , such that the worst value of in satisfies the performance requirement . Similarly, info-gap's opportuneness analysis stipulates that given a pair , the best element of is realized. This of course is a typical Minimin analysis. In the parlance of classical decision theory: The Opportuneness of decision is the smallest horizon of uncertainty, , such that the best value of in satisfies the performance requirement . The mathematical transliterations of these concepts are straightforward, resulting in typical Maximin/Minimin models, respectively. Far from being restrictive, the generic Maximin/Minimin models' lean structure is a blessing in disguise. The main point here is that the abstract character of the three basic constructs of the generic models Decision State Outcome in effect allows for great flexibility in modeling. A more detailed analysis is therefore required to bring out the full force of the relationship between info-gap and generic classical decision theoretic models. See #Notes on the art of math modeling. Treasure hunt The following is a pictorial summary of Sniedovich's (2007) discussion on local vs global robustness. For illustrative purposes it is cast here as a Treasure Hunt. It shows how the elements of info-gap's robustness model relate to one another and how the severe uncertainty is treated in the model. In summary: Info-gap's robustness model is a mathematical representation of a local worst-case analysis in the neighborhood of a given estimate of the true value of the parameter of interest. Under severe uncertainty the estimate is assumed to be a poor indication of the true value of the parameter and is likely to be substantially wrong. The fundamental question therefore is: Given the of the uncertainty nature of the analysis quality of the estimate how meaningful and useful are the results generated by the analysis, and how sound is the methodology as a whole? More on this criticism can be found on Sniedovich's web site. Notes on the art of math modeling Constraint satisficing vs payoff optimization Any satisficing problem can be formulated as an optimization problem. To see that this is so, let the objective function of the optimization problem be the indicator function of the constraints pertaining to the satisficing problem. Thus, if our concern is to identify a worst-case scenario pertaining to a constraint, this can be done via a suitable Maximin/Minimax worst-case analysis of the indicator function of the constraint. This means that the generic decision theoretic models can handle outcomes that are induced by constraint satisficing requirements rather than by say payoff maximization. In particular, note the equivalence where and therefore In practical terms, this means that an antagonistic Nature will aim to select a state that will violate the constraint whereas a sympathetic Nature will aim to select a state that will satisfy the constraint. As for the outcome, the penalty for violating the constraint is such that the decision maker will refrain from selecting a decision that will allow Nature to violate the constraint within the state space pertaining to the selected decision. The role of "min" and "max" It should be stressed that the feature according info-gap's robustness model its typical Maximin character is not the presence of both and in the formulation of the info-gap model. Rather, the reason for this is a deeper one. It goes to the heart of the conceptual framework that the Maximin model captures: Nature playing against the DM. This is what is crucial here. To see that this is so, let us generalize info-gap's robustness model and consider the following modified model instead: where in this context is some set and is some function on . Note that it is not assumed that is a real-valued function. Also note that "min" is absent from this model. All we need to do to incorporate a min into this model is to express the constraint as a worst-case requirement. This is a straightforward task, observing that for any triplet of interest we have where hence, which, of course, is a Maximin model a la Mathematical Programming. In short, Note that although the model on the left does not include an explicit "min", it is nevertheless a typical Maximin model. The feature rendering it a Maximin model is the requirement which lends itself to an intuitive worst-case formulation and interpretation. In fact, the presence of a double "max" in an info-gap robustness model does not necessarily alter the fact that this model is a Maximin model. For instance, consider the robustness model This is an instance of the following Maximin model where The "inner min" indicates that Nature plays against the DM—the "max" player—hence the model is a robustness model. The nature of the info-gap/maximin/minimin connection This modeling issue is discussed here because claims have been made that although there is a close relationship between info-gap's robustness and opportuneness models and the generic maximin and Minimin models, respectively, the description of info-gap as an instance of these models is too strong. The argument put forward is that although it is true that info-gap's robustness model can be expressed as a maximin model, the former is not an instance of the latter. This objection apparently stems from the fact that any optimization problem can be formulated as a maximin model by a simple employment of dummy variables. That is, clearly where for any arbitrary non-empty set . The point of this objection seems to be that we are running the risk of watering down the meaning of the term instance if we thus contend that any minimization problem is an instance of the maximin model. It must therefore be pointed out that this concern is utterly unwarranted in the case of the info-gap/maximin/minimin relation. The correspondence between info-gap's robustness model and the generic maximin model is neither contrived nor is it formulated with the aid of dummy objects. The correspondence is immediate, intuitive, and compelling hence, aptly described by the term instance of . Specifically, as shown above, info-gap's robustness model is an instance of the generic maximin model specified by the following constructs: Furthermore, those objecting to the use of the term instance of should note that the Maximin model formulated above has an equivalent so called Mathematical Programming (MP) formulation deriving from the fact that where denotes the real line. So here are side by side info-gap's robustness model and the two equivalent formulations of the generic maximin paradigm: Note that the equivalence between these three representations of the same decision-making situation makes no use of dummy variables. It is based on the equivalence deriving directly from the definition of the characteristic function . Clearly then, info-gap's robustness model is an instance of the generic maximin model. Similarly, for info-gap's opportuneness model we have Again, it should be stressed that the equivalence between these three representations of the same decision-making situation makes no use of dummy variables. It is based on the equivalence deriving directly from the definition of the characteristic function . Thus, to "help" the DM minimize , a sympathetic Nature will select a that minimizes over . Clearly, info-gap's opportuneness model is an instance of the generic minimin model. Other formulations There are of course other valid representations of the robustness/opportuneness models. For instance, in the case of the robustness model, the outcomes can be defined as follows (Sniedovich 2007) : where the binary operation is defined as follows: The corresponding MP format of the Maximin model would then be as follows: In words, to maximize the robustness, the DM selects the largest value of such that the performance constraint is satisfied by all . In plain language: the DM selects the largest value of whose worst outcome in the region of uncertainty of size satisfies the performance requirement. Simplifications As a rule the classical Maximin formulations are not particularly useful when it comes to solving the problems they represent, as no "general purpose" Maximin solver is available (Rustem and Howe 2002). It is common practice therefore to simplify the classical formulation with a view to derive a formulation that would be readily amenable to solution. This is a problem-specific task which involves exploiting a problem's specific features. The mathematical programming format of Maximin is often more user-friendly in this regard. The best example is of course the classical Maximin model of 2-person zero-sum games which after streamlining is reduced to a standard linear programming model (Thie 1988, pp. 314–317) that is readily solved by linear programming algorithms. To reiterate, this linear programming model is an instance of the generic Maximin model obtained via simplification of the classical Maximin formulation of the 2-person zero-sum game. Another example is dynamic programming where the Maximin paradigm is incorporated in the dynamic programming functional equation representing sequential decision processes that are subject to severe uncertainty (e.g. Sniedovich 2003). Summary Recall that in plain language the Maximin paradigm maintains the following: The maximin rule tells us to rank alternatives by their worst possible outcomes: we are to adopt the alternative the worst outcome of which is superior to the worst outcome of the others.Rawls (1971, p. 152) Info-gap's robustness model is a simple instance of this paradigm that is characterized by a specific decision space, state spaces and objective function, as discussed above. Much can be gained by viewing info-gap's theory in this light. See also Bayesian estimation Bayesian inference Bayesian probability Decision analysis Decision theory Hierarchical Bayes model List of publications in statistics Markov chain Monte Carlo Robust decision making Robust optimization Robust statistics Sensitivity analysis Stability radius Notes References External links Info-Gap Theory and Its Applications, further information on info-gap theory What is Info-Gap Theory? informal introduction Making Responsible Decisions (When it Seems that You Can't): Engineering Design and Strategic Planning Under Severe Uncertainty How Did Info-Gap Theory Start? How Does it Grow? Frequently Asked Questions about info-gap theory Info-Gap Campaign, further analysis and critique of info-gap Frequently Asked Questions about Info-Gap Decision Theory (PDF) Decision theory Robust statistics
4839663	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VJing	VJing	VJing (pronounced: VEE-JAY-ing) is a broad designation for realtime visual performance. Characteristics of VJing are the creation or manipulation of imagery in realtime through technological mediation and for an audience, in synchronization to music. VJing often takes place at events such as concerts, nightclubs, music festivals and sometimes in combination with other performative arts. This results in a live multimedia performance that can include music, actors and dancers. The term VJing became popular in its association with MTV's Video Jockey but its origins date back to the New York club scene of the 1970s. In both situations VJing is the manipulation or selection of visuals, the same way DJing is a selection and manipulation of audio. One of the key elements in the practice of VJing is the realtime mix of content from a "library of media", on storage media such as VHS tapes or DVDs, video and still image files on computer hard drives, live camera input, or from computer generated visuals. In addition to the selection of media, VJing mostly implies realtime processing of the visual material. The term is also used to describe the performative use of generative software, although the word "becomes dubious ... since no video is being mixed". History Antecedents Historically, VJing gets its references from art forms that deal with the synesthetic experience of vision and sound. These historical references are shared with other live audiovisual art forms, such as Live Cinema, to include the camera obscura, the panorama and diorama, the magic lantern, color organ, and liquid light shows. The color organ is a mechanism to make colors correspond to sound through mechanical and electromechanic means. Bainbridge Bishop, who contributed to the development of the color organ, was "dominated with the idea of painting music". In a book from 1893 that documents his work, Bishop states: "I procured an organ, and experimented by building an attachment to the keys, which would play with different colored lights to correspond with the music of the instrument." Between 1919 and 1927, Mary Hallock-Greenewalt, a piano soloist, created a new technological art form called Nourathar, which means "essence of light" in Arabic. Her light music consisted of environmental color fields that produced a scale of light intensities and color. "In place of a keyboard, the Sarabet had a console with graduated sliders and other controls, more like a modern mixing board. Lights could be adjusted directly via the sliders, through the use of a pedal, and with toggle switches that worked like individual keys." In clubs and private events in the 1960s "people used liquid-slides, disco balls and light projections on smoke to give the audience new sensations. Some of these experiments were linked to the music, but most of the time they functioned as decorations." These came to be known as liquid light shows. From 1965 to 1966 in San Francisco, the visual shows by artist collectives such as The Joshua Light Show and the Brotherhood of Light accompanied The Grateful Dead concerts, which were inspired by the Beat generation—in particular the Merry Pranksters—and fueled by the "expansion of consciousness" from the Acid Tests. The Exploding Plastic Inevitable, between 1966 and 1967, organized by Andy Warhol contributed to the fusion of music and visuals in a party context. "The Exploding Party project examined the history of the party as an experimental artistic format, focusing in particular on music visualization - also in live contexts" 1970s Important events During the late 1970s video and music performance became more tightly integrated. At concerts, a few bands started to have regular film/video along with their music. Experimental film maker Tony Potts was considered an unofficial member of The Monochrome Set for his work on lighting design and film making for projections for live shows. Test Department initially worked with "Bert" Turnball as their resident visual artist, creating slideshows and film for live performances. The organization, Ministry of Power included collaborations with performance groups, traditional choirs and various political activists. Industrial bands would perform in art contexts, as well as in concert halls, and often with video projections. Groups like Cabaret Voltaire started to use low cost video editing equipment to create their own time-based collages for their sound works. In their words, "before [the use of video], you had to do collages on paper, but now you present them in rhythm—living time—in video." The film collages made by and for groups such as the Test Dept, Throbbing Gristle and San Francisco's Tuxedomoon became part of their live shows. An example of mixing film with live performance is that of Public Image Ltd. at the Ritz Riot in 1981. This club, located on the East 9th St in New York, had a state of the art video projection system. It was used to show a combination of prerecorded and live video on the club's screen. PiL played behind this screen with lights rear projecting their shadows on to the screen. Expecting a more traditional rock show, the audience reacted by pelting the projection screen with beer bottles and eventually pulling down the screen. Technological developments An artist retreat in Owego New York called Experimental Television Center, founded in 1971, made contributions to the development of many artists by gathering the experimental hardware created by video art pioneers: Nam June Paik, Steve Rutt and Bill Etra, and made the equipment available to artists in an inviting setting for free experimentation. Many of the outcomes debuted at the nightclub Hurrah which quickly became a new alternative for video artists who could not get their avant garde productions aired on regular broadcast outlets. Similarly, music video development was happening in other major cities around the world, providing an alternative to mainstream television. A notable image processor is the Sandin Image Processor (1971), primarily as it describes what is now commonly referred to as open source. The Dan Sandin Image Processor, or "IP," is an analog video processor with video signals sent through processing modules that route to an output color encoder. The IP's most unique attribute is its non-commercial philosophy, emphasizing a public access to processing methods and the machines that assist in generating the images. The IP was Sandin's electronic expression for a culture that would "learn to use High-Tech machines for personal, aesthetic, religious, intuitive, comprehensive, and exploratory growth." This educational goal was supplemented with a "distribution religion" that enabled video artists, and not-for-profit groups, to "roll-your-own" video synthesizer for only the cost of parts and the sweat and labor it took to build it. It was the "Heathkit" of video art tools, with a full building plan spelled out, including electronic schematics and mechanical assembly information. Tips on soldering, procuring electronic parts and Printed Circuit boards, were also included in the documentation, increasing the chances of successfully building a working version of the video synthesizer. 1980s Important events In May 1980, multi media artist / filmmaker Merrill Aldighieri was invited to screen a film at the nightclub Hurrah. At this time, music video clips did not exist in large quantity and the video installation was used to present an occasional film. To bring the role of visuals to an equal level with the DJ's music, Merrill made a large body of ambient visuals that could be combined in real time to interpret the music. Working alongside the DJ, this collection of raw visuals was mixed in real time to create a non-stop visual interpretation of the music. Merrill became the world's first full-time VJ. MTV founders came to this club and Merrill introduced them to the term and the role of "VJ",inspiring them to have VJ hosts on their channel the following year. Merrill collaborated with many musicians at the club, notably with electronic musician Richard Bone to make the first ambient music video album titled "Emerging Video". Thanks to a grant from the Experimental Television Center, her blend of video and 16 mm film bore the influential mark of the unique Rutt Etra and Paik synthesizers. This film was offered on VHS through "High Times Magazine" and was featured in the club programming. Her next foray into the home video audience was in collaboration with the newly formed arm of Sony, Sony HOME VIDEO, where she introduced the concept of "breaking music on video" with her series DANSPAK. With a few exceptions like the Jim Carrol Band with Lou Reed and Man Parrish, this series featured unknown bands, many of them unsigned. The rise of electronic music (especially in house and techno genres) and DJ club culture provided more opportunities for artists to create live visuals at events. The popularity of MTV lead to greater and better production of music videos for both broadcast and VHS, and many clubs began to show music videos as part of entertainment and atmosphere. Joe Shannahan (owner of Metro in 1989–1990) was paying artists for video content on VHS. Part of the evening they would play MTV music videos and part of the evening they would run mixes from local artists Shanahan had commissioned. Medusa's (an all-ages bar in Chicago) incorporated visuals as part of their nightly art performances throughout the early to mid 80s (1983–85). Also in Chicago during the mid-80s was Smart Bar, where Metro held "Video Metro" every Saturday night. Technological developments In the 1980s the development of relatively cheap transistor and integrated circuit technology allowed the development of digital video effects hardware at a price within reach of individual VJs and nightclub owners. One of the first commercially distributed video synthesizers available in 1981 was the CEL Electronics Chromascope sold for use in the developing nightclub scene. The Fairlight Computer Video Instrument (CVI), first produced in 1983, was revolutionary in this area, allowing complex digital effects to be applied in real time to video sources. The CVI became popular amongst television and music video producers and features in a number of music videos from the period. The Commodore Amiga introduced in 1985 made a breakthrough in accessibility for home computers and developed the first computer animation programs for 2D and 3D animation that could produce broadcast results on a desktop computer. 1990s Important events A number of recorded works begin to be published in the 1990s to further distribute the work of VJs, such as the Xmix compilations (beginning in 1993), Future Sound of London's "Lifeforms"(VHS, 1994), Emergency Broadcast Network's "Telecommunication Breakdown" (VHS, 1995), Coldcut and Hexstatic's "Timber" (VHS, 1997 and then later on CDRom including a copy of VJamm VJ software), the "Mego Videos" compilation of works from 1996 to 1998 (VHS/PAL, 1999) and Addictive TV's 1998 television series "Transambient" for the UK's Channel 4 (and DVD release). In the United States, the emergence of the rave scene is perhaps to be credited for the shift of the VJ scene from nightclubs into underground parties. From around 1991 until 1994, Mark Zero would do film loops at Chicago raves and house parties. One of the earliest large-scale Chicago raves was "Massive New Years Eve Revolution" in 1993, produced by Milwaukee's Drop Bass Network. It was a notable event as it featured the Optique Vid Tek (OVT) VJs on the bill. This event was followed by Psychosis, held on 3 April 1993, and headlined by Psychic TV, with visuals by OVT Visuals. In San Francisco Dimension 7 were a VJ collective working the early West Coast rave scene beginning in 1993. Between 1996 and 1998, Dimension 7 took projectors and lasers to the Burning Man festival, creating immersive video installations on the Black Rock desert. In the UK groups such as The Light Surgeons and Eikon were transforming clubs and rave events by combining the old techniques of liquid lightshows with layers of slide, film and video projections. In Bristol, Children of Technology emerged, pioneering interactive immersive environments stemming from co-founder Mike Godfrey's architectural thesis whilst at university during the 1980s. Children of Technology integrated their homegrown CGI animation and video texture library with output from the interactive Virtual Light Machine (VLM), the brainchild of Jeff Minter and Dave Japp, with output onto over 500 sq m of layered screens using high power video and laser projection within a dedicated lightshow. Their "Ambient Theatre Lightshow" first emerged at Glastonbury 93 and they also provided VJ visuals for the Shamen, who had just released their no 1. hit "Ebeneezer Goode" at the festival. Invited musicians jammed in the Ambient Theatre Lightshow, using the VLM, within a prototype immersive environment. Children of Technology took interactive video concepts into a wide range of projects including show production for "Obsession" raves between 1993 and 1995, theatre, clubs, advertising, major stage shows and TV events. This included pioneering projects with 3D video / sound recording and performance, and major architectural projects in the late 1990s, where many media technology ideas were now taking hold. Another collective, "Hex" were working across a wide range of media - from computer games to art exhibitions - the group pioneered many new media hybrids, including live audiovisual jamming, computer-generated audio performances, and interactive collaborative instruments. This was the start of a trend which continues today with many VJs working beyond the club and dance party scene in areas such as installation art. The Japanese book VJ2000 (Daizaburo Harada, 1999) marked one of the earliest publications dedicated to discussing the practices of VJs. Technological developments The combination of the emerging rave scene, along with slightly more affordable video technology for home-entertainment systems, brought consumer products to become more widely used in artistic production. However, costs for these new types of video equipment were still high enough to be prohibitive for many artists. There are three main factors that lead to the proliferation of the VJ scene in the 2000s: affordable and faster laptops; drop in prices of video projectors (especially after the dot-com bust where companies were loading off their goods on craigslist) the emergence of strong rave scenes and the growth of club culture internationally As a result of these, the VJ scene saw an explosion of new artists and styles. These conditions also facilitated a sudden emergence of a less visible (but nonetheless strong) movement of artists who were creating algorithmic, generative visuals. This decade saw video technology shift from being strictly for professional film and television studios to being accessible for the prosumer market (e.g. the wedding industry, church presentations, low-budget films, and community television productions). These mixers were quickly adopted by VJs as the core component of their performance setups. This is similar to the release of the Technics 1200 turntables, which were marketed towards homeowners desiring a more advanced home entertainment system, but were then appropriated by musicians and music enthusiasts for experimentation. Initially, video mixers were used to mix pre-prepared video material from VHS players and live camera sources, and later to add the new computer software outputs into their mix. The 90s saw the development of a number of digital video mixers such as Panasonic's WJ-MX50, WJ-MX12, and the Videonics MX-1. Early desktop editing systems such as the NewTek Video Toaster for the Amiga computer were quickly put to use by VJs seeking to create visuals for the emerging rave scene, whilst software developers began to develop systems specifically designed for live visuals such as O'Wonder's "Bitbopper". The first known software for VJs was Vujak - created in 1992 and written for the Mac by artist Brian Kane for use by the video art group he was part of - Emergency Broadcast Network, though it was not used in live performances. EBN used the EBN VideoSampler v2.3, developed by Mark Marinello and Greg Deocampo. In the UK, Bristol's Children of Technology developed a dedicated immersive video lightshow using the Virtual Light Machine (VLM) called AVLS or Audio-Visual-Live-System during 1992 and 1993. The VLM was a custom built PC by video engineer Dave Japp using super-rare transputer chips and modified motherboards, programmed by Jeff Minter (Llamasoft & Virtual Light Co.). The VLM developed after Jeff's earlier Llamasoft Light Synthesiser programme. With VLM, DI's from live musicians or DJ's activated Jeff's algorithmic real-time video patterns, and this was real-time mixed using pansonic video mixers with CGI animation/VHS custom texture library and live camera video feedback. Children of Technology developed their own "Video Light" system, using hi-power and low-power video projection to generate real-time 3D beam effects, simultaneous with enormous surface and mapped projection. The VLM was used by the Shamen, The Orb, Primal Scream, Obsession, Peter Gabriel, Prince and many others between 1993 and 1996. A software version of the VLM was integrated into Atari's Jaguar console, in response to growing VJ interest. In the mid-90s, Audio reactive pure synthesis (as opposed to clip-based) software such as Cthugha and Bomb were influential. By the late 90s there were several PC based VJing softwares available, including generative visuals programs such as MooNSTER, Aestesis, and Advanced Visualization Studio, as well as video clip players such as FLxER, created by Gianluca Del Gobbo, and VJamm. Programming environments such as Max/MSP, Macromedia Director and later Quartz Composer started to become used by themselves and also to create VJing programs like VDMX or pixmix. These new software products and the dramatic increases in computer processing power over the decade meant that VJs were now regularly taking computers to gigs. 2000s Important events The new century has brought new dynamics to the practice of visual performance. To be a VJ previously had largely meant a process of self-invention in isolation from others: the term was not widely known. Then through the rise of internet adoption, having access to other practitioners very became the norm, and virtual communities quickly formed. The sense of collective then translated from the virtual world onto physical spaces. This becomes apparent through the numerous festivals that emerge all over Europe with strong focus on VJing. VJ events in Europe The VideA festival in Barcelona ran from 2000 to 2005. AVIT, clear in its inception as the online community of VJCentral.com self-organising a physical presence, had its first festival in Leeds (2002), followed by Chicago (2003), Brighton (2003), San Francisco (2004), and Birmingham (2005), 320x240 in Croatia (2003), Contact Europe in Berlin (2003). Also, the Cimatics festival in Brussels should be credited as a pioneering event, with a first festival edition in 2002 completely dedicated to VJing. In 2003, the Finnish media arts festival PixelAche was dedicated to the topic of VJing, while in 2003, Berlin's Chaos Computer Club started a collaboration with AVIT organisers that featured VJ Camps and Congress strands. LPM - Live Performers Meeting was born in Rome in 2004, with the aim to offer a real meeting space for often individually working artists, a place to meet the fellow VJ artists, spin-off new projects, and share all VJing related experiences, softwares, questions and insights. LPM since has become one of the leading international meetings dedicated to artists, professionals and enthusiasts of VJing, visual and live video performance, counting its 20th edition in 2019. Also around this time (in 2005 and 2007), UK artists Addictive TV teamed up with the British Film Institute to produce Optronica, a crossover event showcasing audiovisual performances at the London IMAX cinema and BFI Southbank. Two festivals entirely dedicated to VJing, Mapping Festival in Geneva and Vision'R in Paris, held their first edition in 2005. As these festivals emerged that prominently featured VJs as headline acts (or the entire focus of the festival), the rave festival scene also began to regularly include VJs in their main stage lineups with varying degrees of prominence. VJ events beyond Europe The MUTEK festival (2000–present) in Montréal regularly featured VJs alongside experimental sound art performances, and later the Elektra Festival (2008–present) also emerged in Montréal and featured many VJ performances. In Perth, Australia, the Byte Me! festival (2007) showed the work of many VJs from the Pacific Rim area alongside new media theorists and design practitioners. With lesser funding, the US scene has been host to more workshops and salons than festivals. Between 2000 and 2006, Grant Davis (VJ Culture) and Jon Schwark of Dimension 7 produced "Video Salon", a regular monthly gathering significant in helping establish and educate a strong VJ community in San Francisco, and attended by VJs across California and the United States. In addition, they produced an annual "Video RIOT!" (2003–2005) as a political statement following the R.A.V.E. Act (Reducing Americans' Vulnerability to Ecstasy Act) of 2003; a display of dissatisfaction by the re-election of George W. Bush in 2004; and in defiance of a San Francisco city ordinance limiting public gatherings in 2005. Several VJ battles and competitions began to emerge during this time period, such as Video Salon's "SIGGRAPH VJ Battle" in San Diego (2003), Videocake's "AV Deathmatch" series in Toronto (2006) and the "VJ Contests" at the Mapping Festival in Geneva (2009). These worked much like a traditional DJ battle where VJs would be given a set amount of time to show off their best mixes and were judged according to several criteria by a panel of judges. Publications Databases of visual content and promotional documentation became available on DVD formats and online through personal websites and through large databases, such as the "Prelinger Archives" on Archive.org. Many VJs began releasing digital video loop sets on various websites under Public Domain or Creative Commons licensing for other VJs to use in their mixes, such as Tom Bassford's "Design of Signage" collection (2006), Analog Recycling's "79 VJ Loops" (2006), VJzoo's "Vintage Fairlight Clips" (2007) and Mo Selle's "57 V.2" (2007). Promotional and content-based DVDs began to emerge, such as the works from the UK's ITV1 television series Mixmasters (2000–2005) produced by Addictive TV, Lightrhythm Visuals (2003), Visomat Inc. (2002), and Pixdisc, all of which focused on the visual creators, VJ styles and techniques. These were then later followed by NOTV, Atmospherix, and other labels. Mia Makela curated a DVD collection for Mediateca of Caixa Forum called "LIVE CINEMA" in 2007, focusing on the emerging sister practice of "live cinema". Individual VJs and collectives also published DVDs and CD-ROMs of their work, including Eclectic Method's bootleg video mix (2002) and Eclectic Method's "We're Not VJs" (2005), as well as eyewash's "DVD2" (2004) and their "DVD3" (2008). Books reflecting on the history, technical aspects, and theoretical issues began to appear, such as "The VJ Book: Inspirations and Practical Advice for Live Visuals Performance" (Paul Spinrad, 2005), "VJ: Audio-Visual Art and VJ Culture" (Michael Faulkner and D-Fuse, 2006), "vE-jA: Art + Technology of Live Audio-Video" (Xárene Eskandar [ed], 2006), and "VJ: Live Cinema Unraveled" (Tim Jaeger, 2006). The subject of VJ-DJ collaboration also started to become a subject of interest for those studying in the field of academic human–computer interaction (HCI). Video Scratching In 2004, Pioneer released the DVJ-X1 DVD player, which allowed DJ’s to scratch and manipulate videos like vinyl. In 2006 Pioneer released a successor unit, DVJ-1000, with similar functionality. Those video players have inspired DJ software makers to add video plugins to their software. The first example of this was Numark Virtual Vinyl, released in 2007, which had this option available. In 2008, Serato Scratch Live received the same option, called Video-SL. This allowed turntable manipulations of videos, and added more options to the Rane TTM-57SL mixer. Technological developments The availability and affordability of new consumer-level technology allowed many more people to get involved into VJing. The dramatic increase in computer processing power that became available facilitated more compact, yet often more complex setups, sometimes allowing VJs to bypass using a video mixer, using powerful computers running VJ software to control their mixing instead. However, many VJs continue to use video mixers with multiple sources, which allows flexibility for a wide range of input devices and a level of security against computer crashes or slowdowns in video playback due to overloading the CPU of computers due to the demanding nature of realtime video processing. Today's VJs have a wide choice of off the shelf hardware products, covering every aspect of visuals performance, including video sample playback (Korg Kaptivator), real-time video effects (Korg Entrancer) and 3D visual generation. The widespread use of DVDs gave initiative for scratchable DVD players. Many new models of MIDI controllers became available during the 2000s, which allow VJs to use controllers based on physical knobs, dials, and sliders, rather than interact primarily with the mouse/keyboard computer interface. There are also many VJs working with experimental approaches to working with live video. Open source graphical programming environments (such as Pure Data) are often used to create custom software interfaces for performances, or to connect experimental devices to their computer for processing live data (for example, the IBVA EEG-reading brainwave unit, the Arduino microprocessor, or circuit bending children's toys). The second half of this decade also saw a dramatic increase in display configurations being deployed, including widescreen canvases, multiple projections and video mapped onto the architectural form. This shift has been underlined by the transition from broadcast based technology - fixed until this decade firmly in the 4x3 aspect ratio specifications NTSC and PAL - to computer industry technology, where the varied needs of office presentation, immersive gaming and corporate video presentation have led to diversity and abundance in methods of output. Compared to the ~640x480i fixed format of NTSC/PAL, a contemporary laptop using DVI can output a great variety of resolutions up to ~2500px wide, and in conjunction with the Matrox TripleHead2Go can feed three different displays with an image coordinated across them all. Common technical setups A significant aspect of VJing is the use of technology, be it the re-appropriation of existing technologies meant for other fields, or the creation of new and specific ones for the purpose of live performance. The advent of video is a defining moment for the formation of the VJ (video jockey). Often using a video mixer, VJs blend and superimpose various video sources into a live motion composition. In recent years, electronic musical instrument makers have begun to make specialty equipment for VJing. VJing developed initially by performers using video hardware such as videocameras, video decks and monitors to transmit improvised performances with live input from cameras and even broadcast TV mixed with pre-recorded elements. This tradition lives on with many VJs using a wide range of hardware and software available commercially or custom made for and by the VJs. VJ hardware can be split into categories - Source hardware generates a video picture which can be manipulated by the VJ, e.g. video cameras and Video Synthesizers. Playback hardware plays back an existing video stream from disk or tape-based storage mediums, e.g. VHS tape players and DVD players. Mixing hardware allows the combining of multiple streams of video e.g. a video mixer or a computer utilizing VJ software. Effects hardware allows the adding of special effects to the video stream, e.g. Colour Correction units Output hardware is for displaying the video signal, e.g. Video projector, LED display, or Plasma Screen. There are many types of software a VJ may use in their work, traditional NLE production tools such as Adobe Premiere, After Effects, and Apple's Final Cut Pro are used to create content for VJ shows. Specialist performance software is used by VJs to play back and manipulate video in real-time. VJ performance software is highly diverse, and include software which allows a computer to replace the role of an analog video mixer and output video across extended canvasses composed of multiple screens or projectors. Small companies producing dedicated VJ software such as Modul8 and Magic give VJs a sophisticated interface for real-time processing of multiple layers of video clips combined with live camera inputs, giving VJs a complete off the shelf solution so they can simply load in the content and perform. Some popular titles which emerged during the 2000s include Resolume, NuVJ. Some VJs prefer to develop software themselves specifically to suit their own performance style. Graphical programming environments such as Max/MSP/Jitter, Isadora, and Pure Data have developed to facilitate rapid development of such custom software without needing years of coding experience. Sample workflows There are many types of configurations of hardware and software that a VJ may use to perform. Research and reflective thinking Several research projects have been dedicated to the documentation and study of VJing from the reflective and theoretical point of view. Round tables, talks, presentations and discussions are part of festivals and conferences related to new media art, such as ISEA and Ars Electronica for example, as well as specifically related to VJing, as is the case of the Mapping Festival. Exchange of ideas through dialogue contributed to the shift of the discussion from issues related to the practicalities of production to more complex ideas and to the process and the concept. Subjects related to VJing are, but not exclusively: identity and persona (individual and collective), the moment as art, audience participation, authorship, networks, collaboration and narrative. Through collaborative projects, visual live performance shift to a field of interdisciplinary practices. Periodical publications, online and printed, launched special issues on VJing. This is the case of AMinima printed magazine, with a special issue on Live Cinema (which features works by VJs), and Vague Terrain (an online new media journal), with the issue The Rise of the VJ. See also Notes References Amerika, Mark (2007). Meta/Data: A Digital Poetics. Cambridge: MIT Press. Bargsten, Joey (2011). "Hybrid Forms and Syncretic Horizons". Saarbrücken: Lambert Academic Publishing. Eskandar, Xárene (ed) (2006). vE-jA: Art + Technology of Live Audio-Video. San Francisco: h4SF. Faulkner, Michael / D-Fuse (ed), 2006. VJ: Audio-Visual Art and VJ Culture. London: Laurence King. Lehrer, Jonah (2008). Proust was a neuroscientist. New York:Mariner. Lund, Cornelia & Lund, Holger (eds), 2009. Audio.Visual- On Visual Music and Related Media. Estugarda: Arnoldsche Art publishers. Manu; Ideacritik & Velez, Paula, et al. (2009) " Aether9 Communications: Proceedings". TK: Greyscale Editions. Vol3, Issue 1. Spinrad, Paul (2005). The VJ Book: Inspirations and practical Advice for Live Visuals Performance. Los Angeles: Feral House. VJ Theory (ed) (2008). "VJam Theory: Collective Writings on Realtime Visual Performance". Falmouth:realtime Books. External links Visual Music Archive by Prof. Dr. Heike Sperling VJ booking - Free VJ Portfolio Network VJ Union Australia – Australia Wide VJ Network VJs Mag – Audio Visual Performers Source VJs TV by VJs Magazine – Audio Visual Performers Network Visualist:Those who See Beyond Documentary Film about VJ Cultures A.Visualist A Road movie on VJing around the world Visual music Mass media occupations Video art
4839891	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phil%20Kessel	Phil Kessel	Philip Joseph Kessel Jr. (born October 2, 1987) is an American professional ice hockey winger who is an unrestricted free agent. He has previously played for the Boston Bruins, Toronto Maple Leafs, Pittsburgh Penguins, Arizona Coyotes, and the Vegas Golden Knights of the National Hockey League (NHL). Kessel is a three-time Stanley Cup champion, winning back-to-back championships with the Penguins in 2016 and 2017 and with the Golden Knights in 2023. Kessel is a product of the USA Hockey National Team Development Program as an identified elite player under the age of 18. He finished his amateur career playing collegiate hockey in the NCAA for the University of Minnesota in the Western Collegiate Hockey Association (WCHA). He was then selected fifth overall in the 2006 NHL Entry Draft by the Boston Bruins. After his rookie season, 2006–07, he was awarded the Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy for overcoming testicular cancer while continuing his professional career. In 2009, Kessel was traded from Boston to the Toronto Maple Leafs where he spent six seasons before being dealt to the Pittsburgh Penguins in 2015. Kessel won his first and second Stanley Cup championships with the Pittsburgh Penguins in back-to-back seasons with wins over the San Jose Sharks and the Nashville Predators, respectively; he then won a third Stanley Cup championship with the Vegas Golden Knights in 2023, over the Florida Panthers. Kessel is known as a natural goal scorer, having totaled 400 goals over the course of his career, and for holding the all-time NHL ironman record for the most consecutive games played, with 1,000+; during the 2020–21 season, he became the fifth player ever to record 900 consecutive games played. During the 2022–23 season, Kessel passed Keith Yandle's streak as the longest in NHL history on October 25, 2022, after playing his 990th consecutive game; several weeks later, on November 17, Kessel became the first player in NHL history to play 1,000 consecutive games. Kessel's streak, which spanned 1064 consecutive games since the onset of the season, came to an end as he remained a free agent at the beginning of the 2023–24 NHL season. This streak currently stands as the NHL record. Kessel plays internationally for the United States, and has played at three World Championships and the 2010 and 2014 Winter Olympics, winning a silver medal in 2010 and being named the top forward in 2014. Playing career Amateur Kessel played youth hockey with the AAA Madison Capitols in his hometown of Madison, Wisconsin. An offensive standout from a young age, Kessel put up 286 points (176 goals and 110 assists) in 86 games with his AAA bantam squad in 2001–02. He followed up on that effort the next year with the Capitols under-18 team where, during the 2002–03 season, he produced 158 points (113 goals and 45 assists) in 71 games. Kessel credits former Capitols coach and 1980 U.S. Olympian Bob Suter for becoming the player he is today. For the 2003–04 season, Kessel moved to Ann Arbor, Michigan, to join the United States National Team Development Program's U17 squad. He set NTDP records for goals (52) for a U17–18 players. During the 2004–05 season, Kessel played full-time on the U18 team scoring 52 goals and 98 points, both of which were, at the time, records for an U18 player. His points record was surpassed by Patrick Kane who recorded 102 points and the same 52 goals in the next 2005–06 season. Almost 15 years later, on March 15, 2019, another Wisconsin phenom Cole Caufield scored a career-high six goals to reach 105 and pass Kessel's career 104 goals from 2003–05 for the NTDP lead. Kessel graduated from Pioneer High School in 2005. However, because his birthday falls after September 15, he was not eligible for the NHL Entry Draft that year. After finishing his two years at NTDP, Kessel enrolled at University of Minnesota on a sports scholarship and played for the Golden Gophers men's ice hockey team for the 2005–06 season. His first collegiate goal came on a penalty shot, marking the first time in team history that a player scored his first career goal on a penalty shot. As a rookie freshman, Kessel finished second on the team in scoring with 51 points (18 goals and 33 assists) in 39 games. He was named the 2005–06 WCHA Rookie of the Year and named to the 2005–06 All-Rookie Team. Kessel was drafted fifth overall by the Boston Bruins in the 2006 NHL Entry Draft. He subsequently signed an entry-level contract with the team on August 17, 2006, thereby forgoing his final three years of college eligibility. Professional Boston Bruins (2006–2009) On August 17, 2006, the Bruins announced that they had signed Kessel to a three-year, entry-level contract worth the rookie maximum of $850,000. On December 11, 2006, Kessel's family announced that he was hospitalized for a reason unrelated to hockey, and WBZ-TV reported that Kessel was diagnosed with a form of testicular cancer. On December 16, Kessel was pronounced cancer-free. On January 5, 2007, he was assigned to the Providence Bruins, Boston's American Hockey League (AHL) affiliate, for conditioning purposes and then recalled on January 7. Kessel returned to the Bruins lineup on January 9, against the Ottawa Senators, after missing only 11 regular season games following cancer surgery. Kessel was named to the 2007 NHL YoungStars Game in Dallas on January 23, 2007. He recorded a hat-trick (including a powerplay goal, plus the game-winner) and an assist during a 9–8 Eastern Conference victory. While Kessel was not among top rookies in goals or assists, for the 2006–07 season he was second among rookies with four shootout goals (in seven attempts). Each was a game-deciding goal. At the conclusion of the season, Kessel was voted by Boston sports writers as the team's candidate for the Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy after battling testicular cancer. At the 2007 NHL Awards Ceremony at the Elgin Theatre in Toronto, Kessel was officially selected as the recipient of the 2007 Masterton Trophy. For the 2007–08 season Kessel led the league with 5 game-deciding shootout goals (out of 13 attempts in shootouts). He set a Bruins career record with 9 shootout-deciding goals, surpassed by Patrice Bergeron seven years later. Kessel scored the first Bruins goal of the 2008–09 season, in a 5–4 Bruins victory against the Colorado Avalanche. Kessel ended the regular season on a high note, scoring his second career hat-trick in the April 12, 2009, 6–2 visitors' victory against the New York Islanders, and amassing the highest number of NHL regular season goals so far in his career with 36, the most on the Bruins that season. He also tied Ed Olczyk for longest point streak by an American-born NHL player (18 games, 14 goals and 14 assists for 28 points during streak) in late 2008. It is now the third-longest such point streak after Patrick Kane's 26-game streak in late 2015 and 20-game streak in the beginning of 2019. Kessel played an integral role in Boston's run during the 2009 Stanley Cup playoffs, leading the Bruins with six goals before losing to the Carolina Hurricanes in the Eastern Conference Semifinals in seven games. After the playoffs, it was reported that Kessel would need off-season shoulder surgery to repair an injury most likely incurred during a 2–0 loss to the Columbus Blue Jackets. The surgery was successfully performed during the off-season, with recuperation forcing Kessel to miss the start of the 2009–10 season. Toronto Maple Leafs (2009–2015) On September 18, 2009, the Bruins traded Kessel to the Toronto Maple Leafs in exchange for a 2010 first-round pick (Tyler Seguin), a 2010 second-round pick (Jared Knight) and a 2011 first-round pick (Dougie Hamilton). Immediately afterward, the Leafs signed him to a five-year, $27 million contract. Kessel, however, was sidelined for the first month of the season with a shoulder injury incurred the year before that required surgery. Finally, on November 3, 2009, Kessel made his much-anticipated debut as a Leaf against the Tampa Bay Lightning. He had a total of ten shots on goal in the game, a career-high, though he did not record any assists or goals. Despite not recording any points and his team falling 2–1 to the Lightning in overtime, Kessel was named the third star of the game. He scored his first goal as a Maple Leaf four days later in a 5–1 win over the Detroit Red Wings at the Air Canada Centre. December 5, 2009, marked the first time that Kessel played against his former team, the Bruins, at TD Garden. His return to Boston was marked with thunderous taunting chants of his name by his former home crowd, along with a chorus of boos every time he had possession of the puck. Kessel was on the ice for the first three of the seven goals that Boston scored in their 7–2 victory, eventually finishing the game a −3 plus-minus with two shots on the night. After the game, Kessel said in a post-game interview on NESN that the fans' reaction "did not affect [him]." He did state, however, that it was the "worst game [he] had played in a while", and that he needed to "play better." After the 2010 NHL Winter Classic between the Boston Bruins and Philadelphia Flyers on January 1, 2010, USA Hockey announced that Kessel, along with then-Maple Leaf teammate Mike Komisarek, made the Olympic roster to represent Team USA at the 2010 Winter Olympics. (Komisarek, however, would miss the Olympics due to injury). In six games at the Olympics, Kessel tallied a goal and an assist as the U.S. won a silver medal, falling to Canada in the final. On April 2, 2011, Kessel posted his third consecutive 30-goal season, reaching the mark after scoring against the Ottawa Senators. At the time, he was among eight other NHL players, including League stars Sidney Crosby and Alexander Ovechkin, who have scored 30 goals or more in a season three times since the 2008–09 regular season. Kessel had another strong start to a season in 2011–12, scoring his first hat-trick as a Maple Leaf (a career third) in just the team's second game of the season. He would go on to finish the month as the NHL's top scorer and was subsequently named the NHL's First Star of the Month for October. That season, Kessel was once again named an NHL All-Star and was selected to Team Chara in the eighth round of the Fantasy Draft by Toronto linemate Joffrey Lupul. On February 6, 2012, Kessel reached the 300-point plateau after a three-point performance against the Edmonton Oilers. The next day, he hit the 30-goal mark for the fourth-straight year (third-straight as a Maple Leaf) after beating Ondřej Pavelec of the Winnipeg Jets. Later that month, Kessel continued to reach milestones, scoring his 65th point of the season (which broke his old career-high) in a 2–1 loss to the San Jose Sharks. An NHL player's poll conducted by Sports Illustrated and released in February 2012 named Kessel "the easiest (player) to intimidate" in the NHL. He was named by 15% of NHL player respondents while Vancouver Canucks' Daniel and Henrik Sedin were next with 8%. The results were based on the input of 145 NHL players who responded to Sports Illustrated'''s survey. The poll drew controversy from many, including then-Toronto General Manager Brian Burke due to the inflammatory nature of the question and which players were polled (i.e. no one in the Maple Leafs' or Canucks organizations agreed to have players complete the survey). In another player survey, this one by The Hockey News, Kessel was ranked as the 16th best player in the League by his peers. The results in this survey were based on responses from five players from each of the 30 NHL teams. Players were not allowed to vote for members of their own team. On March 31, 2012, Kessel scored his 37th goal of the season in a 4–3 win over the Buffalo Sabres, eclipsing his career-high of 36 set with Boston. He finished the season with 37 goals and 82 points, both new career-highs, and both placed him sixth in the NHL. After the season he was awarded the Molson Cup for the third straight year since becoming a Maple Leaf. Kessel began the 2012–13 season with his longest goal drought to begin a season at ten games, finally breaking the slump after scoring the game-winning goal against Winnipeg on February 7, 2013. On April 20, 2013, in a 4–1 win against Ottawa in which Kessel recorded two assists, he and the Maple Leafs clinched a playoff spot in the 2013 Stanley Cup playoffs. This marked the first time Kessel had made it to the playoffs since his move to the Maple Leafs and ended a seven-year playoff drought for the club dating back before the 2004–05 NHL lockout. To conclude the season, Kessel scored ten goals and seven assists for 17 points over his last ten games to retake the scoring lead for Toronto. Kessel would go on to finish seventh in NHL scoring, posting his second consecutive point-per-game season. On October 1, 2013, Kessel signed an eight-year, $64 million contract extension, which was the largest contract in Maple Leafs' franchise history at the time. During the 2013–14 campaign, in the week of October 21 and 27, Kessel scored in all three of Toronto's games. In the Maple Leafs' first game, he scored his fourth career hat-trick, including the game-winner, in a 4–2 victory of the Anaheim Ducks. He then scored in Toronto's next game, a 5–2 loss to the Columbus Blue Jackets, and concluded the week by recording a goal and an assist in a 4–1 victory over the Pittsburgh Penguins. For his efforts, Kessel was named Second Star of the Week after leading the NHL with five goals scored in that timeframe. Kessel continued his successful week with a two-goal, two-assist effort against Edmonton in a 4–0 Maple Leafs victory. After the 2014 NHL Winter Classic, in which Toronto defeated Detroit Red Wings 3–2 in a shootout, it was announced that Kessel, along with teammate James van Riemsdyk, had been named to Team USA's roster for participation in the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi. On February 1, 2014, Kessel scored his fifth career hat-trick, which was also his 30th goal of the season, marking the fifth time he has had scored at least 30 goals in one season in the NHL. On February 15, he scored another hat-trick, this time for Team USA against Slovenia during the 2014 Winter Olympics. He finished with five goals and three assists for eight points in six games to lead the tournament in scoring, was named to the tournament All-Star Team and earned Best Forward honors. Despite the personal success, however, Kessel and the U.S. lost the bronze medal game against Finland, falling 5–0. In the end of the 2014 NHL year he led Toronto in goals, assists and points for the third consecutive season. Throughout the 2014–15 season Toronto slid down in the Eastern Conference standings: head coach Randy Carlyle was fired on January 15, 2015, after Toronto lost seven of their last ten games, and interim head coach Peter Horachek won just nine of the last 42 games of the season. Kessel's 61 points made him the team point leader. Pittsburgh Penguins (2015–2019) After weeks of trade rumors, on July 1, 2015, the Toronto Maple Leafs, who were entering a rebuilding phase, traded Kessel, Tyler Biggs, Tim Erixon, and a conditional second round draft pick to the Pittsburgh Penguins in a blockbuster deal for Kasperi Kapanen, Scott Harrington, Nick Spaling, and conditional first- (Sam Steel) and third-round (James Greenway) draft picks. Toronto also retained $1.2 million of Kessel's salary for the remaining seven seasons of his contract. Kessel scored his first regular season goal as a Penguin on October 10, while playing Arizona in the team's second game of the 2015–16 season. On December 19, 2015, Kessel played his 500th consecutive game, becoming the 23rd player in league history to reach this milestone. On June 12, 2016, Kessel won the Stanley Cup after defeating the San Jose Sharks in six games. Kessel played on a line with Nick Bonino and Carl Hagelin that was the most effective line for the Penguins in the playoffs (called the HBK line). Kessel led the Penguins in playoff scoring with 10 goals and 22 points and also led the team in shots with 98. Kessel narrowly missed winning the Conn Smythe Trophy as playoff MVP, falling short of teammate and captain Sidney Crosby by three points. In the 5-3-1 point distribution scheme based on the ballots of 18 voters, Crosby had nine first-place votes, five second-place votes, and three third-place votes, while Kessel had seven first-place votes, eight second-place votes, and one third-place vote. As a member of the 2015–16 Stanley Cup winning team, Kessel was entitled to spend a day with the Stanley Cup. For his day with the cup, Kessel initially brought the cup to his hometown of Madison, Wisconsin, where he celebrated with family and friends. He then returned to Toronto, bringing the trophy to SickKids Hospital to share it with patients and their families. When Kessel won his second championship trophy he took pictures of himself eating hot dogs out of the Stanley Cup. In the 2017–18 season he scored 92 points, a career high, placed him eighth in the NHL. He also posted a new career-best 58 assists in the season. On October 11, 2018, during the third Pittsburgh game of the 2018–19 season, Kessel scored his sixth career hat-trick, which occurred as his first natural, and first as a Penguin. From February 1 to March 5, 2019, Kessel did not score a goal in 16 games (however, he collected 11 assists), which was the longest goal-drought in his entire career. On March 19, 2019, Kessel played in his 320th consecutive game for the Penguins, passing Craig Adams for the longest in their history. After the last game of the regular season, Kessel was second in points for Penguins, and led the league with 10 game-winning goals. Kessel and the Penguins were swept by the New York Islanders in the first round of the 2019 Stanley Cup playoffs in what would be Kessel's final postseason with the Penguins; he scored a goal to go with an assist in the four-game loss. Arizona Coyotes (2019–2022) On June 29, 2019, Kessel was traded from Pittsburgh to the Arizona Coyotes along with Dane Birks and a fourth-round pick, in exchange for Alex Galchenyuk and Pierre-Olivier Joseph. On October 12, 2019, Kessel played his 1,000th career NHL game. On May 7, 2021, Kessel scored his 900th point in the NHL, a breakaway goal against the San Jose Sharks. Kessel was able to continue his iron man streak through the COVID-19 pandemic, and dressed for the first shift of a March 8, 2022 road game against the Detroit Red Wings before leaving to take a special chartered flight back to Arizona to be present for the birth of his first child. This extended his streak to 956 consecutive games. Kessel had initially intended to play the entire game before leaving, but was encouraged by coach André Tourigny to depart earlier. After being present for the birth of his daughter Kapri, he rejoined the Coyotes on the road less than 48 hours later for a March 10 game against his former team, the Maple Leafs, recording an assist in a 5–4 victory. Teammate Jakob Chychrun deemed the episode "a pretty cool gesture." Maple Leafs star forward Auston Matthews remarked "it's quite a maneuver that he pulled. Hats off to him." On April 2, 2022, Philadelphia Flyers coach Mike Yeo scratched Keith Yandle from the lineup, ending his iron man streak at a record 989 straight games. Kessel took over as the player with the longest active streak. Vegas Golden Knights (2022–2023) On August 24, 2022, Kessel signed a one-year, $1.5 million contract with the Vegas Golden Knights. As his usual jersey number 81 was already in use on the team by Jonathan Marchessault, Kessel switched to wear number 8 for the first time in his NHL career. On October 24, 2022, Kessel played his 989th consecutive game in the NHL, tying Yandle's iron man streak. He appeared to have scored his 400th goal in that game as well, but it was called back on an offside challenge, though he did manage an assist. On the loss of his potential milestone goal, he remarked that "it is what it is. We scored right after, so it didn't matter." The next night, Kessel officially passed Yandle for the iron man record, skating in his 990th consecutive game, where he scored his 400th goal. On November 17, 2022, Kessel then became the first player in league history to record 1,000 consecutive games played, as the Golden Knights defeated the Coyotes, Kessel's former team, 4–1. Kessel appeared in all of the Golden Knights' 82 regular season games, and started the team's first-round 2023 Stanley Cup playoffs series against the Winnipeg Jets. However, with his perceived on-ice effectiveness declining, coach Bruce Cassidy opted to scratch him for Game 5. This was the first game Kessel had missed since October 31, 2009, counting both the regular season and postseason, though his official iron man streak was unaffected as it only counted the regular season. Kessel had not missed a playoff game since April 15, 2008, during his tenure with the Bruins. His unofficial streak of consecutive games played through the regular season and the playoffs totaled 1,149 games. Coach Cassidy praised Kessel as "a terrific teammate for our guys" during the Golden Knights' deep run in the 2023 Stanley Cup playoffs, in which he was cited as a contributor to the team's morale. Despite not appearing in any playoff games past the first round, Kessel would ultimately win his third Stanley Cup, as Vegas defeated the Florida Panthers in the 2023 Stanley Cup Finals. International play Junior Kessel represented the United States in international competition for the first time when his under-17 National Team Development Program squad played at the 2004 World U17 Hockey Challenge finishing fourth. He finished the tournament fourth overall in points (10) and second overall in goals (6). Later in 2004, Kessel played as an underaged player at the IIHF World U18 Championship, where the U.S. won silver. He finished with ten points (seven goals and three assists) in six games, leading the tournament in goals and being named to the tournament all-star team. During Kessel's 2004–05 campaign with the NTDP, he played for Team USA at the World Junior Championship held in Grand Forks, North Dakota, where the team ultimately finished fourth. He had four goals and two assists in seven games. In 2005, Kessel once again participated in the World U18 Championship, this time winning a gold medal. He finished with nine goals and seven assists for 16 points in six games, leading the tournament in all said offensive statistics. Kessel was named the tournament's best forward and was also named to the tournament All-Star Team. Kessel then played in the 2006 World Junior Championship, where the U.S. finished fourth for the second-straight year. Kessel led the tournament in points (11) and assists (10). Senior Kessel made his debut in senior international competition in 2006, when he competed at the 2006 IIHF World Championship in Riga. In seven games, he scored one goal and one assist as the U.S. placed seventh. Following his rookie year with Boston, Kessel competed at the 2007 IIHF World Championship in Moscow, where the U.S. finished fifth. He improved on his performance at the previous World Championship, scoring two goals and five assists in seven games. Kessel competed at the World Championship for the third time in the 2008 edition held in Halifax, Nova Scotia, and Quebec City. Again, however, the U.S. underwhelmed, finishing in sixth place. On a personal level, Kessel finished ninth overall in points with ten (six goals and four assists) in seven games. In 2010, Kessel played for Team USA at the Winter Olympics in Vancouver. The U.S. finished second, winning the silver medal. In six games, Kessel had a goal and an assist. On January 1, 2014, after the completion of the 2014 Winter Classic, Kessel was announced as a member of the 2014 Olympic Team and went on to compete at the Winter Olympics in Sochi, Russia. Although the US finished out of the medals, Kessel enjoyed individual success, scoring 5 goals and 3 assists in 6 games, leading the tournament in points (8), being named as best forward, and being named to the All-Star Team. Despite his successful Stanley Cup winning campaign with the Pittsburgh Penguins where he scored 10 goals and 22 points in the playoffs, he was left off the American roster of the 2016 World Cup of Hockey. Following the elimination of Team USA after a 4–2 loss to Team Canada, Kessel tweeted "Just sitting around the house tonight w my dog. Felt like I should be doing something important, but couldn't put my finger on it." This was interpreted by several Team USA players and personnel, including Dean Lombardi, John Tortorella, David Backes, Zach Parise, and Derek Stepan as Kessel jabbing following his snub. Kessel stated that his comments were not directed at anyone, and that he didn't mean any disrespect towards anyone. Personal life Kessel is from Verona, Wisconsin. The entire Kessel family features successful athletes. His father, Phil Kessel Sr., a college quarterback at Northern Michigan University, was drafted in 1981 by the Washington Redskins of the National Football League (NFL), spending his first year on the injured reserve and then subsequently being released. He spent the 1982 CFL season with the Calgary Stampeders. Kessel's brother Blake, a defenseman, was drafted by the New York Islanders in the sixth round of the 2007 NHL Entry Draft and last played for the Orlando Solar Bears of the ECHL. Kessel's sister Amanda is also a professional ice hockey player and internationally represented the United States with whom she won gold during the 2018 Winter Olympics. Kessel's cousin, David Moss, played in the NHL with the Calgary Flames and Phoenix/Arizona Coyotes. An avid poker player in his free time, Kessel often plays high stakes tournaments, casino cash games and home games with his teammates. Although able to play Texas hold 'em well, he prefers to play Pot-limit Omaha, a game he was taught by his father. Kessel has played in the World Series of Poker (WSOP) every year since 2012, entering high stakes tournaments with entry fees as high as $25,000. As of June 2019, Kessel has totaled $17,022 in live tournament winnings, stemming from cashing in six different WSOP tournaments. Kessel is also good friends with professional poker player Daniel Negreanu, who himself has nearly $40 million in live poker tournament winnings. Kessel and his girlfriend have one daughter. Career statistics Regular season and playoffs International NHL All-Star Games Awards and honors Records NHL First NHL rookie awarded the Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy Most consecutive games played: 1,064 (active) First player in NHL history to record 1,000 consecutive games played Most consecutive games played including playoffs: 1,149 (unofficial) Pittsburgh Penguins Most consecutive games played: 328 NHL milestones Played first game on October 6, 2006, against Florida Recorded first point (an assist on a Brad Boyes goal) on October 7, 2006, against Tampa Bay Scored first goal on October 21, 2006, against Buffalo Scored first hat-trick on October 12, 2007, against Los Angeles Scored first overtime goal on March 11, 2010, against Tampa Bay Scored first shorthanded goal on November 26, 2010, against Buffalo Scored first goal on a penalty shot on January 7, 2012, against Detroit (vs. Jimmy Howard) Recorded career-high 4 assists and 5 points in a game on March 26, 2016, against Detroit Recorded 3,000th shot on goal in a game on March 1, 2018, against Boston Scored first natural hat-trick on October 11, 2018, against Vegas Scored 10th overtime goal on January 18, 2019, against Arizona Scored 100th power play goal on March 12, 2019, against Washington Recorded 300th power play point on February 2, 2021, against St. Louis Recorded 500th assist on March 20, 2021, against Anaheim Recorded 900th point on May 7, 2021, against San Jose Scored 70th game-winning goal on May 8, 2021, against San Jose Played in 1,200th game on April 22, 2022, against Washington Played in 990th straight regular-season game (NHL-record) and scored 400th goal on October 25, 2022, against San Jose Played in 1000th straight regular-season game on November 17, 2022, against Arizona Registered 400th penalty minute on March 25, 2023, against Edmonton Played in 100th playoff game on April 24, 2023, against Winnipeg See also List of NHL players with 500 consecutive games played List of NHL players with 1,000 games played References External links National Hockey League Players' Association (NHLPA)''. Phil Kessel. Retrieved March 16, 2019. 1987 births Living people American expatriate ice hockey players in Canada American men's ice hockey right wingers Arizona Coyotes players Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy winners Boston Bruins draft picks Boston Bruins players Ice hockey people from Madison, Wisconsin Ice hockey players from Wisconsin Ice hockey players at the 2010 Winter Olympics Ice hockey players at the 2014 Winter Olympics Medalists at the 2010 Winter Olympics Minnesota Golden Gophers men's ice hockey players National Hockey League All-Stars National Hockey League first-round draft picks Olympic silver medalists for the United States in ice hockey People from Verona, Wisconsin Pittsburgh Penguins players Providence Bruins players Sportspeople from Dane County, Wisconsin Stanley Cup champions Toronto Maple Leafs players USA Hockey National Team Development Program players Vegas Golden Knights players
4840164	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1992%20NASCAR%20Winston%20Cup%20Series	1992 NASCAR Winston Cup Series	The 1992 NASCAR Winston Cup Series was the 44th season of professional stock car racing in the United States and the 21st modern-era Cup season. The season began on February 9, 1992, and ended on November 15, 1992. Independent owner/driver Alan Kulwicki of AK Racing won the Winston Cup championship. The Generation 4 car was introduced this season, when body panels were removed, teams spent hours in a wind tunnel to gain aerodynamics, the led shot was replaced by the led ingot, the fuel mileage was cut for the drivers to lead more laps, and the bumpers, nose, and tail were composed to mullet fiber glass. The 1992 season was considered one of the most dramatic and emotional years in NASCAR. The seven-time champion, and "King of stock car racing," Richard Petty retired from the sport at the season's end, concluding a year-long "Fan Appreciation Tour." Petty appeared across the country for autographs and diecasts were made of his No. 43 car for all 29 of the races he appeared in. The season also saw the quiet debut of a future champion Jeff Gordon, who was planning to move up after two seasons in the Busch Series. Gordon debuted his now-iconic No. 24 DuPont "Rainbow Warrior" Chevrolet at the final race of the year. The season-long championship battle narrowed down to six drivers, the most ever going into the final race of the season. Davey Allison won the season-opening Daytona 500, and despite a roller-coaster season, remained first, or near the top of the standings all season. Bill Elliott and Alan Kulwicki experienced more consistent results, placing them comfortably near the top. Harry Gant, Mark Martin and Kyle Petty were also factors during the season. Two-time defending champion Dale Earnhardt, however, suffered a dismal season, winning only one race, dropping out several times, and finished outside the top ten at season's end, for just the second time in his Cup career. The season's climax occurred at the final race of the season, the Hooters 500 at Atlanta. Six drivers entered the race with a mathematical chance at winning the Winston Cup championship. Davey Allison led the charge, but ultimately fell short when he was involved in an accident. The race and the championship came down to a two-man battle between Bill Elliott and Alan Kulwicki. Elliott won the race, while Kulwicki finished second. Kulwicki led 103 laps during the race (compared to 102 by Elliott), clinched the 5 bonus points for leading the most laps, and won the Winston Cup title. Tragically, only months later, both Alan Kulwicki and Davey Allison would be killed in separate aviation crashes. The 1992 season was also the final year of Oldsmobile as a manufacturer in the series. The 1992 season was also the first Manufacturers' championship for Ford since 1969. Ford swept the top three in points snapping GM's streak of 16 straight manufacturers' championships (between Chevrolet and Buick). Teams and drivers Complete schedule Limited schedule Schedule Races Busch Clash The Busch Clash, an exhibition event for all 1991 Busch Pole winners, and one "wild card" (from the fastest second round qualifiers from 1991) consisted of a 15-car field. The event was held Saturday, February 9 at Daytona International Speedway, a slight change from previous seasons, which usually saw the race held on Sunday. The move was made at the request of CBS, who wanted the additional time on Sunday for their coverage of the 1992 Winter Olympics. Brett Bodine drew the pole. The race consisted of two 10-lap "sprint" segments, separated by a competition yellow, during which the field would be inverted. Sterling Marlin won the first 10-lap segment, and Geoff Bodine won the second 10-lap segment, to claim the overall victory. Except for the 2-lap competition yellow, the race otherwise was completed caution-free. Gatorade 125s Sterling Marlin won the pole for the Daytona 500 during time trials on Sunday, February 9. His Junior Johnson teammate Bill Elliott qualified second to take the "outside pole." The Gatorade 125-mile qualifying races for the Daytona 500 were held Thursday, February 13 at Daytona International Speedway. Sterling Marlin and Bill Elliott started first in each of the races, respectively. During the second race, a crash on lap 4 took out several cars, including Alan Kulwicki, Terry Labonte and A. J. Foyt. Richard Petty also wrecked out on lap 8. All four would qualify for the Daytona 500 based on speed or by provisional. 34th Daytona 500 by STP The Daytona 500 by STP was held on February 16 at Daytona International Speedway. Sterling Marlin won the pole. Junior Johnson's stablemates, Bill Elliott and Sterling Marlin, controlled the front row, qualifying 1st–2nd, and leading 58 of the first 91 laps. On lap 92, Elliott, Marlin, and Ernie Irvan went three wide coming out of turn two. Marlin, sandwiched in the middle, bounced off both his teammate and Irvan, and all three lost control in front of the entire field, triggering the "Big One". In all, 14 cars were eliminated from the event. Richard Petty, in his final Daytona 500, was among the cars spinning to the infield grass, but he was not heavily damaged, and was able to continue. Davey Allison and Morgan Shepherd were among the few cars who slipped by unscathed. Allison led 95 of the final 100 laps to claim his first Daytona 500 victory, following in the footsteps of his father Bobby. Shepherd was a surprise second, while Geoff Bodine was third. Michael Waltrip also notably slipped by unscathed, but engine trouble late in the race took him out of contention. Alan Kulwicki started 41st after a crash in the Twin 125s qualifying race. He was running in the top ten when the "Big One" occurred. He spun out into the grass, but did not suffer any significant damage. He returned to the track and ran as high as second. In the closing laps, he was running third, just ahead of Geoff Bodine. On the final lap, while Allison and Shepherd were battling for the lead, Bodine got by Kulwicki down the backstretch and into turn three. Bodine snatched third, and Kulwicki came home fourth. This would be the final Daytona 500 start for both Richard Petty and A. J. Foyt. Three weeks removed from leading Washington to victory in Super Bowl XXVI; Joe Gibbs made his debut as a car owner, with his car finishing 36th after being collected in the aforementioned "Big One" on lap 92. GM Goodwrench 500 The GM Goodwrench 500 was held March 1 at Rockingham. The #42 of Kyle Petty won the pole. Top ten results 11-Bill Elliott 28-Davey Allison 33-Harry Gant 30-Michael Waltrip, 1 lap down 25-Ken Schrader, 1 lap down 6-Mark Martin, 2 laps down 94-Terry Labonte, 2 laps down 26-Brett Bodine, 2 laps down 12-Hut Stricklin, 2 laps down 17-Darrell Waltrip, 2 laps down Bill Elliott recovered from his crash at Daytona to lead the final 213 laps, and win in only his second start at Junior Johnson Motorsports. Bill's margin of victory was a whopping 12.75 seconds, nearly half a lap. Davey Allison followed up his Daytona victory finishing second, and extended his points lead. Bill Elliott and Davey Allison led a combined 450 of 492 laps. Allison left the weekend 56 points ahead of Morgan Shepherd, who led 1 lap and finished 3 laps down in 13th. Polesitter Kyle Petty, the two-time defending race and pole position winner, was unable to make it three in a row. The Unocal 76 Challenge bonus money had now rolled over 25 races, and would be $197,600 for the next race. Pontiac Excitement 400 The Pontiac Excitement 400 was held March 8 at Richmond International Raceway. Bill Elliott won the pole. Bill Elliott won his second consecutive race. Elliott was pushed to the limit by Alan Kulwicki, who made a late charge and nearly pulled off a last-lap pass. The two raced clean on the final lap, and Elliott nipped Kulwicki at the finish line by 18 inches. It was just Elliott's second career win on a short track. Points leader Davey Allison finished 4th. This was Bill Elliott's final win at a short track. He dominated by leading 348 of the 400 laps (87%), but beat Alan Kulwicki by only 18 inches. Davey Allison now led the points standings over Harry Gant by 63 points, and Bill Elliott by 68. Bill Elliott broke a streak of 25 rollovers, and claimed the Unocal 76 Challenge of $197,600 — the second-highest total awarded in the history of the program. Motorcraft Quality Parts 500 The Motorcraft Quality Parts 500 was held March 15 at Atlanta Motor Speedway. The #6 of Mark Martin won the pole. Top ten results 11-Bill Elliott 33-Harry Gant 3-Dale Earnhardt 28-Davey Allison 8-Dick Trickle 15-Geoff Bodine 7-Alan Kulwicki 42-Kyle Petty 94-Terry Labonte 21-Morgan Shepherd Due to injuries Ernie Irvan sustained in the previous day's Busch Series race, Irvan in the opening laps was forced to turn his car over to future NASCAR Cup Series champion Bobby Labonte. Late in the race, it appeared that hometown favorite Bill Elliott would not be victorious on this day. The team had missed on the set-up and he was mired near 15th most of the day. Late in the race, leaders Allison, Kulwicki, and Gant pitted under green for what would be their final scheduled pit stop of the day. Every car on the lead lap had pitted for tires and fuel, except Elliott, whose Budweiser Ford has been enjoying good fuel mileage. Suddenly, Mike Wallace spun in turn two, bringing out a caution with 40 laps to go. Elliott was on a lap by himself because everyone else had already made a green-flag pit stop. At the time there was no "wave around" or Beneficiary rule. Elliott pitted under the caution and was able to keep the lead, returning to the track in the middle of the pack, but still scored as the leader. On the restart, second place Gant led the pack with third place Allison right behind - but both were nearly a full lap behind leader Elliott. Elliott was able to cruise over the final laps to an 18-second win over Harry Gant. It was Elliott's third straight victory, and at the end of the day Elliott and Gant were tied for second in points, 58 behind Davey Allison. Perhaps crew chief Tim Brewer said it best when he quipped, "Maybe we should have backed into Victory Lane, that's sure how we got here!". Elliott himself said "they gimme that race!" Earnhardt, Allison and Trickle rounded out the top five. TranSouth 500 The TranSouth 500 was held March 29 at Darlington Raceway. The #22 of Sterling Marlin won the pole. Top ten results 11-Bill Elliott 33-Harry Gant 6-Mark Martin 28-Davey Allison, 1 lap down 5-Ricky Rudd, 1 lap down 26-Brett Bodine, 1 lap down 8-Dick Trickle, 2 laps down 15-Geoff Bodine, 2 laps down 94-Terry Labonte, 2 laps down 3-Dale Earnhardt, 2 laps down At a place where history was reared, Elliott put his name in the record books. In dramatic fashion, Elliott outran hard-charging Gant to post his fourth consecutive victory, tying the modern-era record for most successive wins. Ironically, it was Gant who completed the feat just in September 1991. Mark Martin was third and Ricky Rudd fifth. Allison remained consistent with a fourth-place showing, giving him a 48-point lead over Elliott. Harry Gant was also consistent in the early part of the season, as he sat just 53 points behind Allison. Food City 500 The Food City 500 was held April 5 at Bristol International Raceway. Alan Kulwicki won the pole. Top ten results 7-Alan Kulwicki 18-Dale Jarrett 25-Ken Schrader 94-Terry Labonte, 1 lap down 8-Dick Trickle, 1 lap down 5-Ricky Rudd, 3 laps down 21-Morgan Shepherd, 4 laps down 12-Hut Stricklin, 5 laps down 2-Rusty Wallace, 6 laps down 10-Derrike Cope, 6 laps down Failed to qualify: 98-Jimmy Spencer Coach Joe Gibbs started 0–5 as head coach over the Washington Redskins. As car owner of the Interstate Batteries Chevrolet driven by Dale Jarrett, Gibbs was again 0–5. But, as he did in football, Gibbs appeared headed for victory in his sixth try. Jarrett led the late stages of the event, but on lap 474 of the 500-lap event, Kulwicki used lapped traffic to maneuver around Jarrett and post his first victory of 1992. Meanwhile, points leader Allison hit the wall separating the cartilage around his rib cage and knocking two vertebrae out of place and finished 28th. Elliott finished 20th and Allison's points lead was 29 over Elliott and 61 over Gant who finished 29th due to an engine failure after 277 laps. Bill Elliott experienced trouble during the race, finishing 30 laps down in 20th. This was the last asphalt race at Bristol International Raceway. After the race ended, the blacktop was torn up and a new concrete surface was laid down. Rusty Wallace earned his first Top 10 finish in what would be a very difficult season for the 1989 NASCAR Winston Cup Series champion. First Union 400 The First Union 400 was held April 12 at North Wilkesboro Speedway. Alan Kulwicki won the pole. Top ten results 28-Davey Allison 2-Rusty Wallace 5-Ricky Rudd 15-Geoff Bodine 33-Harry Gant 3-Dale Earnhardt 7-Alan Kulwicki 22-Sterling Marlin 94-Terry Labonte 26-Brett Bodine Failed to qualify: 32-Jimmy Horton, 9-Dave Mader III, 48-James Hylton. In one of the grittiest runs of the year, Allison overcame excruciating pain to collect his second win of the season. The pain was so overwhelming, Jimmy Hensley was called to qualify the Texaco Ford. He gave Davey a seventh-place starting position. Wearing a flak jacket and using an electrode-shock apparatus to help ease the pain, Allison held off a stiff challenge from Rusty Wallace and expanded his points lead to 86 over Gant, 106 over Elliott, 116 over Terry Labonte and 123 over Kulwicki. Prior to the race, a special tribute was held for Junior Johnson, a native of nearby Wilkesboro, North Carolina. Incidentally, both of his drivers would fall short of victory lane, as in addition to Sterling Marlin's 8th place finish; Bill Elliott (driving the #11 Budweiser Ford Thunderbird) finished in the middle of the pack at 20th place. The day before the race saw ESPN broadcaster Benny Parsons, like Johnson a native of Wilkes County, North Carolina, marry his second wife Terri just shy of one year after the death of Parsons' wife Connie. Hanes 500 The Hanes 500 was held April 26 at Martinsville Speedway. Darrell Waltrip won the pole. Top ten results 6-Mark Martin 22-Sterling Marlin 17-Darrell Waltrip, 1 lap down 94-Terry Labonte, 1 lap down 33-Harry Gant, 2 laps down 21-Morgan Shepherd, 2 laps down 25-Ken Schrader, 2 laps down 26-Brett Bodine, 2 laps down 3-Dale Earnhardt, 3 laps down 11-Bill Elliott, 3 laps down Scheduling conflicts with ESPN's coverage of the 1992 NFL Draft meant they were unable to carry the race live, forcing ESPN to air the race on tape the next day, the last time a NASCAR race was not carried live. This will long be remembered as "Camber Day". With new trick rear ends tilted slightly to help get a better drive through the corners, one leader after another fell to the wayside with broken rear axles. First to be victimized was then-dominating Kulwicki, followed by Dale Earnhardt and Ernie Irvan-all in the final 50 laps. With 10 laps remaining, Brett Bodine assumed the lead, until his rear axle broke, leaving Mark Martin standing. Martin's rear axle withstood the strain a few more laps and came out victorious, his first win in 1992. Sterling Marlin posted a second-place finish, followed by Darrell Waltrip, Labonte and Gant. Allison suffered another spin and crash, re injuring his rib cage, but he held a scant 16 point lead over Gant, who finished 5th. Terry Labonte was a surprising 3rd in points, just 41 points out of the lead. Also Dick Trickle was 9th at this time. Reigning Winston Cup champion Dale Earnhardt was 7th overall, while Mark Martin was down in 10th even after his win. 1991 points runner-up Ricky Rudd was 11th, Ken Schrader 14th, Rusty Wallace 16th, and Darrell Waltrip sat 17th in points. Winston 500 The Winston 500 was held May 3 at Talladega Superspeedway. Ernie Irvan won the pole. Top ten results 28-Davey Allison 11-Bill Elliott 3-Dale Earnhardt 22-Sterling Marlin 4-Ernie Irvan 7-Alan Kulwicki 18-Dale Jarrett 6-Mark Martin 21-Morgan Shepherd 42-Kyle Petty Failed to qualify: 0-Delma Cowart, 23-Eddie Bierschwale, 48-James Hylton, 73-Phil Barkdoll, 77-Mike Potter This was Buddy Baker's 700th and final Grand National/Winston Cup start. He would later attempt but fail to qualify for the 1993 DieHard 500, and at Daytona and Atlanta in 1994. Davey Allison's resiliency was evident again. Coming off his second crash of the season, Allison held off Elliott by two car lengths in one of the most exciting finishes of the year. Everyone teamed up against Allison for a final shot coming out of the Talladega tri-oval. Chevrolet teammates Ernie Irvan and Dale Earnhardt on the right and Junior Johnson teammates Elliott and Sterling Marlin on the left. But Allison held them off for his second consecutive Winston 500 victory. The win made Allison the only remaining contender for the Winston Million. He had claimed two of the legs required to claim the $1 million bonus from Winston-the Daytona 500 and Winston 500. He would have two shots at the bonus, Charlotte and Darlington. The #98 Chevrolet of Jimmy Spencer had a spectacular crash late in race on the backstretch. After contact in the middle of the backstretch from the #16 Ford of Wally Dallenbach Jr., the #98 spun and became airborne (almost completely vertical). Luckily, the car came back down on all 4 wheels without flipping over. However, the suspension broke in the car as a result of the landing. Davey Allison led Bill Elliott by 67 points. Richard Petty finished 15th; which would later be tied with June's Miller Genuine Draft 400 at Michigan and the DieHard 500 at Talladega for the best finishes of his farewell season. The Winston Open The Winston Open, a last chance race to qualify for The Winston, was held on May 16, 1992, at Charlotte Motor Speedway. Brett Bodine win the pole. The Winston The 1992 edition of The Winston, took place on May 16, 1992. Davey Allison won the pole. Criteria to qualify All active 1991 and 1992 race winning drivers. All active 1991 and 1992 race winning car owners. All active former Winston Cup Champions. Top 2 finishers from The Winston Open Lights were installed at Charlotte Motor Speedway, and it became the first non-short track to host night racing. The lights debuted for this popular exhibition "all star" event, The Winston on Saturday night, May 16. In a race nicknamed "One Hot Night," Davey Allison won in shocking fashion. During the final 10-lap sprint, Dale Earnhardt led Kyle Petty and Davey Allison. On the final lap, Petty nudged Earnhardt in turn three, spinning him out. Petty took the lead into turn four, but as he entered the qual-oval, Davey Allison pulled alongside. The two cars touched as they crossed the finish line, with Allison edging out Petty by less than half a car length. The two cars clipped, and Allison crashed hard into the outside wall, showering bright sparks over the track. Allison spent the night in the hospital instead of victory lane. Coca-Cola 600 The Coca-Cola 600 was held Sunday, May 24 at Charlotte Motor Speedway. The #11 of Bill Elliott won the pole. All eyes focused on Allison, as he was recovering from his injuries the previous weekend during The Winston. Allison spent two days in the hospital, nursing a broken collarbone, re-injured ribs, and bruises covering 60% of his body. After winning at Daytona and Talladega, Allison was eligible for the Winston Million if he was victorious at Charlotte. Allison had won the Coca-Cola 600 in 1991, and Charlotte was considered Robert Yates's best track. In the late stages, Kyle Petty and Ernie Irvan battled for 1st-2nd. Dale Earnhardt was running third, about 3 seconds behind. After the final round of pit stops (laps 345-346), Dale Earnhardt moved in front of both Kyle Petty and Ernie Irvan to post his first - and only - win of 1992. Allison finished fourth in his bid for the $1 million bonus. Allison still had one more chance to win the Winston Million, later in the season at Darlington. This was the first victory of the season for GM, as all races up to this point have been won by Fords. The Coca-Cola 600 would be Dale Earnhardt's lone victory of 1992 (with the exception of the Gatorade 125 qualifier at Daytona). Approaching his final green-flag pit stop, Earnhardt trailed by 3 seconds, but emerged with a 1.5-second lead, prompting several of his competitors to believe that Earnhardt broke the 55 mph pit road speed limit while exiting. No penalty was assessed. This would be the final Coca-Cola 600 scheduled to run during the daytime. Starting in 1993, the race was moved to a late afternoon/night race. Davey Allison led 33 laps after starting 17th. Polesitter Bill Elliott failed to lead any laps (Ricky Rudd led the first lap from 3rd) en route to a 14th-place finish, 4 laps down. Elliott was now 111 points behind, closely followed by Harry Gant, Alan Kulwicki, and Dale Earnhardt. Jimmy Spencer finished 27th in this in what would be the last race for Travis Carter Enterprises until the 1994 Daytona 500. Budweiser 500 The Budweiser 500 was held May 31 at Dover Downs International Speedway. The #26 driven by Brett Bodine won the pole. Top ten results 33-Harry Gant 3-Dale Earnhardt 2-Rusty Wallace, 1 lap down 4-Ernie Irvan, 1 lap down 17-Darrell Waltrip, 1 lap down 5-Ricky Rudd, 2 laps down 12-Hut Stricklin, 2 laps down 66-Jimmy Hensley, 2 laps down 8-Dick Trickle, 2 laps down 21-Morgan Shepherd, 2 laps down Harry Gant could not outduel the field, so he outfueled them en route to his first victory of '92. While other drivers were forced to pit late for fuel, Gant stretched his to the absolute limit and beat Darrell Waltrip in a fuel mileage war. His final pit stop was on lap 403, and Darrell Waltrip's last stop was on lap 406. But Waltrip was the one who ran out of fuel (with a lap and one half remaining), while Gant ran out on the backstretch on lap 500 with a one lap lead. Dale Earnhardt passed him in turns 3 and 4 to unlap himself and finish 26 seconds behind Gant. Third was Rusty Wallace and fourth for Ernie Irvan. Points leader Allison was never a contender, finishing 11th, while Elliott was 13th. Allison's point lead dwindled to 70 points over Gant and just 99 over Earnhardt. This race would be the first time radial tires were used at Dover. Save Mart Supermarkets 300K The Save Mart Supermarkets 300K was held June 7 at Sears Point Raceway. For the third consecutive year in this event Ricky Rudd won the pole. Top ten results 4-Ernie Irvan 94-Terry Labonte 6-Mark Martin 5-Ricky Rudd 11-Bill Elliott 3-Dale Earnhardt 2-Rusty Wallace 17-Darrell Waltrip 25-Ken Schrader 15-Geoff Bodine On the day of this race, NASCAR founder Bill France Sr. died. Ernie Irvan started 2nd in this race, but jumped the start and was given a stop-and-go penalty in the pits. Irvan came through the entire field to win in the fastest Winston Cup race held on the version of Sears Point. Irvan forged one of the most astonishing comebacks in NASCAR history. Irvan, qualifying second, was black-flagged for jumping the start of the race, relegating him to dead last on a road course with road course demons Rusty Wallace, Ricky Rudd and Terry Labonte leading the field. Irvan blazed through the backmarkers, picked off the middle of the pack, then steadily reeled in leader Labonte with 10 laps remaining. Finally, on lap 67 of the 74-lap event, Irvan retook the top spot and drove on to a 3.6-second win. Irvan dedicated the race to Bill France Sr., the founder of NASCAR who died the morning of the race. Points leader Davey Allison had a terrible day. He spun into a tire barrier early in the race, and later spun in front of the leaders while trying to get out of the way. His 28th-place finish (last car 1 lap down) tightened up the points race in favor of Dale Earnhardt, Bill Elliott, and Harry Gant, who now trailed by 28, 31 and 32 points respectively. Richard Petty's 21st-place finish made him the last car on the lead lap, the final race where he would finish on the lead lap. Champion Spark Plug 500 The Champion Spark Plug 500 was held June 14 at Pocono Raceway. Ken Schrader won the pole. Top ten results 7-Alan Kulwicki 6-Mark Martin 11-Bill Elliott 25-Ken Schrader 28-Davey Allison 42-Kyle Petty 22-Sterling Marlin 26-Brett Bodine 66-Jimmy Hensley 94-Terry Labonte Alan Kulwicki overcame a charging Mark Martin and a brush with danger while passing a lapped car in the final 15 laps to notch his second '92 win. Kulwicki nearly drove into the wall on the backstretch with 12 laps remaining while passing lapped traffic, yielding the lead to Elliott. But with 10 laps to go, Kulwicki blew by Elliott for a lead he would never again relinquish. Martin also moved by Elliott in the final five laps for second. In what would be the beginning of a rough mid-season string of mechanical troubles, Dale Earnhardt developed motor issues that dropped him back to 28th finishing position and fifth in the points. Davey Allison's points lead continued to dwindle, as Bill Elliott chopped off another 10 points with 21 remaining. Alan Kulwicki's win reduced his deficit to Allison to just 58 points, as he also led the most laps (58 of 200). This would be Alan Kulwicki's last win. 1992 was also the only year in which Kulwicki won twice. This would be the last points race win in the Cup Series for car number 7 until July 17th, 1994 when Geoff Bodine won the 1994 Miller Genuine Draft 500 at Pocono Miller Genuine Draft 400 The Miller Genuine Draft 400 was held June 21 at Michigan International Speedway. Davey Allison won the pole. Top ten results 28-Davey Allison 17-Darrell Waltrip 7-Alan Kulwicki 42-Kyle Petty 5-Ricky Rudd 6-Mark Martin 33-Harry Gant 55-Ted Musgrave, 1 lap down 3-Dale Earnhardt, 1 lap down 11-Bill Elliott, 1 lap down After four wrecks and a plethora of misfortune, Allison was up to his old tricks — flat out dominating. Allison guided his Texaco Ford to an easy victory at Michigan, his fourth of the '92 season. By winning from the pole he received the bonus money for the position that boosted his winnings to $150,665. Darrell Waltrip and Kulwicki ran in the top five all day and finished second and third, respectively. Allison padded his points lead to 67 over Elliott and 73 over Kulwicki. Michael Waltrip, driving the #30 Pennzoil Pontiac Grand Prix, was injured in a crash in first round qualifying on June 19; with Ben Hess attempting to qualify on the day before the race in second round qualifying only for Hess to crash at about the same spot; forcing Waltrip to take a provisional to start the race. Waltrip started the race but was still hampered by the injuries and was eventually relieved by Hess. Final time where Davey Allison wins from the pole. This was the last ever 2nd place finish for Darrell Waltrip. Indianapolis Motor Speedway test On the way home from Michigan, on June 22–23, nine top NASCAR Winston Cup series teams were invited to Indianapolis to participate in a Goodyear tire test. Although no official announcements were made, it was in fact an unofficial feasibility test to see if stock cars would be competitive at the circuit (see 1994 Brickyard 400). An estimated 10,000 spectators watched a rather exciting two days of history in the making. A. J. Foyt took a few laps around the track in Dale Earnhardt's car on the second day. ESPN covered the test. Pepsi 400 The Pepsi 400 was held Saturday, July 4 at Daytona International Speedway. Sterling Marlin won the pole position, and Richard Petty qualified second, in his final race at Daytona. This race was attended by President George H. W. Bush and he served as the grand marshal. A special ceremony was held during the pre-race festivities, honoring Richard Petty's final race at Daytona. Petty had spent time before the race testing at Daytona, in hopes that he might win the pole position and possibly be a factor in the race. He held the provisional pole for quite some time, and ultimately qualified second. At the start, Petty whipped the capacity crowd into a frenzy when he led the first five laps (the final laps led of his long career). He dropped out in 36th due to heat-related fatigue. A futile effort was made for Eddie Bierschwale to take over the #43 car and bring it to the finish, but he lasted only a couple laps. The race became a battle between Ernie Irvan, Sterling Marlin, Dale Jarrett, Geoff Bodine and Bill Elliott. Irvan held off a furious charge by Marlin and Jarrett by two car lengths. Frustration increased for Dale Earnhardt, now-midway through what would turn out to be his worst Winston Cup season. He was the first car out, suffering engine failure, dropping him 252 points behind points leader Allison, who still held a 46-point lead over Elliott. The race went 109 laps before the first caution, and was on-pace for a record average speed until a crash on lap 129 (of 160) slowed the pace. The average speed of 170.457 mph stood as the fastest restrictor plate at Daytona race until 1998. This race marked career start number 400 for Harry Gant, he would finish in 23rd, 2 laps down to the winner This race marked career start number 700 for Dave Marcis, he would blow an engine completing 130 of 160 laps finishing 32nd. Miller Genuine Draft 500 The Miller Genuine Draft 500 was held July 19 at Pocono Raceway. Davey Allison won the pole. Top ten results 17-Darrell Waltrip 33-Harry Gant 7-Alan Kulwicki 5-Ricky Rudd 55-Ted Musgrave 6-Mark Martin 42-Kyle Petty 26-Brett Bodine 8-Dick Trickle 18-Dale Jarrett This race changed the outcome of the 1992 NASCAR Winston Cup season. Allison had set a new track record during his pole run, then totally dominated the first 140 laps. An air wrench broke during yellow flag pit stops, putting Allison in seventh for the lap 146 restart. He moved quickly up to fourth on lap 148. Allison's day took a turn for the worse a lap later when he and Darrell Waltrip tangled while jockeying for position exiting turn 2, sending Allison spinning. The air got under Allison's car and sent it into a frightening barrel along the top of the inside guardrail. The car flipped 11 times, eventually landing upside down with gasoline leaking from the rear, completely demolished. Allison suffered a broken right forearm, a dislocated wrist, a skull fracture and a severe concussion. Waltrip drove to victory, and Allison was hospitalized in Pennsylvania for four days. The severity of the crash was such that when Mark Martin drove by, he told his crew, "They may as well get a body bag for Davey." Elliott finished 13th, but took over the points lead for the first time of the year. Allison, his immediate future unknown, now trailed by 9 points, while Alan Kulwicki (-47 points) and Harry Gant (-80 points) continued to stay within reach.. The first thing Darrell Waltrip wanted to know after he won was whether or not Davey was okay. Last career pole for Davey Allison. Richard Petty, in his final race at Pocono, qualified 7th and advanced as high as 5th place early in the race before finishing 20th, 1 lap down. Dale Earnhardt's engine problems continued as his team had to change engines shortly before the race started. The two-time defending champion qualified 29th and finished 23rd. DieHard 500 The DieHard 500 was held July 26 at Talladega Superspeedway in Talladega, Alabama. Sterling Marlin won the pole. Top ten results 4-Ernie Irvan 22-Sterling Marlin 28-Davey Allison/Bobby Hillin Jr. 5-Ricky Rudd, 1 lap down 11-Bill Elliott, 1 lap down 42-Kyle Petty, 1 lap down 30-Michael Waltrip, 1 lap down 9-Chad Little, 1 lap down 25-Ken Schrader, 1 lap down 26-Brett Bodine, 1 lap down In awe-inspiring fashion, Allison walked into the garage area at Talladega, determined to put on his uniform and drive in the DieHard 500 after suffering the skull fracture the previous week at Pocono. With a tailor-made cast, a wrist brace and velcro on the shifter, Allison started the race and gained the all-important Winston Cup points. After 6 laps during the 1st caution, backup driver 1986 winner Bobby Hillin Jr. took over the wheel and nearly drove the Texaco Ford to victory. Irvan and Marlin again battled for superspeedway supremacy with Irvan nipping the winless Marlin by a scant .19 seconds. Earnhardt had engine failure again and finished dead last for the second time in three races, taking him out of contention for a third consecutive Winston Cup title. The race only saw two yellows, at lap 6 and lap 70. The long green runs caused the field to spread out, and the strongest cars in the field (the 4, 22, and 28) lapped everyone else. Ernie Irvan suffered a flat tire on lap 5. When the yellow came out, he sped out of the pits to stay on the lead lap, but failed to beat leader Ricky Rudd to the line and was penalized to the rear of the field for speeding. He went on to pass everyone and get his lap back, and when the second (and only other) caution came out, he made up his lost lap. Thanks to a great 3rd place finish by relief driver Bobby Hillin Jr., Davey Allison leapfrogged Bill Elliott by 1 point to re-take the lead. Alan Kulwicki (who finished 3 laps down in 25th) and Harry Gant (2 laps down in 17th) fell to a deficit of 120 and 129 points respectively. After his engine failed, Earnhardt was briefly waiting in position as a possible substitute driver for Richard Petty; though ultimately Petty's final race in Talladega would see "the King" finish the race behind his famed #43. Chad Little's 9th place finish was the 2nd and final Top 10 finish for Melling Racing in 1992; with the only other Top 10 for the team being the season-opening Daytona 500; when the #9 (then driven by Phil Parsons) finished in 10th place. Budweiser at The Glen The Budweiser at The Glen was held August 9 at Watkins Glen International. Dale Earnhardt won the pole. The race was shortened to 51 laps due to rain as NASCAR did not have rain tires to use at the time; this would change at the 2020 Bank of America Roval 400. Top ten results 42-Kyle Petty 21-Morgan Shepherd 4-Ernie Irvan 6-Mark Martin 16-Wally Dallenbach Jr. 2-Rusty Wallace 7-Alan Kulwicki 94-Terry Labonte 3-Dale Earnhardt 26-Brett Bodine This was the first race for Winston Cup cars since the new bus stop chicane was added in light of J. D. McDuffie's fatal accident in 1991. Nifty pit strategy and Mother Nature helped Kyle Petty notch the first (and only) road course victory of his career. Rain pushed back the start of the race more than three hours, and once the green flag finally fell, it was fairly evident it would be a sprint to the halfway point. Petty won a heated battle for the lead with Ernie Irvan between laps 32–36, a pivotal point in the race. After a caution, the race was restarted on lap 44, one lap before the halfway point, which would make the race official regardless of the weather. Petty brushed off then-leader Dick Trickle on lap 45 and on lap 46, the skies opened. After five laps under caution, the race was red-flagged, then called with Petty as the winner. Still suffering from his Pocono injuries, Davey Allison fell 17 points behind 14th-place finisher Bill Elliott, after Dorsey Schroeder relieved Davey mid-race and finished 20th. Alan Kulwicki's solid finish reduced his interval to 94 points, while Harry Gant made no progress, finishing 18th and increasing his deficit to 140 points. Kyle Petty climbed up to 9th in points, tied with Morgan Shepherd at 340 points behind Elliott. This was Todd Bodine's first Winston Cup race. He drove a Ford Thunderbird bearing his Busch Series car number (34), as well as sponsorship by Diet Pepsi. Champion Spark Plug 400 The Champion Spark Plug 400 was held August 16 at Michigan International Speedway. The #7 of Alan Kulwicki won the pole. Top ten results 33-Harry Gant 17-Darrell Waltrip 11-Bill Elliott 4-Ernie Irvan 28-Davey Allison 42-Kyle Petty 22-Sterling Marlin 18-Dale Jarrett 6-Mark Martin 21-Morgan Shepherd The physical pain Davey Allison endured could not have prepared him for the emotional anguish the Alabama native would suffer through this weekend. On Thursday during Busch Grand National practice, Davey's younger brother, Clifford, died as the result of a single-car crash in turn three. The entire racing family mourned for the Allisons. Davey decided to race. He qualified third and finished fifth in a courageous effort. Harry Gant won another fuel mileage war, beating Darrell Waltrip and Elliott to the finish line by nearly five seconds. This was Harry Gant's last Winston Cup victory. He set a new record for oldest winner of a Winston Cup race at 52 years and 219 days. This was also Oldsmobile's last victory in NASCAR. The final caution came out on lap 97 for a turn 2 accident involving Jimmy Hensley, Rick Mast, Jeff McClure, and eliminating Derrike Cope. Midpack runner Harry Gant pitted while the leaders (Bill Elliott, Ernie Irvan, and Davey Allison) stayed out, not believing they could finish the race on one more pit stop. They had pitted under the previous caution when Lake Speed spun and severed a fuel line. Gant pitted under green at lap 149 and stayed out until the checkered flag waved. Bill Elliott's point lead grew from 17 to 37 after he led a race-high 72 of 200 laps. Harry Gant shaved 5 points from his deficit to Elliott (down to 135). Polesitter Alan Kulwicki faded to 14th, 1 lap down, after leading 46 laps. This lackluster result put him 143 points behind. What had been a frustrating second half of 1992 continued for Dale Earnhardt; who was forced to start from the back of the field after failing inspection during the second round of qualifying. Earnhardt would finish 16th in the race. Bud 500 The Bud 500 was held Saturday night, August 29 at Bristol International Raceway. The #4 of Ernie Irvan won the pole. This was the first race at Bristol after the track was re-surfaced with concrete. Darrell Waltrip, the winningest driver in history at Bristol, won for the 12th (and final) time at the popular track. Waltrip out-dueled Dale Earnhardt and Ken Schrader in one of the most exciting races of the season. Davey Allison was running fifth when he lost control and hit the wall. After extensive repairs, Allison rejoined the race, only to crash into the inside wall on the frontstretch. He dropped out and finished 30th. Elliott was steady with a sixth-place finish. Darrell Waltrip won this race four days after the birth of his second daughter, Sarah. On lap 8 polesitter Ernie Irvan spun on the backstretch and backed into the pit wall after leading the first 7 laps. He lost more than 100 laps and eventually parked the car after completing 285 laps, finishing a disappointing 28th. Among the points contenders, Bill Elliott had the cleanest day, finishing 6th. Harry Gant, Mark Martin, and Davey Allison all dropped out from crashes. Kyle Petty and Alan Kulwicki received minor damage in separate incidents, but both continued and posted top-5 finishes. Bill Elliott gained significant ground, stretching his lead to 109 points over Davey Allison. Mountain Dew Southern 500 The Mountain Dew Southern 500 was held September 6 at Darlington Raceway. The #22 of Sterling Marlin won the pole position. This race was shortened to 298 laps of 367 due to rain. The attention largely focused on Davey Allison, who was eligible for the Winston Million, and could also claim a Career Grand Slam by winning all four majors in his career. Cloudy skies and rain were in the forecast, but the race started on time and cruised well beyond the halfway point before rain entered the area. As the race progressed, Allison ran in the top three most of the day, and was in contention for victory, and the coveted Winston Million bonus. Allison's biggest challenges, however, were impending rain, and hard-charging Mark Martin. Allison pitted first on lap 286 of the 367-lap event. Martin, pitting on the backstretch, came in on lap 289. Just moments later on lap 295, the skies opened and the rain that had threatened all day finally came. Darrell Waltrip, Bill Elliott, and Brett Bodine were among a handful of drivers who had not yet pitted. When the red flag was displayed on lap 298, Waltrip was scored as the leader, having taken the lead on lap 293. Shortly thereafter, the race was called and Waltrip was declared the winner. It was Waltrip's second consecutive win, but more importantly, his first Southern 500 victory, making him the fourth driver to finish off the Career Grand Slam. Martin was second, with points contender Elliott coming home a surprising third. Allison was shuffled back to 5th. A dejected Allison lost his chance at the Winston Million, however he did win the $100,000 bonus from Winston for winning two out of four crown jewel races. Allison also lost ground to Elliott in the season standings. Elliott now led by 119 points over Allison. Alan Kulwicki was still in striking distance at 161 points behind. Larry McReynolds wrote in his 2002 autobiography, The Big Picture: My Life from Pit Road to the Broadcast Booth about the pit miscue for Allison. He sent a crew member to the NASCAR hauler to look at the weather radar (teams looked at the radar from NASCAR's hauler, unlike modern pit boxes with a connection to the radar), and the crew member gave McReynolds the call to pit the car on lap 286. According to the book, the crew member said "Green means good," with McReynolds responding, "Green means rain." This incident heavily influenced McReynolds when he went to broadcasting, even making an appearance on The Weather Channel after going to broadcasting in 2001. In the thick of the 1992 election season, Bill Clinton was the grand marshal for this race. This was Darrell Waltrip's 84th and final Winston Cup victory. Final time in his career as well that Darrell Waltrip would win multiple races in a season. First time since 1983 (and final time in his career) that Darrell Waltrip won back-to-back races in a season. Dale Earnhardt would once again be plagued with mechanical issues, this time problems with the clutch early. The clutch would be fixed; but Earnhardt would finish in 29th place, 57 laps down and the lowest finishing car still running in the race. Miller Genuine Draft 400 The Miller Genuine Draft 400 was held Saturday night, September 12 at Richmond International Raceway. The #4 of Ernie Irvan won the pole. Rusty Wallace was driving for newly acquired crew chief Buddy Parrott. Wallace led the final 139 laps and beat Mark Martin by 3.59 seconds for the win. Darrell Waltrip's hot streak ended at two wins, but he followed it up here with a third-place finish. Points leader Bill Elliott struggled home 14th a lap down, Alan Kulwicki finished 15th, while Davey Allison spun twice and finished 19th. Elliott's points grew to 124 over Allison, and 164 over Kulwicki. Peak Antifreeze 500 The Peak Antifreeze 500 was held September 20 at Dover Downs International Speedway. The #7 of Alan Kulwicki won the pole. Points leader Bill Elliott returned to his dominating ways, but late pit stop strategy cost him the victory. While battling Ricky Rudd for the lead, Elliott pitted first, taking on four tires and fuel. Rudd pitted for fuel only, and came out of the pits with a 9-second lead over Elliott. Rudd held on to beat Elliott to the finish line by 0.5 seconds, his only victory of the season. Ricky Rudd's victory kept his streak alive of consecutive seasons with at least one victory – extending it to ten. Bill Elliott led the most laps and extended his point lead over Davey Allison to 154 points, the highest margin of the season. Harry Gant was third, 239 points behind Elliott. Polesitter Alan Kulwicki crashed out of the race on lap 91, finishing 34th and leaving him 278 points out of the lead with six races left. Goody's 500 The Goody's 500 was held Monday, September 28 at Martinsville Speedway. Kyle Petty won the pole. Rain delayed the race from Sunday until Monday. The previous day's rain left the infield very soggy. Spirited battles throughout the field were the order of the day as the cold and humidity led to slick racing conditions. Geoff Bodine emerged through the constant melees to his first win for owner Bud Moore. Kyle Petty, who finished 4th, actually got stuck in the mud and lost 2 laps at one point. Bill Elliott finished 30th as a result of engine failure after 158 laps. Davey Allison finished 4 laps down in 16th, not gaining much but reducing Elliott's lead to 112 points. Dale Earnhardt would finish in last place for the third time this season; and like the Pepsi 400 and DieHard 500 the cause was the same, as like Bill Elliott, Earnhardt's exit was due to a blown engine. Tyson Holly Farms 400 The Tyson Holly Farms 400 was held Monday, October 5 at North Wilkesboro Speedway. The #7 of Alan Kulwicki won the pole. This race was postponed to Monday as a result of rain (the second week in a row that this occurred). In a complete contrast from the previous week, the result was the same. Geoff Bodine recorded his second consecutive win, but in the caution- and incident-free Holly Farms 400. Bodine led the final 144 laps and lapped everyone except runner-up Mark Martin. He lapped Winston Cup points leader Bill Elliott eight times under green. Bodine's victory, in the Ford car, clinched the first manufacturer's championship for Ford Motor Co. since 1969; it was also the first time a brand other than a General Motors product won the manufacturer's title since Dodge won it in 1975. Due to the race running caution-free (very strange for a short track), only 2 cars finished on the lead lap. However, Geoff Bodine won by only 5.3 seconds. As of 2018, this would be the last time ever that a NASCAR short track event race would go flag to flag green (or caution-free). In 2017, NASCAR would make a 3 stages format for every race of the season, and at a certain lap at the end of each stage, they would throw the caution flag, thus making it that a race can no longer go flag to flag green (or caution-free). Bill Elliott stubbed his toe again with another poor finish. He was 8 laps down in 26th at Junior Johnson's home track. Davey Allison was 3 laps down in 11th, and he continued to gain on Elliott as he sat 67 points behind with 4 races to go. Mello Yello 500 The Mello Yello 500 was held October 11 at Charlotte Motor Speedway. Alan Kulwicki won the pole. Mark Martin charged past mid-race dominator Kyle Petty in the late stages, then held off Kulwicki in the final 50 laps to post what he called "the most important victory of his career." Martin led 107 laps en route to his second win of the season, which suddenly vaulted him back in contention for the 1992 Winston Cup title. The #31 Team Ireland Chevrolet of Bobby Hillin Jr. was disqualified due to illegal cylinder heads after finishing 15th. As a result, the team withdrew from the series in an attempt to avoid being drawn into disrepute. It would the last time a Cup driver was disqualified for illegal parts until NASCAR introduced a new disqualification policy for technical inspection failures in 2019. Bill Elliott's sway bar broke after 310 laps, leaving Bill with a 30th-place finish. Junior Johnson entered a third car driven by Hut Stricklin, who retired the car when Elliott had his problem. Stricklin's 31st-place finish saved Elliott 3 points. Davey Allison didn't have a great day, either; he was 5 laps down in 19th. Last career pole for Alan Kulwicki. Kulwicki would finish 2nd despite breaking a gearbox that forced him to finish the race in 4th gear. Kulwicki would use a similar strategy following a gearbox failure at the 1992 Hooters 500 at the end of the season. AC Delco 500 The AC Delco 500 was held October 25 at North Carolina Speedway. Kyle Petty won the pole. In the most dominating performance of the season, Kyle Petty continued his sensational second half of 1992 with a convincing AC-Delco 500 win. Petty led all but eight of the 492 laps in his father's final race in North Carolina. He only relinquished the lead during green flag pit stops. The outcome was never in doubt, so the attention moved to the points battle, which marched into Rockingham with six drivers in contention. After Petty's Victory Lane celebration, those six still remained in the title picture, with Elliott leading by 70 over Allison, 85 over Kulwicki, 94 over Petty and 113 over Gant. Kyle Petty led 484 of 492 laps. Mark Martin (before he crashed) and Bill Elliott led 3 laps each, and Ernie Irvan led 2 during green flag pit stops. As a result of the domination and only 2 cautions in a 500-mile (805 km) race, only 2 cars finished on the lead lap. Despite the green flag look of the race, Petty beat Irvan by just under a second. Only time in his career that Kyle Petty won multiple races in a season. Bill Elliott finally had a good finish after 3 successive finishes of 26th or worse. For this race and the following week's Pyroil 500K, TNN had a promotion as part of their encouraging viewers to vote in the 1992 elections, where viewers could call a 1-800 number and respond which of the drivers contending for the 1992 Winston Cup championship would win. Pyroil 500K The Pyroil 500K was held November 1 at Phoenix International Raceway. The #2 of Rusty Wallace won the pole. Smoke billowed from Elliott's Budweiser Ford, signaling an opportunity for the rest of the Winston Cup contenders. Allison and Kulwicki took full advantage. While Elliott's car suffered from a cracked cylinder head and overheating problems, which relegated him to a 31st-place finish, Allison patiently made his way to the front and won his second consecutive Pyroil 500. The emotional victory — Allison's first since the Pocono accident (and penultimate), vaulted him back into the points lead. Kulwicki ran strong all day and finished fourth, also moving him past Elliott in the point standings. Heading into the season's final event at Atlanta Motor Speedway, Allison led Kulwicki by 30 points, Elliott by 40, Gant by 97, Petty by 98 and Martin by 113. It was the first time in the sport's history that six drivers were still in contention heading into the final event. Rusty Wallace led 161 laps but had to go to the garage area (finishing 28th); during his stay a reporter for TNN asked him a question and Wallace caustically grabbed his microphone into the cockpit to answer. Last race without Jeff Gordon in the field until the 2016 Daytona 500. Final time in his career as well that Davey Allison would win multiple races in a season. To mark Richard Petty's penultimate race, both of the cars sponsored by Skoal tobacco; Harry Gant's #33 Skoal Bandit Oldsmobile and Rick Mast's #1 Skoal Classic Oldsmobile sported "Thanks King Richard" messages on their quarterpanels and decklid. Hooters 500 The Hooters 500 was held November 15 at Atlanta Motor Speedway. Rick Mast won the pole. In what is largely considered one of the greatest NASCAR races of all-time, six drivers entered the race with a mathematical chance to win the Winston Cup (Bill Elliott, Alan Kulwicki, Davey Allison, Kyle Petty, Harry Gant and Mark Martin). The race was the highly publicized final career start for 7-time NASCAR champion Richard Petty and, quietly, the first career start for future champion Jeff Gordon. Davey Allison had to finish 6th or better to automatically clinch the championship. Rick Mast won his first career Winston Cup pole, but crashed out on lap 2 with Brett Bodine and did not lead any laps. Both cars hit the wall in turn one; Bodine spun to the apron and was hammered at full speed by a surprised Hut Stricklin. On lap 95, a multi-car crash ensued that collected Richard Petty. The crash knocked the oil cooler off the car and dumped oil on the King's engine, causing it to erupt in flames. Petty rolled to a stop next to a fire truck, which quickly extinguished the flames, but his return to the race looked very doubtful. Championship contenders Mark Martin and Kyle Petty dropped out with engine trouble while Harry Gant faded and was not a factor in the second half. On lap 254, Davey Allison's fate was sealed. While running 6th — good enough to clinch the title — and charging to the front, suddenly disaster struck. Ernie Irvan had a tire going down, lost control and spun directly in front of Rusty Wallace and Allison. Wallace dodged the spinning Irvan, but Allison was not so lucky. Irvan pancaked the wall and bounced off into Allison. Allison spun into the inside pit wall, and damaged the tirerod. His car still had power, and tried desperately to get his car rolling, but to no avail. The crash effectively ended his run at the championship and winning the race. Elliott and Kulwicki were left to battle for the title. Allison would eventually return to the track but several laps down. Elliott and Kulwicki ran 1st-2nd for most of the second half, swapping the lead on several occasions. It became evident that the driver who led the most laps (receiving the 5 bonus points for leading the most laps) would clinch the championship. After the final gas-and-go pit stops, Kulwicki had led 103 laps. Elliott took over the lead, with Kulwicki settling into a comfortable second. Elliott led the rest of the way, his fifth victory of the season, bringing his laps led total to 102 laps, one short of Kulwicki's total — giving the 5 bonus points to Kulwicki. Elliott won the Hooters 500, but Kulwicki's second-place finish allowed him to claim the 1992 NASCAR Winston Cup championship by a scant 10 points, the third-narrowest margin in the sport's history (after 2011, in which Tony Stewart and Carl Edwards finished tied, the title going to Stewart by virtue of more wins in the season, and Kurt Busch's 8 point margin over Jimmie Johnson in 2004). This would be the final time in his career that Bill Elliott would pull off the season sweep at a track. Meanwhile, the STP crew patched Richard Petty's car back together and "The King" rejoined the field with two laps to go and was running at the finish in his final race to receive the checkered flag. Jeff Gordon started 21st and finished in 31st in his Winston Cup debut. This was the first race without Bobby Labonte until the 2013 Quaker State 400. Jeff Gordon made every start from this race to the 2015 Ford Ecoboost 400. He would go on to win 93 races, four championships,and three Daytona 500s. Gordon made 797 consecutive starts, the most of every other driver. Final points standings (key) Bold - Pole position awarded by time. Italics - Pole position set by owner's points standings. - Most laps led. Other information Dale Earnhardt and Rusty Wallace both failed to finish in the top 10 in points for 1992. Earnhardt, who was the defending Winston Cup champion for the last 2 years (1990 and 1991), tried to join Cale Yarborough by winning 3 championships in a row, but he had a very disappointing season. He only scored one win, and he finished 12th in points. Wallace had a very disappointing season as well. He too scored only one win, and he finished 13th in points. The next season however, both Earnhardt and Wallace rebounded, and they finished 1st and 2nd in the standings. Earnhardt would win his 6th championship that year with 6 wins, and Wallace would finish 2nd with 10 wins. Earnhardt would win the championship by 80 points over Wallace. Two cars numbered 24 were fielded during the season; Butch Gilliland used the number in a car owned by himself at Phoenix and Jeff Gordon drove the number 24 in his first race car with Hendrick Motorsports. The 1993 Winston Cup Series Media Guide shows that Butch Gilliland also fielded the #24 Aneheim Elect. Gear Pontiac in the Sonoma race in June 1992 finishing 38th after starting 36th. However, as the Phoenix and Sonoma races were declared combination races with the Winston West Series would run joint races together, Gilliland was registered with the West Series, a developmental series since 2003. This was the final year in NASCAR for the Oldsmobile brand. Rookie of the Year Jimmy Hensley, driving Cale Yarborough's #66 Ford, was named Rookie of the Year after posting four top-ten finishes in 22 starts. Veteran Chad Little drove the car in the first six races, but was replaced by Bobby Hillin Jr. at North Wilkesboro and by Hensley in the following race at Martinsville. Hensley had previously never started more than 4 Winston Cup races in a season (doing so in 1984 and in 1991). Bob Schacht, Andy Belmont, and Dave Mader III were also declared for the award, but did not run enough races to compete for the award. Further reading Race with Destiny, David Poole. Albion Press (FL), April 15, 2002 . . See also 1992 NASCAR Busch Series References External links Winston Cup Standings and Statistics for 1992 NASCAR Cup Series seasons
4840666	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Mechanical%20Universe	The Mechanical Universe	The Mechanical Universe...And Beyond is a 52-part telecourse, filmed at the California Institute of Technology, that introduces university level physics, covering topics from Copernicus to quantum mechanics. The 1985-86 series was produced by Caltech and INTELECOM, a nonprofit consortium of California community colleges now known as Intelecom Learning, with financial support from Annenberg/CPB. The series, which aired on PBS affiliate stations before being distributed on LaserDisc and eventually YouTube, is known for its use of computer animation. Overview Produced starting in 1982, the videos make heavy use of historical dramatizations and visual aids to explain physics concepts. The latter were state of the art at the time, incorporating almost eight hours of computer animation created by computer graphics pioneer Jim Blinn along with assistants Sylvie Rueff and Tom Brown at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. Each episode opens and closes with bookend segments in which Caltech professor David Goodstein, speaking in a lecture hall, delivers explanations "that can't quite be put into the mouth of our affable, faceless narrator". After more than a quarter century, the series is still often used as a supplemental teaching aid, for its clear explanation of fundamental concepts such as special relativity. The bookend segments featuring Goodstein were specially staged versions of actual freshman physics lectures from Caltech's courses Physics 1a and 1b. The organization and the choice of topics to emphasize in the television show reflect a then-recent revision of Caltech's introductory physics curriculum, the first total overhaul since the one represented by The Feynman Lectures on Physics almost two decades earlier. While Feynman generally sought contemporary examples of topics, the later revision of the curriculum brought a more historical focus:In essence, the earlier Feynman course had sought to make physics exciting by relating each subject, wherever possible, to contemporary scientific problems. The new course took the opposite tack, of trying to recreate the historical excitement of the original discovery. For example, classical mechanics—a notoriously difficult and uninspiring subject for students—is treated as the discovery of "our place in the universe". Accordingly, celestial mechanics is the backbone of the subject and its climax is Newton's solution of the Kepler problem.Episode 22 solved the Kepler problem — that is, demonstrating that an inverse-square law of gravity implies that orbits are conic sections — using a variant of the Laplace–Runge–Lenz vector, though not by that name. Production details The room seen in the bookend segments is the Bridge lecture hall at Caltech. Many of the extras were students from other schools, and the front rows of the lecture hall were deliberately filled with more women than would have typically been seen at Caltech lectures. The TV production team added fake wood paneling to the lecture hall so that it would more closely resemble that seen in the show The Paper Chase. Later, the Caltech physics department was sufficiently impressed by the result that panels were installed permanently. Many seats in the lecture hall had to be removed in order to make room for the camera track and studio lights. To cover this, additional reaction shots of a full lecture hall were filmed later, so that the illusion of a complete audience could be created in editing. For most of the footage of Goodstein himself, only two rows of students were present. Many other video segments were shot on location, for example at a Linde industrial plant that produced liquid air. Historical scenes were often made to be generic, in order to facilitate their reuse across multiple episodes: "Young Newton strolls through an apple orchard, old Newton testily refuses a cup of tea from a servant, and so on". Footage featuring historical reenactment of Johannes Kepler was purchased from Carl Sagan's 1980 television series Cosmos: A Personal Voyage. The series was originally planned to consist of 26 episodes. This was later expanded to 60 episodes, a number then cut back to the eventual total of 52 for budget and production-schedule reasons. The show was intended not to require previous experience with calculus. Instead, the basics of differential and integral calculus would both be taught early in the series itself. Caltech mathematician Tom M. Apostol joined the Mechanical Universe production staff in order to ensure that the series did not compromise on the quality of the mathematics it presented. Seeing an example of Blinn's computer animation for the first time convinced Apostol that the series could bring mathematics "to life in a way that cannot be done in a textbook or at the chalkboard". When test screenings to humanities students revealed that their greatest difficulty learning calculus was a weak background in trigonometry, Apostol wrote a primer on the subject to be distributed with the telecourse. After advising the production of The Mechanical Universe, Apostol decided that a similar series, geared to high-school mathematics, would be beneficial. This became the later Caltech series Project Mathematics!, which also featured computer animation by Blinn. Some of Blinn's animations for The Mechanical Universe were reused in the new series, in order to illustrate applications of algebra, geometry, and trigonometry. The 1990 science-fiction action film Total Recall used portions of the Mechanical Universe title sequence, in a scene where the protagonist (Douglas Quaid, played by Arnold Schwarzenegger) is offered virtual vacations in locales around the Solar System. The animation was used without licensing, and consequently, Caltech and Intelecom sued Carolco Pictures for $3 million. In order to present detailed mathematical equation derivations, the show employed a technique its creators called the "algebraic ballet". Computer animation presented derivations in step-by-step detail, but rapidly and with touches of whimsy, such as algebraic terms being canceled by a Monty Python-esque stomping foot or the hand of God from Michelangelo's The Creation of Adam. Blinn felt that Cosmos had taken itself "too seriously", and so he aimed to include more humor in the Mechanical Universe animations. The goal was to avoid putting the viewers' "brains into a 60-cycle hum", without sacrificing rigor; the creators intended that students could learn the overall gist of each derivation from the animation, and then study the details using the accompanying textbook. Computer animation was also used to portray idealizations of physical systems, like simulated billiard balls illustrating Newton's laws of motion. Blinn had used some of the same software earlier to visualize the interaction of DNA and DNA polymerase for Cosmos. One commenter deemed these animations "particularly useful in providing students with subjective insights into dynamic three-dimensional phenomena such as magnetic fields". Creating the computer graphics necessary to visualize physics concepts led Blinn to invent new techniques for simulating clouds, as well as the virtual "blobby objects" known as metaballs. Blinn used the vertex coordinates of regular icosahedra and dodecahedra to determine the placement of electric field lines radiating away from point charges. Most of the narration was voiced by actor Aaron Fletcher, who also played Galileo Galilei in the historical segments. Some portions, such as explanations of particular technical details, were narrated by Sally Beaty, the show's executive producer. Shorter versions of Mechanical Universe episodes, 10 to 20 minutes in length, were created for use in high schools. This adaptation, for which a dozen high-school teachers and administrators were consultants, was supported by a $650,000 grant from the National Science Foundation. These videos were distributed alongside supplemental written material for teachers' benefit, and were intended to be employed in conjunction with existing textbooks. Yorkshire Television later produced a version repackaged for the United Kingdom audience, which was released in April 1991. Funding Annenberg/CPB provided the funding for the production of The Mechanical Universe. The show was one of the first twelve projects funded by the initial $90 million pledge the Annenberg Foundation gave to the Corporation for Public Broadcasting in the early 1980s. The total cost of the project was roughly $10 million. Critical reception Initial responses PBS and The Learning Channel began broadcasting The Mechanical Universe in September 1985. During the fall of 1986, roughly 100 PBS stations carried The Mechanical Universe, and by the fall of 1987, over 600 higher-education institutions had purchased it or licensed the episodes for use. In 1992, Goodstein noted that the series had been broadcast, via PBS, by over 100 stations, "usually at peculiar hours when innocent people were unlikely to tune in accidentally on a differential equation in the act of being solved". He observed that detailed viewership figures were difficult to obtain, but when the show had been broadcast in Miami during Saturday mornings, the producers were able to obtain Nielsen ratings.In fact, it came in second in its time slot, beating the kiddie cartoons on two network stations. There were 18,000 faithful core households in Dade County alone, the median age of the viewers was 18, and half were female. However, we seldom get that kind of detailed information.Goodstein and assistant project director Richard Olenick noted:Anecdotal information in the form of letters and phone calls indicates very considerable enthusiasm among users at all levels from casual viewers to high-school students to research university professors, but there have also been a number of sharp disappointments, particularly when Instructional Television administrators have tried to handle TMU like a conventional telecourse.Similarly, a 1988 review in Physics Today suggested that the programs would not function well on their own as a telecourse, but would work much better as a supplement to a traditional classroom or a more standard distance-learning course such as Open University. The reviewers also found the "algebraic ballet" of computer-animated equations too fast to follow: "After a short time, one yearns for a live professor filling the blackboard with equations". Similarly, a review in the American Journal of Physics, while praising the "technical proficiency of the films", wrote of the animated equation manipulations: "As the MIT students say, this is like trying to take a drink of water out of a fire hose". A considerably more enthusiastic evaluation came from physicist Charles H. Holbrow, who told Olenick: "These materials will constitute the principal visual image of physics for decades". A reviewer writing for Educational Technology found the animations "fascinating to watch" and opined that they were at least as effective as what many instructors could manage at a traditional blackboard. An editorial in the Los Angeles Times called the show "extraordinary" and the animations "splendid", quipping that "if differential calculus is not television's Supreme Test, it would certainly make the semifinals in any competition". Goodstein and Olenick reported that younger viewers tended to enjoy the "algebraic ballet" style "much more than older viewers, who are made uncomfortable by the algebraic manipulations they cannot quite follow". Classroom use In 1986, The Mechanical Universe was used as part of a summer program for gifted children, to overall success. A 1987 study at Indiana University Bloomington used 14 Mechanical Universe episodes as part of an introductory course on Newtonian mechanics, with generally positive results:[T]hese tapes were particularly effective in placing Newtonian mechanics in a historical perspective; dramatizing the historical overthrow of Aristotelian and medieval ideas; illustrating the diverse nature of scientists and the scientific endeavor; stimulating student interest and enthusiasm; and, through excellent animation, illustrating the time dimension of certain mechanics concepts. The companion text [...] was placed on library reserve for the course but was not extensively utilized by students.A follow-up study found that the videos could also be helpful explaining physics to professors in other fields. Negative reactions generally had less to do with the intrinsic perceived quality of the episodes than with the time the science-history material took away from content seen as "critical exam-preparing instruction". The investigator recalled:[S]ome students, thinking that the videotape material would not be covered on the tests, headed for the doors when the lights dimmed! To counter this tendency I started to use a few test questions based on historical or literary details discussed in the videotapes. Some students were outraged: "What is this, a poetry class?" Classroom use continued into the 1990s. A minority education program at the University of California, Berkeley employed Mechanical Universe episode segments (on LaserDisc) as part of group discussions. In a 1993 review of the series, a science historian stated that he had used episodes in his classes for several years, naming "Kepler's Three Laws" and "The Michelson–Morley Experiment" as his personal favorites.The highlight of the Kepler film is a segment in which we are shown an exquisite graphical realization of the way in which Kepler actually figured out that the orbits of the planets are elliptical rather than circular. The sheer difficulty of the problem he faced and the elegance of the method he applied to solve it are abundantly clear. I cannot imagine a better way to present this magnificent discovery, which can easily appear so trivial.A 2005 column in The Physics Teacher suggested The Mechanical Universe as preparatory viewing for instructors attempting to teach physics for the first time. The Physics Teacher has also recommended the series "as enrichment or a makeup assignment for high-ability students". Writing for Wired magazine's web site, Rhett Allain cited the series as an example of videos that could replace some functions of traditional lectures. Awards In 1987, "The Lorentz Transformation" (episode 42) was awarded the sixteenth annual Japan Prize for educational television. Other awards received by The Mechanical Universe include the 1986 Gold Award from the Birmingham International Film Festival, two "Cindy" awards from the International Association of Audio Visual Communicators (1987 and 1988), a Gold Award (1985) and a Silver Award (1987) from the International Film and TV Festival of New York, Silver (1986) and Gold Apple (1987) awards from the National Educational Film and Video Festival, and a Gold Plaque (1985) from the Chicago International Film Festival. Goodstein received the 1999 Oersted Medal for his work in physics education, including The Mechanical Universe. For his contributions to the field of computer graphics, including his animations for Cosmos, The Mechanical Universe and Project Mathematics!, Blinn received a MacArthur fellowship in 1991, as well as the 1999 Steven A. Coons Award. Portrayal of Tacoma Narrows Bridge collapse Like many introductory physics texts, The Mechanical Universe cites the spectacular 1940 collapse of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge as an example of resonance, using footage of the disaster in the "Resonance" episode. However, as more-recent expositions have emphasized, the catastrophic oscillations that destroyed the bridge were not due to simple mechanical resonance, but to a more complicated interaction between the bridge and the winds passing through it—a phenomenon known as aeroelastic flutter. This phenomenon is a kind of "self-sustaining vibration" that lies beyond the regime of applicability of the linear theory of the externally-driven simple harmonic oscillator. List of episodes The opening sequence used for the first 26 episodes lists the show's title as The Mechanical Universe, whereas the latter 26 episodes are titled The Mechanical Universe ...and Beyond. The reason for the addition is explained by Goodstein in the closing lecture segment of the final episode: In the first scientific revolution, disputation over the interpretation of human or divine authority was replaced by observation, by measurement, by the testing of hypotheses, all of it with the powerful help of quantitative mathematical reasoning. And the result of all that was the mechanical universe, a universe that inexorably worked out its destiny according to precise, predictable, mechanical laws. Today, we no longer believe in that universe. If I know the precise position of some particle at some instant of time, I cannot have any idea of where it's going or how fast. And it doesn't make any difference at all if you say, "All right, you don't know where it's going, but where is it really going?" That is precisely the kind of question that is scientifically meaningless. That is the nature of the world we live in. That is the quantum mechanical universe.The series can be purchased from Caltech or streamed from online video sources, including Caltech's official YouTube channel. Caltech also posted on YouTube a series of short videos made by Blinn to demonstrate the show's computer animation at SIGGRAPH conferences. The Mechanical Universe The Mechanical Universe ...and Beyond References Companion textbooks R.P. Olenick, T.M. Apostol, and D.L. Goodstein (1986). The Mechanical Universe: Introduction to Mechanics and Heat (Cambridge University Press). R.P. Olenick, T.M. Apostol, and D.L. Goodstein (1986). Beyond the Mechanical Universe: From Electricity to Modern Physics (Cambridge University Press). External links The Mechanical Universe website at Caltech Corrected mirror of the Caltech website The Mechanical Universe on YouTube Episode descriptions from Annenberg Media Television series by the Annenberg Foundation 1980s American documentary television series 1985 American television series debuts 1986 American television series endings PBS original programming American educational television series Science education television series
4840725	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yawara%21	Yawara!	Yawara! (also stylized as YAWARA!) is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Naoki Urasawa. It was serialized in Big Comic Spirits from 1986 to 1993, with its chapters collected into 29 tankōbon volumes by publisher Shōgakukan. The story centers around Yawara Inokuma, a seemingly ordinary high school girl, but her grandfather, a living judo legend, has been secretly training her since she was a child so that she can win the gold medal at the Olympic Games. But Yawara has only one desire, to have a normal life. A live-action film adaptation directed by Kazuo Yoshida and starring Yui Asaka was released by Toho in April 1989. That same year, Kitty Films and Madhouse began an anime adaptation titled Yawara! A Fashionable Judo Girl!. It was broadcast on Yomiuri TV from October 1989 through September 1992, for 124 episodes. Each episode ended with a countdown of days remaining to the start of the Barcelona Olympics. Two animated films were released in August 1992 and July 1996. AnimEigo released the first 40 episodes of the anime in North America in 2008, but were unable to license the remaining episodes. In 1990, the manga won the 35th Shogakukan Manga Award for the general category. Yawara! has over 30 million copies in circulation, making it one of the best-selling manga series of all time. Plot Yawara Inokuma is a young girl who aspires to an ordinary life but due to her innate talent is forced to practice judo by her authoritarian grandfather, Jigorou Inokuma, with the aim of achieving the championship in Japan and the gold medal at the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona. Because of the pressure from her grandfather she generally has a bad attitude about judo, avoiding it as much as she can. However, over time she comes to understand why her grandfather loves judo and appreciates it more. Characters Played by: Yui Asaka Yawara is a girl who aspires to an ordinary life but who is forced to practice judo by her grandfather. She is always having romantic daydreams; her biggest dream being to find a boyfriend. (Inokuma means "Pig Bear"; Yawara is the same kanji as "ju" in "judo", though it also means gentle) Although she has a lot supporters and very close friends such as Fujiko, sometimes she acts selfishly and does not appreciate their commitment toward her (e.g., almost failing to help Fujiko in her All-Japan Selection match). Played by: Keiju Kobayashi Jigoro is a seventh-dan Judo Master (though he often inflates this to eighth- or even ninth-dan) and five-time national champion. His passion for judo is rivaled only by his love for Yawara and food (particularly sweets). He has great expectations for Yawara's judo career and is constantly pushing her to do her best and focus primarily on judo. His motto is "Judo was not built in a day." He does work on the side as a bone-setting doctor. He is a bit of a media hound as he often tries to hijack publicity events for Yawara to highlight his own life and achievements. He is often overbearing toward Yawara and is not above using mean tricks to get his way, either to thwart her goals and desires or to force her to do what he wants. Tamao is Yawara's mother. She is rarely home as she searches all over Japan for her husband Kojiro. Unlike Jigoro, she does not pressure Yawara to do judo, but she does not detest judo either because it was through judo that she met Kojiro. She tells Yawara that there are other ways to be strong other than judo and that it is possible to be a judoka and be feminine as well. Played by: Bunta Sugawara Kojiro is Yawara's father. He disappeared soon after winning the 1974 Japan Judo Championship in his debut as an unknown judoka, supposedly training in secrecy in extreme environments (for 20 years?) without letting his family know his whereabouts. Played by: Yorie Yamashita Sayaka is an extremely spoiled daughter of one of Japan's richest families. She has never failed to dominate any sport she has cared to try. When Yawara shows her up, she decides to stop at nothing to defeat her and becomes her rival. She has a false tooth, which is a sore point for her, and one that Yawara keeps accidentally bringing up. She becomes Yawara's rival not only in judo but also for Shinnosuke's affection. Played by: Riki Takeuchi Shinnosuke is one of the finest judo coaches in all of Japan; he idolizes Jigorou and has been hired by Honami. Despite suffering from stage fright, he is an unbelievable babe-magnet and incorrigible womanizer thanks to his good looks and ability to flatter women with ease and superficial caring. Played by: Hiroshi Abe A reporter working for a sports paper (Daily Every Sport), Matsuda becomes convinced Yawara is going to be the next great sports superstar in Japan. He is conflicted by his feelings for Yawara and his goal of making her into a judo superstar. Played by: Koji Nakamoto A cameraman working for a sports paper, Kamoda seems to have a knack for taking "the perfect shot" for headlines. He never refuses any offer of food. Hanazono Hanazono, the large, overly emotional captain of the judo club at Yawara's high school, becomes devoted to Yawara when she comes to his attention as a skilled judoka. He has a crush on Yawara and tries to be her chief protector, until he meets Fujiko and the two bond over their mutual enthusiasm for Yawara. He is later trained by Jigoro and becomes his college's strongest judo player. Yuki Tohdoh Yuki is a heavyweight judoka who lost to Yawara in the latter's "unofficial" debut, though Yawara was trying to lose the match. She outweighs Yawara by 20 kg (44 lbs) and looks, talks, and eats like a sumo wrestler. Jody is the previous year's heavyweight judo world champion (>72 kg division); she is a Canadian who comes to challenge Yawara to a match part way into the series, becoming a friendly rival and regular character. Kim Yonsky Kim is the South Korean "secret weapon" whose judo incorporates Korean close-in wrestling. She and Sayaka have a judo match in which they come to an exhausting draw and pronounce mutual hatred. Anna Teleshikova Teleshikova is Soviet/Russian judo star who looks like a platinum robot with a butch haircut. She kicks Jody Rockwell in their first match and severely injures Jody's leg. Her habit is to study tapes intensively to figure out her opponent's weak point, which she attacks relentlessly. Belkins Belkins is the Belgian judo champion who is also a model, known as the Judo Queen. She loses to Yawara in the semifinals match at the Judo World Cup and crowns Yawara the "New Queen". Yuutenji Yuutenji is the judo coach for Sakai College, reputed to be the best in judo. He has been scheming with Jigoro to recruit Yawara. Kaga Kuniko Kuniko is a new photographer for the Daily Every Sport. She wears glasses, flaunts her big breasts with revealing clothing, and uses her ability to cry hysterically on command to get her way. She develops a crush on Matsuda and falsely pretends to be his "girlfriend" in front of others, repeatedly plotting to ruin the relationship between Matsuda and Yawara. Ito Fujiko Played by: Reiko Hirayama Fujiko is a very tall student (180 cm, a little over 5′11″) at Mitsuba Women's College whose goal is to experience a "once-in-lifetime youth" and meet a wonderful man. She is somewhat gloomy and sensitive about her height, which she inherits from both sides of her family. She is not popular with men (until she meets Hanazono) and often ends up drinking alone at social gatherings. She dedicated her youth to ballet dancing until she grew too tall. She becomes Yawara's best friend at college. She organizes Mitsuba's first judo club to help restore Yawara's passion for judo. Under Jigoro's training, she becomes an excellent judoka herself due to her ballerina training, height, and hard work, but lacks confidence and psychological toughness as a competitor. The latter part of the show features her development as a judoka as much as Yawara. Komiya Yukari Komiya is a short-haired student at Mitsuba Women's College. She is flirtatious and a veteran dater. Her stated goal is hook a rich man for marriage. She is friends with Yawara and Fujiko but never joins the Mitsuba judo team. Minamda Yoko Yoko, aka "Paddy-field", joins the Mitsuba team out of frustration after being repeatedly dumped by men (13 when she joined; 19 when she graduated). She uses "(Man's name) you jerk!" as a battle cry when she fights. She becomes a police officer after judo. Kikage Kyoto Nicknamed "Kyon-kyon" (the shadow), she is a small sickly woman who is usually "invisible" in gatherings. She weighs only 36 kg (about 79 lb). She joins Mitsuba judo to get stronger in health. Although weak, she is also brave and great with details by keeping notes on opponents and is able to absorb Yawara's instructions even without being taught any real moves by Jigoro. Yoshinagawa Sayuri Sayuri joins Mitsuba judo to lose weight. Although not skilled, she often is able to use her weight to pin down opponents ("Thank God I'm fat!") and can take great punishment. She believes that each match reduces her weight by a few kg. People often mispronounce her surname. Oda Mari Nicknamed "Marilyn", she is the least serious of the Mitsuba judo club and is mostly seen preening for the camera. Often attracting men's attentions and sometimes molesters, she joins judo to fend them off. She is buxom and wears makeup and earrings to matches, causing her to be disqualified. She aspires to be an actress. Production While Naoki Urasawa was pitching the idea of writing a manga about the medical field, he could tell his editor was not enjoying it. Knowing that the editor was a big fan of baseball, he joking proposed a story about women's judo, but the editor lit up at the idea. Urasawa said that he then scribbled out the whole of Yawara! during that meeting in about 30 minutes, from the characters to the story. The series started in 1986, women's judo became a demonstration sport just before the 1988 Summer Olympics with it set to be a fully competitive sport at the 1992 Summer Olympics, so it was perfect to include that goal in the manga. But the author never thought the series would last long enough to reach the latter. Urasawa revealed that with Yawara! being so different from his previous works as a comedy about a cute girl, some of his fans and colleagues felt betrayed and that he had sold out. But he does not see it that way as he never had any intentions of making it a love comedy or a "fight-to-the-finish, don't-give-up-now! sports" story. He said "My subjects of my comics might be taken from the popular mainstream, but I believe they are still embued with my own sensitivities and therefore quite distinctive in their own right." The author said that he intended for Yawara! to be a parody of Ikki Kajiwara's works, such as Star of the Giants. But for some reason readers got something out of it other than he intended; "Maybe it's because they're used to sports comics, but they seem to like my comics for the scenes of victory and defeat. They find them interesting somehow. Those scenes were really supposed to be funny! But they find them touching, so I'm at a bit of a loss as to what to do. (laughter)". Urasawa said that because he is not the heroic type himself, he has difficulty portraying strong-willed leading characters. He said it was even difficult to portray Yawara and Matsuda, whom he described as "very good supporting characters" as it seems to be much easier for him to develop supporting characters. The author cited American television comedies as his comedic influences. Jigoro's habit of forgetting people's names was taken from Samantha's mother in Bewitched. When Urasawa was beginning Master Keaton in 1988 while still creating Yawara!, the editorial team was concerned about a young artist being able to write and draw two series at once, and so brought in story writers for the new series. Media Manga Written and illustrated by Naoki Urasawa, while he was simultaneously illustrating Pineapple Army, Yawara! was serialized weekly in Big Comic Spirits from the 30th issue of 1986 to the 38th issue of 1993. Publisher Shōgakukan collected the 331 chapters into 29 tankōbon volumes between April 30, 1987 and October 29, 1993. A 19 volume bunkoban edition was released between July 17, 1998 and March 16, 1999. A twenty-volume kanzenban edition was released between December 27, 2013 and April 30, 2015. Urasawa created a spin-off manga series titled Jigoro! that ran in Zōkan Big Comic Spirits from October 20, 1988 to April 11, 1991. He explained that he found Yawara's grandfather so interesting that the character earned his own spin-off, and called it one of his favorite series. It was collected into one volume in October 1994, which was republished on February 15, 2003, and again in a kanzenban edition on April 30, 2015. Volume list Anime Yawara! was adapted into an anime television series titled Yawara! A Fashionable Judo Girl! by Kitty Films. The series was broadcast on Yomiuri TV between October 16, 1989 and September 21, 1992. A total of 124 episodes were produced. An animated film titled entered theaters on August 1, 1992. It features a story based on a draft created by Urasawa. An anime TV special, titled , aired on Nippon TV on July 19, 1996 to conclude the series. The 1992 Barcelona Olympics are updated to the 1996 Atlanta Olympics. The TV series was licensed for release in North America by Animeigo in August 2006. Preorders were opened in early 2008. A box set of the first 40 episodes was released on October 31, 2008. However, AnimEigo announced in April 2010 that they had been unable to license the remaining episodes, and the first boxset went out of print on August 31, 2012. Live-action film A live-action film adaptation of Yawara! directed by Kazuo Yoshida for Toho opened in theaters on April 15, 1989. Having Yui Asaka in the title role, the film featured cameos by real life judokas like Kaori Yamaguchi and Yasuhiro Yamashita, as well as shoot wrestlers, Kōji Nakamoto Akira Maeda and Nobuhiko Takada. Asaka also sings the theme song "Neverland". Video games Two video games were developed by Sofix for the personal computer. The first was a "digital comic" released on October 1, 1992 that received a rating of 22/40 by Famitsu. The second was released on September 23, 1994, has additional gameplay elements such as "battle" and "quiz" modes, and received a 21/40 rating by Famitsu. Reception As of March 2021, Yawara! had over 30 million collected volumes in circulation. The manga won the 35th Shogakukan Manga Award for the general category in 1990. The significance of the 1992 Barcelona Olympics in the story is that in the real world, this was the first time that Women's Judo would be a full competition event and would thus see the awarding of the first Olympic gold medal for Women's Judo. Yawara! was very popular in Japan, so when real life Japanese teenager Ryoko Tamura won a silver medal for judo at the 1992 Barcelona Olympics, she was seen as a real-life Yawara (her age, stature, and ability all being strikingly similar to those of the fictional character) and promptly nicknamed "Yawara-chan". She was still known by this name eight years later, indicating perhaps the enduring popular recognition of the series as well as that of Ryoko Tamura. Mark Sammut of Comic Book Resources wrote that while Yawara! "might not have many of the trademarks that would come to define Urasawa's later thrillers," the humorous sports series "still serves as a masterclass in character writing and atmosphere." He also called its prequel series, Jigoro!, the funniest thing Urasawa has ever written. Reviewing Animeigo's release of the first 40 episodes of the anime, Carl Kimlinger of Anime News Network wrote that Yawara! seamlessly blends romance, humor, life hurdles and sports intrigue. He strongly praised Yawara Inokuma's character and noted that the series is far more focused on romance and coming of age than it is judo. The reviewer finished by lamenting that they do not make anime like this anymore, as they seem to have forgotten the appeal of a simple story told well; Yawara! "is quite simply, the most purely enjoyable series in years." Kimlinger went on to pick Yawara Inokuma as his 2008 Character of the Year and called her "possibly the most insanely likeable character ever devised—all the more so because she is as flawed, selfish and naive as any real adolescent girl." While including the series on a list of the best anime from 1989, his colleague of the same website Daryl Surat wrote that she inspired numerous fighting video game characters. Namely in the Street Fighter series where Ibuki has a similar background and temperament, and Karin Kanzuki is very similar to Sayaka Honami. References External links Official Madhouse website Official Fuji TV website AnimEigo Official site 1986 manga 1989 anime television series debuts 1989 films 1989 Japanese television series debuts 1992 anime OVAs 1992 Japanese television series endings 1996 anime OVAs Anime films based on manga Anime series based on manga Coming-of-age anime and manga 1980s Japanese-language films Judo in anime and manga Live-action films based on manga Madhouse (company) Manga adapted into films Naoki Urasawa Romantic comedy anime and manga Seinen manga Shogakukan franchises Shogakukan manga Winners of the Shogakukan Manga Award for general manga Yomiuri Telecasting Corporation original programming Japanese romantic comedy films 1992 films
4840792	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rick%20Snyder	Rick Snyder	Richard Dale Snyder (born August 19, 1958) is an American business executive, venture capitalist, attorney, accountant, and politician who served as the 48th governor of Michigan from 2011 to 2019. Snyder, who was born in Battle Creek, Michigan, began his career in business in 1982. He was chairman of the board of Gateway from 2005 to 2007, a co-founder of Ardesta, LLC, a venture capital firm, HealthMedia, Inc., a digital health coaching company, and is currently CEO of SensCy, a cybersecurity company based in Ann Arbor, Michigan. A member of the Republican Party, he won the 2010 Michigan gubernatorial election and won reelection in 2014. Snyder was term-limited and could not seek re-election in 2018 and was succeeded by Democrat Gretchen Whitmer. Snyder was considered a possible Republican Party candidate for Vice President of the United States in 2012, although ultimately Paul Ryan was selected. In 2014, Snyder gained national attention during the Flint water crisis, in which he was accused of mishandling the situation that exposed 6,000 to 12,000 Flint children to lead. A report by the University of Michigan School of Public Health concluded Snyder "bears significant legal responsibility" for the Flint water crisis. In 2020, an article was published in Vice detailing evidence of corruption and a cover-up by Snyder, including details of how he was warned repeatedly about the dangerous effects of the decisions he had made about the water supply to the city of Flint. In January 2021, Snyder was among those charged for his role in the crisis; he pled not guilty to two misdemeanor charges. In December 2022 Genesee County Judge F. Kay Behm dismissed the charges. Early life, education, and family Snyder was born to Dale F. and Helen Louella Snyder in Battle Creek, Michigan, where he was raised. His father owned a local window-cleaning company in Battle Creek, and was of paternal Dutch descent. He has an elder sister. When he was 16, he took a business class at Kellogg Community College on weekends. By his senior year at Lakeview High School in Calhoun County, Snyder had earned 23 college credits. Snyder visited the admissions office of the University of Michigan in November 1975 and spoke with the admissions director, who recommended that Snyder attend Michigan and create his own degree. Snyder received a Bachelor of General Studies in 1977, a Master of Business Administration in 1979, and a Juris Doctor in 1982, all from the University of Michigan. Snyder is also a Certified Public Accountant (CPA). He resides in Ann Arbor, Michigan with his wife Sue and their three children and has a vacation home near Gun Lake. The couple were married in 1987 at Cherry Hill Presbyterian Church in Dearborn, Michigan. Snyder has indicated he is a practicing Presbyterian. Business career Coopers & Lybrand Snyder was employed with Coopers & Lybrand, from 1982 to 1991, beginning in the tax department of the Detroit office. Snyder was named partner in 1988. The next year, Snyder was named partner-in-charge of the mergers and acquisitions practice in the Chicago office. He served as an adjunct assistant professor of accounting at the University of Michigan from 1982 to 1984. Gateway, Inc. Snyder joined the computer company Gateway (based in Irvine, California) in 1991 as the executive vice president. He served as president and chief operating officer from 1996 to 1997. He remained on the board of directors until 2007. From 2005 to 2007, Snyder served as the chairman of the board. During 2006, Snyder served as interim chief executive officer while a search for a permanent replacement was made. His tenure on the Gateway board ran from 1991 to 2007 until Gateway was sold to Acer Inc. Snyder stated that he did not vote for outsourcing while he was a Gateway board director and he worked to bring jobs to America as the interim CEO of Gateway. Venture Capital / Investments In 1997, Snyder returned to Ann Arbor to found Avalon Investments Inc., a venture capital company with a $100 million fund, along with the co-founder of Gateway, Ted Waitt. Snyder was president and chief executive officer of Avalon from 1997 to 2000. He then co-founded Ardesta LLC, an investment firm, in 2000 along with three co-founders, which invested in 20 start-up companies through 2011. He was chairman and chief executive officer of the company. HealthMedia, Inc. In 1998, Snyder angel funded and co-founded, with University of Michigan (U-M) School of Public Health professor Victor Strecher, Ph.D., HealthMedia Incorporated (HMI), a developer of digital health coaching applications that implemented tailored questionnaires to gather personal information with the goal of creating customized health promotion plans for individuals. The U-M's Office of Technology Transfer played an integral role in helping HMI get started with Vic Strecher as the founding CEO and the U-M's publicly funded Health Media Research Laboratory (founded and directed by Strecher and now called the Center for Health Communications Research) providing the new company with exclusive research and development findings into health-related computerized tailored messaging and the exclusive licence to sell that content (UM spawns spinoffs, patents). Despite these university-based start-up and R&D advantages, HMI got off to a poor performance start and in 2001 Snyder replaced the founding CEO (Strecher remained on the HMI board) and personally rescued the company from insolvency with more of his own money. After multiple rounds of more additional financing through venture capital (Arboretum Ventures, Ardesta, Avalon Capital Group, AvTech Ventures, Chrysalis Ventures, Princeton Fund) and yet never achieving profitability, HMI was sold in 2008 for a reported $200 million to Johnson & Johnson. The sale of HMI transferred the ownership of all the personal health information accrued from their millions of users to Johnson & Johnson and played a key role in the negotiated price. At the time of the reported $200 million deal, U-M President Mary Sue Coleman was on Johnson & Johnson's board of directors and the U-M secured millions of dollars with its equity stake in the company. When campaigning for Michigan governor in 2010, Snyder was quoted as saying, "That company (HMI) is one of the best success stories in the state." (Office of Technology Transfer – University of Michigan) (The Ann Arbor Chronicle \| Live at PJ’s: It’s HealthMedia!). Following Snyder's election as Michigan governor, Johnson & Johnson then folded HMI into a subsidiary (Johnson & Johnson Health and Wellness Solutions) and is no longer operating in the state of Michigan. SensCy, Inc. In July, 2022, Snyder co-founded SensCy along with former State of Michigan CIO David Behen Ann Arbor entrepreneur Bhushan Kulkarni, and Dave Kelly who led cyber command for the Michigan State Police. SensCy is a cybersecurity start-up focused on helping small and medium sized organizations improve their cyberhealth. Snyder's firm invented the SensCy Score, a numeric representation of an organization's cyberhealth. The SensCy Score is similar to the FICO score used for credit worthiness as it provides visibility into how a company is performing on key cybersecurity metrics. SensCy stands for Sensible Cyber and aims to be the trusted guide for small and medium sized organizations. Non-profit service Snyder serves on the boards of the Henry Ford Museum and Greenfield Village (a National Historic Landmark), the Michigan chapter of the Nature Conservancy, and several boards associated with his alma mater the University of Michigan. He was also first chair of the Michigan Economic Development Corporation in 1999 under Republican governor John Engler and was also the chair of Ann Arbor SPARK. Gubernatorial elections 2010 Snyder competed with Oakland County Sheriff Mike Bouchard, state Senator Tom George, United States Congressman Peter Hoekstra, and Michigan Attorney General Mike Cox as candidates for the Republican gubernatorial nomination. Bill Ford Jr., chairman of the Ford Motor Company, endorsed Snyder for the Republican nomination for governor. He campaigned as "pro-life, pro-Second Amendment, [and] pro-family," with a focus on the economy. His campaign emphasized his experience in growing business and creating jobs in the private sector, saying that his opponents were mainly career politicians. Snyder favors the standard exceptions on abortion for rape, incest, and saving the life of the mother (he signed legislation banning partial birth abortion in October 2011); he opposes federal funding of abortions; he would not ban embryonic stem cell research; he supports upholding traditional marriage, but would allow civil unions. In August 2010, Snyder won the primary to secure the Republican nomination with a plurality of 36% of the vote. In the general election in November, Snyder faced Democratic nominee Virg Bernero, the mayor of Lansing, and three minor party candidates. In October 2010, Snyder's campaign total exceeded $11.6 million, outpacing his opponent. Snyder released his tax returns for 2007 and 2008. Snyder won with 58 percent of the vote. With Snyder's election in 2010, Republicans gained a majority in the Michigan House and increased the Republican majority held in the Michigan Senate. Snyder was the first Certified Public Accountant (CPA) to be elected governor of the state and at the time, the only CPA to serve as a governor in the United States. 2014 In January 2014, Snyder launched his campaign for a second term as governor. He was unopposed in the Republican primary and faced Democratic former United States Representative Mark Schauer for the general election. Snyder was considered vulnerable in his bid for a second term, as reflected in his low approval ratings, however, Schauer suffered from a lack of name recognition. He garnered approximately 51% of the vote in the November 2014 election, defeating Schauer and earning a second term. Governor of Michigan Tenure Snyder was inaugurated as governor on January 1, 2011, at the Capitol in Lansing. His first executive order as governor was to divide the Department of Natural Resources and Environment into two distinct departments as they were a few years before: the Department of Natural Resources and the Department of Environmental Quality. On January 7, 2011, Snyder announced he was appointing Michigan Supreme Court Justice Maura D. Corrigan to head the Department of Human Services and appointed Michigan Appeals Court Judge Brian K. Zahra to fill the resulting Supreme Court vacancy. Snyder delivered his first State of the State address on January 19, the earliest Michigan State of the State since Governor John Engler's 1996 address on January 17. He endorsed the Detroit River International Crossing for the first time publicly in the address, which was received favorably by Republicans. Snyder appointed Andy Dillon, a pro-life Democrat, and formerly Speaker of the House, to serve as state treasurer in his administration. Snyder presented his first budget to the legislature on February 17, 2011, calling it a plan for "Michigan's reinvention," and saying it would end Michigan's deficits. He described the budget as containing "shared sacrifice" but added that his budget plan would create jobs and spur economic growth. The $46 billion budget reduced $1.8 billion in spending, raised taxes by eliminating tax exemptions on pensions, while at the same time abolished the state's complex business tax, replacing it with a significantly reduced flat tax on the profits of C corporations. This shift in tax burden led State Senate Minority Leader Gretchen Whitmer to criticize the budget, saying that it did not involve "shared sacrifice," but instead was balanced "on the backs of our kids, working families, and our seniors" and "picks out who he's willing to leave behind." Snyder supported the government backed rescue of the American auto industry. This reflected the view of a 56% of Americans in 2012 who supported the 2009 auto bailout according to a Pew Research Center poll (63% support in Michigan). On March 16, 2011, Snyder signed a controversial bill into law that gave increased powers to emergency managers of local municipalities to resolve financial matters. The bill was repealed by voter initiative in November 2012. However, weeks later in December 2012 Snyder signed a revised version of the bill back into law. On December 22, 2011, Snyder signed into law The Public Employee Domestic Partner Benefit Restriction Act, which prevents the same-sex domestic partners of public employees at both the state and local level from receiving health benefits. In January 2012, the ACLU filed a lawsuit against Snyder and the state of Michigan in federal court on behalf of five Michigan same-sex couples, each with one spouse working for local public schools or municipalities in Michigan. The suit alleged that the law violates the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment of the United States Constitution. On June 28, 2013, a federal judge struck down the law. He has also engaged in trade missions to Europe and Asia, focused on attracting attention on companies such as Chrysler. Following approval from the legislature, Snyder signed the fiscal year 2012 budget in June, the earliest it had been completed in three decades. In May 2012, Snyder joined a bipartisan effort urging the U.S. Congress to pass a measure to affirm that States can collect sales taxes on online purchases. As governor, Snyder abolished the state's complex business tax in favor of a flat tax, and signed a bill which raised taxes by eliminating tax exemptions for pensions. For years Snyder had said anti-union legislation was not on his agenda, when on the morning of December 6, 2012, during a lame duck session of the Republican-controlled Michigan legislature, Snyder called a joint press conference with the legislative leadership to announce fast-track right-to-work legislation. The legislation passed both houses of the Michigan legislature that day, without committee votes or public hearings. A $1 million appropriation added to the legislation made it ineligible for repeal via referendum. On December 10, President Barack Obama visited Daimler AG's Detroit Diesel factory in Redford, Michigan, and told employees the legislation was about the "right to work for less money." The law effectively provides that payment of union dues cannot be required as a condition of employment. After a required four-day wait between the houses of the legislature passing each other's bills, Snyder signed the legislation into law on December 11, 2012, making Michigan the 24th right-to-work state in the United States as part of a plan to attract business and jobs to the state. The Employee Free Choice Act, as it was named, has received mixed results in polls. A Market Research Group poll conducted in March 2012 showed Snyder's approval rating rising to 50% among likely voters, which matched that of President Barack Obama, placing Snyder among the most popular Republican governors in states carried by Obama in the 2008 election cycle. Snyder was briefly mentioned as a possible pick to be the Republican Party candidate for Vice President of the United States in 2012. His business executive background and 'positive' style were cited as political assets, with his deeds seen as strengthening the case for electing a business executive candidate as President of the United States. He was also mentioned as a potential Republican Party candidate for President of the United States in 2016. In December 2012, Snyder signed legislation requiring facilities where at least 120 abortions were performed annually to obtain a state license as freestanding surgical facilities. Planned Parenthood had urged Snyder to veto the bill claiming it unnecessarily increases costs. In January 2013, Snyder traveled to Israel to meet with Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu. He was last in Israel in 1999 as a venture capitalist. "I had a chance to see the start of high-tech boom in Israel and that's great to see. This is really a startup nation. They've done a great job of being entrepreneurial, innovative, and that's a major part of their economy now and the good part is we can learn from that." In March 2013, Snyder announced a financial emergency for the city of Detroit and appointed an emergency manager, Kevyn Orr. As a result of emergency manager appointments under Snyder's watch, over half of the state's black population lived in cities where the local government was appointed rather than elected by the voters. On December 27, 2013, Snyder signed a bill into law which nullified Section 1021 of the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2012, which contained a controversial provision that allowed the government and the military to indefinitely detain American citizens and others without trial. On January 23, 2014, Snyder announced plans to offer visas to 50,000 immigrant workers with advanced degrees to help jumpstart the Detroit economy. The program's advocates claimed the program was expected to bring an influx of new jobs and a more stable tax base. In June 2014, Snyder appointed a 15-member commission for improving and reforming Michigan's public defense efforts for the poor in the criminal justice system in order to effectively meet and ensure the rights safeguarded by the Constitution. On September 10, Detroit reached a deal with three Michigan counties over regional water and sewer services that was hoped to eliminate one roadblock to federal court approval of the city's plan to adjust its debt and exit bankruptcy. The deal with Oakland, Wayne and Macomb counties created a regional water and sewer authority, but allowed Detroit to maintain control of its local system. The deal was crucial to adjusting the city's $18 billion of debt and exiting the biggest-ever municipal bankruptcy. On December 18, the Governor issued an executive order to establish the Michigan Department of Talent and Economic Development to house a new state agency, Talent Investment Agency, created from the merger of Michigan State Housing and Development Authority, the Workforce Development Agency, the Governor's Talent Investment Board and the Unemployment Insurance Agency. Over objections from the state legislature, the department would come into effect 60 days after the start of the next legislative session. In November 2015, Governor Rick Snyder declared his opposition to permitting Syrian refugee relocation to the state of Michigan. A compilation of online surveys showed that Snyder's approval rating was below 40 percent in April 2018. In December 2018, Snyder granted clemency to 61 Michigan prisoners. Cabinet Flint water crisis From 2011 to 2015, Snyder appointed several individuals as Emergency Managers for Flint, Michigan. In 2014, emergency manager Darnell Earley was responsible for changing the source of drinking water for the city to the Flint River, which has trihalomethanes (TTHM) in it. It was later discovered that the water was too corrosive, and leached lead out of the service lines that was then ingested by the people of the city. In September 2015, a study by the Hurley Medical Center found that the community's children were being poisoned by the lead. While Flint transitioned back to its prior source of water in October 2015, lead levels in the city's water remain above the federal action level. Amid allegations that the Michigan Health Department was stalling water treatment expert Marc Edwards' effort to obtain public records, journalists have asked when the State of Michigan knew about the lead poisoning. Details were released by the Detroit Free Press and The Detroit News on 26 February 2016 that Valerie Brader, Snyder's senior policy adviser and deputy legal counsel, and his chief legal counsel Mike Gadola had expressed concerns to him about Flint's water in October 2014, nearly six months after Flint had begun using the river water to save money, despite Governor Snyder claiming he was unaware of the issue until very recently. A petition from Angelo Scott Brown, a Flint pastor and former Democratic Party gubernatorial candidate, to recall Snyder was denied by the Board of State Canvassers. Filmmaker and Flint native Michael Moore has called for Snyder's arrest on charges of corruption and assault, and has started a petition on his website. On November 13, 2015, four families filed a federal class action lawsuit in the U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of Michigan in Detroit against Snyder and thirteen other city and state officials, including former Flint Mayor Dayne Walling and ex-emergency financial manager Darnell Earley. The complaint alleges that the officials acted recklessly and negligently, leading to serious injuries from lead poisoning, including autoimmune disorders, skin lesions, and "brain fog." On December 15, 2015, Mayor Weaver declared the water issue as a citywide public health state of emergency to prompt help from state and federal officials. Snyder apologized for the incident. Snyder declared a State of Emergency on January 5, 2016, for Genesee County, Michigan. On January 16, 2016, Snyder requested that the federal government declare a state of emergency in Flint. According to The Detroit News and NPR, "...in March 2016 Snyder released a new 75-point action plan to address the contamination crisis, calling for a “much higher standard” for drinking water regulations but stopping short of advocating for complete replacement of all underground lead service lines in the city. The plan included short-, intermediate- and long-term goals, including making infrastructure improvements; creating a data-sharing agreement with state and federal environmental agencies; and setting up a protocol for a “drinkability declaration” for Flint water." In mid-April 2016, Snyder initiated his own 30-Day Flint Challenge. "The plan was to drink solely Flint tap water for an entire month to show residents that the water was safe and that he cared about the people." However, the Detroit Metro Times reported that the governor left town on April 23 to spend the week touring Europe for trade discussions, breaking his promise. In July 2018, Drs Hernan Gomez of the University of Michigan and Kim Dietrich of the University of Cincinnati, toxicology and environmental health experts, published an Op-ed article in the New York Times titled “The Children of Flint were not ‘Poisoned.” In the essay article the authors referred to the findings in a study “Toxicohistrionics”: Flint, Michigan and the Lead Crisis published in the June issue of The Journal of Pediatrics. According to their opinion and the study, there was a small increase of children whose blood lead levels surpassed the Centers for Disease Control reference level (from 2.2 percent to 3.7 percent), but none were at a level that required urgent medical treatment." On April 16, 2020, an article was published giving details of evidence of corruption and a cover-up by Snyder and his "fixer" Rich Baird, and saying the statute of limitations on some of the most serious felony misconduct-in-office charges would expire on April 25, 2020. The article was published by Vice News, written by Jordan Chariton and Jenn Dize, the co-founders of Status Coup, with photos by Brittany Greeson. Responses from Michigan state authorities denied that a deadline was approaching and said that criminal prosecutions would follow. On January 12, 2021, It was announced that nine former government officials including Rick Snyder would face charges resulting from the Flint water crisis. Snyder was charged with two misdemeanors of willful neglect but he pleaded not guilty to the charges. Following its practice of paying the legal costs for state employees charged with a criminal offense, the administrative board of Michigan approved an up to $1.45 million contract with Warner Norcross & Judd law corporation to defend the former governor Snyder. Subsequent career Just before leaving the governor's office, Snyder formed a new Ann Arbor based company called RPAction LLC whose staff consists of former officials of the Snyder administration. On June 29, 2019, Snyder accepted a soon-to-be appointment at Harvard to share his knowledge of state and local government. On July 3, he tweeted that he was "turning down" the offer: "It would have been exciting to share my experiences, both positive and negative; our current political environment and its lack of civility makes this too disruptive. I wish them the best." Snyder endorsed Democrat Joe Biden during the 2020 United States presidential election, alleging that "President Trump lacks a moral compass. He ignores the truth" and that the president "also demonstrated that he does not fully appreciate policy matters, including public health, the economy and foreign relations, nor does he seem to want to learn." Electoral history See also Flint water crisis Financial emergency in Michigan References External links Office of the Governor Rick Snyder official Michigan government site Rick Snyder for Governor \|- \|- \|- 1958 births 20th-century American businesspeople 21st-century American businesspeople 21st-century American politicians American accountants American chairpersons of corporations American computer businesspeople American financial company founders American Presbyterians American technology chief executives American venture capitalists Business educators Businesspeople from Ann Arbor, Michigan Republican Party governors of Michigan Living people Michigan Republican Party chairs People from Battle Creek, Michigan Politicians from Ann Arbor, Michigan Ross School of Business alumni University of Michigan faculty University of Michigan Law School alumni American people of Dutch descent Michigan Liberal Republicans
4841280	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Owain%20ap%20Dyfnwal%20%28fl.%20934%29	Owain ap Dyfnwal (fl. 934)	Owain ap Dyfnwal (fl. 934) was an early tenth-century King of Strathclyde. He was probably a son of Dyfnwal, King of Strathclyde, who may have been related to previous rulers of the Kingdom of Strathclyde. Originally centred in the valley of the River Clyde, this realm appears to have undergone considerable southward expansion in the ninth or tenth century, after which it increasingly came to be known as the Kingdom of Cumbria. Owain may have represented the Cumbrians in the tripartite alliance with the kingdoms of Alba and Mercia, assembled by Æthelflæd, Lady of the Mercians in the second decade of the tenth century. Around this time, the Cumbrians are recorded to have campaigned against either Ragnall ua Ímair or Sitric Cáech. Owain may also be the king of Strathclyde who is recorded to have submitted to Æthelflæd's brother, Edward, King of the Anglo-Saxons, in 920 with Ragnall and Custantín mac Áeda, King of Alba. Moreover, Owain seems to have been present at another assembly in 927, when he, Custantín, Ealdred (son of Eadwulf), and perhaps Owain ap Hywel, King of Gwent, acknowledged overlordship of Edward's son and successor, Æthelstan. This assembly may have been held on or near the River Eamont, seemingly the southern frontier of the Cumbrian kingdom. Owain is first securely attested in 934, when Æthelstan invaded and ravaged the Scottish Kingdom of Alba and seemingly Strathclyde as well. In the aftermath of this campaign, both Owain and Custantín are known to have been present at Æthelstan's royal court, witnessing several charters as of the Englishman. Three years later, the Scots and Cumbrians allied themselves with Amlaíb mac Gofraid against the English at the Battle of Brunanburh. It is possible that Owain is identical to the unnamed Cumbrian king recorded to have participated in this defeat by the English. If he was indeed present, he could have been amongst the dead. His son Dyfnwal ab Owain is recorded to have ruled as King of Strathclyde within a few years. Background For hundreds of years until the late ninth century, the power centre of the Kingdom of Al Clud was the fortress of Al Clud ("Rock of the Clyde"). In 870, this British stronghold was seized by Irish-based Scandinavians, after which the centre of the realm seems to have relocated further up the River Clyde, and the kingdom itself began to bear the name of the valley of the River Clyde, Ystrad Clud (Strathclyde). The kingdom's new capital may have been situated in the vicinity of Partick and Govan which straddle the River Clyde, and the apparent inclusion in the realm's new hinterland of the valley and the region of modern Renfrewshire may explain this change in terminology. At some point after the loss of Al Clud, the Kingdom of Strathclyde appears to have undergone a period of expansion. Although the precise chronology is uncertain, by 927 the southern frontier appears to have reached the River Eamont, close to Penrith. The catalyst for this southern extension may have been the dramatic decline of the Kingdom of Northumbria at the hands of conquering Scandinavians, and the expansion may have been facilitated by cooperation between the Cumbrians and insular Scandinavians in the late ninth- and early tenth century. Over time, the Kingdom of Strathclyde increasingly came to be known as the Kingdom of Cumbria reflecting its expansion far beyond the Clyde valley. Owain was likely a son of Dyfnwal, King of Strathclyde. Dyfnwal is specifically attested by only one source, the ninth- to twelfth-century Chronicle of the Kings of Alba, which reveals he died between 908 and 915. Dyfnwal's parentage is unknown, although he might have been a member of the British dynasty that ruled Strathclyde before him. He could have been a son or grandson of Eochaid ap Rhun. Alternately, Dyfnwal could have represented a more distant branch of the same dynasty. In any case, the names borne by Owain and his apparent descendants suggest that he was indeed a member of the royal kindred of Strathclyde. Æthelflæd's tripartite northern alliance If the eleventh-century Fragmentary Annals of Ireland is to be believed, at some point between 911 and 918, Æthelflæd, Lady of the Mercians orchestrated an alliance of Mercians, Scots, and Cumbrians, to combat the increasing menace of insular Scandinavians. The compact stipulated that, in the event that one of these three peoples were attacked, the others would come to their aid. The Cumbrians and Scots are further stated to have succeeded in destroying several Scandinavian settlements. If this record is indeed accurate, one possibility is that, whilst the Scots focused upon Argyll and the Hebrides, the Cumbrians could have concentrated their efforts against the Scandinavian colonies in the Solway Firth. Although the Fragmentary Annals of Ireland states that a Scandinavian king "sacked Strathclyde and plundered the land", this attack is also said to have been "ineffectual". The unnamed attacking monarch may have been Ragnall ua Ímair, who likely controlled territory in western Northumbria at about this time. Another candidate is Sitriuc Cáech, an Uí Ímair kinsman of Ragnall, who is stated by the same source to have seized the kingship of Dublin before the attack. The leader of the Scots at that time was Custantín mac Áeda, King of Alba. The record of Dyfnwal's death before 915, and the evidence of Owain ruling the Kingdom of Strathclyde in the later decades, suggests that he succeeded Dyfnwal as king, and represented the realm in the alliance. The Cumbrians are not recorded to have received any assistance from Æthelflæd; this could indicate that they were attacked after her death in 918. In the year of Æthelflæd's death, Ragnall and the Scots fought the bloody but inconclusive Battle of Corbridge, a clash attested by sources such as the fifteenth- to sixteenth-century Annals of Ulster, the ninth- to twelfth-century Chronicle of the Kings of Alba, and the tenth- or eleventh-century Historia de sancto Cuthberto. The conflict appears to have been associated with Custantín's attempt to reinsert the exiled Northumbrian magnate Ealdred, son of Eadwulf, into western Northumbria. Although the presence of Cumbrians in the campaign is not specifically recorded, it is possible that they too participated in the operations against the insular Scandinavians. In any event, Ragnall's ability to weather the attack seems to have led to his consolidation of authority in western Northumbria. Edward's northern assembly of 920 In 920, the "A" version of the ninth- to twelfth-century Anglo-Saxon Chronicle alleges that Æthelflæd's brother, Edward, King of the Anglo-Saxons, gained the recognition of overlordship from Custantín (albeit not identified by name), Ragnall, the sons of Eadwulf (seemingly Ealdred and Uhtred), and an unnamed "king of the Strathclyde Welsh" ("")—a monarch who may well be identical to Owain himself. The assembly may have taken place in the Peak District, a region where Edward had recently constructed a burh at Bakewell. In fact, this fortress could well have been the site of the meeting. Despite the chronicle's claim of Edward's received submission, there is reason to suspect that the event was more a negotiation of sorts—perhaps an agreement concerning the recent reorientation of the political map. For example, Edward had recently gained control of Mercia and parts of Northumbria, while Ragnall acquired York in 919. The twelfth-century Chronicon ex chronicis states that a treaty of peace was concluded between the parties. One possibility is that the Scots and Cumbrians were bound not to attack Ragnall's territories in Northumbria as long as Ragnall refrained from conspiring against Edward's authority. The account of Ragnall's attacks upon the Cumbrians preserved by the Fragmentary Annals of Ireland seems to indicate that he was regarded as a serious threat. The evidence of Cumbrian southward expansion certainly suggests that Owain's realm shared several borders with the insular Scandinavians: an eastern front along the Pennines, a southern front along the River Eamont, and a western front along the coast and perhaps in Galloway. In any event, Ragnall and the sons of Eadwulf are not accorded royal titles in the context of this assembly—as opposed to the Scottish and Cumbrian kings—which could indicate that the Edward was claiming a degree of dominance over Ragnall and the Eadwulfings that he was not claiming over the other monarchs. Æthelstan's northern assembly of 927 Owain may also have participated in an assembly of kings with Æthelstan, King of the Anglo-Saxons in 927. According to the "D" version of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, the meeting took place at , and was attended by Æthelstan, the Welsh king Hywel Dda, Custantín, Owain ap Hywel, King of Gwent, and Ealdred. According to the twelfth-century Gesta regum Anglorum, an assembly took place at Dacre, an ecclesiastical centre near the River Eamont. The list of attendees in this source differs from that of the chronicle in the fact that Owain himself is listed instead of Owain ap Hywel. In fact, the assemblies may well refer to the same event, and it is not unlikely that both Owains were present. Whatever the case, Owain's involvement may have concerned support rendered to Gofraid ua Ímair, a man who temporarily seized the kingship of York in 927 before being driven out within the year by Æthelstan. Certainly, Gesta regum Anglorum states that Æthelstan summoned the Cumbrian and Scottish kings to the assembly after having forced Gofraid from York into Scotia. The recorded location of the assemblage may be evidence that the Cumbrian realm reached as far south as the River Eamont. Certainly, it is an otherwise well-attested phenomenon of mediaeval European monarchs to negotiate with their neighbours on their common territorial boundaries. In fact, the contemporary Latin poem Carta, dirige gressus seems to not only corroborate the meeting itself, but may further evince the assembly's importance to the Cumbrians. Specifically, the poem states that Custantín hastened to in order to render his submission, and it is possible that this terminology refers to the Cumbrian realm (as opposed to the entire island of Britain). The sources that note the assembly, therefore, may reveal that it took place near the River Eamont at Dacre. Another possibility is that the meeting was set in the vicinity of Eamont Bridge, between the River Eamont and the River Lowther. Not far from this location are two prehistoric henges (Mayburgh Henge and King Arthur's Round Table) and the remains of a Roman fort (Brocavum), any of which could have served as the venue for an important assembly. Whatever the case, Æthelstan's assembly in the north, and another convened near the Welsh border not long after, marked a turning point in the history of Britain. Not only did Æthelstan claim kingship over all the English peoples of Britain, but positioned himself as overking of Britain itself. Æthelstan's invasion of 934 In 934, the concordat between Æthelstan and the northern kings collapsed in dramatic fashion, with the former launching an invasion into the north. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle relates that the English king penetrated into Alba with both land forces and maritime forces, and thereby ravaged much of the realm. Preparations for this massive undertaking appear to be evidenced by several royal charters dating to May and June of that year. The same sources appear to reveal that Æthelstan was supported on his campaign by the Welsh potentates Hywel Dda, Idwal Foel, King of Gwynedd, and Morgan ab Owain, King of Gwent. The fullest account of the English campaign is preserved by the twelfth-century Historia regum Anglorum, a source which states that Æthelstan's land forces marched as far as Dunnottar and , and that his maritime forces reached as far as (seemingly Caithness). According to the twelfth-century Libellus de exordio, Owain and the Cumbrians were caught up in campaign, with Owain and his Scottish counterpart, Custantín, being put to flight by Æthelstan's forces. The Cumbrian realm, therefore, seems to have endured the same fate as that of the Scots. The reasons behind Æthelstan's campaign are uncertain. One possibility is that Owain and Custantín had broken certain pledges that they had rendered to the English in 927. Perhaps the latter reneged on a promise to render homage. According to Chronicon ex chronicis the King of Alba had indeed broke a treaty with Æthelstan, and that the former was forced to give up a son as an English hostage. Similarly, Gesta regum Anglorum states that Æthelstan invaded Alba because Custantín's realm was "again in revolt". Whether the invasion was unprovoked or orchestrated in revenge, it and another campaign directed against the Cumbrians eleven years later, could well have been utilised by the English Cerdicing dynasty as a way to overawe and intimidate neighbouring potentates. Surviving charter evidence, dating to September 934, reveals that the defeated Custantín submitted to Æthelstan, and was then in the latter's presence witnessing a charter to one of English king's household men. The actual record of this charter is preserved by a fourteenth-century chartulary. Such mediaeval chartularies commonly abbreviated witness lists. Remarkably, no Welsh potentates are recorded by the witness list which could indicate that their names were not preserved by the chartulary. If correct, Owain himself could have been amongst the witnesses as well. In any case, Owain certainly seems to have spent time in Æthelstan's court, attesting several of the latter's royal charters. For example, he appears to have witnessed one as a in Worthy dated 20 June 931, and one as a (with Custantín and three Welsh kings) in Cirencester dated 935, and two others as a (with three Welsh kings) in Dorchester dated 21 December 937. The ordering of the witness lists in Æthelstan's surviving charters seems to reveal the eminent standing Owain enjoyed amongst his royal peers, and suggests that he was regarded as the third most powerful king in Britain, after Custantín and Æthelstan. The fact that Custantín is not known to have attested any English charters before 934 could indicate that his absence from Æthelstan's court was an act of calculated insubordination. As such, the English invasion of 934 could well have been punitive in nature, and its success may be partly exemplified by Custantín's appearance in the witness list of the September 934 charter, in which he is the first recorded amongst others. Defeat at Brunanburh in 937 Æthelstan's attempt to incorporate the northern kings into an imperial system—an arrangement he had earlier initiated with the rulers of Wales—was interrupted before the end of the decade. After 935, none of Æthelstan's are recorded in the king's presence. It may have been about this period in time when Custantín and Gofraid's son, Amlaíb, concluded the marital alliance referred to by Chronicon ex chronicis. Certainly, Amlaíb consolidated power in Ireland between 934 and 936, before he crossed the Irish Sea and engaged the English at the Battle of Brunanburh in 937. Supporting Amlaíb against Æthelstan—the man who had forced Amlaíb's father from power in Northumbria—were the Scots and Cumbrians. Described by the Annals of Ulster as "a great, lamentable and horrible battle", the English victory at Brunanburh was a resounding military achievement for Æthelstan. Regardless of its significance to contemporaries and later generations, however, the precise location of Brunanburh is uncertain. Owain may be identical to the Cumbrian king who is recorded to have participated. The sources that refer to the presence of this monarch—such as Historia regum Anglorum and Libellus de exordio—fail to identify the man by name. The battle is also the subject of the Battle of Brunanburh, a remarkable piece of praise poetry preserved by the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. This panegyric—one of the most important sources for the conflict—claims that a son of Custantín was killed in the affair, and that five kings also lost their lives against the English. Although the Cumbrians are not specifically mentioned by the text, it is possible that the composer chose to leave them out due to technical constraints regarding the piece's metre and structure. By leaving out the Cumbrians and Owain, the poem presents the opposing sides symmetrically: the West Saxons and Mercians—led by Æthelstan and Edmund I—versus the Scandinavians and Scots—led by Amlaíb and Custantín. Perhaps the Cumbrians' part in the conflict was overshadowed by the combatants; or maybe the poem's composer merely regarded Amlaíb's supporters to be sufficiently represented by the Scots alone. In any event, if Owain was indeed a participant in the conflict, it is possible that he was amongst those who perished. Succession It is possible that the scale of the casualties at Brunanburh—which seem to have weakened Æthelstan's forces as well as those of his opponents—could have been seized upon by the Cumbrians to further enable their expansion. Æthelstan's death in 939 would have also provided another window of opportunity to consolidate such territorial gains. In any event, it seems likely that either Owain, or his succeeding son Dyfnwal, submitted to Æthelstan soon after the clash at Brunanburh. The tenth-century Life of St Cathróe appears to reveal that Dyfnwal indeed possessed the kingship not terribly long afterwards. Owain, Dyfnwal, and the latter's son Máel Coluim, are attested by the tenth-century Saltair na Rann in a passage concerning the latter. See also Æthelstan A, an unknown scribe who drafted several royal charters Owain witnessed Notes Citations References Primary sources Secondary sources External links 10th-century Scottish monarchs Monarchs of Strathclyde
4841345	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FC%20Zirka%20Kropyvnytskyi	FC Zirka Kropyvnytskyi	FC Zirka Kropyvnytskyi () is a Ukrainian amateur football club from Kropyvnytskyi, Kirovohrad Oblast, with its team currently playing in the Ukrainian Amateur League. The club traces its history of a football team that existed at the British factory of Elvorti (Elworthy) since 1911. After the occupation of Ukraine by Bolsheviks, the factory was "nationalized", its team was dissolved, and the factory was converted into Soviet factory "Chervona Zirka", hence the club's name. The Soviet football team Chervona Zirka was formed in 1922. The club's professional football history however started in 1958 when it was admitted to the Class B competitions. History The club traces its history back to the former Russian sports club Elvorti Yelizavetgrad that was founded in 1911 at the Elvorti Factory. The factory was later nationalized with establishment of the Soviet power and changed its name to "Chervona Zirka" (Red Star). After start of World War I and the Ukrainian-Soviet War, most sports events in the region were suspended and in 1917 the club dissolved. Sports competitions were resumed in Lyzavetghrad in 1921 that saw participation of a team. In 1922, based on the former sports club Elvorti Yelizavetgrad were created two Soviet clubs Chervona Zirka and Chervony Profintern that participated in Soviet competition. Some of Zirka's club shields contain 1922 as the club's year of establishment. In 1928 Chervona Zirka changed its name to Metallist Zinovyevsk (Metalist Zinovyivsk) and in 1934 – Selmash Kirovo (Silmash Kirove). During the World War II the team was dissolved once again. It was not revived until 1948 when by being a member of the former Volunteer Sports Society Selmash, it was reorganised as Traktor Kirovograd (Traktor Kirovohrad) and after 1953 – Torpedo. In first post-War years 1946–47 Kirovograd (Kirovohrad) was represented in football competitions by a law enforcement team "Dynamo". In 1958, the club was renamed into Zvezda Kirovograd (Zirka Kirovohrad) when it advanced to the professional level of Soviet competitions, the B Class. As Zirka the club existed until 2006 when it went bankrupt. In 1962 the club temporarily did not participate in Soviet competitions and Kirovohrad was once again represented by Dynamo. From 1993 to 1997 the club carried a name of its title sponsor NIBAS as Zirka-NIBAS. In 2007 the club was revived in amateur regional competitions. On July 15, 2008 the Professional Football League of Ukraine approved exchange names between Zirka and another club from Kirovohrad, FC Olimpik Kirovohrad, that competed at professional level to yield its place in the Ukrainian Second League. Previously, Zirka debuted at a top level for the 1994–95 season, where they finished 6th. In the 1999–2000 season they finished in last place and were relegated to the Ukrainian First League. They were promoted immediately as champions once again for the 2003–04 season, but finished in last place and were demoted again. In July 2016, the name of Zirka's hometown was renamed to Kropyvnytskyi. The next day the club announced it had changed its name to FC Zirka Kropyvnytskyi and its logo accordingly. Team names and crest {\|class="wikitable" \|-bgcolor="#efefef" \|Year \|Name \|Meaning \|- \|1922–27 \|Chervona Zirka \|Red Star \|- \|1928–35 \|Metalist \|Steeler \|- \|1935–40 \|Silmash \|portmanteau for Mechanised agriculture \|- \|1941–45 \|club was dissolved due to the World War II \| \|- \|1946–52 \|Traktor \|Tractor \|- \|1953–57 \|Torpedo \| \|- \|1958–61 \|Zirka \|Star \|- \|1962 \|Dynamo \| \|- \|1963–93 \|Zirka \|Star \|- \|1993–97 \|Zirka NIBAS \|Star [NIBAS] \|- \|1998–present \|Zirka \|Star \|} Crest Current club's crest (logo) was adopted in 2012. In 2016 as part of decommunisation process, the club changed its city's name and year of establishment claiming its heritage of the previously existing team of British factory "Elvorti". In 2008-2011 the club's crest contained the Red Star (the club's former name and the name of factory which owned the club) and most of elements of coat of arms of the city of Kropyvnytskyi. Owners (sponsors) 1911–1993: Elvorti factory (Chervona Zirka), Kirovohrad 1993–1998: Agrarian company Nibas, Petropavlivka (Dnipropetrovsk Oblast) 1998–2011: City authorities, Kirovohrad 2011–present: Creative Industrial Group, Kropyvnytskyi Current squad Out on loan Coaches and administration Honors Cup of the Ukrainian SSR Winner (3): 1953, 1973, 1975 Ukrainian First League Winner (3): 1995, 2003, 2016 Ukrainian Second League Winner (1): 2009 Football kits and sponsors League and cup history Soviet competitions The republican football competitions in Ukraine during the Soviet period is poorly documented, so there is little information available about the Zirka's competition record before 1958. Ukrainian competitions Soviet Union {\|class="wikitable" style="font-size:90%; text-align: center;" \|-bgcolor="#efefef" ! Season ! Div. ! Pos. ! Pl. ! W ! D ! L ! GS ! GA ! P !Domestic Cup !colspan=2\|Europe !Notes \|- bgcolor="PowderBlue" \|1971 \| \|6 (26) \|50 \|21 \|17 \|12 \|52 \|33 \|59 \| \| \| \| \|- bgcolor="PowderBlue" \|1972 \| \|14 (24) \|46 \|13 \|18 \|15 \|40 \|51 \|44 \|1/16 final Cup of Ukrainian SSR \| \| \| \|- bgcolor="PowderBlue" \|1973 \| \|12 (23) \|44 \|16 \|10 \|18 \|63 \|57 \|36 \|Winner Cup of Ukrainian SSR \| \| \| \|- bgcolor="PowderBlue" \|1974 \| \|17 (20) \|38 \|11 \|9 \|18 \|34 \|46 \|31 \|1/16 final Cup of Ukrainian SSR \| \| \| \|- bgcolor="PowderBlue" \|1975 \| \|5 (17) \|32 \|13 \|10 \|9 \|37 \|22 \|36 \|Winner Cup of Ukrainian SSR \| \| \| \|- bgcolor="PowderBlue" \|1976 \| \|7 (20) \|38 \|18 \|6 \|14 \|42 \|34 \|42 \|1/4 final Cup of Ukrainian SSR \| \| \| \|- bgcolor="PowderBlue" \|1977 \| \|5 (23) \|44 \|21 \|15 \|8 \|52 \|27 \|57 \| \| \| \| \|- bgcolor="PowderBlue" \|1978 \| \|7 (23) \|44 \|17 \|15 \|12 \|42 \|33 \|49 \| \| \| \| \|- bgcolor="PowderBlue" \|1979 \| \|9 (24) \|46 \|20 \|10 \|16 \|44 \|40 \|50 \| \| \| \| \|- bgcolor="PowderBlue" \|1980 \| \|6 (23) \|44 \|20 \|13 \|11 \|52 \|44 \|53 \| \| \| \| \|- bgcolor="PowderBlue" \|1981 \| \|17 (23) \|44 \|10 \|19 \|15 \|36 \|36 \|39 \| \| \| \| \|- bgcolor="PowderBlue" \|1982 \| \|15 (24) \|46 \|17 \|5 \|24 \|43 \|63 \|39 \| \| \| \| \|- bgcolor="PowderBlue" \| align="center" \|1983 \| rowspan="10" align="center" \|3rd(Vtoraya Liga) \| align="center" \|17 (26) \| align="center" \|50 \| align="center" \|15 \| align="center" \|14 \| align="center" \|21 \| align="center" \|48 \| align="center" \|56 \| align="center" \|44 \| align="center" \| \| align="center" \| \| align="center" \| \| align="center" \| \|- bgcolor="PowderBlue" \| rowspan="2" align="center" \|1984 \| align="center" \|8 (13) \| align="center" \|24 \| align="center" \|8 \| align="center" \|7 \| align="center" \|9 \| align="center" \|31 \| align="center" \|29 \| align="center" \|23 \| rowspan="2" align="center" \| \| rowspan="2" align="center" \| \| rowspan="2" align="center" \| \| align="center" \| \|- bgcolor="PowderBlue" \| align="center" \|18 (26) \| align="center" \|14 \| align="center" \|5 \| align="center" \|4 \| align="center" \|5 \| align="center" \|23 \| align="center" \|20 \| align="center" \|14 \| align="center" \| \|- bgcolor="PowderBlue" \| rowspan="2" align="center" \|1985 \| align="center" bgcolor="silver" \|2 (14) \| align="center" \|26 \| align="center" \|12 \| align="center" \|7 \| align="center" \|7 \| align="center" \|35 \| align="center" \|27 \| align="center" \|31 \| rowspan="2" align="center" \| \| rowspan="2" align="center" \| \| rowspan="2" align="center" \| \| align="center" \| \|- bgcolor="PowderBlue" \| align="center" \|10 (28) \| align="center" \|14 \| align="center" \|5 \| align="center" \|1 \| align="center" \|8 \| align="center" \|21 \| align="center" \|33 \| align="center" \|11 \| align="center" \| \|- bgcolor="PowderBlue" \| rowspan="2" align="center" \|1986 \| align="center" \|10 (14) \| align="center" \|26 \| align="center" \|9 \| align="center" \|4 \| align="center" \|13 \| align="center" \|28 \| align="center" \|51 \| align="center" \|22 \| rowspan="2" align="center" \| \| rowspan="2" align="center" \| \| rowspan="2" align="center" \| \| align="center" \| \|- bgcolor="PowderBlue" \| align="center" \|21 (28) \| align="center" \|14 \| align="center" \|7 \| align="center" \|1 \| align="center" \|6 \| align="center" \|20 \| align="center" \|28 \| align="center" \|15 \| align="center" \| \|- bgcolor="PowderBlue" \| align="center" \|1987 \| align="center" \|23 (27) \| align="center" \|52 \| align="center" \|13 \| align="center" \|13 \| align="center" \|26 \| align="center" \|44 \| align="center" \|77 \| align="center" \|39 \| align="center" \| \| align="center" \| \| align="center" \| \| align="center" \| \|- bgcolor="PowderBlue" \| align="center" \|1988 \| align="center" \|23 (26) \| align="center" \|50 \| align="center" \|13 \| align="center" \|15 \| align="center" \|22 \| align="center" \|39 \| align="center" \|60 \| align="center" \|41 \| align="center" \| \| align="center" \| \| align="center" \| \| align="center" \| \|- bgcolor="PowderBlue" \| align="center" \|1989 \| align="center" \|14 (27) \| align="center" \|52 \| align="center" \|16 \| align="center" \|17 \| align="center" \|19 \| align="center" \|44 \| align="center" \|52 \| align="center" \|49 \| align="center" \| \| align="center" \| \| align="center" \| \| align="center" \| \|- bgcolor="PowderBlue" \| align="center" \|1990 \| rowspan="2" align="center" \|4th(Vtoraya Nizshaya Liga) \| align="center" \|19 (19) \| align="center" \|36 \| align="center" \|7 \| align="center" \|7 \| align="center" \|22 \| align="center" \|32 \| align="center" \|61 \| align="center" \|21 \| align="center" \|1/8 final Cup of Ukrainian SSR \| align="center" \| \| align="center" \| \| align="center" bgcolor="red" \|Relegated \|- bgcolor="PowderBlue" \| align="center" \|1991 \| align="center" \|25 (26) \| align="center" \|50 \| align="center" \|12 \| align="center" \|13 \| align="center" \|25 \| align="center" \|55 \| align="center" \|90 \| align="center" \|37 \| align="center" \|1/4 final Cup of Ukrainian SSR \| align="center" \| \| align="center" \| \| align="center" \|admitted to Ukrainian Second League \|} Ukraine (1992-2007) {\|class="wikitable" style="font-size:90%; text-align: center;" \|-bgcolor="#efefef" ! Season ! Div. ! Pos. ! Pl. ! W ! D ! L ! GS ! GA ! P !Domestic Cup !colspan=2\|Europe !Notes \|-bgcolor=PowderBlue \|align=center\|1992 \|align=center rowspan=3\|3rd(Druha Liha) \|align=center\|4 \|align=center\|16 \|align=center\|8 \|align=center\|3 \|align=center\|5 \|align=center\|35 \|align=center\|24 \|align=center\|19 \|align=center\|Did not qualify \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|-bgcolor=PowderBlue \|align=center\|1992–93 \|align=center\|4 \|align=center\|34 \|align=center\|16 \|align=center\|9 \|align=center\|9 \|align=center\|50 \|align=center\|33 \|align=center\|41 \|align=center\| finals \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|-bgcolor=PowderBlue \|align=center\|1993–94 \|align=center bgcolor=tan\|3 \|align=center\|42 \|align=center\|25 \|align=center\|7 \|align=center\|10 \|align=center\|60 \|align=center\|41 \|align=center\|57 \|align=center\| finals \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center bgcolor=lightgreen\|Promoted \|-bgcolor=LightCyan \|align=center\|1994–95 \|align=center\|2nd(Persha Liha) \|align=center bgcolor=gold\|1 \|align=center\|42 \|align=center\|27 \|align=center\|10 \|align=center\|5 \|align=center\|68 \|align=center\|26 \|align=center\|91 \|align=center\| finals \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center bgcolor=lightgreen\|Promoted \|- \|align=center\|1995–96 \|align=center rowspan=5\|1st(Vyshcha Liha) \|align=center\|6 \|align=center\|34 \|align=center\|14 \|align=center\|8 \|align=center\|12 \|align=center\|37 \|align=center\|33 \|align=center\|50 \|align=center\| finals \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|- \|align=center\|1996–97 \|align=center\|10 \|align=center\|30 \|align=center\|11 \|align=center\|3 \|align=center\|16 \|align=center\|31 \|align=center\|55 \|align=center\|36 \|align=center\| finals \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|- \|align=center\|1997–98 \|align=center\|11 \|align=center\|30 \|align=center\|9 \|align=center\|6 \|align=center\|15 \|align=center\|27 \|align=center\|48 \|align=center\|33 \|align=center\| finals \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|- \|align=center\|1998–99 \|align=center\|11 \|align=center\|30 \|align=center\|9 \|align=center\|7 \|align=center\|14 \|align=center\|31 \|align=center\|40 \|align=center\|34 \|align=center bgcolor=tan\|Semi finals \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|- \|align=center\|1999-00 \|align=center\|16 \|align=center\|30 \|align=center\|0 \|align=center\|9 \|align=center\|21 \|align=center\|16 \|align=center\|66 \|align=center\|9 \|align=center bgcolor=tan\|Semi finals \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center bgcolor=red\|Relegated \|-bgcolor=LightCyan \|align=center\|2000–01 \|align=center rowspan=3\|2nd(Persha Liha) \|align=center\|15 \|align=center\|34 \|align=center\|10 \|align=center\|10 \|align=center\|14 \|align=center\|27 \|align=center\|34 \|align=center\|40 \|align=center\| finals \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|-bgcolor=LightCyan \|align=center\|2001–02 \|align=center\|9 \|align=center\|34 \|align=center\|11 \|align=center\|13 \|align=center\|10 \|align=center\|29 \|align=center\|28 \|align=center\|46 \|align=center\|4th round \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|-bgcolor=LightCyan \|align=center\|2002–03 \|align=center bgcolor=gold\|1 \|align=center\|34 \|align=center\|22 \|align=center\|5 \|align=center\|7 \|align=center\|45 \|align=center\|22 \|align=center\|71 \|align=center\| finals \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center bgcolor=lightgreen\|Promoted \|- \|align=center\|2003–04 \|align=center\|1st(Vyshcha Liha) \|align=center\|16 \|align=center\|30 \|align=center\|3 \|align=center\|8 \|align=center\|19 \|align=center\|16 \|align=center\|43 \|align=center\|14 \|align=center\| finals \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center bgcolor=pink\|Bankrupt \|-bgcolor=PowderBlue \|align=center\|2004–05 \|align=center rowspan=2\|3rd "B"(Druha Liha) \|align=center\|12 \|align=center\|26 \|align=center\|7 \|align=center\|6 \|align=center\|13 \|align=center\|29 \|align=center\|38 \|align=center\|27 \|align=center\| finals \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|-bgcolor=PowderBlue \|align=center\|2005–06 \|align=center\|9 \|align=center\|28 \|align=center\|11 \|align=center\|4 \|align=center\|13 \|align=center\|23 \|align=center\|37 \|align=center\|37 \|align=center\| finals \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center bgcolor=pink\|Bankrupt \|-bgcolor=SteelBlue \|align=center\|2007 \|align=center\|4th(Amatory) \|align=center\|2 \|align=center\|8 \|align=center\|4 \|align=center\|1 \|align=center\|3 \|align=center\|12 \|align=center\|12 \|align=center\|13 \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|} After 2008 {\|class="wikitable" style="font-size:90%; text-align: center;" \|-bgcolor="#efefef" ! Season ! Div. ! Pos. ! Pl. ! W ! D ! L ! GS ! GA ! P !Domestic Cup !colspan=2\|Europe !Notes \|-bgcolor=PowderBlue \|align=center\|2007–08 \|align=center rowspan=2\|3rd "B"(Druha Liha) \|align=center colspan=14\|as FC Olimpik Kirovohrad \|-bgcolor=PowderBlue \|align=center\|2008–09 \|align=center bgcolor=gold\|1 \|align=center\|34 \|align=center\|23 \|align=center\|3 \|align=center\|8 \|align=center\|56 \|align=center\|26 \|align=center\|72 \|align=center\| finals \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center bgcolor=lightgreen\|Promoted \|-bgcolor=LightCyan \|align=center\|2009–10 \|align=center rowspan=7\|2nd(Persha Liha) \|align=center\|12 \|align=center\|34 \|align=center\|11 \|align=center\|13 \|align=center\|10 \|align=center\|38 \|align=center\|40 \|align=center\|43 \|align=center\| finals \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\|–3 \|-bgcolor=LightCyan \|align=center\|2010–11 \|align=center\|12 \|align=center\|34 \|align=center\|12 \|align=center\|7 \|align=center\|15 \|align=center\|43 \|align=center\|44 \|align=center\|43 \|align=center\| finals \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|-bgcolor=LightCyan \|align=center\|2011–12 \|align=center\|11 \|align=center\|34 \|align=center\|13 \|align=center\|5 \|align=center\|16 \|align=center\|53 \|align=center\|49 \|align=center\|44 \|align=center\| finals \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|-bgcolor=LightCyan \|align=center\|2012–13 \|align=center\|8 \|align=center\|34 \|align=center\|14 \|align=center\|10 \|align=center\|10 \|align=center\|46 \|align=center\|37 \|align=center\|52 \|align=center\| finals \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|-bgcolor=LightCyan \|align=center\|2013–14 \|align=center\|6 \|align=center\|30 \|align=center\|12 \|align=center\|8 \|align=center\|10 \|align=center\|36 \|align=center\|34 \|align=center\|44 \|align=center\| finals \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|-bgcolor=LightCyan \|align=center\|2014–15 \|align=center\|4 \|align=center\|30 \|align=center\|14 \|align=center\|7 \|align=center\|9 \|align=center\|42 \|align=center\|27 \|align=center\|49 \|align=center\| finals \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|-bgcolor=LightCyan \|align=center\|2015–16 \|align=center bgcolor=gold\|1 \|align=center\|30 \|align=center\|20 \|align=center\|5 \|align=center\|5 \|align=center\|49 \|align=center\|22 \|align=center\|65 \|align=center\| finals \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center bgcolor=lightgreen\|Promoted \|- \|align=center\|2016–17 \|align=center rowspan=2\|1st(Premier League) \|align=center\|9 \|align=center\|32 \|align=center\|9 \|align=center\|7 \|align=center\|16 \|align=center\|29 \|align=center\|43 \|align=center\|34 \|align=center\| finals \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|- \|align=center\|2017–18 \|align=center\|10 \|align=center\| 32 \|align=center\| 7 \|align=center\| 10 \|align=center\| 15 \|align=center\| 22 \|align=center\| 40 \|align=center\| 31 \|align=center\| finals \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center bgcolor=red\|Relegated \|-bgcolor=LightCyan \|align=center\|2018–19 \|align=center\|2nd \|align=center\|15 \|align=center\|17 \|align=center\|1 \|align=center\|1 \|align=center\|15 \|align=center\|10 \|align=center\|49 \|align=center\|4 \|align=center\| finals \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center bgcolor=pink\|Withdrawn \|-bgcolor=SteelBlue \|align=center\|2019–20 \|align=center rowspan=3\|4th(Amateur) \|align=center\|6 \|align=center\|18 \|align=center\|9 \|align=center\|3 \|align=center\|6 \|align=center\|30 \|align=center\|19 \|align=center\|30 \|align=center\|Did not qualify \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|-bgcolor=SteelBlue \|align=center\|2020–21 \|align=center\|12 \|align=center\|22 \|align=center\|0 \|align=center\|0 \|align=center\|22 \|align=center\|9 \|align=center\|86 \|align=center\|0 \|align=center\|Did not qualify \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|-bgcolor=SteelBlue \|align=center\|2021–22 \|align=center\|8th \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\|Did not qualify \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|} Notes External links Amateur football clubs in Ukraine Association football clubs established in 1911 1911 establishments in Ukraine Sport in Kropyvnytskyi Football clubs in the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic Football clubs in Kirovohrad Oblast Manufacturing association football clubs in Ukraine
4841481	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scramjet%20programs	Scramjet programs	Scramjet programs refers to research and testing programs for the development of supersonic combustion ramjets, known as scramjets. This list provides a short overview of national and international collaborations, and civilian and military programs. The USA, Russia, India, and China (2014), have succeeded at developing scramjet technologies. USA X-15 When the second X-15 aircraft (piloted by John B. McKay) crashed on flight 74, it was damaged but survived well enough to be rebuilt. North American Aviation rebuilt it as the X-15-A2. Among other things, one of the changes was provisions for a dummy scramjet to test if wind tunnel testing was correct. Unfortunately, on the final flight of the X-15-A2 (flight 188), the shock waves sent out by the scramjet at Mach 6.7 caused extremely intense heating of over . This then drilled into the ventral fin and melted large holes. The plane survived but never flew again. Test data were limited due to the limited flights of the scramjet before the X-15-A2 and the X-15 project on the whole were cancelled. SCRAM From 1962–1978, the Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory (APL) undertook a classified program (declassified in 1993) to develop a family of missiles called SCRAM (Supersonic Combustion RAmjet Missile). They were intended to fit on to the Talos MK12 launcher system or the Terrier MK10 launcher. Testing of engine modules in a direct-connect, and a free-jet, facility took place at a variety of Mach numbers and pressures (altitudes). These included Mach 4 (24,000 ft), Mach 5.3 (46,000 ft), Mach 7.8 (67,000 ft) and Mach 10 (88,000 ft). Tests showed that acceptable combustion efficiency was only achieved with over 20% pentaborane (B5H9) in MCPD (C12H16). Tests with pure pentaborane (HiCal) showed that a net thrust could be achieved at Mach 7. An accelerative capability equivalent to 11g was observed for Mach 5 flight at sea level. NASP In 1986 United States president Ronald Reagan announced the National Aerospace Plane (NASP) program, intended to develop two X-30 aircraft capable of single stage to orbit (SSTO), as well as horizontal takeoff and landing from conventional runways. The aircraft was to be a hydrogen fuelled air-breathing space plane, with a low speed accelerator system to bring the aircraft up to Mach 3, where the main dual-mode scramjet engines (ramjet/scramjet) would take over. At the edge of the atmosphere, a rocket was to take over and provide the final energy for orbital insertion. It was based on a classified DARPA research program called Copper Canyon. This research program suggested that Mach 25 might be possible. As the program proceeded it became clear that Mach 17 was probably the limit, whilst the weight penalty and complexity of the skin heat exchanger and other propulsion systems was going to be substantial. The program was established by the secretary of defence in 1985, and was funded to the end of FY1994, when the decision was made that the 15 billion dollars required to build the two X-30 test craft were excessive. Although the more visible parts of the program were cancelled, NASP provided a large amount of basic research, which flowed into following projects. For example, The NASP reaction model for hydrogen combustion in air (31 reactions, 16 species), is still extensively used where computational power is sufficient not to have to use reduced reaction models. GASL projectile At a test facility at Arnold Air Force Base in the U.S. state of Tennessee, the General Applied Science Laboratory (GASL) fired a projectile equipped with a hydrocarbon-powered scramjet engine from a large gun. On July 26, 2001, the four inch (100 mm) wide projectile covered a distance of 260 feet (79 m) in 30 milliseconds (roughly 5,900 mph or 9,500 km/h). The projectile is supposedly a model for a missile design. Many do not consider this to be a scramjet "flight," as the test took place near ground level. However, the test environment was described as being very realistic. Hyper-X The $250 million NASA Langley Hyper-X X-43A effort was an outgrowth of the canceled National Aerospace Plane (NASP) program on which NASA was a collaborator. Rather than developing and flying a large, expensive spaceplane with orbital capability, Hyper-X flew small test vehicles to demonstrate hydrogen-fueled scramjet engines. NASA worked with contractors Boeing, Microcraft, and the General Applied Science Laboratory (GASL) on the project. NASA's Hyper-X program is the successor to the National Aerospace Plane (NASP) program which was cancelled in November 1994. This program involves flight testing through the construction of the X-43 vehicles. NASA first successfully flew its X-43A scramjet test vehicle on March 27, 2004 (an earlier test, on June 2, 2001, went out of control and had to be destroyed). Unlike the University of Queensland's vehicle, it took a horizontal trajectory. After it separated from its mother craft and booster, it briefly achieved a speed of 5,000 miles per hour (8,000 km/h), the equivalent of Mach 7, easily breaking the previous speed record for level flight of an air-breathing vehicle. Its engines ran for eleven seconds, and in that time it covered a distance of 15 miles (24 km). The Guinness Book of Records certified the X-43A's flight as the current Aircraft Speed Record holder on 30 August 2004. The third X-43 flight set a new speed record of 6,600 mph (10,620 km/h), nearly Mach 10 on 16 November 2004. It was boosted by a modified Pegasus rocket which was launched from a Boeing B-52 at 13,157 meters (43,166 ft). After a free flight where the scramjet operated for about ten seconds the craft made a planned crash into the Pacific Ocean off the coast of southern California. The X-43A craft were designed to crash into the ocean without recovery. Duct geometry and performance of the X-43 are classified. The NASA Langley, Marshall, and Glenn Centers are now all heavily engaged in hypersonic propulsion studies. The Glenn Center is taking leadership on a Mach 4 turbine engine of interest to the USAF. As for the X-43A Hyper-X, three follow-on projects are now under consideration: X-43B: A scaled-up version of the X-43A, to be powered by the Integrated Systems Test of an Air-Breathing Rocket (ISTAR) engine. ISTAR will use a hydrocarbon-based liquid-rocket mode for initial boost, a ramjet mode for speeds above Mach 2.5, and a scramjet mode for speeds above Mach 5 to take it to maximum speeds of at least Mach 7. A version intended for space launch could then return to rocket mode for final boost into space. ISTAR is based on a proprietary Aerojet design called a "strutjet", which is currently undergoing wind-tunnel testing. NASA's Marshall Space Propulsion Center has introduced an Integrated Systems Test of the Air-Breathing Rocket (ISTAR) program, prompting Pratt & Whitney, Aerojet, and Rocketdyne to join forces for development. X-43C: NASA is in discussions with the Air Force on development of a variant of the X-43A that would use the HyTECH hydrocarbon-fueled scramjet engine. The US Air Force and Pratt and Whitney have cooperated on the Hypersonic Technology (HyTECH) scramjet engine, which has now been demonstrated in a wind-tunnel environment. While most scramjet designs to date have used hydrogen fuel, HyTech runs on conventional kerosene-type hydrocarbon fuels, which are much more practical for support of operational vehicles. A full-scale engine is now being built, which will use its own fuel for cooling. Using fuel for engine cooling is nothing new, but the cooling system will also act as a chemical reactor, breaking long-chain hydrocarbons down into short-chain hydrocarbons that burn more rapidly. X-43D: A version of the X-43A with a hydrogen-powered scramjet engine with a maximum speed of Mach 15. FASST On December 10, 2005, Alliant Techsystems (ATK) successfully flight-tested an air-breathing, liquid JP-10 (hydrocarbon) fuelled scramjet-powered free-flight vehicle from NASA's Wallops Flight Facility, Wallops Island, Virginia. The flight test was conducted under the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA)/ Office of Naval Research (ONR) Freeflight Atmospheric Scramjet Test Technique (FASTT) project. This latest flight was a culmination of a three-year, three-flight program to successfully demonstrate the feasibility of using ground-launched sounding rockets as a low-cost approach to hypersonic flight testing, and represents the world's first flight test of an air-breathing, scramjet-powered vehicle using hydrocarbon fuel. Begun in late 2002, the FASTT project entailed the design and fabrication of three flight vehicles and a ground test engine rig to undergo wind tunnel testing. The first and second payloads were dubbed surrogate payload vehicles and matched closely the scramjet flight article, but lacked the internal flowpath and fuel system. They were designed as test rounds to validate vehicle subsystems, such as booster stack combination performance, fin sets, payload deployment mechanism, telemetry and trackability, and inlet shroud, before flight testing the more complicated scramjet flowpath, which was to undergo proof-of-concept testing in a wind tunnel prior to flight testing. The first surrogate vehicle, SPV1, was launched aboard an unguided Terrier/Improved Orion two-stage solid rocket motor stack from Wallops Island on October 18, 2003, approximately 12 months after program initiation. This had the exact outer mold line of the eventual shrouded scramjet payload and contained full onboard instrumentation and telemetry suites. The vehicle was boosted to approximately and altitude, where it was deployed to free-flight, deployed its shroud at high dynamic pressure, and flew an un-powered trajectory to splashdown. All on-board subsystems worked flawlessly. The boost stage however inserted the payload at lower than desired flight speed, altitude, and flight path angle. The second surrogate vehicle, SPV2 was launched aboard the identical booster stack from Wallops Island on April 16, 2004, approximately six months after the first launch. After making slight trajectory corrections to account for launch rail effects, higher than anticipated drag, and actual booster performance, the payload was inserted nominally above and altitude. The full complement of subsystems were again proven out in flight on this successful flight test. The results of these two flight tests are summarized in a technical paper AIAA-2005-3297, presented at the 13th International Space Planes and Hypersonics Systems and Technologies Conference (see )in Capua, Italy. The ground test engine hardware was fabricated over 18 months and underwent a four-month engine validation testing program in the ATK GASL freejet wind tunnel complex Leg 6, located in Ronkonkoma, New York. Ignition, fuel throttling, and engine operation were wrung out over a range of expected flight conditions. After a delay of two months to modify flight hardware based on ground test findings, the first powered vehicle, FFV1, was launched without incident, propelled to speeds of at altitude, roughly Mach 5.5. Over 140 inlet, combustor, and vehicle outer mold line pressure, temperatures, and vehicle accelerations as well as fuel pressure, timing feedback, and power systems monitoring were recorded. The vehicle executed the prescribed test sequences flawlessly for 15 seconds, before continuing on to splashdown into the Atlantic Ocean. Further details can be found in the technical paper AIAA-2006-8119, presented at the 14th International Space Planes and Hypersonics Systems and Technologies Conference, in Canberra, Australia. Alliant Techsystems Inc. (ATK) GASL Division led the contractor team for the FASTT project, developed and integrated the scramjet vehicle, and acted as mission managers for the three flights. Launch vehicle integration and processing was performed by Rocket Support Services (formerly DTI Associates), Glen Burnie, MD; the flight shroud was developed by Systima Technologies, Inc., Bothell, Washington; electrical systems, telemetry and instrumentation was handled by the NASA Sounding Rocket Office Contract (NSROC); flight test support was provided by the NASA Wallops Flight Facility; and technical support was provided by the Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory, Baltimore, MD. GASL previously built and integrated the engine flowpaths and fuel systems for the three X-43A flight vehicles, working closely with air framer and systems integrator Boeing, NASA Langley, and NASA Dryden on the successful Hyper-X Program. HyFly To be completed Hy-V Hy-V is a scramjet experiment to obtain and compare ground test and flight test supersonic combustion data. The general goal of the project is to validate wind tunnel test results that will eventually be used to develop computational codes. The primary investigators are the University of Virginia, Virginia Tech, and Alliant Techsystems, and the test will be launched on a Terrier-Orion sounding rocket from NASA's Wallops Island site. Boeing X-51 The Boeing X-51 is a scramjet demonstration aircraft for hypersonic (Mach 7, around 8,050 km/h) flight testing. The X-51 WaveRider program is a consortium of the US Air Force, DARPA, NASA, Boeing and Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne. The program is managed by the Propulsion Directorate within the United States Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL). The X-51 is a descendant of earlier efforts including the Advanced Rapid Response Missile Demonstrator and the liquid hydrocarbon-fuelled scramjet engine developed under the USAF's HyTech program. The first free-flight of the X-51 took place in May 2010. On 1 May 2013, the X-51 performed its first fully successful flight test, flying for 240 seconds until running out of fuel; this test was the longest air-breathing hypersonic flight. This test signified the completion of the program. HAWC The Hypersonic Air-breathing Weapon Concept (HAWC, pronounced Hawk) is a scramjet powered air-launched hypersonic cruise missile without a warhead that is being developed by DARPA and uses its own kinetic energy upon impact to destroy the target. It was first successfully tested in September 2021. Another successful test was carried out in mid-March 2022 amid the Russian invasion of Ukraine but further details were kept secret to avoid escalating tensions with Russia only to be leaked by an unnamed Pentagon official in early April. The missile was successfully launched from a B-52 strategic bomber off the west coast and flew above 65,000 feet for more than 300 miles (483 km). Follow-on tactical range Hypersonic Attack Cruise Missile (HACM) will be built by Raytheon Technologies and will use a Northrop Grumman scramjet. Mayhem Leidos was awarded a contract to develop the unmanned scramjet-powered Mayhem (Expendable Hypersonic Multi-mission ISR (intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance) and Strike program) hypersonic technology demonstrator, in December 2022. Australia HyShot On July 30, 2002, the University of Queensland's HyShot team (and international partners) conducted the first-ever successful test flight of a scramjet. The team took a unique approach to the problem of accelerating the engine to the necessary speed by using a Terrier-Orion sounding rocket to take the aircraft up on a parabolic trajectory to an altitude of 314 km. As the craft re-entered the atmosphere, it dropped to a speed of Mach 7.6. The scramjet engine then started, and it flew at about Mach 7.6 for 6 seconds. . This was achieved on a lean budget of just A$1.5 million (US$1.1 million), a tiny fraction of NASA's US$250 million to develop the X-43A. This involved many of the same researchers involved in the University of Queensland report in 1995 of the first development of a scramjet that achieved more thrust than drag. On Saturday, March 25, 2006, researchers at the University of Queensland conducted another successful test flight of a HyShot Scramjet at the Woomera Test Range in South Australia. The Hyshot III with its £1,200,000 engine made an apparently successful flight (and planned crash landing) reaching in the order of 7.6 Mach. NASA has partially explained the tremendous difference in cost between the two projects by pointing out that the American vehicle has an engine fully incorporated into an airframe with a full complement of flight control surfaces available. In the second HyShot mission, no net thrust was achieved. (The thrust was less than the drag.) The HyShot program currently consists of the following tests: HyShot 1 - UQ 2-D scramjet. Failed launch due to rocket fin puncture by a rock on the landing pad. HyShot 2 - UQ 2-D scramjet. Successful, July 30, 2002 HyShot 3-7 - NASA tests. Cancelled after announcement of manned Mars mission. HyShot 8 (Now known as HyShot III) - QinetiQ 4-chamber scramjet. Successful, March 25, 2006. HyShot 9 (Now known as HyShot IV) - UQ 2D scramjet with JAXA hypermixer. Successful, March 30, 2006. HyShot 10 - HyCAUSE - DSTO scramjet. Successful June 15, 2007. Sponsorship for the HyShot Flight Program was obtained from the University of Queensland, Astrotech Space Operations, Defence Evaluation and Research Agency (DERA (now Qinetiq), UK), National Aeronautics and Space Agency (NASA, USA), Defence, Science and Technology Organisation (DSTO, Australia), Dept. of Defence (Australia), Dept. of Industry Science and Resources (Australia), the German Aerospace Centre (DLR, Germany), Seoul National University (Korea), the Australian Research Council, Australian Space Research Institute (ASRI), Alesi Technologies (Australia), National Aerospace Laboratories (NAL, Japan), NQEA (Australia), Australian Research and Development Unit (ARDU, Australia), the Air Force Office of Scientific Research (AFOSR, USA) and Luxfer, Australia. HIFiRE Hypersonic International Flight Research and Experimentation (HIFiRE) is a joint program of the US Department of Defense and Australian DST Group. The "purpose of this program is to investigate fundamental hypersonic phenomena and accelerate the development of aerospace vehicle technologies deemed critical to long range precision strike" by using an "affordable, accessible, prototype experimentation strategy". HIFiRE 0 May 7, 2009 - First HIFiRE hypersonic test flight HIFiRE 1 March 22, 2010 - Axisymmetric conical boundary layer transition HIFiRE 2 May 1, 2012 - Accelerating velocity profile of an hydrocarbon-fueled axisymmetric scramjet HIFiRE 3 Sept 13, 2012 - Radical farming of an hydrogen-fueled axisymmetric scramjet HIFiRE 4 June 30, 2017 - Aerodynamic performance of a hypersonic waverider HIFiRE 5 April 23, 2012 - Elliptical forebody boundary layer transition (failed because reaching only Mach 3) HIFiRE 5b May 18, 2016 - Elliptical forebody boundary layer transition HiFIRE 6 Cancelled ? - Adaptive flight control of an hypersonic vehicle HIFiRE 7 March 30, 2015 - Free flight of an hydrocarbon fueled scramjet with REST inlet HIFiRE 8 Cancelled ? - Sustained flight of an hypersonic vehicle integrating an hydrocarbon fueled scramjet with REST inlet In 2012 the HIFiRE program was recognized with the prestigious von Karman Award by the International Congress of the Aeronautical Sciences. Brazil The 14-X is a Brazilian hypersonic aircraft, named in tribute to the 14-bis of Alberto Santos-Dumont. This aircraft is equipped with a scramjet engine, which is integrated into the fuselage and has no moving parts. The operating principle is that, during flight, the air is compressed by the geometry and speed of the vehicle and directed to the engine at the bottom of the aircraft. Hydrogen is used as the fuel. The vehicle utilize the “Waverider” concept and made the first test flight of engine in December 2021 in 'Operação Cruzeiro' and on its flight, the engine accelerated to a speed greater than Mach 6 at an altitude of more than 30 km and followed the planned trajectory, reaching its apogee at 160 km. China In August 2015, it was reported that a Chinese researcher had been awarded for the successful development and test flight of a new scramjet engine, the first of its kind in China. This would make China the fourth country in the world, after Australia (2002), Russia and the United States, to have successfully test flown a scramjet. It was later revealed that the first flight of a Waverider-like scramjet-powered vehicle occurred in 2011, with flight tests completed by 2014. A new near-hypersonic drone, with a variable-cycle turbo-ramjet engine, has also been flown. It is reportedly the fastest air-breathing recoverable vehicle in the world. France Several scramjet designs are now under investigation. One of these options or a combination of them will be selected by ONERA, the French aerospace research agency, with the EADS conglomerate providing technical backup. The notional immediate goal of the study is to produce a hypersonic air-to-surface missile named "Promethee", which would be about 6 meters (20 ft) long and weigh 1,700 kilograms (3,750 lb). ASN4G (Air-Sol Nucléaire de 4e Génération) , will be an air-launched scramjet-powered hypersonic cruise missile and replace ASMP-A. Germany The Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft has founded Research Training Group 1095 . Research purposes are the aero-thermodynamic design and development of a scramjet demonstrator. There is no official name for the demonstrator yet. The project includes basic research to gain a better understanding of supersonic fuel mixing and combustion, aerodynamic effects, material sciences and issues in system design. The project involves the University of Stuttgart, Technical University of Munich, RWTH Aachen and the German Aerospace Center. India Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) designed and ground-tested a scramjet in 2005. A press release stated that stable supersonic combustion was demonstrated in ground testing for nearly seven seconds with an inlet Mach number of six. In 2010, a flight test of Advanced Technology Vehicle (ATV-D01) with a passive scramjet engine combustor module was conducted. It was a suborbital ballistic trajectory based experiment using a two-stage RH-560 sounding rocket. The HSTDV is a technology demonstrator under development by the DRDO. It has been ground-tested at hypersonic speeds for 20 seconds. On August 28, 2016, ISRO successfully flight tested the Scramjet engine in Advanced Technology Vehicle (ATV-D02). It is the second scramjet flight test of VSSC-ISRO. On June 12, 2019, India conducted the maiden flight test of its indigenously developed unmanned scramjet demonstration aircraft for hypersonic speed flight from a base from Abdul Kalam Island in the Bay of Bengal at about 11.25 am. The aircraft is called the Hypersonic Technology Demonstrator Vehicle. The trial was carried out by the Defence Research and Development Organisation. The aircraft forms an important component of the country's programme for development of a Hypersonic Cruise missile system. ISRO is also planning to perform a (SPEX) Scramjet Propulsion Experiment for their RLV-TD programme which is focused on reusability of launch vehicle. ISRO has already performed maiden testing of the vehicle on 23 May 2016. Russia The first working scramjet in the world "GLL Kholod" flew on 28 November 1991, reaching a speed of Mach 5.8. However, the collapse of the Soviet Union stopped the funding of the project. After NASA's NASP program was cut, American scientists began to look at adopting available Russian technology as a less expensive alternative to developing hypersonic flight. On November 17, 1992, Russian scientists with some additional French support successfully launched a scramjet engine named "Kholod" in Kazakhstan. From 1994 to 1998 NASA worked with the Russian Central Institute of Aviation Motors (CIAM) to test a dual-mode scramjet engine and transfer technology and experience to the West. Four tests took place, reaching Mach numbers of 5.5, 5.35, 5.8, and 6.5. The final test took place aboard a modified SA-5 surface-to-air missile launched from the Sary Shagan test range in the Republic of Kazakhstan on 12 February 1998. According to CIAM telemetry data, the first ignition attempt of the scramjet was unsuccessful, but after 10 seconds the engine was started and the experimental system flew 77s with good performance, up until the planned SA-5 missile self-destruction (according to NASA, no net thrust was achieved). Some sources in the Russian military have said that a hypersonic (Mach 10 to Mach 15) maneuverable ICBM warhead was tested. The new "GLL Igla" system was expected to fly in 2009. The 3M22 Zircon is a scramjet powered maneuvering anti-ship hypersonic cruise missile developed by Russia. See also HOTOL Jet engine Single-stage-to-orbit Skylon (spacecraft) References Notes Thompson, Milton O. "At the Edge of Space". Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 1992. Paull, A., Stalker, R.J., Mee, D.J. "Experiments on supersonic combustion ramjet propulsion in a shock tunnel", Journal of Fluid Mechanics 296: 156–183, 1995. Kors, D.L. "Design considerations for combined air breathing-rocket propulsion systems.", AIAA Paper No. 90-5216, 1990. Varvill, R., Bond, A. "A Comparison of Propulsion Concepts for SSTO Reusable Launchers", Journal of the British Interplanetary Society, Vol 56, pp 108–117, 2003. Figure 8. Varvill, R., Bond, A. "A Comparison of Propulsion Concepts for SSTO Reusable Launchers", Journal of the British Interplanetary Society, Vol 56, pp 108–117, 2003. Figure 7. Voland, R.T., Auslender, A.H., Smart, M.K., Roudakov, A.S., Semenov, V.L., Kopchenov, V. "CIAM/NASA Mach 6.5 scramjet flight and ground test", AIAA-99-4848. Oldenborg R. et al. "Hypersonic Combustion Kinetics: Status Report of the Rate Constant Committee, NASP High-Speed Propulsion Technology Team" NASP Technical Memorandum 1107, May 1990. Billig, FS "SCRAM-A Supersonic Combustion Ramjet Missile", AIAA paper 93–2329, 1993. External links HyShot -University Of Queensland HyShot Leaders in Scramjet Technology Latest results from the 24 March 2006 QinetiQ HyShot launch. Hy-V Website French Support Russian SCRAMJET Tests. A Burning Question. American Scientist. Hypersonic Scramjet Projectile Flys in Missile Test. SpaceDaily. NASA website for National Hypersonics Plan NASA's X-43A University of Queensland Centre for Hypersonics BBC: Scramjet Aerojet Trijet, Mach 0-7 project Aircraft engines Jet engines Spacecraft propulsion Single-stage-to-orbit
4841708	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marathi%20people	Marathi people	The Marathi people () or Marathis () are an Indo-Aryan ethnolinguistic group who are indigenous to Maharashtra in western India. They natively speak Marathi, an Indo-Aryan language. Maharashtra was formed as a Marathi-speaking state of India in 1960, as part of a nationwide linguistic reorganisation of the Indian states. The term "Maratha" is generally used by historians to refer to all Marathi-speaking peoples, irrespective of their caste; however, now it may refer to a Maharashtrian caste known as the Maratha. The Marathi community came into political prominence in the 17th century, when the Maratha Empire was established under Shivaji; the Marathas are credited to a large extent for reducing the Mughal emperor to a mere figurehead. History Ancient to medieval period During the ancient period, around 230 BC, Maharashtra came under the rule of the Satavahana dynasty, which ruled the region for 400 years. The Vakataka dynasty then ruled Maharashtra from the 3rd century to the 5th century AD, and the Chalukya dynasty from the 6th century to the 8th century. The two prominent rulers were Pulakeshin II, who defeated the north Indian Emperor Harsh, and Vikramaditya II, who defeated Arab invaders in the 8th century. The Rashtrakuta dynasty ruled Maharashtra from the 8th to the 10th century. The Persian merchant and traveller, Sulaiman al-Tajir, who wrote of his many voyages to India and China in the CE, called the ruler of the Rashtrakuta dynasty, Amoghavarsha, "one of the four great kings of the world". From the early 11th century to the 12th century, the Deccan Plateau was dominated by the Western Chalukya Empire and the Chola dynasty. The Yadava dynasty of Deogiri, ruled Maharashtra from the 13th century to the 14th century. The Yadavas were defeated by the Khaljis in 1321. After the defeat of Yadavas, the area was ruled for the next 300 years by a succession of Muslim rulers including (in chronological order): the Khaljis, the Tughlaqs, and the Bahmani Sultanate and its successor states called the Deccan sultanates, such as Adilshahi, Nizamshahi, and the Mughal Empire. The early period of Islamic rule saw the imposition of a Jaziya tax on non-Muslims, temple destruction and forcible conversions. However, the mainly Hindu population and their Islamic rulers came to an accommodation over time. For most of this period Brahmins were in charge of accounts, whereas revenue collection was in the hands of Marathas who held watans (hereditary rights) of Patilki (revenue collection at village level), and Deshmukhi (revenue collection over a larger area). A number of families such as Bhosale, Shirke, Ghorpade, Jadhav, More, Mahadik, Ghatge, Gharge-Desai (Deshmukh) and Nimbalkar loyally served different sultans at different periods of time. All watandar considered their watan a source of economic power and pride and were reluctant to part with it. The watandars were the first to oppose Shivaji because it hurt their economic interests. Since most of the population was Hindu and spoke Marathi, even the sultans such as Ibrahim Adil Shah I adopted Marathi as the court language for administration and record-keeping. Islamic rule also led to Persian vocabulary entering the Marathi language. Per Kulkarni, for the elites of the era using Persian words was a status symbol. Surnames derived from service during that period such as Fadnis, Chitnis, Mirasdar, etc. are still in use today. Most of the Marathi Bhakti poet saints, who worshipped Vitthal, belonged to the period between late Yadava and the late Islamic era. These include Dnyaneshwar, Namdev, Eknath, Bahinabai and Tukaram. Other important religious figures of this era were Narsimha Saraswati, and Mahanubhava sect founder Chakradhar Swami. All of them used the Marathi language rather than Sanskrit for their devotional and philosophical compositions. The decline of Islamic rule in Deccan started when Shivaji (1630–1680) founded the Maratha Empire by annexing a portion of the Bijapur Sultanate. Shivaji later led rebellions against Mughal rule, thus becoming a symbol of Hindu resistance and self-rule. The Maratha Empire contributed greatly to the end of Mughal rule and went on to rule over a vast empire stretching from Attock to Cuttack. Early modern period (1650–1818) Political history In the mid-17th century, Chatrapati Shivaji Maharaj founded the Maratha Empire by conquering the Desh and the Konkan regions from the Adilshahi, and established Hindavi Swaraj ("self-rule of Hindu people"). The Marathas are credited to a large extent with ending Mughal rule in India. After Shivaji's death, the Mughals, who had lost significant ground to the Maratha Empire under him, invaded Maharashtra in 1681. Shivaji's son Sambhaji, also his successor as Chhatrapati, led the Maratha Empire valiantly against the much stronger Mughal opponent, but in 1689, after being betrayed, Sambhaji was captured, tortured and killed by the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb. The war against the Mughals was then led by Sambhaji's younger brother and successor Rajaram I. Upon Rajaram's death in 1700, his widow Tarabai took command of Maratha forces and won many battles against the Mughals. In 1707, upon the death of Aurangzeb, the War of 27 Years between the much-weakened Mughal Empire and the rising Maratha Empire came to an end. Shahu I, the grandson of Shivaji, with the help of capable Maratha Empire administrators and generals such as the Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath and his descendants, saw the greatest expansion of the Maratha Empire power. After Shahu's death in 1749, the Peshwa Nanasaheb and his successors became the virtual rulers of the Maratha Empire. The Maratha Empire was expanded by many chieftains including Peshwa Bajirao Ballal I and his descendants, the Shindes, Gaekwad, Pawar, Bhonsale of Nagpur, and the Holkars. The Empire at its peak stretched from northern Tamil Nadu in the south to Peshawar (modern-day Khyber Pakhtunkhwa) in the north, and to Bengal in the east. Pune, under the Peshwa, became the imperial seat, with envoys, ambassadors, and royals coming in from far and near. However, after the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761, in which the Marathas were defeated by the Afghans under Ahmed Shah Abdali, the Maratha Empire broke up into many independent kingdoms. Due to the efforts of Mahadji Shinde, it remained a confederacy until the British East India Company defeated Peshwa Bajirao II. Nevertheless, several Maratha Empire states remained as vassals of the British until 1947 when they acceded to the Dominion of India. The Maratha Empire also developed a potent coastal navy around the 1660s. At its peak under Maratha Koli Admiral Kanhoji Angre, the naval force dominated the territorial waters of the western coast of India from Mumbai to Sawantwadi. It would engage in attacking British, Portuguese, Dutch, and Siddi naval ships and kept a check on their naval ambitions. The Maratha Navy dominated until around the 1730s, but was in a state of decline by the 1770s, and ceased to exist entirely by 1818. Social history Before British rule, the Maharashtra region was divided into many revenue divisions. The medieval equivalent of a county or district was the pargana. The chief of the pargana was called Deshmukh and record keepers were called Deshpande. The lowest administrative unit was the village. Village society in Marathi areas included the Patil or the head of the village, collector of revenue, and Kulkarni, the village record-keeper. These were hereditary positions. The Patil usually came from the Maratha caste. The Kulkarni was usually from Marathi Brahmin or CKP caste. The village also used to have twelve hereditary servants called the Balutedar. The Balutedar system was supportive of the agriculture sector. Servants under this system provided services to the farmers and the economic system of the village. The base of this system was caste. The servants were responsible for tasks specific to their castes. There were twelve kinds of servants under Bara Balutedar: Joshi (village priest and astrologer from Brahmin caste), Sonar (goldsmith from Daiwadnya caste), Sutar (carpenter), Gurav (priest of Shiva temple), Nhawi (barber), Parit (washerman), Teli (oil pressers), Kumbhar (potter), Chambhar (cobbler), Dhor, Koli (fisherman or water carrier), Chougula (assistant to Patil), Mang (rope maker), and Mahar (village security). In this list of Balutedar: Dhor, Mang, Mahar, and Chambhar belonged to the untouchable group of castes. In exchange for their services, the balutedars were granted complex sets of hereditary rights (watan) to a share in the village harvest. British colonial rule The British rule of more than a century in the present-day Maharashtra region saw huge changes for the Marathi people in every aspect of their lives. Areas that correspond to present-day Maharashtra were under direct or indirect British rule, first under the East India Trading Company and then under the British Raj, from 1858. During this era Marathi people resided in the Bombay presidency, Berar, Central provinces, Hyderabad state and in various princely states that are currently part of present-day Maharashtra. The 1951 census of India had 4.5 million people in the erstwhile Hyderabad state who stated Marathi as their mother tongue. Significant Marathi populations also resided in Maratha princely states far from Maharashtra such as Baroda, Gwalior, Indore, and Tanjore. The British colonial period saw standardisation of Marathi grammar through the efforts of the Christian missionary William Carey. Carey also published the first dictionary of Marathi in Devanagari script. The most comprehensive Marathi-English dictionary was compiled by Captain James Thomas Molesworth and Major Thomas Candy in 1831. The book is still in print nearly two centuries after its publication. Molesworth also worked on standardising Marathi. He used Brahmins of Pune for this task and adopted the Sanskrit-dominated dialect spoken by this caste in the city as the standard dialect for Marathi. The introduction of printing, standardisation of Marathi, and establishment of modern schools and colleges during the early colonial era led to the spread of literacy and knowledge to many different sections of society such as women, the dalits and the cultivator classes. The Marathi community played an important part in the social and religious reform movements, as well as the Indian nationalist movement of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Notable civil society bodies founded by Marathi leaders during the 19th century include the Poona Sarvajanik Sabha, the Prarthana Samaj, the Arya Mahila Samaj, and the Satya Shodhak Samaj. The Pune Sarvajanik Sabha took an active part in relief efforts during the famine of 1875–1876. It is considered the forerunner of the Indian National Congress established in 1885. The most prominent personalities of Indian nationalism in the late 19th and early 20th century, Gopal Krishna Gokhale and Bal Gangadhar Tilak, on opposite sides of the political spectrum, were both Marathi. Tilak was instrumental in using Shivaji and Ganesh worship in forging a collective Maharashtrian identity for the Marathi people. Marathi social reformers of the colonial era include Mahatma Jyotirao Phule and his wife Savitribai Phule, Justice Ranade, feminist Tarabai Shinde, Dhondo Keshav Karve, Vitthal Ramji Shinde, and Pandita Ramabai. Jyotirao Phule was a pioneer in opening schools for girls and Marathi dalits castes. The non-Brahmin Hindu castes started organising at the beginning of the 20th century with the blessing of Shahu, the ruler of the princely state of Kolhapur. The campaign took off in the early 1920s under the leadership of Keshavrao Jedhe and Baburao Javalkar. Both belonged to the non-Brahmin party. Capturing the Ganpati and Shivaji festivals from Brahmin domination were their early goals. They combined nationalism with anti-casteism as the party's aims. Later on in the 1930s, Jedhe merged the non-Brahmin party with the Congress party and changed that party from an upper-caste-dominated body to a more broadly based but also Maratha-dominated party. The early 20th century also saw the rise of B. R. Ambedkar, who led the campaign for the rights of the dalits caste that included his own Mahar caste. The Hindu nationalist organisation Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) was founded and led by Marathis from Nagpur for many decades. Vinayak Damodar Savarkar (1889–1966), a Marathi from Nashik district, an Indian independence activist, who advocated violence to overthrow British rule in his youth, later formulated the Hindu nationalist philosophy of Hindutva. He was a leading figure in the Hindu Mahasabha. Savarkar's Hindutva philosophy remains the guiding principle for organisations that are part of the RSS-affiliated organisations. Although the British originally regarded India as a place for the supply of raw materials for the factories of England, by the end of the 19th century a modern manufacturing industry was developing in the city of Mumbai. The main product was cotton and the bulk of the workforce in these mills was of Marathi origin from Western Maharashtra, but more specifically from the coastal Konkan region. The census recorded for the city in the first half of the 20th century showed nearly half the city's population listed Marathi as their mother tongue. During the period of 1835–1907, a large number of Indians, including Marathi people, were taken to the island of Mauritius as indentured labourers to work on sugarcane plantations. The Marathi people on the island form the oldest diaspora of Marathi people outside India. Since Indian independence in 1947 After India gained independence from Britain in 1947, all princely states lying within the borders of the Bombay Presidency acceded to the Indian Union and were integrated into the newly created Bombay State in 1950. The small community of Marathi Jews (Bene Israel – Sons of Israel) started emigrating to the newly created country of Israel in the late 1940s and early 1950s. The number of Bene Israel remaining in India was estimated to be around 4,000–5,000 in 1988. In 1956, the States Reorganisation Act reorganised the Indian states along linguistic lines, and the Bombay Presidency State was enlarged by the addition of the predominantly Marathi-speaking regions of Marathwada (Aurangabad Division) from the erstwhile Hyderabad state and the Vidarbha region from the Central Provinces and Berar. The enlarged state also included Gujarati-speaking areas. The southernmost part of Bombay State was ceded to Mysore. From 1954 to 1955, Marathi people strongly protested against the bilingual Bombay State, and the Samyukta Maharashtra Samiti was formed to agitate for a Marathi-speaking state. At the same time, the Mahagujarat Movement was started, seeking a separate Gujarati-speaking state. A number of mainly Pune-based leaders such as Keshavrao Jedhe, S.M. Joshi, Shripad Amrit Dange, and Pralhad Keshav Atre formed the Samyukta Maharashtra Movement, alongside Vidarbha-based leaders such as Gopalrao Khedkar, to fight for a separate state of Maharashtra with Mumbai as its state capital. Mass protests, 105 deaths, and heavy losses in the Marathi-speaking areas by the ruling Congress Party in the 1957 election, led the government under Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru to change its policy and agree to the protesters' demands. On 1 May 1960, the separate Marathi-speaking state was formed by dividing the earlier Bombay State into the new states of Maharashtra and Gujarat. The city of Mumbai was declared the capital of the new state. The state continues to have a dispute with Karnataka regarding the districts of Belgaum and Karwar, both with a large population of Marathi people. For the first time, the creation of Maharashtra brought most Marathi people under one state with the mainly rural Kunbi-Maratha community as the largest social group. This group has dominated the rural economy and politics of the state since 1960. The community accounts for 31% of the population of Maharashtra. They dominate the cooperative institutions and with the resultant economic power control politics from the village level up to the Assembly and Lok Sabha seats. Since the 1980s, this group has also been active in setting up private educational institutions. Major past political figures of Maharashtra have been from this group. The rise of the Hindu nationalist Shiv Sena and the Bharatiya Janata Party in recent years have not dented Maratha caste representation in the Maharashtra Legislative assembly. After the Maratha-Kunbi cluster, the scheduled caste (SC) Mahars are numerically the second-largest community among the Marathi people in Maharashtra. Most of them embraced Buddhism in 1956 with their leader, B. R. Ambedkar. Writers from this group in the 1950s and 1960s were pioneers of Dalit Literature. The Portuguese-occupied enclave of Goa was liberated in 1962. The main political party formed immediately after liberation was the Maharashtrawadi Gomantak Party. It wanted Goa to merge with Maharashtra because of the affinity between Goan Hindus and the Marathi people. However, the referendum held on this issue rejected the merger. Later, Konkani was made the official language of Goa, but Marathi is also allowed in any government correspondence. The 1960s also saw the establishment by Bal Thackeray of Shiv Sena, a populist sectarian party advocating the rights of Marathi people in the heterogeneous city of Mumbai. Early campaigns by Shiv Sena advocated for more opportunities for Marathi people in government jobs. The party also led a campaign against the city's South Indian population. By the 1980s the party had captured power in the Mumbai Corporation, and in the 1990s it led the government of Maharashtra's coalition with the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP). During this transition from founding to capturing power, the party toned down its rhetoric against non-Marathi people and adopted a more Hindu nationalist stance. Castes and communities The Marathi people form an ethnolinguistic group that is distinct from others in terms of its language, history, cultural and religious practices, social structure, literature, and art. The traditional caste hierarchy was headed by the Brahmin castes-the Deshasthas, Chitpavans, Karhades, Saraswats, and the Chandraseniya Kayastha Prabhus. In Mumbai during British rule, this included the Pathare Prabhu and the other communities. The Marathas are 32% in Western Maharashtra and the Kunbis were 7%, whereas the Other Backward Class population (other than the Kunbi) was 27%. The other castes in the intermediate category include: Gujjars and Rajputs who migrated centuries ago to Maharashtra from northern India – and settled in north Maharashtra. The population of the Mangs was 8%. Hindu castes in Maharashtra Majority of Marathi Hindu belong either to the cultivator caste cluster of Maratha and Kunbi, or one of the former village servant (Bara Balutedar) castes which include ‌Shimpi (Tailor), Lohar (Iron-smith), Suthar (carpenters), Mali (florists and cultivators), Dhobhi or Parit (washer), Gurav (village priest), Kumbhar (potters), Sonar (Goldsmith), Teli (oil pressers), Chambhar (cobbler), Mang (rope makers), Koli (fishermen or water carriers) and Nabhik (barbers). The Mahar were one of the balutedar who adopted Buddhism in 1950s. Some of the other Marathi castes are: Agri – A community from coastal region of Mumbai, Thane and Raigad districts. The community has become quite prosperous in recent decades by taking advantage of opportunities offered by rapid industrialisation of this region. Bhandari – Traditional extractors of Tadi from palm trees Bhoi – Traditionally a people carrier community employed by the rulers Dhangar – Traditionally a nomadic shepherd caste Pathare Prabhu Twashta Kasar – Artisan caste who traditionally worked with brass. Leva Patil Lonari Somvanshi Kshatriya Pathare Ramoshi – Soldiers and watchman under Peshwa Vaishya Vani – A trader caste Banjara – Formerly a nomadic group Brahmin – These are divided into many sub-castes Non-Hindu communities Marathi Buddhist – Most members are from the former Mahar community Marathi Muslims Christians – Native Marathi Christian communities include Bombay East Indians, based in Greater Mumbai region who are mainly Catholic, Korlai Portuguese Creole and Protestant Marathi Christians, based mainly in Ahmadnagar district. Konkani Muslims Sikhs Marathi Jains Bene Israel (Marathi Jews) Marathi diaspora In other Indian states As the Maratha Empire expanded across India, the Marathi population started migrating out of Maharashtra alongside their rulers. Peshwa, Holkars, Scindia, and Gaekwad dynastic leaders took with them a considerable population of priests, clerks, army men, businessmen, and workers when they established new seats of power. Most of these migrants were from the literate classes such as various Brahmin sub-castes and CKP. These groups formed the backbone of administration in the new Maratha Empire states in many places such as Vyara-Songadh of (Surat), Baroda (Vadodara), Indore, Gwalior, Bundelkhand, and Tanjore. Many families belonging to these groups still follow Marathi traditions even though they have lived more than from Maharashtra for more than 200 years. Other people have migrated in modern times in search of jobs outside Maharashtra. These people have also settled in almost all parts of the country. They have set up community organisations called Maharashtra Mandals in many cities across the country. A national level central organisation, the Brihan Maharashtra Mandal was formed in 1958 to promote Marathi culture outside Maharashtra. Several sister organisations of the Brihan Maharashtra Mandal have also been formed outside India. Population in India by state Source: International diaspora In the mid-1800s, a large number of Indian people were taken to Mauritius, Fiji, Trinidad & Tobago, South Africa, and Eastern Africa as indentured labourers to work on sugarcane plantations. The majority of these migrants were from the Hindustani speaking areas or from Southern India, however, a significant number of immigrants to Mauritius were Marathis. Since the state of Israel was established in 1948, around 25,000–30,000 Indian Jews have emigrated there, of which around 20,000 were from the Marathi speaking Bene Israel community of Konkan. Indians, including Marathi People, have migrated to Europe and particularly Great Britain for more than a century. The Maharashtra Mandal of London was founded in 1932. A small number of Marathi people also settled in British East Africa during the colonial era. After the African Great Lakes countries of Kenya, Uganda and Tanganyika gained independence from Britain, most of the South Asian population residing there, including Marathi people, migrated to the United Kingdom, or India. Large-scale immigration of Indians into the United States started when the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 came into effect. Most of the Marathi immigrants who came after 1965 were professionals such as doctors, engineers or scientists. The second wave of immigration took place during the I.T. boom of the 1990s and later. Since the 1990s due to the I.T. boom and because of the general ease of travel, Marathi people are now found in greater numbers in all corners of the world including the United States, Australia, Canada, the Gulf countries, European countries, Iran, and Pakistan. After the third battle of Panipat, Marathi people settled in Sindh and Balochisthan region (modern day Pakistan). After partition of India, many Marathi Hindus came to India. But, 500–1000 Marathi Hindus also lives in Karachi city of Sindh province. Culture Religion The majority of Marathi people are Hindus. Minorities by religion include Muslims, Buddhists, Jains, Christians and Jews. Marathi Hindu customs The main life ceremonies in Hindu culture include those related to birth, weddings, initiation ceremonies, as well as death rituals. Other ceremonies for different occasions in Hindu life include Vastushanti and "Satyanarayan" which is performed before a family formally establishes residence in a new house. Satyanarayana Puja is a ceremony performed before commencing any new endeavour or for no particular reason. Invoking the name of the family's gotra and the kuladevata are important aspects of these ceremonies for many communities. Like most other Hindu communities, the Marathi people have a household shrine called a devaghar with idols, symbols, and pictures of various deities for daily worship. Ritual reading of religious texts known as pothi is also popular in some communities. In some traditional families, food is first offered to the preferred deity in the household shrine, as naivedya, before being consumed by family members and guests. Meals or snacks are not taken before this religious offering. In present times, the naivedya is offered by families only on days of special religious significance. Many Marathi people trace their paternal ancestors to one of the seven or eight sages, the saptarshi. They classify themselves as gotras, named after the ancestor rishi. Intra-marriage within gotras (Sagotra Vivaha) was uncommon until recently, being discouraged as it was likened to incest. Most Marathi families have their own family patron or protective deity or the kuladevata. This deity is common to a lineage or a clan of several families who are connected to each other through a common ancestor. The Khandoba of Jejuri is an example of a kuladevata of some families; he is a common kuladevata to several castes ranging from Brahmins and Dhangar to Dalits. The practice of worshiping local or territorial deities as kuladevatas began in the period of the Yadava dynasty. Other family deities of the people of Maharashtra are Bhavani of Tuljapur, Mahalaxmi of Kolhapur, Mahalaxmi of Amravati, Renuka of Mahur, Parashuram in Konkan, Saptashringi on Saptashringa hill at Vani in Nasik district, and Balaji . Despite the system of worshipping kuladevatas that Marathi people worship in their respective lineage, the worship of Ganesha, Vitthala, and other popular avatars of Vishnu such as Rama or Krishna are extremely popular across the entire state. The festivals of Ganeshotsav and annual wari pilgrimage to the Vitthal temple at Pandharpur are of significant importance to all Marathis alike. Ceremonies and rituals At birth, a child is initiated into the family ritually. The child's naming ceremony may happen many weeks or even months later, and it is called the bārsa. In many Indian Hindu communities, the naming is most often done by consulting the child's horoscope, which suggests various names depending on the child's lunar sign (called rashi). However, in Marathi Hindu families, the name that the child inevitably uses in secular functions is the one decided by their parents. If a name is chosen on the basis of the horoscope, then that is kept a secret to ward off the casting of a spell on the child during their life. During the naming ceremony, the child's paternal aunt has the honour of naming the infant. When the child is 11 months old, they get their first hair-cut. This is also an important ritual and is called Jawal (जावळ). In the Maratha community, the maternal uncle is given the honour of the first snip during the ceremony. In Brahman, CKP and Gaud Saraswat Brahman communities when a male child reaches his eighth birthday, he undergoes the initiation thread ceremony variously known as Munja (in reference to the Munja grass that is of official ritual specification), Vratabandha, or Upanayanam. Marathi Hindu people are historically endogamous within their caste but exogamous with their clan. Cross-cousin alliances are allowed by most Marathi Hindu communities. Hindu marriages, more often than not, take place by negotiation. The mangalasutra is the symbol of marriage for the woman. Studies show that most Indians' traditional views on caste, religion, and family background have remained unchanged when it came to marriage, that is, people marry within their own castes, and matrimonial advertisements in newspapers are still classified by caste and sub-caste. While arranging a marriage, gana, gotra, pravara, devaka are all kept in mind. Horoscopes are matched. Ghosal describes the marriage ceremony as, 'The groom, along with the bride's party goes to the bride's house. A ritual named Akshata is performed in which people around the groom and bride throw haldi (turmeric) and kunku (vermilion) coloured rice grains on the couple. After the kanyadana ceremony, there is an exchange of garlands between the bride and the groom. Then, the groom ties the Mangalsutra around the neck of the bride. This is followed by granthibandhan in which the end of the bride's sādi/sāri is tied to the end of the groom's dhoti, and a feast is arranged at the groom's place.' Elements of a traditional Marathi Hindu wedding ceremony include seemant poojan on the wedding eve. The dharmic wedding includes the antarpat ceremony followed by the Vedic ceremony which involves the bridegroom and the bride walking around the sacred fire seven times to complete the marriage. Modern urban wedding ceremonies conclude with an evening reception. A Marathi Hindu woman becomes part of her husband's family after marriage and adopts the gotra as well as the traditions of her husband's family. After weddings and after thread ceremonies, many Maratha, Deshastha Brahmin and Dhangar families arrange a traditional religious singing performance by a Gondhali group Decades ago, girls married the groom of their parents' choice by their early teens or before. Even today, girls are married off in their late teens by rural and orthodox educated people. Urban women may choose to remain unmarried until the late 20s or even early 30s. Marathi Hindu people dispose their dead by cremation. The deceased's son carries the corpse to the cremation ground atop a bier. The eldest son lights the fire for the corpse at the head for males and at the feet for females. The ashes are gathered in an earthen pitcher and immersed in a river on the third day after death. This is a 13-day ritual with the pinda being offered to the dead soul on the 11th and a Śrāddha (Shrāddha) ceremony followed by a funeral feast on the 13th. Cremation is performed according to Vedic rites, usually within a day of the individual's death. Like all other Hindus, the preference is for the ashes to be immersed in a river. Holy rivers such as the Ganges river or Godavari have increasingly become popular for this ritual as travelling has become easier in modern times. Śrāddha becomes an annual ritual in which all forefathers of the family who have passed on are remembered. These rituals are expected to be performed only by male descendants, preferably the eldest son of the deceased. The annual Śrāddha for all the ancestors is usually performed during the Pitru Paksha, the dark fortnight of the Hindu month of Bhadrapada. Hindu calendar and festivals The Marathi, Kannada and Telugu people follow the Deccan Shalivahana Hindu calendar, which may have subtle differences with calendars followed by other communities in India. The calendar follows the Amanta tradition where the lunar month ends on no moon day. Marathi Hindus celebrate most of the Indian Hindu festivals such as Dasara, Diwali and Raksha Bandhan. These are, however, celebrated with certain Maharashtrian regional variations. Others festivals like Ganeshotsav have a more characteristic Marathi flavour. The festivals described below are in chronological order as they occur during a Shaka year, starting with Shaka new year festival of Gudhi Padwa. Gudhi Padwa: A victory pole or Gudi is erected outside homes on the day. This day is considered one of the three-and-a-half most auspicious days of the Hindu calendar and many new ventures and activities such as opening a new business etc. are started on this day. The leaves of Neem or and shrikhand are a part of the day's cuisine. The day is also known as Ugadi, the Kannada and Telugu New Year. Akshaya Tritiya: The third day of Vaishakh is celebrated as Akshaya Tritiya. This is one of the three-and-a-half most auspicious days in the Hindu Calendar and usually occurs in the month of April. In the Vidharbha region, this festival is celebrated in remembrance of the departed members of the family. The upper castes feed a Brahmin and married couple on this day. The Mahars community used to celebrate it by offering food to crows. This marks the end of the Haldi-Kunku festival which is a get-together organised by women for women. Married women invite lady friends, relatives, and new acquaintances to meet in an atmosphere of merriment and fun. On such occasions, the hostess distributes bangles, sweets, small novelties, flowers, betel leaves, and nuts as well as coconuts. The snacks include kairichi panhe (raw mango juice) and vatli dal, a dish prepared from crushed chickpeas. Vat Pournima: This festival is celebrated on Jyeshtha Pournima (full moon day of the Jyeshtha month in the Hindu calendar), around June. On this day, women fast and worship the banyan tree to pray for the growth and strength of their families, like the sprawling tree which lives for centuries. Married women visit a nearby tree and worship it by tying red threads of love around it. They pray for well-being and long life for their husband. Ashadhi Ekadashi: Ashadhi Ekadashi (11th day of the month of Ashadha, (falls in July–early August of Gregorian calendar) is closely associated with the Marathi sants Dnyaneshwar, Tukaram and others. Twenty days before this day, thousands of Warkaris start their pilgrimage to Pandharpur from the resting places of the saint. For example, in the case of Dynaneshwar, it starts from Alandi with Dynaneshwar's paduka (symbolic sandals made out of wood) in a Palakhi. Varkaris carry tals or small cymbals in their hand, wear Hindu prayer beads made from tulasi around their necks and sing and dance to the devotional hymns and prayers to Vitthala. People all over Maharashtra fast on this day and offer prayers in the temples. This day marks the start of Chaturmas (The four monsoon months, from Ashadh to Kartik) according to the Hindu calendar. This is one of the most important fasting days for Marathi Hindu people. Guru Pournima: The full moon day of the month of Ashadh is celebrated as Guru Pournima. For Hindus Guru-Shishya (teacher-student) tradition is very important, be it educational or spiritual. Gurus are often equated with God and always regarded as a link between the individual and the immortal. On this day spiritual aspirants and devotees worship Maharshi Vyasa, who is regarded as Guru of Gurus. Divyanchi Amavasya: The new moon day/last day of the month of Ashadh/आषाढ (falls between June and July of Gregorian Calendar) is celebrated as Divyanchi Amavasya. This new moon signifies the end of the month of Ashadh, and the arrival of the month of Shravan, which is considered the most pious month of the Hindu calendar. On this day, all the traditional lamps of the house are cleaned and fresh wicks are put in. The lamps are then lit and worshiped. People cook a specific item called diva (literally lamp), prepared by steaming sweet wheat dough batter and shaping it like little lamps. They are eaten warm with ghee. Nag Panchami: One of the many festivals in India during which Marathi people celebrate and worship nature. Nags (cobras) are worshiped on the fifth day of the month of Shravan (around August) in the Hindu calendar. On Nagpanchami Day, people draw a nag family depicting the male and female snake and their nine offspring or nagkul. The nag family is worshiped and a bowl of milk and wet chandan (sandalwood powder) offered. It is believed that the nag deity visits the household, enjoys languishing in the moist chandan, drinks the milk offering, and blesses the household with good luck. Women put temporary henna tattoos (mehndi) on their hand on the previous day, and buy new bangles on Nagpanchami Day. According to folklore, people refrain from digging the soil, cutting vegetables, frying and roasting on a hot plate on this day, while farmers do not harrow their farms to prevent any accidental injury to snakes. In a small village named Battis Shirala in Maharashtra a big snake festival is held which attracts thousands of tourists from all over the world. In other parts of Maharashtra, snake charmers are seen sitting by the roadsides or moving from one place to another with their baskets holding snakes. While playing the lingering melodious notes on their pungi, they beckon devotees with their calls—Nagoba-la dudh de Mayi ('Give milk to the cobra oh mother!'). Women offer sweetened milk, popcorn (lahya in Marathi) made out of jwari/dhan/corns to the snakes and pray. Cash and old clothes are also given to the snake-charmers. In Barshi Town in the Solapur district, a big jatra (carnival) is held at Nagoba Mandir in Tilak chowk. Rakhi Pournima and Narali Pournima: Narali Pournima is celebrated on the full moon day of the month of Shravan in the Shaka Hindu calendar (around August). This is the most important festival for the coastal Konkan region because the new season for fishing starts on this day. Fishermen and women offer coconuts to the sea and ask for a peaceful season while praying for the sea to remain calm. The same day is celebrated as Rakhi Pournima to commemorate the abiding ties between brother and sister in Maharashtra as well other parts of Northern India. Narali bhaat (sweet rice with coconut) is the main dish on this day. On this day, Brahmin men change their sacred thread (Janve; Marathi: जानवे) at a common gathering ceremony called Shraavani (Marathi:श्रावणी). Gokul Ashtami: The birthday of Krishna is celebrated with great fervour all over India on the eighth day of second fortnight of the month Shravan (usually in the month of August). In Maharashtra, Gokul Ashtami is synonymous with the ceremony of dahi handi. This is a reenactment of Krishna's efforts to steal butter from a matka (earthen pot) suspended from the ceiling. Large earthen pots filled with milk, curds, butter, honey, fruits, etc. are suspended at a height of between in the streets. Teams of young men and boys come forward to claim this prize. They construct a human pyramid by standing on each other's shoulders until the pyramid is tall enough to enable the topmost person to reach the pot and claim the contents after breaking it. Currency notes are often tied to the rope by which the pot is suspended. The prize money is distributed among those who participate in the pyramid building. The dahi-handi draws a huge crowd and they support the teams trying to grab these pots by chanting 'Govinda ala re ala'. Mangala Gaur: Pahili Mangala Gaur (first Mangala Gaur) is one of the most important celebrations for the new brides amongst Marathi Brahmins. On the Tuesday of the month of the Shravan falling within a year after her marriage, the new bride performs Shivling puja for the well-being of her husband and new family. It is also a get-together of all womenfolk. It includes chatting, playing games, ukhane (married women take their husband's name woven in 2/4 rhyming liners) and sumptuous food. They typically play zimma, fugadi, bhendya (more popularly known as Antakshari in modern India) until the early hours of the following morning. Bail Pola: the festival is celebrated on the new moon day (Pithori Amavasya) of the month of Shravan (August - September), to honour farm oxen for their service. On this day the oxen are decorated by their owners and taken around the village in a parade. The festival is popular in rural areas of Maharashtra and other Southern Indian States. Hartalika: The third day of the month of Bhadrapada (usually around August/September) is celebrated as Hartalika in honour of Harita Gauri or the green and golden goddess of harvests and prosperity. A lavishly decorated form of Parvati, Gauri is venerated as the mother of Ganesha. Women fast on this day and worship Shiva and Parvati in the evening with green leaves. Women wear green bangles and green clothes and stay awake till midnight. Both married and unmarried women may observe this fast. Ganeshotsav: This 11-day festival starts on Ganesh Chaturthi on the fourth day of Bhadrapada in honour of Ganesha, the God of wisdom. Hindu households install in their house, Ganesha idols made out of clay called shadu and painted in watercolours. Early in the morning on this day, the clay idols of Ganesha are brought home while chanting Ganpati Bappa Morya and installed on decorated platforms. The idol is worshiped in the morning and evening with offerings of flowers, durva (strands of young grass), karanji and modaks. The worship ends with the singing of an aarti in honour of Ganesha, other gods and saints. The worship includes singing the aarti 'Sukhakarta Dukhaharta', composed by the 17th-century saint Samarth Ramdas. Family traditions differ about when to end the celebration. Domestic celebrations end after , 3, 5, 7 or 11 days. At that time the idol is ceremoniously brought to a body of water (such as a lake, river or the sea) for immersion. In Maharashtra, Ganeshotsav also incorporates other festivals, namely Hartalika and the Gauri festival, the former is observed with a fast by women on the day before Ganesh Chaturthi, while the latter by the installation of idols of Gauris. In 1894, Nationalist leader Lokmanya Tilak turned this festival into a public event as a means of uniting people toward the common goal of campaigning against British colonial rule. The public festival lasts for 11 days with various cultural programmes including music concerts, orchestra, plays, and skits. Some social activities are also undertaken during this period like blood donation, scholarships for the needy, or donations to people suffering from any kind of natural calamity. Due to environmental concerns, a number of families now avoid bodies of water, and let the clay statue disintegrate in a barrel of water at home. After a few days, the clay is spread in the home garden. In some cities, a public, eco-friendly process is used for the immersion. Gauri/Mahalakshmi: Along with Ganesha, Gauri (also known as Mahalaxmi in the Vidharbha region of Maharashtra) festival is celebrated in Maharashtra. On the first day of the three-day festival, Gauris arrive home, the next day they eat lunch with a variety of sweets, and on the third day, they return to their home. Gauris arrive in a pair, one as Jyeshta (the Elder one) and another as Kanishta (the Younger one). They are treated with love since they represent the daughters arriving at their parents' home. In many parts of Maharashtra including Marathwada and Vidarbha, this festival is called Mahalakshmi or Mahalakshmya or simply Lakshmya. Anant Chaturdashi: The 11th day of the Ganesh festival (14th day of the month of Bhadrapada) is celebrated as Anant Chaturdashi, which marks the end of the celebration. People bid a tearful farewell to the God by immersing the installed idols from home/public places in water and chanting 'Ganapati Bappa Morya, pudhchya warshi Lawakar ya!!' ('Ganesha, come early next year.') Some people also keep the traditional wow (Vrata) of Ananta Pooja. This involves the worship of Ananta the coiled snake or Shesha on which Vishnu resides. A delicious mixture of 14 vegetables is prepared as naivedyam on this day. Navaratri and Ghatasthapana: Starting with the first day of the month of Ashvin in the Hindu calendar (around the month of October), the nine-day and -night festival immediately preceding the most important festival Dasara is celebrated all over India with different traditions. In Maharashtra, on the first day of this 10-day festival, idols of the Goddess Durga are ritually installed at many homes. This installation of the Goddess is popularly known as Ghatasthapana. During this Navavatri, girls and women perform 'Bhondla/Hadga' as the Sun moves to the thirteenth constellation of the zodiac called 'Hasta' (Elephant). During the nine days, Bhondla (also known as 'Bhulabai' in the Vidarbha region of Maharashtra) is celebrated in the garden or on the terrace during evening hours by inviting female friends of the daughter in the house. An elephant is drawn either with Rangoli on the soil or with a chalk on a slate and kept in the middle. The girls go around it in a circle, holding each other's hands and singing Bhondla songs. All Bhondla songs are traditional songs passed down through the generations. The last song typically ends with the words '...khirapatila kaay ga?' ('What is the special dish today?'). This 'Khirapat' is a special dish, or dishes, often made laboriously by the mother of the host girl. The food is served only after the rest of the girls have correctly guessed what the covered dish or dishes are. There are some variations with how the Navratri festival is celebrated. For example, in many Brahmin families, celebrations include offering lunch for nine days to a specially invited a group of guests. The guests include a married Woman (Marathi:सवाष्ण ), a Brahmin and, a Virgin (Marathi:कुमारिका). In the morning and evening, the head of the family ritually worships either the goddess Durga, Lakshmi or Saraswati. On the eighth day, a special rite is carried out in some families. A statue of the goddess Mahalakshmi, with the face of a rice mask, is prepared and worshiped by newly married girls. In the evening of that day, women blow into earthen or metallic pots as a form of worship to please the goddess. Everyone in the family accompanies them by chanting verses and Bhajans. The nine-day festival ends with a Yadna or reading of a Hindu Holy book (Marathi:पारायण ). Dasara: This festival is celebrated on the tenth day of the Ashvin month (around October) according to the Hindu Calendar. This is one of the three-and-a-half most auspicious days in the Hindu Lunar calendar when every moment is important. On the last day (Dasara day), the idols installed on the first day of the Navaratri are immersed in water. This day also marks the victory of Rama over Ravana. People visit each other and exchange sweets. On this day, people worship the Aapta tree and exchange its leaves (known as golden leaves) and wish each other a future like gold. There is a legend involving Raghuraja, an ancestor of Rama, the Aapta tree and Kuber. There is also another legend about the Shami tree where the Pandava hid their weapons during their exile. Kojagari Pournima: Written in the short form of Sanskrit as 'Ko Jagarti (को जागरति) ?' ( Sandhi of 'कः जागरति,' meaning 'Who is awake?'), Kojagiri is celebrated on the full moon day of the month of Ashwin. It is said that on this Kojagiri night, the Goddess Lakshmi visits every house asking 'Ko Jagarti?' and blesses those who are awake with fortune and prosperity. To welcome the Goddess, houses, temples, streets, etc. are illuminated. People get together on this night, usually in open spaces (e.g. in gardens or on terraces), and play games until midnight. At that hour, after seeing the reflection of the full moon in milk boiled with saffron and various varieties of dry fruits, they drink the concoction. The eldest child in the household is honoured on this day. Diwali: Just like most other parts of India, Diwali, a four to five day-long festival, is one of the most popular Hindu festivals. Houses are illuminated for the festival with rows of clay lamps known as panati and decorated with rangoli and aakash kandils (decorative lanterns of different shapes and sizes). Diwali is celebrated with new clothes, firecrackers and a variety of sweets in the company of family and friends. In Marathi tradition, during days of Diwali, family members have a ritual bath before dawn and then sit down for a breakfast of fried sweets and savoury snacks. These sweets and snacks are offered to visitors to the house during the multi-day festival and exchanged with neighbours. Typical sweet preparations include Ladu, Anarse, Shankarpali, and Karanjya. Popular savoury treats include chakli, shev, and chivada. Being high in fat and low in moisture, these snacks can be stored at room temperature for many weeks without spoiling. Kartiki Ekadashi and Tulshicha Lagna: The 11th day of the month of Kartik marks the end of Chaturmas and is called Kartiki Ekadashi (also known as Prabodhini Ekadashi). On this day, Hindus, particularly the followers of Vishnu, celebrate his awakening after a Yoganidra of four months of Chaturmas. People worship him and fast for the entire day. The same evening, or the evening of the next day, is marked by Tulshi Vivah or Tulshicha Lagna. The Tulsi (Holy Basil plant) is held sacred by the Hindus as it is regarded as an incarnation of Mahalaxmi who was born as Vrinda. The end of Diwali celebrations mark the beginning of Tulshicha Lagna. Marathis organise the marriage of a sacred Tulshi plant in their house with Krishna. On this day the Tulshi vrundavan is coloured and decorated as a bride. Sugarcane and branches of tamarind and amla trees are planted along with the tulsi plant. Though a mock marriage, all the ceremonies of an actual Maharashtrian marriage are conducted including chanting of mantras, Mangal Ashtaka and tying of Mangal Sutra to the Tulshi. Families and friends gather for this marriage ceremony, which usually takes place in the late evening. Various pohe dishes are offered to Krishna and then distributed among family members and friends. This also marks the beginning of marriage season. The celebration lasts for three days and ends on Kartiki Pournima or Tripurari Pournima. Khandoba Festival/Champa Shashthi: This is a six-day festival, from the first to the sixth lunar day of the bright fortnight of the Hindu month of Margashirsha. It is celebrated in honour of Khandoba by many Marathi families. Ghatasthapana, similar to Navaratri, also takes place in households during this festival. A number of families also hold fast during this period. The fast ends on the sixth day of the festival called Champa Shashthi. Among some Marathi Hindu communities, the Chaturmas period ends on Champa Sashthi. As it is customary in these communities not to consume onions, garlic, and egg plant (Brinjal / Aubergine) during the Chaturmas, the consumption of these food items resumes with ritual preparation of Bharit (Baingan Bharta) and rodga, small round flat bread prepared from jwari (white millet). Darshvel Amavasya: It is last day of the Hindu month Pausha. This festival is mostly celebrated in Marathwada region, especially in Latur, Osmanabad, Beed, Nanded and Bidar districts. Special for farmers, people get to their farms and invite friends and relatives their. Place deity (Sthan daivata) is worshipped on occasion. Alum powder is applied to five stones representing five Pandavas. They are covered with hut of grass and pink cloth (shalu) is tied to hut. Farmer pours buttermilk around the deity idol and all over the field praying "ol ghe ol ghe saalam pol ge" (meaning be wet and let the year be wealthy till next Darshvel Amavasya). Bhogi: The eve of the Hindu festival 'Makar Sankranti' and the day before is called Bhogi. Bhogi is a festival of happiness and enjoyment and generally takes place on 13 January. It is celebrated in honour of Indra, 'the God of Clouds and Rains'. Indra is worshiped for the abundance of the harvest, which brings plenty and prosperity to the land. Since it is held in the winter, the main food for Bhogi is mixed vegetable curry made with carrots, lima beans, green capsicums, drumsticks, green beans and peas. Bajra roti (i.e. roti made of pearl millet) topped with sesame as well as rice and moog dal khichadi are eaten to keep warm in winter. During this festival people also take baths with sesame seeds. Makar Sankranti: Sankraman means the passing of the sun from one zodiac sign to the next. This day marks the sun's passage from the Tropic of Dhanu (Sagittarius) to Makar (Capricorn). Makar Sankranti falls on 14 January in non-leap years and on 15 January in leap years. It is the only Hindu festival that is based on the solar calendar rather than the Lunar calendar. Maharashtrians exchange tilgul or sweets made of jaggery and sesame seeds along with the customary salutation, Tilgul ghya aani god bola, which means 'Accept the Tilgul and be friendly'. Tilgul Poli or gulpoli are the main sweet preparations made on the day in Maharashtra. It is a wheat-based flatbread filled with sesame seeds and jaggery., Maha Shivratri: Maha Shivratri (also known as Shivaratri) means 'Great Night of Shiva' or 'Night of Shiva'. It is a Hindu festival celebrated every year on the 13th night and 14th day of Krishna Paksha (waning moon) of the month of Maagha (as per Shalivahana or Gujarati Vikrama) or Phalguna (as per Vikrama) in the Hindu Calendar, that is, the night before and day of the new moon. The festival is principally celebrated by offerings of bael (bilva) leaves to Shiva, all day fasting, and an all-night long vigil. The fasting food on this day includes chutney prepared with the pulp of the kavath fruit (Limonia). Holi, Shimga and Rangapanchami: The festival of Holi falls in Falgun, the last month of the Marathi Shaka calendar. Marathi people celebrate this festival by lighting a bonfire and offering puran poli to the fire. In North India, Holi is celebrated over two days with the second day celebrated with throwing colours. In Maharashtra it is known as Dhuli Vandan. However, Maharashtrians celebrate colour throwing five days after Holi on Rangapanchami. In Maharashtra, people make puran poli as the ritual offering to the holy fire. In coastal Konkan area, the festival of Shimga is celebrated which not only incorporates Holi but also involves other rituals and celebrations which precede Holi and extends for a few days more. Village Urus or Jatra: A large number of villages in Maharashtra hold their annual festivals (village carnivals) or urus in the months of January–May. These may be in the honour of the village Hindu deity (Gram daivat) or the tomb (dargah) of a local Sufi Pir saint. Apart from religious observations, celebrations may include bullock-cart racing, kabbadi, wrestling tournaments, a fair and entertainment such as a lavani/tamasha show by travelling dance troupes. A number of families eat meat preparations only during this period. In some villages, women are given a break from cooking and other household chores by their menfolk. Festivals and celebrations observed by other communities Dhamma Chakra Pravartan Din On 14 October 1956 at Nagpur, Maharashtra, India, B. R. Ambedkar embraced Buddhist religion publicly and gave Deeksha of Buddhist religion to his more than 380,000 followers. The day is celebrated as Dharmacakra Pravartan Din. The grounds in Nagpur on which the conversion ceremony took place is known as Deekshabhoomi. Every year more than a million Buddhist people, especially Ambedkarite, from all over the world visit Deekshabhoomi to commemorate Dhamma Chakra Pravartan Din. Buddha Purnima Festival commemorates Lord Buddha's enlightenment and birth. Buddhist community celebrates this day with great fervor and zeal across the world. , Maharashtra has India's largest Buddhist population, about 5.8% of the State's total population. The State not only has rich Buddhist heritage and culture, it is also dotted with large and small Buddhist caves. Buddhists go to common Viharas to observe a rather longer-than-usual, full-length Buddhist sutra, akin to a service. The dress code is pure white. Non-vegetarian food is normally avoided. Kheer, sweet rice porridge is commonly served to recall the story of Sujata, who offered the Buddha a bowl of milk porridge. Christmas Christmas (Marathi : नाताळ) is celebrated to mark the birthday of Jesus Christ. Like in other parts of India, Christmas is celebrated with zeal by the indigenous Marathi Catholics such as the Bombay East Indians & Korlai Portuguese Creole Luso-Indians. Food The many communities in Marathi society result in a diverse cuisine. This diversity extends to the family level because each family uses its own unique combination of spices. The majority of Maharashtrians do eat meat and eggs, but the Brahmin community is mostly lacto-vegetarian. The traditional staple food on Desh (the Deccan plateau) is usually bhakri, spiced cooked vegetables, dal and rice. Bhakri is an unleavened bread made using Indian millet (jowar), bajra or bajri. However, the North Maharashtrians and urbanites prefer roti, which is a plain bread made with wheat flour. In the coastal Konkan region, rice is the traditional staple food. An aromatic variety of ambemohar rice is more popular amongst Marathi people than the internationally known basmati rice. Malvani dishes use more wet coconut and coconut milk in their preparation. In the Vidarbha region, little coconut is used in daily preparations but dry coconut, along with peanuts, is used in dishes such as spicy savjis or mutton and chicken dishes. Thalipeeth is a popular traditional breakfast flat bread that is prepared using bhajani, a mixture of many different varieties of roasted lentils. Marathi Hindu people observe fasting days when traditional staple food like rice and chapatis are avoided. However, milk products and non-native foods such as potatoes, peanuts and sabudana preparations (sabudana khicdi) are allowed, which result in a carbohydrate-rich alternative fasting cuisine. Some Maharashtrian dishes including sev bhaji, misal pav and patodi are distinctly regional dishes within Maharashtra. In metropolitan areas including Mumbai and Pune, the pace of life makes fast food very popular. The most popular forms of fast food amongst Marathi people in these areas are: bhaji, vada pav, misal pav and pav bhaji. More traditional dishes are sabudana khichdi, pohe, upma, sheera and panipuri. Most Marathi fast food and snacks are purely lacto-vegetarian in nature. In South Konkan, near Malvan, an independent exotic cuisine has developed called Malvani cuisine, which is predominantly non-vegetarian. Kombdi vade, fish preparations and baked preparations are more popular here. Kombdi Vade, is a recipe from the Konkan region. Deep fried flatbread made from spicy rice and urid flour served with chicken curry, more specifically with Malvani chicken curry. Desserts are an important part of Marathi food and include puran poli, shrikhand, basundi, kheer, gulab jamun, and modak. Traditionally, these desserts were associated with a particular festival, for example, modaks are prepared during the Ganpati Festival. Attire Traditionally, Marathi women commonly wore the sari, often distinctly designed according to local cultural customs. Most middle aged and young women in urban Maharashtra dress in western outfits such as skirts and trousers or salwar kameez with the traditionally nauvari or nine-yard sari, disappearing from the markets due to a lack of demand. Older women wear the five-yard sari. In urban areas, the five-yard sari is worn by younger women for special occasions such as weddings and religious ceremonies. Among men, western dress has greater acceptance. Men also wear traditional costumes such as the dhoti and pheta on cultural occasions. The Gandhi cap along with a long white shirt and loose pajama style trousers is the popular attire among older men in rural Maharashtra. Women wear traditional jewellery derived from Marathas and Peshwas dynasties. Kolhapuri saaj, a special type of necklace, is also worn by Marathi women. In urban areas, many women and men wear western attire. Names Marathi Hindu people follow a partially Patronymic naming system. For example, it is customary to associate the father's name with the given name. In the case of married women, the husband's name is associated with the given name. Therefore, the constituents of a Marathi name as given name /first name, father/husband, family name /surname. For example: Mahadeo Govind Ranade: Here Mahadeo is the given name, Govind is his father's given the name and Ranade is the surname. Jyotsna Mukund Khandekar: Here Jyotsna is the given name, Mukund is the husband's given name, and Khandekar is the surname of the husband Personal names Marathi Hindus choose given names for their children from a variety of sources. They could be characters from Hindu mythological epics such as the Ramayana or Mahabharat, names of holy rivers such as Yamuna and Godavari, Hindu historical figures from Maratha or Indian history such as Shivaji and Ashoka, Marathi varkari saints such as Tukaram, Dnyaneshwar, Janabai, popular characters from modern Marathi literature, names of fragrant flowers for girls (e.g. Bakul, Kamal/Kamla for lotus), senses such as Madhura for sweetness, precious metals such female name Suwarna for gold, heavenly bodies such as the Sun and the Moon, Vasant and Sharad for spring and autumn respectively, names of film stars (e.g. Amit after Amitabh Bachchan) or sportsmen, and after virtues (e.g.,Vinay for modesty). Nicknames such as Bandu, Balu, Sonya and Pillu for males and Chhabu and Bebi for girls have been popular too. Surnames A large number of Maharashtrian surnames are derived by adding the suffix kar to the village from which the family originally hailed. For example, Junnarkar came from town of Junnar, Waghulkar comes from the town of Waghul. According to Bhandarkar, the tradition of using place name as the surname can be traced back to the Chalukya era in the 7th century. Names like Kumbhar, Sutar, Kulkarni, Deshpande, Deshmukh, Patil, Desai, and Joshi denote the family's ancestral trade, profession, or administrative role. Families of the historical Maratha chiefs use their clan name as their surname. Some of these are Jadhav, Bhosale, Chavan, Shinde, Shirke, More, Nimbalkar, Pawar, Masaram, Gharge-Desai (Deshmukh) and Ghatge. Members of the numerically largest Maratha Kunbi cultivator class among Marathi people have also adopted some of the Maratha clan names,either to indicate allegiance to the Maratha chief they served, or as an attempt at upward mobility. Honourifics and suffixes Marathi people use various suffixes and prefixes with names. Most of these are intended as honourific when addressing older people, or people with authority. The common suffixes include bai, and sometimes tai for women, rao, and saheb for men. According to Sankhelia, the first use of the word, bai was in the 13th century. In modern times, the prefixes Shree for men, and Saubhagyavati (abbreviated as Sau) for married women have become common. Language and literature It has been noted by scholars that there is Dravidian influence in the development of the Marathi language. Ancient Marathi inscriptions Marathi, also known as Seuna at that time, was the court language during the reign of the Yadava Kings. Yadava king Singhania was known for his magnanimous donations. Inscriptions recording these donations are found written in Marathi on stone slabs in the temple at Kolhapur in Maharashtra. Composition of noted works of scholars like Hemadri are also found. Hemadri was also responsible for introducing a style of architecture called Hemadpanth. Among the various stone inscriptions are those found at Akshi in the Kolaba district, which are the first known stone inscriptions in Marathi. An example found at the bottom of the statue of Gomateshwar (Bahubali) at Shravanabelagola in Karnataka bears the inscription 'Chamundraye karaviyale, Gangaraye suttale karaviyale' which gives some information regarding the sculptor of the statue and the king who ordered its creation. Classical literature Marathi people have a long literary tradition which started in the ancient era. It was the 13th-century saint Dnyaneshwar who produced the first treatise in Marathi on the Geeta. The work called Dnyaneshwari is considered a masterpiece. Along with Dnyaneshwar, his contemporary, Namdev was also responsible for propagating Marathi religious Bhakti literature. Namdev is also important to the Sikh tradition, since several of his compositions were included in the Sikh Holy book, the Guru Granth Sahib. Eknath, Sant Tukaram, Mukteshwar and Samarth Ramdas were equally important figures in the 17th century. In the 18th century, writers like Vaman Pandit, Raghunath Pandit, Shridhar Pandit, Mahipati, and Moropant produced some well-known works. All of the above-mentioned writers produced religious literature. Modern Marathi literature The first English book was translated into Marathi in 1817 while the first Marathi newspaper started in 1841. Many books on social reform were written by Baba Padamji (Yamuna Paryatana, 1857), Mahatma Jyotiba Phule, Lokhitawadi, Justice Ranade, and Hari Narayan Apte (1864–1919). Lokmanya Tilak's newspaper Kesari in Marathi was a strong voice in promoting Ganeshotsav or Chhatrapati Shivaji festival. The newspaper also offered criticism of colonial government excesses. At this time, Marathi efficiently aided by Marathi Drama. B. R. Ambedkar's newspaper, Bahishkrut Bharat, set up in 1927, provided a platform for sharing literary views. In the mid-1950s, the 'little magazine movement' gained momentum. It published writings which were non-conformist, radical, and experimental. The Dalit literature movement also gained strength due to the little magazine movement. This radical movement was influenced by the philosophy of non-conformity, and challenged the literary establishment, which was largely middle class, urban, and upper caste. The little magazine movement was responsible for many excellent writers including the well-known novelist, critic, and poet Bhalchandra Nemade. Dalit writer N. D. Mahanor is well known for his work, while Dr. Sharad Rane is a well-known children's writer. Martial tradition Although ethnic Marathis have taken up military roles for many centuries, their martial qualities came to prominence in 17th-century India, under the leadership of Shivaji. He founded the Maratha Empire, which at the time of the mid-18th century controlled large parts of the Indian subcontinent. It was largely an ethnic Marathi polity, with its chiefs and nobles coming from the Marathi ethnicity, such as the Bhonsles (Maratha caste), the Holkars (Dhangar caste), the Peshwas (1713 onwards; Chitpavan caste), the Angres, chief of Maratha Navy (Maratha caste; 1698 onwards). The Maratha Empire is credited to a large extent for reducing the Mughal emperor to a mere figurehead. . Further, they were also considered by the British as the most important native power of 18th-century India. Today this ethnicity is represented in the Indian Army, with two regiments deriving their names from Marathi communities the Maratha Light Infantry and the Mahar Regiment. See also List of Maratha dynasties and states List of Marathi people Magar (Maharashtra) Thanjavur Marathi (disambiguation) Western Satraps Maratha Empire Marathi Language Notes References Further reading John Roberts (June 1971) "The Movement of Elites in Western India under Early British Rule", The Historical Journal 24(2) pp. 241–262 Hiroshi Fukazawa (February 1972) Rural servants in the 18th century Maharashtrian village-demiurgic of Jajmani system? Hitotsubashi Journal of Economics, 12(2), pp. 14–40 External links Marathi culture Ethnic groups in India Ethnic groups in South Asia Indo-Aryan peoples Linguistic groups of the constitutionally recognised official languages of India Maharashtra
4841908	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ubba	Ubba	Ubba (Old Norse: Ubbi; died 878) was a 9th-century Viking and one of the commanders of the Great Heathen Army that invaded Anglo-Saxon England in the 860s. The Great Army appears to have been a coalition of warbands drawn from Scandinavia, Ireland, the Irish Sea region and Continental Europe. There is reason to suspect that a proportion of the Viking forces specifically originated in Frisia, where some Viking commanders are known to have held fiefdoms on behalf of the Franks. Some sources describe Ubba as of the Frisians, which could be evidence that he also associated with a Frisian benefice. In 865, the Great Army, apparently led by Ivar the Boneless, overwintered in the Kingdom of East Anglia, before invading and destroying the Kingdom of Northumbria. In 869, having been bought off by the Mercians, the Vikings conquered the East Angles, and in the process killed their king, Edmund, a man who was later regarded as a saint and martyr. While near-contemporary sources do not specifically associate Ubba with the latter campaign, some later, less reliable sources associate him with the legend of Edmund's martyrdom. In time, Ivar and Ubba came to be regarded as archetypal Viking invaders and opponents of Christianity. As such, Ubba features in several dubious hagiographical accounts of Anglo-Saxon saints and ecclesiastical sites. Non-contemporary sources also associate Ivar and Ubba with the legend of Ragnar Lodbrok, a figure of dubious historicity. Whilst there is reason to suspect that Edmund's cult was partly promoted to integrate Scandinavian settlers in Anglo-Saxon England, the legend of Ragnar Lodbrok may have originated in attempts to explain why they came to settle. Ubba is largely non-existent in the Icelandic traditions of Ragnar Lodbrok. After the fall of the East Anglian kingdom, leadership of the Great Army appears to have fallen to Bagsecg and Halfdan, who campaigned against the Mercians and West Saxons. In 873, the Great Army is recorded to have split. Whilst Halfdan settled his followers in Northumbria, the army under Guthrum, Oscytel and Anwend struck out southwards and campaigned against the West Saxons. In the winter of 877–878, Guthrum launched a lightning attack deep into Wessex. There is reason to suspect that this strike was coordinated with the campaigning of a separate Viking force in Devon. This latter army is reported to have been destroyed at in 878. According to a near-contemporary source, this force was led by a brother of Ivar and Halfdan, and some later sources identify this man as Ubba himself. Origins of Ubba and the Great Army In the mid-9th century, an invading Viking army coalesced in Anglo-Saxon England. The earliest version of the 9th- to 12th-century Anglo-Saxon Chronicle variously describes the invading host as "", an Old English term that can translate as "big army" or "great army". Archaeological evidence and documentary sources suggest that this Great Army was not a single unified force, but more of a composite collection of warbands drawn from different regions. The exact origins of the Great Army are obscure. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle sometimes identifies the Vikings as Danes. The 10th-century Vita Alfredi seems to allege that the invaders came from Denmark. A Scandinavian origin may be evinced by the 10th-century Chronicon Æthelweardi, which states that "the fleets of the tyrant Ivar" arrived in Anglo-Saxon England from "the north". By the mid-9th century, this Ivar (died 870/873) was one of the foremost Viking leaders in Britain and Ireland. The Great Army may have included Vikings already active in Anglo-Saxon England, as well as men directly from Scandinavia, Ireland, the Irish Sea region and the Continent. There is reason to suspect that a proportion of the army specifically originated in Frisia. For example, the 9th-century Annales Bertiniani reveals that Danish Vikings devastated Frisia in 850, and the 12th-century Annales Lindisfarnenses et Dunelmenses states that a Viking force of Danes and Frisians made landfall on the Isle of Sheppey in 855. The same source, and the 10th- or 11th-century Historia de sancto Cuthberto, describe Ubba as of the Frisians. Whilst the Old English Anglo-Saxon Chronicle calls the Viking army , the Latin Historia de sancto Cuthberto instead gives , a term of uncertain meaning that is employed three times in reference to the leadership of the Viking forces. One possibility is that the word means "people from the River Scheldt". This could indicate that Ubba was from Walcheren, an island in the mouth of the Scheldt. Walcheren is known to have been occupied by Danish Vikings over two decades before. For example, the Annales Bertiniani reports that Lothair I, King of Middle Francia (died 855) granted the island to a Viking named Herioldus in 841. Another possibility is that this term simply refers to Scyldings, an ancient lineage from which Danish monarchs of the time claimed descent. According to the same source and the 9th-century Annales Fuldenses, another Viking named Roricus was granted a large part of Frisia as a benefice or fief from Lothair in 850. As men who held military and judicial authority on behalf of the Franks, Herioldus and Roricus can also be regarded as Frisian . Although it is uncertain whether Ubba was a native Frisian or a Scandinavian expatriate, if he was indeed involved with a Frisian benefice his forces would have probably been partly composed of Frisians. If his troops were drawn from the Scandinavian settlement started by Herioldus over two decades before, many of Ubba's men might well have been born in Frisia. In fact, the length of Scandinavian occupation suggests that some of the Vikings from Frisia would have been native Franks and Frisians. The considerable time that members of the Great Army appear to have spent in Ireland and on the Continent suggests that these men were well accustomed to Christian society, which in turn may partly explain their successes in Anglo-Saxon England. Viking invasion of Anglo-Saxon England In the autumn of 865, the Anglo Saxon Chronicle records that the Great Army invaded the Kingdom of East Anglia, where they afterwards made peace with the East Anglians and overwintered. The terminology employed by this source suggests the Vikings attacked by sea. The invaders evidently gained valuable intelligence during the stay, as the Great Army is next stated to have left on horses gained from the subordinated population, striking deep into the Kingdom of Northumbria, a fractured realm in the midst of a bitter civil war between two competing kings: Ælla (died 867) and Osberht (died 867). Late in 866 the Vikings seized York—one of only two archiepiscopal sees in Anglo-Saxon England, and one of the richest trading centres in Britain. Although Ælla and Osberht responded to this attack by joining forces against the Vikings, the chronicle indicates that their assault on York was a disaster that resulted in both their deaths. According to Annales Lindisfarnenses et Dunelmenses, and Historia de sancto Cuthberto, the Northumbrians and their kings were crushed by Ubba himself. Also that year, Annales Bertiniani reports that Charles II, King of West Francia (died 877) paid off a Viking fleet stationed on the Seine. After proceeding down the Seine towards the sea, where they repaired and rebuilt their fleet, a portion of the force is reported to have left for the district of IJssel (either Hollandse IJssel or Gelderse IJssel). Although the destination of the rest of the fleet is unrecorded, one possibility is that it participated in the sack of York. The fact that the Great Army remained in East Anglia for about a year before it attacked Northumbria could mean that it had been reinforced from the Continent during the layover. The part of the fleet that went to Frisia is later stated to have been unable to secure an alliance with Lothair. This statement seems to suggest that these Vikings had intended to acquire a grant of lands in the region, which could mean that they thereafter took part in the Great Army's campaigning across the Channel. Furthermore, Annales Bertiniani notes that Roricus was forced from Frisia the following year. This ejection could also account for the evidence of a Frisian dimension to the Great Army, and for the attestations of Ubba himself. With the collapse of the Northumbrian kingdom, and the destruction of its regime, the 12th-century Historia regum Anglorum, and Libellus de exordio, reveal that a certain Ecgberht (died 873) was installed by the Vikings as client king over a northern region of Northumbria. In the following year, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that the Great Army attacked Mercia, after which the Vikings seized Nottingham and overwintered there. Although the Mercian and West Saxon kings, Burgred (died 874?) and Æthelred (died 871), responded by joining forces and besieging the occupied town, both the chronicle and Vita Alfredi report that this combined Anglo-Saxon force was unable to dislodge the army. According to both sources, the Mercians made peace with the Vikings. It was probably on account of this seemingly purchased peace that the Great Army relocated to York, as reported by the chronicle, where it evidently renewed its strength for future forays. Hagiographic association with Edmund The earliest source to make specific note of Ubba is Passio sancti Eadmundi, which includes him in its account of the downfall of Edmund, King of East Anglia (died 869). Almost nothing is known of this king's career, and all that remains of his reign are a few coins. The first contemporary documentary source to cast any light upon his reign is the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. According to this account, the Great Army invaded East Anglia in the autumn of 869, before setting up winter quarters at Thetford. The chronicle relates that the kingdom was conquered and Edmund was amongst the slain. Although the specific wording employed by most versions of the chronicle suggests that Edmund was killed in battle, and Vita Alfredi certainly states as much—with neither source making note of a martyrdom ordeal—later hagiographical accounts portray the king in an idealised light, and depict his death in the context of a peace-loving Christian monarch, who willingly suffered martyrdom after refusing to shed blood in defence of himself. One such account is Passio sancti Eadmundi, a source that makes no mention of a battle. Whilst this source's claim that Edmund was martyred after being captured is not implausible, the fact that he came to regarded as a martyr does not negate the possibility that he was slain in battle (as suggested by the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle). The apparent contradictory accounts of Edmund's demise given by these sources may stem from the telescoping of events surrounding an East Anglian military defeat and the subsequent arrest and execution of the king. In any case, surviving numismatic evidence of coins bearing Edmund's name—the so-called St Edmund memorial coinage—reveals that he was certainly regarded as a saint about twenty years after his death. The reliability of Passio sancti Eadmundi is nevertheless uncertain. Although this source was composed over a century after the event, it may convey some credible material as the latest useful source. Nevertheless, there is also reason to suspect that the account is little more than a collection of well-known hagiographical elements, and that the composer knew little to nothing of Edmund's demise and early cult. The lurid depictions of Viking invaders presented by Passio sancti Eadmundi appears to owe much to the author's otherwise known association with Fleury, and specifically to the account of the Viking invasion of the Loire Valley detailed by Miracula sancti Benedicti, a 9th-century work composed by the Fleurian monk Adrevaldus (fl. 860s). In specific regard to Ubba, Passio sancti Eadmundi states that Ivar left him in Northumbria before launching his assault upon the East Angles in 869. If this source is to be believed, it could indicate that Ubba stayed behind to ensure the cooperation of the conquered Northumbrians. Although Vita Alfredi and the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle fail to note any Viking garrisons in the conquered Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, this may merely be a consequence of their otherwise perceptible West Saxon bias. In contrast to Passio sancti Eadmundi, the 12th-century "F" version of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle specifically identifies Ubba and Ivar as the chiefs of the men who killed the king. Whilst this identification could be derived from Passio sancti Eadmundi or the 10th-century Lives of the Saints, it could merely be a mistake on the chronicler's part. In any case, later and less reliable literature covering the martyrdom associates both men with the event, revealing that this version of events was current as early as the 12th century. Hagiographic association with Æbbe and Osyth Ubba is associated with the martyrdom of Æbbe, an alleged abbess of Coldingham said to have been slain by Vikings in 870. The historicity of this woman is nevertheless uncertain. The earliest accounts of the alleged events at Coldingham date to the 13th century. They include Chronica majora, and both the Wendover and Paris versions of Flores historiarum. According to these sources, Æbbe compelled the nuns of Coldingham to disfigure themselves to preserve their virginity from an incoming horde of Vikings. Leading by example, Æbbe is said to have cut off her nose and upper lip with a razor. When the Viking arrived the following morning, the sight of the mutilated and bloody women repelled the raiders. Nevertheless, Ivar and Ubba are stated to have ordered the razing of the monastery, burning to death Æbbe and her faithful nuns. Despite many lurid 12th-century tales of ecclesiastical devastation wrought by Vikings, the principal contemporary source for this period, the 9th- or 10th-century "A" version of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, fails to note the destruction of a single Anglo-Saxon church by Scandinavians during the 8th and 9th centuries. Although Passio sancti Eadmundi presents the invasion of East Anglia by Ubba and Ivar as a campaign of wanton rape and murder, the account does not depict the destruction of the kingdom's monasteries. In fact, there is reason to suspect that most Anglo-Saxon monastic sites probably survived the Viking invasions of the era, and that the East Anglian Church withstood the Viking invasions and occupation. Whilst Viking depredations of monasteries tend not to feature in sources intended for royal audiences, religious desecrations appear in sources composed for ecclesiastical audiences. There are several reasons why 12th-century sources associate the Vikings with seemingly unhistorical atrocities against particular monasteries. For example, such depredations could explain changes in monastic observance, or the switch from monastic- to clerical observance. Stories of Viking attacks could be used as evidence of the former possession of property claimed by religious houses centuries after the fact. The 9th-century Viking onslaught may have also been a way in which 12th-century commentators sought to explain what was regarded as monastic decay in 10th-century Anglo-Saxon England. This imagined or exaggerated religious extirpation could well have been a convenient way of accounting for the scarcity of documentary evidence concerning early religious institutions. Twelfth-century ecclesiastical historians availed themselves of sources such as the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle and Passio sancti Eadmundi. The fact that the latter was particularly influential to mediaeval historians is evidenced by the frequent occurrences of Ivar and Ubba in reports of religious atrocities. To medieval hagiographers and historians, these two figures were archetypal Viking invaders and emblematic opponents of Christianity. The accounts of Æbbe could be an example of such a constructed tale. The story appears be ultimately derived from the account of Coldingham preserved by the eighth-century Historia ecclesiastica. According to this source, Æthelthryth (died 679), wife of Ecgfrith, King of Northumbria (died 685), entered the monastery under the tutelage of an abbess named Æbbe (died 683?). At some point after Æthelthryth left Coldingham to found a monastery at Ely, Historia ecclesiastica reports that the monastery of Coldingham burned to the ground. This account of Coldingham's burning was later incorporated into Liber Eliensis, a 12th-century chronicle covering the history of Æthelthryth's establishment at Ely. The account of the burning given by Historia ecclesiastica may well be the inspiration behind the tale of facial mutilation and fiery martyrdom first associated with Coldingham by the Wendover version of Flores historiarum. To 12th-century ecclesiasts, invented tales of 9th-century violence—particularly violence inflicted by Ivar and Ubba—may have been intended to validate the refoundation of certain religious communities. The earliest Anglo-Saxon virgin-martyr is Osyth. A now-lost 12th-century of this woman associated Ivar and Ubba with her seventh-century martyrdom. According to this source, Ivar and Ubba commanded the pirates who beheaded her after she refused to worship their pagan idols. This work may have been the inspiration behind the Anglo-Norman hagiography Vie seinte Osith, a composition that also attributes Osyth's killing to Ivar and Ubba and their followers. The Great Army after Ivar The history of East Anglia immediately after Edmund's demise is extremely obscure. The account of events presented by Passio sancti Eadmundi seems to show that Edmund was killed in the context of the Great Army attempting to impose authority over him and his realm. Such an accommodation appears to have been gained by the Vikings in Northumbria and Mercia. In any case, numismatic evidence appears to indicate that two client kings—a certain Æthelred and Oswald—thereafter ruled over the East Angles on behalf of the Viking conquerors. It is at about this point that Ivar disappears from English history. According to Chronicon Æthelweardi, he died in the same year as Edmund. However, this record may partly stem from the fact that he did not take part in the subsequent war against the Kingdom of Wessex, beginning in the autumn or winter of 870. In any case, the leadership of the Great Army appears to have fallen to kings Bagsecg (died 871) and Halfdan (died 877), the first principal Viking leaders attested by all versions of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle after the army's recorded arrival. For about a year, the Great Army campaigned against the West Saxons, before overwintering in London. Late in 872, after spending nearly a year in London, the Vikings were drawn back to Northumbria, and afterwards to Mercia. By the end of 874, the kingdoms of East Anglia, Mercia and Northumbria were finally broken. At this point, the Great Army split. Whilst Halfdan settled his followers in Northumbria, the army under Guthrum (died 890), Oscytel (fl. 875) and Anwend (fl. 875), struck out southwards, and based itself at Cambridge. In 875, the Vikings invaded Wessex and seized Wareham. Although Alfred, King of Wessex (died 899) sued for peace in 876, the Vikings broke the truce the following year, seized Exeter, and were finally forced to withdraw back to Mercia. Although much of Guthrum's army started to settle in Mercia, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle and Vita Alfredi reveal that Guthrum launched a surprise attack against the West Saxons in the winter of 877/878. Setting off from their base in Gloucester, the latter source specifies that the Vikings drove deep into Wessex, and sacked the royal vill of Chippenham. It is possible that this operation was coordinated with another Viking attack in Devon that culminated in the Battle of in 878. Battle of Most versions of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle locate the battle to Devon. Vita Alfredi specifies that it was fought at a fortress called , a name which appears to equate to what is today Countisbury, in North Devon. This source also states that the Vikings made landfall in Devon from a base in Dyfed, where they had previously overwintered. As such, the Viking army could have arrived in Dyfed from Ireland, and overwintered in Wales before striking forth into Devon. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle does not identify the army's commander by name. It merely describes him as a brother of Ivar and Halfdan, and observes that he was slain in the encounter. Although Ubba is identified as the slain commander by the 12th-century Estoire des Engleis, it is unknown whether this identification is merely an inference by its author, or if it is derived from an earlier source. For example, this identification could have been influenced by the earlier association of Ubba and Ivar in the legends surrounding Edmund's martyrdom. In any case, Estoire des Engleis further specifies that Ubba was slain at ""—which may refer to Penselwood, near the Somerset–Wiltshire border—and buried in Devon within a mound called "". The clash at culminated in a West Saxon victory. Whilst Vita Alfredi attributes the outcome to unnamed thegns of Alfred, Chronicon Æthelweardi identifies the victorious commander as Odda, Ealdorman of Devon (fl. 878). Most versions of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle number the Viking fleet at twenty-three ships, and most versions number the Viking casualties at eight hundred and forty dead. These numbers roughly give about thirty-six-and-a-half men per ship, which is comparable to the 32-oared Gokstad ship, a 9th-century Viking ship unearthed in Norway. On one hand, it is possible that the Viking commander at seized upon Guthrum's simultaneous campaigning against the West Saxons to launch a Viking foray of his from Dyfed. On the other hand, the location and timing of the engagement at may indicate that the slain commander was cooperating with Guthrum. As such, there is reason to suspect that the two Viking armies coordinated their efforts in an attempt to corner Alfred in a pincer movement after his defeat at Chippenham and subsequent withdrawal into the wetlands of Somerset. If the Vikings at were indeed working in cooperation with those at Chippenham, the record of their presence in Dyfed could also have been related to Guthrum's campaign against Alfred. As such, they could have been campaigning against Hyfaidd ap Bleddri, King of Dyfed (died 892/893) before their attack at . It is possible that the defeat at left Guthrum overextended in Wessex, allowing Alfred's forces to assail Guthrum's exposed lines of communication. Although Alfred's position may have been still perilous in the aftermath, with his contracted kingdom close to collapse, the victory at certainly foreshadowed a turn of events for the West Saxons. A few weeks later in May, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that Alfred was able to assemble his troops, and launch a successful attack against Guthrum at Edington. Following Guthrum's crushing defeat, the Vikings were forced to accept Alfred's terms for peace. Guthrum was baptised as a Christian, and led the remainder of his forces into East Anglia, where they dispersed and settled. Guthrum thereafter kept peace with the West Saxons, and ruled as a Christian king for more than a decade, until his death in 890. Medieval legend of Ragnar Lodbrok Although Ubba and Ivar are associated with each other by Passio sancti Eadmundi, the men are not stated to be related in any way. The earliest source claiming kinship between the two is the Annals of St Neots, an 11th- or 12th-century account stating that they were brothers of three daughters of Lodbrok (). This source further states that these three sisters wove a magical banner named that was captured at the conflict. Although certain versions of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle also note the capture of a raven banner, named ("Raven"), they do not mention any magical attributes, or refer to Lodbrok and his progeny. Lodbrok appears to be an early reference to Ragnar Lodbrok, a saga character of dubious historicity, who could be an amalgam of several historical 9th-century figures. According to Scandinavian sources, Ragnar Lodbrok was a Scandinavian of royal stock, whose death at the hands of Ælla in Northumbria was the catalyst of the invasion of Anglo-Saxon England—and Ælla's own destruction—by Ragnar Lodbrok's vengeful sons. None of the saga-sources for the legend of Ragnar Lodbrok accord him a son that corresponds to Ubba. The latter is only specifically attested by sources dealing with the East Scandinavian tradition. One of these sources is the 13th-century Gesta Danorum. According to this text, Ubba was the son of Ragnar Lodbrok and an unnamed daughter of a certain Hesbernus. Gesta Danorum does not associate Ubba with Anglo-Saxon England in any way. According to the 13th- or 14th-century Ragnarssona þáttr, a source that forms part of the West Scandinavian tradition, Ivar had two bastard brothers, Yngvar and Husto, who tortured Edmund on Ivar's instructions. No other source mentions these sons. It is possible that these figures represent Ivar and Ubba, and that the composer of Ragnarssona þáttr failed to recognise the names of Ivar and Ubba in English sources concerned with the legend of Edmund's martyrdom. Whilst Scandinavian sources—such as the 13th-century Ragnars saga loðbrókar—tend to locate the legend of Ragnar Lodbrok in a Northumbrian context, English sources tend to place them in an East Anglian setting. The earliest source to specifically associate the legend with East Anglia is Liber de infantia sancti Eadmundi, a 12th-century account depicting the Viking invasion of East Anglia in the context of a dynastic dispute. According to this source, Lodbrok () was extremely envious of Edmund's fame. As such, it is Lodbrok's taunts that provoke his sons, Ivar, Ubba and Björn (), to slay Edmund and destroy his kingdom. Although this text is heavily dependent upon Passio sancti Eadmundi for its depiction of Edmund's death, it appears to be the first source to meld the martyrdom with the legend of Ragnar Lodbrok. By the 13th century an alternate rendition of the story appears in sources such as Chronica majora, and both the Wendover and Paris versions of Flores historiarum. For example, the Wendover account states that Lodbrok () washed ashore in East Anglia, where he was honourably received by Edmund, but afterwards murdered by Björn (), an envious huntsman. Although the latter is expelled from the realm, he convinces Lodbrok's sons, Ivar and Ubba, that the killer of their father was Edmund. As such, East Anglia is invaded by these two sons, and Edmund is killed in a case of misplaced vengeance. A slightly different version of events is offered by Estoire des Engleis, which states that the Vikings invaded Northumbria on behalf of Björn (), who sought vengeance for the rape of his wife by the Northumbrian king, Osberht. On one hand, it is possible that the theme of vengeance directed at Edmund is derived from the tradition of Ælla's demise in Northumbria at the hands of Ragnar's progeny. On the other hand, the revenge motifs and miraculous maritime journeys presented in the accounts of Edmund are well-known elements commonly found in contemporaneous chivalric romances. There is reason to suspect that the legend of Ragnar Lodbrok originated from attempts to explain why the Vikings came to settle in Anglo-Saxon England. The core of the tradition may have been constructed as a way to rationalise their arrival without assigning blame to either side (as illustrated by the sympathetic Wendover account). As such, the legend could have been intended to justify Edmund's violent demise. The tales may have evolved at an early stage of Viking settlement, and may have functioned as an origin myth of the emerging Anglo-Scandinavian culture. The shared kinship assigned to Ivar and Ubba within the legend of Ragnar Lodbrok may stem from their combined part in Edmund's downfall as opposed to any historical familial connection. In popular culture Ubba appears as a character in modern historical fiction. For example, the unnamed Danish king that appears in Alfred: A Masque, a musical play with a libretto by James Thomson (died 1748) and David Mallet (died 1765)—first presented in 1740—may be a composite of Ubba, Guthrum, Ivar and Halfdan. Ubba certainly appears in Alfred the Great, Deliverer of His Country, an anonymous play that first appears on record in 1753; and The Magick Banner; or, Two Wives in a House, a play by John O'Keeffe (died 1833), first presented in 1796. He also appears in the Sketch of Alfred the Great: Or, the Danish Invasion, a ballet by Mark Lonsdale, first performed in 1798; and Alfred; An Epic Poem, a long piece of epic poetry by Henry James Pye (died 1813), published in 1801; and the similarly named Alfred, an Epic Poem, by Joseph Cottle (died 1853)—a poem almost twice as long as Pye's—first published in 1800. Ubba later appears in Alfred the Great; Or, The Enchanted Standard, a musical drama by Isaac Pocock (died 1835), based upon O'Keeffe's play, and first performed in 1827; and Alfred the Great, a play by James Magnus, dating to 1838. He further appears in Alfred of Wessex, an epic poem by Richard Kelsey, published in 1852; and in the 1899 novel King Alfred's Viking, by Charles Whistler (died 1913); and the 2004 novel The Last Kingdom by Bernard Cornwell. Ubba is also a character in Vikings, a television series first aired on the History network in 2013. His name was changed to Ubbe, and he was portrayed by Jordan Patrick Smith from season 4B through the end. In 2015, BBC Two released The Last Kingdom, a fictional television series (based upon Cornwell's The Saxon Chronicles series of novels). It was later aired on Netflix. Although the series and many of its characters were based on real events and people, the series also contains fictional events. The character was portrayed a little differently than the real-life Ubba. Ubba is played by actor Rune Temte. Ubba, Halfdan and Ivar the Boneless appear in the Ubisoft video game Assassin's Creed Valhalla as brothers, sharing significant roles in the story of Viking conquests of England during the 9th century. Notes Citations References Primary sources Secondary sources External links 878 deaths 9th-century Vikings Viking warriors Vikings killed in battle Year of birth unknown Dukes of Frisia
4841941	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyfnwal%20ab%20Owain	Dyfnwal ab Owain	Dyfnwal ab Owain (died 975) was a tenth-century King of Strathclyde. He was a son of Owain ap Dyfnwal, King of Strathclyde, and seems to have been a member of the royal dynasty of Strathclyde. At some point in the ninth- or tenth century, the Kingdom of Strathclyde expanded substantially southwards. As a result of this extension far beyond the valley of the River Clyde, the realm became known as the Kingdom of Cumbria. By 927, the kingdom seems to have reached as far south as the River Eamont. Dyfnwal appears to have reigned between the 930s and the 970s. He is first attested in the 940s, when he is recorded associated with the ecclesiast Cathróe on the latter's journey to Continental Europe. At the midpoint of the decade, the Cumbrian kingdom was ravaged by the forces of Edmund, King of the English. Two of Dyfnwal's sons are said to have been blinded by the English, which could indicate that Dyfnwal had broken a pledge to his southern counterpart. One possibility is that he had harboured insular Scandinavian opponents of Edmund. The latter is recorded to have handed over control of the Cumbrian realm to Máel Coluim mac Domnaill, King of Alba. How much authority the Scots enjoyed over the Cumbrian realm is uncertain. In 971, the reigning Cuilén mac Illuilb, King of Alba was slain by Rhydderch ap Dyfnwal. At some point after this act, Cuilén's eventual successor, Cináed mac Maíl Choluim, King of Alba, is recorded to have penetrated deep into Cumbrian territory, possibly as a retaliatory act. The following year, the reigning Edgar, King of the English held a remarkable assembly at Chester which numerous northern kings seem to have attended. Both Dyfnwal and his son, Máel Coluim, appear to have attended this assembly. The latter is styled King of the Cumbrians in the context of this meeting, which might indicate that Dyfnwal had previously abdicated the throne. Dyfnwal is recorded to have died in 975 whilst undertaking a pilgrimage to Rome. Quite when he gave up the throne is unknown. One possibility is that Rhydderch had succeeded him before the killing of Cuilén. Another possibility is that the apparent retaliatory raid by Cináed marked the end of Dyfnwal's kingship. It is also possible that he held on to power until 973 or 975. In any event, Máel Coluim appears to have been succeeded by another son of Dyfnwal named Owain, who is recorded to have died in 1015. The later Owain Foel, King of Strathclyde, who is attested in 1018, may well be a grandson of Dyfnwal. Dyfnwal is likely the eponym of Dunmail Raise in England, and possibly Cardonald and Dundonald/Dundonald Castle in Scotland. Background: the tenth century Cumbrian realm For hundreds of years until the late ninth century, the power centre of the Kingdom of Al Clud was the fortress of Al Clud ("Rock of the Clyde"). In 870, this British stronghold was seized by Irish-based Scandinavians, after which the centre of the realm seems to have relocated further up the River Clyde, and the kingdom itself began to bear the name of the valley of the River Clyde, Ystrad Clud (Strathclyde). The kingdom's new capital may have been situated in the vicinity of Partick. and Govan which straddle the River Clyde, The realm's new hinterland appears to have encompassed the valley and the region of modern Renfrewshire, which may explain this change in terminology. At some point after the loss of Al Clud, the Kingdom of Strathclyde appears to have undergone a period of expansion. Although the precise chronology is uncertain, by 927 the southern frontier appears to have reached the River Eamont, close to Penrith. The catalyst for this southern extension may have been the dramatic decline of the Kingdom of Northumbria at the hands of conquering Scandinavians, and the expansion may have been facilitated by cooperation between the Britons and the insular Scandinavians in the late ninth- or early tenth century. Over time, the Kingdom of Strathclyde increasingly came to be known as the Kingdom of Cumbria reflecting its expansion far beyond the Clyde valley. Dyfnwal was a son of Owain ap Dyfnwal, King of Strathclyde. The names of the latter and of his apparent descendants suggest that they were indeed members of the royal kindred of Strathclyde. Sons of Dyfnwal seem to include Rhydderch, Máel Coluim, and Owain. The name of Dyfnwal's son Máel Coluim is Gaelic, and may be evidence of a marriage alliance between his family and the neighbouring royal Alpínid dynasty of the Scottish Kingdom of Alba. Dyfnwal's father is attested in 934. Although Dyfnwal's father may well be identical to the Cumbrian monarch recorded to have fought at the Battle of Brunanburh in 937, the sources that note this king fail to identify him by name. Dyfnwal's own reign, therefore, may have stretched from about the 930s to the 970s. Cathróe amongst the Cumbrians Dyfnwal is attested by the tenth-century Life of St Cathróe, which appears to indicate that he was established as king by at least the 940s. According to this source, when Cathróe left the realm of Custantín mac Áeda, King of Alba at about this time, he was granted safe passage through the lands of the Cumbrians by Dyfnwal because the two men were related. Dyfnwal thereupon had Cathróe escorted through his kingdom to the frontier of the Scandinavian-controlled Northumbrian territory. The Life of St Cathróe locates this southern frontier to the of . One possibility is that this refers to Leeds. If correct, this could indicate that the Cumbrian realm stretched towards this settlement, and would further evince the general southward expansion of the kingdom. Another possibility is that refers to Leath Ward in Cumberland, or to a settlement in the Lowther valley, not terribly far from where the River Eamont flows. The Life of St Cathróe identifies Cathróe's parents as Fochereach and Bania. Whilst the former's name is Gaelic, the latter's name could be either Gaelic or British, and Cathróe's own name could be either Pictish or British. The fact that Cathróe is stated to have been related to Dyfnwal could indicate that the former's ancestors included a Briton who possessed a genealogical connection with the royal Cumbrian dynasty, or that Dyfnwal possessed Scottish ancestry, or else that the families of Cathróe and Dyfnwal were merely connected by way of a marriage. Cathróe is also said by the source to have been related to the wife of a certain King of York named Erich. Although the latter may be identical to Eiríkr Haraldsson—a man who is generally thought to be identical to the Norwegian dynast Eiríkr blóðøx—this man is not otherwise attested by insular sources until 947, and Northumbria itself appears to have been ruled by the Uí Ímair dynasts Amlaíb mac Gofraid and Amlaíb Cúarán during the time of Cathróe's journey. Whilst it is possible that Erich actually refers to Amlaíb mac Gofraid, if he instead refers to Eiríkr Haraldsson, it could be evidence that the latter had been based in the Solway region whilst the Uí Ímair held power in Northumbria, or that the latter indeed held power in Northumbria as early as about 946. English aggression and Scottish overlordship In 945, the "A" version of the eleventh- to thirteenth-century Annales Cambriæ, and the thirteenth- and fourteenth-century Brut y Tywysogyon reveal that the Cumbrian realm was wasted by the English. The ninth- to twelfth-century Anglo-Saxon Chronicle offers more information, and relates that Edmund I, King of the English harried across the land of the Cumbrians, and the region to Máel Coluim mac Domnaill, King of Alba. Similarly, the twelfth-century Historia Anglorum records that the English ravaged the realm, and that Edmund commended the lands to Máel Coluim mac Domnaill who had agreed to assist him by land and sea. According to the version of events preserved by the thirteenth-century Wendover and Paris versions of Flores historiarum, Edmund was assisted in the campaign by Hywel Dda, King of Dyfed, and had two of Dyfnwal's sons blinded. If the latter claim is to be believed, it could reveal that the two princes had been English hostages before hostilities broke out, or perhaps prisoners captured in the midst of the campaign. The gruesome fate inflicted upon these sons could reveal that their father was regarded to have broken certain pledges rendered to the English. One possibility is that Dyfnwal was punished for harbouring insular Scandinavian potentates such as Amlaíb Cúarán. The latter is certainly recorded to have been driven from Northumbria by the English the year before. He could well have taken refuge amongst the Cumbrians, or may have been attempting to construct a power base in the Cumbrian periphery. The close working relationship between Edmund and Máel Coluim mac Domnaill suggests that Amlaíb Cúarán was unlikely to have been harboured by the Scots during this period. Edmund's strike upon Dyfnwal's realm, therefore, seems to have been undertaken as a means to break a Cumbrian-Scandinavian alliance, and to limit the threat of an insular Scandinavian counter offensive from the Forth-Clyde region. The southward expansion of the Cumbrian realm—an extension possibly enabled by the insular Scandinavian power—may have also factored into the invasion, with the English clawing back lost territories. Whatever lay behind the campaign, it is possible that it was utilised by the English Cerdicing dynasty as a way to overawe and intimidate neighbouring potentates. Although the Wendover version of Flores historiarum alleges that Máel Coluim mac Domnaill was given Cumbrian territory to hold as a fief from the English, the terminology employed by the more reliable Anglo-Saxon Chronicle seems to suggest that Edmund merely surrendered or granted the region to him, or that he merely recognised certain rights of the Scots in the region (such as the right to tribute). Edmund, therefore, may have allowed his Scottish counterpart to collect tribute from the Cumbrians in return for keeping them in check and for lending Edmund military assistance. It is possible that the territory in question corresponds to the region around Carlisle—roughly modern-day Cumberland—which in turn could reveal that the Scots were already in possession of the kingdom's more northerly lands. It is conceivable that the Scots were allowed authority over Cumbrian territory because it was too far to be overseen effectively by the English themselves. As such, it may have been recognised that the Cumbrian territories were situated within the Alpínid sphere of influence rather than that of the Cerdicings. In any event, it is uncertain what authority Máel Coluim mac Domnaill enjoyed over the Cumbrians. Although it is possible that there was a temporary Scottish takeover of the realm, Dyfnwal lived on for decades, and there were certainly later kings. In fact, the Wendover version of the Flores historiarum reveals that the Cumbrians were ruled by a king the year after Edmund's invasion. The concord between the English and the Scots could have been precipitated by the former as a way of further securing their northern frontier from the threat of insular Scandinavians. Similarly, the English campaign against the Cumbrians may have been undertaken in order to isolate the Scots from an alliance with the Scandinavians. In this way, Edmund's conquest and grant of Cumbrian territories to his Scottish counterpart may have been a way of winning the latter's obeisance. Edmund was assassinated in 946, and succeeded by his brother Eadred, a monarch who soon after made a show of force against opposition in Northumbria, and received a renewal of oaths from his Scottish counterpart. In about 949/950, Máel Coluim mac Domnaill is recorded to have raided into Northumbria, perhaps against the retrenched forces of Eadred's Scandinavian opponents. Whilst it is possible that this event was undertaken in the context of compensation for the English campaigning against the Cumbrians in 946, an alternate possibility is that this Scottish invasion was instead an opportunistic attempt to extract tribute from the Northumbrian ruler Osulf (fl. 946–950), rather than the York-based Scandinavians. In 952, the seventeenth-century Annals of the Four Masters and the fifteenth- to sixteenth-century Annals of Ulster appear to report an attack upon the Scandinavians of Northumbria by an alliance of English, Scots, and Cumbrians. If these two annal-entries indeed refer to Cumbrians rather than Welshmen, it would appear to indicate that the former—presumably led by Dyfnwal himself—were supporting the cause of the English with the Scots. One possibility is that the annal-entries record the clash of this coalition against the forces of Eiríkr, a man who was finally overwhelmed and slain two years later. There is also reason to suspect that a man other than Dyfnwal ruled as king in the wake of Edmund's 945 campaign. For instance, a certain Cadmon is recorded to have witnessed two royal charters of Edmund's successor, Eadred—one in 946 and another in 949—which could be evidence that Cadmon was then the ruling Cumbrian monarch. There may be evidence indicating that, from about the time of the campaign until at least 958, the English regarded the land of the Cumbrians as part of the English realm. For instance, a charter apparently issued upon Eadred's coronation—the first of the two witnessed by Cadmon—accords Eadred the title "king of the Anglo-Saxons, Northumbrians, pagans, and Britons", whilst a 958 charter of Eadred's royal successor Edgar accords the latter kingship over "the Mercians, Northumbrians and Britons". The fact that the acta of Edmund, Eadred, and Edgar fail to record the presence of Dyfnwal could be evidence of English rule over the Cumbrians, who may have been in turn administered by English-aligned agents. Cumbrian and Scottish contention Máel Coluim mac Domnaill was slain in 954, and succeeded by Illulb mac Custantín. At some point during the latter's reign, the Scots permanently acquired Edinburgh from the English, as partly evidenced by the ninth- to twelfth-century Chronicle of the Kings of Alba. Confirmation of this conquest seems to be preserved by the twelfth-century Historia regum Anglorum, a source which states that, during the reign of Edgar, King of the English, the Northumbrian frontier extended as far as the , a waterway which seems to refer to the River Tyne in Lothian. The acquisition of Edinburgh, and extension into Lothian itself, may well have taken place during the reign of the embattled and unpopular Eadwig, King of the English. Illulb's attack may be evidenced by passages preserved by the twelfth-century Prophecy of Berchán which not only note "woe" inflicted upon the Britons and English, but also the conquest of foreign territories by way of Scottish military might. The notice of Britons in this text could be evidence that Illulb campaigned against Cumbrian-controlled territories. Such conflict may have meant that the apparent Cumbrian extension southwards was mirrored by movement eastwards. One possibility is that the Scots seized Edinburgh not from the English but from Cumbrians who had temporarily taken possession of it. Certainly, the fortress of Edinburgh had anciently been a British stronghold. Rhydderch, son of Dyfnwal After Illulb's death in 962, the Scottish kingship appears to have been taken up by Dub mac Maíl Choluim, a man who was in turn replaced by Illulb's son, Cuilén. The latter's death at the hands of Britons in 971 is recorded by several sources. Some of these sources place his death in locations that could refer to either Abington in South Lanarkshire, Lothian, or the Lennox. There is reason to suspect that Cuilén's killer was a son of Dyfnwal himself. The Chronicle of the Kings of Alba reports that the killer was a certain Rhydderch ap Dyfnwal, a man who slew Cuilén for the sake of his own daughter. The thirteenth-century Verse Chronicle, the twelfth- to thirteenth-century Chronicle of Melrose, and the fourteenth-century Chronica gentis Scotorum likewise identify Cuilén's killer as Rhydderch, the father of an abducted daughter raped by the Scottish king. Although there is no specific evidence that Rhydderch was himself a king, the fact that Cuilén was involved with his daughter, coupled with the fact that his warband was evidently strong enough to overcome that of Cuilén, suggests that Rhydderch must have been a man of eminent standing. According to the Prophecy of Berchán, Cuilén met his end whilst "seeking a foreign land", which could indicate that he was attempting to lift taxes from the Cumbrians. Another way in which Cuilén may have met his end concerns the record of his father's seizure of Edinburgh. The fact that this conquest would have likely included at least part of Lothian, coupled with the evidence placing Cuilén's demise in the same area, could indicate that Cuilén was slain in the midst of exercising overlordship of this contested territory. If so, the records that link Rhydderch with the regicide could reveal that this wronged father exploited Cuilén's vulnerable position in the region, and that Rhydderch seized the chance to avenge his daughter. Cuilén seems to have been succeeded by his kinsman Cináed mac Maíl Choluim. One of the latter's first acts as King of Alba was evidently an invasion of the kingdom of the Cumbrians. This campaign could well have been a retaliatory response to Cuilén's killing, carried out in the context of crushing a British affront to Scottish authority. In any event, Cináed's invasion ended in defeat, a fact which coupled with Cuilén's killing reveals that the Cumbrian realm was indeed a power to be reckoned with. Whilst it is conceivable that Rhydderch could have succeeded Dyfnwal by the time of Cuilén's fall, another possibility is that Dyfnwal was still the king, and that Cináed's strike into Cumbrian territory was the last conflict of Dyfnwal's reign. In fact, it could have been at about this point when Máel Coluim took up the kingship. According to the Chronicle of the Kings of Alba, Cináed constructed some sort of fortification on the River Forth, perhaps the strategically located Fords of Frew near Stirling. One possibility is that this engineering project was undertaken in the context of limiting Cumbrian incursions. Amongst an assembly of kings There is evidence to suggest that Dyfnwal was amongst the assembled kings who are recorded to have met with Edgar at Chester in 973. According to the "D", "E", and "F" versions of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, after having been consecrated king that year, this English monarch assembled a massive naval force and met with six kings at Chester. By the tenth century, the number of kings who met with him was alleged to have been eight, as evidenced by the tenth-century Life of St Swithun. By the twelfth century, the eight kings began to be named and were alleged to have rowed Edgar down the River Dee, as evidenced by sources such as the twelfth-century texts Chronicon ex chronicis, Gesta regum Anglorum, and De primo Saxonum adventu, as well as the thirteenth-century Chronica majora, and both the Wendover and Paris versions of Flores historiarum. One of the names in all these sources—specifically identified as a Welsh king by Gesta regum Anglorum, Chronica majora, and both versions of Flores historiarum—appears to refer to Dyfnwal. Another named figure, styled King of the Cumbrians, seems to be identical to his son, Máel Coluim. Whilst the symbolic tale of the men rowing Edgar down the river may be an unhistorical embellishment, most of the names accorded to the eight kings can be associated with contemporary rulers, suggesting that some of these men may have taken part in a concord with him. Although the latter accounts allege that the kings submitted to Edgar, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle merely states that they came to an agreement of cooperation with him, and thus became his ("co-workers", "even-workers", "fellow-workers"). One possibility is that the assembly somehow relates to Edmund's attested incursion into Cumbria in 945. According to the same source, when Edmund Cumbria to Máel Coluim mac Domnaill, he had done so on the condition that the latter would be his ("co-worker", "even-worker", "fellow-worker", "together-wright"). Less reliable non-contemporary sources such as De primo Saxonum adventu, both the Wendover and Paris versions of Flores historiarum, and Chronica majora allege that Edgar granted Lothian to Cináed in 975. If this supposed grant formed a part of the episode at Chester, it along with the concord of 945 could indicate that the assembly of 975 was not a submission as such, but more of a conference concerning mutual cooperation along the English borderlands. The location of the assembly of 973 at Chester would have been a logical neutral site for all parties. One of the other named kings was Cináed. Considering the fact that the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle numbers the kings at six, if Cináed was indeed present, it is unlikely that his rival, Cuilén's brother Amlaíb mac Illuilb, was also in attendance. Although the chronology concerning the reigns of Cináed and Amlaíb mac Illuilb is uncertain—with Amlaíb mac Illuilb perhaps reigning from 971/976–977 and Cináed from 971/977–995—the part played by the King of Alba at the assembly could well have concerned the frontier of his realm. One of the other named kings seems to have been Maccus mac Arailt, whilst another could have been this man's brother, Gofraid. These two Islesmen may have been regarded a threats by the Scots and Cumbrians. Maccus and Gofraid are recorded to have devastated Anglesey at the beginning of the decade, which could indicate that Edgar's assembly was undertaken as a means to counter the menace posed by these energetic insular Scandinavians. In fact, there is evidence to suggest that, as a consequence of the assembly at Chester, the brothers may have turned their attention from the British mainland westwards towards Ireland. Another aspect of the assembly may have concerned the remarkable rising power of Amlaíb Cúarán in Ireland. Edgar may have wished to not only rein in men such as Maccus and Gofraid, but prevent them—and the Scots and Cumbrians—from affiliating themselves with Amlaíb Cúarán, and recognising the latter's authority in the Irish Sea region. Another factor concerning Edgar, and his Scottish and Cumbrian counterparts, may have been the stability of the northern English frontier. For example, a certain Thored Gunnerson is recorded to have ravaged Westmorland in 966, an action that may have been undertaken by the English in the context of a response to Cumbrian southward expansion. Although the Scottish invasion of Cumbrian and English territory unleashed after Cináed's inauguration could have been intended to tackle Cumbrian opposition, another possibility is that the campaign may have been executed as a way to counter any occupation of Cumbrian territories by Thored. Death and descendants Both Dyfnwal and his English counterpart died in 975. According to various Irish annals, which style Dyfnwal King of the Britons, he met his end whilst undertaking a pilgrimage. These sources are corroborated by Welsh texts such as the thirteenth- and fourteenth-century Brenhinedd y Saesson, and Brut y Tywysogyon, with the latter stating that Dyfnwal died in Rome having received the tonsure. Such religious retirement late in the life of a ruler was not uncommon amongst contemporaries. For example, Custantín evidently became a monk upon his own abdication, whilst Amlaíb Cúarán retired to the holy island of Iona in pilgrimage. One possibility is that Dyfnwal decided to undertake his religious journey—or was perhaps forced to undertake it—as a result of the violent actions of Rhydderch. It is conceivable that Dyfnwal was still reigning in 973, and that it was Edgar's death two years later that precipitated the transfer of the kingship to Dyfnwal's son Máel Coluim, and contributed to Dyfnwal's pilgrimage to Rome. In fact, the upheaval caused by the absence of the English and Cumbrian kings could well have contributed to Cináed's final elimination of Amlaíb mac Illuilb in 997. Another possibility is that Máel Coluim's part in the 973 assembly may have partly concerned his father's impending pilgrimage, and that he sought surety for Dyfnwal's safe passage through Edgar's realm. The fact that Máel Coluim is identified as one of the assembled kings could indicate that Dyfnwal had relinquished control to him at some point before the convention. Evidence that he had indeed assumed the kingship may exist in the record of a certain Malcolm dux who witnessed an English royal charter in 970. Although the authenticity of this document is questionable, the attested Malcolm could well be identical to Máel Coluim himself. If Máel Coluim was indeed king in 973, Dyfnwal's role at the assembly may have been that of an 'elder statesman' of sorts—possibly serving as an adviser or mentor—especially considering his decades of experience in international affairs. The fact that he left his realm for Rome could be evidence that he did not regard his realm or dynasty to be threatened during his absence. Surviving sources fail to note the Cumbrian kingdom between the obituaries of Dyfnwal in 975 and his son, Máel Coluim, in 997. There is reason to suspect that Dyfnwal had another son, Owain, who reigned after Máel Coluim. For instance, according to the "B" version of Annales Cambriæ, a certain Owain—identified as the son of a man named Dyfnwal—was slain in 1015. This obituary is corroborated by Brut y Tywysogyon, and Brenhinedd y Saesson. Although it may be possible that the record of this man's death refers to Owain Foel, King of Strathclyde, there is no reason to disregard the obituaries as erroneous. If the like-named men are indeed different people, they could well have been closely related. Whilst the former may have been a son of Dyfnwal himself, the latter could well have been a son of Dyfnwal's son, Máel Coluim. The Owain who died in 1015, therefore, would seem to have assumed the Cumbrian kingship after Máel Coluim's death in 997, and would appear to have reigned into the early eleventh century before Owain Foel's assumption of the throne. Dyfnwal may be the man immortalised in the name of a mountain pass in the Lake District known as Dunmail Raise (meaning "Dyfnwal's Cairn"). According to popular legend, a local king named Dunmail was slain by Saxons on the pass and buried beneath a cairn. Forms of this tradition may date to about the sixteenth century, as the place name is first marked on a map dating to 1576. By the end of the seventeenth century, it was claimed that the place name marked the site of "a great heap of Stones call'd Dunmail-Raise-Stones, suppos'd to have been cast up by Dunmail K. of Cumberland for the Bounds of his Kingdom". Forms of the tale began to appear in print in the following century. In time, the ever-evolving legend became associated with the events of 945. The cairn itself lies between the dual carriageways of the A591 road. It seems to have marked an old boundary between Westmorland and Cumberland, and might have also marked the southern territorial extent of the Cumbrian kingdom. Nevertheless, the site's alleged importance in the early mediaeval period cannot be proven. Other place names that may be named after Dyfnwal include Cardonald (), and Dundonald/Dundonald Castle (). Notes Citations References Primary sources Secondary sources Monarchs of Strathclyde 10th-century Scottish monarchs 975 deaths
4842106	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ON%20TV%20%28TV%20network%29	ON TV (TV network)	ON TV was an American subscription television (STV) service that operated in eight markets between 1977 and 1985. Originally established by National Subscription Television, a joint venture of Oak Industries and Chartwell Communications, ON TV was part of a new breed of STV operations that broadcast premium programming—including movies, sporting events, and concerts—over an encrypted signal on a UHF television station and leased decoders to subscribing customers. At its peak in 1982, ON TV boasted more than 700,000 customers—more than half of them in Los Angeles, its most successful market. However, the rapidly expanding availability of cable television, coupled with a recession, caused the business to quickly lose subscribers at the same time that Oak Industries was experiencing severe financial difficulties. Between March 1983 and June 1985, all eight operations closed. History Los Angeles launch In 1973, Oak Industries, a maker of cable television equipment and other electronic components, and Chartwell Communications, a company majority-owned by Jerry Perenchio and Norman Lear, founded a joint venture initially known as World Pay Television, Inc. to create and operate a subscription television system in the Los Angeles market. The connection was made when Everitt A. Carter, an executive at Oak Industries, attended a tennis match between Billie Jean King and Bobby Riggs in Houston, organized by Perenchio; Perenchio approached Carter and asked if the company could build a system to scramble over-the-air signals for pay distribution. While Oak was initially resistant to the idea, it ultimately agreed to develop the equipment if Perenchio fronted $200,000 for research and development, which he did. In 1976, Oak president Frank A. Astrologes was named chairman of the new venture, with Carter succeeding him at Oak. The company intended to open franchises in 14 different states, per Federal Communications Commission (FCC) filings at the time. The system, which would use scrambling of a standard UHF television station, required a carrier. That was secured by the venture in 1976 when, under the name of Oak Broadcasting Systems, Oak and Perenchio purchased Los Angeles television station KBSC-TV (channel 52) for $1.2 million as part of the liquidation of its parent company, Kaiser Industries. After changing its name to National Subscription Television (NST), the service launched under the brand name ON TV on April 1, 1977, offering unedited, uninterrupted motion pictures, as well as limited slates of Los Angeles Dodgers, California Angels, Los Angeles Lakers and Los Angeles Kings games, during evening hours. The first 500 subscribers lived in the San Fernando Valley, as part of a soft launch of the new system. It was the second subscription television system in operation, with Wometco Home Theater having launched in New York City the previous month. Ambitions to expand ON TV beyond Los Angeles were immediate. When the first system went live, Carter claimed "firm contracts" to move forward in eight cities—five of which would eventually be home to ON TV-branded subscription television operations—but stated he wanted to see if the Los Angeles system was a success first. In January 1978, Oak reached a deal with Sears to market ON TV service in the Los Angeles and Orange County area. The next year, ON TV got a competitor: SelecTV, which pioneered a pay-per-program model and only showed movies. Expansion beyond LA In October 1978, Oak and Chartwell, the partners in the Los Angeles system, reached an agreement to each develop six ON TV markets on their own; the Oak markets would be Chicago, Phoenix, Miami, Philadelphia, Minneapolis, and Dallas–Fort Worth, while Chartwell was tasked with development in New York, Detroit, Atlanta, San Francisco, Cleveland, and Houston. In Philadelphia, NST had reached a deal with Radio Broadcasting Corporation, which in 1977 was awarded a construction permit for a channel 57 TV station there. The next year, the company announced it would license its equipment and technology in cities where it did not intend to operate itself. The first of the Oak expansion cities firmed up considerably in November 1978 when Oak announced it would begin operating in Phoenix in July 1979 in a joint venture with the New Television Corporation, which held the construction permit for KNXV-TV (channel 15); New Television would program the station during the day as a free independent, while ON TV would air in the evenings. Oak announced at that time that it would be on the air in Philadelphia and Miami by 1980. Meanwhile, the ON TV system in Los Angeles grew to more than 100,000 subscribers by the end of 1978 and 200,000 by August 1979, earning it the title of the world's largest single pay-TV operation. Oak's increasing involvement with the entertainment business spurred the entire company, previously headquartered in Crystal Lake, Illinois, to move to southern California, where it built a new headquarters building in the planned community of Rancho Bernardo. As very large cities, like Philadelphia, saw years-long delays in cable television wiring due to political disputes over franchises, the specter of services like ON TV loomed over the horizon and served as an impetus to consider more rapid action. Chartwell, too, began the task of developing markets. As early as 1977, NST had an agreement to run an STV service on WXON in Detroit, and the two parties aimed for a July 1, 1979, launch. In 1979, the company, through affiliate Tandem Productions, acquired New York City-area station WNJU-TV, and Tandem was waiting in the wings to buy Washington, D.C.'s WDCA-TV if the FCC had rescinded its approval of that station's sale to Taft Broadcasting. Chartwell also explored buying a station in Sacramento, California, in 1980, going so far as to enter into advanced negotiations to purchase that city's KMUV-TV. As 1979 continued, activity accelerated. Oak announced its intention to open subscription television in Miami at the end of the year from Fort Lauderdale-based WKID-TV, which it had purchased. In Chicago, it reached an agreement with Video 44, owner of UHF station WSNS-TV, to use Oak equipment and technology in its service. (While Video 44 then attempted to sell 50 percent of the company to American Television and Communications, a subsidiary of Time, Inc. and owner of the Preview STV services which had a deal with Zenith to produce its equipment, the company pulled out of the deal in October when major movie studios protested the potential for a monopoly on pay-TV programming between Time's STV holdings and Home Box Office cable network.) The Dallas–Fort Worth market entered the picture when Oak reaffirmed a 1976 deal with Channel 21, Inc., the Sidney Shlenker and Milton Grant–led consortium that held the construction permit for Fort Worth television station KTXA, to bring ON TV to the Metroplex. Oak also filed for construction permits in various cities around the United States, including channel 38 in St. Petersburg, Florida; channel 38 in New Orleans; and channel 20 in Denver. Those applications were joined by a 1981 filing for channel 16 at Everett, Washington, near Seattle. The Phoenix operation began September 9 when KNXV-TV began broadcasting, and WKID-TV in the Miami–Fort Lauderdale market commenced subscription television broadcasts on January 11, 1980. The first licensed ON TV system, owned by Home Entertainment Network—a division of Buford Television—went live on that company's WBTI-TV in Cincinnati on February 1; the station itself took to the air on January 28. Oak went on air with ON TV in Chicago on September 22, after having bought a 49 percent stake in the licensee of WSNS, and in Dallas–Fort Worth on February 28, 1981. Just eight months after going live in Chicago, ON TV was profitable in that market—said to be unprecedented in the STV industry—and by October 1981, it was joined by all of the Oak-owned operations except Dallas–Fort Worth. Still more stations appeared to be in the pipeline: Oak had a deal with Baltimore's WBFF to enter that market, and it owned 45 percent of an STV franchise for channel 29 at Minneapolis. Meanwhile, Chartwell—after having attempted to nab rights to New York Yankees baseball—dropped its New York subscription television plans, opting not to scrap WNJU-TV's successful Spanish-language programming and battle the market's dominant STV provider, Wometco Home Theater. (Perenchio would ultimately sell WNJU-TV in 1986.) Oak in control In Los Angeles—the largest ON TV market, where Oak and Chartwell remained partners—the arrangement came into doubt in March 1981. The two sides disagreed over Perenchio's appointment of William M. Siegel, the chief executive of Chartwell, as the general manager of National Subscription Television—Los Angeles. Oak refused to consent to the appointment and claimed that Chartwell and Perenchio had "surreptitiously" placed Siegel on the payroll; it was reported that Oak had no dispute with Siegel but wanted to affirm its authority as 51 percent owner of the venture. Oak chairman Carter was surprised to learn that Siegel made more money than he did. Further, Perenchio drew Oak's ire when the Chartwell ON TV operation in Detroit ordered new decoder boxes from one of Oak's competitors. Oak and Chartwell settled in September; the suit was dropped, and Oak bought out Chartwell's 49 percent share of National Subscription Television for $55 million. Oak now controlled the entire Los Angeles and Miami systems, as well as majority shares in the Chicago, Dallas–Fort Worth and Phoenix markets, while Chartwell continued to own and operate the Detroit ON TV system. Cincinnati was licensed, to be joined by another licensing agreement Oak made starting January 31, 1982, with Willamette Subscription Television, the STV franchisee for KECH in the Portland, Oregon, market. By May 1982, ON TV in southern California had 400,000 subscribers. Oak boasted some 600,000 subscribers in its five ON TV markets, not counting Detroit, Cincinnati, or Portland. Additionally, Oak planned to start a ninth system in Houston in 1983, broadcasting over KTXH (channel 20), the under-construction sister station to KTXA. However, by November, as KTXH itself neared air, it had become clear that Oak was not pursuing Houston plans, having essentially shuttered its part of the operation; Houston Chronicle television editor Ann Hodges cited the increasing wiring of the city for cable, the increased carriage of KTXH by cable systems without STV operation, and more expansive sports coverage planned in Houston than in Dallas–Fort Worth. Headwinds Subscription television would prove to reach its zenith in 1982, however. That year, STV operations rapidly went from gaining subscribers to losing them. After seeing 65 percent growth in 1981, STV operators grew their subscriber rolls by just 0.8 percent the next year. A worsening recession and faster-than-anticipated growth of cable television became hazards. As ON TV operations in some markets began to face headwinds, the financial picture of Oak Industries itself worsened. In October 1982, it revised down its earnings guidance due to declining sales of its 56-channel cable box, due to the recession and technical issues. Even though one analyst described subscription television as "clearly just an interim business", the company remained "bullish about STV"; it struck a deal with Telstar to sublease two satellite transponders, opening the door to satellite delivery of ON TV's programming to local STV and MDS franchisees, low-power television stations, and cable companies. Another problem faced by subscription outlets was that they leased time from television stations, which in some cases were not owned by the STV operator. This led to several fights between station owners and franchisees, Oak-owned or otherwise. As early as 1980, WXON in Detroit was objecting to ON TV's airing of the movie Is There Sex After Death?. KNXV-TV in Phoenix had threatened to stop airing ON TV's "adults only" late-night fare, and ON TV took the station to court over its refusal to cede early evening hours, which generated 60 percent of the television station's revenue. KTXA won a legal fight against ON TV in that market, taking away all its adult programming and prompting competitor VEU to run ads with headlines such as "For real adult entertainment, turn-on to VEU". The first ON TV service to close was Chartwell's Detroit system, which shuttered on March 31, 1983. It cited falling subscriber figures, from 68,000 to 42,000 in just a year; an inability to obtain more airtime from WXON; and competition from the it service that aired on Ann Arbor-based WIHT. The operating hours that WXON allowed ON TV to have in the Detroit market continually hampered the service's ability to show sporting events, directly causing it to drop a package of Detroit Tigers baseball games it aired. Oak was next to announce casualties. On April 15, 1983, citing the situations in each market, it announced it would shutter its Dallas–Fort Worth and Phoenix systems. In Phoenix, the advance of cable and other factors had caused subscribers to drop from a peak of 39,000 in July 1982 to 25,000 at closure. Besides the Dallas–Fort Worth conflict with KTXA, the company had been handicapped by a late entry into a market that at the time had two existing STV competitors—VEU and Preview, which merged their local operations in late 1982 into a service with more program hours—and was the nation's most crowded. Anthony Cassara, president of the television division of VEU owner Golden West Broadcasters, had previously described that market as "total insanity" when it had three competing operators. Expanded hours were crucial to keeping services alive as cable companies grew: in June 1983, Cincinnati's WBTI axed hours of free programming and began taking satellite-fed ON TV programming from Oak in place of its local feed. In August, Willamette Subscription Television, the Portland licensee and also the operator of a microwave system transmitting HBO to customers, filed for bankruptcy; it owed $4.7 million to a group of 20 major creditors, including $1 million to Oak. By this time, however, it had ceased receiving programming from Oak. KECH, which itself filed for bankruptcy in November 1983, ceased ON TV broadcasts on August 19, 1984. Collapse and demise As Oak Industries faced wider financial trouble, it sought to reduce its involvement in the operation of its three remaining directly owned ON TV systems. In October 1983, operation of the Los Angeles, Chicago, and Miami–Fort Lauderdale systems shifted from Oak to a new company, Twin Arts Productions, led by former Playgirl magazine publisher Ira Ritter; the three services counted 370,000 total subscribers, down from 550,000 in October 1982. In early 1984, Oak announced a revamped ON TV program lineup, and its operations did score a victory when its direct competitor, Spectrum, opted to discontinue operating in Chicago and sell its subscriber base. However, Oak's condition continued to deteriorate. Later that month, the company announced it was being investigated by the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), and it posted a loss of $166.1 million for 1983. One of the company's auditors, Arthur Andersen, qualified its statement, fearing that Oak could not fully realize its $134 million investment in subscription television. As pressure increased on Oak's finances and the ON TV systems continued to lose subscribers during 1984, cuts were made. In mid-July, National Subscription Television of Fort Lauderdale laid off 41 employees—half its staff. Less than two weeks later, Oak announced that it had sold WKID-TV to John Blair & Co. for $17.75 million; the new buyers intended to program it as a Spanish-language station. In August—after a year of speculation—it emerged that Oak was in talks to sell the Los Angeles system to SelecTV, which had competed alongside ON TV for six years in the Southern California market. A deal was initially reached, then collapsed. That October, after a year, management of ON TV had been brought back in house after the Twin Arts arrangement was ended in order to cut costs; the company had also taken over its satellite distribution to some 140,000 subscribers after dissolving the Telstar joint venture. Oak chairman Everitt Carter, under a cloud of uncertainty, abruptly left the position in December 1984. SelecTV ultimately acquired the Los Angeles operation, by then with just 156,000 subscribers, in February 1985. That same month, Oak reached a deal to sell KBSC-TV to an investor group, Estrella Communications, headed by Joe Wallach, in a $30 million transaction. That station formally relaunched as Spanish-language KVEA in November. On June 1, 1985, WBTI—which had been sold and relaunched as WIII at the start of the year—dropped ON TV, with just 3,200 remaining subscribers, when Oak ceased providing programming by satellite. Oak had one last portion of its subscription television business to dismantle, in Chicago, where WSNS ceased broadcasting as a subscription station on June 30 and began broadcasting programming from the Spanish International Network the next day. However, WSNS's years as a subscription television station had left a legacy that impeded Oak's ability to sell its stake in channel 44 for years. In 1982, Monroe Communications Corporation filed a challenge to WSNS's license renewal and a competing application to establish a channel 44 TV station in Chicago, charging that, as an STV station between 1979 and 1982, WSNS failed to serve the public interest and severely cut back on public affairs programming. An FCC administrative law judge found against WSNS licensee Video 44 and in favor of Monroe in 1985. The FCC later granted the renewal, only for a federal appeals court to rule in Monroe's favor in April 1990. After the FCC officially denied the license renewal in September 1990, however, Chicago's Hispanic community and civic leaders rallied around WSNS. Video 44 and Monroe reached an $18 million settlement agreement in 1993, and Oak and fellow Video 44 partner Harriscope sold their stake in the station to Telemundo in 1995. Service and programming Subscribers were charged $40 to $50 installation and $19.95 to $22.50 per month, depending on the market, in the first three ON TV launches (Los Angeles, Phoenix, and Detroit). ON TV programming consisted of four basic components: movies, sporting events, special events such as concerts and boxing matches, and adult programming. Though there was variance between ON TV operations—particularly with regard to sports programming in each market—after 1983, when it established the Telstar joint venture, Oak was able to supply much of this programming directly to affiliates and home satellite dish owners. The ON TV decoder supported additional program tiers and pay-per-view events on top of the normal service, for which subscribers would have to pay additional money. This functionality was used to broadcast pay-per-view events including boxing matches—consistently the most successful PPV offering—as well as an "adults only" service of late-night movies. Among the notable pay-per-view presentations provided by ON TV (and other STV systems) was the first television screening of Star Wars in 1982, for which subscribers paid an additional $7.95. However, the system could not provide alternate fare for subscribers who did not pay for the movie, so those customers simply received no STV programming—just a blank screen. While more than 30 percent of customers in Oak's ON TV territory paid for Star Wars, conversion rates had surpassed 60 percent in some cases for boxing matches. Adult programming had high uptake in STV operations nationwide, and ON TV was no exception. In early 1983, 48 percent of subscribers across all ON TV systems paid an extra fee to subscribe to it. In Dallas–Fort Worth—despite being the last Oak market to offer the "Adults Only" tier—89 percent of subscribers opted in; it was 70 percent in Miami. Uptake ranged from 50 to 90 percent at other STV operations nationwide, including Wometco Home Theater and SelecTV Milwaukee. Equipment With the notable exception of Chartwell's operation in Detroit, which used equipment from rival Blonder-Tongue, ON TV systems, including all five owned by Oak itself, used scrambling technology and decoder hardware developed and manufactured by Oak, known as the "Model I". The boxes, connected to a standard UHF television antenna, decoded the encrypted STV signal for paying subscribers and output it to their sets. Each decoder was individually addressable, which meant they could be controlled centrally from the transmitter; addressability allowed for electronic connections and disconnections, as well as the ability to offer pay-per-view services, and allowed Oak to implement a theft deterrent where any disconnected decoder box stopped providing service after eight minutes. The decoders also supported an optional key module that served as a form of parental control. When ON TV entered into a partnership to start SportsVision, a second STV service, in Chicago, Oak manufactured special two-channel decoders that supported both services. The last two new Oak STV installations—Dallas–Fort Worth and Portland—utilized a newer and more secure version of the Sigma scrambling system. Piracy A problem that would be a constant for all subscription television operators was signal piracy. As early as late 1978, the Los Angeles Times described the Oak ON TV decoder as one that "reportedly can be built at home by handy TV technicians". In 1980, a trio of lawsuits against manufacturers of pirate decoders converged. Oak won a case in Phoenix, as did Chartwell in Detroit. In a case involving pirate decoders in Los Angeles, however, a Los Angeles federal judge ruled against Oak and ruled that ON TV did not hold a monopoly on decoding its signals. Two months later, California Governor Jerry Brown signed a new law prohibiting the sale of unauthorized STV decoding equipment. For Oak, piracy became a serious threat—and one not easily remediated, given the extensive install base of decoders and the inability to pinpoint where pirate decoders were located. Further, in Los Angeles, ON TV had begun turning on disconnected decoders regularly to restore service to subscribers affected by power failures in neighborhoods. Affecting all STV operations—but most severely impacting Chartwell in Detroit—was the cottage industry that sprang up in Windsor, Ontario, Canada, across the Detroit River. The Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission's then-ongoing study of pay television services prompted the company to halt any plans to start its own business operations there; when asked about the possibility of ON TV being legal in Canada, communications minister David MacDonald replied that the idea "would appear to fly in the face of every statement that's ever been made about Canadian broadcasting". It was legal, however, for Windsor residents to build decoders to receive ON TV—and some 10,000 existed within two years of beginning STV operation in Detroit—but when those decoders started to enter the United States and pose a challenge to Chartwell's operation, the company moved to take action. In late May 1981, the company stationed process servers outside of the Windsor offices of one decoder manufacturer, Video Gallery, to dissuade potential U.S. buyers. Chartwell then took Video Gallery and its American clients to U.S. federal court, seeking an injunction, and got it, preventing Americans from importing its products. In response, Video Gallery obtained an injunction in an Ontario court preventing ON TV representatives from interfering with customers entering its store. However, Chartwell would gain the upper hand. After winning its initial injunction, the government closed the border to Canadian decoders in August. Video Gallery closed at the end of the year, and Chartwell won a $618,000 judgment against it in March 1982. Even then, it was estimated that some 10,000 additional households received ON TV in southwestern Ontario, including on master antenna systems in apartment complexes—none of them making money for Chartwell. ON TV companies responded to piracy by modifying pulse signals and introducing new scrambling techniques. In Detroit, Chartwell began migrating to a new generation of decoder boxes. In 1984, ON TV Chicago, also afflicted by heavy pirating, offered "amnesty" to pirate users ahead of the launch of new scrambling equipment. Stations ON TV was broadcast over the air on eight stations in the United States: Los Angeles The first ON TV service launched in the Los Angeles market on April 1, 1977, on KBSC-TV (channel 52), licensed to Corona; ON TV's offices were in Glendale. Channel 52 shuffled its ethnic programming lineup in favor of carrying ON TV during evening hours beginning at 8:00 pm. (KBSC-TV changed its commercial program format to Spanish-language shows in 1980.) By April 1979, the service was signing up 12,000 subscribers a month. By that year, it had grown its sports portfolio beyond the Dodgers, Angels, Lakers, and Kings to include USC Trojans college sports and Los Angeles Aztecs soccer, as well as horse racing from Santa Anita Park. After the FCC repealed a rule in late 1982 that required television stations offering a subscription service to broadcast at least 20 hours a week of unencrypted programming, KBSC began running ON TV 24 hours a day and displaced its existing Spanish-language daytime programming. However, as Oak dismantled its former STV empire, it quickly sold the ON TV subscriber base, by then dwindling, and KBSC-TV to separate parties weeks apart. SelecTV continued to broadcast over KBSC-TV for several more months until the new, Spanish-language KVEA was ready to debut. Detroit In the only system Chartwell controlled outright, ON TV came to Detroit on July 1, 1979, broadcasting on WXON (channel 20); it had 15,000 subscribers within three months. The service quickly snared the rights to Detroit Red Wings hockey, Detroit Tigers baseball (consisting of 20 weeknight games a year from Tiger Stadium), and Michigan Wolverines athletics (including tape-delayed football games). In the case of the Wolverines, it even ran one experimental 1979 telecast live, a presentation spearheaded by Michigan athletic director Don Canham with the blessing of the NCAA. WXON, however, proved to be a poor partner for ON TV. After airing the R-rated movie Is There Sex After Death? (which contained considerable sex and nudity) on March 12, 1980, the station then ordered ON TV to screen all movies it aired for WXON executives. More critically, however, the station refused to cede any time before 8:00 p.m. and aired reruns in that time slot, severely crippling it as a sports broadcaster. Midweek Red Wings and Tigers games regularly began before ON TV was on the air, forcing the station to join games in progress (as with the Red Wings) or tape delay them (which it did for the Tigers). The flaw became highly visible when the Red Wings played the Calgary Flames in a game on October 29, 1981, in which the Red Wings scored five goals in the first period before ON TV picked up the game. WXON then sued ON TV to get out of what Chartwell claimed was a "fifty-year contract" with the station. After the 1982 season, ON TV dropped its Tigers deal because it could not secure the air time it needed to telecast games in their entirety. In a bid to stem the piracy problem that had dogged it for nearly its entire existence, Chartwell began upgrading from its original Blonder-Tongue units to a new generation of addressable decoders in 1982. It would not be enough. When ON TV closed in Detroit on March 31, 1983, Chartwell shuttered a business in which it had invested $13 million but never turned a profit. The system—which was vigorously competing against it, the subscription service on Ann Arbor-based WIHT, and Livonia-based MDS service MORE-TV, in addition to rapidly proliferating cable services—had lost 26,000 of the 68,000 subscribers it claimed at its peak. Phoenix In Phoenix, ON TV launched on a new UHF television station, KNXV-TV (channel 15), which signed on September 9, 1979, and immediately began carrying subscription television programming. The company immediately secured top-tier sports: in Phoenix, ON TV held telecast rights at various times to ASU sports, the Phoenix Suns, Phoenix Giants minor league baseball, and Los Angeles Kings hockey. By July 1982, it had 39,000 subscribers in Phoenix, but signs of trouble were emerging. In 1981, the Suns signed a 13-year agreement to telecast games through American Cable (resulting in the launch of the Arizona Sports Programming Network), which sub-licensed games to ON TV in part because they had not wired all of the metropolitan area. Late in 1982, KNXV resisted a request to expand ON TV to start before 7:00 p.m. on weekdays and 5:00 p.m. on weekends, while the station also wanted the subscription service to stop screening adult movies. Phoenix was one of the first markets to show serious subscriber erosion. By April 1983, its subscriber base had dipped below 25,000, a drop of more than 35 percent. Oak Communications ultimately shuttered ON TV in Phoenix on May 4, 1983, resulting in the loss of 140 jobs. Miami–Fort Lauderdale In 1979, Oak bought Fort Lauderdale television station WKID (channel 51) for $4.1 million, with the intention of using it to bring ON TV to south Florida. ON TV then began operating on January 11, 1980, broadcasting subscription programming from 7:00 p.m. to midnight on weekdays and 5:00 p.m. to midnight on weekends. Operating in a market with few professional sporting franchises, one of the immediate draws was a package of games of the Fort Lauderdale Strikers. 5,200 subscribers were signed up in the service's first two months, and it claimed 15,000 by July. In September 1981, ON TV added further hours, starting at 6:00 p.m. on weekdays. It expanded again in July 1982. By July 1984, when ON TV laid off half its staff, subscriptions had fallen from a 1982 high of 44,700 to 28,500, making it the smallest of Oak's STV operations at the time. At the time that John Blair & Co. acquired WKID-TV, it was broadcasting from 4:00 p.m. to 2:00 a.m. and from 10:00 a.m. to 2:00 a.m. on weekends. Blair completed the acquisition in December. Channel 51 then went off the air as Blair prepared to implement the station's relaunch as WSCV, south Florida's second Spanish-language television station. Cincinnati ON TV began airing on independent station WBTI (channel 64) on February 1, 1980, airing alongside commercial general-entertainment programming that aired until 7:00 p.m. on weekdays. In 1982, Buford Television, which built WBTI and owned the ON TV operation through its Home Entertainment Network unit, sold an 80 percent stake to United Cable for a reported $20 million; the television station itself was then sold in April 1983. Unusually for a subscription television operation, WBTI expanded its reach through the construction of a channel 66 translator in Dayton, approved in September 1980 and launched in May 1981; the station had already signed up some customers in that area. By 1983, Warner-Amex cable was spreading throughout the Cincinnati market, causing interest in ON TV to decline considerably. In June, WBTI dropped most of its commercial programming, with the exception of The 700 Club at 10:00 a.m. on weekdays as well as a couple of religious programs on Sunday mornings, to expand ON TV's hours; it laid off staff and began relying on Oak's new satellite feed to program the subscription service. That October, United Cable, which had acquired 80 percent of Buford's three STV operations (the other of two of which operated as Spectrum in Chicago and Minneapolis), wrote down the entire unit and offered the systems for sale. United sold 90 percent of WBTI in November 1984 to Channel 64 Joint Venture for $9.4 million, at which time ON TV had just 12,500 local subscribers (75 percent of which subscribed to adult programming), compared to 45,200 in June 1982. The station relaunched as WIII on January 1, 1985; it restored a general-entertainment schedule, with ON TV programming being relegated to overnight hours only. With a mere 3,200 subscribers remaining and Oak shutting down its satellite feed, ON TV in Cincinnati ended on June 1, 1985, at which time WIII converted into a full-time general-entertainment independent station. Chicago Chicago was the second-to-last Oak market to launch—WSNS (channel 44) did not begin airing STV until September 22, 1980—but would prove to be among the company's longest-lasting markets. Initially, WSNS–then operating as an independent station–continued unscrambled, commercial programming until 7:00 p.m. on weekdays and on weekends until 5:00 pm. A year after ON TV began broadcasting, it got competition when Spectrum, originally owned by Buford Television, began airing over Focus Broadcasting-owned WFBN (channel 66) on September 29, 1981. At the same time, WSNS extended its transmission of ON TV programming by two hours on weekdays (now starting at 5:00 pm) and by three hours on weekends (to 12:00 pm). In January 1982, WSNS began carrying ON TV for 20 hours per day, and after the repeal of the limits on STV operating hours, it went round-the-clock—resulting in the dismissal of WSNS's own sales unit and other station staffers. At the same time that ON TV was gaining subscribers, SportsVision International, a consortium of four Chicago sports franchises—the White Sox, Bulls, Blackhawks, and Sting—had reached a deal to set up a new subscription television station on channel 60 (the shared time WPWR/WBBS), which would carry their games. Both Oak and Buford competed for the right to manage the service, and Oak won out; ON TV subscribers could receive SportsVision for an extra $14.95 a month, and a special run of two-channel decoders was made. SportsVision finally launched May 25, 1982, having been delayed due to issues with the new decoders and then again due to low uptake, airing as a free preview for two extra weeks. The second STV operation, however, did not reach the subscriber base needed to maintain its viability. By March 1983, it had 25,000 subscribers, half of the amount needed to break even, not helped by the poor performance of the White Sox in the 1982 season. In November, still at just 35,000 subscribers and losing $300,000 a month, it was announced that SportsVision would be folded into ON TV on January 1, 1984, with channel 44's STV service televising a significant number of games and SportsVision continuing as a premium cable channel in suburban areas and outside of Chicagoland; the remaining service was then sold to SportsChannel. ON TV entered 1984 battered by piracy problems, which had also been cited by White Sox owner Eddie Einhorn as a reason for the end of SportsVision as a separate STV service. In January, the service's operations director estimated that, for every paying subscriber, another was pirating its programming. Subscriber figures had dropped from 89,500 in August 1983 to 80,000 in August 1984, of which 18,000 were previous clients of Spectrum. The service was also instituting program cutbacks. In November 1984, non-professional sports, children's programs and some other low-rated programming were axed to emphasize movies and a reduced schedule of events from SportsVision. By year's end, Oak had put its remaining STV services up for sale, and Chicago had fallen to 75,000 subscribers. In February 1985, as Oak's financial condition continued to worsen, it emerged that the company was taking writedowns related to the termination of its STV businesses; Burt Harris, owner of WSNS owner Harriscope, stated that he didn't see the service making it to the end of the year. It would not, ceasing operations June 30, 1985, and bringing to a close Oak's eight-year venture into subscription television. Dallas–Fort Worth ON TV on KTXA (channel 21) was a late entrant into the most competitive subscription television market in the nation. By the time ON TV signed on in the Dallas–Fort Worth Metroplex, the area had two competing STV services: VEU and Preview. In September 1982, VEU bought the Preview Dallas operation. VEU, aside from being the leader in subscribers, also had the two largest sports attractions in the market, airing Dallas Mavericks and Texas Rangers games; ON TV, by contrast, aired weekly Southwest Conference basketball during the season. An operation already struggling for position in a contested media market and with fewer broadcast hours than VEU was then kneecapped by KTXA's vigorous opposition to adult programming—objecting to expansion and blocking the showing of adult movies—which produced a frosty relationship between station and STV franchisee. The competitive market and contentious relationship contributed to the service discontinuing operations on April 30, 1983. Portland Like in Phoenix, ON TV began operations on a new station, KECH (channel 22), which began telecasting from Salem, Oregon, on November 21, 1981. Willamette Subscription Television, the local ON TV company which was commonly owned with the station by Arnold Brustin and Chris Desmond, rented evening airtime from KECH, but the operation never turned a profit. In its first year of operation, Willamette had lost $6.6 million, and by December 1982, the station was owed $300,000. The state of the operation was such that the limited partners in Willamette Subscription Television sued Brustin and Desmond for mismanagement in a case that was settled out of court. In 1982, Willamette acquired Premier Home Box Office, a microwave system delivering HBO to 10,000 subscribers, from Canadian company Rogers; Premier had more subscribers at the time than ON TV in the area, which had 6,000. After Brustin and Desmond were brought in on an interim basis to manage the subscription service on KTSF in San Francisco, which used SelecTV programming, the two opted to convert from ON TV to SelecTV programming. Willamette filed bankruptcy that summer, and a court ordered Desmond to create a debt repayment schedule for more than $4.7 million owed to 20 major creditors; meanwhile, the HBO microwave service battled signal piracy of its own. That November, KECH joined it in bankruptcy reorganization. On August 19, 1984, the ON TV service ended, with KECH programming older movies in prime time; the station at the time stated its plans to transmit adults-only subscription television programming in late nights under the name "Cascade Entertainment Network" after that date. References American subscription television services Defunct television broadcasting companies of the United States Television channels and stations established in 1977 Television channels and stations disestablished in 1985 Defunct television networks in the United States 1985 disestablishments in the United States 1977 establishments in the United States
4842913	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20The%20Shield%20episodes	List of The Shield episodes	The Shield is an American crime drama television created by Shawn Ryan and starring Michael Chiklis. The series premiered on FX on March 12, 2002 and ended on November 25, 2008, totaling 88 episodes over seven seasons, plus one additional mini-episode. Series overview Episodes Season 1 (2002) Captain David Aceveda, seeking to usurp the current black City Council representative of Farmington by swaying the Latino vote, looks to rid his precinct, The Barn, of corruption, starting with Detective Vic Mackey and the controversial yet effective Strike Team that Mackey leads. Aceveda works with the Justice Department to bring Detective Terry Crowley onto the Strike Team to try to gain evidence to use on Vic. However, Vic is aware of Terry's informing due to his friendship with the Assistant Chief of Police, Ben Gilroy. When the Strike Team conducts a raid on the residence of Two-Time, a drug dealer, Vic and Strike Team member Detective Shane Vendrell are shot at by Two-Time, who they fire back at and kill. Vic picks up Two-Time's gun off his body and shoots Terry in the face (without informing follow Team members Detective Curtis "Lem" Lemansky and Detective Ronnie Gardocki), making it look like Terry was murdered by Two-Time himself. Gilroy assists Vic in covering up the murder, which stops Aceveda's investigation. Things come to a breaking point towards the end of the season when Gilroy's own ambitions threaten both Vic's and Aceveda's futures. Separately, rookie officer Julien Lowe learns the ropes from his training officer Danielle "Danny" Sofer, while attempting to hide his homosexuality from other officers. Julien witnesses the Strike Team smuggling a portion of a drug bust for their own personal wealth and reports it to Aceveda. When Aceveda begins to investigate Julien's claims, Vic threatens to reveal Julien's homosexuality to the department, causing Julien to back out from his witness statement and leaving Aceveda with nothing to go on. Partners Detective Holland "Dutch" Wagenbach and Detective Claudette Wyms hunt a serial killer targeting prostitutes while dealing with their own problems in The Barn. Vic, separately, has to deal with the growing rift between him and his wife Corrine. After learning his son Matthew is autistic, Vic uses his illicit police activities to pay for special schooling for him. Due to Vic's reckless behavior, Corrine takes the children and disappears, leaving a note to Vic to not to come find them. Season 2 (2003) The Barn discovers that the Mexican drug gangs in Farmington are uniting under a new drug lord, Armadillo Quintero, who is able to evade arrest due to lack of evidence and willing witnesses. Privately, the Strike Team learns that Armadillo has knowledge of some of their illicit activities and fear he will rat them out if he is taken to prison. They attempt to coerce Armadillo to return to Mexico by threatening to "greenlight" Armadillo's brother Navaro. Armadillo responds by having Navaro murdered himself. After Armadillo murders one of Vic's CI's, Vic loses his cool and burns half of Armadillo's face on a stove burner only for Armadillo to later retaliate by doing the same to Ronnie and using his new leverage against the Strike Team. With the fallout of Gilroy's arrest, Vic and Aceveda find themselves under scrutiny of an independent auditor who is determined to find and expose any corruption in The Barn. As Vic and Aceveda struggle to stay one step ahead, their tactics draw the ire of Claudette, who is determined to arrest Armadillo after he rapes a young girl. Claudette, initially reluctant to take a leadership role, eventually agrees to take over as The Barn's Captain after realizing she can't stay neutral anymore. Meanwhile, Danny fatally shoots a Muslim man who threatened her during a confrontation and Julien is unable to corroborate her story. The man's widow threatens to sue the department and creates problems for Danny both professionally and personally. Shane and Lem convince a small-time criminal to kill Armadillo by passing him a knife after he is arrested and put into the cage by Danny, leading to Danny being fired. Separately, Vic hires a private investigator to search for Corrine and the children, and discovers her seemingly preparing to file for divorce. He moves out of his home and preemptively files first in an attempt to gain a better chance of retaining his parenting rights, but this only serves to widen the distance between him and Corrine. As the Armadillo case is resolved, the Strike Team learn that the Armenian Mob have a "money train" that passes through Farmington every so often, a means for the mob to launder their illegal funds into untraceable cash. The Strike Team privately plans to rob the money train, knowing that they would be financially secure for a long time should they succeed. The money train heist is successful, while Aceveda wins the city council primary. Season 3 (2004) In the aftermath of the money train heist, the Strike Team resolves to lay low and avoid any controversy but quickly find themselves marginalized and lacking vital information. When some of the money from the heist is revealed to be marked for a federal case, the Team struggles to stay ahead of Dutch, who begins to suspect Vic. The Armenian mob sends hitman Margos Dezerian to find the money and kill anyone suspected of involvement in the robbery. As both Margos and the investigation close in on the Strike Team, a fearful Lem burns a majority of the money in a desperate attempt to protect the Team, ultimately leading to a confrontation which causes the group to disband. Claudette is promised a promotion to Captain and maintains a supervising role while Aceveda prepares to move on to the city council. However, a defense attorney is killed, and the ensuing investigation leads Claudette and Dutch to discover that the victim had been a heavy drug user for the past three years. Claudette, determined to ensure justice, investigates further, losing favor with the D.A. and Barn coworkers after she reopens the attorney's closed cases against orders and resulting in her being denied the promotion to Captain. Shane enters a serious relationship with a woman named Mara and eventually proposes to her when she reveals her pregnancy. Mara encourages Shane to be more independent from Vic, even after discovering the money from the heist. This conflict between Vic and Shane soon becomes personal, leaving a deep rift between the two. Dutch opens a case of a serial rapist and finds himself becoming more obsessed than usual without Claudette's backing. Julien, having suffering a beating from his coworkers after being outed as gay, has toughened considerably, leading Claudette to feel alarmed that he may wash out. Danny makes a deal with Aceveda to be reinstated provided she give him pertinent information about other officers. Season 4 (2005) Monica Rawling (Glenn Close) takes over the role as Farmington's new captain, and implements federal asset forfeiture laws to seize any property tied to drug dealing, using the money to fund the department and give back to the community. This soon becomes controversial among The Barn, particularly Julien, and members of the Farmington community. After the Strike Team's disbandment, Shane works in Vice with new partner Armando "Army" Renta (Michael Peña). The pair enter into a dangerous situation when trying to control major drug lord Antwon Mitchell (Anthony Anderson), who blackmails them and coerces Shane into accepting an order to kill Vic. The police are outraged after two officers are kidnapped and subsequently found murdered. In the end, the Strike Team is re-formed and manages to put Antwon in prison. Rawling eventually loses her position over a dispute with the DEA. Meanwhile, Dutch and Claudette are "blacklisted" as detectives because of the latter's refusal to apologize to the D.A. after her reopening the cases of the murdered defense attorney resulted in many of the prosecutor's cases being overturned. Dutch attempts to resolve the situation by making a back-room deal with the D.A. to keep an eye on Claudette and do favors for the office in return for breaking back into action. Ultimately, this causes a rift between the partners, culminating in a confrontation where Claudette rebukes Dutch for making the deal. Season 5 (2006) Internal Affairs Division Lieutenant Jon Kavanaugh (Forest Whitaker) begins an investigation into Vic and the Strike Team. Previously, Lem had stolen heroin as leverage for information on the disappearance of a young girl he was close to. Emolia Melendez, an informant, witnessed the theft and reported it to IAD. Finding the heroin gave IAD sufficient evidence to arrest Lem, but Kavanaugh, suspecting that Vic murdered Terry Crowley, informs Lem of his theory and coerces Lem into wearing a wire to get evidence on the Strike Team. Lem is able to warn Vic that he is wired and Mackey uses it against Kavanaugh to embarrass him and IAD. Kavanaugh responds by moving his investigation into the Barn, causing anxiety for everyone inside. Applying pressure to the team in any way he can, Kavanaugh finds out about Mackey's share of the money train haul after interrogating Corrine. Kavanaugh's mentally ill wife Sadie comes into play when she falsely accuses a man of raping her. Vic and Lem view a personal conversation between Kavanaugh and Sadie from the interrogation room camera, which Kavanaugh quickly realizes is turned on. He rushes out in a rage, and Vic and Lem quickly exit the security monitor room, but Kavanaugh sees them and arrests Lem on the spot. Kavanaugh freezes the Strike Team's assets but Vic manages to secure bail money for Lem and assists in providing safe passage for him to leave the country. However, Shane worries Lem will turn. Kavanaugh orders Aceveda to lie to Vic and say that Lem had revealed the Strike Team's involvement in the robbery of the Armenian money train. Shane falls for the deception and murders Lem with a hand grenade. After Lem's body is discovered, Vic vows to find the killer. Other plots include Dutch discovering Claudette has lupus and Claudette's subsequently reaching her physical breaking point after finally getting a serial killer from their past to confess. Steve Billings functions as the interim "jellyfish yes-man" Captain of the Barn while Danny deals with pregnancy and refuses to divulge the baby's father, who is eventually revealed to be Vic. Julien trains Tina, a beautiful but incompetent rookie officer, and at long last Claudette gets her opportunity for promotion to captain of the Barn, which she accepts on the sole condition that she gets to run the Barn her way. "Wins and Losses" This 15-minute mini-episode was produced between the fifth and sixth seasons, and initially released to various websites in February 2007 as a promotion for season six. It was later made available on the Season 5 DVD set. Season 6 (2007) Vic and the Strike Team are distraught over Lem's death. Shane, overcome by guilt, becomes reckless and suicidal and enters into an affair with a teenager associated with the new One-Niner boss. Kavanaugh, convinced that Vic killed Lem and desperate to close his case after being given a 24-hour turnaround deadline by the Assistant Chief, resorts to planting evidence and coercing witnesses to lie about the Strike Team. Dutch and Claudette begin to suspect Kavanaugh's integrity after holes in his investigation are discovered and Corrine reveals that Kavanaugh sexually assaulted her. Kavanaugh eventually confesses to his actions and is arrested. Vic and Ronnie hunt Guardo Lima, a drug lord and overseer of a grenade factory that the Barn raided prior to Lem's death, where Shane pocketed the grenade he later used to kill Lem. After capturing Guardo, Vic tortures and murders him while Shane and Ronnie watch. Shane's subsequent behavior arouses suspicion in Vic and Ronnie, and after reviewing a report by Kavanaugh of the night Lem was killed, they both realize the truth. Vic gets Shane to confess, but Shane threatens to reveal the Strike Team's illegal exploits should Vic attempt to arrest him. Shane tries to get protection with the Armenians and recklessly reveals Vic was the ringleader behind the money train robbery, putting Vic's family in danger. However, Shane takes steps to rectify this mistake, kidnapping Corrine and Vic's daughter Cassidy before ambushing and severely wounding the Armenian hitman sent to kill them. Vic learns from Claudette that the Chief plans to force him into early retirement. Claudette makes strong efforts to solve a brutal mass murder after learning the Barn could be shut down if no improvements are made by the time quarterly crime statistics are released. Julien joins the Strike Team under the leadership of Kevin Hiatt, brought in as Vic's replacement but nowhere near as effective as Vic. Aceveda finds a new backer for his mayoral campaign, real estate developer Cruz Pezuela. After Pezuela begins offering information into the pending San Marcos massacre investigation, Vic discovers that Pezuela has ties to the Mexican cartel and attempts to use this as blackmail against Pezuela to save his own job. In turn, Pezuela offers him a photo of Aceveda's sexual assault. Vic initially tries to use the photo against Aceveda, but the two eventually ally to take down Pezuela. Vic confronts Mexican intel operative Luis Aramboles and, upon searching the trunk of Aramboles' car, discovers a box filled with blackmail on government officials in Farmington. Vic and Aceveda plot to use this to serve their own respective interests. Season 7 (2008) Vic spins the blackmail box into a gang war between the Mexicans and Armenians as a way to protect himself and his family after Shane's reveal to the Armenians that Vic spearheaded the money train robbery. As the gang war spins out of control, Vic cozies up to ICE Agent Olivia Murray as a way to bring more weight down on the cartel and to secure an ICE position for himself and Ronnie, along with complete immunity for their past crimes. Shane, despite holding his written confession as leverage over Vic and Ronnie, agrees to help stop the Armenian threat in order to protect his own family. Vic and Ronnie inform Shane of a plan to set up an arranged meeting between the Mexicans and Armenians with Shane as the middleman. Unbeknownst to Shane, Vic and Ronnie formulated the plan as a way to resolve all of their issues, including vengeance for Lem. Ronnie tampers with his sidearm in an attempt to get him killed by Mexican hitmen sent to kill Rezian and his men, who, along with Shane, think the meeting is to purchase the blackmail box that would subsequently be given back to Pezuela and end the gang war. Shane escapes and, after realizing that his partners set him up to die, blackmails a pimp from a previous investigation to help him perform simultaneous hits on Vic and Ronnie. The attempt fails and the pimp gives up Shane, forcing Shane to go on the run with Mara and their son Jackson. Vic turns in his badge in order to focus on catching and killing Shane and the pregnant Mara. Mara uses Shane's leverage against Vic to coerce Corrine into serving as a middleman to help their family escape the police. Vic fails an attempt on Shane and Mara's lives after tracking them down to a hospital using information from both Corrine and Ronnie, driving Corrine to her breaking point. She contacts the Barn and agrees to help stop Vic as long as he never learns of her involvement. Dutch and Claudette begin a full-scale investigation into Vic and Ronnie in a final attempt to take down the remaining Strike Team members once and for all. After a failed attempt to incriminate Vic in the act of aiding and abetting Shane, Dutch fakes the arrest of Corrine in order to preserve her cover. Vic, believing that Corrine was actually arrested, leverages the bust of the Mexican cartel into a full immunity for both of them. As part of his deal with ICE, Vic confesses to all the crimes he and Strike Team committed, incriminating Ronnie in the process and stunning Olivia and her boss, as well as Claudette and Dutch, who walk in too late to stop the deal. Claudette, her health still deteriorating, nearly breaks down upon learning of Vic's immunity. As a small bit of revenge and to protect Corrine, Claudette and Dutch make an arrangement with Olivia to place Corrine, Cassidy, Matthew, and Megan into federal witness protection. Meanwhile, Shane, Mara, and Jackson return home after Mara is injured during a robbery. Shane attempts to blackmail Vic one final time, but Vic gloats to Shane about his immunity deal and Shane's inability to use the Strike Team's crimes as leverage. Shane, trying to prove he was always the better husband and father, reveals Corrine's betrayal. Officially out of options, Shane goes back to the house, where a neighbor spots him. He poisons Mara and Jackson and shoots himself after writing out his confession as Claudette and her team arrive to arrest him. Vic and Ronnie lead the cartel and the leadership of the black gangs into an ICE trap, which Aceveda uses as a publicity stunt for his mayoral campaign. They return to the Barn, where Vic is informed by Claudette of Shane’s suicide. She orders him to the interrogation room and reads Shane's suicide note before placing the crime scene photos of Shane, Mara, and Jackson's corpses on the table and leaving the room. Realizing that Claudette is watching his reaction in the security monitor room, Vic stares into the camera before ripping it out of the wall in a rage. As Vic exits the room, he furiously says to bill him for it and Claudette replies that the "first payment's due now", before prompting Dutch to arrest Ronnie publicly for all the crimes Vic confessed to. Ronnie, led to believe that Vic that he had gotten immunity for both of them, screams that Vic betrayed him as Vic attempts to explain his actions. Ronnie is dragged from the premises as the entire Barn stares at Vic in contempt. Later, Claudette admits to Dutch she’s dying but will remain Captain as long as she can while Corrine and the children arrive at their new home. Olivia, angry that Vic used her, relegates him to a job writing daily analysis reports at a desk for ICE. Vic, shocked by this information after assuming he'd be working on the street, argues it wasn’t the terms he agreed to, but Olivia reminds him that any step out of line to the word of their agreement will violate the terms of his immunity. In the final scene, Vic sits at his desk in the ICE office after hours, where he unpacks pictures of his children, as well as one of himself and Lem. After hearing police sirens, he rushes to the window and stares out at the street below before returning to his desk, removing his gun from a lockbox, and leaving. Ratings References External links Lists of American crime drama television series episodes The Shield
4843151	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otis%20Air%20National%20Guard%20Base	Otis Air National Guard Base	Otis Air National Guard Base is an Air National Guard installation located within Joint Base Cape Cod, a military training facility located on the western portion of Cape Cod in Barnstable County, Massachusetts, United States. It was known as Otis Air Force Base prior to its transfer from the active duty Air Force to the Air National Guard. In the local community, it is more commonly known as Otis Air Base or simply Otis. It was named in honor of pilot and Boston surgeon Lt. Frank "Jesse" Otis. Today major units include the Coast Guard Air Station Cape Cod, Coast Guard Base Cape Cod and the 102nd Intelligence Wing. Other units include the wing's 101st Air Operations Squadron, the 253d Cyberspace Engineering Installation Group, the 212th Engineering Installation Squadron, the 267th Combat Communications Squadron, the 202nd Weather Flight, the 3rd Battalion, 126th Aviation Regiment, part of the 29th Infantry Division (Army National Guard), and the Coastal Patrol Squadron 18, Cape Cod Composite Squadron 044-Massachusetts Wing (Civil Air Patrol). Establishment Otis Air National Guard Base is named for pilot, flight surgeon, and eminent Boston City Hospital surgeon Lt. Frank "Jesse" Otis. He was a member of the 101st Observation Squadron who was killed on 11 January 1937 when his Douglas O-46A crashed at Hennepin, Illinois while on a cross-country training mission. In 1938, the landing field area at Camp Edwards was named Otis Field in his memory. Ten years later, the base was renamed Otis Air Force Base in his honor. During the Korean War, it was used by the Army to provide basic training. Until 1973, it was the largest Aerospace Defense Command base in the world. During World War II, the field was known as Naval Auxiliary Air Facility Otis and was a subordinate field for Naval Air Station Quonset Point, Rhode Island. Cold War During the Cold War, the base was a key Aerospace Defense Command (ADC) installation. Activities included the 33rd Fighter Wing, the 4604th Support Squadron supporting the Texas Towers (1956–63), the 60th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron, and the 551st Airborne Early Warning and Control Wing aircraft, flying over the Atlantic Ocean from 1954. The 551st flew the EC-121 Warning Star before moving to Hanscom Air Force Base in 1969. The 551st was also the first Air Force wing to fly the EC-121. The 33rd flew various fighter jets in conjunction with the 60th Fighter Interceptor Squadron. The expanding mission led to the runways being lengthened in 1960. The base was also home to the 26th Air Defense Missile Squadron, which operated BOMARC surface-to-air missiles. The regular air force began leaving Otis in the late 1960s as improvements in radar made the 551st more costly when compared to newer technologies. The 551st and the 60th left Otis when the Air Force began to move the continental air defense mission over to the Air National Guard. Strategic Air Command maintained the 19th Air Refueling Squadron at Otis AFB flying the KC-97 Stratofreighter. After the squadron inactivated, SAC assigned Detachment 1, 416th Bombardment Wing/ 41st Air Refueling Squadron, based at Griffiss AFB, New York with 2 KC-135 Stratotanker and 2 99th Bombardment Wing / 99th Air Refueling Squadron, Westover AFB, Massachusetts KC-135 Stratotankers on 24 Hour Alert Duty. After active duty units left, the Massachusetts Air National Guard's 102d Fighter Wing (102 FW) became the main unit at the base, flying fighter and air defense missions. During the Cold War period from 1964 until 2004, the 102 FW operated a variety of air defense and tactical fighter aircraft, including the F-86H Sabre, F-84B/F Thunderstreak, F-100D Super Sabre, F-106A/B Delta Dart and F-15A/B Eagle. The Wing's 101st Tactical Fighter Squadron shared missions with the 33rd Tactical Fighter Wing during the Cold War. In 1987, the 102 FW transitioned to the F-15A Eagle, and, later, to the F-15C Eagle. The base was also utilized as a stopover for a French Air Force Mirage IV on the way to French Polynesia for Operation Tamoure. Following the 2005 Base Realignment and Closure Commission, the 102 FW was directed to transfer its F-15 aircraft to its sister unit, the 104th Fighter Wing at Barnes Municipal Airport/ANGB. All F-15 aircraft were transferred by January 2008 and the 102 FW was redesignated as the 102d Intelligence Wing (102 IW), a non-flying unit. President John F. Kennedy used Otis on many occasions for the landing of Air Force One when he traveled to the Kennedy Compound in Hyannis. He would then board an Army or Marine Corps helicopter which would then take him to the compound. It was at the Otis AFB Hospital that his wife, Jacqueline, gave birth to their son Patrick Bouvier Kennedy, who died two days later. Closure In the early 1970s, Otis AFB was marked for closure as part of a nationwide reduction of military bases, to cut costs as the Vietnam War wound down. In 1973, Governor of Massachusetts Francis W. Sargent appointed the Otis Task Force to oversee a phase-down of military activities at the Massachusetts Military Reservation (MMR). The major concern of Cape residents was the fate of base property and impacts on the local economy as military activities decreased. While the future of the base was in limbo, ideas were floated that would include the redeveloping of the base into a recreation center of sorts that would rival Disneyland. The state even went so far as to mail out brochures to 1,500 corporations around the world, advertising the redevelopment opportunities of the base. PAVE PAWS In 1977, Otis AFB was officially redistributed with the establishment of boundary lines which divided the complex into several installations, all within the confines of the original Otis AFB. Established was Otis Air National Guard Base, Camp Edwards (an Army National Guard small arms training facility that served as a POW camp during World War II), and Coast Guard Air Station Cape Cod (which utilizes the Otis ANGB runways). Together they form the Massachusetts Military Reservation, where 17 other state, federal and private entities operate within its boundaries. In 1978, the Regular Air Force returned to Otis ANGB with the construction of the Precision Acquisition Vehicle Entry Phased Array Warning System (PAVE PAWS) near the Cape Cod Canal. PAVE PAWS is designed to detect airborne ballistic missiles and monitor orbiting satellites. PAVE PAWS is an Active Space Force site and consists of the 6th Space Warning Squadron. This unit is known as Cape Cod Air Station and not directly affiliated to Otis ANG, Base. Twenty-first century Otis ANGB was originally scheduled to be closed by the 2005 Base Realignment and Closure (BRAC), but it was spared in last minute decisions. However, the 102nd Fighter Wing did lose its F-15 Eagle and transitioned to a non-flying mission, redesignated as the 102d Intelligence Wing. The only military aircraft currently based at Otis ANGB are those of the Coast Guard, although transient military aircraft continue to use the facility, and the Navy has considered it as a place of interest should they decide to base naval forces in the Northeast again. A partnership was created on December 22, 2006 among the Coast Guard, National Guard, and the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. The Coast Guard assumed control of the aviation facilities from the Air Force, the Air National Guard took over the management of the utilities, and the state funds the emergency services and fire protection. Improvements to the lighting system were put in control of the Coast Guard. The Federal Aviation Administration has released new flight procedures that identify the ICAO code KFMH with the name of Coast Guard Air Station Cape Cod. On November 6, 2009, ground was broken on new facilities for the 102nd Intelligence Wing. The airport was a NASA Space Shuttle launch abort site. In May 2013, it was announced that one third of the 104th Fighter Wing's F-15 aircraft would be moving to Otis to take up an alert mission for four to six months, as Barnes Municipal Airport's runway underwent renovation. In December 2013, Otis was selected as a test site by the United States Federal Aviation Administration to "aid in researching the complexities of integrating Unmanned Aircraft Systems into the congested, northeast airspace." Massachusetts Institute of Technology will work with Otis to test drones at the airport. September 11, 2001 On September 11, 2001, the North American Aerospace Defense Command alerted the base at 8:41 to be put on battle stations. Four minutes later, Lieutenant Colonel Timothy Duffy and Major Daniel Nash were scrambled and flew F-15 Eagle fighters out of the base heading toward New York City to intercept American Airlines Flight 11. They departed somewhere between 8:46 and 8:52. Both pilots were interviewed in the 2006 documentary Flight 175: As the World Watched. Environmental issues Military operations in the early years at Otis AFB included the use of petroleum products and other hazardous materials, such as fuels, motor oils, and cleaning solvents, and the generation of associated wastes. It was common practice for many years to dispose of such wastes in landfills, dry wells, sumps, and the sewage treatment plant. Spills and leaks also occurred. These activities had a serious impact on the Upper Cape's groundwater resources; much of the water supply in the surrounding area was converted from wells to municipal water sources as a direct result of the threats from waste plumes in the groundwater. Residents of nearby towns raised concerns about possible adverse effects on health of humans resulting from PAVE PAWS radiation. Remediation on the site occurred in 1998 and a 2005 report from the National Academies Press found no evidence of adverse health effects from PAVE PAWS. In 2012, a wind turbine started operating in the area which is powering 25-30% of the energy used in the remediation effort. Accidents and incidents 14 February 1951: Major Raymond S. Wetmore, World War II ace (21.25 kills) and commander of the 59th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron at Otis Air Force Base, is killed in the crash of F-86A-5-NA Sabre, 48-0149, c/n 151-43517 at age 27, after a cross-country flight from Los Angeles to Otis. He was on his final approach when his plane suddenly shot skyward and then turned towards the ground where it crashed. Wetmore was killed instantly. He was reported to have said that he had trouble steering and ejecting from the plane. He was also reported to have said to the tower, "I'm going to go up and bring it down in Wakeby Lake, so I don't hit any houses." 25 May 1958: USAF Lockheed RC-121D-LO Warning Star, 55-123, of the 551st AEWCW, burns out on the ramp at Otis; 0 dead. 11 July 1965: A USAF Lockheed EC-121H-LO Warning Star, 55-136, of the 551st AEWCW, develops a fire in the number three (starboard inner) engine, attempts ditching in the North Atlantic approximately 100 miles east of Nantucket. Night touchdown while on fire proves difficult, aircraft crashes and breaks apart. Three of the 19 people on board survive. Seven of the crew bodies are never recovered. 11 November 1966: A USAF Lockheed EC-121H-LO Warning Star of the 551st AEWCW, out of Otis AFB, Massachusetts, crashes in the North Atlantic ~125 miles E of Nantucket, Massachusetts by unexplained circumstances, approximately the same general area as the one lost 11 July 1965. All 19 crew members are KWF, bodies never recovered. 25 April 1967- A USAF Lockheed EC-121H-LO Warning Star, 53-549, of the 551st AEWCW, out of Otis AFB, Massachusetts, ditches in the North Atlantic ~one mile off of Nantucket, Massachusetts, just after having taken off from that base. One survivor, 15 crew KWF. Five bodies were not recovered. Col. James P. Lyle, the Commander of the 551st AEW&C Wing to which all the aircraft and crew members were assigned, was the pilot. Colonel Lyle had been assigned to take over that command nine months earlier. It was he who presented each of the next of kin of 11 November 1966 crash victims with the United States Flag during that memorial service. 14 November 1967- Two McDonnell F-101B Voodoos of the 60th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron, out of Otis AFB, Massachusetts, collide over Maine during a cross-country formation flight. Aircraft 57-376 is destroyed crashing on Mount Abraham after the two-man crew ejects with minor injuries. The uninjured crew of moderately damaged aircraft 57-378 makes an emergency landing at Dow AFB, Maine. Fuel delivery truck crashes at Otis Rotary have caused fires, treated with fire fighting foam, which has seeped into the groundwater and contaminated drinking water with perfluorinated organic compounds (PFC's). Three homes in a Pocasset, Massachusetts neighborhood have also been receiving bottled water. Previous units VB-74 VT-74 1st Special Operations Wing (1969–1972) 19th Air Refueling Squadron (Detached from main wing) (1960–1966) GSU / Detached from the 4050th Air Refueling Wing, Westover AFB, Massachusetts (1960–1963) GSU / Detached from the 499th Air Refueling Wing, Westover AFB, Massachusetts (1963–1966) Detachment 1, 99th Bombardment Wing, (A KC-135 Satellite Alert unit) GSU / Detached from the 99th Bombardment Wing, Westover AFB, Massachusetts (1969–1972) Detachment 1, 416th Bombardment Wing, (A KC-135 Satellite Alert unit) GSU / Detached from the 416th Bombardment Wing, Griffiss AFB, New York (1969–1972) 102nd Tactical Air Command Hospital 119th Aircraft Control & Warning Squadron (1952–1953) 26th Air Defense Missile Squadron (1961–1972) 50th Fighter-Interceptor Wing (1949–1951) 437th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron 1952-1955 (First operational unit with the F-94C) 564th Air Defense Group, 33rd Fighter Wing, (Air Defense) (1948–1957) 58th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron 1948-1959 (F-84B, F-86A, F-94B, F-89D/H/J) 59th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron 1948-1952 (F-84B, F-86A, F-94A/B) 60th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron 1948-1950 (F-84B), 1955-1971 (F-94C, First to fly the F-101B Voodoo) 81st Fighter Squadron (1949–1951) 4604th Support Squadron (Supported Texas Towers, #2, #3, and #4.) 4707th Air Defense Wing 4735th Air Defense Group 4713th Defense Systems Evaluation Squadron 4784th Air Base Group 551st Airborne Early Warning and Control Wing (1954–1969) 960th Airborne Early Warning and Control Squadron (1955–1969) 961st Airborne Early Warning and Control Squadron (1955–1969) 962d Airborne Early Warning and Control Squadron (1955–1969) 966th Airborne Early Warning and Control Squadron (1961–1962) 551st Electronics Maintenance Squadron 551st Field Maintenance Squadron 551st Periodic (Later: Organizational) Maintenance Squadron 551st Air Base (Later: Combat Support)Group 551st Air Police (Later: Security Police) Squadron 551st Food Service (Later: Services) Squadron 551st Installations (Later: Civil Engineering) Squadron 551st Motor Vehicle (Later: Transportation) Squadron 551st Supply Squadron Otis Air Force Base Hospital 551st USAF Hospital Squadron 553rd Reconnaissance Wing Batcats (1967) 553rd Reconnaissance Squadron 554th Reconnaissance Squadron 553rd Electronic Maintenance Squadron 553rd Field Maintenance Squadron 553rd Organizational Maintenance Squadron Wing unknown 617th Aircraft Control and Warning Squadron (1 Nov 1953-December 1954) 622nd Aircraft Control and Warning Squadron (1 Sep 1953- Dec 1954) 630th Aircraft Control and Warning Squadron (7 Jan 1954-8 Sep 1954) 643d Aircraft Control and Warning Squadron (1 Sep 1953-15 Jul 1954) 673rd Aircraft Control and Warning Squadron (1 Sep 1953-1 Aug 1954) 932d Aircraft Control and Warning Squadron (11 May 1952-Sep 1952) Air Defense Command Non-Commissioned Officer Academy Boston Air Defense Sector Note: The Lockheed YF-12 was supposed to be stationed at Otis. This would have either meant the creation of three new squadrons, or the reuse of the above squadrons. Notable associations Arnold W. Braswell, Lieutenant General, United States Air Force, with the 33rd Fighter Wing, flew F-86 Sabrejets. James M. Kelly, Astronaut. Daniel James Jr., first African-American four-star general, was assigned to Otis AFB from 1951 to 1956. He served as a pilot with the 58th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron, commander of the 437th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron, and commander of the 60th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron. Charles Sweeney, commanded Bockscar, the B-29 that dropped Fat Man on Nagasaki, later 102nd Air Defense Wing commander. Raymond S. Wetmore, 59th Fighter Squadron commander. Ruth Allen, singer. Arval J. Roberson, Last commander of Otis Air Force Base and World War II ace. Monuments In a rotary near the original main gate to the base, is a Lockheed F-94 Starfire (tail number 51-4335) which was, presumably, flown by future General Daniel "Chappie" James Jr. when he was a squadron commander at Otis AFB in the 1950s. James' name is written on the fuselage of the aircraft near the canopy. There is also a static display of an F-15 Eagle on Camp Edwards adjacent to Otis AFB. Amateur radio restrictions The US Code of Federal Regulations specifies that amateur radio operators within 160 kilometers of Otis must not transmit with more than 50 watts of power on the 70-centimeter band. See also Massachusetts World War II Army Airfields Eastern Air Defense Force (Air Defense Command) List of military installations in Massachusetts References External links Buildings of the United States government in Massachusetts Military facilities in Massachusetts Airports in Barnstable County, Massachusetts Military Superfund sites Mashpee, Massachusetts Sandwich, Massachusetts Installations of the United States Air National Guard John F. Kennedy Airfields of the United States Army Air Forces in Massachusetts Superfund sites in Massachusetts 1938 establishments in Massachusetts Space Shuttle Emergency Landing Sites
4843627	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20fascist%20movements	List of fascist movements	This page lists political regimes and movements that have been described as fascist. Whether a certain government is to be characterized as a fascist (radical authoritarian nationalist) government, an authoritarian government, a totalitarian government, a police state or some other type of government is often a matter of dispute. The term "fascism" has been defined in various ways by different authors. Many of the regimes and movements which are described in this article can be considered fascist according to some definitions but they cannot be considered fascist according to other definitions. See definitions of fascism for more information about that subject. The Axis (1922–1945) Italy (1922–1943) The first fascist country was Italy, ruled by Benito Mussolini (Il Duce). The Italian Fascists imposed totalitarian rule and crushed political and intellectual opposition, while promoting economic modernization, traditional social values and a rapprochement with the Roman Catholic Church. Italy was a leading member of the Axis powers in World War II, battling with initial success on several fronts. However, after the German-Italian defeats in Africa and the Soviet Union and the subsequent Allied landings in Sicily, King Victor Emmanuel III overthrew and arrested Mussolini, and the Fascist Party in areas (south of Rome) controlled by the Allied invaders was shut down. The new government signed an armistice with the Allies in September 1943. Mussolini was then rescued from prison by German paratroopers, and after his rescue, he was installed as the head of the "Repubblica di Salò" in northern Italy, a state which continued to fight against the allies alongside Germany. Germany (1933–1945) The Nazi Party, led by Adolf Hitler, espoused a form of fascism that incorporated fervent antisemitism, anti-communism, scientific racism, and the use of eugenics into its creed. Its extreme nationalism originated in pan-Germanism and the ethno-nationalist Völkisch movement which had been a prominent aspect of German nationalism since the late 19th century, and it was strongly influenced by the paramilitary groups that emerged after Germany's defeat in World War I, from which came the party's underlying "cult of violence". Nazism subscribed to pseudo-scientific theories of a racial hierarchy and social Darwinism, identifying the Germans as a part of what the Nazis regarded as an Aryan or Nordic master race. On 30 January 1933, Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany, the head of government, by the President of the Weimar Republic, Paul von Hindenburg, the head of State. The Nazi Party then began to eliminate all sources of political opposition and it also began to consolidate its power. Hindenburg died on 2 August 1934 and Hitler became dictator of Germany by merging the offices and powers of the Chancellery and the Presidency. Genocide and mass murder became hallmarks of the regime. Starting in 1939, hundreds of thousands of German citizens with mental or physical disabilities were murdered in hospitals and asylums. Einsatzgruppen paramilitary death squads accompanied the German armed forces inside the occupied territories and conducted the mass killings of millions of Jews and other Holocaust victims. After 1941, millions of others were imprisoned, worked to death, or murdered in Nazi concentration camps and extermination camps. This genocide is known as the Holocaust. Japan (1931–1945) Right-wing elements in Japan, including industrialists, military officers, and the nobility, had long opposed democracy as an anathema to national unity. Military cliques began to dominate the national government starting in the 1930s. A major militarist nationalist movement in Japan from the 1920s to the 1930s was the Imperial Way Faction "Kodoha". In 1936, Japan and Germany signed the Anti-Comintern Pact, aimed at countering the Soviet Union and the Communist International. In 1940, Prime Minister Fumimaro Konoye established the Imperial Rule Assistance Association, or Taisei Yokusankai, to consolidate all political parties under a single umbrella group. That same year, Japan joined Germany and Italy in the Tripartite Pact. Other countries Austria (1933–1945) Engelbert Dollfuß's idea of a "Ständestaat" was borrowed from Mussolini. Dollfuß dissolved parliament and established a clerical-fascist dictatorship which lasted until Austria was incorporated into Nazi Germany through the Anschluss of 1938. Brazil (1932–1938) Briefly, the regime of Getúlio Vargas aligned with Plínio Salgado's Integralist Party, a Brazilian "fascist" movement. Later Vargas launched his own cult of personality, that endures to this day, and took inspiration from Mussolini in a number of areas, such as labor law. The Brazilian Consolidation of Labor Laws, a decree issued by Vargas in 1943, has been described as partly inspired by Mussolini's laws of 1927. There are debates about whether the Vargas government was fascist or not. Some scholars have argued Vargas's leadership was clearly a version of fascism or drew substantial inspiration from fascism. Others argue against this position from the fact that Vargas followed the Caudillismo ideology, which is strongly Positivist, described as incompatible with Fascism's metaphysical, traditionalist, almost occultist ideas. Vargas also led Brazil to join Allies side and declared war on the fascist Axis alliance in WW2. Brazil sent Expeditionary Forces to help the Allies in multiple fronts. China (1940–1945) The Kuomintang, a Chinese nationalist political party, had an alleged history of fascism under Chiang Kai-shek's leadership. The Blue Shirts Society, a fascist paramilitary organization within the KMT that modeled itself after Mussolini's blackshirts, was anti-foreign and anti-communist, and it stated that its agenda was to end the influences of foreign (Japanese and Western) imperialists in China, crush Communism, and eliminate feudalism. In addition to being anti-communist, some KMT members, like Chiang Kai-shek's right-hand man Dai Li were anti-American, and wanted to expel American influence. Close Sino-German ties also promoted cooperation between the Nationalist Government and Nazi Germany. The New Life Movement was a government-led civic movement in 1930s China initiated by Chiang Kai-shek to promote cultural reform and Neo-Confucian social morality and to ultimately unite China under a centralised ideology following the emergence of ideological challenges to the status quo. The Movement attempted to counter threats of Western and Japanese imperialism through a resurrection of traditional Chinese morality, which it held to be superior to modern Western values. As such the Movement was based upon Confucianism, mixed with Christianity, nationalism and authoritarianism that have some similarities to fascism. It rejected individualism and liberalism, while also opposing socialism and communism. There is debate among scholars on whether Chiang Kai-shek’s Nationalist regime was fascist. Some historians such as Jay Taylor argued that Chiang’s ideology does not expouse fascism. Other historians regard this movement as imitating Nazism and being a neo-nationalistic movement used to elevate Chiang's control of everyday lives. Frederic Wakeman suggested that the New Life Movement was "Confucian fascism". Other historians argue that despite Chiang’s flaws and his authoritarian rule, his regime did not espouse the fascist ideology of totalitarianism and ultranationalism. Chiang repeatedly attacked his enemies such as the Empire of Japan as fascistic and ultra-militaristic. The Sino-German relationship also rapidly deteriorated as Germany failed to pursue a detente between China and Japan, which led to the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War. China later declared war on fascist countries, including Germany, Italy, and Japan, as part of Declarations of war during World War II. During World War II, the Wang Jingwei regime was a puppet state of the Empire of Japan established in 1940 in Japanese-occupied eastern China. The official name of this state was simply the Republic of China, but it is widely known as the "Wang Jingwei regime" so as to distinguish it from the Nationalist government of the Republic of China under Chiang Kai-shek, which was fighting with the Allies of World War II against Japan. Wang Jingwei was a high-ranking former Kuomintang (KMT) official, a rival of Chiang Kai-shek and a member of the pro-peace faction of the KMT. He defected to the Japanese side and formed a collaborationist government in occupied Nanjing in 1940. The new state claimed the entirety of China during its existence, but effectively only Japanese-occupied territory was under its direct control. Its diplomatic recognition was limited to other members of the Anti-Comintern Pact, of which it was a signatory. Wang Jingwei supported Hitler and Mussolini's ideals of a fascist state. Croatia (1941–1945) Poglavnik Ante Pavelić, leader of the infamous Ustaše movement, came to power in 1941 as the Croatian puppet leader under the control of Nazi Germany. Under the indirect control of Germany, the Ustaše regime was based heavily upon both clerical fascism and the Italian model of fascism, with elements of racial integrity and organic nationalism drawn from Nazism. France (1940–1944) The Vichy regime of Philippe Pétain, established following France's defeat by Germany, collaborated with the Nazis. However, the minimal importance of fascists in the government until its direct occupation by Germany makes it appear to seem more similar to the regime of Franco or Salazar than the model fascist powers. While it has been argued that anti-Semitic raids performed by the Vichy regime were more in the interests of pleasing Germany than in service of ideology, anti-semitism was a full component of the "National Revolution" ideology of Vichy. As early as October 1940 the Vichy regime introduced the infamous statut des Juifs, that produced a new legal definition of Jewishness and which barred Jews from certain public offices. They interned Liberals, Communists, Jews, Gypsies, and homosexuals in concentration camps as soon as 1940. Also, in May 1941 the Parisian police force had collaborated in the internment of foreign Jews. As a means of identifying Jews, the German authorities required all Jews in the occupied zone to wear a yellow badge. On the 11 June, they demanded that 100,000 Jews be handed over for deportation. The most infamous of these mass arrests was the so-called Vel' d'Hiv Roundup (Rafle du Vel' d'Hiv) which took place in Paris on the 16 and 17 July 1942. The Vélodrome d'Hiver was a large cycle track situated on the rue Nélaton near the Quai de Grenelle in the 15th arrondissement of Paris. In a vast operation codenamed "Spring Breeze" (Vent printanier), the French police rounded up 13,152 Jews from Paris and its surrounding suburbs. These were mostly adult men and women however approximately 4,000 children were among them. Identifications for the arrests were made easier by the large number of files on Jews compiled and held by Vichy authorities since 1940. The French police, headed by René Bousquet, were entirely responsible for this operation and no German soldiers assisted. Pierre Laval, head of Vichy, included the children in the deportations to Auschwitz against general German orders. Most of the deportees sealed in the transports died en route due to lack of food or water. The few survivors were sent to the gas chambers. A few months later, a police operation took place in Marseille, known as the Battle of Marseille, and led to massive raids in the so-called "free zone", administrated by Vichy. Greece (1936–1941) The dictatorship of Ioannis Metaxas from 1936 to 1941, known as the 4th of August Regime, was partly fascist in its ideological nature, and might hence be characterized as quasi-fascist or authoritarian. It had a National Youth Organisation based on the Hitlerjugend, developed an armaments-centered economy, established a police-state akin to that of Nazi Germany (Greece received tactical and material support from Himmler, who exchanged correspondence with the Greek Minister of State Security Konstantinos Maniadakis) and brutality against communists in big cities such as Athens (communism was not known in the small towns and villages of Greece yet). The Colonel George Papadopoulos' 1967 to 1974 military dictatorship, which was supported by the United States, however, was less ideological and lacked a clear fascist element other than militarism. Hungary (1932–1945) By 1932, support for right-wing ideology, embodied by Prime Minister Gyula Gömbös, had reached the point where Hungarian Regent Miklós Horthy could not postpone appointing a fascist prime minister. Horthy also showed signs of admiring the efficiency and conservative leanings of the Italian fascist state under Mussolini and was not too reluctant to appoint a fascist government (with terms for the extent of Horthy's power). Horthy would keep control over the mainstream fascist movement in Hungary until near the end of the Second World War. However, Gömbös never had a truly powerful fascist base of support. Instead, the radical Arrow Cross Party, which gained support in Budapest as well as the countryside, became a powerful political movement, gaining nearly 800,000 votes in the election of 1939. Horthy became paranoid due to his new rival, and imprisoned the Arrow Cross Party's leader, Ferenc Szálasi. However, this action only increased popular support for the fascist movement. In another attempt to challenge the Arrow Cross, Horthy's government began to imitate the Arrow Cross Party's ideology. Starting in 1938, several racial laws, mostly against Jews, were passed by the regime, but the extremist Arrow Cross Party, led by Ferenc Szálasi, was banned until German pressure lifted the law, and until Germany occupied Hungary during Operation Margarethe on 19 March 1944, no Jews were in direct danger of being annihilated. In July 1944, armor-colonel Ferenc Koszorús and the First Armour Division, under Horthy's orders, resisted the Arrow Cross militia and prevented the deportation of the Jews of Budapest, thus saved over 200,000 lives. This act impressed upon the German occupying forces, including Adolf Eichmann, that as long as Hungary continued to be governed by Horthy, no real Endlösung could begin. Following Horthy's attempt to have Hungary jump out of the war on 15 October, Szálasi, with German military support, launched Operation Panzerfaust and replaced Admiral Horthy as Head of State. The regime changed to a system more in line with Nazism and would remain this way until the capture of Budapest by Soviet troops. Over 400,000 Jews were sent by Hungary to German death camps from 1944 to 1945. Norway (1942–1945) Vidkun Quisling had staged a coup d'état during the German invasion on 9 April 1940. This first government was replaced by a Nazi puppet government under his leadership from 1 February 1942. His party, the Nasjonal Samling, never had any substantial support in Norway, undermining his attempts to emulate the Italian fascist state. Portugal (1933–1974) The Estado Novo regime of António de Oliveira Salazar borrowed many of the ideas towards military and governance from Mussolini's Fascist regime and adapted to the Portuguese example of paternal iconography for authoritarianism. However Salazar distanced himself from fascism and Nazism, which he criticized as a "pagan Caesarism" that recognized neither legal, religious nor moral limits. Unlike Mussolini or Hitler, Salazar never had the intention to create a party-state. Salazar was against the whole-party concept and in 1930 he created the National Union a single-party, which he marketed as a "non-party", announcing that the National Union would be the antithesis of a political party. Salazar's aim was the depoliticization of society not the mobilization of populace. Salazar promoted Catholicism, but argued that the role of the Church was social, not political, and negotiated the Concordat of 1940. The other fascist movement was the National Syndicalists, also called the "Blue Shirts" (camisas azuis), who were active briefly between 1932 and 1934. Following the tradition of uniformed right-wing paramilitary groups, the Blue Shirts were an organisation advocating syndicalism and unionism, inspired by Benito Mussolini's brand of Italian Fascism. As Francisco Rolão Preto wrote in July 1922, "our organic syndicalism is essentially the basis of current syndicalist thought among Mussolini's friends". MNS was also built on previous allegiances to Integralismo Lusitano, but it was not inspired by the Action Française as alleged by their adversaries. The leader Francisco Rolão Preto advocated the personalism of Emmanuel Mounier and some of the aspects of unionism. His unionist platform was based on leftist ideas of social justice, such as "a minimum family wage", "paid holidays", "working class education", and a world in which workers are "guaranteed the right to happiness". In 1934, Salazar banned the National Syndicalists. Salazar denounced the National Syndicalists as "inspired by certain foreign models" and condemned their "exaltation of youth, the cult of force through direct action, the principle of the superiority of state political power in social life, and the propensity for organising masses behind a single leader". However, Salazar adopted many of the traits he criticized the National Syndicalists for. Most of the National Syndicalists eventually joined the National Union, the party of the Estado Novo regime. Poland (1930s) During the 1930s, the rise of fascist-inspired organizations occurred in Poland. Fascist organizations like the Association of Polish Fascists (Związek Faszystów Polskich) were however marginal and ephemeral. Fascist-inspired organizations were however stronger than parties with clearly fascist programs. National Radical Camp Falanga was the most prominent of them. It was created by radical youth members with National Democratic origins. Falanga was nonetheless quickly banned by the authoritarian ruling Sanacja regime and continued to operate clandestinely. It was also involved in frequent street violence and anti-Semitic riots. Romania (1940–1944) The Iron Guard turned more and more into a pro-Nazi and pro-German movement and took power in September 1940 when Ion Antonescu forced King Carol II to abdicate. However, the cohabitation between the Iron Guard and Ion Antonescu was short-lived. During the 1930s, the group combined a mix of Christian faith, antisemitism, and calls for land reform for farmers, who still lived in a quasi-feudal society. However, although widely popular for a period of time, the extremely violent and fanatically "death-romanticist" nature of the movement made it difficult for the Iron Guard to attract conservatives and middle class people, and as a result, the movement could never be as successful as the Nazi Party. The Antonescu regime that followed had elements of fascism, but it lacked a clear political program or party. It was more a military dictatorship. The regime was characterized by nationalism, antisemitism, and anti-communism, but had no social program. Despite the Iaşi pogrom and a near-liquidation of the Jews of many parts of Moldavia, the regime ultimately refused to send the Romanian Jews to German death camps. The regime was overthrown on 23 August 1944 in a coup led by the king Mihai of Romania. Slovakia (1939–1945) The Slovak People's Party was a quasi-fascist nationalist movement. It was associated with the Roman Catholic Church and founded by Father Andrej Hlinka. His successor Monsignor Jozef Tiso was a president of nominally independent Slovakia in 1939–1945. His government colleagues like Vojtech Tuka or Alexander Mach collaborate with fascism. The clerical element lends comparison with Austrofascism or the clerical fascism of Croatia, though not to the excesses of either model. The market system was run on principles agreeing with the standard Italian fascist model of industrial regulation. Spain (1936–1975) After the 1936 arrest and execution of its founder, José Antonio Primo de Rivera, during the Spanish Civil War, the fascist Falange Española Party was allied to and ultimately came to be dominated by Generalísimo Francisco Franco, who became known as El Caudillo, the undisputed leader of the Nationalist side in the war and, after victory, head of state until his death over 35 years later. South Africa (1930s–1940s, 1948-1994) There have been several waves of fascism in South Africa. Beginning with D F Malan's support of Hitler's brown shirts and the activities of Robey Leibbrandt in the 1930s and 1940s. The Ossewabrandwag was a far-right movement of mostly Afrikaners who opposed South Africa's participation in World War II and was sympathetic to the Nazi and Fascist regimes in Europe. In 1942 the future Apartheid-era Prime Minister of South Africa, BJ Vorster was appointed a ‘General’ of the Ossewabrandwag. Vorster declared: “We stand for Christian Nationalism which is an ally of National Socialism. You can call this anti-democratic principle dictatorship if you wish. In Italy it is called Fascism, in Germany National Socialism and in South Africa, Christian Nationalism.” The Ossewabrandwag led insurrections against the Union government, resulting in some of the leadership, including Vorster, to be detained under emergency regulations. Towards the end of the war they were paroled on house arrest. When the National Party came to power in the 1948 election, former members of the Ossewabrandwag became members of the new government. The election of 1948 saw the installation of Apartheid, which dramatically strengthened the racial hierarchy of the country. Policies such as the Group Areas Act and the Pass Laws were implemented with high degrees of state violence. Fundamental human rights were heavily curtailed or removed entirely. These included: free speech, freedom of movement, right of assembly, and right to privacy. Whilst elections were held on a regular basis, the system was marred by gerrymandering and restructured weighting of voting districts. Previously enshrined constitutional rights were slowly eroded over time, most significantly when they NP controlled Parliament installed a new, higher court of law (High Court of Parliament) to overturn decisions of the Supreme Court. Interned alongside BJ Vorster in 1942 was another Ossewabrandwag member Hendrik Johan van den Bergh who eventually went on to found the Bureau of State Security (BOSS), an intelligence agency created by the government on 16 May 1969 to coordinate military and domestic intelligence. Van den Bergh was to become known as the “tall assassin” given his physical height. BOSS was later subsumed by the Civil Co-operation Bureau which oversaw the death squads of Vlakplaas and conducted other forms of state violence. A later wave of fascism during the 1970s and 1980s created fringe right-wing groups such as the Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging. Yugoslavia (1935–1939) Yugoslav Radical Union was a Yugoslav fascist group run by Milan Stojadinović. Party members wore green shirt uniforms, addressed Stojadinović as Vodja and used the Roman salute. The party was dissolved following the Axis invasion of Yugoslavia. Fascism in liberal democracies Prior to World War II, fascist or quasi-fascist movements also appeared in democratic nations, often taking their inspiration from the regimes established by Mussolini and Hitler. Australia (1931–1940s) The New Guard was founded in Sydney in 1931 and was opposed to the rule of the then New South Wales premier Jack Lang. The organisation was pro-Monarchy and anti-Communist and was led by World War I veteran Eric Campbell. At its height, the New Guard had a membership of over 50,000 and was almost exclusively based in New South Wales. Following the dismissal of the Lang government in 1932, the New Guard lost much of its momentum and officially disbanded in 1935. Another Fascist movement was the short-lived anti-semitic, anti-Communist and Nazi-inspired Australia First Movement founded by former communist Percy Stephensen. The organisation was founded in October 1941 and existed until March 1942 when it was suppressed by Australian security agencies who believed the movement was supportive of the Axis Powers. Its leaders (including Stephensen) and several members were also interned. A small Nazi movement was founded among South Australia's ethnic German Australian community by Johannes Becker, a German migrant who arrived in Australia in 1927. Becker had joined the NSDAP in 1932 and was appointed State Leader (Landeskreisleiter) for the South Pacific the following year. Following the outbreak of World War II, Becker was interned and released in 1946, then deported to West Germany the following year. Belgium (1930s–1945) The Rexist movement and the Vlaamsch Nationaal Verbond party achieved some electoral success in the 1930s. The party could be labeled as clerical fascist with its roots in Catholic conservatism. The party gained rapid support for a brief period, focusing on the secularism, corruption, and ineffectiveness on parliamentary democracy in Belgium. Many of its members assisted the Nazi occupation during World War II. The Verdinaso movement, too, can be considered fascist. Its leader, Joris Van Severen, was killed before the Nazi occupation. Some of its adepts collaborated, but others joined the resistance. These collaborationist movements are generally classified as belonging to the National Socialist model or the German fascist model because of its brand of racial nationalism and the close relation with the occupational authorities. Canada (1930s–1940) In the 1930s, Canada had fascist fringe groups within it. One stronger group was the Parti national social chrétien of Adrien Arcand which had significant support. Arcand believed in the anti-Semitic policies of Hitler and called himself the "Canadian Führer". In 1934, his Quebec-based party merged with the western-based fascist Nationalist Party of Canada. In 1938, the English Canadian and French Canadian fascist movements united into the National Unity Party. In 1940, all fascist parties were banned under Canada's War Measures Act. Chile (1932–1938) In Chile, during the 1930s, there was a fascist party named National Socialist Movement of Chile (MNS), ruled by Jorge González von Marées, a Hitler sympathizer. However, the MNS was dissolved in 1938. Esoteric Nazi Miguel Serrano gathered a following of Nazis, fascists and far-right occultists in Chile. Finland (1929–1932) The Lapua Movement, established in 1929, originally a nationalist movement that opposed Sweden and Russia, turned into a fascist movement in the early 1930s whose members were infamous for their violent and brutal methods. However, the party's origins could date back to the early 1920s, in anti-communist forces during the Finnish Civil War. They attempted a coup d'état in 1932, after which the movement was banned. The Lapua Movement, however, affected the selection of Pehr Evind Svinhufvud as the president and the passing of extensive anti-communist laws. Finland stayed a democracy throughout World War II, despite co-operating with Nazi Germany. Ireland (1932–1933) Fascist sympathizers led by General Eoin O'Duffy established the Army Comrades Association, or "Blueshirts" in 1932 as a veterans organization. Renamed the National Guard, it provided physical protection for political groups such as Cumann na nGaedheal from intimidation and attacks by the IRA. The Blueshirts wanted to establish a corporate state in Ireland and frequently clashed with Republican supporters of the ruling Fianna Fáil, who were using force to disrupt that party's meetings. O'Duffy planned a parade in Dublin in 1933, and the government, fearing a coup, banned the organization. In response to the banning of the National Guard, Cumann na nGaedheal and the National Centre Party merged to form a new party, Fine Gael, on 3 September 1933. Former Blueshirts under O'Duffy's leadership later fought for Franco during the Nationalist uprising in Spain. Lebanon In Lebanon, the Kataeb Party (Phalange) was formed in 1936, with inspiration of the Spanish Falange and Italian fascism. The founder of the party, Pierre Gemayel, founded the party after returning from a visit at the 1936 Summer Olympics. The party is still active today, although it has abandoned the Falangist and Fascist ideology in place of Phoenicianism, social conservatism, republicanism, and Christian fundamentalism. Mexico (1930–1942) A reactionary nationalist movement called Acción Revolucionaria Mexicana (Mexican Revolutionary Action), founded by former Villista general Nicolas Rodriguez Carrasco, agitated for right-wing causes, such as the deportation of Jews and Chinese-Mexicans, throughout the 1930s. ARM maintained a paramilitary force called the Goldshirts, which clashed frequently with Communist activists, and supported the presidential faction of Plutarco Calles against the socialist reformist president Lázaro Cárdenas. The paramilitary group was banned in 1936 and the ARM officially disbanded in 1942, when Mexico declared war against the Axis. The Netherlands (1923–1945) The Verbond van Actualisten (Union of Actualists) was the oldest fascist movement in the Netherlands. It was established on 22 January 1923 and its ideology was based on Mussolini's Italian fascist movement. It ceased all activities in November 1928 after having had no success at all. It was succeeded by the Vereeniging De Bezem (Association 'The Broom') which was founded on 15 December 1928 by some men who previously were active in the Verbond van Actualisten. Its aim was to clean Dutch politics – hence the name. Its downfall in 1932 was caused by continuous discord between its leaders. On 14 December 1931 Anton Mussert and Cornelis van Geelkerken founded the Nationaal-Socialistische Beweging in Nederland (NSB), the National Socialist Movement in the Netherlands. It started as a fascist movement, Italian style, with an ideology also based on Hitler's NSDAP. In the years 1935–1936 the party embraced antisemitism. Its best pre-war election result was 7.9% of the voters (1935). The maximum number of member of the NSB was 100,000 (around 1.25% of the Dutch population). Soon after the German occupation in May 1940 the NSB became the only allowed political party. During WWII the NSB was never given any real power, and instead, the Germans used the NSB for their own purposes. After the German defeat, the NSB disappeared. On 29 June 1932 Jan Baars (previously active in the Vereeniging 'De Bezem''') founded the Algemeene Nederlandsche Fascisten Bond (General Dutch Fascist Federation). It was the first Dutch fascist political party to gain significant election results and it had a considerable number of members. Its political views were quite moderate and it disapproved of German Nazi racism and antisemitism. It ended its existence in 1934. Its main successful successor was Zwart Front (Black Front), 1934–1941. Its leaders were of a Catholic origin and the party was strongly based on Italian fascism. During the pre-war period, it never established a prominent position like Mussert's NSB. After the German invasion in May 1940, the number of members rose from 4,000 to 12,000. The Germans prohibited Zwart Front in December 1941. Other, smaller, fascist and Nazi parties were: Verbond van Nationalisten (Union of Nationalists, 1928–1934), the Nationaal-Socialistische Nederlandsche Arbeiders Partij (National Socialist Dutch Workers Party, 1931–1941), Nationaal-Socialistische Partij (National Socialist Party, 1932–1941), Nederlandsche Fascisten Unie (Dutch Fascist Union, 1933), Unie van Nederlandsche Fascisten (Union of Dutch Fascists, 1933), Oranje-Fascisten (Orange Fascists, 1933), Frysk Fascisten Front (Frisian Fascist Front, 1933), Corporatieve Concentratie (Corporative Concentration, 1933–1934), Verbond voor Nationaal Herstel (Union for National Restoration, 1933–1941), Nederlandsche Nationaal-Socialistische Partij (Dutch National Socialist Party, 1935) and the Nederlandsche Volkspartij (Dutch People's Party, 1938–1940). Dutch fascism and Nazism is known for its lack of coherence and it was dominated by the egos of its leaders. An important fact for its marginal position in pre-war Dutch politics was the absence of a 'lost generation' of combatants of WWI. Sweden (1926–1929) The Sveriges Fascistiska Folkparti (SFF; "Fascist People's Party of Sweden") was founded in 1926. Major figures of the party included its founding leader, Konrad Hallgren, a former German officer, and Swedish soldiers Sven Olov Lindholm and Sven Hedengren. In 1929 a delegation of the party, led by Hallgren and Lindholm, attended a major rally of the German Nazi party, at Nuremberg. Afterwards, the SFF was more strongly influenced by Nazism and changed its name to Sveriges Nationalsocialistiska Folkparti (SNF; Swedish National Socialist People's Party). The SNF was one of several Swedish Nazi parties. United Kingdom (1932–1940) Sir Oswald Mosley, an admirer of Mussolini, established the British Union of Fascists in 1932 as a nationalist alternative to the three mainstream political parties in Britain. Though the BUF achieved only limited success in some local elections, their existence caused frequent riots, usually instigated by Communist movements. Alarmed at the violence caused by the BUF, the government passed the Public Order Act in 1936 to restrict its activity. During the latter years of the decade, the party experienced a revival in popularity on the back of its anti-war campaign. The BUF was banned in 1940 and Mosley was interned for the duration of the war. The relative stability of democratic institutions, the long-time assimilation of Jews, and the lack of a strong, threatening Communist movement, had made it difficult for fascism to succeed in Britain. United States (1933–1941) Louisiana governor and politician Huey Long built a powerful state machine and at the time of his assassination in 1935 was building a national following. Writers on the far left and far right did call him a fascist. Some historians reject the designation. In the late 1930s some pro-German organizations seemed comfortable with fascist ideals. The Silver Legion of America (1933-1941), claiming around 15,000 members, managed to run a candidate for President on a third-party ticket, but was outlawed after Nazi Germany's declaration of war on the United States in late 1941. The German-American Bund openly supported Nazi Germany, and, like the Silver Legion, was banned during World War Two. Charles Coughlin, a Roman Catholic priest, used his nationally syndicated radio show to promote anti-Semitic and pro-fascist views. See also Anti-fascism Anti-Fascist Action Antifa (United States) Anti-racism Anti-Racist Action Antisemitism Clerical fascism Ecofascism Ethnic nationalism Far-right politics Far-right subcultures Fascism and ideology Fascism in Asia Fascism in Europe Fascism in North America Fascism in South America Fascist International Geography of antisemitism Grand Council of Fascism List of fascist movements by country List of Ku Klux Klan organizations List of neo-Nazi organizations List of organizations designated by the Southern Poverty Law Center as hate groups List of white nationalist organizations Neo-Confederates Neo-fascism Neo-Nazism Racial nationalism Racism Racism by country Radical right (Europe) Radical right (United States) Religious terrorism Right-wing politics Right-wing populism Right-wing terrorism White nationalism White supremacy Notes Cited sources Further reading General Atkins, Stephen E. Encyclopedia of modern worldwide extremists and extremist groups (Greenwood, 2004). Blamires, Cyprian, ed. World fascism: a historical encyclopedia(Abc-Clio, 2006). Blinkhorn, Martin. Fascism and the Right in Europe 1919-1945 ( Routledge, 2014). Davies, Peter, and Derek Lynch, eds. The Routledge companion to fascism and the far right (Routledge, 2005). excerpt Davies, Peter J., and Paul Jackson. The far right in Europe: an encyclopedia (Greenwood, 2008). excerpt and list of movements Eatwell, Roger. 1996. Fascism: A History. New York: Allen Lane. Finchelstein, Federico. Transatlantic fascism: ideology, violence, and the sacred in Argentina and Italy, 1919-1945 (Duke UJP, 2009). Larsen, Stein Ugelvik, ed. Fascism outside Europe: the European impulse against domestic conditions in the diffusion of global fascism (East European Monographs, 2001). Mises, Ludwig von. 1944. Omnipotent Government: The Rise of the Total State and Total War. Grove City: Libertarian Press. Morgan, Philip. Fascism in Europe, 1919–1945 (2003). Paxton, Robert O. 2004. The Anatomy of Fascism. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Payne, Stanley G. 1995. A History of Fascism, 1914–45. Madison, Wisc.: University of Wisconsin Press Petropoulos, Jonathan, "Co-Opting Nazi Germany: Neutrality in Europe During World War II." Dimensions 14.1 (2000): 13+. excerpt Reich, Wilhelm. 1970. The Mass Psychology of Fascism. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux. Fascist ideology De Felice, Renzo Fascism : an informal introduction to its theory and practice, an interview with Michael Ledeen, New Brunswick, N.J. : Transaction Books, 1976 . Fritzsche, Peter. 1990. Rehearsals for Fascism: Populism and Political Mobilization in Weimar Germany. New York: Oxford University Press. Griffin, Roger. 2000. "Revolution from the Right: Fascism", chapter in David Parker (ed.) Revolutions and the Revolutionary Tradition in the West 1560–1991, Routledge, London. Laqueur, Walter. 1966. Fascism: Past, Present, Future, New York: Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997. Schapiro, J. Salwyn. 1949. Liberalism and The Challenge of Fascism, Social Forces in England and France (1815–1870). New York: McGraw-Hill. Laclau, Ernesto. 1977. Politics and Ideology in Marxist Theory: Capitalism, Fascism, Populism. London: NLB/Atlantic Highlands Humanities Press. Sternhell, Zeev with Mario Sznajder and Maia Asheri. [1989] 1994. The Birth of Fascist Ideology, From Cultural Rebellion to Political Revolution., Trans. David Maisei. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. International fascism Coogan, Kevin. 1999. Dreamer of the Day: Francis Parker Yockey and the Postwar Fascist International. Brooklyn, N.Y.: Autonomedia. Griffin, Roger. 1991. The Nature of Fascism. New York: St. Martin's Press. Ledeen, Michael A. 1972. Universal Fascism: The Theory and Practice of the Fascist International, 1928-1936. New York: H Fertig. Paxton, Robert O. 2004. The Anatomy of Fascism. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. Weber, Eugen. [1964] 1985. Varieties of Fascism: Doctrines of Revolution in the Twentieth Century, New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, (Contains chapters on fascist movements in different countries.) Wallace, Henry. "The Dangers of American Fascism". The New York Times, Sunday, 9 April 1944. Robert Soucy. French Fascism: the First Wave, 1924–1933, New Haven and London, Yale University Press, 1995. and French Fascism: the Second Wave, 1933–1939, New Haven and London, Yale University Press, 1995. John Githongo's Stanford University Distinguished Visitor Lecture 05-02-15. External links Fascism Part I – Understanding Fascism and Anti-Semitism The Political Economy of Fascism – From Dave Renton's anti-fascist website Eternal Fascism: Fourteen Ways of Looking at a Blackshirt – Umberto Eco's list of 14 characteristics of Fascism, originally published 1995. Fascism and Zionism – From The Hagshama Department – World Zionist Organization Site of an Italian fascist party Italian and German languages Site dedicated to the period of fascism in Greece (1936–1941) Support for Hitler (or Fascism) in the United States – A pathfinder at Radical Reference Text of the papal encyclical Quadragesimo Anno''. Profits über Alles! American Corporations and Hitler by Jacques R. Pauwels Anti-communism Fascism Political theories Economic ideologies Politics-related lists
4843751	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tay%20Bridge%20disaster	Tay Bridge disaster	The Tay Bridge disaster occurred during a violent storm on Sunday 28 December 1879, when the first Tay Rail Bridge collapsed as a North British Railway (NBR) passenger train on the Edinburgh to Aberdeen Line from Burntisland bound for its final destination of Dundee passed over it, killing all aboard. The bridge—designed by Sir Thomas Bouch—used lattice girders supported by iron piers, with cast iron columns and wrought iron cross-bracing. The piers were narrower and their cross-bracing was less extensive and robust than on previous similar designs by Bouch. Bouch had sought expert advice on wind loading when designing a proposed rail bridge over the Firth of Forth; as a result of that advice he had made no explicit allowance for wind loading in the design of the Tay Bridge. There were other flaws in detailed design, in maintenance, and in quality control of castings, all of which were, at least in part, Bouch's responsibility. Bouch died less than a year after the disaster, his reputation ruined. Future British bridge designs had to allow for wind loadings of up to . Bouch's design for the Forth Bridge was not used. Bridge Construction of the original Tay Rail Bridge began in 1871. In its initial design, the bridge was to be supported by brick piers resting on bedrock. Trial borings had shown the bedrock to lie at no great depth under the river. At either end of the bridge, the bridge girders were deck trusses, the tops of which were level with the pier tops, with the single-track railway running on top. However, in the centre section of the bridge (the "high girders") the bridge girders ran as through trusses above the pier tops (with the railway inside them) in order to give the required clearance to allow passage of sailing ships to Perth. The bedrock lay much deeper than the trial borings had shown, and the bridge's designer, Sir Thomas Bouch, redesigned the span with fewer piers and correspondingly longer girders. The pier foundations were now constructed by sinking brick-lined wrought iron caissons onto the riverbed, and filling these with concrete. To reduce the weight these had to support, Bouch used open-lattice iron skeleton piers; each pier had multiple cast-iron columns taking the weight of the bridging girders. Wrought iron horizontal braces and diagonal tiebars linked the columns in each pier to provide rigidity and stability. The basic concept was well known, but for the Tay Rail Bridge, the pier dimensions were constrained by the caisson. For the higher portion of the bridge, there were thirteen girder spans. In order to accommodate thermal expansion, at only three of their fourteen piers was there a fixed connection from the pier to the girders. There were therefore three divisions of linked high girder spans, the spans in each division being structurally connected to each other, but not to neighbouring spans in other divisions. The southern and central divisions were nearly level, but the northern division descended towards Dundee at gradients of up to 1 in 73. The bridge was built by Hopkin Gilkes and Company (Gilkes), a Middlesbrough company which had worked previously with Bouch on iron viaducts. Gilkes, having first intended to produce all ironwork on Teesside, used a foundry at Wormit to produce the cast iron components, and to carry out limited post-casting machining. Gilkes were in some financial difficulty; they ceased trading in 1880, but had begun liquidation in May 1879, before the disaster. Bouch's brother had been a director of Gilkes, and all three had been colleagues on the Stockton and Darlington thirty years previously; on Edgar Gilkes's death in January 1876, Bouch had inherited shares valued at £35,000, but also owed for a guarantee of £100,000 of Gilkes borrowings and had been unable to extricate himself. The change in design increased cost and necessitated delay, intensified after two of the high girders fell when being lifted into place in February 1877. The first engine crossed the bridge seven months later. A Board of Trade inspection was conducted over three days of good weather in February 1878; the bridge was passed for use by passenger traffic, subject to a speed limit. The inspection report noted: When again visiting the spot I should wish, if possible, to have an opportunity of observing the effects of high wind when a train of carriages is running over the bridge. The bridge was opened for passenger services on 1 June 1878. Bouch was knighted in June 1879 soon after Queen Victoria had used the bridge. Disaster On the evening of Sunday 28 December 1879, a violent storm (10 to 11 on the Beaufort scale) was blowing virtually at right angles to the bridge. Witnesses said the storm was as bad as any they had seen in the 20–30 years they had lived in the area; one called it a 'hurricane', as bad as a typhoon he had experienced in the China Sea. The wind speed was measured at Glasgow – (averaged over an hour) – and Aberdeen, but not at Dundee. Higher windspeeds were recorded over shorter intervals, but at the inquiry an expert witness warned of their unreliability and declined to estimate conditions at Dundee from readings taken elsewhere. One modern interpretation of available information suggests winds were gusting to . Use of the Tay Rail Bridge was restricted to one train at a time by a signalling block system using a baton as a token. At 7:13 p.m. a North British Railway (NBR) passenger train from Burntisland (consisting of a 4-4-0 locomotive, its tender, five passenger carriages, and a luggage van) slowed to pick up the baton from the signal cabin at the south end of the bridge, then headed out onto the bridge, picking up speed. The signalman turned away to log this and then tended a stove, but a friend present in the signal cabin watched the train: when it got about from the cabin he saw sparks flying from the wheels on the east side. He had also seen this on the previous train. During the inquiry, testimony was heard that the wind was pushing the wheel flanges into contact with the running rail. John Black, a passenger on the previous train that crossed the bridge, explained that the guard rails protecting against derailment were slightly higher than and inboard of the running rails. This arrangement would catch the good wheel where derailment was by disintegration of a wheel, which was a real risk before steel wheels, and had occurred in the Shipton-on-Cherwell train crash on Christmas Eve 1874. The sparks continued for no more than three minutes, by which time the train was in the high girders. At that point "there was a sudden bright flash of light, and in an instant there was total darkness, the tail lamps of the train, the sparks and the flash of light all ... disappearing at the same instant." The signalman saw none of this and did not believe it when told. When the train failed to appear on the line off the bridge into Dundee he tried to talk to the signal cabin at the north end of the bridge, but found that all communication with it had been lost. Not only was the train in the river, but so were the high girders and much of the ironwork of their supporting piers. Divers exploring the wreckage later found the train still within the girders, with the engine in the fifth span of the southern 5-span division. There were no survivors; only 46 bodies were recovered out of 59 known victims. Fifty-six tickets for Dundee had been collected from passengers on the train before crossing the bridge; allowing for season ticket holders, tickets for other destinations, and for railway employees, 74 or 75 people were believed to have been on the train. It has been suggested that there were no unknown victims and that the higher figure of 75 arises from double-counting in an early newspaper report in the Dundee Courier, but the inquiry did not take its casualty figures from the press; it took sworn evidence and did its own sums. Court of inquiry Evidence A court of inquiry (a judicial enquiry under Section 7 of the Regulation of Railways Act 1871 "into the causes of, and circumstances attending" the accident) was immediately set up: Henry Cadogan Rothery, Commissioner of Wrecks, presided; supported by Inspector of Railways William Yolland and William Henry Barlow, President of the Institution of Civil Engineers. By 3 January 1880, they were taking evidence in Dundee; they then appointed Henry Law, a qualified civil engineer, to undertake detailed investigations. Whilst awaiting his report they held further hearings in Dundee (26 February – 3 March); having got it they sat at Westminster (19 April – 8 May) to consider the engineering aspects of the collapse. By then the railway, the bridge's contractor and Bouch had separate legal representation, and the NBR had sought independent advice from James Brunlees and John Cochrane, both engineers with extensive experience of major cast iron structures. The terms of reference did not specify the underlying purpose of the inquiry – to prevent a repetition, to allocate blame, to apportion liability or culpability, or to establish what precisely had happened. This led to difficulties (culminating in clashes) during the Westminster sessions. When the court reported their findings at the end of June, there was both an Inquiry Report signed by Barlow and Yolland and a minority report by Rothery. Other eyewitnesses Two witnesses, viewing the high girders from the north almost end-on, had seen the lights of the train as far as the 3rd–4th high girder, when they disappeared; this was followed by three flashes from the high girders north of the train. One witness said these advanced to the north end of the high girders with about fifteen seconds between first and last; the other that they were all at the north end, with less time between. A third witness had seen "a mass of fire fall from the bridge" at the north end of the high girders. A fourth said he had seen a girder fall into the river at the north end of the high girders, then a light had briefly appeared in the southern high girders, disappearing when another girder fell; he made no mention of fire or flashes. 'Ex-Provost' Robertson had a good view of most of the bridge from his house in Newport-on-Tay, but other buildings blocked his view of the southern high girders. He had seen the train move onto the bridge; then in the northern high girders, before the train could have reached them, he saw "two columns of spray illuminated with the light, first one flash and then another" and could no longer see the lights on the bridge; the only inference he could draw was that the lit columns of spray – slanting from north to south at about 75 degrees – were areas of spray lit up by the bridge lights as it turned over. How the bridge was used – speed of trains and oscillation of bridge Ex-provost Robertson had bought a season ticket between Dundee and Newport at the start of November, and became concerned about the speed of north-bound local trains through the high girders, which had been causing perceptible vibration, both vertical and lateral. After complaining on three occasions to the stationmaster at Dundee, with no effect on train speed, after mid-December he had used his season ticket to travel south only, using the ferry for north-bound crossings. Robertson had timed the train with his pocket watch, and to give the railway the benefit of the doubt he had rounded up to the nearest five seconds. The measured time through the girders () was normally 65 or 60 seconds, but twice it had been 50 seconds. When observing from the shore, he had measured 80 seconds for trains travelling through the girders, but not on any train he had travelled on. North-bound local trains were often held up to avoid delaying expresses, and then made up time while travelling over the bridge. The gradient onto the bridge at the northern end prevented similar high speeds on south-bound locals. Robertson said that the movement he observed was hard to quantify, although the lateral movement, which was probably , was definitely due to the bridge, not the train, and the effect was more marked at high speed. Four other train passengers supported Robertson's timings but only one had noticed any movement of the bridge. The Dundee stationmaster had passed Robertson's complaint about speed (he had been unaware of any concern about oscillation) on to the drivers, and then checked times from cabin to cabin (at either end of the bridge the train was travelling slowly to pick up or hand over the baton). However he had never checked speed through the high girders. Painters who had worked on the bridge in mid-1879 said that it shook when a train was on it. When a train entered the southern high girders the bridge had shaken at the north end, both east–west and, more strongly, up-and-down. The shaking was worse when trains were going faster, which they did: "when the Fife boat was nearly over and the train had only got to the south end of the bridge it was a hard drive". A joiner who had worked on the bridge from May to October 1879 also spoke of a lateral shaking, which was more alarming than the up-and-down motion, and greatest at the southern junction between the high girders and the low girders. He was unwilling to quantify the amplitude of motion, but when pressed he offered . When pressed further he would only say that it was distinct, large, and visible. One of the painters' foremen, however, said the only motion he had seen had been north–south, and that this had been less than . How the bridge was maintained – chattering ties and cracked columns The North British Railway maintained the tracks, but it retained Bouch to supervise maintenance of the bridge. He appointed Henry Noble as his bridge inspector. Noble, who was a bricklayer, not an engineer, had worked for Bouch on the construction of the bridge. Whilst checking the pier foundations to see if the river bed was being scoured from around them, Noble had become aware that some diagonal tie bars were 'chattering', and in October 1878 had begun remedying this. Diagonal bracing was by flat bars running from one lug at a column section top to two sling plates bolted to a lug at the base of the equivalent section on an adjacent column. The bar and sling plates all had a matching longitudinal slot in them. The tie bar was placed between the sling plates with all three slots aligned and overlapping, and then a gib was driven through all three slots and secured. Two "cotters" (metal wedges) were then positioned to fill the rest of the slot overlap, and driven in hard to put the tie under tension. Noble had assumed the cotters were too small and had not been driven up hard in the first place, but on the chattering ties the cotters were loose, and even if driven fully in would not fill the slot and put the bar under tension. By fitting an additional packing piece between loose cotters and driving the cotters in, Noble had re-tightened loose ties and stopped them chattering. There were over 4,000 gib and cotter joints on the bridge, but Noble said that only about 100 had had to be re-tensioned, most in October–November 1878. On his last check in December 1879, only two ties had needed attention, both on piers north of the high girders. Noble had found cracks in four column sections – one under the high girders, three to the north of them – which had then been bound with wrought iron hoops. Noble had consulted Bouch about the cracked columns, but not the chattering ties. How the bridge was built – the Wormit foundry The workers at the Wormit foundry complained that the columns had been cast using 'Cleveland iron', which always had scum on it—it was less easy to cast than 'good Scotch metal' and more likely to give defective castings. Moulds were damped with salt water, cores were inadequately fastened, and moved, giving uneven column wall thickness. The foundry foreman explained that where lugs had been imperfectly cast; the missing metal was added by 'burning on'. If a casting had blowholes or other casting defects considered to be minor faults, they were filled with 'Beaumont egg' (of which the foreman kept a stock for that purpose) and the casting was used. How the bridge was built – management and inspection Gilkes' site staff were inherited from the previous contractor. Under the resident engineer there were seven subordinates including a foundry manager. The original foundry manager left before most of the high girders pier column sections were cast. His replacement was also supervising erection of the bridge, and had no previous experience of supervising foundry work. He was aware of 'burning on', but the use of Beaumont egg had been hidden from him by the foreman. When shown defects in bridge castings, he said he would not have passed the affected columns for use, nor would he have passed columns with noticeably uneven wall thickness. According to his predecessor, burning-on had only been carried out on temporary 'lifting columns', which were used to allow the girders to be lifted into place and were not part of the permanent bridge structure. That was on the instructions of the resident engineer, who had little foundry experience either and relied upon the foreman. Whilst the working practices were the responsibility of Gilkes, their contract with NBR provided that all work done by the contractor was subject to the approval of the workmanship by Bouch. Hence Bouch would share the blame for any resulting defective work in the finished bridge. The original foundry foreman, who had been dismissed for drunkenness, vouched for Gilkes personally testing for unevenness in the early castings: "Mr. Gilkes, sometimes once a fortnight and sometimes once a month, would tap a column with a hammer, first on one side and then on the other, and he used to go over most of them in that way sounding them." Bouch had spent over £9,000 on inspection (his total fee was £10,500) but did not produce any witness who had inspected castings on his behalf. Bouch himself had been up about once a week whilst the design was being changed, but "afterwards, when it was all going on, I did not go so often". Bouch kept his own 'resident engineer', William Paterson, who looked after the construction of the bridge, its approaches, the line to Leuchars, and the Newport branch. Paterson was also the engineer of the Perth General Station. Bouch told the court that Paterson's age was 'very much mine' but, in fact, Paterson was 12 years older and, by the time of the Inquiry, paralysed and unable to give evidence. Another inspector appointed later was by then in South Australia and also unable to give evidence. Gilkes' managers could not vouch for any inspection of castings by Bouch's inspectors. The completed bridge had been inspected on Bouch's behalf for quality of assembly, but that was after the bridge had been painted (though still before the bridge opened, and before the painter witnesses were on it in the summer of 1879), which hid any cracks or signs of burning-on (though the inspector said that, in any case, he would not know those signs on sight). Throughout construction, Noble had been looking after foundations and brickwork. "The evidence of the ruins" Henry Law had examined the remains of the bridge; he reported defects in workmanship and design detail. Cochrane and Brunlees, who gave evidence later, largely concurred. Bridge materials Samples of the bridge materials, both cast and wrought iron, were tested by David Kirkaldy, as were a number of bolts, tiebars, and associated lugs. Both the wrought and cast iron had good strength, while the bolts "were of sufficient strength and proper iron". However, both ties and sound lugs failed at loadings of about 20 tons, well below what had been expected. Both ties and lugs were weakened by high local stresses where the bolt bore on them. Four of the fourteen lugs tested were unsound, having failed at lower than expected loadings. Some column top lugs outlasted the wrought iron, but the bottom lugs were significantly weaker. Opinions and analysis Windloading Windloading assumed in design Bouch had designed the bridge, assisted in his calculations by Allan Stewart. After the accident Stewart had assisted William Pole in calculating what the bridge should have withstood. On the authority of Stewart they had assumed that the bridge was designed against a wind loading of 'with the usual margin of safety'. Bouch said that whilst had been discussed, he had been "guided by the report on the Forth Bridge" to assume and therefore made no special allowance for wind loading. He was referring to advice given by the Astronomer Royal, Sir George Biddell Airy in 1873 when consulted about Bouch's design for a suspension bridge across the Firth of Forth; that wind pressures as high as might be encountered very locally, but averaged over a span would be a reasonable allowance. This advice had been endorsed by a number of eminent engineers. Bouch also mentioned advice given by Yolland in 1869 – that the Board of Trade did not require any special allowance for wind loading for spans less than , whilst noting this was for the design of girders not piers. Opinions on windloading allowance Evidence was taken from scientists on the current state of knowledge on wind loading and from engineers on the allowance they made for it. Airy said that the advice given was specific to suspension bridges and the Forth; could act over an entire span of the Tay Bridge and he would now advise designing to (i.e. with the usual margin of safety). The highest pressure measured at Greenwich was ; it would probably go higher in Scotland. Sir George Stokes agreed with Airy that 'catspaws', ripples on the water produced by gusts, could have a width of several hundred yards. Standard wind pressure measurements were of hydrostatic pressure which had to be corrected by a factor of 1.4–2 to give total wind loading – with a wind this would be . Pole referred to Smeaton's work, where high winds were said to give , with higher values being quoted for winds of or above, with the caveat that these were less certain. Brunlees had made no allowance for wind loading on the Solway viaduct because the spans were short and low – if he had had to, he would probably have designed against with a safety margin of 4–5 (by limiting strength of iron). Both Pole and Law had used a treatment from a book by Rankine. Law agreed with Rankine that the highest wind pressure seen in Britain was as the reason for designing to (i.e. with a safety factor of 4); " in important structures, I think that the greatest possible margin should be taken. It does not do to speculate upon whether it is a fair estimate or not". Pole had ignored it because no reference was given; he did not believe any engineer paid any attention to it when designing bridges; he thought a reasonable allowance; this was what Robert Stephenson had assumed for the Britannia Bridge. Benjamin Baker said he would design to with a safety margin, but in 15 years of looking he had yet to see wind overthrow a structure that would withstand . He doubted Rankine's pressures because he was not an experimentalist; told that the data were observations by the Regius Professor of Astronomy at Glasgow University, he doubted that the Professor had the equipment to take the readings. Baker's analysis Baker argued that the wind pressure on the high girders had been no more than , from the absence of damage to vulnerable features on buildings in Dundee and the signal cabins at the south end of the bridge. The Inquiry felt that these locations were significantly more sheltered, and therefore rejected this argument. Baker's subsequent work on wind pressures at the Forth Rail Bridge site showed meteorologists were overestimating, but his might have over-interpreted the data. Opinions on bridge components Law had numerous criticisms of the bridge design, some echoed by other engineers: He thought the piers should have been wider (both to counteract toppling and to increase the horizontal component forces the tiebars could withstand) and rectangular (to increase the number of tiebars directly resisting lateral forces); at the very least there should have been lateral bracing between the outermost columns of the piers. The lug holes should have been drilled and the tiebars secured by pins filling the holes (rather than bolts). Cochrane testified that he was not surprised that boltholes had been cast conical. He noted that moulders were notorious for this, unless you stood over them. Even so, he would not rely on supervision or inspection, he would have the holes bored or reamed to ensure they were cylindrical because it had an important bearing on the stability of the structure. Pole – called by Bouch's counsel – agreed. Bouch said if he had known the holes were cast conical he would have had them bored or reamed. Gilkes said casting lug holes conical would have been done "as a matter of course, and unless attention had been drawn to it, it would not be thought then so important as we think it now". Cast-on lugs tended to make unsound castings (Cochrane said he had seen examples in the bridge ruins) and had prevented facing of the outer side of flanges. Cochrane added that their use meant that columns had had to be cast horizontally rather than vertically, thus giving less satisfactory castings; and unless lugs were carefully packed during bolting up they could be damaged or strained. For so tall a pier Gilkes would have preferred some other means of attaching the ties to the columns "knowing how treacherous a thing cast iron is, but if an engineer gave me such a thing to make I should make it without question, believing that he had apportioned the strength properly". A letter from Bouch to Gilkes on 22 January 1875 had noted that Gilkes was "inclined to prefer making the joints of the metal columns the same as on the Beelah and Deepdale". Asked by Rothery why he had departed from the bracing arrangements on the Belah Viaduct, Bouch had referred to changed views on the force of the wind; pressed for other reasons he said Belah-style ties "were so much more expensive; this was a saving of money". Modelling of bridge failure and conclusions drawn Both Pole and Law had calculated the wind loading needed to overturn the bridge to be over (taking no credit for holding-down bolts fastening the windward columns to the pier masonry) and concluded that a high wind should have overturned the bridge, rather than cause it to break up (Pole calculated the tension in the ties at windloading to be more than the 'usual margin of safety' value of 5 tons per square inch but still only half the failure tension.) Pole calculated the wind loading required to overturn the lightest carriage in the train (the second-class carriage) to be less than that needed to overturn the bridge; whereas Law – taking credit for more passengers in the carriage than Pole and for the high girders partially shielding carriages from the wind – had reached the opposite conclusion. Law: causes were windloading, poor design and poor quality control Law concluded that the bridge as designed if perfect in execution would not have failed in the way seen (Cochrane went further; it 'would be standing now'). The calculations assumed the bridge to be largely as designed, with all components in their intended position, and the ties reasonably evenly loaded. If the bridge had failed at lower wind loadings, this was evidence that the defects in design and workmanship he had objected to had given uneven loadings, significantly reduced the bridge strength and invalidated the calculation. Hence Pole: causes were windloading and impact of derailed carriages Pole held that the calculation was valid; the defects were self-correcting or had little effect, and some other reason for the failure should be sought. It was the cast iron lugs which had failed; cast iron was vulnerable to shock loadings, and the obvious reason for a shock loading on the lugs was one of the carriages being blown over and into a bridge girder. Baker agreed, but held the wind pressure was not sufficient to blow over a carriage; derailment was either wind-assisted by a different mechanism or coincidental. (Bouch's own view that collision damage to the girder was the sole cause of bridge collapse found little support). "Did the Train strike the Girders?" Bouch's counsel called witnesses last; hence his first attempts to suggest derailment and collision were made piecemeal in cross-examination of universally unsympathetic expert witnesses. Law had 'not seen anything to indicate that the carriages left the line' (before the bridge collapse) nor had Cochrane nor Brunlees. The physical evidence put to them for derailment and subsequent impact of one or more carriage with the girders was limited. It was suggested that the last two vehicles (the second-class carriage and a brake van) which appeared more damaged were those derailed, but (said Law) they were of less robust construction and the other carriages were not unscathed. Cochrane and Brunlees added that both sides of the carriages were damaged "very much alike". Bouch pointed to the rails and their chairs being smashed up in the girder holding the last two carriages, to the axle-box of the second-class carriage having become detached and ending up in the bottom boom of the eastern girder, to the footboard on the east side of the carriage having been completely carried away, to the girders being broken up, and to marks on the girders showing contact with the carriage roof, and to a plank with wheel marks on it having been washed up at Newport but unfortunately then washed away. Bouch's assistant gave evidence of two sets of horizontal scrape marks (very slight scratches in the metal or paint on the girders) matching the heights of the roofs of the last two carriages, but did not know the heights he claimed to be matched. At the start of one of these abrasions, a rivet head had lifted and splinters of wood were lodged between a tie bar and a cover plate. Evidence was then given of flange marks on tie bars in the fifth girder (north of the two rearmost carriages), the 'collision with girders' theory being duly modified to everything behind the tender having derailed. However, (it was countered) the girders would have been damaged by their fall regardless of its cause. They had had to be broken up with dynamite before they could be recovered from the bed of the Tay (but only after an unsuccessful attempt to lift the crucial girder in one piece which had broken many girder ties). The tender coupling (which clearly could not have hit a girder) had also been found in the bottom boom of the eastern girder. Two marked fifth girder tie bars were produced; one indeed had 3 marks, but two of them were on the underside. Dugald Drummond, responsible for NBR rolling stock, had examined the wheel flanges and found no 'bruises' – expected if they had smashed up chairs. If the second-class carriage body had hit anything at speed, it would have been 'knocked all to spunks' without affecting the underframe. Had collision with the eastern girder slewed the frame, it would have presented the east side to the oncoming brake van, but it was the west side of the frame that was more damaged. Its eastern footboard had not been carried away; the carriage had never had one (on either side). The graze marks were at above the rail, and above the rail and did not match carriage roof height. Drummond did not think the carriages had left the rails until after the girders began to fall, nor had he ever known a carriage (light or heavy) to be blown over by the wind. Findings The three members of the court failed to agree a report although there was much common ground: Contributory factors neither the foundations nor the girders were at fault the quality of the wrought iron, whilst not of the best, was not a factor the cast iron was also fairly good, but presented difficulty in casting the workmanship and fitting of the piers were inferior in many respects the cross bracing of the piers and its fastenings were too weak to resist heavy gales. Rothery complained that the cross-bracing was not as substantial or as well-fitted as on the Belah viaduct; Yolland and Barlow stated that the weight/cost of cross-bracing was a disproportionately small fraction of the total weight/cost of ironwork there was insufficiently strict supervision of the Wormit foundry (a great apparent reduction of strength in the cast iron was attributable to the fastenings bringing the stress on the edges of the lugs, rather than acting fairly on them) supervision of the bridge after completion was unsatisfactory; Noble had no experience of ironwork nor any definite instruction to report on the ironwork nonetheless Noble should have reported the loose ties. Using packing pieces might have fixed the piers in a distorted form. the limit had not been enforced, and frequently exceeded. Rothery added that, given the importance to the bridge design of the test borings showing shallow bedrock, Bouch should have taken greater pains, and looked at the cores himself. "True Cause of the Fall of The Bridge" According to Yolland and Barlow "the fall of the bridge was occasioned by the insufficiency of the cross-bracings and fastenings to sustain the force of the gale on the night of December 28th 1879 ... the bridge had been previously strained by other gales". Rothery agreed, asking "Can there be any doubt that what caused the overthrow of the bridge was the pressure of the wind acting upon a structure badly built and badly maintained?" Substantive differences between reports Yolland and Barlow also noted the possibility that failure was by fracture of a leeward column. Rothery felt that previous straining was "partly by previous gales, partly by the great speed at which trains going north were permitted to run through the high girders": if the momentum of a train at hitting girders could cause the fall of the bridge, what must have been the cumulative effect of the repeated braking of trains from at the north end of the bridge? He therefore concluded – with (he claimed) the support of circumstantial evidence – that the bridge might well have failed at the north end first; he explicitly dismissed the claim that the train had hit the girders before the bridge fell. Yolland and Barlow concluded that the bridge had failed at the south end first; and made no explicit finding as to whether the train had hit the girders. They noted instead that apart from Bouch himself, Bouch's witnesses claimed/conceded that the bridge failure was due to a shock loading on lugs heavily stressed by windloading. Their report is therefore consistent with either a view that the train had not hit the girder or one that a bridge with cross-bracing giving an adequate safety margin against windloading would have survived a train hitting the girder. Yolland and Barlow noted "there is no requirement issued by the Board of Trade respecting wind pressure, and there does not appear to be any understood rule in the engineering profession regarding wind pressure in railway structures; and we therefore recommend the Board of Trade should take such steps as may be necessary for the establishment of rules for that purpose." Rothery dissented, feeling that it was for the engineers themselves to arrive at an 'understood rule', such as the French rule of or the US . Presentational differences between reports Rothery's minority report is more detailed in its analysis, more willing to blame named individuals, and more quotable, but the official report of the court is a relatively short one signed by Yolland and Barlow. Rothery said that his colleagues had declined to join him in allocating blame, on the grounds that this was outside their terms of reference. However, previous Section 7 inquiries had clearly felt themselves free to blame (Thorpe rail accident) or exculpate (Shipton-on-Cherwell train crash) identifiable individuals as they saw fit, and when Bouch's solicitor checked with Yolland and Barlow, they denied that they agreed with Rothery that "For these defects both in the design, the construction, and the maintenance, Sir Thomas Bouch is, in our opinion, mainly to blame." Aftermath Section 7 inquiries No further judicial enquiries under Section 7 of the Regulation of Railways Act 1871 were held until the Hixon rail crash in 1968 brought into question both the policy of the Railway Inspectorate towards automated level crossings and the management by the Ministry of Transport (the Inspectorate's parent government department) of the movement of abnormal loads. A Section 7 judicial enquiry was felt necessary to give the required degree of independence. The structure and terms of reference were better defined than for the Tay Bridge inquiry. Brian Gibbens, QC, was supported by two expert assessors, and made findings as to blame/responsibility but not as to liability/culpability. Wind Pressure (Railway Structures) Commission The Board of Trade set up a 5-man commission (Barlow, Yolland, Sir John Hawkshaw, Sir William Armstrong and Stokes) to consider what wind loading should be assumed when designing railway bridges. Windspeeds were normally measured in 'miles run in hour' (i.e. windspeed averaged over one hour) so it was difficult to apply Smeaton's table which linked wind pressure to current windspeed where: is the instantaneous wind pressure (pounds per square foot) is the instantaneous air velocity in miles per hour By examination of recorded pressures and windspeeds at Bidston Observatory, the commission found that for high winds the highest wind pressure could be represented very fairly, by where: is the maximum instantaneous wind pressure experienced (pounds per square foot) is the 'miles run in hour' (one hour average windspeed) in miles per hour However, they recommended that structures should be designed to withstand a wind loading of , with a safety factor of 4 (2 where only gravity was relied upon). They noted that higher wind pressures had been recorded at Bidston Observatory but these would still give loadings well within the recommended safety margins. The wind pressures reported at Bidston were probably anomalously high because of peculiarities of the site (one of the highest points on the Wirral.): a wind pressure of would overturn railway carriages and such events were a rarity. (To give a subsequent, well documented example, in 1903 a stationary train was overturned on the Levens viaduct but this was by a 'terrific gale' measured at Barrow in Furness to have an average velocity of , estimated to be gusting up to .) Bridges A new double-track Tay Bridge was built by the NBR, designed by Barlow and built by William Arrol & Co. of Glasgow upstream of, and parallel to, the original bridge. Work started 6 July 1883 and the bridge opened on 13 July 1887. Sir John Fowler and Sir Benjamin Baker designed the Forth Rail Bridge, built (also by Arrols) between 1883 and 1890. Baker and his colleague Allan Stewart received the major credit for design and overseeing building work. The Forth Bridge had a 40 mph speed limit, which was not well observed. Bouch had also been engineer for the North British, Arbroath and Montrose Railway, which included an iron viaduct over the South Esk. Examined closely after the Tay bridge collapse, the viaduct as built did not match the design, and many of the piers were noticeably out of the perpendicular. It was suspected that the construction had not been adequately supervised: foundation piles had not been driven deeply or firmly enough. Tests in 1880 over a period of 36 hours using both dead and rolling loads led to the structure becoming seriously distorted and eight of the piers were declared unsafe. Condemning the structure, Colonel Yolland also stated his opinion that "piers constructed of cast-iron columns of the dimensions used in this viaduct should not in future be sanctioned by the Board of Trade." It had to be dismantled and rebuilt by Sir William Arrol to a design by W. R. Galbraith before the line could be opened to traffic in 1881. Bouch's Redheugh Bridge built 1871 was condemned in 1896, the structural engineer doing so saying later that the bridge would have blown over if it had ever seen windloadings of . Reminders The locomotive, NBR no. 224, a 4-4-0 designed by Thomas Wheatley and built at Cowlairs Works in 1871, was salvaged and repaired, remaining in service until 1919, nicknamed "The Diver"; many superstitious drivers were reluctant to take it over the new bridge. The stumps of the original bridge piers are still visible above the surface of the Tay. Memorials have been placed at either end of the bridge in Dundee and Wormit. A column from the bridge is on display at the Dundee Museum of Transport. On 28 December 2019, Dundee Walterfronts Walks hosted a remembrance walk to mark the 140-year anniversary of the Tay Bridge disaster. Sabbatarian response Some in the Sabbatarian movement, which advocated for restricting activities on Sundays, pointed to the disaster as a punishment from God for traveling on the Sabbath. James Begg, a minister of the Free Church of Scotland, criticized the railway, stating that "The Sabbath of God has been dreadfully profaned by our great public companies", and also criticized the victims, posing the question, "Is it not awful to think that they must have been carried away when many of them must have known that they were transgressing the Law of God?". Punch magazine criticized Begg for "converting the awful catastrophe triumphantly to the account of his own black and bitter creed", and accused him of violating the biblical precept "Judge not that ye be not judged". Modern reinterpretations Various additional pieces of evidence have been advanced in the last 40 years, leading to "forensic engineering" reinterpretations of what actually happened. Works of literature about the disaster The disaster inspired several songs and poems, most famously William McGonagall's "The Tay Bridge Disaster", widely considered to be of such a low quality as to be comical. The German poet Theodor Fontane, shocked by the news, wrote his poem . It was published only ten days after the tragedy happened. C. Horne's ballad In Memory of the Tay Bridge Disaster was published as a broadside in May 1880. It describes the moment of the disaster as: See also David Kirkaldy Harry Watts List of structural failures and collapses List of bridge disasters List of wind-related railway accidents Notes and references Notes References Bibliography Lewis, Peter R. Beautiful Railway Bridge of the Silvery Tay: Reinvestigating the Tay Bridge Disaster of 1879, Tempus, 2004, . Lewis, Peter R. Disaster on the Dee: Robert Stephenson's Nemesis of 1847, Tempus Publishing (2007) McKean, Charles, Battle for the North: The Tay and Forth Bridges and the 19th-Century Railway Wars: The Building of the Tay and Forth Bridges and the 19th Century Railway Wars Granta 2007. Pease, Joseph, et al., Report from the Select Committee on the North British Railway (Tay Bridge) Bill; Together with the Proceedings of the Committee, and Minutes of Evidence. London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1880. Prebble, John, The High Girders: The Story of the Tay Bridge Disaster, 1956 (published by Penguin Books in 1975) . Rapley, John Thomas Bouch: the Builder of the Tay Bridge, Stroud: Tempus, 2006, Rothery, Henry Tay Bridge Disaster: Report Of The Court of Inquiry, and Report Of Mr. Rothery, Upon the Circumstances Attending the Fall of a Portion of the Tay Bridge on the 28th December 1879. London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1880 . Swinfen, David The Fall of the Tay Bridge, Mercat Press, 1998, . Thomas, John The Tay Bridge Disaster: New Light on the 1879 Tragedy, David & Charles, 1972, . External links 91 black-and-white photographs of the wrecked piers of the Tay Bridge showing destroyed piers and girders, wreckage of train and steam engine from National Library of Scotland Tom Martin's engineering analysis of the bridge disaster Reappraisal of the Tay Bridge disaster Open University The Tay Bridge Disaster at Failure Magazine Dundee local history centre page on the disaster Tay Victims listing {reference only} Firth of Tay Bridge Disaster 1879: Worst Structural Disaster in British History at Suburban Emergency Management Project Tay Bridge Disaster: Appendix to the Report Of The Court of Inquiry. Includes a large number of drawings of the bridge, and calculations of the result of wind pressure on the structure Report from the Select Committee on the North British Railway (Tay Bridge) Bill; together with the Proceedings of the Committee and Mins of Ev. All the oral evidence given, reproduced verbatim – a very large file but sometimes a useful corrective to reinterpretation by secondary sources The Tay Bridge Collection at Archive Services, University of Dundee Was Disaster Built into the First Tay Bridge? Article relating to the University of Dundee's holdings on the disaster Transport in Dundee Railway accidents and incidents in Scotland Railway accidents in 1879 1879 in Scotland 1870s in Dundee Bridge disasters in the United Kingdom Bridge disasters caused by engineering error Bridge disasters caused by construction error European windstorms Transport disasters in Scotland Thomas Bouch Accidents and incidents involving North British Railway December 1879 events 1879 disasters in the United Kingdom
4843842	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Farscape%20characters	List of Farscape characters	The television series Farscape features an extensive cast of characters created by Rockne S. O'Bannon. The series is set aboard a living spacecraft named Moya of the Leviathan race. The physical, racial and species-specific cultural characteristics, as well as underlying mythological/sociological similarities and differences of the alien races portrayed in Farscape were conceptualised and created by Jim Henson's Creature Shop. Main characters John Crichton John Robert Crichton, Jr. , played by Ben Browder, is an International Aeronautics and Space Administration (most commonly referred to on the show as IASA) astronaut who, in the opening few minutes of the pilot episode, is accidentally catapulted through a wormhole across the universe, thus; setting the scene for the show as a whole. As the only regularly appearing human on the show, he is the main focus and is the main character as he narrates the weekly credits and is the only character to appear in every episode. Along with Michael Shanks' character of Daniel Jackson in Stargate SG-1, Browder's Crichton has been called one of the sexiest male characters in science fiction. Although Crichton is a heroic and unwaveringly loyal character, he is also a mischievously comical one, so much so that he is the primary source of humor for the series. The show derives much of its humor from Crichton's habitual (and extensive) use of Earth-related pop culture references, often used as witty mockery in the face of danger or opponents who, being unfamiliar with the references, are unaware that they are being insulted. Although an occasional reference will provoke curiosity or confusion to his friends, Crichton's fellow shipmates are largely unaffected by these comments because they simply assume them to be native Earth terms that cannot be interpreted by translator microbes and merely extrapolate the meaning from its context. Information about John Crichton's life before the first episode is only revealed slowly over the course of the series. He was the middle child born to Jack (an astronaut) and Leslie Crichton. He has two sisters, Olivia (his younger sister) and an older sister, Susan. He has a childhood friend named Douglas "D.K." Knox. John's mother died of cancer four years before his Farscape One accident. John Crichton followed in his father's footsteps by becoming an astronaut, flew on two missions prior to the Farscape incident and was Mission Commander on one of those missions. In the first episode of season one, during a test flight designed to prove a scientific theory concerning the use of planetary gravity as a means for spaceship acceleration, a wormhole appears, and John and his "Farscape One" module are pulled into and through it. On his exit from the wormhole, he finds himself in the middle of a spaceship dogfight, during which he accidentally causes the death of Tauvo Crais, the brother of Peacekeeper captain Bialar Crais. Crichton's craft is pulled aboard a large spaceship named Moya, a Leviathan (a biomechanoid, i.e., a "living ship") where John meets his first aliens (Zhaan, D'Argo, Aeryn Sun and Rygel). Shortly after, John meets Bialar Crais, who wants revenge for his brother's death. John has to adapt quickly to a life with aliens, guns, and space travel, without the comfort of Earth culture. Toward the end of season one, Crichton encounters a mysterious alien race known only as The Ancients, who hide a repository of wormhole knowledge into his brain to guide him home, beginning a series-long chase by a Sebacean-Scarran hybrid Peacekeeper called Scorpius who hunts John and the rest of the Farscape crew to obtain that information. Early in season two, Crichton learns that Scorpius has implanted a neural chip into his head, which causes hallucinations of a "neural clone" of Scorpius, whom he dubs "Harvey". These hallucinations influence Crichton in an effort to get at the hidden wormhole knowledge. As a result, Crichton's behavior grows more erratic and unpredictable, even as he continues to have romantic feelings for Aeryn Sun. In the end of Season 2, the neural chip takes complete control over Crichton (resulting in a Scorpius/Crichton mixed personality with extremely dark humor) and transmits a message to Scorpius. Shortly after that Harvey defeats Aeryn in an aerial dogfight and seemingly kills her. After Aeryn's death, Crichton regains control. The chip is removed, but stolen by Scorpius. With the beginning of Season three, Harvey still remains in Crichton's head and Aeryn has been revived by Zhaan, who consequently dies a few episodes later. Sometime thereafter Crichton is "twinned" by another alien; neither of the Crichtons can be called a copy, but are "equal and original" (and each has his own "Harvey") eventually, the crew of Moya is split across the two Leviathans, Moya and Talyn and they are subsequently separated from each other; each ship has one Crichton. The Crichton aboard Talyn begins a romantic relationship with Aeryn while the Crichton on Moya continues studying wormholes, helped by the repository in his brain. Jack the Ancient finds the Talyn Crichton, forcibly extracts Harvey and unlocks the wormhole knowledge, but this Crichton later dies of radiation poisoning from a wormhole weapon. When the survivors of the two crews are reunited, Aeryn (in her grief) is very cold to the remaining Crichton, due to him having different memories about the last few months; the crew members of Moya start going their separate ways at the end of season three. Just after Aeryn Sun leaves Crichton, seemingly for good, he learns that she is pregnant with his child (whether the child belongs to the Moya Crichton or the Talyn Crichton is left unknown). Early season four leaves Crichton with nothing but time to work on his wormhole theories. He eventually reunites with the crew members of Moya, and Aeryn and Scorpius, who has fallen out of favor with Peacekeeper high command. Shortly, after arrival, Scorpius offers to remove Harvey. Due to the neural clone's longer presence within and increased familiarity with Crichton, Harvey's reaction includes persuasion and appeal to sympathy rather than threats. Crichton still agrees to allow Scorpius to remove the lingering neural spillover. Halfway through the season, Crichton finds his way back to Earth, but he voluntarily gives up the dream of Earth and returns to Moya. After a series of dangerous events (including Harvey's resurrection) Crichton and Aeryn find time alone together. Aeryn tells him he is the father of her child and Crichton proposes to her. The moment she accepts, an alien craft melts the two and ends the season. Crichton and Aeryn are revived at the beginning of Farscape: The Peacekeeper Wars mini-series, and Crichton uses his wormhole knowledge to successfully force a peace treaty between the warring Peacekeepers and Scarrans. The wormhole knowledge in his brain is finally removed by Einstein the Ancient. During the mini-series, Aeryn gives birth to their son, named D'Argo Sun-Crichton in honor of their late comrade. Aeryn Sun Aeryn Sun , played by Claudia Black, is a former Peacekeeper pilot and officer. Although she appears to be human, she is in fact Sebacean, a species indistinguishable from humans in external appearance. At the time John Crichton appears through a wormhole in the beginning of the series, Aeryn is in her Prowler battling to retake the Leviathan, Moya which has been seized by escaping prisoners Ka D'Argo, Rygel and Pa'u Zotoh Zhaan. However, Aeryn's prowler is caught up in the stream of Moya's starburst and is towed along with the escaping Leviathan. Aeryn is brought on board Moya as a prisoner, but when she and Crichton encounter her commanding officer, Bialar Crais, she defends John from Crais' allegation that John deliberately attacked and killed Crais' brother, saying he is not brave enough or smart enough to have done so. In return, Crais declares her to be "irreversibly contaminated" from spending too much time with an unknown life form, which means a death sentence. John Crichton and D'Argo soon escape the Peacekeepers again and, having nowhere else to go, Aeryn reluctantly becomes a fugitive alongside them. Aboard Moya, Aeryn learns to think beyond the strict, militaristic confines of her peacekeeper upbringing. Born in service aboard a command Carrier, it is the only life she has known and thus; is very well skilled in hand-to-hand combat and armed combat. She also becomes a valuable and important member of Moya's crew, and a companion and romantic interest of Crichton during the series. It is only after leaving the Peacekeepers that she can begin to find out about her parentage. She has discovered that her mother, Xhalax Sun was a peacekeeper pilot who - against peacekeeper regulations - fell in love with an older officer, Talyn Lyczac. They deliberately had Aeryn, a child born of love and Xhalax sneaks into Aeryn's dormitory one night to tell her so, which is strictly against regulations. To redeem her crime, Xhalax was forced by the peacekeepers to choose between the two and she executed Talyn so that Aeryn could live. Aeryn evolves from a cold, detached soldier into a valuable friend and crewmate. Her relationship with John Crichton also evolves, and Aeryn ultimately becomes a compassionate wife and loving mother at the end of the series. They name their son D'Argo Sun-Crichton; after their dear friend who (apparently) lost his life in the Peacekeeper Wars. Ka D'Argo Ka D'Argo (called simply D'Argo), played by Anthony Simcoe, is a Luxan warrior who was imprisoned aboard the Leviathan Moya by the Peacekeepers after being convicted (falsely) of killing his Sebacean wife Lo'Laan in a fit of Luxan Hyper-Rage. During his time as a prisoner, the Peacekeepers shackled D'Argo in his cell with heavy chains attached to a pair of metal hooks surgically implanted around his collarbones to keep him under control despite his strength. He later escaped (along with Rygel and Zhaan). As a Luxan warrior, D'Argo carries a weapon known as a Qualta Blade, a heavy broadsword that can transform into a Qualta Rifle. His personality in Season 1 was paranoid and ill-tempered against his friends (in the fourth episode, D'Argo puts on a Tavlek gauntlet that injects a stimulant so "stimulating" his personality that D'Argo attempted to take command of Moya and kill all those who stand against him). He has a powerful, fast tongue that he can use to attack in a manner similar to that of a frog or chameleon. The tip can inject an "adaptive" venom which renders the target unconscious without killing them. Throughout the first half of the series, D'Argo's consuming desire was to find Jothee, his son by Lo'Laan. After Jothee was found, his plans to settle down with his son and Chiana scared the Nebari girl, resulting in her betraying him by having sex with Jothee. D'Argo and Jothee part on bad terms in "Suns and Lovers", but they are later reunited and somewhat reconciled in the miniseries. D'Argo and Chiana's relationship is subsequently tense, but they can at least maintain an amicable association as crewmates. After being mortally wounded in The Peacekeeper Wars, D'Argo covers the escape of his comrades off Qujaga, which was then destroyed by Crichton's wormhole weapon. John Crichton and Aeryn Sun then name their son, born during the battle, D'Argo, in his memory. The episode "Unrealized Reality" features a character from another universe who is a composite of D'Argo and Rygel. The character appeared in other media. In Horizons, a story by creator Rockne S O'Bannon that takes place far in the future, and that was written before Peacekeeper War, D'Argo is still alive. However, he did lose his arm, which is now a clear prosthetic. D'Argo was also parodied by the character Teal'c in the Stargate SG-1 episode "200". Zhaan Pa'u Zotoh Zhaan, played by Virginia Hey, is a Delvian, a blue, spiritual, humanoid plant species, and a Pa'u (priestess) in their religious order. Zhaan was imprisoned aboard Moya for the assassination of the leader of the Delvian government and her lover, Bitaal. Bitaal refused to step down as leader of the Delvian people when his tenure was over. He, along with other conservative Pa'us, hired the Peacekeepers for "external security." There was a political crackdown and it is implied that some atrocities occurred under Bitaal's rule. Zhaan, while in Unity (an erotic, if not entirely sexual, activity unique to Delvians) with Bitaal, killed him and drove herself insane in the process. It is unclear whether Zhaan was a member of a terrorist group or whether she acted alone. It is clear, however, that Zhaan was courted by a violent revolutionary organization of Pa'us on a planet they encountered in the Uncharted Territories. She has also been an anarchist, and like other trained Delvians, Zhaan has several empathic and telepathic abilities which she cultivated to Pa'u level during her time in prison on Moya, although she was forced to channel these abilities to cause harm during the crew's first confrontation with the powerful Maldis in order to stop him and save the currently-imprisoned Crichton. She is also skilled in medicine and other related sciences. During her time aboard Moya, she is often seen making drugs and explosives in her workshop to assist her shipmates. As a Pa'u, Zhaan's spiritual abilities significantly improve upon achieving a new level. When first introduced, Zhaan is a level nine Pa'u, with the ability to lessen the pain of others by taking some portion of it into herself. Later in the series with Crichton's help, she gains a level, becoming a level ten Pa'u and gaining the ability to protect others from psychic attack with her own mind. In the episode "Bone to Be Wild" she shows that for short periods of time she can make herself invisible, although it is not stated whether or not this is only possible when surrounded by foliage. Towards the beginning of the third season, Zhaan saved the seemingly dead Aeryn Sun, and in the process became critically ill herself. While the crew are searching for a planet with the right conditions for Zhaan to heal, John Crichton diverts Moya to investigate a wormhole instead, where the Leviathan collides with another spacecraft. In order to save Moya and her crew, Zhaan sacrifices herself by piloting the other craft away before it is destroyed. In real life, Virginia Hey left the show because of health problems related to the extensive makeup and demanding work schedule. She still reappeared as Zhaan in two fourth-season episodes, "John Quixote" and "Unrealized Reality"; series director Rowan Woods also made an on-screen appearance as a male virtual reality incarnation in "John Quixote", and Zhaan appears in archive footage in The Peacekeeper Wars. Hey's voice was used in the Aeryn-focused episode "The Choice", the seventeenth episode of the third season. Rygel Dominar Rygel XVI (called simply Rygel) was once the royal ruler of the Hynerian Empire. He is known for being selfish and collects anything valuable and was one of two regular puppet characters on the show. Rygel was operated by John Eccleston, Sean Masterson, Tim Mieville, Matt McCoy, Mario Halouvas and Fiona Gentle. His voice was provided by Jonathan Hardy. Rygel has a long history. After ruling for an unknown number of years as Dominar of the Hynerians, he was overthrown by his cousin Bishan. After the overthrow, which occurred over 130 cycles (years) before the events of Farscape, he became a prisoner of the Peacekeepers. During this time, he was imprisoned in several places and tortured, most notably by Selto Durka, captain of the near-legendary ship, the Zelbinion, and was eventually transferred to Moya. Due to his size and cunning, he is able not only to leave his cell at will, but also to organize and carry out a revolt among the other prisoners placed on Moya, allowing them to escape Peacekeeper control. After the escape (i.e., during the series), Rygel is shown to be cunning and resourceful but also focused almost entirely on his own personal goals and wealth. As time goes on, his egocentric attitude becomes less prevalent and he warms to his role as a member of Moya's crew. A recurring gag in Farscape involves him flatulating helium when he gets nervous, causing everyone's voices to have a higher pitch by the offensive gas. At the end of the series, Bishan pleads with him to return to help reunite their people and Rygel departs to do so with a devastated Chiana. A parody of him was in the Stargate SG-1 episode "200" as an Asgard with a Fu-Manchu beard and mustache; his only line was the Hynerian curse "Yotz", similar in use and meaning as the earth curse "Hell". Chiana Chiana, played by Gigi Edgley, is a street-smart, savvy, and mercurial character who is willing to scam or steal for an adventure and risk her life for the people she loves. Chiana is a Nebari, a grey-skinned race whose society is heavily regimented by the government (known as The Establishment). The Establishment venerates control and order, pitting Chiana's independent ways in a society all about conformity against the Nebari's ideal about "the greater good" and making her a target for government reprogramming (called "cleansing"). In her premiere episode during the middle of season 1, "Durka Returns", she successfully escapes from Nebari custody, and ends up a passenger on Moya with the rest of the crew. Many episodes have demonstrated that she is a skilled fighter and is agile and acrobatic. She has a number of distinctive mannerisms such as cocking her head at times and crouching on objects rather than sitting or standing. Other Nebari do not exhibit the same style of physical movement, though her fluid movements and frequent situational appraisals suggest a lifetime of avoiding danger. One of Chiana's other characteristic traits is her strong sense of individuality. She respects no authority and values her freedom more than anything or anyone else. This gives her the appearance of being promiscuous; she attempted to seduce Jothee, D'Argo's son, the present and past versions of John Crichton as well as others. In Season 2, the writers created a backstory for Chiana, along with a family member. She has one named relative, her brother Nerri, three years her senior. Along with Nerri, she escaped Nebari Prime at a young age, and then the two traveled around for some years. Nerri decided to join the resistance fighting against the Nebari leaders, and split up with Chiana so she would not be endangered by his activities. In the third season of the show, Chiana harbours hopes of meeting up with her brother and joining the resistance to reunite with him. In Season 3, the writers created a scenario in which Chiana developed a new ability. After her encounter with an Energy Rider, Chiana began to experience precognitive visions that left her with blindness and splitting headaches. These visions later evolved into being able to see the present and future in slow motion, and each time she used this ability, the following blindness would last longer than before until she ended up completely blind at the end of season 4. Shortly before the start of Farscape: The Peacekeeper Wars, she received new eyes from a Diagnosan that allowed her to 'see' energy sources and, to an extent, see through walls. In the episode, "Durka Returns", Chiana was a thief so slippery that she evades Moya's internal sensors. She proves to be resourceful in "Nerve", distracting the Peacekeepers from John, disguising herself as a tech, manipulating Gilina and delivering Talyn. An alternate reality version of Chiana appeared in "Unrealized Reality" and "Prayer"; in the latter episode she is killed by Scorpius, an act that disturbs Crichton because, in the alternate reality of those two episodes, she resembles Aeryn (and is played by Claudia Black). Pilot Pilot is a member of a race known to viewers simply as Pilots or "Servicers". He is introduced in the "Premiere" and plays a significant role in the resolution of The Peacekeeper Wars. Pilot was one of two regular animatronic puppet characters in Farscape. He is operated by Sean Masterson, Tim Mieville, Matt McCoy, Mario Halouvas and Fiona Gentle. His voice is provided by Lani Tupu (who also plays the character Captain Bialar Crais). Moya's pilot is only known by his species's name, which also describes his role on the ship. His real name, if he has one, is unknown. Pilots bond with biomechanical Leviathan spacecraft and become their helmsman, navigator, companion, and liaison to passengers. Once bonded, Pilots can survive only a brief period of time of separation from their Leviathans, and only when travelling in something made of a Leviathan's components (as in a transport pod). In bonding to Leviathans, Pilots sacrifice much of their life-span for the benefits of space travel, since Pilots can live well over a thousand years but Leviathans live only hundreds. The Pilot most commonly seen in the series is Moya's second pilot. The first, a female, was shot and forcibly removed by Peacekeepers when she refused to consent to experiments being done upon Moya. With her death, the more familiar Pilot took her place, seduced by his desire to travel the stars, something that had been denied him by the elders of his race because he was still young and immature. Unwilling to allow the slow gradual bonding of Pilot and Leviathan that is normal, the Peacekeepers forcibly grafted the new Pilot into Moya's systems, an action that allowed him control over the ship but at the cost of continuous pain, until Pilot pulled free from his connections with Moya and re-bonded himself to Moya at the natural speed. The second Pilot carried the guilt of his role in the death of the first for several years. Pilot is effectively immobile in the heart of the ship, but plays a key role in numerous adventures, and the other characters come to rely upon him as a figure of wisdom and comfort. Early in the series he is attacked and mutilated by members of the crew, as a local scientist wanted Pilot flesh in return for giving them maps to their homes. Despite this, he did not hold a grudge as he considered serving the others, whatever their needs, to simply be his role. He was most happy when helping other crew members, although as his independence grew, he could sometimes become irritated with them and would order them out of his chamber and even off the ship altogether. In the series finale, Pilot experienced a conflict with Moya where he wanted to help Crichton destroy the wormhole linking Earth to Tormented Space and Moya did not want him to. Despite this and initially stating he could do nothing, Pilot joined the mission, leaving Moya for the first time in a long time to aid Crichton's plan. Though Pilot was left weakened by his separation from Moya, he succeeded in destroying the wormhole and saving Earth, inadvertently killing the crew of a Scarren Stryker in the process. He was later rebonded with Moya. Other Pilot characters seen briefly in the series include that of the damaged and mutilated Leviathan named Rovhu, whose limbs were repeatedly eaten and regrown by carnivorous prisoners, and the ancient Pilot of Elack, who housed Crichton when he was separated from Moya and sacrificed her quiet death in the Leviathan's Burial Ground to help Crichton escape from the Peacekeepers. Moya's child Talyn did not need a Pilot by Peacekeeper design, but nevertheless could support one. Scorpius Scorpius, played by Wayne Pygram, is the half-Sebacean, half-Scarran Peacekeeper, and the primary antagonist of the series, relentlessly pursuing John Crichton for the secrets of wormhole technology locked in John Crichton's unconscious mind to create a wormhole weapon. He is the product of an experiment by the Scarrans – his Sebacean mother was raped by a Scarran to see if there would be any benefit in a hybrid. Raised by Scarrans, he has come to hate them, to reject his Scarran side, and to live for revenge against them. His physical attributes and his character traits are influenced by his race. Scorpius first appeared in "Nerve" and made his last appearance in "The Peacekeeper Wars Part 2". Being half Scarran, Scorpius's body produces an extreme amount of body heat, particularly when angry. However, being also half-Sebacean means that too much heat will kill him. To prevent this he wears a full-body cooling suit notable mostly for the interchangeable cooling rods inside his cranium that absorb his excess body heat. He can see temperature gradients, especially of the face, allowing him to tell when people are lying, as described in the episode "Incubator". As a result, John Crichton was forced to enlist the use of herbal drugs to mask his love for Aeryn Sun for fear that he may use that knowledge against them to further his agenda. Scorpius prides himself on his patience and his intellect. Scorpius is willing to do absolutely anything to achieve his goals, which he is very honest about when it suits him. He will (and does over the course of the series) lie, kill in cold blood, order the deaths of multitudes, torture innocents, and sacrifice those close to him to get what he wants. He is also willing to aid his enemies or humiliate himself if it will further his goals. He has returned from supposedly fatal situations more than once, which he credits to his "foresight and preparation". He manipulates others to do his work but does much on his own; his obsession with Crichton and his wormhole secrets is proof of that. He is highly educated and extremely intelligent, and exercises remarkable ingenuity. Only he knows how deep his schemes run and, while he claims his main desire is to eliminate the Scarran threat, protagonist John Crichton is loath to ever trust him. His rank is never mentioned, and it is assumed that he does not officially hold one. Wayne Pygram seemed to confirm this during an interview on the Farscape DVD set; while Dominar Rygel XVI once claimed that Scorpius was "higher even than a captain" ("I-Yensch, You-Yensch"), the claim was made more as a boast in an attempt to inflate Scorpius' value to kidnappers. His authority is not absolute, however, as Commandant Mele-On Grayza informed him when she superseded it. During the series, he is shown to have the authority to command a research base, a command carrier, a fleet of command carriers, and an even larger fleet in Farscape: The Peacekeeper Wars. However, the exact Peacekeeper ranks at this level have never been established in the show. Despite being an antagonist for the first three seasons, Scorpius joins the crew of Moya for the final season to protect Crichton after his Command Carrier is destroyed and he is hunted by the Peacekeepers. He becomes a more or less trustworthy crewmember though he looks for any chance to get Crichton's knowledge and forms a relationship with Sikozu. At the end of the series, he returns to the Peacekeepers and in The Peacekeeper Wars, instigates a war between them and the Scarrens. At the end of The Peacekeeper Wars he finally gets what he wants when Crichton uses a wormhole weapon on the Scarrens and Peacekeepers and is horrified, calling it "madness", finally understanding the danger of what he sought. He is last seen on Moya smiling as the Scarrens and Peacekeepers sign a peace treaty. Harvey Harvey is a neural clone of Scorpius and exists solely in the head of John Crichton. He was also played by Wayne Pygram. Harvey is the result of a neural chip that was placed into Crichton's brain by Scorpius after the Aurora Chair failed to reveal the wormhole information he was after. His name, given to him by Crichton, is taken from either the Mary Chase play Harvey, in which Harvey is an invisible six-foot, one-and-a-half-inch tall rabbit that only Elwood P. Dowd can see, or the popular film versions, both starring Jimmy Stewart (1950; 1972). Harvey first appeared in "Crackers Don't Matter" and had his last appearance in The Peacekeeper Wars Part 2. Harvey's purpose is threefold: he is to unlock the wormhole knowledge stored somewhere in Crichton's brain, protect Crichton's life until Scorpius manages to retrieve the chip, and prevent Crichton from hurting or killing Scorpius. Harvey also has the ability to stop Crichton's brain functions for a short time, making him appear dead. He can control Crichton's memory and nervous system when the chip is in place, which he uses to hide his presence from Crichton. Eventually, the chip becomes strong enough to completely dominate Crichton's mind and body. Even after the chip is removed, Harvey is able to exert limited control over Crichton. After Scorpius reprograms him, Harvey has some type of mental link to Scorpius that allows Scorpius to track Crichton down after John is revived from his crystallization by the Eidelons. Harvey contains much of Scorpius' knowledge and intellect. In Season 2, Harvey is discovered. He is basically a menacing hallucination of Scorpius that influences Crichton to become more erratic, unpredictable and similar to Scorpius. He is capable of killing Crichton and does his best to make sure that Crichton would not go against Scorpius's ideas. In the end of Season 2, Harvey dominates Crichton (resulting in a mixed personality with dark humor), murders his love Aeryn Sun (whom the mixed personality also is attracted to) and transmits a message to Scorpius. After that, Crichton regains control, the chip is removed and stolen by Scorpius. In Season 3, Harvey discovers that even though the chip was removed, he has blended with Crichton's subconscious and is trapped there forever without any of his previous powers. He attempts to manipulate John to commit suicide, but fails. Crichton is rescued and the only thing Harvey can do is give advice. Everything goes "fine" until John is twinned by a madman, twinning Harvey as well. Black Harvey, who goes to Talyn with his Crichton, advises to John to not trust the Ancient Jack. He also points out that Scorpius did not copy his module, but that it was Furlow who also had the sketchy wormhole data Crichton had in early Season 1. Talyn was quickly taken to Furlow's desert planet, but it was no longer inhabited. Charrids, the collaborators of Scarrans, had overrun Furlow's mechanic lab though. Furlow indeed had made progress and the Scarrans soon got the data. To destroy the Dreadnought, Jack began building a wormhole weapon. To make sure Harvey would not get the unlocked data, Jack decided to destroy him. Harvey angrily opposed, but was "mortally wounded" nonetheless. In his last minutes, he took control over the unconscious Crichton and attempted to manipulate Aeryn to shoot him, claiming Crichton was dead. He failed and his last words were: "A soldier must not be weak. Weakness means defeat." Green Harvey faced death when John Crichton was attacked by Ka D'Argo in Luxan hyper-rage. John's reasons to live (Earth, dad, pizza, sex, cold beer, fast cars, sex, Aeryn, love) were not adequate so Harvey proposed revenge. To discover a reason to live, Crichton created a cartoon reality to oppose an illusory D'Argo. To combat him, Pilot proposed to run from him, Jool proposed to try to talk to him, Chiana proposed to fight him. All failed. Crichton went with Harvey's idea after being clinically dead for a time and it worked. But Crichton's idea, love, worked best. After that, Harvey unlocked Noranti's subliminal message: "Aeryn is pregnant". Crichton got the message after Aeryn left and at once decided to retrieve her. Unfortunately, after that, Moya was sucked down by a wormhole, leaving Crichton stranded. After Crichton returned to the ship, Scorpius asked for asylum. Harvey suggested killing him. Scorpius proposed to erase Harvey. Since this Harvey had been in Crichton far longer than his twin, Crichton hesitated, but eventually agreed. Harvey was removed. After Crichton and Scorpius had allied and Crichton broke the agreement and left the hybrid to die, Harvey was "resurrected" and improved to Harvey 2.0. He was loyal to Scorpius and had a connection with him so Scorpius would know he was alive. After Scorpius was rescued thanks to Harvey's lies, a war between Scarrans and Peacekeepers broke out and Crichton finally created the wormhole weapon. Harvey was deleted after his success, since his purpose was finally fulfilled. His last words were: "Goodbye John. Thanks... for your memories" After the chip was removed, it was discovered by Scorpius that although his neural clone had blended into Crichton, the opposite happened in the chip. A neural clone of John Crichton existed within it. And since there were encryptions to the wormhole data, only he could unlock them. Scorpius showed him his violent past with the Scarrans and did everything to convince him, but the Crichton clone claimed he had already lost everything. After Crichton refused to give him the data he needed, his anger's Scarran heat destroyed the chip and killed him. His last words were: "You think that neural clones go to heaven? Well, wherever I wind up, when I see your mama, I'll be sure to give her your regards!" According to the show's executive producer David Kemper, the idea for Harvey came from a necessity to have the character of Scorpius more visible during the show. As the show's main villain, he needed to be a constant and viable threat. After seeing a hallucinated Scorpius interact with Crichton in the second season's fourth episode, "Crackers Don't Matter", they came up with the idea of putting Scorpius inside of John's head. The clone's presence was hinted at in the second and third episodes of the "Look at the Princess" trilogy as well as in "Beware of Dog" before his presence was revealed outright to Crichton in the season's 15th episode, "Won't Get Fooled Again". However, this then became an example of dramatic irony, as Crichton's memory of Harvey was erased, until he was revealed again. Bialar Crais Bialar Crais, played by Lani Tupu, was the series' original antagonist throughout season 1. The series' creator, Rockne O'Bannon, named the character after his friend, contemporary mystery novelist Robert Crais. Bialar Crais was born in a Sebacean farming community, but while still a boy, he and his younger brother Tauvo were taken from their family and conscripted into the Peacekeeper military. As they were hauled away, Crais' father charged him to look after his younger brother, which was a major burden for Crais. When the human John Crichton accidentally followed a wormhole into the midst of a Peacekeeper battle at the beginning of the series, the younger Crais was killed. For the course of the show's first season, Crais scoured the Uncharted Territories for Crichton and Moya, obsessed with finding the man he blamed for his brother's death. In the eighth episode, an evil entity named Maldis transports Crais and Crichton into a labyrinth forcing them to duel to the death. Crichton eventually wins, but Maldis quickly gets rid of Crais and tells Crichton his plan was to get Crais into a frenzy so he'd bring his Command Carrier further in the Uncharted Territories for a "carnage on a truly massive scale". While Maldis is defeated by Zhaan, his plan worked nonetheless. Crais disobeys direct orders from High Command, continues the hunt and brutally murders his own lieutenant who is the only member of his crew aware of the order to return to High Command. When Scorpius gets hold of Crichton months later in the end of the first season, Crais joins Scorpius in interrogating Crichton in the Aurora Chair. Eventually, following a false memory, Crais is put in the chair and becomes bitter in the process, especially after he discovers that Scorpius will come with him on the Command Carrier (Scorpius was aware of Crais's crimes). Eventually, Scorpius slowly usurped Crais's position and after a physical fight with the menacing hybrid, Crais realizes that he will soon have to face the consequences of his decisions for the past cycle. He helps the crew of Moya escape and is granted asylum. During the second season, Bialar quickly forms a bond with Moya's offspring, Talyn. Crais finds Talyn difficult to control, but he becomes neurally linked to Talyn and they leave Moya. Crais and Talyn later again cross paths with Moya and her crew after Talyn hears a call of distress from his mother. In the penultimate episode of Season 3, Crais uses Talyn to perform a suicidal Starburst inside Scorpius' command carrier to finally have his vengeance against the horrid hybrid. This heroic act of self-sacrifice effectively destroys the Peacekeeper wormhole project, and Talyn and Crais along with it. Crais makes a few appearances after his death. An alternate version of Crais appears in "Unrealized Realities". In this reality, Crichton is a Peacekeeper agent working for Crais, and after Crichton kills Moya's crew, Crais congratulates him for a job well done. In "John Quixote", Crais appears as an ogre in a virtual reality game. Crais also appears in The Peacekeeper Wars in archive footage. Stark Stark, played by Paul Goddard, is Stykera, a specialized subrace of the Banik. He is introduced to the series late in the first season and became a main character during the third season, before disappearing at the end of it and only returning at the end of the fourth season; he played a major part in The Peacekeeper Wars mini-series. Stark wears a half-mask - strapped to his head by two separate buckles - of an unidentified metal, covering an incorporeal area that glows dark orange when uncovered, on the right side of his face (roughly his eye and cheek-bone) that he only reveals when he is taking away someone's pain or "crossing over" a soul—aiding or comforting a person in the moments prior to their death. However, in doing so, Stark absorbs a small fragment of the soul - and thus the knowledge and lingering emotions - of the person he "crosses over" into his own psyche, something which might explain his somewhat unbalanced mental behaviour (although his undergoing months of torture may have even more to do with it). In addition, by virtue of being a Stykera, Stark can ease the pain and suffering of others, one of the traits that made him sought after for Scorpius' Aurora Chair research. Stark initially came into contact with John Crichton while both were being held prisoner in Scorpius' first Gammak Base devoted primarily to wormhole research. Having been a prisoner for many years, Stark informs Crichton that his (Stark's) survival is due both to his resistance to the effects of the Aurora chair and his pretense of acting mentally unbalanced in front of the guards, which causes them to leave him alone more often. Stark assists Crichton in his escape to Moya and quickly forms a bond with Zhaan. During one of the crew's misadventures, they are put on trial for murder and Stark is executed by "dispersion" or the scattering of his molecules into atoms. He survives this because he is mostly made of energy, but his appearances thereafter show him as being more uneven in his personality. After the crew robs the Shadow Depository and Zhaan confronts a lethal illness, he becomes genuinely disturbed and wrought with grief over her death. He joins up with the crew of Talyn but frequently is at odds with his desire to "save" others, which eventually alienates Aeryn and Crais. Feeling that Zhaan is calling out to him, he eventually parts ways with the crew to search for her spirit. He is later found a prisoner on Katratzi which had been part of the reason Scorpius held him prisoner: he was searching for it and Stark knew where it was from "crossing over" Scarrens. He is rescued by Chiana and Noranti and rejoins Moya's crew. During The Peacekeeper Wars, he is forced to "cross over" the Eidolon leader and thus gains his knowledge of the Eidolon powers, something that makes Stark almost crazy. He later transfers the knowledge and regains his usual personality. At the end of the series, Stark finds a measure of peace and leaves his mask with Crichton, revealing that the energy beneath it is now gone. As the series progresses, three different alternate 'versions' of Stark are seen: as a not-quite-sane Gamesmaster in a twisted virtual-reality style game ("John Quixote"), a fused Stark/Sikozu character witnessed in an alternate reality ("Unrealized Reality"/"Prayer") and played by Raelee Hill, and as a convincing bioloid replica of himself ("We're So Screwed Part II: Hot to Katratzi"). Supporting characters Jool Joolushko Tunai Fenta Hovalis, played by Tammy MacIntosh, is a young Interion woman of remarkable academic achievement. She had her first appearance in "Self-Inflicted Wounds Part I: Could'a, Would'a, Should'a", and her last in "The Peacekeeper Wars Part 1". While on vacation with her two male cousins—they were traveling around the galaxy to celebrate her birthday—they ran into some trouble. Her two cousins contracted a fatal disease, and they and she were frozen into stasis to be used for organ donation by a Diagnosan. This Diagnosan was later able to remove John Chrichton's neural chip, though the procedure required removing some of his brain and replacing it with a closely related donor species. Interons, like Jool, had the closest physiological match to a human brain, and Crichton reluctantly was saved through a donation by one of her cousins. He later took her and her other cousin's stasis capsules with him onto Moya. Her cousin died almost immediately upon being released from stasis, but Jool, who had not been sick, was fine. She awoke to find herself aboard the Leviathan Moya and discovered that she had been frozen for 22 cycles. Prior to Jool's first appearance one of her cousins, who was revived shortly before his death, referred to her as Jool rather than her full name. John Crichton originated the shortened nickname "Jool" on-board Moya, and though she resented it at first, it soon grew on her, as did he. While an intelligent young woman, Jool has led a sheltered life, and though she possesses a lot of knowledge, it was rarely practiced before joining the crew who soon became her friends. Jool comes from a peaceful star system far away, and before meeting Rygel, she had not known Hynerians existed, though Sebaceans are familiar to her. When frightened or nervous, her orange hair (which sheds) turns red and her high-frequency screams can melt metal, an ability which proves useful on several occasions. Her arrival aboard Moya came with the loss of Pa'u Zotoh Zhaan, and the crew and fans alike were a little slow in accepting the new character. The crew parted ways and Jool and D'Argo found themselves on Arnessk, where Jool became acquainted with other Interions and helped in their excavation of the site. She helped John, D'Argo and Chiana to free the priests from 12,000-cycle-long sleep in suspended animation. A scholar of Arnesskian history, Jool left Moya after over a cycle with the crew to follow her new destiny and help the priests adjust to the new life that lay ahead of them. In Farscape: The Peacekeeper Wars, Moya returned to Arnessk, where the crew were briefly reunited with Jool who, for reasons never explained, had adopted a more Sheena, Queen of the Jungle-like persona. Moya, however, had been followed by the Scarrans who deployed a weapon which destroyed the temple. Jool was inside and is presumed dead. An alternate reality version of Jool, encountered in "Unrealized Reality" and "Prayer", was portrayed by Anthony Simcoe. This version is reluctantly shot dead by Crichton in "Prayer". Moya Moya is a Leviathan, a biomechanoid spacecraft. She had her first appearance in the "Premiere", and was last seen in "The Peacekeeper Wars Part 2". Like others of her race, Moya was captured by a Peacekeeper squad at a young age and was bonded with a Pilot, who serves as the Leviathan's navigator, operator, companion, and link to the crew of the ship. Leviathans are ships of peace, and as such have no offensive capabilities. They do have an impressive defensive maneuver, however, called starburst, which allows the ship to travel at incredible speed through a tear in space-time. Moya is maintained by DRDs (Diagnostic Repair Drones), which are small, beetle-like robots that Leviathans build as they grow. They help with Moya's upkeep, by repairing and maintaining Moya. DRDs also play a major role in many of the adventures, helping John and the crew; the most notable DRDs are named 1812, One-Eye, and Pike. Moya was once a captive of the Peacekeepers who control her and other Leviathans through the use of giant control collars placed around the ships that prevent autonomous control and inflict pain upon any disobedience. Moya and Pilot, with the help of Crichton, Zhaan, Rygel and D'Argo, manage to escape. Moya has become a friend and home to her crew and they have been through many bizarre, disheartening, and exhilarating events together. During season one, Moya becomes pregnant thanks to an accidentally released Peacekeeper experiment, and later gives birth to a Peacekeeper/Leviathan hybrid gunship that Aeryn Sun names Talyn, after her father. Despite being only able to communicate through Pilot (with one exception), Moya has her own personality which can be seen to develop and change through the series. At the beginning of the series she is timid, starbursting to escape the slightest danger at a moment's notice. When she meets the Leviathan gods, the Builders, and they order her death for having produced Talyn, she is willing to die, and is only saved when the order is revealed to be a test for Zhaan. By the end of the second season, she is willing to join the effort to rescue Crichton from Scorpius despite her fears, and is severely damaged in the attempt. At the end of the third season, she asks the crew to kill another Leviathan who is disturbing the burial of her child's remains. And in "The Peacekeeper Wars", this previously timid and peaceful creature trusts the crew enough to allow Crichton to use her to launch the deadly Wormhole Weapon. Noranti Utu Noranti Pralatong (called simply Noranti), played by Melissa Jaffer, joined the crew in the Season 3 finale, "Dog with Two Bones", when she suddenly appears among them as a mysterious and eccentric refugee that escaped to Moya along with an unidentified group of others as a Peacekeeper Command Carrier was being destroyed. The "Old Woman", as she is called, is a Traskan, and little is known of her past before she joined the crew. Initially appearing to Crichton and Chiana as a grateful cook, she later describes herself as a "doctor, instructor, and among many other disciplines . . . negotiator". She is basically portrayed as an accomplished herbalist. Although her skills are sometimes not quite as successful as she would like, she does manage to come to the crew's rescue with odd potions and powders on many occasions. At times, she seems to have her own agenda, although what that agenda may be is never quite made clear. Being 293 years old, she sometimes appears to the others as being slightly senile, and is often referred to as "Grandma". She was featured throughout Season 4 of Farscape, as well as being in The Peacekeeper Wars, where she realizes the existence of more Eidelons and convinces Crichton to seek to reawaken their powers to help end the war. Noranti was additionally performed by Amanda Wenban in The Peacekeeper Wars. An alternate reality version of Noranti appeared in the Season 4 episode, "Unrealized Reality", and was portrayed by Gigi Edgley. Sikozu Sikozu Svala Shanti Sugaysi Shanu (called Sikozu), played by Raelee Hill, is a Kalish who grew up in Scarran-controlled space. She first appeared in "Crichton Kicks" and made her last appearance in "The Peacekeeper Wars Part 2". She becomes an expert (albeit a book expert) on Leviathans, and eventually goes to work for a pirate group who harvest toubray (nerve) fibers from Leviathans. She meets up with Crichton while he is aboard the Leviathan Elack in the Leviathan's sacred burial space; she led the pirates there and they subsequently try to kill her to prevent her telling anyone where the burial area is. Crichton nicknames her "Sputnik" due to the shape of her hairstyle when they met. There is initial confusion at their meeting because she cannot tolerate translator microbes and so must learn all languages by hearing them. This may not be a species trait, given that she is later exposed as a Bioloid agent, and could be a consequence of that process instead. She is extremely intelligent and picks up information very quickly. She can "change her centre of gravity" so that she can walk on walls and ceilings, and she can easily reattach limbs that have been severed. She has to eat only a few times a cycle (year). She is extremely arrogant, a self-styled polymath who constantly belittles those around her. While her knowledge about technology, species, history, and the galaxy in general is vast, it is mostly academic. She is extremely naive and unknowledgeable about how things function outside a controlled environment (such as learning Leviathan physiology strictly via studying and not understanding that the floorplans of the biomechanoids vary as a result of passenger preference). Sikozu's sense of self-preservation is foremost in her mind, and so she is prone to switching sides in any conflict with no notice and seemingly no premeditation other than ad hoc judgments on who currently holds the greatest advantage. This makes her true loyalties (if any) uncertain. Sikozu accompanies Crichton as he reunites with his crewmates from Moya, and she gradually allies herself with Scorpius, whom she initially seems intrigued by both because he saves her life and because he is arguably the most powerful and intelligent person on Moya. (He is the first mind Sikozu has known who she acknowledges as her equal or superior.) They eventually become lovers and she takes a place at his side when he is kicked off Moya. Just prior to the Scarran-Peacekeeper war, it is revealed that she is a bioloid (an android) and a double-agent. She is working with the Kalish resistance to free the Kalish from Scarran servitude, and as such was specially bioengineered to be able to hover in the air and release intense radiation heat rays from her body that destroy Scarran heat producing glands, rendering them weak and vulnerable. She is also able to direct this energy in smaller bursts via her hands when necessary. This radiation seems to still be harmful, although to a lesser degree, to Scarran hybrids such as Scorpius. When using her power in his presence, she instructs him to take cover and not to look at her. Late in the war, it is revealed that Sikozu is a spy for the Scarran Empire in exchange for a promise from them to free her people from servitude. Scorpius assaults her after revealing his knowledge about her betrayal and leaves her to die on the water-planet, Qujaga. This development is foreshadowed in several earlier episodes: At their first meeting, Chiana thinks that Sikozu is a spy because she has Scarran currency and speaks Scarran. Sikozu explains this by saying that her people are from Scarran-controlled space. In a visit to an unrealized reality, Crichton — in that reality, a ranking Peacekeeper officer — is forced to execute Sikozu after she is revealed to be a Scarran spy. Talyn Talyn is a Peacekeeper/Leviathan hybrid gunship, a living spaceship that is the progeny of the Leviathan Moya. Talyn is named after Aeryn Sun's father. He first appeared in "The Hidden Memory" and made his last appearance in "Into the Lion's Den Part II: Wolf in Sheep's Clothing". The Leviathan Moya was subjected to a hybridization experiment by the Peacekeepers while in captivity. A synthetic stimulant/conceptive was placed in her by a peacekeeper Leviathan expert called Velorek, leader of the experiment. It was accidentally released by Ka D'Argo six months after their escape from peacekeeper captivity, leading to the conception of a fetus. Roughly six months later, Moya gave birth to a baby Leviathan, though the baby was far from normal: unlike typical Leviathans, which are streamlined and have no weapons whatsoever, the infant was "covered with weapons." During the birthing process, Talyn's external weaponry caused him to become stuck in the birth canal, and he had to fire a low-yield shot from those same weapons to free himself. Shortly after his birth, he had a few disagreements with his mother and refused to talk to her. Moya felt that a Peacekeeper should talk to him. Aeryn boarded Talyn and succeeded in convincing the young Leviathan to listen to his mother. Moya asked Officer Aeryn Sun to name her offspring, and Aeryn named it after her father, Talyn. At times, Talyn could be emotionally unstable, even going so far as to deliberately attack Moya. He also panicked easily. It is unclear whether this resulted from his violent childhood, or from errors in his genome, perhaps the result of trying to create a warship from an essentially nonaggressive species. Talyn was a very powerful ship when young, and had he achieved maturity he would likely have been one of the most powerful ships in the galaxy. He was young (and quite childlike) for much of Farscape, and was dwarfed by his mother Moya, although he did grow gradually over the series. It was theorized by Pilot that he might even have grown larger than a normal Leviathan. At the end of season 3 Talyn sacrificed his life to save the crew of Moya. Captured and disabled while docked inside the Peacekeeper Command Carrier that had been following the crew for three years, Talyn starburst within the carrier, causing a massive energy wave that progressively destroyed the Carrier (while leaving enough time for most of the crew to evacuate the ship). Talyn's remains were carried by Moya to the Leviathan Sacred Space region, something of an elephant graveyard of Leviathans; space they regard as holy and where they go to die. He was mourned by Moya and her crew. Unlike other Leviathans, Talyn does not have a Pilot bonded to him, but still has a vestigial Pilot's den: although he physically could be bonded to a Pilot (he managed to bond temporarily, yet successfully, to Stark in one instance through the Pilot's den), he does not require one in order to navigate himself and fire his weapons. He can operate purely on voice command; still, a humanoid can be implanted with a device that allows direct interface with Talyn, although not to the same extent as a Pilot (Talyn can resist orders from time to time: they're more suggestions than orders). This device, unless properly modified, can also be a two-way street through which Talyn can force feedback through to injure the implanted humanoid. It also leaves the humanoid open to feeling Talyn's pain as Pilot feels Moya's pain. The device's sympathetic effect can even go as far as to physically blind the humanoid if Talyn's sensors are damaged. Also because of the connection strength Talyn can force those connected to him to do his will to a certain degree. This causes great pain to the humanoid pilot to the extent that was seen on Crais. Recurring Peacekeeper characters Peacekeepers are of the Sebacean race and were originally a law enforcement agency, but has become a private military company which employs their people as mercenary soldiers. For a price, they will serve as the military force for planets that lack one, though this arrangement usually is more advantageous to the Peacekeepers than to their "clients". During the storyline, the Peacekeepers are known to be employed by Hynerian rebel elements loyal to Dominar Rygel XVI's cousin Bishan (although the extent of their involvement in the rebellion is unknown), and by the rulers of Delvia. The half-breed Scorpius was a notable exception to the Peacekeepers racial purity rules, and was required to endure a loyalty test to be excepted from those rules. The Peacekeepers employ several large groups as slave laborers, notably Banik. Sebaceans are externally similar to humans, and by inference are a genetic offshoot of humans artificially created some 27 millennia before the events of the series; as a result of this genetic enhancement, Sebacean biology has several notable differences. Among the known advantages granted by their creators is a delay in the gestation of the fetus, eyesight significantly keener than that of humans, and average lifespans at least twice that of a human from the 20th century (though it is unclear if this is due to their advanced medical technology). A biological drawback is their inability to deal with extreme heat (due to their genetic loss of the gland required to regulate heat): overheating leads to a state known as the heat delirium, a brain fever that leads to a permanent coma-state referred to as the living death. Until the onset of the final stage, the condition may be halted or even reversed by sufficiently lowering the sufferer's core temperature. Meeklo Braca Meeklo Braca, played by David Franklin, was introduced in "Bone to Be Wild" at the end of season one, although he first appeared in a non-speaking role in "The Hidden Memory. At the end of fourth season, it is revealed that Braca's first name is Meeklo. He made his last appearance in "The Peacekeeper Wars Part 2". Braca's initial appearances focused on a nondescript, professional relationship to Bialar Crais, his commanding officer. As Crais continued his downward spiral into dereliction of duty in his ruthless pursuit of John Crichton, Braca slowly emerged as the voice of quiet dissent among Crais' officers and crew. While harboring serious misgivings about the pursuit, there was no way to act upon these doubts until the Command Carrier arrived at the Gammak Base where John Crichton had been captured. Braca quickly established himself as Scorpius's assistant once Crais was removed from command, which John Crichton compared to a Mr. Burns and Waylon Smithers interaction. However, their relationship is generally more complex in that Scorpius clearly trusts Braca implicitly, which is unusual for Scorpius' methodical and suspicious nature. Throughout season two, Scorpius mentored Braca, instructing him on strategy, planning, and politics both internal to Peacekeeper command and the galaxy at large. Braca emerged from this grooming with several promotions and quickly established himself as an increasingly efficient and dangerous extension of Scorpius' loyal following. At the beginning of season four, Lieutenant Braca was promoted to Captain Braca by Commandant Mele-On Grayza. Initially, it appeared that he had betrayed Scorpius to Grayza, but by the end of the season it was revealed that Braca was really Scorpius's spy. When Grayza had a mental breakdown in the end of season four due to incompetent handling of a confrontation with the Scarrans, Captain Braca relieved her of command. By invoking an article of Peacekeeper doctrine he maintained his unwavering loyalty to the organization as a whole, removing Grayza from her duties in order to save the lives of the command carrier crew from certain death. Braca later welcomed Scorpius on board, though this was seen as a welcome change compared to Gayza's command structure. When he inquired where Grayza was, Braca said he threw her in the brig, under heavy sedation. Later, in the "Farscape: Peacekeeper Wars" miniseries Scorpius had been made commander of an armada and used Braca's command carrier as his flagship, and Braca is once again at his side. Although he is wounded during the climactic ground fighting on the planet Qujaga, he is rescued by Scorpius and is able to return with the rest of the group to safety. Braca is last seen fully recovered at the signing of the peace treaty. Due to Scorpius' often isolated lifestyle and history, as well as the generally impersonal nature of Peacekeeper culture, his relationship with Braca is often a mixture of mentoring, paternally guiding, and intellectually stimulating at the same time. It is clear that Braca idolizes Scorpius and hopes to emulate his meteoric rise through the Peacekeeper ranks. He is also, like Scorpius, a "true believer" in the Peacekeeper cause and willing to go to any lengths to ensure their victory over the Scarrans. Braca's complete devotion to Scorpius is clearly evident when he braves the wrath of Mele-on Grayza in order to remain Scorpius' spy amongst the Peacekeepers, at great risk to his own life and position. Mele-on Grayza Commandant Mele-on Grayza, played by Rebecca Riggs, is a Sebacean female who has risen through the Peacekeeper ranks to achieve the status of Commandant. Politically astute and ruthlessly ambitious, she will use anyone or anything at her disposal to achieve her goals. To this end, she has had a gland implanted in her chest that secretes a substance known as Heppel oil, which she uses to bend her (male) victims to her will. A drawback to the gland is that it severely lowers her lifespan. To what degree it is lowered is not explored. Grayza is first seen in "Into the Lion's Den Part I: Lambs to the Slaughter" towards the end of season three of the series, when she arrives aboard Scorpius' Command Carrier to put a stop to his wormhole research, considering it to be a threat to her efforts to negotiate a truce between the Sebaceans and the Scarran race. However, she becomes intrigued by John Crichton and his wormhole knowledge, believing it to be a potential bargaining chip in her dealings with the Scarrans, and sets out to capture Moya. She is successful in tracking the crew down, and early in season 4, drugs and rapes Crichton: the stated purpose is to gain access to his wormhole knowledge, using allegedly more pleasurable methods than torture; the plan fails, though Crichton spends most of Season Four of Farscape traumatized by his treatment at Grayza's hands. Humiliated, Grayza directs Braca to keep searching for Moya - word spreads quickly to bounty-hunters of the price she puts on Crichton's head - but this also fails. Finally, when her bid for peace is lost, Grayza orders her Command Carrier to engage the Scarrans in conflict, only to be stopped by her subordinate Captain Meeklo Braca, who has secretly been allied with Scorpius while pretending to be loyal to Grayza. He assumes command of the Command Carrier. Although reported by Braca to be under sedation in the brig at the end of the series, by the time of Farscape: The Peacekeeper Wars, Grayza is seen as an advisor to the Peacekeeper Grand Chancellor, whilst also pregnant. The child's father is not identified, leaving open the question of whether it is the Grand Chancellor's, John Crichton's, or someone else's baby. If Crichton's, Grayza's pregnancy could have been planned by her to get the wormhole knowledge from the child. The Scarran race had developed the science to remove knowledge from DNA, attempting to do just that from Crichton's unborn child with Aeryn Sun; it can be safely assumed that the Peacekeepers could do the same. Grayza eventually kills the Grand Chancellor when he tells her of his intention to surrender to the Scarrans, and she takes command of the Peacekeeper forces herself. When Crichton finally demonstrates the destructive powers of the wormhole weapon, she agrees to a truce with the Scarrans "for the sake of our children". She is last seen aboard Moya, signing the peace treaty alongside Emperor Staleek, overseen by the Eidelon. Gilina Renaez Gilina Renaez (played by Alyssa-Jane Cook) is a Sebacean Peacekeeper technical specialist. Unlike the soldier caste, she sees little to no combat during her career and is instead utilized for maintenance and engineering tasks. Gilina first encountered the crew of Moya when the Leviathan discovered the wreckage of the legendary Zelbinion (episode "PK Tech Girl"). After the crew boarded the derelict Command Carrier, they discovered Gilina already there. She explained that she was the lone surviving member of a team sent there by Captain Crais to salvage whatever they could from the vessel; the rest of her companions had been slaughtered by a previous visit of Sheyangs set on stripping the former ship. She had also heard of Aeryn Sun's defection from the Peacekeepers, and while not overly hostile, Gilina's opinion of her was not favourable (openly accusing her as a "traitor"). When the Sheyangs returned, she helped Moya's crew repair the Zelbinions defence screen, preventing Moya from being destroyed, and agreed to install the screen on Moya. Gilina and John Crichton also shared an immediate attraction to one another. As they worked to move the defence screen to Moya, they grew continually closer until they eventually shared a kiss. After the Sheyang attack was repelled and the screen was installed on Moya, the crew decided that the best course of action would be to leave Gilina behind to be picked up by Crais. Gilina readily agreed not to inform her superior of their visit and appropriation of Peacekeeper technology: while her opinion of Aeryn had changed to one of quiet respect despite her status, she may have also been fearful of suffering Aeryn's fate - being deemed "irreversibly contaminated" by alien life-forms and banished from the Peacekeepers - as Aeryn herself pointed out. Reluctantly, Crichton and Gilina parted ways (in Crichton's words: "Life sucks."). Some time later, Gilina was transferred from Crais' ship to Scorpius' Gammak base(although it is never explained how since it is unlikely Crais would make a stop at any Peacekeeper facility unless absolutely necessary). When Crichton and Chiana arrived to find a tissue sample for Aeryn (episode "Nerve"), she recognised Crichton masquerading as a Peacekeeper officer and aided them getting past the base's security. Though she realized that Crichton no longer felt as strongly for her as he had before, she agreed to help them. When Crichton was apprehended by Scorpius, Gilina used her superior knowledge of the Peacekeeper systems to get off the base, before attempting to help Crichton during his interrogations in the Aurora Chair while initially remaining undiscovered. Eventually, she reprogrammed the chair to show a false memory of Crais and Crichton making a deal, resulting in a reprieve for Crichton while Crais was later interrogated (episode "The Hidden Memory"). When Aeryn arrived to rescue Crichton, Gilina helped them flee the base, but chose to stay rather than leave her life as a Peacekeeper behind. However, she would later change her mind, realising that she truly did want to leave with Crichton and that if she stayed, her part in Crichton's escape would eventually be discovered. When Crichton was caught and held at gunpoint by Scorpius during his attempted escape, Gilina unexpectedly came to his rescue, armed with a pulse rifle; her hesitation to fire on Scorpius, however, led to him shooting her instead. This distraction gave Crichton the chance to break away and escape with the rest of Moya's crew and Gilina, now mortally wounded. She had saved Crichton's life, at the cost of her own. She spent her final moments on Moya. As she lay dying, Stark helped ease her pain, showing her a memory of a place he had kept hidden during his many sessions in the Aurora Chair. She professed her love for Crichton and he admitted that he could have loved her as well. They shared one final kiss before she died. Almost three cycles after her death, Crichton and Chiana would encounter Gilina in another form, appearing in a neural-based, video game-like device of Stark's that was apparently based on Crichton's own memories (episode "John Quixote"). Her character was present on the Gammak base level and was later destroyed by one of the game's versions of Scorpius. Selto Durka Selto Durka (played by David Wheeler) was a legendary Peacekeeper captain in command of the command carrier Zelbinion. His most famed accomplishments were the liberation of Mintaka III and the quelling the Senovion rebellion. Many of his tactics are required learning during Peacekeeper training. Durka was also an inveterate sadist, and frequently tortured prisoners that came under his supervision. In Farscape, he was particularly known for torturing Rygel. He was first seen in PK Tech Girl, then in Durka Returns, and finally in Liars, Guns and Money. During a Peacekeeper invasion of the Nebari sector, over 100 cycles (years) prior to the events covered by the TV Series, the Zelbinion was crippled by Nebari "Host" vessel. The crew refused to surrender to Nebari "mind cleansing" and were all killed, and Durka apparently committed suicide. However, it is later revealed that he had faked his own death by murdering a junior officer, and fled the Zelbinion in an escape pod. He was later captured by the Nebari and spent the next 100 cycles (years) in stasis being mind cleansed into an obedient, pacifistic servant of the Nebari Establishment. When Durka and his Nebari master later encountered the crew of Moya, he was recognised by Rygel who promptly tried to kill him with a makeshift bomb. However the explosion only succeeded in somehow negating the mind cleansing, and Durka was returned to his old violent self. In short order, he (allegedly) murdered his Nebari keeper and hijacked Moya, but the crew eventually succeeded in luring him into a trap. While he was powering up the weapons on the crippled Nebari ship on which he had arrived, it was jettisoned into space, leaving him stranded on board the derelict vessel. About a cycle (year) later, Rygel discovered that Durka survived their last encounter and was then the leader of the Zenetan Pirates with which he was trying to negotiate. Durka tried to kill Rygel, but Rygel came prepared for his treachery and killed Durka instead, a surprisingly abrupt end for so prominent a villain in the series. For the next few days, Rygel carried Durka's severed head around on a stake, as a trophy of his final victory over the man who tortured him for so long. Talyn Lyczac Talyn Lyczac was a Peacekeeper soldier and the father of Aeryn Sun. At the beginning of the series, he has been dead for many cycles. Talyn is rare for a Peacekeeper in that he met and fell in love with another Peacekeeper, Xhalax Sun. Together, they deliberately conceived Aeryn, as a symbol of their love. When the Peacekeepers discovered their relationship and the daughter they had sired, they gave Xhalax a choice. She could kill Talyn or she could kill Aeryn. Xhalax executes Talyn, which is her initiation into the life of an assassin for the Peacekeepers. Aeryn would later name Moya's son Talyn in honor of her father. Almost two cycles later, Aeryn tries to contact her dead father on the planet Valldon. There, an alien being claims to be Talyn. It is soon revealed, however, that he is not Talyn, but an impostor hired by Xhalax in her attempt to kill Aeryn and cause her the same kind of pain Xhalax felt when forced to make her horrific choice between her daughter and her lover. (The false Talyn wears an insect-like prosthetic over half of his face, claiming to have thus changed his appearance through surgery when going into hiding; a similar half-face appears on the "bioloid" imposter of Aeryn after Crichton shoots her in the head.) Teeg Lieutenant Teeg, played by Christine Stephen-Daly, was stationed on Captain Bialar Crais' Command Carrier as early as two cycles before Moya's escape from captivity. She is his first officer and is fiercely loyal and supportive. When Crais' brother is killed, it falls to her to inform him. Months after Moya's escape, Teeg and Crais receive orders from Peacekeeper High Command to withdraw from the Uncharted Territories. After Crais is abducted and returned by Maldis, Teeg informs him of an attempt by another officer to remove him from command, an action that she has prevented. She also notifies him that she remains the only other person besides Crais who knows about the admiral's order. Making sure it stays that way, Crais snaps her neck, ending the life of his most faithful officer. Teeg's murder goes undiscovered until Crais is placed into the Aurora Chair by Scorpius several months later. Xhalax Sun Xhalax Sun (played by Linda Cropper) is the mother of Aeryn Sun, with whom she had never formed a personal relationship due to Peacekeeper rules. Xhalax is first seen in season three of the series, as the leader of a Peacekeeper retrieval squad sent to recapture Talyn. It is revealed that Xhalax, a former spaceship pilot, had been forced to become an assassin as punishment for her crimes of having formed a romantic relationship with another Peacekeeper, having intentionally chosen to have a child with him, and then having established contact with that child (albeit briefly), all of which violated Peacekeeper rules. When her crimes were discovered via security camera when she secretly visited Aeryn when Aeryn was a child, in order to inform her that her life was not an accident or an assigned birthing to fill the ranks, Xhalax was forced to choose between killing Aeryn and killing Aeryn's father, Talyn (for whom the aforementioned Talyn had been named). Her superiors told her that after making this choice she would be forgiven and allowed to return to being a pilot, but she was never reinstated in her former position and was instead assigned assassination missions from that time on. This line of work slowly made her become cold and bitter, seemingly destroying the love that she'd shown during her clandestine visit to young Aeryn's barracks, and the love for which she'd sacrificed the life of her lover in order to save their child. Decades later, when she was assigned to the Peacekeeper retrieval squad, she met Aeryn once again and explained what had happened after she'd visited Aeryn. She accused Aeryn of being sentimental and weak for having named the spaceship Talyn after the father she'd never met. That encounter ended with Talyn seriously crippled and Crais having claimed to have killed Xhalax to prevent her from completing her mission to capture Talyn for the Peacekeepers. In reality, he had allowed Xhalax to leave them because he knew that otherwise, the Peacekeepers would simply send another retrieval squad. Aeryn encountered Xhalax once again later on, and a situation arose from which only one could escape alive. During a tense standoff, Aeryn managed to reason with Xhalax only to see Xhalax shot down by Bialar Crais who through no fault of his own misinterpreted the standoff as unacceptably dangerous to Aeryn. Dying, Xhalax told Aeryn that her true selfdom had been killed years before by her unyielding loyalty to the Peacekeepers. Her last request was for Aeryn to let her fall from the high ledge where their standoff had taken place. As a token of respect, Aeryn acquiesced. Recurring Scarran characters The Scarrans are large humanoids that are distinctly reptilian in appearance and display a noticeable variation in body types. Most members of this species are perhaps best described as tailless "lizard men" with extended necks and long muzzled faces that some have found reminiscent of a horse. A significantly smaller portion possess a slightly smaller and more humanoid face on a shorter neck. Finally there is a third and even rarer variety that are almost human in proportion though their faces retain a certain bestial mien. There have been examples of male Scarrans of all three types, but the only females seen to date have been of this last variety - a large sexual dimorphism exists between the large muscular males and the smaller svelte females. As these Scarran women possess breasts, it may be inferred that they give birth to and nurture live young; whether the same can be said of females of the other types is uncertain. Scarrans are known to reproduce in a manner physically compatible with humans and Sebaceans. By inference natives of a hot world, Scarrans nonetheless seem comfortable in temperate conditions to the point that their military facilities are heated to a level comfortable for non-Scarrans. This may have to do with the specialized gland in their chest that permits a Scarran to emit a focused beam of heat, usually from the hand, that proves exceptionally useful for purposes of torture and interrogation. Some Scarrans are skilled enough in applying this ability and studying the response its effects elicit that they can tell whether or not the victim is answering truthfully, though certain individuals (including the Scarran/Sebacean hybrid Scorpius) seem immune, or at least resistant to this probe. The gland's ability to produce heat is negated by sub-zero temperatures, and its removal has a noticeably debilitating physical effect. The indifference to climate may, however, be due to the Scarran being cold-blooded, similar to reptiles, and that evolution resulted in a gland that 'stores' heat, which may be discharged as a defensive mechanism. It's revealed in Season 4 that Scarrans must routinely consume a type of flower known as "Crystherium Utilia" (described as a Strelitzia by Crichton), in order to maintain their sentience. According to Harvey, failure to consume the flower results in their intelligence diminishing, and eventually turns them feral. Only a few planets possess the conditions necessary to support the flower's growth, which consequentially puts a limit on Scarran expansion. However, upon learning that the flower grows wild on Earth, the Scarrans prioritize conquering the planet, forcing Crichton to permanently close the wormhole. Scarran society is structured along imperial lines, with an Emperor in overall charge. This position's power is not absolute - an incompetent may be removed by a body known as the "Hierarchy". Though dynastic succession is expected, killing the current Emperor and taking power is a perfectly legitimate means of ascending to the throne which has no gender restriction on who may occupy it. The position of War Minister is considered the third to the Emperorship in terms of power and prestige within Scarran society, though whether this is constitutional mandate or a result of the Imperium's inexorable mobilisation to war by the time of the Farscape series is unknown. The Scarran Imperium rose to its current position as a major galactic power within the last 12,000 cycles and within that time they have come into conflict with the Peacekeepers, both civilisations laying claim to parts of the so-called Uncharted Territories into which their populaces might expand. How long the state of cold war has existed between them is unknown - though legend tells of the Eidelons creating a peace between the two species over 12,000 years prior to the Farscape series at the temple on Arnesk, the testimony of the Eidelons themselves as to their lack of familiarity with the Scarran species would indicate the story as the galaxy knows it is fallacious. By the end of the Farscape series, hostilities between Scarrans and Peacekeepers escalate into an open conflict that lasts for a number of months; almost without exception, the Scarran war machine carries every battle, conquering many systems both within the Uncharted Territories, and under Peacekeeper control. Despite this, the war is brought to a peaceful conclusion with no victor when John Crichton utilises a wormhole weapon with the potential to destroy the galaxy in order to frighten both sides into signing a peace treaty. Ahkna, War Minister Ahkna is an upper-caste member of the Scarran race, played by Francesca Buller (the wife of co-star Ben Browder who plays series protagonist John Crichton). She is a Minister of War throughout the last few episodes of Season 4 of the series. Her position makes her the third most powerful Scarran in the Empire, under Emperor Staleek. Ahkna believes in the superiority of the Scarran race and would do almost anything to ensure that the Scarrans dominate the galaxy. Several months before the war between the Scarrans and the Peacekeepers, Ahkna meets with Commandant Mele-On Grayza to discuss a peace treaty between the two powers. Grayza offers the Luxan territories to the Scarrans in exchange for Peacekeeper control of the Uncharted Territories and a peace treaty. Ahkna accepts the arrangement and signs the treaty, but betrays Grayza a moment later when her escorts open fire on Grayza's party, killing everyone but Grayza and Captain Braca. Ahkna takes Grayza and Braca to her ship, planning to later interrogate them about the Peacekeepers' alleged wormhole technology. Before she can do this, however, Grayza and Braca are freed by Aeryn Sun and Sikozu. Ahkna's group manages to capture Aeryn, and she turns her over to Captain Jenek. Ahkna is later at Katratzi with Emperor Staleek when John Crichton arrives with the supposed intention of selling his wormhole knowledge to the highest bidder. Though she is suspicious of his motivations, she can do little to him since 1) it is Staleek's decision, not hers and 2) Crichton has a nuclear bomb strapped to his chest. Ahkna is relatively fearless, however, and menaces Crichton despite the nuclear bomb, almost setting it off. At the time, Scorpius is being held captive in the base and Ahkna takes much pleasure in torturing him. Despite the efforts of her underlings, Katratzi is all but destroyed by Crichton and his companions. With their precious flower destroyed, Ahkna leaves Katratzi with Staleek. Within a number of days, Ahkna and Staleek have discovered that a large supply of crystherium flower exists on Earth. Staleek sends Ahkna's lover Pennoch in a Scarran Stryker to attack and subdue the planet. Ahkna loses her love, however, when the efforts of Crichton, Aeryn, and Pilot cause the collapse of the wormhole connected to Earth while Pennoch is still inside of it. Two months later, Ahkna helps lead the war effort against the Peacekeepers. With superior forces and firepower, the Scarrans win every battle against the Peacekeepers. Ahkna is stationed aboard Staleek's Decimator at the Emperor's side. Ahkna is zealous in her campaign against the Peacekeepers, more so than the Emperor himself, believing that the war should only end with their enemy's total annihilation. Ahkna often acts without Staleek's consent, doing what benefits both her and the Scarran race. Pleased with her determination and ruthlessness, Staleek all but promises her rule of the Scarran Empire by his side at the completion of the war. Ahkna's final battle takes place on the ravaged surface of Qujaga. After prolonged ground combat between Peacekeeper and Scarran forces, Crichton and his allies try to move out from their fortified position and escape to Moya. Ahkna's forces intercept them on the way and Ahkna holds Crichton at gunpoint. Before she can fire, however, Aeryn shoots her in the back, ending her life. Pennoch Captain Pennoch is a high ranking Scarran soldier and the lover of War Minister Ahkna. He is played by Jonathan Pasvolsky and later by John Adam. He usually appears in the service of Ahkna or Emperor Staleek and can often be seen at their side or carrying out their orders. He accompanies Ahkna to her meeting with Commandant Grayza on a dead Leviathan and commerce center. He later assists in the capture of Aeryn Sun when her pulse rifle proves to be ineffective against his thick hide. He is also present at the meeting and devastation at Katratzi. He is sent on his final mission by Emperor Staleek. In command of a Scarran Stryker, Pennoch heads for the wormhole that leads to Earth. When the Stryker arrives and enters, however, Crichton has already begun to collapse the wormhole. The Stryker is caught in the implosion, destroying the ship and killing Pennoch as Ahkna can only listen helplessly. Staleek Emperor Staleek is the Scarran emperor, played by Duncan Young and is a major antagonist in both the series and the mini-series. He first appears in the "We're So Screwed" three-part story in season 4, holding a conference at the secret moon of Katratzi. It was there he first encounters John Crichton. Crichton comes to Katratzi under the guise of selling the information he has on wormhole technology to the highest bidder. Crichton is truly there to rescue Scorpius, whom Staleek has prisoner at the base. During that time, Staleek hopes to find a way to capture Crichton without setting off the nuclear bomb attached to Crichton's belt. He is also under the impression that Scorpius is his spy and double agent, but in truth, Scorpius turns out to be a triple agent whose true allegiance is to the Peacekeepers. When Crichton severely damages the Katratzi base, Staleek orders Captain Pennoch to Earth, as he has learned from Crichton that the planet contains a large supply of the crystherium flower, vital to the Scarrans' power. Pennoch's mission fails and his ship is destroyed by Crichton and Aeryn Sun. Staleek later takes an active role in the Peacekeeper-Scarran war, traveling in his flagship the Decimator. He personally captures Crichton at Arnessk and is later present at the battle over Qujaga where Crichton unleashes a wormhole weapon and forces the two sides to make peace. Crichton mockingly calls him Emperor Sleestak, a play on his name and also a reference to Land of the Lost, a 1970s children's Saturday morning Sci-Fi TV show that featured lizard-like humanoid antagonists, presumably remembered from John Crichton's youth. Captain Jenek Captain Jenek is a Scarran freighter captain and a member of the Scarran ruling caste who serves as a major antagonist in the fourth season, played by Jason Clarke. Jenek serves as Aeryn's jailer while she is in Scarran custody, keeping her on board his ship and torturing her both physically and psychologically while his ship made its way to the Katratzi base. After forcing her to tell him that Crichton is the father of her child, he continues his path to Katratzi, intending to have scientists extract wormhole information from its DNA. Jenek's ship stops at a border station that Moya's crew are also on, having disguised themselves as Scarran agents. While on the station, Noranti infects Rygel with a contagious Hynerian disease to have the station put into quarantine. Jenek becomes paranoid the disease will kill Aeryn and attempts to place her baby inside Chiana, as Nebari are immune to the disease. Moya's crew engaged in an operation to prevent this, and Scorpius lured him off ship. When Jenek caught onto his ruse, Scorpius attacked Jenek and was promptly beaten into submission by the Scarran captain and taken prisoner, though Aeryn and Chiana were rescued. Jenek arrived in Katratzi with Scorpius and attended the peace conference, serving as the chief security officer. Jenek is killed when Crichton's homemade nuclear bomb detonated, destroying the base. Other recurring characters Bekhesh Bekhesh is the leader of a group of Tavlek mercenaries but later gives up his life of violence. He is played by John Adam. He wears a gauntlet weapon that injects him with a narcotic stimulant, giving him increased speed, strength, and aggression, but also resulting in addiction. The gauntlet can also fire short energy bursts with an output that is on par with a pulse pistol blast, able to kill a target in one hit, and can absorb blasts too. He is featured in the episode "Throne for a Loss" and the trilogy "Liars, Guns, and Money". He is first encountered by the crew of Moya shortly after John Crichton's arrival in the Uncharted Territories. Posing as a group of traders, Bekhesh's group attempts to rob Moya shortly after boarding. While deterred from stealing any goods, Bekhesh manages to kidnap Rygel, because they have been led to believe by the Hynerian that he is a valuable prisoner, the current dominar of a great empire. Bekhesh takes Rygel to the planet below and imprisons him in a makeshift cell, burying the Hynerian halfway into the ground as he waits for the crew of Moya to pay Rygel's ransom. Despite Rygel's supposed value, Bekhesh treats him mercilessly and does not tolerate dissent. When Rygel tries to escape, Bekhesh strangles him, nearly causing the Hynerian's death. Rygel's crewmates eventually come for him and as Bekhesh and Crichton have a Mexican standoff, Crichton is able to convince Bekhesh that Rygel is not worth anything. Bekhesh gives him up, deciding that Rygel has already been more trouble than he could ever be worth. Almost two cycles later, Crichton seeks Bekhesh out, hoping to acquire the gauntlet to use it in an assault to rescue D'Argo's son. He discovers that Bekhesh had given up his life of violence and has joined a pacifist holy order. He is, however, unwilling to give up the gauntlet and agrees to go with Crichton. After Crichton later turns himself over to Scorpius in exchange for Jothee, Bekhesh helps stage an assault on a Shadow Depository, fighting beside D'Argo and Aeryn in an effort to rescue Crichton. After their success, Bekhesh takes his cut and thanks the crew of Moya for bringing him back to his life of violence. Unlike other Tavleks, Bekhesh wears some type of masking shield over the top of his head. Its purpose is unknown but it is implied that it is due to injury. D.K. (Douglas Knox) John Crichton's childhood friend who, along with Crichton, formulated the theory that was being tested by the Farscape project. Crichton helped D.K. cheat on his SATs, and helped get him his job at IASA. In the episode "Terra Firma" D.K. and his wife were killed by an alien named Skreeth. D.K. appears in the episodes "Premiere", "Won't Get Fooled Again", "Unrealized Reality" and "Terra Firma". Einstein First introduced in Season 4, "Einstein" is an Ancient who has tremendous knowledge of wormholes, time and theoretical physics. His appearance is a plot device which provides John Crichton with an opportunity to finally harness wormhole travel and return to Earth, a main focus of the series. He is shown as enigmatic and ultimately fake, appearing as an eyeless, gray-skinned human being wearing a suit and tie, obviously in imitation of Crichton's memories, as he is not truly existent in Crichton's world, simply a manifestation of another, vastly more powerful being. He is one of the many 'godlike aliens' which episodes of Farscape often center around, presenting alternate realities and confusing illusions, similar to Maldis and the Ancients. Einstein actually reveals to Crichton that the Ancients are members of his race, though substantially modified, who provide intelligence of 'normal' space. There are allusions and references made to the Pathfinder wormhole-traversing race as well as the extradimensional entity from the Season One episode Through the Looking Glass. The moniker "Einstein" is given to him by Crichton. His true name, and whether he has one, is not known. In Farscape: The Peacekeeper Wars, after considerable badgering by Crichton, Einstein removes the mental blocks preventing Crichton from turning a wormhole into a weapon. After Crichton builds such a weapon and uses it to coerce the Peacekeepers and Scarrans to negotiate peace, Einstein strips the knowledge from his mind even as he's shutting off the weapon. He is played by John Bach. Furlow Furlow (played by Magda Szubanski) is a knowledgeable, yet somewhat arrogant, mechanic on the desert world Dam-Ba-Da. While her race is not known, she appears to be a rather short and stocky female, likely Sebacean. The crew of Moya first met Furlow when John Crichton and Aeryn Sun were forced to land John's IASA Farscape One module there after it had suffered damage in space. Furlow offered to repair John's ship, provided he could pay for it. When repairs were completed, and compensation was demanded, Crichton admitted that he had nothing with which to pay her. Furlow demanded all the flight data he had recorded on wormholes so far to Crichton's dismay. Two cycles later, one of the twinned Crichtons returned to Dam-Ba-Da aboard Talyn. An Ancient in the guise of Jack Crichton had accused him of selling the wormhole knowledge given to him by the ancients. However, Crichton had given the knowledge to Furlow before ever meeting the Ancients. Furlow used the wormhole information given to her by John, as well as a replica of the Farscape One module, to conduct her own wormhole research. Her plan was to sell it to the highest bidder—in this case the Scarrans, via the Charrids. When John and Ancient Jack arrived on Dam-Ba-Da, the Charrids had already taken over Furlow's garage in order to secure the knowledge for the Scarrans, who were on their way to the planet. Before John, Aeryn, and Jack were able to destroy the information, the Scarrans downloaded some of it, so "Jack" came up with a plan to destroy the Scarran ship, deciding to build a device that used wormholes as a weapon. Before the Scarrans arrived, however, Furlow betrayed them, killing Jack. She stole the completed device—a displacement engine—and fled her shop in a vehicle, hoping to sell the engine to the Scarrans when they arrived. Crichton pursued and caused Furlow to crash, inadvertently exposing the radioactive material that powered the engine. Knowing that approaching the engine would mean risking a fatal dose of radiation, Furlow fled, and urged Crichton to do the same. But Crichton instead retrieved the engine, sacrificing his life in order to ensure that the Scarrans would not retain the information they'd just stolen. Furlow's whereabouts thereafter remain unknown as she never again appears in the series. Jack Crichton John Robert "Jack" Crichton, Sr. is a retired astronaut who at one point had walked on the Moon, and the father of John Crichton; Jack is played by Kent McCord. During his time in the Uncharted Territories, the junior Crichton would often think of his father. In his first year, he would sometimes record his thoughts into a tape recorder, usually addressing Jack in his recordings. A member of the Ancients took on his form when conversing with John Crichton. Initially this was to fool John while studying human reactions (for a possible colonisation of Earth). Following John seeing his true form, the illusion was retained for unknown reasons (Possibly to make John feel more at ease with him). Around a cycle later, John would again encounter a false image of his father. This was the result of a Scarran interrogation device which presented Crichton with increasingly erratic and irrational imagery in order to break his mind. A cycle after this incident, John again encounters the Ancient in the form of his father. Assumedly, this Ancient took the form of Jack to make Crichton more comfortable as they worked together to keep wormhole technology out of the hands of the Scarrans. "Ancient Jack" was eventually killed by Furlow who had hoped to sell the wormhole tech to the Scarrans. Crichton would finally see his real father again, about a cycle later, though this time he encountered Jack when he was younger in 1985. Crichton soon discovered that his presence in the past had altered history and that Jack was now to command the tragic final flight of the Space Shuttle Challenger. Crichton and his friends did what they could to fix the timeline, while John avoided any unnecessary contact with his parents. It seems, however, that Jack later caught a glimpse of his grown son shortly after he had rescued the younger 1985-John from a burning house. When John and the rest of Moya's crew returned to the present, they discovered that they were still in Earth orbit, now in late 2003. John and Jack reunited on Moya, though John was hesitant at first, wary of yet another Ancient-created, or similar, illusion. John accepted that he had finally returned home and he along with the crew of Moya spent some time on Earth. During their stay, John was distressed to learn that Jack now had, while nationalistic, an isolationist attitude toward the other nations of the world, due primarily to the September 11 terrorist attacks. In spite of their differences, John eventually convinced his father to support a unified globe, knowing it was their only chance Earth had if they hoped to face the challenges of the galaxy that Crichton had already faced. Months later, Crichton would contact Jack one last time. With the Scarrans on their way to attack Earth, John decided to collapse the wormhole linking Earth to the area of the galaxy near the Uncharted Territories and Tormented Space. After landing a transport pod on the Moon, John used one of its communicators to dial Jack's house. They wished each other good bye and Jack expressed his pride in John and all he had done before they closed the line. Jothee Jothee is the half-Luxan/half-Sebacean son of Ka D'Argo and his late wife Lo'Laan, played by Matthew Newton, and later by Nathaniel Dean. After the death of Lo'Laan, D'Argo left Jothee in the care of others. In the time between D'Argo giving him up and his reappearance, the details are vague. It was implied that Jothee spent time as a slave, as he was found among Banik slaves. As a result of his separation, Jothee was denied most of the Luxan upbringing and, after being the subject of abuse over his mixed heritage, mutilated his more Luxan features. While on Moya Jothee had an affair with Chiana, who was his father's lover, which caused a rift between both D'Argo and Chiana, and D'Argo and Jothee. Jothee left Moya's crew at this point. His whereabouts between his departure from Moya and PK Wars are unknown. Two cycles later, Jothee re-appeared as the "Kleeva" (a military strategist and officer) of a small Luxan commando unit during PK Wars. According to comic continuity later, Jothee's unique background helped him achieve the honor of becoming the youngest Kleeva in the history of the Luxan people. Jothee's skills are primarily tactic and mind based, unlike his father who quite often relied upon his brute strength, anger, and intimidating stature to get results. Maldis Maldis (played by Chris Haywood) was a recurring villain within the series. By his very nature, Maldis enjoys the pain and death of others, feeding off them like a psychic vampire. Though his exact origin and nature is unknown, Maldis is a powerful, non-corporeal being, having seemingly met his mortal end on several occasions, but always returning. He is sometimes likened to as the "Q" of Farscape, also far more sinister. He appeared in the episodes "That Old Black Magic" and "Picture if You Will". Maldis wields immense powers which enable him to shapeshift, allowing him to take on any form he wishes, thus obscuring his true age or species. Maldis has reconstituted his physical form on more than one occasion, and occupied spaces beyond the normal dimensions of spacetime, hinting that he may be more than a mere sentient being. The crew first encounters Maldis while visiting a commerce planet early in their adventures. Taking the form of a clown named Igg, he demonstrates that he knows a lot about Crichton, and explains that he serves a benevolent old magician named Haloth (also Maldis). Haloth tells Crichton he has the ability to set up a meeting between himself and Bialar Crais, at which Crichton can explain to Crais the circumstances of his brother's death, which will end the Peacekeeper captain's pursuit. Then Maldis, as Haloth, also approaches Crais, offering him John Crichton for a price. When Crais agrees, Haloth reveals himself to Crichton, and unleashes Crais upon him within an arena of his own devising. As the two fight, Zhaan gains help from a local high priest, Liko. Together, they work to unleash Zhaan's abilities to inflict pain and damage on others. Interrupting Maldis' attempt to kill Crichton and feed off his soul, Zhaan renders the dark sorcerer tangible, allowing Crichton to smash his physical form to bits. Many months later, Chiana obtains a unique picture from a woman named Kyvan. She begins experiencing progressively more dangerous "accidents" seemingly predicted by images in the picture. After attempts to examine it end in Chiana's disappearance, the crew try destroying the picture to bring her back. The picture reassembles again and again, eventually causing D'Argo to disappear as well. The remaining crew eventually learn from Kyvan that the image was commissioned by Maldis. Zhaan enacts a plan to defeat the wizard again. Zhaan thrusts Crichton into the portrait, where he distracts Maldis while Zhaan instructs Aeryn to kill Kyvan (actually an extension of Maldis) so that he is weakened enough to be physically dispersed again. With more of his links to the physical world destroyed, Maldis is once again banished to an unknown region to conserve his energies until he gains enough strength for his inevitable return (although he does not manifest again in the series). Grunchlk Grunchlk is an unkempt and opportunistic swindler who runs a medical facility, played by Hugh Keays-Byrne. Grunchlk serves as the go-between for Diagnosans (to whom translator microbes are fatal) and patients, though he often overcharges the patients, occasionally against the Diagnosan's wishes. Grunchlk also keeps dying patients cryogenically frozen so that Diagnosans can use their parts in medical procedures, trapping them between life and death. On some occasions he freezes their family members as well, as seen with Jool and her cousins. Grunchlk is first seen in "Die Me, Dichtomy", where Moya is brought to his facility to treat burn wounds she had sustained during the "Liar, Guns, and Money" three-parter. Grunchlk also agrees to have the Diagnosan remove the neural chip from John's brain. Scorpius, signaled by Harvey after the neural clone briefly took control of Crichton's body, formed a deal with Grunchlk that would have him give Scorpius the neural chip in exchange for payment. When Scorpius arrives alongside a squad of Peacekeeper commandos, Grunchlk sets a cryogenic pod containing a Scarran agent to thaw as insurance against Scorpius, planning to stop the pod from thawing should Scorpius live up to his end of the bargain. After a Diagnosan opens the pod prematurely and is murdered by the Scarran, Scorpius places an implant in Grunchlk's brain that allowed him to take control of Grunchlk's body. The Scorpius-controlled Grunchlk encountered the Scarran, and the Scarran placed Grunchlk inside a cryogenic pod and froze him. Stark, who was horrified by Grunchlk's use of the cryogenic pods, reported him as dead to the rest of the crew and left him frozen. In The Peacekeeper Wars, Grunchlk returns, having somehow escaped the pod, and now with another Diagnosan, who had given Chiana new eyes. Grunchlk and the Diagnosan accompany Chiana to Qujaga to treat Aeryn and Crichton. Jack the Ancient "Jack" is an Ancient who takes the form of Crichton's father Jack and serves as something of a mentor to John, played by Kent McCord. Jack is not actually his name, but rather a nickname Crichton gives him, as Jack's true name is pronounced through a series of incomprehensible sounds. Jack first appears when he places John, Aeryn, Rygel, and D'Argo inside a simulation of Earth, so that he can determine if it would be a suitable home for the Ancients. Jack takes the form of Jack Crichton, as it was deemed suitable to get John to trust him. Crichton eventually uncovers the ruse, and Jack reveals the purpose of the experiment to him. Though Crichton is understandably angry over the manipulation, the two part on civil terms. While Crichton is being tortured by Scorpius in the Aurora Chair, Scorpius uncovers a repressed memory of Jack. It is revealed that Jack, as an apology, implanted wormhole knowledge in Crichton's brain so he would be able to return to Earth faster, and erased the memory because the Ancients believe that if one does not discover the knowledge by themselves, they do not deserve it. This proves crucial to the rest of the series, establishing the central arc of the Peacekeepers and later the Scarrans pursuing John for his wormhole knowledge. After discovering a Charrid using a replica of Crichton's module to fly through a wormhole, Jack is sent by the other Ancients to track Crichton down and see if he had given away wormhole knowledge. After Crichton makes it clear he did not, the two deduce that Furlow was the one using the wormhole knowledge. The two tracked her to Dam-Ba-Da, and found the Charrids and Scarrans has turned on her. With a Scarran dreadnought on the way, Jack and Crichton planned to destroy the ship and Furlow's equipment along with the ship itself, by building a wormhole weapon. Jack intends to activate the weapon himself, not wanting to endanger Crichton's life, but Furlow shoots and fatally wound him. Crichton comforts Jack in his final moments, and after he dies, Jack reverts to his true form. References External links Farscape Lists of Australian television series characters Lists of science fiction television characters
4844404	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific%20information%20from%20the%20Mars%20Exploration%20Rover%20mission	Scientific information from the Mars Exploration Rover mission	NASA's 2003 Mars Exploration Rover Mission has amassed an enormous amount of scientific information related to the Martian geology and atmosphere, as well as providing some astronomical observations from Mars. This article covers information gathered by the Opportunity rover during the initial phase of its mission. Information on science gathered by Spirit can be found mostly in the Spirit rover article. The unmanned Mars exploration mission, commenced in 2003 sent two robotic rovers, Spirit and Opportunity, to explore the Martian surface and geology. The mission was led by Project Manager Peter Theisinger of NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory and Principal Investigator Steven Squyres, professor of astronomy at Cornell University. Primary among the mission's scientific goals is to search for and characterize a wide range of rocks and soils that hold clues to past water activity on Mars. In recognition of the vast amount of scientific information amassed by both rovers, two asteroids have been named in their honor: 37452 Spirit and 39382 Opportunity. On January 24, 2014, NASA reported that current studies on the planet Mars by the Curiosity and Opportunity rovers will now be searching for evidence of ancient life, including a biosphere based on autotrophic, chemotrophic or chemolithoautotrophic microorganisms, as well as ancient water, including fluvio-lacustrine environments (plains related to ancient rivers or lakes) that may have been habitable. The search for evidence of habitability, taphonomy (related to fossils), and organic carbon on the planet Mars is now a primary NASA objective. Water hypothesis On March 2, 2004, NASA announced that "Opportunity has landed in an area of Mars where liquid water once drenched the surface". Associate administrator Ed Weiler told reporters that the area "would have been good habitable environment", although no traces of life have been found. This statement was made during a press conference, where mission scientists listed a number of observations that strongly support this view: Distributions of spherules Hypothesis: Spherules are concretions created in water as a solvent. Competing hypothesis: Spherules are rehardened molten rock droplets, created by volcanoes or meteor strikes. Supporting data: Location of spherules in the rock matrix is random and evenly spread. Quote from Steve Squyres: "The little spherules like blueberries in a muffin are embedded in this rock and weathering out of it. Three ideas, lapilli, little volcanic hailstones, one possibility. Two, droplets of volcanic glass or impact. We've looked at these things very carefully. Probably concretions. If so, it's pointing towards water." Detailed analysis of environmental, chemical, and mineralogical data taken from the Opportunity rover led to the elimination of the competing hypotheses, and the confirmation of the conclusion that the spherules were formed in place as post-depositional sedimentary concretions from an aqueous source Vugs Hypothesis: Rock was formed in water, for instance by precipitation. Competing hypothesis: Rock were formed by ash deposits. Supporting data: Voids found in bedrock resemble "vugs" which are left by eroded away, disk-shaped crystals, possibly dissolved in a watery environment. Quote from Steve Squyres: The second piece of evidence is that when we looked at it close-up, it was shot through with tabular holes. Familiar forms. When crystals grow within rocks, precipitated from water. If they're tabular, as they grow you can get tabular crystals and water chem changes and they go away or they weather away." Sulfates and jarosite Hypothesis: Water created tell-tale salt chemicals in the rock. Competing hypothesis: Chemistry of rocks is determined by volcanic processes. Supporting data: Sulfate salts and jarosite mineral were found in the rock. On Earth they are made in standing water (possibly during evaporation). Quote from Steve Squyres: "Next piece of evidence comes from APXS. We found it looked like a lot of sulfur. That was the outside of the rock. We brought with us a grinding tool, the RAT and we ground away 2-4 mm and found even more sulfur. Too much to explain by other than that this rock is full of sulfate salts. That's a telltale sign of liquid water. Mini-TES also found evidence of sulfate salts. Most compelling of all, the Mössbauer spectrometer in the RATted space showed compelling evidence of jarosite, an iron-(III) sulfate basic hydrate. Fairly rare, found on Earth and had been predicted that it might be found on Mars some day. This is a mineral that you got to have water around to make." On March 23, 2004, NASA announced that they believe that Opportunity had not landed in a location merely "drenched in water", but on what was once a coastal area. "We think Opportunity is parked on what was once the shoreline of a salty sea on Mars," said Dr. Steve Squyres of Cornell University. The announcement was based on evidence of sedimentary rocks that are consistent with those formed by water and not wind. "Bedding patterns in some finely layered rocks indicate the sand-sized grains of sediment that eventually bonded together were shaped into ripples by water at least five centimeters (two inches) deep, possibly much deeper, and flowing at a speed of 10 to 50 centimeters (four to 20 inches) per second," said Dr. John Grotzinger, from MIT. The landing site was likely a salt flat on the edge of a large body of water that was covered by shallow water. Other evidence includes findings of chlorine and bromine in the rocks which indicates the rocks had at least soaked in mineral-rich water, possibly from underground sources, after they formed. Increased assurance of the bromine findings strengthens the case that rock-forming particles precipitated from surface water as salt concentrations climbed past saturation while water was evaporating. The evidence for water was published in a series of scientific papers, with the initial results appearing in the journal Science and then with a detailed discussion of the sedimentary geology of the landing site appearing in a special issue of the journal Earth and Planetary Science Letters Spherules and hematite Early in the mission, mission scientists were able to prove that the abundant spherules at Eagle crater were the source of hematite in the area discovered from orbit. Hematite Geologists were eager to reach a hematite-rich area (in the center of the picture at right) to closely examine the soil, which may reveal secrets about how the hematite got to this location. Knowing how the hematite on Mars was formed may help scientists characterize the past environment and determine whether that environment provided favorable conditions for life. "Grey hematite is a mineral indicator of past water," said Dr. Joy Crisp, JPL project scientist. "It is not always associated with water, but it often is." Scientists have wanted to find out which of these processes created grey hematite on Mars since 1998, when Mars Global Surveyor spotted large concentrations of the mineral near the planet's equator (seen in the right picture). This discovery provided the first mineral evidence that Mars' history may have included water. "We want to know if the grains of hematite appear to be rounded and cemented together by the action of liquid water or if they're crystals that grew from a volcanic melt," said Crisp. "Is the hematite in layers, which would suggest that it was laid down by water, or in veins in the rock, which would be more characteristic of water having flowed through the rocks." The next picture shows a mineral map, the first ever made on the surface of another planet, which was generated from a section of the panorama picture overlaid with data taken from the rover's Mini-TES. The Mini-TES spectral data was analyzed in a way that the concentration of the mineral hematite was deduced and its level coded in color. Red and orange mean high concentration, green and blue low concentration. The next picture shows a hematite abundance "index map" that helps geologists choose hematite-rich locations to visit around Opportunity's landing site. Blue dots equal areas low in hematite and red dots equal areas high in hematite. The colored dots represent data collected by the miniature Thermal Emission Spectrometer on Sol 11, after Opportunity had rolled off of the lander and the rover was located at the center of the blue semicircle (the spectrometer is located on the panoramic camera mast). The area to the left (with high concentration of hematite) was selected by mission members for further investigation, and called Hematite Slope. During Sol 23 (February 16) Opportunity successfully trenched the soil at Hematite Slope and started to investigate the details of the layering. Spherules Microscopic images of the soil taken by Opportunity revealed small spherically shaped granules. They were first seen on pictures taken on Sol 10, right after the rover drove from the lander onto martian soil. When Opportunity dug her first trench (Sol 23), pictures of the lower layers showed similar round spherules. But this time they had a very shiny surface that created strong glints and glares. "They appear shiny or polished," said Albert Yen, science team member, during a press conference on February 19. He said: "Data will hopefully help us figure out what's altering them." At the same press briefing, Dr. Squyres noted this as one of the main question: "Where did those spherules come from, dropped from above or grown in place?" Mission scientists reported on March 2 that they concluded a survey of the distribution of spherules in the bedrock. They found that they spread out evenly and randomly inside the rocks, and not in layers. This supports the notion that they grew in place, since if their origin was related to volcanic or meteoric episodes one would expect layers of spherules as a "record in time" for each event. This observation was added to the list of evidence for liquid water being present at this rock site, where it is thought the spherules formed. Berry Bowl On March 18 the results of the investigation of the area called "Berry Bowl" was announced. This site is a large rock with a small, bowl-shaped depression, in which a large number of spherules had accumulated. The MIMOS II Mössbauer spectrometer was used to analyze the depression and then the area of the rock right beside it. Any difference in the measured data was then attributed to the material in the spherules. A large difference in the obtained "spectra" was found. "This is the fingerprint of hematite, so we conclude that the major iron-bearing mineral in the berries is hematite," said Daniel Rodionov, a rover science team collaborator from the University of Mainz, Germany. This discovery seems to strengthen the conclusion, that spherules are concretions, grown in wet condition with dissolved iron. Rocks and minerals The rocks on the plains of Gusev are a type of basalt. They contain the minerals olivine, pyroxene, plagioclase, and magnetite, and they look like volcanic basalt as they are fine-grained with irregular holes (geologists would say they have vesicles and vugs). Much of the soil on the plains came from the breakdown of the local rocks. Fairly high levels of nickel were found in some soils; probably from meteorites. Analysis shows that the rocks have been slightly altered by tiny amounts of water. Outside coatings and cracks inside the rocks suggest water deposited minerals, maybe bromine compounds. All the rocks contain a fine coating of dust and one or more harder rinds of material. One type can be brushed off, while another needed to be ground off by the Rock Abrasion Tool (RAT). There are a variety of rocks in the Columbia Hills (Mars), some of which have been altered by water, but not by very much water. The dust in Gusev Crater is the same as dust all around the planet. All the dust was found to be magnetic. Moreover, Spirit found the magnetism was caused by the mineral magnetite, especially magnetite that contained the element titanium. One magnet was able to completely divert all dust hence all Martian dust is thought to be magnetic. The spectra of the dust was similar to spectra of bright, low thermal inertia regions like Tharsis and Arabia that have been detected by orbiting satellites. A thin layer of dust, maybe less than one millimeter thick covers all surfaces. Something in it contains a small amount of chemically bound water. Plains Observations of rocks on the plains show they contain the minerals pyroxene, olivine, plagioclase, and magnetite. These rocks can be classified in different ways. The amounts and types of minerals make the rocks primitive basalts—also called picritic basalts. The rocks are similar to ancient terrestrial rocks called basaltic komatiites. Rocks of the plains also resemble the basaltic shergottites, meteorites which came from Mars. One classification system compares the amount of alkali elements to the amount of silica on a graph; in this system, Gusev plains rocks lay near the junction of basalt, picrobasalt, and tephrite. The Irvine-Barager classification calls them basalts. Plain's rocks have been very slightly altered, probably by thin films of water because they are softer and contain veins of light colored material that may be bromine compounds, as well as coatings or rinds. It is thought that small amounts of water may have gotten into cracks inducing mineralization processes. Coatings on the rocks may have occurred when rocks were buried and interacted with thin films of water and dust. One sign that they were altered was that it was easier to grind these rocks compared to the same types of rocks found on Earth. The first rock that Spirit studied was Adirondack. It turned out to be typical of the other rocks on the plains. Columbia Hills Scientists found a variety of rock types in the Columbia Hills, and they placed them into six different categories. The six are: Clovis, Wishbone, Peace, Watchtower, Backstay, and Independence. They are named after a prominent rock in each group. Their chemical compositions, as measured by APXS, are significantly different from each other. Most importantly, all of the rocks in Columbia Hills show various degrees of alteration due to aqueous fluids. They are enriched in the elements phosphorus, sulfur, chlorine, and bromine—all of which can be carried around in water solutions. The Columbia Hills' rocks contain basaltic glass, along with varying amounts of olivine and sulfates. The olivine abundance varies inversely with the amount of sulfates. This is exactly what is expected because water destroys olivine but helps to produce sulfates. Acid fog is believed to have changed some of the Watchtower rocks. This was in a 200 meter long section of Cumberland Ridge and the Husband Hill summit. Certain places became less crystalline and more amorphous. Acidic water vapor from volcanoes dissolved some minerals forming a gel. When water evaporated a cement formed and produced small bumps. This type of process has been observed in the lab when basalt rocks are exposed to sulfuric and hydrochloric acids. The Clovis group is especially interesting because the Mössbauer spectrometer(MB) detected goethite in it. Goethite forms only in the presence of water, so its discovery is the first direct evidence of past water in the Columbia Hills's rocks. In addition, the MB spectra of rocks and outcrops displayed a strong decline in olivine presence, although the rocks probably once contained much olivine. Olivine is a marker for the lack of water because it easily decomposes in the presence of water. Sulfate was found, and it needs water to form. Wishstone contained a great deal of plagioclase, some olivine, and anhydrate (a sulfate). Peace rocks showed sulfur and strong evidence for bound water, so hydrated sulfates are suspected. Watchtower class rocks lack olivine consequently they may have been altered by water. The Independence class showed some signs of clay (perhaps montmorillonite a member of the smectite group). Clays require fairly long term exposure to water to form. One type of soil, called Paso Robles, from the Columbia Hills, may be an evaporate deposit because it contains large amounts of sulfur, phosphorus, calcium, and iron. Also, MB found that much of the iron in Paso Robles soil was of the oxidized, Fe+++ form, which would happen if water had been present. Towards the middle of the six-year mission (a mission that was supposed to last only 90 days), large amounts of pure silica were found in the soil. The silica could have come from the interaction of soil with acid vapors produced by volcanic activity in the presence of water or from water in a hot spring environment. After Spirit stopped working scientists studied old data from the Miniature Thermal Emission Spectrometer, or Mini-TES and confirmed the presence of large amounts of carbonate-rich rocks, which means that regions of the planet may have once harbored water. The carbonates were discovered in an outcrop of rocks called "Comanche." In summary, Spirit found evidence of slight weathering on the plains of Gusev, but no evidence that a lake was there. However, in the Columbia Hills there was clear evidence for a moderate amount of aqueous weathering. The evidence included sulfates and the minerals goethite and carbonates which only form in the presence of water. It is believed that Gusev crater may have held a lake long ago, but it has since been covered by igneous materials. All the dust contains a magnetic component which was identified as magnetite with some titanium. Furthermore, the thin coating of dust that covers everything on Mars is the same in all parts of Mars. First atmospheric temperature profile During a press conference on March 11, 2004, mission scientists presented the first temperature profile of the martian atmosphere ever measured. It was obtained by combining data taken from the Opportunity Mini-TES infrared spectrometer with data from the TES instrument on board the Mars Global Surveyor (MGS) orbiter. This was necessary because Opportunity can only see up to 6 km high, and the MGS camera could not measure data all the way down to the ground. The data was acquired on February 15 (Sol 22) and is split into two data sets: Since the orbiter is in motion, some data was taken while it was approaching the Opportunity site, other when it was moving away. In the graph, these sets are marked "inbound" (black color) and "outbound" (red color). The dots represent Mini-TES (= rover) data and the straight lines are TES (=orbiter) data. Atmospheric science from the MER rovers has been published in a series of scientific papers in Science and Journal of Geophysical Research Astronomical observations Opportunity observed the eclipse, or transits of Phobos and transits of Deimos across the Sun, and photographed the Earth, which appeared as a bright celestial object in the Martian sky. A transit of Mercury from Mars took place on January 12, 2005 from about 14:45 UTC to 23:05 UTC, but camera resolution did not permit seeing Mercury's 6.1" angular diameter. Transits of Deimos across the Sun were seen, but at 2' angular diameter, Deimos is about 20 times larger than Mercury's 6.1" angular diameter. See also Aeolis quadrangle Composition of Mars Curiosity rover Exploration of Mars Geology of Mars Groundwater on Mars Margaritifer Sinus quadrangle Mars Science Laboratory Mars 2020 rover mission Opportunity Rover Space exploration Unmanned space missions Water on Mars References Further reading Mars Exploration Rover mission
4844527	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justice%20League%20in%20other%20media	Justice League in other media	The Justice League, also called the Justice League of America or JLA, is a fictional superhero team that appears in comic books published by DC Comics. Since their first appearance in The Brave and the Bold #28 (February/March 1960), various incarnations of the team have appeared in film, television, and video game adaptations. Film Live-action Justice League: Mortal (canceled) In February 2007, it was announced that Warner Bros hired husband and wife duo Michele and Kieran Mulroney to write a script for a Justice League film. The news came around the same time that Joss Whedon's long-developed Wonder Woman film had been canceled, as well as The Flash, written and directed by David S. Goyer. Titled Justice League: Mortal, Michele and Kiernan Mulroney submitted their script to Warner Bros. in June 2007, receiving positive feedback, which prompted the studio to immediately fast track production in the hopes of filming to begin before the 2007-2008 Writers Guild of America strike. Warner Bros. was less willing to proceed on development with a sequel to Superman Returns, having been disappointed with the box office return. Brandon Routh was not approached to reprise the role of Superman in Justice League Mortal, nor was Christian Bale from Batman Begins. Warner Bros. intended for Justice League: Mortal to be the start of a new film franchise, and to branch out into separate sequels and spin-offs. Shortly after filming finished with The Dark Knight, Bale stated in an interview that "It’d be better if it doesn't tread on the toes of what our Batman series is doing," though he personally felt it would make more sense for Warner Bros. to release the film after his planned "Batman 3" (later called The Dark Knight Rises). Jason Reitman was the original choice to direct Justice League, but he turned it down, as he considers himself an independent filmmaker and prefers to stay out of big budget superhero films. George Miller signed to direct in September 2007, with Barrie Osbourne producing on a projected $220 million budget. The following month roughly 40 actors and actresses were auditioning for the ensemble superhero roles, among them were Joseph Cross, Michael Angarano, Max Thieriot, Minka Kelly, Adrianne Palicki and Scott Porter. Miller intended to cast younger actors as he wanted them to "grow" into their roles over the course of several films. D. J. Cotrona was cast as Superman, along with Armie Hammer as Batman. Jessica Biel reportedly declined the Wonder Woman role after being in negotiations. The character was also linked to actresses Teresa Palmer and Shannyn Sossamon, along with Mary Elizabeth Winstead, who confirmed that she had auditioned. Ultimately Megan Gale was cast as Wonder Woman, while Palmer was cast as Talia al Ghul, whom Miller had in mind to act with a Russian accent. The script for Justice League: Mortal would have featured the John Stewart character as the Green Lantern, a role originally offered to Columbus Short. Hip hop recording artist and rapper Common was cast, with Adam Brody as The Flash / Barry Allen, and Jay Baruchel as the lead villain, Maxwell Lord. Longtime Miller collaborator Hugh Keays-Byrne had been cast as Martian Manhunter. Aquaman had yet to be cast. Marit Allen was hired as the original costume designer before her untimely death in November 2007, and the responsibilities were assumed by Weta Workshop. However, the Writers Strike began that same month and placed the film on hold. Warner Bros. had to let the options lapse for the cast, but development was fast tracked once more in February 2008 when the strike ended. Warner Bros. and Miller wanted to start filming immediately, but production was pushed back three months. Originally, the majority of Justice League: Mortal would be shot at Fox Studios Australia in Sydney, with other locations scouted nearby at local colleges, and Sydney Heads doubling for Happy Harbor. The Australian Film Commission also had a say with casting choices, giving way for George Miller to cast Gale, Palmer and Keays-Bryne, all Australian natives. The production crew was composed entirely of Australians, but the Australian government denied Warner Bros. a 40 percent tax rebate as they felt they had not hired enough Australian actors. Miller was frustrated, stating that "A once-in-a-lifetime opportunity for the Australian film industry is being frittered away because of very lazy thinking. They're throwing away hundreds of millions of dollars of investment that the rest of the world is competing for and, much more significantly, highly skilled creative jobs." Production offices were then moved to Vancouver Film Studios in Canada. Filming was pushed back to July 2008, while Warner Bros was still confident they could release the film in summer 2009. With production delays continuing, and the success of The Dark Knight in 2008, Warner Bros. decided to focus on development of individual films featuring the main heroes, allowing director Christopher Nolan to separately complete his Batman trilogy with The Dark Knight Rises in 2012. Gregory Noveck, senior vice president of creative affairs for DC Entertainment stated "we’re going to make a Justice League movie, whether it’s now or 10 years from now. But we’re not going to do it and Warners is not going to do it until we know it’s right." Actor Adam Brody joked "They [Warner Brothers] just didn’t want to cross their streams with a whole bunch of Batmans in the universe." Warner Bros. relaunched development for the solo Green Lantern film, released in 2011 as a critical and financial disappointment. Meanwhile, film adaptations for The Flash and Wonder Woman continued to languish in development while filming for a Superman reboot was commencing in 2011 with Man of Steel, produced by Nolan and written by David S. Goyer, which would go on to launch the DC Extended Universe. DC Extended Universe (DCEU) The Justice League are a common narrative plot thread in the DC Extended Universe starting with Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice with Superman, Batman and Wonder Woman teaming up against Doomsday and in Suicide Squad where Bruce gets the files on Barry Allen and Arthur Curry from Amanda Waller. The theatrical version of a live action Justice League movie was released in November 2017 and received mixed reviews from critics and earned over $657 million worldwide. The film was directed by Joss Whedon and Zack Snyder although Snyder is the only person to receive a directing credit for the film. Whedon was brought on as a consultant, then given control over the project after Snyder stepped down following his daughter's death, and the film was rewritten by Whedon, with the original script being completed by Chris Terrio. The film stars Ben Affleck as Bruce Wayne / Batman, Henry Cavill as Clark Kent / Superman, Gal Gadot as Diana Prince / Wonder Woman, Ezra Miller as Barry Allen / The Flash, Jason Momoa as Arthur Curry / Aquaman and Ray Fisher as Victor Stone / Cyborg. The film also stars Amy Adams as Lois Lane, Jeremy Irons as Alfred Pennyworth, Diane Lane as Martha Kent, Connie Nielsen as Hippolyta, Joe Morton as Silas Stone, Ciarán Hinds as Steppenwolf, Amber Heard as Mera and J. K. Simmons as James Gordon. Snyder and Warner Bros released a 4 hour director's cut of Justice League via HBO Max on March 18, 2021. This version presents Snyder's original vision for a Justice League film with a much more grounded and generally darker tone as well as an overall aesethetic more in line with Snyder's previous DCEU films Man of Steel and Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice rather than the lighter, more family friendly tone of the 2017 theatrical cut and features a radically overhauled ending. Additional footage seen in this cut is mainly footage that was shot for the theatrical cut but was discarded when Snyder left the project although a handful of new scenes were filmed once the director's cut release was greenlit. Characters who did not appear in the theatrical cut in 2017 such as Martian Manhunter, Iris West, Ryan Choi, Darkseid and Desaad are also included in this version of the film. This new cut also features a completely new score by Tom Holkenborg aka Junkie XL. Holkenborg was originally signed on to score the theatrical version of Justice League in 2017 but was replaced by Danny Elfman during the film's reshoots in June 2017. The team made a cameo appearance in the Peacemaker season 1 finale episode "It's Cow or Never" with only Momoa and Miller reprising their roles as Aquaman and Flash while Superman and Wonder Woman were played by stand-ins. In a mid-credit scene of Shazam! Fury of the Gods, A.R.G.U.S. agents Emilia Harcourt and John Economos invite Billy Batson / Shazam to the Justice Society, where Shazam expresses his disappointment that it wasn't the Justice League. An alternate version of the Justice League was featured in The Flash (2023) and consisted of two versions of Barry (one from the main timeline and one from the past, both played by Miller), an alternate version of Bruce Wayne / Batman (played by Michael Keaton) and Kara Zor-El / Supergirl (played by Sasha Calle). Both Affleck and Gadot cameod as their versions of Batman and Wonder Woman in the film as well. Animation Justice League: The New Frontier is a direct-to-video animated film adaptation of popular DC Comics limited series DC: The New Frontier released on DVD, HD DVD, and Blu-ray Disc in the United States on February 26, 2008. The film was written by Justice League writer Stan Berkowitz, with Darwyn Cooke serving as story and visual consultant. In Superman/Batman: Public Enemies, some members of the Justice League (Captain Atom, Power Girl, Starfire, Black Lightning, Captain Marvel and Hawkman) as well as several other superheroes, are shown working for President Lex Luthor. Another direct-to-video film titled Justice League: Crisis on Two Earths was released in 2010. The film was originally brought up as a possible return to the Justice League Unlimited animated series with the title Justice League: Worlds Collide. Justice League: Worlds Collide would have been set in the DC Animated Universe. It was originally going to be produced concurrently with the first season of Justice League Unlimited, bridging the gap between the second season of Justice League and the relaunched show. The production was shelved just before the start of filming, but the script was later adapted into Justice League: Crisis on Two Earths, with changes that included removing all references to the DCAU continuity. As a result, the feature as originally intended is now unlikely to ever be produced. The film featured a League consisting of Batman, Superman, Wonder Woman, Green Lantern, The Flash, and Martian Manhunter. Aquaman, Firestorm, Black Canary, Red Tornado and Black Lightning appeared near the end of the film, and were supposedly offered full-time membership by Batman. In addition, alternate versions of Justice League Detroit (save for Steel) were shown as part of the Crime Syndicate of America, as were Black Canary and Green Arrow analogues. Analogues of Zatanna, Blue Beetle (Ted Kord), Power Girl and Red Tornado made brief cameos on a computer screen. Another animated feature, Justice League: Doom, was released in February 2012. The film featured a Justice League consisting of Superman, Batman, Cyborg, the Flash (Barry Allen), Green Lantern (Hal Jordan), Wonder Woman and Martian Manhunter. DC released another animated film on July 30, 2013, entitled Justice League: The Flashpoint Paradox. The film, based on the Flashpoint crossover, is centered on the Flash, who inadvertently changes the time stream by travelling back in time to save his mother. In the new world created, Flash finds himself speedless in a world without a Justice League and suffering from a devastating war between the Atlanteans and Amazonians. Relying on the help of Batman, in this world a vengeful, alcoholic Thomas Wayne, the Flash must find the prime suspect, Professor Zoom, and find a way to fix the time stream. Another animated feature, Lego Batman: The Movie – DC Super Heroes Unite, was released in early February 2013 and features members of the Justice League, particularly Batman and Superman, fighting Lex Luthor and The Joker in Lego form. In DC Showcase: Green Arrow, Green Arrow and Black Canary are members of the Justice League and their logo was seen on Oliver's phone. A version of the Justice League similar to The New 52 appears in the DC Animated Movie Universe, first appearing in Justice League: War, with a team consisting of Superman, Batman, Wonder Woman, Cyborg, Flash (Barry Allen), Green Lantern (Hal Jordan), and Shazam. The same team appears in Justice League: Throne of Atlantis, with Aquaman as a newcomer. Superman, Batman, Cyborg, Flash and Wonder Woman appear in Justice League vs. Teen Titans. Justice League Dark appears in their own animated film Justice League Dark, with the cast including Batman, Zatanna, John Constantine, Etrigan the Demon, Deadman, Swamp Thing and Black Orchid. The traditional Justice League team appears as well, consisting of Batman, Superman, Wonder Woman, Green Lantern (John Stewart), Flash (Barry Allen), Hawkman and Martian Manhunter. The Justice League is featured in the animated film JLA Adventures: Trapped in Time. The team consists of Superman, Batman, Cyborg, The Flash (Barry Allen), Wonder Woman and Aquaman. Karate Kid, Dawnstar, and Robin appear as well. The Justice League appears in DC Super Heroes vs. Eagle Talon. The team consists of Batman, Superman, Wonder Woman, Flash (Barry Allen), Aquaman and Cyborg. An alternate universe version of Justice League appears in the film Justice League: Gods and Monsters. The lineup consists of Batman (Dr. Kirk Langstrom), Wonder Woman (Bekka) and Superman (Hernan Guerra, son of General Zod). This version is described as a brutal force that maintains order on Earth and the public opinion is mixed with awe and hatred. An animated series, Justice League: Gods and Monsters Chronicles, serves as a companion to the film. While the first season was released in 2015, a second season was planned to be released in the following year and would have featured ten episodes, but as of 2020, it has been shelved. Additionally, a series of one-shot comics written by J. M. DeMatteis and Bruce Timm was released and focused on each hero's origin story, including a three-issue prequel comic book series written by the same team. The Justice League appears in the "Tomorrowverse" continuity which begun with Superman: Man of Tomorrow. First alluded in Justice Society: World War II, the team makes a brief appearance in Green Lantern: Beware My Power, consisting of Martian Manhunter (who is presumably the leader of the League), Vixen and Green Arrow. Superman, Wonder Woman, Batman, and Flash are also stated to have joined the League. Green Lantern Hal Jordan was also a former member of the League, before he is succeeded by John Stewart. Canceled Justice League animated films An untitled Justice League direct to DVD film was in the works in 2008, with a design by James Tucker. In 2009, Bruce Timm has expressed interest in an animated film based on the JLA/Avengers crossover limited series. As of 2023, no updates have appeared since. In 2013, producer James Tucker has spoken about wanting a Wonder Woman-centered Justice League film. Other appearances The Justice League appears in The Lego Movie, with Superman voiced by Channing Tatum, Batman by Will Arnett, Wonder Woman by Cobie Smulders, and Green Lantern (Hal Jordan) by Jonah Hill. Flash (Barry Allen) and Aquaman also appear in the movie, although they have no lines. The Justice League also appeared in The Lego Batman Movie. The Justice League appears in Teen Titans Go! To the Movies, with Superman voiced by Nicolas Cage, Batman voiced by Jimmy Kimmel, Wonder Woman voiced by Halsey and Green Lantern (John Stewart) voiced by Lil Yachty. Other members of the League, such as Aquaman (voiced by Eric Bauza), the Atom (Ray Palmer) (voiced by Patton Oswalt), Flash (Barry Allen) (voiced by Wil Wheaton), Green Lantern (Hal Jordan) and Shazam also appear in cameos. The Justice League makes a cameo appearance in Space Jam: A New Legacy. The group consists of Superman, Flash, Green Lantern (John Stewart), Aquaman and Batgirl. The Justice League appears in DC League of Super-Pets, with Superman voiced by John Krasinski, Batman by Keanu Reeves, Wonder Woman by Jameela Jamil, Green Lantern (Jessica Cruz) by Dascha Polanco, Flash (Barry Allen) by John Early, Aquaman by Jemaine Clement and Cyborg by Daveed Diggs. Television Animation The first animated appearance of the Justice League was in the 1967 television series The Superman/Aquaman Hour of Adventure. The team appeared in only three segments of the run of the show. The members seen are Superman, Green Lantern, Hawkman, Flash, and the Atom. The longest-running version of the Justice League was the loosely adapted series called Super Friends, which ran in various incarnations from 1973 to 1986. The Justice League appears in a self-titled series that debuted in 2001, as part of the DC Animated Universe. This version was founded by Batman, Superman, Wonder Woman, Martian Manhunter, Flash, Hawkgirl, and Green Lantern, initially to repel an invasion by unnamed aliens led by a being known as the Imperium. In 2004, the series was retitled and revised as Justice League Unlimited, in which the League expands following the Thanagarian invasion that took place in the Justice League series finale "Starcrossed". Members of the expanded League include Aquaman, Atom Smasher, Aztek, Black Canary, Blue Devil, Booster Gold, B'wana Beast, Captain Atom, Commander Steel, Creeper, Crimson Avenger, Crimson Fox, Doctor Fate, Doctor Light, Doctor Mid-Nite, Elongated Man, Etrigan, Fire, Green Arrow, Gypsy, Hawk and Dove, Hourman, Ice, Johnny Thunder and Thunderbolt, Metamorpho, Mr. Terrific, Nemesis, Obsidian, Orion, Plastic Man, Question, Ray, Red Tornado, Rocket Red, Sand, Shining Knight, Stargirl, Starman, Steel, S.T.R.I.P.E., Vibe, Vigilante, Vixen, Waverider, Wildcat, and Zatanna. Additionally, Captain Marvel, Huntress, and Supergirl were all formerly members before leaving for various reasons. A futuristic version of the League also appears in the Batman Beyond episode "The Call", consisting of Superman, Big Barda, and series original characters Green Lantern Kai-Ro, Aquagirl (Aquaman's daughter), Micron (similar to Atom), and Rex Stewart / Warhawk (the son of John Stewart and Hawkgirl). Static also appears in the Justice League Unlimited episode "The Once and Future Thing", and his ally Gear is mentioned as being a League member in the Static Shock episode "Future Shock". An early attempt at a Justice League television series was to feature lesser known superheroes, like the Question and Doctor Fate, that would have been part of the DC Animated Universe. The series was cancelled in favor of Batman Beyond. The Justice League appears in The Batman, consisting of Batman, Superman, Martian Manhunter, Green Lantern, Green Arrow, Hawkman, and the Flash. Introduced in the fourth season finale, "The Joining", the League's members make recurring appearances throughout the fifth season as allies to Batman. Additionally, the show's version of their headquarters combines elements of the Hall of Justice from Super Friends and the Watchtower from the comics. "The League" is mentioned in a conversation between Batman and Plastic Man in an episode of Batman: The Brave and the Bold. Presumably, this refers to the Justice League. In fact, the show has featured many team-ups that included various heroes that were members of the JLA at one time or another, such as Adam Strange, Aquaman, Batman, Black Canary, Blue Beetle, Booster Gold, Captain Marvel, Elongated Man, Etrigan, Fire, Ice, Firestorm (consisting of Jason Rusch and Ronnie Raymond), Green Arrow, Roy Harper, Guy Gardner, Hal Jordan, G'nort, Kilowog, Huntress, Mister Miracle, Oberon, Big Barda, Black Lightning, Metamorpho, Phantom Stranger, Plastic Man, Red Tornado, Superman, Wonder Woman, Martian Manhunter, the Flash, Vixen, and Zatanna. The League itself is later seen in a flashback, meeting aboard the Satellite in "Sidekicks Assemble!". The roster seen consists of Batman, Superman, Wonder Woman, Green Lantern (Hal Jordan), the Flash (Barry Allen), Aquaman, the Martian Manhunter, Black Canary, Green Arrow, Red Tornado, and Fire, though Superman and Wonder Woman have no dialogue and are seen only from behind. The Justice League International is featured in "Darkseid Descending!", consisting Batman, Aquaman, Martian Manhunter, Fire and Ice, Guy Gardner, Booster Gold and Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes). Aquaman also mentions that there had been a previous incarnation of the JLA, that disbanded under unpleasant circumstances. A twenty-person roster of the Justice League appears in the Young Justice animated series as mentors to the young heroes. The cast includes Bruce Greenwood as Batman, Phil LaMarr as Aquaman, Alan Tudyk as Green Arrow, Rob Lowe (and Chad Lowe) as Captain Marvel, Nolan North as Superman and Zatara (later Doctor Fate), George Eads as Flash, Kevin Michael Richardson as Martian Manhunter and John Stewart, Vanessa Marshall as Black Canary, Dee Bradley Baker as Hal Jordan, Maggie Q as Wonder Woman, Jeff Bennett as Red Tornado, Michael T. Weiss as Captain Atom and Zehra Fazal as Hawkwoman. In the two-part pilot episode "Independence Day" (with the second part being renamed "Fireworks"), Hawkman is also shown as part of the team as well. At the end of the episode, Red Tornado volunteers to watch over the members of Young Justice as their guardian, while Black Canary is assigned as their combat instructor. The members of Young Justice operate out of the Secret Sanctuary in Happy Harbor, which Batman, the leader of the Justice League, describes as having been the original headquarters of the JL during their early years. Speedy explains that the Justice League currently operates out of the Watchtower in space while using the Hall of Justice in Washington, D.C. as a decoy headquarters to misdirect enemies and the general public. In "Usual Suspects", Red Arrow, Atom, Icon, Doctor Fate and Plastic Man officially joined the team. In the season 2 premiere, it is confirmed that Black Lightning, as well as former Young Justice members Zatanna and Rocket have joined the team as well. As of the conclusion of season 3, the roster officially consists of 33 members: Atom, Aquaman, Batman, Batwoman, Black Canary, Black Lightning, Blue Devil, Captain Atom, Captain Marvel/Shazam, Doctor Fate, Elongated Man, Fire, Flash, Green Arrow, Green Lantern (Guy Gardner, Hal Jordan, John Stewart), Hardware, Hawkman, Hawkwoman, Ice, Icon, Katana, Magog, Martian Manhunter, Metamorpho, Plastic Man, Red Tornado, Rocket, Steel, Superman, Wonder Woman and Zatanna, with 3 further members (Aquaman, Red Arrow and Zatara) having retired or left the League. In a sketch for Mad, Superman, Batman, and Wonder Woman are convinced to change the name from the Super Friends to the Justice League after a musical appeal by fellow heroes. The Justice League is re-imagined as animals in the DC Nation Shorts Farm League with Superman as Supermanatee, Batman as a mouse, Wonder Woman as Wonder Wombat, Flash as the Flish, Green Lantern as a boar, Aquaman as Aquamandrill, Captain Marvel as Shazham, Robin as Robin's Egg, and Cyborg as Cybug. A Justice League animated series titled Justice League Action debuted on Cartoon Network in fall 2016. The series features a revolving cast anchored by Batman, Wonder Woman, and Superman. The Justice League appears in Harley Quinn, consisting of Superman, Batman, Wonder Woman, Zatanna, Aquaman, Green Lantern (John Stewart), and the Flash. In the episode "Devil's Snare"; Superman, Wonder Woman, Green Lantern and the Flash arrive in Gotham City to stop the tree monsters attacking. They assume Harley's crew is behind the attacks and attempt to send them to the Phantom Zone, but Poison Ivy uses Wonder Woman's lasso of truth to prove them wrong. It was then the League were imprisoned in a magic fairy tale book by the Queen of Fables. In "A Fight Worth Fighting For", the League were finally released by Zatanna, after Harley Quinn and the Joker retrieved the book to defeat Doctor Psycho, who has gained control of a Parademon army and took over Gotham. In the following episode "Lovers' Quarrel", the League, in particular Batman, Superman and Wonder Woman, easily defeat the Parademons and Harley's crew, who are mind-controlled by Psycho, but while attempting to send Poison Ivy to the Phantom Zone, they are stopped by Harley, allowing Ivy to poison them with a toxin that makes them suddenly flirt with one another. Live action Legends of the Superheroes was a 1979 two-part special that adapted the Justice League. It featured Adam West, Burt Ward, and Frank Gorshin returning to their roles from the 1966–1968 live-action Batman television series: Batman, Robin, and the Riddler respectively. Other heroes portrayed on the show included Black Canary, Captain Marvel, Flash, Green Lantern, Hawkman, Huntress, and more. In 1990, Magnum Pictures developed a script for a Justice League TV show starring Booster Gold, Blue Beetle, Fire and Ice plus other members from the comic's Justice League International run. Justice League of America was a series pilot produced for CBS in 1997, but failed to sell. The pilot used less well-known characters to avoid the licensing issues surrounding Batman, Superman, and Wonder Woman. The characters used were the Guy Gardner Green Lantern, Fire, Ice, the Barry Allen Flash, and the Ray Palmer Atom set against a version of the Weather Wizard. Smallville featured a version of the Justice League in its sixth-season episode "Justice". The members of the team were drawn from versions of DC Comics heroes that had previously appeared in the show: "Impulse" from the season four episode "Run"; "Aquaman" (A.C.) from the season five episode "Aqua"; "Cyborg" (Victor Stone) from the season five episode of the same name, and "Green Arrow" who had been appearing as a regular character through season six. The episode had the team temporarily recruiting main characters Clark Kent, who Green Arrow dubs "Boy Scout", and Chloe Sullivan, who acts as the team's advisor through a computer network under the codename "Watchtower". Later, in the season seven episode "Siren", Dinah Lance joined Oliver's team as the "Black Canary". She returns in the season eight premiere with Aquaman and Green Arrow to find Clark. However, after A.C. and Dinah have their identities exposed, Oliver makes the call for the team to temporarily disband. Later in the season, when Oliver reconnects with his heroic side in "Identity", the team reunites. In the episode "Bulletproof", it is mentioned that Detective John Jones (Martian Manhunter) has helped Oliver's team and got Oliver out of trouble with the police and is considered a member of the team. Clark and Chloe become more involved with the League as well, with Clark joining Bart on a mission in Keystone during "Hex", whilst in the same episode Chloe becomes a full-time 'Watchtower' for the team. Dr. Emil is a staff physician at Metropolis General Hospital and Metropolis University, who is also on Oliver Queen's payroll. Season eight concludes with Flash, Black Canary, Green Arrow, and Clark working together to stop Doomsday. In the closing scenes Chloe reveals that Bart, Dinah, and Oliver have gone missing. In season 9 episode "Absolute Justice" members Green Arrow, Clark, John Jones, and Chloe aid members of the Justice Society of America. In the episode Doctor Fate restores John Jones's powers. After the show's debut of Justice League in Smallville episode "Justice", there was a consideration for the Justice League spin-off, but it never came to fruition. Smallville writer Steven S. DeKnight revealed that a spin-off Justice League series was expected to happen after the episode "Justice", and would have continued the story of Oliver Queen and his new team. Arrowverse The Flash and its related TV series Arrow, Supergirl and Legends of Tomorrow have hinted towards a Justice League in the future, with the heroes of the different series teaming up for annual crossover events. Barry Allen is shown to own a building resembling the Hall of Justice during the Invasion crossover, which the heroes use as a base during that crossover. An A.I. named Gideon from the future claims that Barry as the Flash is a "founding member" before being cut off. The Justice League is directly mentioned in the Arrow episode "Living Proof". In the end of the Arrowverse crossover Crisis on Infinite Earths, the heroes of the Earth-Prime (an amalgamation of Earth-1, Earth-38 and Black Lightning's Earth), after a memorial for Oliver Queen, sits at a table in an abandoned S.T.A.R. Labs building, creating a new league of heroes. This Justice League's iteration consists of White Canary, The Flash, Supergirl, Batwoman, Superman, Black Lightning and Martian Manhunter, with an empty seat in honor of Green Arrow. Video games The Justice League appears in the video games Justice League Task Force, released in 1995 for the Sega Genesis and Super Nintendo Entertainment System, and Justice League Heroes, released in 2006 as a cross-platform game, as well as several video games based on its animated incarnation. Superman, Batman, Wonder Woman, Flash (Barry Allen), Captain Marvel, and Green Lantern (Hal Jordan) appear in Mortal Kombat vs. DC Universe. The Justice League is featured prominently in the massively multiplayer online role-playing game DC Universe Online, with the Watchtower serving as the transportation hub between Metropolis and Gotham City. The Justice League are the main characters of the mobile video game for iOS Justice League: Earth's Final Defense, developed by Mobicle and published by Netmarble, the companies in South Korea. Superman, Batman, Wonder Woman, Green Lantern and the Flash are playable characters, with Aquaman and Cyborg as non-playable Justice League members. This version of the Justice League is based on the one seen in The New 52. The Justice League are the main characters of the game DC's Justice League: Cosmic Chaos, developed by PHL Collective and published by Outright Games. The Justice League are the main antagonists of the upcoming game Suicide Squad: Kill the Justice League, developed by Rocksteady Studios. This iteration consists of Superman, Batman, Wonder Woman, Flash (Barry Allen), and Green Lantern (John Stewart), who were all brainwashed by Brainiac and forced to aid in his invasion of Earth. Injustice The Justice League is also featured in Injustice: Gods Among Us, developed by Netherrealm Studios, the team responsible for the Mortal Kombat series of games. A new incarnation of the League is shown in various character endings in the game Injustice 2. The line up is consistent of Batman, Supergirl, Harley Quinn, Green Arrow, Black Canary, Firestorm (Jason Rusch and Martin Stein), Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes), Green Lantern (Hal Jordan), The Flash (Barry Allen), Catwoman and in his story only Sub-Zero. Lego In Lego Batman 2: DC Super Heroes, Batman and Robin team-up with the Justice League, which consists of Superman, Flash, Wonder Woman, Green Lantern (Hal Jordan), Cyborg and Martian Manhunter. The Justice League reappear in Lego Batman 3: Beyond Gotham. Members include Batman, Robin, Superman, Wonder Woman, Flash, Green Lantern (Hal Jordan), Cyborg, Martian Manhunter, Aquaman, Plastic Man, and other heroes. The Justice League is featured in Lego DC Super-Villains. As part of the story, they were replaced by a different team of superheroes called the "Justice Syndicate". References
4844849	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martha%20Wayne	Martha Wayne	Martha Wayne ( Kane) is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics, commonly in association with the superhero Batman. She is the mother of Bruce Wayne (Batman), and wife of Dr. Thomas Wayne as well as the paternal grandmother of Damian Wayne, the fifth Robin. After she and her husband are murdered in a street robbery, her son becomes inspired to fight crime as the vigilante known as Batman. As a key figure in the origin of Batman, Martha Wayne has appeared in multiple forms of media. Notable portrayals of the character in live-action include Sara Stewart in Batman Begins, Lauren Cohan in Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice, Carrie Louise Putrello in Joker, and Stella Stocker in The Batman. Emma Paetz also portrays her in the television series Pennyworth in a main role. Background Martha Wayne first appeared in Detective Comics #33 (November 1939) in a story by Bob Kane and Bill Finger which detailed the origin of Batman. Initially little more than a cipher whose death inspired her heroic son, later comics would expand upon her history. Born Martha Kane (a maiden name given in homage to co-creator Bob Kane), Martha was the heir to the Kane Chemical fortune and a member of one of Gotham City's wealthiest families. It has been revealed she is related to both Jacob Kane, his daughter Kate Kane (Batwoman) in Detective Comics #934, and Bette Kane (Flamebird) in Batwoman #25. Martha had a reputation as a notorious party girl, socialite, and debutante, frequenting all the most prestigious country clubs, night clubs, and soirees. She also had a developed social conscience and often used her family's wealth and status to champion causes and charities. As revealed in the miniseries Batman: Family by John Francis Moore, Martha's closest friend in those days was the woman Celia Kazantkakis. Both were renowned for their beauty, which caught the attention of a gangster named Denholm. Martha dated Denholm for a time prior to meeting Thomas Wayne, though she was unaware of his true nature at the time. Celia, who had had previous dealings with Denholm, became very protective of her friend and conspired to get this thug out of her life. In the process it came to light just why Celia was familiar with him. Celia, it turned out, was a criminal herself and had been embezzling money from an orphanage that was one of Martha's charities. She attempted to hide the evidence of this by setting fire to the building but Martha discovered her duplicity. Before Celia departed for her family's home in Greece, Martha threatened to expose her should she ever return to Gotham. Celia would return to Gotham many years later as "Athena", the leader of a criminal cartel. In this guise, she attempted to stage a coup of Wayne Enterprises, until Batman discovered the true nature of his mother's history with Celia and defeated her. Shortly after Celia's departure, Martha met and fell in love with prominent physician and philanthropist Dr. Thomas Wayne. They were wed soon after and Martha eventually gave birth to their son Bruce Wayne. Murder When Bruce Wayne was eight years old, his parents took him to a screening of a Zorro movie at a cinema in Gotham's Park Row. Returning to the car through an alley, they were confronted by a lone gunman, who attempted to steal Martha Wayne's pearl necklace, an anniversary gift from Thomas. In the ensuing struggle, the thief shot both the Waynes dead (Later versions of the story claimed that only Thomas was shot; Martha died instead from the "shock" of his murder due to her having a weak heart. This retcon was ultimately undone, with Martha again being gunned down with Thomas.). In the wake of this tragedy, Park Row was given the nickname "Crime Alley". The identity of the Waynes' killer has varied through different versions of the Batman story. Initially, he was said to be the criminal Joe Chill. Later retellings would claim that Chill had been hired by gangster Lew Moxon, an enemy of Thomas Wayne, and told to make the killings look like a robbery. After DC Comics' history-altering Zero Hour series, this interpretation was abandoned in favor of the Waynes' deaths being a random street crime. The killer was thought to have never been caught, adding to the tragedy and universality of Batman's origin. After the further continuity tweaks of the Infinite Crisis miniseries, DC has once again returned to the Joe Chill interpretation. Since her death, Martha Wayne has only appeared in the Batman series in flashback and in the occasional out-of-body experience or hallucination. Her most significant appearance in this latter category is in the miniseries Batman: Death and the Maidens by Greg Rucka. In this story, Batman ingests an elixir given to him by his enemy Ra's al Ghul, and believes he is having a conversation with his dead parents. Martha is depicted here as a beautiful woman whose face is marred by a bleeding bullet wound, suggesting that Bruce remembers her this way because he has become 'focused' on her death rather than her life, the wound vanishing after she forces him to acknowledge that issue. Martha strongly disapproves of her son's costumed crusade, fearing he has thrown away his chance for happiness, although her husband notes that they disapprove of what being Batman has cost Bruce rather than disapproving of Batman himself. As she and Thomas depart, they assure Bruce that just because the passing of time has lessened his grief does not mean that he no longer cares for them, and, as a result, Bruce is able to accept that he is Batman because he chooses to be, not because he has to be. In Jeph Loeb's Batman stories, Bruce feels responsible for his parents' murder because he advised Martha to wear the infamous pearl necklace the night she was murdered. Had she not worn it, the mugger might have not killed them, or even have been attracted to them. In Death and the Maidens she claims that the pearls were fakes, and that she wouldn't have worn real ones simply to go to the theater. As this experience may have been merely a hallucination, it is unknown whether or not this is true. Alleged double life Another mystery about Martha Wayne's final fate is unveiled in the Batman R.I.P. storyline, where it is revealed that the Kanes hired a detective to prowl about the circumstances of her death, always suspecting that Thomas Wayne married her for her money. Many years later, the detective hired by the Kanes presents to Commissioner Gordon a dossier describing Martha as a helpless, frail woman hooked on drugs by an abusive husband, who frequently indulged in orgies and extramarital affairs, taking Alfred Pennyworth as her lover. However, the villainous Simon Hurt, head of the Black Glove cabal, bent on getting revenge on Batman admits that the stories and supposed evidence are clever forgeries designed to break Batman. Streets of Gotham In the series Streets of Gotham, Martha Wayne's history as a young woman was revised and elaborated further. After her father was tricked into a shady investment deal by a mobster named Judson Pierce, which drained the Kane fortune and made him suffer a fatal heart attack, Martha became involved with charity work focusing on Gotham's poorest citizens. One of her main projects was raising support for the free clinic founded in Gotham's slums by doctor Leslie Thompkins. During an attempt to solicit support from Gotham's elite, she had her first encounter with Thomas Wayne. Aside from being a well-regarded surgeon, Thomas was also an infamous playboy and party animal. He affirmed this reputation by being extremely drunk in public and vomiting on Martha's shoes, causing her to storm off in disgust despite his apologies. Leslie's clinic also became a new target for Judson Pierce after he deemed it a key point for taking over the surrounding neighborhood. Pierce attempted to prey on Martha's poverty by offering cash to shut the facility down. Martha accepted Pierce's money, but filed it as a donation to keep the clinic running. Enraged, Pierce arranged to have Martha and Leslie assassinated. Martha met Thomas Wayne a second time after he had Alfred chauffeur him to the clinic so he could apologize again. That same evening though, Pierce's hitmen also decided to make their move. Alfred was able to subdue the assailants, but not before Leslie suffered a minor gunshot wound. While Leslie recovered from her injury, Thomas volunteered to work in the clinic alongside Martha. Thomas became content with the work there and it wasn't long before Thomas and Martha became romantically involved. By the time Leslie returned to work, Thomas became an official sponsor of the clinic and used his vast resources to keep it running. Thomas also distanced himself from his hedonistic past, citing Martha as his inspiration to change. The New 52 In September 2011, The New 52 rebooted DC's continuity. In this new timeline, Martha Wayne is seen as a good, strong-willed mother worried about her child's future and the future of Gotham's children as well. It is revealed that when Bruce was three years-old, Martha was pregnant with a second child named Thomas Wayne Jr. Due to an accident orchestrated by the Court of Owls, the child was born prematurely and sent to Willowwood Asylum, although he is officially listed as having died 12 hours after his birth. After the murder of Thomas and Martha, the asylum ceased to receive proper funding and the staff started to abuse the children in their care. The Court of Owls offers to take a child who is possibly Thomas Jr. into their ranks, the child left in care after he was born premature with serious disabilities, and he is reborn as Lincoln March, a Gotham socialite and mayoral candidate. Thomas Jr/Lincoln blames Bruce for their parents' murders and the abuse he suffered, and becomes obsessed with getting revenge against his brother. Whether Lincoln really is Bruce's brother or a ploy set by the Court of Owls in order to enlist him in their ranks is left ambiguous; Bruce acknowledges that the evidence favoring March being Thomas Jr. makes sense, but is certain that his parents would have told him if he had a brother, and observes that every piece of evidence has an alternative explanation, but without a DNA test there is no way to be certain. Other versions Superman: Red Son In Mark Millar's Superman: Red Son, Martha and her husband are anti-communist protesters in the Soviet Union. They are executed by the NKVD under Commissar Pyotr Roslov, which leads to their son vowing to overthrow the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. Batman: Dark Knight Dynasty In Batman: Dark Knight Dynasty, Thomas and Martha are saved from death when 'Valentin Sinclair' — really Vandal Savage, a man who has a long-standing interest and admiration for the Wayne family despite the fact that they often end up opposing him when they learn about his plans — scared off Joe Chill, Sinclair becoming a partner in Wayne Enterprises, only for Sinclair to have them killed when they threaten to expose his plan to divert a meteor that gave him his powers back to Earth so that he can study it. Their deaths — triggered by Sinclair's fear-inducing henchman Scarecrone causing them to remember the mugging, driving them to flee Chill by running off their balcony — prompt Bruce to become Batman to investigate, Gordon having written their deaths off as an accident and Bruce unwilling to investigate as himself because of the risk to his new wife, Julie Madison. Flashpoint The alternate universe Flashpoint version of Martha Wayne is the Joker (and even resembles Heath Ledger's portrayal as seen in The Dark Knight). After Bruce Wayne is shot and killed by Joe Chill, Martha is unable to cope with her loss so she cuts open her cheeks to create a faux smile. As Joker, she is the nemesis of Batman, who is her husband Thomas and uses Yo-Yo as a henchman. She kidnaps Harvey Dent's son and daughter. Joker kills James Gordon after she tricks Gordon into shooting Harvey's daughter (disguised as the Joker). After Dent's son and daughter are saved, Batman confronts Joker about their son's death. As Batman has recently met Barry Allen, Martha learns that there is a way to rewrite history where Bruce will live although they will die. Realizing that her son will be Batman in that timeline, Martha flees in horror, falling to her death in the caverns below Wayne Manor. When the Flashpoint reality was restarted during the "Flashpoint Beyond" storyline, Joker was revealed to have survived the fall and started targeting anyone who had anything to do with time travel. She was revealed to have allied with Gilda Dent when she was incarcerated at Arkham Asylum. Batman figured out that Martha was still alive when he was told by Oswald Cobblepot that Dexter Dent went to go see Martha in prison. Batman finds that Joker had enlisted scientists to build a Time Sphere and gutted them once they have served their purpose. Joker tries to use the Time Sphere only for it to explode. The Flashpoint timeline stabilizes when both Batman and Joker come to terms that their reality would be better without Bruce. Joker was last seen in a special cell in the Batcave as Batman and Dexter as Robin head out to fight the Kryptonian invaders. She does offer to hook them up with a contact if they are in need of Kryptonite. In the pages of "The New Golden Age", Martha was seen with Batman and Dexter at the time when Per Degaton was imprisoned in the Flashpoint reality. Planetary In an alternate universe ruled by the tyrannical 'Planetary' organization, Martha and her husband were part of a makeshift 'League of Justice', an underground cell trying to revolt. They were murdered by Elijah Snow. Earth One In the graphic novel Batman: Earth One, Martha's maiden name was Arkham instead of Kane in this alternate continuity. Martha's father was murdered by her mother when she was twelve, leaving her family with a series of scandals, including a rumor that the Arkham bloodline is peremptorily insane. Martha was a campaign manager of her husband's mayoral campaign against Oswald Cobblepot. Cobblepot had planned to have a corrupt cop, Jacob Weaver, murder Thomas, but a mugger got to her family first and killed both her and her husband, leaving Bruce orphaned. Holy Terror In the Elseworlds novel Batman: Holy Terror Martha works with Thomas and other medical professionals in an underground clinic treating victims of the religious theocracy that rules most of the planet. In one example she makes note of a man that had been tortured to try to change his homosexuality. The New 52: Earth 3 Martha Wayne's Earth 3 counterpart is featured in Forever Evil. In the revised Earth 3 alternate universe of "The New 52", all characters from the mainstream universe have corresponding counterparts albeit these counterparts are either a darker or outright evil version of the character. Martha is the abusive and sadistic mother of Owlman, in contrast to Batman's mother being a kind woman who fought against child abuse and corruption. Martha blames her husband's surgical fetish for the family's huge expenses, despite the fact that she herself frequently indulges in the family fortune. Owlman orchestrates his parents' murder with the Alfred of Earth 3. Owlman later wonders why Batman would dedicate his life to avenging his parents' deaths. When Earth 3 was rebooted during the "Infinite Frontier" storyline, Martha Wayne and Thomas Wayne Sr. were depicted as criminals. After they caused the death of Jimmy Gordon Jr., Boss Gordon sent Harvey Bullock to kill them where Bruce was also killed and Thomas Wayne Jr. was left alive. Years later, Thomas Wayne Jr. in the identity of Owlman would learn this fact when he interrogates Bullock. DC Comics Bombshells In the opening of the first issue of the comic DC Comics Bombshells, set in an alternate history 1940, Martha and Thomas Wayne's lives are saved by an already-existing Batwoman. In other media Television Live action Martha Wayne appears in the FOX television series Gotham, portrayed by Brette Taylor. Her and Thomas Wayne's murder is the main focus of the show's first season. Their murder was first seen in the pilot episode where they are gunned down by a masked man in shiny shoes. This murder was witnessed by Selina Kyle. The episode "Ace Chemicals", revealed that Jeremiah Valeska had abducted a husband and wife who had the same bone structure and build as Thomas and Martha Wayne where he had Mad Hatter hypnotize them and a doctor that works for him do plastic surgery on them. This is part of Jeremiah's plot to re-enact the night when Thomas and Martha Wayne were murdered. When it came to the murder in the alley, Jeremiah had already killed the doubles after they served their purpose and replaced them with a brainwashed James Gordon and Leslie Thompkins with the hypnosis ending when the pearls hit the ground upon their death. This murder attempt was thwarted by Selina Kyle. A younger version of Martha Wayne appears in the prequel series Pennyworth, portrayed by Emma Paetz. This series serves as an origin story and explores Martha's past as an agent of the No Name League, who hires a young Alfred Pennyworth to assist her on dangerous missions, while developing a friendship with CIA agent Thomas Wayne. In the end of the second season, Martha and Thomas get married and have a daughter, Samantha (Bruce's future long-lost older sister). In the third season, set five years later, after hiring Alfred's mother Mary to serve as Samantha's nanny, Martha is impersonated by Virginia Devereaux. Sometime later, while attending Alfred's wedding to Sandra Onslow in the Highlands, Martha, Thomas, and Samantha bear witness as London is nuked. A photo of Martha appears in Wayne Manor in Titans. Animation Martha Wayne appears in The Super Powers Team: Galactic Guardians episode "The Fear", voiced by Lucy Lee. She is depicted in a flashback sequence which was the first depiction of Batman's origin outside of the comics. Martha Wayne appears in Batman: The Brave and the Bold, voiced by Pat Musick in "Dawn of the Deadman!" and by Julie Newmar in "Chill of the Night!". In her most notable appearance in "Chill of the Night!", the Phantom Stranger takes Batman back in time to a costume party Martha and Thomas Wayne attended, where he meets his parents and learns new information about their murder. Martha Wayne appears in Beware the Batman. In the episode "Monsters", Martha appears in a flashback sequence where she and her husband are shot and killed in front of Bruce Wayne. Martha Wayne appears in the Batman Black and White motion comics, voiced by Janyse Jaud. DC Animated Universe Martha Wayne appears in Batman: The Animated Series, voiced by an uncredited Adrienne Barbeau. The series also makes use of the rose motif that the films Batman and Batman Forever associate with the murder. Bruce Wayne leaves roses at the site of his parents' murder on the event's anniversary (as similarly done in the comics). An illusionary version of Martha Wayne makes a non-speaking cameo appearance in Justice League Unlimited episode "For the Man Who Has Everything". Film Live action Batman (1989 film series) Martha Wayne appears in a flashback in Batman (1989), portrayed by Sharon Holm. This version was killed by Jack Napier's gang. Martha Wayne appears in a flashback in Batman Forever, portrayed by Eileen Seeley. The Dark Knight Trilogy Sara Stewart played Martha Wayne in Batman Begins (2005). In this version, the Waynes are killed by Joe Chill after exiting the opera Mefistofele. In The Dark Knight Rises (2012), Selina Kyle steals Martha Wayne's pearl necklace which prompts Bruce Wayne to track the thief down. Bruce eventually reclaims Martha's necklace from Selina, but this only incites her to steal his car. At the end of the film, the pearls are seen on Selina's neck after she and Bruce become a couple, implying that Bruce must have given them to her. DC Extended Universe Lauren Cohan portrays Martha Wayne in the 2016 film Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice. During the opening credits, Martha tries to fight the mugger after he shoots Thomas, only to be shot and killed herself when the mugger's gun gets stuck in her pearl necklace. Before dying, her husband whispers her name. When Batman and Superman clash due to Lex Luthor's manipulations, Batman spares Superman when the Man of Steel implores him to "save Martha"; this reminds Batman of his mother, even though Superman is actually referring to his own. A photograph of Martha Wayne in the likeness of Sharon Holm (from 1989's Batman) appears in The Flash. DC Black Carrie Louise Putrello plays Martha in the live-action film Joker, although the character is never referred to by name. She and her husband and son attempt to flee a riot caused by Arthur Fleck, but are shot and killed by one of the rioters in an alley, with Bruce the sole survivor. The Batman Stella Stocker plays the character in the live-action film The Batman. Similarly to her portrayal in Batman: Earth One her maiden name is Arkham instead of Kane. This version came from a wealthy family with a history of mental illness, and as a child witnessed her parents die in a murder-suicide, spending years in and out of psychiatric hospitals as a result of the trauma. When Thomas announced his run for mayor of Gotham City, reporter Edward Elliot threatened to expose Martha's troubled history to the public. Desperate to spare his wife public humiliation, Thomas called upon his associate Carmine Falcone to scare Elliot into silence; instead, Falcone killed Elliot. Years later, following his failed attempt to kill Bruce Wayne, The Riddler exposes this information to the media. Animation Martha Wayne appears in a portrait shown several times in Batman: Mask of the Phantasm with her husband Thomas Wayne. In the film's backstory, a young Bruce Wayne briefly considers giving up his mission to become a crimefighter after falling in love with Andrea Beaumont, but is torn between his newfound happiness and the vow he made to his parents to avenge their deaths. When Andrea breaks off their relationship and leaves Gotham, a heartbroken Bruce looks at the portrait before donning Batman's cape and cowl for the first time. Martha Wayne appears on the direct-to-DVD animated anthology film Batman: Gotham Knight, voiced by Andrea Romano. She appears in a brief flashback shown in the opening of the final segment, "Deadshot", screaming before being shot. Martha Wayne / Joker makes a cameo appearance in Justice League: The Flashpoint Paradox, voiced by an uncredited Grey DeLisle. In the Flashpoint timeline, she loses her mind after Bruce's death; Martha's "Joker smile" was from her son's blood as her sorrow turns into insane laughter. Batman later interrogates Yo-Yo for the Joker's whereabouts and also compares Eobard Thawne's psychosis to the Joker's insanity. In The Lego Batman Movie, a photo of Martha Wayne, Thomas Wayne, and a young Bruce Wayne is seen when Bruce talks to his dead parents, stating that he saved Gotham City again. Martha Wayne appears in DC Super Heroes vs. Eagle Talon, voiced by Asa Ueno. Martha Wayne appears briefly in a flashback in Justice League Dark: Apokolips War. Video games Martha Wayne appears in Batman: Dark Tomorrow, voiced by Erin Quinn Purcell. Martha Wayne appears in flashbacks in Batman: The Telltale Series, voiced by Lorri Holt. In the game's continuity, her husband Thomas Wayne had criminal ties to Carmine Falcone and Hamilton Hill, acting as a launderer for the groups money. They seized most of their power in Gotham by committing those who stand in their way to Arkham Asylum, injecting them with a psychosis inducing chemical to render them insane. Martha's level of involvement with Thomas' criminal activities is unclear. Once she discovered the full extent of his crimes, she became disgusted and resolved to gather enough evidence to get Thomas put in prison. Mayor Hill discovered her plan and sent Joe Chill to kill her and Thomas. Batman Arkham Martha Wayne is featured in the Batman Arkham series where she is voiced by Tasia Valenza and Andrea Deck. In Batman: Arkham Asylum, under the Scarecrow's fear toxin influence, Batman experiences flashbacks of his parents' murder. A bench in Arkham Asylum dedicated to Martha (and Thomas Wayne) is the answer to one of the Riddler's riddles which leads to Thomas and Martha's unlockable bio. In Batman: Arkham City, the Monarch Theatre (the site of the murders) is featured in Arkham City. Behind the building is the chalk outline of Thomas Wayne's and Martha's bodies with a bouquet of flowers and Hugo Strange's tape with a taunting message lying by the outlines. The player has the option of paying his respects by having Batman kneeling by the outlines of both. The chalk outlines lasted for so many years, although it is implied by the message that Strange was the one who staged the scenario to torment Batman. Later while succumbing to the Joker's poison, Batman has a hallucination outside the League of Assassins' temple in which his parents appeared standing inside a tunnel to come into the light with them. She is alluded to in Batman: Arkham Origins. Following the Joker's capture at the Royal Hotel, Batman has a vision of Crime Alley which actually shows Thomas Wayne and then Martha being gunned down by a mugger. The site of the Wayne murders can be found in Park Row's Crime Alley behind the Monarch Theatre. Martha's and Thomas's pair chalk outlines are present along with a single rose. During one of Batman's detective missions, the Dark Knight has to investigate the murders of two acquaintances at Crime Alley, only a few feet from his parents' chalk outline. While reconstructing the crime with Detective Vision, if the player watches the Waynes' chalk outlines, their corpses will appear for a brief moment. She is alluded to once again in Batman: Arkham Knight. First as a hallucination from the Scarecrow's fear toxin and also since "Martha" is Batman's password to activate the "Knightfall Protocol" which caused Wayne Manor to self-destruct. Martha also appears in Batman: Arkham VR. Novels In Andrew Vachss' novel Batman: The Ultimate Evil, Batman discovers that, prior to her death, Martha fought against sex trafficking and child sexual abuse, heading a covert detection agency with help from Commissioner Gordon and the family butler Alfred Pennyworth. Batman also discovers that his parents' murder was not a random mugging, but was in fact orchestrated by a pedophile ring that Martha was investigating. References Characters created by Bill Finger Characters created by Bob Kane Characters created by Gardner Fox Comics characters introduced in 1939 DC Comics film characters DC Comics female characters Fictional socialites Batman characters Batman: Arkham characters Fictional philanthropists Fictional murdered people Vigilante characters in comics Fictional Irish American people
4845231	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedersen%20rifle	Pedersen rifle	The Pedersen Rifle, officially known in final form as the T1E3 rifle, was a United States semi-automatic rifle designed by John Pedersen that was made in small numbers for testing by the United States Army during the 1920s as part of a program to standardize and adopt a replacement for the M1903 Springfield. Although the Pedersen was rated for a time as the most likely candidate for standardization and adoption, the .30 caliber M1 Garand was chosen instead. Background The U.S. Army had shown interest in the idea of self-loading (semiautomatic) rifles before World War I. Combat experience during that war had made clear two general points: that the standard caliber .30-06 rifle cartridge was excessively powerful for the ranges (500 yards and less) where infantry combat was likely to take place, and that bolt-action rifles such as the M1903 Springfield were seriously lacking in firepower and second-shot hit capability. The U.S. Army Ordnance Bureau had no problem in soliciting designs and prototype weapons from inventors, and sought to facilitate their work by supplying barrels and other hardware that the inventors were likely not to be able to fabricate. However, such a traditional way of developing new weapons all too often saw potentially worthwhile designs wash out of the testing process due to a lack of engineering skills and experience both in the design and manufacturing phases. Testing in the early 1920s led the Ordnance Bureau to identify three rifle designs - the Bang rifle, the Thompson Autorifle, and the primer-protrusion actuated Garand Model 1919 rifle - as promising candidates. However, all three designs were burdened with the high pressure and heat generating characteristics of the .30-06 ammunition, which looked likely to result in a weapon too heavy and too subject to overheating to be worthwhile. Trials with a small number of "militarized" .25 Remington autoloading rifles, despite their unsuitability for combat, provided a body of practical experience with semiautomatic rifles and an appreciation for the idea less powerful ammunition might be a critical part of the successful development of such weapons. Proposals At this point in time, John Douglas Pedersen made an unsolicited proposal to the Army Ordnance Bureau which would have a profound impact on the entire effort to develop a serviceable semiautomatic rifle. In essence, he proposed to develop a rifle that would be neither recoil operated (which would involve excessive recoil and generate inaccuracy, due to the barrel moving within the rifle) nor gas operated (which would be complex, heavy, and potentially give undesirable operating characteristics). Additionally, he proposed to develop a new cartridge in the caliber .256 to .276 (6.5 mm to 7 mm) range that, while less powerful than the .30-06, would be effective out to 300 yards. Pedersen had gained a good reputation as both a firearms designer and production engineer at the Remington Arms Company. While at Remington, he designed four notable commercial firearms. Pedersen also designed the Pedersen Device during World War I. This was a sub-firearm intended to allow battlefield conversion of Springfield and M1917 Enfield rifles into semiautomatic rifles firing a pistol-sized cartridge. The Bureau of Ordnance was sufficiently impressed that in 1923 it granted Mr. Pedersen a contract providing office space, a project budget, an annual salary, and in compensation for his departure from Remington the right to patent his work and collect royalties from the U.S. Government if his rifle was adopted. Development of the rifle and cartridge Pedersen got to work in 1924, focusing first on the cartridge. The .276 Pedersen (7 x 51 mm) cartridge as finally standardized and manufactured at Frankford Arsenal was shorter than the .30-06, one quarter lighter, would generate nearly a third less heat and about half the recoil energy. Despite being smaller, it had a trajectory similar to the .30-06., with a muzzle velocity of 2,600 feet per second (792 m/s). The drawbacks of the design were diminished tracer performance, less effective armor piercing, plus anticipated logistical complications coming from the fact the .30-06 would remain in use for machine guns. The cartridge did, however, make a reasonably light yet effective semiautomatic rifle possible. By early 1926, Pedersen had designed and built a prototype rifle. He had researched Army tactics and operational concepts, and had engineered the tooling for parts manufacture as an integral part of engineering the gun parts themselves. Such an application of sound research and development made a very strong impression on Army personnel when the rifle was presented for inspection and testing. The rifle was a solid, well-finished weapon, 44 inches (112 cm) long, weighing slightly over 8 pounds (3.6 kg). It utilized a disposable ten-round en bloc clip, a system favored at the time. Pedersen's rifle utilized a sophisticated up-breaking toggle-joint system like the Parabellum P.08 but improved by utilizing delayed blowback. This system was simple and free of both the fragility and severe kick of recoil operation, and the weight and complexity of gas operation (as in the Browning Automatic Rifle). To ease extraction, cartridge cases were coated in mineral wax. This left a thin film that was “hard, and durable, and was not sticky,”. The waxed cases solved the issue of difficult extraction, but hindered acceptance of the Pedersen rifle because officials feared that the wax would attract dirt and cause operating failures. Testing and evaluation In February 1926, the new rifle and ammunition were tested in the presence of representatives of both the Army Chief of Infantry and the Chief of Cavalry. The results were “highly favorable” Production was authorized on May 20, 1926 of 20 rifles and 5 carbines. Following tests of reworked versions of the Thompson and primer-actuated Garand rifles, the Infantry Board in June, 1926 recommended further testing of all three rifles, but clearly indicated in its report the Pedersen rifle was the most developed of the three. In April 1928 came the Infantry Board test report on the T1E3, and it was a solid endorsement of the rifle. The Board called for adoption of the T1E3 rifle to replace both the Model 1903 Springfield and the Browning Automatic Rifle. The Cavalry Board was also positive in its own evaluation of the T1E3. To soldiers used to the heavy recoil and exhausting manual operation of the Springfield rifle, the moderate recoil and self-loading functionality of the T1 rifle clearly must have made an impression. Due to problems with primer-actuation, John Garand gave up work on a .30-06 semiautomatic rifle and also focused exclusively on caliber .276. Doubts about the lethal effect of the .276 round were strong enough to result in extensive tests in June and July 1928 by the “Pig Board” (so called because lethality tests were carried out on anaesthetized pigs). The Board found all three rounds (.256, .276, and .30) were wounding out to 1,200 yards (1100m). At 300 yards, the smaller .256 caliber round delivered "by far the most severe wounds in all parts of the animal." At 600 yards the results were similar for all three rounds. No compelling case could be made against the Pedersen round. Further tests and a final decision In July 1928, the War Department created the Army, Navy, and Marine Corps Semiautomatic Rifle Board to further test and evaluate both existing and newly submitted rifles with an eye toward focusing on standardizing the most serviceable design. Unlike previous boards, this one would continue to function for three years, and would end up undertaking three series of tests. This Board displayed a strong interest in the development of a .30-'06 semiautomatic rifle, but at the same time recognized the potential effectiveness of the .276 round at ranges up to 600 yards and that relatively light weight rifles that could be built around it; the Board remained consistent with the de facto Army policy of favoring adoption of the .276 round. Counting the Pedersen T1E3 rifle (by this time covered by ), seven rifles were submitted for consideration. One of these rifles was John Garand's gas-operated .276 rifle, the T3, which had a 10-round magazine loaded with a symmetrical en bloc clip. The conclusion of the tests, held in August 1929, saw the Board rate the T1E3 and the T3 as superior to all the others. Both rifles were found to be subject to excessive malfunctions, but the T3 was rated superior to the T1E3. Specific T1E3 defects were: failure of the breech mechanism to close, misfires, breech mechanism override (failure to feed), and breakage of a crank and a sear bar. The Board recommended manufacturing of 20 T3 rifles for service test, and in addition recommended building a caliber .30-'06 version of the T3 for evaluation. Cartridge lethality was again investigated by the “Goat Board”, this time with shooting tests on anaesthetized goats and careful measurement of entry and exit velocities. However, the test results again demonstrated no superiority of caliber .30 ammunition at normal combat ranges. The year 1931 saw testing of the T1E3 and the twenty T3E2 rifles by the Infantry. The Infantry Board rated the T3E2 superior in effective firepower and simplicity of construction (the T3E2 had 60 parts, while the T1E3 had 99 parts). This Board, which three years earlier had recommended adoption of the T1, now favored the T3E2; it continued to favor the .276. However, the Chief of Infantry broke with the Infantry Board and stated a preference for .30 caliber. The .30-'06 Garand rifle (essentially an enlarged T3E2) was quickly built and, under the confusing designation T1E1, was tested along with the T3E2 and the Pedersen T1E3 during the remainder of 1931. The Semiautomatic Rifle Board now exhibited a notably critical attitude toward the T1E3. The Board found fault with the requirement for lubricated cartridge cases (seemingly regardless of the technical merits of Mr. Pedersen's case treatment concept), poor trigger pull, and the upward break of the breech mechanism. A more substantive complaint had to do with the complete exposure of the breech mechanism when held open—the Board correctly cited the vulnerability of the rifle to mud and dust while in this condition. The Board also reported slamfires (the Garand T3E2 was reported to dimple cartridge primers with its firing pin, but did not slamfire). In the end, funding issues forced a decision. Faced with the possible loss of funds already authorized by Congress, the Board met for one more time in January 1932 and decided to recommend approval of the T3E2 (the .276 Garand) for limited procurement by the Army and to continue development of the T1E1 (the .30-'06 Garand). With this action, the Pedersen rifle was effectively dropped from consideration. In four more years, almost to the day, an improved version of rifle T1E1 would be adopted as the M1. As Springfield Armory tooled for and refined the Garand, Pedersen continued to work on another rifle. He developed a .30 caliber model with a conventional gas-trap piston and multi-piece operating rod system. He fought to have it tested by the U.S. Army prior to World War II. At around the same time, serious difficulties were being encountered with the Garand and questions had been raised. Both Pedersen and Melvin M. Johnson, Jr. attempted to capitalize on the troubles. Based on serial numbers, it is thought up to 12 prototype gas-trap Pedersen rifles were made. One example of the model G-Y resides at the Springfield Armory Museum. Foreign interest Publicity of the U.S. Army's serious consideration of adopting the Pedersen rifle as standard issue generated similar interest in the rifle in the United Kingdom. Pedersen traveled to the UK in 1930 to oversee tooling up of a production facility by Vickers-Armstrong for manufacturing of rifles for test by the UK Government and for possible marketing to other countries. The UK tested the rifle in 1932 along with other prototype semiautomatic rifles, but decided not to take any further action. Vickers apparently both manufactured the rifle in small quantities and also further developed the design. A caliber .276 Vickers-Pedersen rifle offered for sale in March 2008 by the James D. Julia Auction firm was serial numbered 95, and the clip that accompanied the rifle was of a curved and symmetrical design (suitable for loading into the magazine either end up). The butt stock had a noticeably different shape than those of rifles made at Springfield Armory, but otherwise the rifle was identical to the U.S. production T1E3 and thus incorporated the design revisions covered by to make his rifle more modular in construction and thus easier to disassemble and maintain. Japanese Pedersen Pedersen reportedly then went to Japan to encourage interest in his rifle by the Imperial Japanese Army, which appears to have led to the building of 12 rifles and 12 carbines for testing around 1935; the project reportedly was abandoned in 1936. These weapons were apparently made to fire the standard 6.5 mm Japanese service cartridge, and incorporated design changes which radically changed the appearance of this rifle when compared to the original T1E3 rifle. Most notable was the use of a spool-type Schoenauer magazine which formed a very pronounced swell in the stock just ahead of the trigger guard. A receiver-mounted safety lever and a stripper clip guide at the front of the breech block head are also noticeable features. A ventilated wooden handguard completely covers the barrel, while the stock furniture more resembles that of the later Type 99 rifle than the then-standard Type 38. The sights are offset to the left, although the cycling of the breech block mechanism would still momentarily interrupt the line of sight. The hinge pin was also made removable. Reportedly the Japanese Army did not really grasp the importance of case lubrication for this type of rifle, so the test rifles never really functioned satisfactorily. A carbine version, serial number 5, has been recently described in some detail. A photo of a field stripped rifle or carbine, reportedly of a specimen found in Japan at the end of World War II, has been reproduced in Hatcher's The Book of the Garand and some other gun books. Legacy While the Pedersen rifle never achieved the status of a standard-issue weapon of the U.S. Army, the rifle did have a visible impact on the process by which the ultimate winner—the M1 Garand rifle—was selected. John Pedersen's work in creating and improving his rifle was a coherent research and development process which significantly raised the bar for those trying to get a hearing from Army Ordnance regarding their designs. Tellingly, the only serious competition that the Pedersen rifle had in the end was the rifle created by John C. Garand—like Pedersen, a talented designer and engineer with a solid grounding in the particulars of production tooling. The initial success and ultimate failure of the Pedersen rifle has sometimes been interpreted as the simple workings-out of biased or overly conservative decision-making in the face of technological innovation. However, there is little in the historical record to support such interpretations. Simply put, the Pedersen rifle had shortcomings. The rifle was complex, making concerns about mass production to an exacting standard of parts interchangeability quite legitimate. Issues revealed in Army tests were serious and inherent in the design. Certainly the concerns expressed by the Semiautomatic Rifle Board regarding the vulnerability of the operating mechanism to sand and mud when held open were very real. However, what the rifle did succeed in demonstrating was that a semiautomatic combat rifle was a realistic proposition. The initial enthusiasm of the Infantry Board for the adoption of this rifle is certainly strong testimony on this point. Bias is certainly visible in the negative attitude taken toward what was unquestionably the most innovative aspect of the rifle's development: the lubrication of the cartridge cases with Pedersen's dry wax process. The implicit equation of this process with the messy and contamination-vulnerable case oiling system used in the Thompson Rifle (also a hesitation blowback design) certainly shows a degree of obstinate conservatism. This concept may yet have potential application in firearms development even now, but it was certainly not appreciated or even liked back in the 1920s. Some writers have implied that the Pedersen rifle was effectively killed by Chief of Staff Douglas MacArthur’s decision to require use of the .30-06 cartridge for the standard semiautomatic rifle. However, the record does not support such an interpretation. The Pedersen rifle was rejected a month before Gen. MacArthur pronounced on the subject, at a point in time when the caliber .276 T3E2 Garand rifle was the clear winner of the competition and ready for initial production. History shows MacArthur vetoed the .276 Pedersen cartridge for use in the Garand rifle. Description and operation The Pedersen T1E3 rifle was made in two versions: an infantry rifle with a 24-inch barrel, full-length stock with an M1903-type front band, 44 inches long (twenty made); and a cavalry carbine with a 21-inch barrel and half-stocked like the Krag-Jørgensen cavalry carbine (five made). An unknown but larger number of infantry rifles were made by Vickers-Armstrong in Britain. The infantry rifle had a planned weight of 8 pounds, 2 ounces; weights of the rifles tested by the Infantry Board averaged out at 9 pounds, 2 ounces. The walnut stock had a semi pistol grip of rather shallow contour and a pronounced drop at the butt with a long cheek rest formed on top of the butt. A ventilated metal handguard covered the barrel only between the receiver and the lower band. Under the handguard was a thicken section of the barrel machined with 12 spiraling grooves, the whole design evidently intended to provide both heat sink and radiant air cooling effect. (The metal handguard was a point of criticism during Army tests due to it becoming too hot to the touch after moderate firing; the lack of uniform wood covering of the barrel was judged the cause of accuracy problems due to uneven expansion of the hot barrel). The built-in ten-round magazine included a steel lower body that protruded below the bottom of the stock approximately one inch ahead of a conventional milled steel trigger guard; this magazine body had smooth and distinctive contours that reflected both the shapes of the feed mechanism parts and the designer's evident concern for the soldier's ease of use and safety. The front sight was an unprotected M1903 blade; the rear sight, mounted at the extreme rear of the receiver, was a protected peep sight of original design adjustable for windage and elevation. The receiver was entirely open on top between the barrel ring and the rear sight mount. The stubby, flat operating handle for the toggle joint breech mechanism protruded to the right from the forward part of the crank (the rearmost part of the breech mechanism). The breech block mechanism was made in three parts. From front to rear they were: The breech block head; this part supported the cartridge base. The body; this was linked to Number 1 and Number 3. The crank; this was secured to the rear of the receiver with the hinge pin. The Pedersen rifle operated on the hesitation blowback principle: energy released by firing a cartridge immediately caused the breech to start moving rearward, but mechanical leverage built into the mechanism caused the actual opening of the breech to be delayed long enough so that pressure within the barrel would fall to a safe level. This was achieved with a bearing surface machined onto the front end of the crank. As the case head pressed on the breech block head and forced it to move rearward (as guided by contact surfaces in the receiver), pressure was exerted on the body, which in turn exerted pressure on the crank. The crank had contact surfaces on its rear end which would transmit pressure to corresponding surfaces in the rear of the receiver, thus relieving the hinge pin of excessive stress. As the rear surface of the body continued to exert pressure on the bearing surface on the front of the crank, the leverage exerted would cause the crank to move about 95 degrees upward from the horizontal on the fulcrum formed by it being attached to the rear of the receiver by the hinge pin. The breech block mechanism thus operated in a manner resembling the operation of the Luger pistol, but unlike that pistol the Pedersen mechanism was at no time mechanically locked. The operating principle was the same as that used in the Model 07/12 Schwarzlose machine gun used by Austria-Hungary during the First World War. As with all hesitation blowback weapons, the Pedersen rifle had to have some means to prevent cartridge cases from becoming stuck in the chamber due to the relatively high breech pressure and operating velocity existing at the moment of extraction. The measure adopted by the designer was the sophisticated case coating technique described earlier, which in combination with the taper of the cartridge case sides undoubtedly contributed to the high degree of reliability noted in all Army tests. Use of uncoated-case rounds (intentionally done in at least one test) caused the rifle to completely fail to function. Starting with the rifle unloaded and the breech mechanism closed, the loading and operating cycle would be as follows. Grasping the operating handle with the right hand, the operator would pull the crank up and back until vertical, at which point the hold open device would engage the underside of the breech block head. The breech return spring, entirely housed within the crank, would at this point be fully compressed. An asymmetrical spring steel clip of ten rounds in a double-staggered column would then be inserted, feed end up, into the magazine against the spring pressure of the magazine follower; when fully inserted the clip would be caught and held by a catch. (Note: this clip, like the clip used in the Austrian Model 95 rifle, could only be inserted one way and thus could potentially cause confusion under the stress of combat). Unloading the magazine would be done by (if necessary) retracting and holding open the breech mechanism, then pushing the trigger forward from its neutral position; the clip and any remaining cartridges would be ejected upward. By pulling back slightly on the operating handle, the operator would then free the breech block head from the hold open device and under pressure from the operating spring the breech block mechanism would straighten, driving the breech block head forward to push the topmost cartridge forward from under the feed lips of the clip, chambering the cartridge, and engaging the extraction groove around the base of the cartridge with the extractor. The extractor and the spring-loaded plunger type ejector were both built into breech block head. If the rifle was not immediately to be fired, the spring-loaded striker assembly (housed within the breech block head and body) could be locked by pushing the cross-bolt safety located in the breech body from right to left; this would also lock the breech block mechanism so that it could not be opened. (Army test reports identified the safety and the firing mechanism as weak areas of the T1 rifle: the safety, when applied, prevented clearing a loaded chamber and did not lock the trigger mechanism; the safety was also subject to damage. The striker was reported to have become stuck on some occasions, causing slam-fires). With the rifle ready to fire, pressing the trigger would cause movement of a connector bar extending forward toward the magazine well; the connector bar movement would then cause the sear to move out of engagement with the striker and cause the chambered round to fire. (In common with bullpup rifles, which also separate the trigger from the firing mechanism, the T1 was reported to suffer from a relatively poor trigger pull feel; during at least one series of tests the connector bar broke). When the breech block mechanism cycled, the crank would momentarily block the line of sight (Army riflemen testing this rifle apparently got used to this effect quickly, but there were negative comments in the test reports regarding the crank striking the edge of the Brodie helmet then standard issue in the U.S. Army as well as damaging the brims of the felt campaign hats then worn as part of the field uniform). When the last round in the clip was chambered and then fired, final upward movement of the magazine follower would engage the hold open device, which would catch and hold the breech block head in the open position; the empty clip would be ejected upward. The breech block mechanism could be released by depressing the follower and pulling back slightly on the operating handle. (The T1 and the Cal .276 Garand both had a tendency to hold open their actions and eject clips while one round still remained in the magazine). Basic field stripping of the T1 rifle was simple: with the rifle unloaded and the mechanism held open, pressing on a stud on the underside of the crank would lock the breech return spring. The breech block head could then be guided up and out through inclined guide ways in the receiver and the crank then could be freed from the hinge pin, allowing the entire breech mechanism to be removed as a unit. The magazine housing would then be dismounted by pressing forward on the housing until the forward retaining lip would become free from the groove in the forward part of the receiver that it normally rested in and then rotating the housing downward. The entire trigger and feed mechanism group would then be removed by pressing a spring-loaded cross bolt at the rear of the trigger guard just below the stock; the entire assembly would then be freed to be pulled down and rearward to separate it from the receiver and stock. The general concept of the field stripping process is similar to that of the SKS carbine. The stock and barrel-receiver assembly would normally not be separated, following the pattern of rifles such as the German Model 98 Mauser or the Model 1903 Springfield. Serial numbers (U.S. rifles) The following table is derived from information obtained from the following Web site: . Much of the record keeping on the Pedersen and other rifles of this period is now long gone. What records the researchers at this Web site were able to find mostly appear to relate to the final period of competitive testing in 1931. SA = Springfield Armory. 2/11/31 SA Carbine 2/11/31 SA 2/11/31 SA; 4/11/31 SA to Ft. Benning Carbine 2/11/31 SA; 4/11/31 SA to Ft. Riley 2/11/31 SA; 4/11/31 SA to Ft. Benning 2/11/31 SA ? Carbine 2/11/31 SA; 4/11/31 SA to Ft. Riley 2/11/31 SA (deficient); 4/11/31 SA (being repaired) 2/11/31 SA (deficient); 4/11/31 SA (being repaired) 9/28/31 at Ordnance Office ? 8/30/27 SA to Ft. Benning 2/11/31 SA; 4/11/31 SA to Ft. Benning ? 2/11/31 SA; 4/11/31 SA to Ft. Benning 8/30/27 SA to Ft. Riley; 4/11/31 SA to Ft. Benning 2/11/31 SA; 4/11/31 SA to Ft. Benning 2/11/31 SA; 4/11/31 SA to Ft. Benning Carbine 2/11/31 SA; 4/11/31 SA to Ft. Riley 2/11/31 SA; 4/11/31 SA to Ft. Riley 2/11/31 extra receiver 2/11/31 sold to J D Pedersen ? ? From the information in this table we apparently can identify four of the five carbines and 16 of the 20 rifles. Serial number 22 was apparently assigned to a receiver which was not in fact used for building a complete rifle; this would appear to indicate that only 19 of the 20 authorized rifles were built. See also Luger P08 pistol Borchart pistol List of individual weapons of the U.S. Armed Forces Notes References Hatcher, Julian S.. The Book of the Garand; 1948 (reprint edition 2000). The Gun Room Press. External links Japanese Pedersen Semi Auto Rifles & Carbines An article on the adoption of the M1 Garand over the Pedersen Rifle irreversible clip patent reversible clip patent rifle patent Semi-automatic rifles of the United States Delayed blowback firearms
4845715	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yankee%20Network	Yankee Network	The Yankee Network was an American radio network, based in Boston, Massachusetts, with affiliate radio stations throughout New England. At the height of its influence, the Yankee Network had as many as twenty-four affiliated radio stations. The network was co-founded by John Shepard III and his brother Robert, in 1929–1930. The beginnings of what became the Yankee Network occurred in the mid-1920s, when John Shepard's Boston station WNAC linked by telephone land lines with Robert Shepard's station in Providence, Rhode Island, WEAN, so that the two stations could share or exchange programming. Those two stations became the first two Yankee Network stations. In 1930, they were joined by the first affiliated radio stations, including WLBZ in Bangor, Maine; WORC in Worcester, Massachusetts; WNBH in New Bedford, Massachusetts; and WICC in Bridgeport, Connecticut. During the 1930s, the network became known for developing its own local and regional news bureau, the Yankee News Service. The Yankee Network and the Yankee News Service operated until February 1967. History Early years The main benefit of joining the Yankee Network was that it offered its affiliates as much as 17 hours of daily programming. Yankee affiliates were provided with access to some of the best-known Boston vocalists and orchestras, as well as nationally-known entertainers who were appearing in Boston or Providence. For example, a concert by opera star Mary Garden was broadcast, as was a concert by the Providence Symphony Orchestra. Dance music was often played by bandleader Joe Rines and his orchestra, or by other popular bandleaders like Dok Eisenbourg. The Yankee Network also had its own 22-piece orchestra, led by Charles R. Hector. Among other popular entertainers heard on the Yankee Network in the early 1930s were pianist, songwriter and bandleader Gus Arnheim, and local favorites "Hum and Strum." The Yankee Network broadcast radio plays, featuring its own drama troupe, made up of members of the WNAC staff, led by announcer Ben Hadfield. In addition to religious services and educational talks, there were also cultural programs, including excerpts from "The Green Pastures," a play starring black actor Richard B. Harrison; and talks by the region's mayors, governors, and other political leaders. For sports fans, they could hear Boston Braves and Boston Red Sox baseball games, announced by Fred Hoey. College football, broadcast live from various schools in the region, was also a popular feature. In addition to providing local and regional programming, the Yankee Network was also affiliated with the Columbia Broadcasting System (later known as CBS), which provided national programs to complement Yankee's New England focus. By 1931, the network was also offering regular news broadcasts, on the half-hour, making use of reporting by some of Boston's newspapers. But by 1933, the relationship between print and radio had become contentious, with newspapers no longer willing to provide news to radio stations. The so-called "Press-Radio Agreement" limited the number of newscasts radio stations could broadcast to only two a day, and listeners were very upset that they could no longer hear regular news on the air. In early March 1934, John Shepard III organized his own news bureau, the Yankee News Service, to provide his affiliates with regular local and regional news reports. It replaced the newscasts previously provided by reporters from the Boston Herald-Traveler, Boston American, and Boston Daily Record. Shepard hired Richard D. Grant, a former print journalist from the Boston Evening Transcript, to be in charge of the news broadcasts. Editor in chief was Leland Bickford, who co-wrote a book in 1935 about the first year of the Yankee News Service. The Yankee News Service used the slogan "News while it IS News," intended as a jab at the newspapers, which disseminated news at a slower pace than radio. That was also the title of the book about the creation of the news service. In addition, on February 20, 1938, the Yankee Network debuted its own radio weather service, to provide up-to-date weather information to affiliates. The first chief meteorologist of the Yankee Network Weather Service was Salvatore Pagliuca, who had formerly worked at the Blue Hills Observatory and the Mount Washington Observatory. Expansion Throughout the early-to-mid 1930s, the Yankee Network continued to expand, picking up affiliates in such cities as Springfield, Massachusetts; Hartford, Connecticut; and Manchester, New Hampshire. The network also received support from advertisers, who saw it as an effective way to reach an audience that extended throughout New England. In 1935, the Yankee Network centralized its executive offices and studios in a new headquarters, 21 Brookline Avenue in Boston. The move followed a $25,000 renovation of the facilities. Also included in the building were studios and offices of WNAC and WAAB, the network's Boston stations. One area where the expansion was noticeable was in the news department, which was praised by national magazines like Variety for its coverage of state legislatures, as well as coverage of news-makers throughout New England. There was some early controversy over John Shepard's policy of inserting brief "plugs" (sponsor mentions) into the newscasts, but Shepard defended the practice as necessary in order to support the broadcasts. Gradually, as the network hired more staff and was able to cover stories more extensively, the complaints diminished. By 1939, the Yankee Network was said to be the first regional network to send a full-time reporter, Pete Tully, to Washington, D.C. to cover Congress. The Yankee Network also earned praise for its coverage of natural disasters in New England, such as in April 1936, when heavy rainstorms caused flooding in western Massachusetts, or in September 1938, when a hurricane devastated much of Southern New England. Yankee affiliate WMAS in Springfield was instrumental in keeping the public informed, broadcasting weather reports and news coverage around the clock until the storm had ended; and later, WMAS raised funds for on-going disaster relief in the region. Despite John Shepard's affiliation of his Yankee Network stations with CBS, he still became involved in the founding of a new network, which came to be known as the Mutual Broadcasting System, and he served on its board of directors. Beginning around 1936, the Yankee Network also started to carry some Mutual programs. Meanwhile, there were some changes in Boston radio that affected the Yankee Network. CBS had begun purchasing stations, in addition to providing network programming. In early 1936, CBS purchased Boston's WEEI, making it necessary for Shepard's WNAC to affiliate with a different network, NBC's Red Network. The change officially took place in late September of that year. In the late 1930s, Shepard had become interested in frequency modulation (later known as FM). In 1937 a plan was developed envisioning that 90% of New England could be provided with FM programs by building mountaintop stations, consisting of a 50 kilowatt transmitter on Mount Asnebumskit at Paxton, Massachusetts, plus 5 kilowatt stations on Mount Washington in New Hampshire and Mount Mansfield in Vermont. (Later plans dropped the proposed Mount Mansfield station). With the help of the inventor of FM, Major Edwin H. Armstrong, the Yankee Network inaugurated the nation's first FM radio network, beginning with an early January 1940 demonstration of an FM inter-city relay, linking Shepard's experimental FM station W1XOJ in Paxton, Massachusetts, to an FM transmitter at station W1XPW in Meriden, Connecticut (now WHCN), to Armstrong's W2XMN in Alpine, New Jersey, to the parent broadcasting system based in the studios of WEAF in New York. Shepard's FM network officially made its debut in December 1940 when W1XOJ in Paxton was permanently linked with W1XER on Mount Washington. Because of their superior audio quality, the FM stations became known for broadcasting live classical music concerts. But while John Shepard III was making plans to further expand the Yankee Network's FM properties, there was a major obstacle. The Yankee Network faced a powerful opponent—the Radio Corporation of America (RCA—the majority owner of NBC), which saw FM as a threat to its established AM radio business. RCA was also concerned that Yankee's technique of "networking" their service around New England via inexpensive, off-air FM relays instead of AT&T phone lines, would open the door to many less well-funded groups establishing competition to RCA's established network, NBC. RCA, under general manager David Sarnoff, successfully pressured the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) to move the FM radio spectrum from 42–50 MHz to 88–108 MHz in 1945. This required massive hardware retooling at all FM broadcasters. Some affiliates dropped out, forcing the Yankee Network to lease phone lines from AT&T to fill in the holes between stations. The added costs to broadcasters and the obsolescence of all FM radios at the time set back FM broadcasting for a decade or more. Despite the setback with FM, the Yankee Network seemed to be doing well. There were a number of popular programs, including "Ruth Moss Interviews," featuring conversations with local and national celebrities; a variety show called "Yankee House Party," featuring organist Frank Cronin and the Bobby Norris Orchestra, which was also picked up by the Mutual Network; as well as various sports events, including Red Sox and Braves play-by-play, often announced by Jim Britt, who had been hired as a sportscaster by the Yankee Network in 1939. In mid-1941, it was announced that the network would soon change from its affiliation with NBC to a full-time affiliation with Mutual. In March 1942, the network debuted six new studios, including one especially equipped for FM, as well as several with better acoustics and new musical instruments for the Yankee Network's orchestras; one studio featured a custom-designed organ, said to be the largest in use at any radio station. Controversies and problems In 1938, a former Yankee Network employee named Lawrence J. Flynn challenged the license of Shepard's WAAB in Boston, and also lodged a complaint about WNAC. Flynn asserted that these stations were being used to air one-sided political viewpoints and broadcast attacks (including editorials) against local politicians that Shepard opposed. The FCC requested that Shepard provide details about these programs, and to appease the commission, the Yankee Network agreed to drop the editorials. But Flynn created a company called Mayflower Broadcasting and tried to get the FCC to award him WAAB's license; however, the FCC refused. Instead, in 1941, the commission made a ruling that came to be known as the Mayflower Decision which declared that radio stations, due to their public interest obligations, must remain neutral in matters of news and politics, and they were not allowed to give editorial support to any particular political position or candidate. The decision was very unpopular with broadcasters, who saw it as a form of censorship. But despite widespread dissatisfaction, the FCC did not officially reverse the Mayflower Decision until 1949. In 1941, the FCC ruled that owners could not own more than one station in the same city. Shepard owned two Boston stations: WNAC and its sister station WAAB. To comply with the FCC's ruling, Shepard needed to move WAAB. He decided to relocate it to Worcester, a market that Yankee did not serve at that point. WAAB, which made its debut broadcast from Worcester on December 13, 1942, was now the Mutual and Yankee affiliate in central Massachusetts. In mid-December 1942, it was suddenly announced that the Yankee Network was being sold; the news caught most people in Boston's broadcasting community by surprise, as it was not generally known that the network was for sale. The purchaser was General Tire and Rubber Company of Akron, Ohio, led by its president William O'Neil. The new owner agreed that John Shepard III would stay on at the head of the Yankee Network for the next five years. In 1947, the Yankee Network's flagship station, WNAC, celebrated its 25th anniversary, but this milestone was commemorated in a very low-key manner. While Shepard continued on as head of the network, he was now in poor health; the day-to-date operation of the network was being handled by Executive Vice President and General Manager Linus Travers, a veteran of the network who had worked for Shepard since being hired in 1927 as an announcer and commercial manager. When Travers was promoted to an executive position at Mutual in September 1948, he was replaced by another long-time employee of the Yankee Network, George Steffy. In December 1948, John Shepard Jr., who had run the Shepard Department Stores and provided early financial support for his son John III's radio venture, died at age 91. John Shepard III died from heart disease in mid-June 1950, at age 64. Meanwhile, television had come to Boston in early June 1948, when WBZ-TV debuted; the Yankee Network's TV station, WNAC-TV made its debut several weeks later, on June 21. But as the Yankee Network expanded into TV, it experienced some labor problems. In early May 1949, all of the network's eighty engineers, both from radio and television, went out on strike, to protest what were said to be steep wage cuts the ownership was asking them to take. Managers and other executives kept the stations on the air, but some remote broadcasts had to be canceled, including the scheduled telecasts of the Boston Braves home games. Also, some announcers refused to cross the picket lines, requiring management to do some of the announcing during the strike. The pay dispute, which made the national news, took sixteen days to resolve and required the help of an arbitrator. The strike finally ended after the proposed wage cuts were canceled and a new salary agreement was reached, at which time the engineers and announcers returned to work. The Yankee Network's final years In the early-to-mid 1950s, the Yankee Network continued doing what it had become known for: providing local news, daytime programs aimed at housewives, music from local orchestras, and live sports broadcasts. Among the most popular personalities on the Yankee Network during this time were Bill Hahn and Ruth Mugglebee, who hosted a daily homemaking and cooking show (in 1955, Bill Hahn got a different female co-host, Duncan MacDonald; news commentator and (print reporter) Bill Cunningham; and Louise Morgan, who had begun her career on radio at WNAC in 1943 and was now also seen on WNAC-TV hosting a fashion and celebrity interview program. In the summer of 1953, WNAC in Boston was able to switch to a better frequency, after Lawrence, Massachusetts, radio station WLAW (owned by the Lawrence Eagle and Tribune newspaper) decided to cease broadcasting, and its owner, Irving E. Rogers, sold the station. WLAW had been occupying 680 kHz with 50,000 watts, while WNAC had been at 1260 kHz with 5,000 watts. Thanks to the sale of WLAW, the higher-powered 680 frequency became available and WNAC moved there; the 1260 AM frequency was purchased by Victor C. Diehm, a station owner from Hazleton, Pennsylvania, and christened WVDA. After operating station WVDA in Boston, Diehm would later go on to become president of the Mutual network. As top-40 radio became dominant on AM in the late 1950s, the Yankee Network continued to program for an audience that was now aging. In fact, at many stations, the programming content was undergoing a number of changes: for one thing, few stations had live orchestras any more. With television becoming popular, many programs previously heard only on radio moved over to TV. Even soap operas, long a staple of network programming on radio, ceased in 1960. Also during this time period, many stations stopped relying on syndicated programs from NBC, CBS, ABC, or Mutual and began to do their own programming: in Boston, for example, WBZ ended its long affiliation with NBC to program its own music, using live and local announcers. Just like with WBZ, the emphasis at many radio stations had shifted to playing records. As the top-40 hit format proliferated, in an effort to attract the growing youth audience, WNAC and the Yankee Network stayed with the older music; this earned them praise from a number of newspaper columnists, many of whom were also getting older and found top-40 unpleasant. For them, WNAC's and the Yankee Network's emphasis on "great standards" and songs with "beautiful melodies" was very comforting. The Yankee stations, especially flagship WNAC, played the music that the older audience enjoyed, avoiding songs that were popular with young people and focusing on "easy listening" music. One popular announcer during this time was Gus Saunders, who was also well known as the host of another of the Yankee Network's cooking programs; in addition, Saunders announced some of the network's sports events, such as Boston's BAA Marathon. Another popular announcer was Vin Maloney, who like Saunders, fulfilled a wide range of functions for WNAC and the Yankee Network, including announcing, news-reading, and covering sports. The Yankee News Service remained popular throughout the 1950s, and listeners relied on it for local news and sports; this was especially true in the summer of 1957, when Boston's newspapers went on strike. WNAC, WNAC-TV, and the entire Yankee Network increased the amount of hourly newscasts, added more news bulletins, and sent out members of its Boston staff to post news headlines on billboards around the city. In August 1959, the Yankee Network de-affiliated itself from Mutual Broadcasting System (MBS), allowing 27 Yankee stations to affiliate directly with MBS. But despite its reputation for news, easy-listening music, and shows that homemakers enjoyed, the Yankee Network was no longer as influential as it had once been. After experimenting with various formats (including talk radio, big band, and a brief attempt to play some of the softer top 40 hits), Yankee found itself struggling for a niche. Affiliates had dwindled: a majority of stations now preferred to have their own local staff, rather than relying on a regional network. Further, flagship station WNAC was preparing to switch to a top-40 hit music format (under the call letters WRKO). The Yankee Network's parent company, RKO General, announced the network would be disbanded. It officially ceased operation on February 26, 1967. List of affiliates References External links Radio Historian Donna Halper's history on John Shepard III, revised April 2001. NERadio.org, containing articles on John Shepard & the Yankee Network. Defunct radio networks in the United States Radio stations established in 1925 Radio stations disestablished in 1967
4846267	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20the%20Dnieper	Battle of the Dnieper	The Battle of the Dnieper was a military campaign that took place in 1943 on the Eastern Front of World War II. Being one of the largest operations of the war, it involved almost four million troops at one point and stretched over a front. Over four months, the eastern bank of the Dnieper was recovered from German forces by five of the Red Army's fronts, which conducted several assault river crossings to establish several lodgements on the western bank. Kiev was later liberated in the Battle of Kiev. 2,438 Red Army soldiers were awarded the title Hero of the Soviet Union for their involvement. Strategic situation Following the Battle of Kursk, the Wehrmachts Heer and supporting Luftwaffe forces in the southern Soviet Union were on the defensive in southern Ukraine. By mid-August, Adolf Hitler understood that the forthcoming Soviet offensive could not be contained on the open steppe and ordered construction of a series of fortifications along the line of the Dnieper river. On the Soviet side, Joseph Stalin was determined to launch a major offensive in Ukraine. The main thrust of the offensive was in a southwesterly direction; the northern flank being largely stabilized, the southern flank rested on the Sea of Azov. Planning Soviet planning The operation began on 26 August 1943. Divisions started to move on a 1,400-kilometer front that stretched between Smolensk and the Sea of Azov. Overall, the operation would be executed by 36 Combined Arms, four Tank and five Air Armies. 2,650,000 personnel were brought into the ranks for this massive operation. The operation would use 51,000 guns and mortars, 2,400 tanks and 2,850 planes. The Dnieper is the third largest river in Europe, behind only the Volga and the Danube. In its lower part, its width can easily reach three kilometres, and being dammed in several places made it even larger. Moreover, its western shore—the one still to be retaken—was much higher and steeper than the eastern, complicating the offensive even further. In addition, the opposite shore was transformed into a vast complex of defenses and fortifications held by the Wehrmacht. Faced with such a situation, the Soviet commanders had two options. The first would be to give themselves time to regroup their forces, find a weak point or two to exploit (not necessarily in the lower part of the Dnieper), stage a breakthrough and encircle the German defenders far in the rear, rendering the defence line unsupplied and next to useless (very much like the German Panzers bypassed the Maginot line in 1940). This option was supported by Marshal Zhukov and Deputy Chief of Staff Aleksei Antonov, who considered the substantial losses after the Battle of Kursk. The second option would be to stage a massive assault without waiting, and force the Dnieper on a broad front. This option left no additional time for the German defenders, but would lead to much larger casualties than would a successful deep operation breakthrough. This second option was backed by Stalin due to the concern that the German "scorched earth" policy might devastate this region if the Red Army did not advance fast enough. Stavka (the Soviet high command) chose the second option. Instead of deep penetration and encirclement, the Soviet intended to make full use of partisan activities to intervene and disrupt Germany's supply route so that the Germans could not effectively send reinforcements or take away Soviet industrial facilities in the region. Stavka also paid high attention to the possible scorched earth activities of German forces with a view to preventing them by a rapid advance. The assault was staged on a 300-kilometer front almost simultaneously. All available means of transport were to be used to transport the attackers to the opposite shore, including small fishing boats and improvised rafts of barrels and trees (like the one in the photograph). The preparation of the crossing equipment was further complicated by the German scorched earth strategy with the total destruction of all boats and raft building material in the area. The crucial issue would obviously be heavy equipment. Without it, the bridgeheads would not stand for long. Soviet organisation Central Front (known as the Belorussian Front after 20 October 1943), commanded by Konstantin Rokossovsky and accounted for 579,600 soldiers (took no part in the Dnieper battle after 3 October) 2nd Tank Army, led by Aleksei Rodin / Semyon Bogdanov (since September) 9th Tank Corps, led by Hryhoriy Rudchenko (KIA), Boris Bakharov 60th Army, led by Ivan Chernyakhovsky 13th Army, led by Nikolay Pukhov 65th Army, led by Pavel Batov 61st Army, led by Pavel Belov 48th Army, led by Prokofy Romanenko 70th Army, led by Ivan Galanin / Vladimir Sharapov (September – October) / Aleksei Grechkin (since October) 16th Air Army, led by Sergei Rudenko Voronezh Front (known as the 1st Ukrainian Front after 20 October 1943), commanded by Nikolai Vatutin and accounted for 665,500 soldiers 3rd Guards Tank Army, led by Pavel Rybalko 1st Tank Army, led by Mikhail Katukov 4th Guards Tank Corps, led by Pavel Poluboyarov 1st Guard Cavalry Corps, led by Viktor Baranov 5th Guards Army, led by Aleksei Zhadov 4th Guards Army, led by Grigory Kulik / Aleksei Zygin (KIA) / Ivan Galanin 6th Guards Army, led by Ivan Chistyakov 38th Army, led by Nikandr Chibisov / Kirill Moskalenko (since October) 47th Army, led by Pavel Korzun / Filipp Zhmachenko (September – October) / Vitaliy Polenov (since October) 27th Army, led by Sergei Trofimenko 52nd Army, led by Konstantin Koroteev 2nd Air Army, led by Stepan Krasovsky Steppe Front (known as the 2nd Ukrainian Front after 20 October 1943), commanded by Ivan Konev Southwestern Front (known as the 3rd Ukrainian Front after 20 October 1943), commanded by Rodion Malinovsky Southern Front (known as the 4th Ukrainian Front after 20 October 1943), commanded by Fyodor Tolbukhin German planning The order to construct the Dnieper defence complex, known as "Ostwall" or "Eastern Wall", was issued on 11 August 1943 and began to be immediately executed. Fortifications were erected along the length of the Dnieper. However, there was no hope of completing such an extensive defensive line in the short time available. Therefore, the completion of the "Eastern Wall" was not uniform in its density and depth of fortifications. Instead, they were concentrated in areas where a Soviet assault-crossing were most likely to be attempted, such as near Kremenchuk, Zaporizhia and Nikopol. Additionally, on 7 September 1943, the SS forces and the Wehrmacht received orders to implement a scorched earth policy, by stripping the areas they had to abandon of anything that could be used by the Soviet war effort. German organisation Luftflotte 2 (selected units) – Wolfram Freiherr von Richthofen (in Ukraine) Army Group South – Erich von Manstein 4th Panzer Army – Hermann Hoth 1st Panzer Army – Eberhard von Mackensen 8th Army – Otto Wohler 6th Army – Karl-Adolf Hollidt (transferred to Army Group A control) Luftflotte 4 – Wolfram Freiherr von Richthofen / Otto Deßloch (since September) (in Crimea) Army Group A – Ewald von Kleist Army Group Center – Günther von Kluge 2nd Army – Walter Weiß (took no part in the Dnieper battle after 3 October) Description of the strategic operation Initial attack Despite a great superiority in numbers, the offensive was by no means easy. German opposition was ferocious and the fighting raged for every town and city. The Wehrmacht made extensive use of rear guards, leaving some troops in each city and on each hill, slowing the Soviet offensive. Progress of the offensive Three weeks after the start of the offensive, and despite heavy losses on the Soviet side, it became clear that the Germans could not hope to contain the Soviet offensive in the flat, open terrain of the steppes, where the Red Army's numerical strength would prevail. Manstein asked for as many as 12 new divisions in the hope of containing the Soviet offensive – but German reserves were perilously thin. On 15 September 1943, Hitler ordered Army Group South to retreat to the Dnieper defence line. The battle for Poltava was especially bitter. The city was heavily fortified and its garrison well prepared. After a few inconclusive days that greatly slowed down the Soviet offensive, Marshal Konev decided to bypass the city and rush towards the Dnieper. After two days of violent urban warfare, the Poltava garrison was overcome. Towards the end of September 1943, Soviet forces reached the lower part of the Dnieper. Dnieper airborne operation (The following is, largely, a synopsis of an account by Glantz with support from an account by Staskov.) Stavka detached the Central Front's 3rd Tank Army to the Voronezh Front to race the weakening Germans to the Dnieper, to save the wheat crop from the German scorched earth policy, and to achieve strategic or operational river bridgeheads before a German defence could stabilize there. The 3rd Tank Army, plunging headlong, reached the river on the night of 21–22 September and, on the 23rd, Soviet infantry forces crossed by swimming and by using makeshift rafts to secure small, fragile bridgeheads, opposed only by 120 German Cherkassy flak academy NCO candidates and the hard-pressed 19th Panzer Division Reconnaissance Battalion. Those forces were the only Germans within 60 km of the Dnieper loop. Only a heavy German air attack and a lack of bridging equipment kept Soviet heavy weaponry from crossing and expanding the bridgehead. The Soviets, sensing a critical juncture, ordered a hasty airborne corps assault to increase the size of the bridgehead before the Germans could counterattack. On the 21st, the Voronezh Front's 1st, 3rd and 5th Guards Airborne Brigades got the urgent call to secure, on the 23rd, a bridgehead perimeter 15 to 20 km wide and 30 km deep on the Dnieper loop between Kaniv and Rzhishchev, while Front elements forced the river. The arrival of personnel at the airfields was slow, necessitating, on the 23rd, a one-day delay and omission of 1st Brigade from the plan; consequent mission changes caused near chaos in command channels. Mission change orders finally got down to company commanders, on the 24th, just 15 minutes before their units, not yet provisioned with spades, anti-tank mines, or ponchos for the autumn night frosts, assembled on airfields. Owing to the weather, not all assigned aircraft had arrived at airfields on time (if at all). Further, most flight safety officers disallowed maximum loading of their aircraft. Given fewer aircraft (and lower than expected capacities), the master loading plan, ruined, was abandoned. Many radios and supplies got left behind. In the best case, it would take three lifts to deliver the two brigades. Units (still arriving by the overtaxed rail system), were loaded piecemeal onto returned aircraft, which were slow to refuel owing to the less-than-expected capacities of fuel trucks. Meanwhile, already-arrived troops changed planes, seeking earlier flights. Urgency and the fuel shortage prevented aerial assembly aloft. Most aircraft, as soon as they were loaded and fueled, flew in single file, instead of line abreast, to the dropping points. Assault waves became as intermingled as the units they carried. As corps elements made their flights, troops (half of whom had never jumped, except from training towers) were briefed on drop zones, assembly areas and objectives only poorly understood by platoon commanders still studying new orders. Meanwhile, Soviet aerial photography, suspended for several days by bad weather, had missed the strong reinforcement of the area, early that afternoon. Non-combat cargo pilots ferrying 3rd Brigade through drizzle expected no resistance beyond river pickets but, instead, were met by anti-aircraft fire and flares from the 19th Panzer Division (only coincidentally transiting the drop zone, and just one of six divisions and other formations ordered, on the 21st, to fill the gap in front of the 3rd Tank Army). Lead aircraft, disgorging paratroopers over Dubari at 1930h, came under fire from elements of the 73rd Panzer Grenadier Regiment and division staff of 19th Panzer Division. Some paratroopers began returning fire and throwing grenades even before landing; trailing aircraft accelerated, climbed and evaded, dropping wide. Through the night, some pilots avoided flare-lit drop points entirely, and 13 aircraft returned to airfields without having dropped at all. Intending a 10 by 14 km drop over largely undefended terrain, the Soviets instead achieved a 30 by 90 km drop over the fastest mobile elements of two German corps. On the ground, the Germans used white parachutes as beacons to hunt down and kill disorganized groups and to gather and destroy airdropped supplies. Supply bonfires, glowing embers, and multi-color starshells illuminated the battlefield. Captured documents gave the Germans enough knowledge of Soviet objectives to arrive at most of them before the disorganized paratroopers. Back at the Soviet airfields, the fuel shortage allowed only 298 of 500 planned sorties, leaving corps anti-tank guns and 2,017 paratroops undelivered. Of 4,575 men dropped (seventy percent of the planned number, and just 1,525 from 5th Brigade), some 2,300 eventually assembled into 43 ad hoc groups, with missions abandoned as hopeless, and spent most of their time seeking supplies not yet destroyed by the Germans. Others joined with the nine partisan groups operating in the area. About 230 made it over (or out of) the Dnieper to Front units (or were originally dropped there). Most of the rest were captured that first night or killed the next day (although, on that first night, the 3rd Co, 73rd Panzer Grenadier Regiment, suffered heavy losses while annihilating about 150 paratroopers near Grushevo, some 3 km west of Dubari). The Germans underestimated that 1,500 to 2,000 had dropped; they recorded 901 paratroops captured and killed in the first 24 hours. Thereafter, they largely ignored the Soviet paratroopers, to counterattack and truncate the Dnieper bridgeheads. The Germans deemed their anti-paratrooper operations completed by the 26th, although a modicum of opportunistic actions against garrisons, rail lines, and columns were conducted by remnants up to early November. For a lack of manpower to clear all areas, fighters in the area's forests would remain a minor threat. The Germans called the operation a fundamentally sound idea ruined by the dilettantism of planners lacking expert knowledge (but praised individual paratroopers for their tenacity, bayonet skills, and deft use of broken ground in the sparsely wooded northern region). Stavka deemed this second (and, ultimately, last) corps drop a complete failure; lessons they knew they had already learned from their winter offensive corps drop at Viazma had not stuck. They would never trust themselves to try it again. Soviet 5th Guards Airborne Brigade commander Sidorchuk, withdrawing to the forests south, eventually amassed a brigade-size command, half paratroops, half partisans; he obtained air supply, and assisted the 2nd Ukrainian Front over the Dnieper near Cherkassy to finally link up with Front forces on 15 November. After 13 more days of combat, the airborne element was evacuated, ending a harrowing two months. More than sixty percent never returned. Assaulting the Dnieper The first bridgehead on the Dnieper's western shore was established on 22 September 1943 at the confluence of the Dnieper and Pripyat rivers, in the northern part of the front. On 24 September, another bridgehead was created near Dniprodzerzhynsk, another on 25 September near Dnipropetrovsk and yet another on 28 September near Kremenchuk. By the end of the month, 23 bridgeheads were created on the western side, some of them 10 kilometers wide and 1–2 kilometres deep. The crossing of the Dnieper was extremely difficult. Soldiers used every available floating device to cross the river, under heavy German fire and taking heavy losses. Once across, Soviet troops had to dig themselves into the clay ravines composing the Dnieper's western bank. Securing the lodgements German troops soon launched heavy counterattacks on almost every bridgehead, hoping to annihilate them before heavy equipment could be transported across the river. For instance, the Borodaevsk lodgement, mentioned by Marshal Konev in his memoirs, came under heavy armored attack and air assault. Bombers attacked both the lodgement and the reinforcements crossing the river. Konev complained at once about a lack of organization of Soviet air support, set up air patrols to prevent bombers from approaching the lodgements and ordered forward more artillery to counter tank attacks from the opposite shore. When Soviet aviation became more organized and hundreds of guns and Katyusha rocket launchers began firing, the situation started to improve and the bridgehead was eventually preserved. Such battles were commonplace on every lodgement. Although all the lodgements were held, losses were terrible – at the beginning of October, most divisions were at only 25 to 50% of their nominal strength. Lower Dnieper offensive By mid-October, the forces accumulated on the lower Dnieper bridgeheads were strong enough to stage a first massive attack to definitely secure the river's western shore in the southern part of the front. Therefore, a vigorous attack was staged on the Kremenchuk-Dnipropetrovsk line. Simultaneously, a major diversion was conducted in the south to draw German forces away both from the Lower Dnieper and from Kiev. At the end of the offensive, Soviet forces controlled a bridgehead 300 kilometers wide and up to 80 kilometers deep in some places. In the south, the Crimea was now cut off from the rest of the German forces. Any hope of stopping the Red Army on the Dnieper's east bank was lost. Outcomes The Battle of the Dnieper was another defeat for the Wehrmacht that required it to restabilize the front further west. The Red Army, which Hitler hoped to contain at the Dnieper, forced the Wehrmachts defences. Kiev was recaptured and German troops lacked the forces to annihilate Soviet troops on the Lower Dnieper bridgeheads. The west bank was still in German hands for the most part, but both sides knew that it would not last for long. Additionally, the Battle of the Dnieper demonstrated the strength of the Soviet partisan movement. The "rail war" operation staged during September and October 1943 struck German logistics very hard, creating heavy supply issues. Incidentally, between 28 November and 1 December 1943 the Tehran conference was held between Winston Churchill, Franklin D. Roosevelt, and Stalin. The Battle of the Dnieper, along with other major offensives staged in 1943, certainly gave Stalin a dominant position for negotiating with his Allies. The Soviet success during this battle created the conditions for the follow-up Dnieper-Carpathian Offensive on the right-bank Ukraine, which was launched on 24 December 1943 from a bridgehead west of Kiev that was secured during this battle. The offensive brought the Red Army from the Dnieper all the way to Galicia (Poland), Carpathian Mountains and Romania, with Army Group South being split into two parts- north and south of Carpathians. Soviet operational phases From a Soviet operational point of view, the battle was broken down into a number of different phases and offensives. The first phase of the battle : Chernigov-Poltava Strategic Offensive 26 August 1943 – 30 September 1943 (Central, Voronezh and Steppe fronts) Chernigov-Pripyat Offensive 26 August – 30 September 1943 Sumy–Priluky Offensive 26 August – 30 September 1943 Poltava-Kremenchug Offensive 26 August – 30 September 1943 Donbass Strategic Offensive 13 August – 22 September 1943 (Southwestern and Southern fronts) Dnieper airborne assault 24 September – 24 November 1943 The second phase of the operation includes : Lower Dnieper Offensive 26 September – 20 December 1943 Melitopol Offensive 26 September – 5 November 1943 Zaporizhia Offensive 10–14 October 1943 Kremenchug-Pyatikhatki Offensive 15 October – 3 November 1943 Dnepropetrovsk Offensive 23 October – 23 December 1943 Krivoi Rog Offensive 14–21 November 1943 Apostolovo Offensive 14 November – 23 December 1943 Nikopol Offensive 14 November – 31 December 1943 Aleksandriia-Znamenka Offensive 22 November – 9 December 1943 Krivoi Rog Offensive 10–19 December 1943 Kiev Strategic Offensive Operation (October) (1–24 October 1943) Chernobyl-Radomysl Offensive Operation (1–4 October 1943) Chernobyl-Gornostaipol Defensive Operation (3–8 October 1943) Lyutezh Offensive Operation (11–24 October 1943) Bukrin Offensive Operation (12–15 October 1943) Bukrin Offensive Operation (21–24 October 1943) Kiev Strategic Offensive 3–13 November 1943 Rauss' November 1943 counterattack Kiev Strategic Defensive 13 November – 22 December 1943 References Citations Bibliography David M. Glantz, Jonathan M. House, When Titans Clashed: How the Red Army stopped Hitler, University Press of Kansas, 1995 Nikolai Shefov, Russian fights, Lib. Military History, Moscow, 2002 History of Great Patriotic War, 1941–1945. Moscow, 1963 John Erickson, Barbarossa: The Axis and the Allies, Edinburgh University Press, 1994 Harrison, Richard. (2018) The Battle of the Dnepr: The Red Army's Forcing of the East Wall, September–December 1943. Helion and Company. Marshal Konev, Notes of a front commander, Science, Moscow, 1972. Erich von Manstein, Lost Victories, Moscow, 1957. Dnieper 1943 in Ukraine Dnieper Dnieper Dnieper 1943 in the Soviet Union Dnieper Dnieper Dnieper Dnieper
4846576	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20Psycho%20%28film%29	American Psycho (film)	American Psycho is a 2000 satirical psychological horror film directed by Mary Harron, who co-wrote the screenplay with Guinevere Turner. Based on the 1991 novel by Bret Easton Ellis, it stars Christian Bale as Patrick Bateman, a New York City investment banker who leads a double life as a serial killer. Willem Dafoe, Jared Leto, Josh Lucas, Chloë Sevigny, Samantha Mathis, Cara Seymour, Justin Theroux, and Reese Witherspoon appear in supporting roles. The film blends horror and black comedy to satirize 1980s yuppie culture and consumerism, exemplified by Bateman and supporting cast. Ellis considered his controversial novel unfilmable due to its graphic nature, but producer Edward R. Pressman was determined to adapt it and bought the film rights in 1992. Stuart Gordon, David Cronenberg, and Rob Weiss considered directing the film before Harron and Turner began writing the screenplay in 1996. They sought to make a period film grounded in the 1980s, sharing the setting with the novel. The pre-production period was tumultuous; Harron cast Bale to play Bateman, but because distributor Lionsgate Films secured a contract with Leonardo DiCaprio in the role, Harron was dismissed and replaced with Oliver Stone. Stone made a number of important decisions that remained with the final film, most notably casting Chloë Sevigny. His partnership with DiCaprio was dissolved following creative differences, leading Lionsgate to rehire Harron under the condition she could cast Bale as the lead. Principal photography began in February 1999 in Toronto and New York City. American Psycho premiered at the Sundance Film Festival on January 21, 2000, and was theatrically released in the United States on April 14. The film received positive reviews, with praise for Bale's performance and the screenplay. Grossing over $34 million on a $7 million budget, the film was considered a box-office success. Following the DVD release in 2005, American Psycho quickly developed a large cult following. The film experienced a revival of popular interest in the 2020s due to its strong presence in contemporary meme culture, typically centered around Bateman's perceived "sigma" personality. A direct-to-video sequel, American Psycho 2, was released in 2002, although it was criticized by Ellis who maintains it is not a part of the American Psycho narrative. Plot In 1987, Patrick Bateman, a young and wealthy New York City investment banker, spends most of his time dining at popular restaurants while keeping up appearances for his fiancée Evelyn Williams as well as his circle of wealthy associates, most of whom he hates. At a business meeting, Bateman and his associates flaunt their business cards, obsessing over their designs. Enraged by the superiority of his colleague Paul Allen's card, Bateman finds a homeless man and his dog in an alley at night and kills them. Bateman and Allen, who mistakes Bateman for another co-worker, make plans for dinner after a Christmas party. Bateman resents Allen for his affluent lifestyle and ability to obtain reservations at Dorsia, a highly exclusive restaurant which Bateman cannot get into. He gets Allen drunk, lures him to his apartment and kills him with an axe while listening to Huey Lewis and the News and lecturing Allen on the merits of the band. Bateman disposes of the body and goes into Allen's apartment to leave a message on his answering machine claiming that Allen has gone to London. Private investigator Donald Kimball interviews Bateman regarding Allen's disappearance, mentioning that Allen may have been seen in London. Bateman invites two sex workers, Christie and Sabrina, over to his apartment, where they have sex. He then tortures them, pays them, and sends them on their way. Bateman's colleague Luis Carruthers reveals a new business card, so Bateman tries to strangle him in the restroom of an expensive restaurant. Carruthers mistakes the attempt for a sexual advance and declares his desire for Bateman, who panics and flees. A now suspicious Kimball conducts a second interview with Bateman, who then murders a model and puts her severed head in his freezer. The next day he invites his secretary Jean to dinner, suggesting that she meet him at his apartment for drinks. Bateman is about to kill her with a nail gun when he receives a message from Evelyn on his answering machine and desists. Bateman has lunch with Kimball, who reveals that a colleague of Bateman claims to have had dinner with him on the day of Allen's disappearance, cementing his alibi. Kimball remarks that the idea of one of Allen's friends murdering him for no reason is simply not believable, to which Bateman nervously smiles. Bateman brings Christie to Allen's apartment, where he drugs his acquaintance Elizabeth before having sex with her and Christie. When Bateman kills Elizabeth, Christie runs, discovering several female corpses as she searches for an exit. A naked Bateman chases her and drops a running chainsaw on her as she flees down a stairwell. Soon after, Bateman breaks off his engagement with Evelyn. As Bateman uses an ATM, he sees a cat. The ATM displays the text "", so he prepares to shoot the cat. When a woman confronts him, he instead shoots her. A police chase ensues, but Bateman shoots one of the officers and blows up a patrol car, killing the other policemen. Bateman next kills a security guard and a janitor before hiding in his office. He calls his lawyer Harold Carnes and frantically leaves a confession on his answering machine, claiming to have killed 20–40 people and eaten some of them. The following morning, Bateman visits Allen's apartment to clean it, but he finds it vacant and for sale. A realtor cryptically tells him that the apartment does not belong to Allen before asking him to leave and not come back. In a state of hysteria, Bateman calls Jean, then goes to meet with his colleagues for lunch. Meanwhile, a horrified Jean finds detailed, graphic drawings of murder and mutilation in Bateman's office journal. Bateman sees Carnes and mentions the phone message. Carnes mistakes Bateman for another man and laughs off the confession as a joke. Bateman clarifies who he is and again confesses the murders, but Carnes says his claims are impossible since he recently had dinner with Allen in London. An exhausted and uncertain Bateman returns to his friends; they discuss dinner reservations and muse about whether Ronald Reagan is a harmless old man or a hidden psychopath. Bateman, unsure if his crimes were real or imaginary, realizes he will never receive the punishment he desires. His narration declares that he is in constant pain, that he wishes his pain inflicted on others, and that his confession has meant nothing. Cast Christian Bale as Patrick Bateman, a New York City investment banker who leads a double life as a serial killer Justin Theroux as Timothy Bryce, a colleague of Bateman Josh Lucas as Craig McDermott, a colleague of Bateman Bill Sage as David Van Patten, a colleague of Bateman Chloë Sevigny as Jean, Bateman's secretary Reese Witherspoon as Evelyn Williams, Bateman's fiancée whom he despises Samantha Mathis as Courtney Rawlinson, Luis Carruthers' fiancée who is having an affair with Bateman Matt Ross as Luis Carruthers, a colleague of Bateman and closeted homosexual Jared Leto as Paul Allen, a fellow investment banker whom Bateman kills Willem Dafoe as Donald Kimball, a private investigator who investigates the murder of Paul Allen Cara Seymour as Christie, a sex worker Guinevere Turner as Elizabeth, a woman whom Bateman kills Other cast members include Stephen Bogaert as Harold Carnes, Bateman's lawyer; Reg E. Cathey as Al, a homeless man; Krista Sutton as Sabrina, a sex worker; Catherine Black as Vanden, Williams' cousin; Patricia Gage as Mrs. Wolfe, a real estate agent; and Anthony Lemke as Marcus Halberstram, Bateman's colleague. Former U.S. president Ronald Reagan appears in archive footage of his 1987 address concerning the Iran–Contra affair. Production Early development The film is an adaptation of the satirical novel American Psycho by Bret Easton Ellis, which was published in 1991 amid significant controversy over its graphic depiction of violence against women. Ellis had been disappointed by the 1987 adaptation of his first novel, Less than Zero (1985), and did not expect that anyone would be interested in adapting American Psycho, which he considered possibly unfilmable. Nonetheless, development of a film adaptation began in 1992, after Johnny Depp expressed interest and producer Edward R. Pressman bought the film rights. Pressman, to Ellis' surprise, was "obsessed" with turning American Psycho into a film. Ellis discussed the project with filmmaker Stuart Gordon but felt that he was unsuitable. David Cronenberg and Brad Pitt respectively became attached to direct and star, and Ellis was brought on to write the screenplay. The process was difficult for Ellis; Cronenberg did not want to use any of the restaurant or nightclub material from the novel (which he considered boring), wanted to excise the violence, and mandated that the script be 65–70 pages. Ellis considered Cronenberg's directions "insane" and ignored them. Ellis' draft departed significantly from the novel, as he had "been living with it for, like, three and a half years, four years" and had grown bored with it. It ended with an elaborate musical sequence to Barry Manilow's "Daybreak" atop the World Trade Center, a change which Ellis felt exemplified how bored he was with the material. The development was prolonged due to what Variety called American Psycho "literary complexity", which made adapting it to film difficult. Cronenberg was dissatisfied with Ellis' draft and by March 1994 had sought a new draft from Norman Snider; Ellis later recalled that Cronenberg left the project after he disliked Snider's draft even more. Ellis wrote another draft for Rob Weiss in 1995, but the film again failed to materialize. Pressman did not want to make a film that would offend people and described Ellis' draft as "completely pornographic". Pressman appeared at the 1996 Cannes Film Festival to pre-sell the distribution rights to no avail. Development under Mary Harron After her film I Shot Andy Warhol premiered at the 49th Cannes Film Festival to positive reviews in January 1996, Mary Harron received a call from Roberta Hanley—who operated the production company which held the American Psycho film rights—with an offer to direct the film. Harron had attempted to read the novel when it was originally published, but found it too violent. However, rereading it, she realized that "just enough time ha[d] passed" to produce a period film set in the 1980s, "bring out the satire", and comment on the era, which interested her. Harron was ambivalent towards the other "very mainstream and boring" offers she was receiving following I Shot Andy Warhol and decided to make American Psycho due to its "risky" nature. Harron read the existing drafts; while she somewhat enjoyed Ellis', she felt that most were too moralistic, missing the novel's preciseness in depicting social privilege. Harron told Pressman that she would join the project only if she could write her own screenplay. Pressman commented that out of all the directors who attached themselves to American Psycho, Harron was "the only person who actually ever conveyed a clear solution as to how to do it". Harron recruited Guinevere Turner, who she had been working with on what would become The Notorious Bettie Page (2005), to co-write. Turner was not a horror fan and had never heard of American Psycho, but Harron convinced her that it would be a good project to pursue. Though she found the novel unsavory, Turner appreciated its blend of humor and horror and concluded that "with the right spin it could be a really subversive, feminist movie". Harron and Turner excised most of the novel's violence outside four sequences of Bateman's murders. Their approach to the material and Bateman's character was influenced by Mario Bava's giallo film Hatchet for the Honeymoon (1970), with Bava historian Tim Lucas noting that both films feature protagonists motivated by a desire for self-discovery in their killings. Harron recalled facing scrutiny for depicting Bateman as homophobic—a criticism she found odd, since no objections were raised over his murders. She also received requests to delve into Bateman's psychology, but said that "having a very clear psychological explanation [wasn't] of great interest to me" since she found the concept generic, shallow, and unrealistic. Harron rejected suggestions to explore Bateman's family and background; she felt it was unnecessary and that Bateman was simply "a monster". Harron met with several actors for the role of Patrick Bateman, but struggled to find a suitable candidate. She noted that "if someone isn't 100 percent on a role like [Bateman], you can't cast them and they shouldn't do it". Billy Crudup was attached to the role for a month and a half, but was uneasy and left the project. Turner appreciated Crudup's honesty in admitting he could not understand the character. Harron sent the script to Christian Bale, but he had never read American Psycho and thus had no interest. Harron contacted Christine Vachon, who was working with Bale on Velvet Goldmine (1998) at the time, and Vachon told him to read the script. Bale found the script humorous and immediately became interested, and flew to New York to audition in Harron's living room. Bale struggled to speak in an American accent since he had been speaking in a Manchester accent for Velvet Goldmine, but Harron thought it was clear he understood the role. Like Harron, Bale was uninterested in Bateman's backstory; he saw the character as "an alien who landed in the unabashedly capitalist New York of the '80s". Harron felt he was the only one who fit the role, later saying he "saw the part the way that I did, and he got the humor of it". When auditioning others she "had the feeling a lot of the other actors kind of thought Bateman was cool". Bale, she said though, did not. Harron thought casting the relatively unknown Bale was risky, but "had a lot of faith in him", as Velvet Goldmine director Todd Haynes told her that Bale was "the best actor I've ever worked with". Harron and Bale, in-character as Bateman, met with Ellis for dinner, an experience Ellis said was "unnerving" since it was the first time he had met "someone pretending to be this monster that I created". Pre-production and casting Lionsgate Films acquired the American Psycho distribution rights in May 1998 and set a budget of $10 million. Harron and Bale were planning to begin filming the following August and though no actors were signed on yet, Willem Dafoe and Jared Leto had expressed interest in joining. Harron suggested that the slim Bale go to a gym since Bateman frequently exercises; she said that within two weeks, Bale had "totally transformed". Turner said Bale "became completely ripped, super tan, got his teeth turned into perfect American teeth. I think he said he was modeling himself after his lawyer, or his agent, or Tom Cruise — an amalgam of those". Bale received numerous warnings that starring in American Psycho was "career suicide", but this only made him more committed. Bale was relatively unknown at the time; he had been only 13 at the time of his then-most famous role, in Steven Spielberg's Empire of the Sun (1987). Lionsgate did not want to cast him and pushed for a more famous star like Edward Norton or Leonardo DiCaprio, who Lionsgate was willing to pay $20 million (although the budget for the film itself would remain only $6 million). DiCaprio was considered the biggest star in the world at the time (having just starred in Titanic (1997), then the highest-grossing film ever) and was interested in playing Bateman, but Harron opposed casting him, comparing the prospect to Demi Moore's casting in the critically panned 1995 Scarlet Letter film. She argued he was too boyish to play Bateman and that his presence would harm the film given his young female fanbase. Harron refused to even consider meeting with him, despite Pressman's pleas. Ellis did not mind the idea of DiCaprio as Bateman, though he knew this annoyed Bale and Harron. At the 51st Cannes Film Festival in May 1998, Lionsgate suddenly announced that DiCaprio had been cast as Bateman. Though Pressman wanted Harron to stay, Harron was fired after making it clear that she would not direct American Psycho without Bale. Furthermore, DiCaprio wanted to work with a major director and had drafted a shortlist that included Danny Boyle, Stanley Kubrick, and Martin Scorsese. Oliver Stone was hired to direct and, after a reading with DiCaprio, Leto, and Cameron Diaz, began reworking the script. Stone and DiCaprio wanted to take the film in a more psychological direction in contrast to Harron's satire and turn it into a Jekyll and Hyde-like story. Their endeavor was beset by creative differences; Pressman said, "[DiCaprio] was looking for solutions to things that weren't problems. . . .As time went on more and more questions came into Leo's mind — which might have been about the script or other factors". Bale was so confident DiCaprio would depart that he turned down other roles for nine months and continued preparing. DiCaprio departed in favor of Danny Boyle's The Beach (2000), which led to Stone's withdrawal. Turner later said she heard from a friend that DiCaprio chose to leave after Gloria Steinem, a strong critic of the novel, convinced him to abandon the project due to his young fanbase. Lionsgate rehired Harron, but was still against casting Bale as Bateman. Lionsgate offered the role to Ewan McGregor, who turned it down after Bale personally urged him to do so. Harron spoke with Ben Affleck, Matt Damon, Edward Norton, and Vince Vaughn, but after they all declined, Lionsgate begrudgingly agreed to hire Bale with a small $50,000 salary. Lionsgate also mandated that the budget not exceed $10 million and that recognizable actors would fill the supporting roles. By that point, Dafoe, Leto, Reese Witherspoon, and Chloë Sevigny were already committed; Harron and Bale unsuccessfully tried to convince Winona Ryder to play Evelyn Williams. Filming Principal photography commenced on February 28, 1999, and lasted seven weeks, with a budget of $7 million. Andrzej Sekuła served as cinematographer; he and Harron frequently argued, with Ross recalling that "[Sekuła] was setting up shots that in [Harron]'s mind may have been cool shots, pretty shots, but didn't tell the story she wanted to". As American companies did not want to be associated with American Psycho, the production team had to turn to European companies for clothes and cosmetics, though these still imposed restrictions. Rolex made Harron change the novel's line "don't touch the Rolex" to "don't touch the watch", while Cerruti 1881 disallowed Bale from wearing its clothes during the murder scenes. Though some outdoor shots were captured in New York City (where the film is set), the majority of filming took place in downtown Toronto, with a variety of scenes shot in bars and restaurants around the city. Anti-violence advocates petitioned Toronto City Hall to deny the production permission to film in Toronto and organized protests because of reports that Paul Bernardo—who committed serial murders and rapes in Toronto—owned a copy of the novel. As a result, the production faced difficulty securing shooting locations; the scenes in Bateman's office had to be filmed on a sound stage because the owners of the building that Harron intended to film in feared negative publicity. Harron had been unaware of the novel's connection to the Bernardo case and sympathized with the protesters, but reasoned that she did not "want to put horrible mayhem on the screen... there's something to do here that hasn't really been done, a portrait of the late 80's that's worth putting on the screen". To avoid protests, the production removed the title from daily call sheets and parking permits. Bale brought his copy of the novel to the set every day. Harron remained faithful to the novel's dialogue, so he "would kind of be skimming through it and looking at it and finding little bits and conferring in the corner with [her]". Bale drew inspiration from Nicolas Cage's performance in Vampire's Kiss (1989) and Tom Cruise in an interview on Late Night with David Letterman. He kept images of 1980s figures who he felt Bateman would attempt to emulate, such as Cruise and Donald Trump, in his trailer. A method actor, Bale never broke character during the shoot—he did not socialize off-camera, always spoke with an American accent, and worked out at a gym for hours to maintain Bateman's physique. His behavior confused other actors, with Sevigny saying that she had never seen an actor commit to a role to such a degree. Josh Lucas later told Bale that the other actors "thought that [he] was the worst actor they'd ever seen" and did not understand why Harron fought for him. Harron nicknamed Bale "Robo-Actor" for his ability to control his sweat glands, which she and his co-stars noticed during the business card scene. Harron and Bale excluded Leto from rehearsals of the murder of Paul Allen so Leto's expression of shock when Bale ran at him with an axe would be genuine. The shots of Bateman swinging his axe at Allen had to be done quickly since the scene's use of theatrical blood limited the number of takes. Bale swung at a Plexiglass-coated camera as the crew squirted fake blood at his face. The blood covered only half of Bale's face by accident, but Harron found this "a perfect metaphor for the Jekyll-and-Hyde aspect of Bateman: pristine on the outside, bloody and psychotic on the inside". Bale improvised Bateman's moonwalk, a change from the novel that Ellis initially disliked, but grew to appreciate over time. For the subsequent interview scenes featuring Donald Kimball, Harron shot three takes and requested that Dafoe act differently in each of them. Dafoe acted as if Kimball knew Bateman was Allen's killer in the first, only suspected him in the second, and did not suspect anything in the third. The three takes were then blended in post-production to confuse audiences. Harron and Turner kept most violence off-screen, but Harron wanted "one classic horror movie scary scene" with "a big explosion of violence" that embraced the novel's brutality. They conceived a threesome with Bateman and two women that ends with him murdering them. Bale had no problem appearing nude, though he wore sneakers and covered his penis with a sock. One of the women was portrayed by Turner, who found it "very daunting" being directed by Harron, despite having been her co-writer for years. The shot in which Bateman murders Turner's character while having sex with her took several takes, as it was difficult to get the theatrical blood to ooze through the sheets as they intended. Bateman's phone confession took around 15 takes because Harron felt Bale's acting got better as he became more flushed. In contrast, a shot in which Bateman peels off a facial mask took only one take. Music American Psycho soundtrack features licensed 1980s pop music from a variety of artists, including David Bowie, Phil Collins, the Cure, the Mediæval Bæbes, New Order, and Eric B. & Rakim. Due to the film's controversial nature, obtaining the rights proved difficult. Though the production was able to obtain the rights to all necessary songs, Whitney Houston refused to allow the use of her performance of "The Greatest Love of All", so an orchestral arrangement had to be used instead. The Huey Lewis and the News song "Hip to Be Square" appears in the film and was intended to be on the soundtrack album, but was removed, forcing Koch Records to recall approximately 100,000 copies. Koch Records president Bob Frank said that the removal was due to Huey Lewis objecting to the film's violence, but in 2013, Lewis said Frank's story was "completely made up". Lewis's manager Bob Brown said that "Hip to Be Square" was included on the album without their permission, which he speculated was a publicity stunt. The original score was composed by Welsh musician and Velvet Underground co-founder John Cale, who also scored I Shot Andy Warhol, alongside M.J. Mynarski. Cale joined because, like I Shot Andy Warhol, he found Harron's script intelligent. He composed in his studio using a sampler and sent the music file to someone who turned it into a composition and hired musicians to record it. Harron described Cale's work as "a soulful, even melancholy sound to complement the soundtrack's poppy brightness". Cale was uninvolved with the selection of licensed music and sound mixing, though for one scene that Harron wanted to be unsettling, he suggested using animal noises, like the tapes of rabbits screaming that the Federal Bureau of Investigation used against the Branch Davidians during the Waco siege. The soundtrack album was released on April 4, 2000. Release As promotion, one could register to receive e-mails "from" Patrick Bateman, supposedly to his therapist. The e-mails, written by a writer attached to the film and approved by the book's author Bret Easton Ellis, follow Bateman's life since the events of the film. He discusses such developments as his marriage to (and impending divorce settlement with) his former secretary, Jean, his complete adoration of his son, Patrick Jr., and his efforts to triumph over his business rivals. The e-mails also describe or mention interactions with other characters from the novel, including Timothy Price (Bryce in the film version), Evelyn, Luis, Courtney, David, Detective Kimball, and Marcus. However, the film's star, Christian Bale, was not happy with this kind of marketing: "My main objection is that some people think it will be me returning those e-mails. I don't like that ... I think the movie stands on its own merits and should attract an audience that can appreciate intelligent satire. It's not a slasher flick, but it's also not American Pie. The marketing should reflect that". Lionsgate spent $51,000 on an online stock market game, Make a Killing with American Psycho, which invited players to invest in films, actors, or musicians using fake Hollywood money. This marketing ploy did little to help the film's box office but the studio's co-president Tom Ortenberg still claimed that it was a success: "The aim was to gain exposure and awareness for the picture, and we did that. Lionsgate will make a tidy profit on the picture". American Psycho premiered at the 2000 Sundance Film Festival. The Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA) initially gave the film an NC-17 rating for a scene featuring Bateman having a threesome with two prostitutes. The producers excised approximately 18 seconds of footage to obtain an R-rated version of the film. Home media A special-edition DVD was released on July 21, 2005. In the U.S., two versions of the film have been released: an R-rated and unrated version. For the edited version and R-rated cinematic release in the U.S., the producers excised about 18 seconds of footage from a scene featuring Bateman having a threesome with two prostitutes. Some dialogue was also edited: Bateman orders a prostitute, Christie, to bend over so that another, Sabrina, can "see your asshole", which was edited to "see your ass". The unedited version also shows Bateman receiving oral sex from Christie. The uncut version was released on Blu-ray on February 6, 2007. A 4K Blu-ray was released with the Uncut Version on September 25, 2018 in US and October 15 in United Kingdom. Sony Pictures Home Entertainment also released the film on Blu-ray around Australia, Spain, Poland, Russia, South Africa, Bulgaria, China, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Portugal, Thailand, and Taiwan in December 2008. Reception American Psycho debuted at the Sundance Film Festival, where it polarized audiences and critics; some praised the film for its writing and performance from Christian Bale, others with criticism for its violent nature. Upon its theatrical release, the film received positive reviews in crucial publications, including The New York Times which called it a "mean and lean horror comedy classic". On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 68% based on 152 reviews, with an average rating of 6.3/10. The website's critical consensus reads: "If it falls short of the deadly satire of Bret Easton Ellis's novel, American Psycho still finds its own blend of horror and humor, thanks in part to a fittingly creepy performance by Christian Bale". Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned the film a score of 64 out of 100, based on 35 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "D" on an A+ to F scale. Roger Ebert gave the film three out of four stars and regarded Christian Bale as being "heroic in the way he allows the character to leap joyfully into despicability; there is no instinct for self-preservation here, and that is one mark of a good actor". In his review for the Los Angeles Times, Kenneth Turan wrote: "The difficult truth is that the more viewers can model themselves after protagonist Bateman, the more they can distance themselves from the human reality of the slick violence that fills the screen and take it all as some kind of a cool joke, the more they are likely to enjoy this stillborn, pointless piece of work". Newsweek magazine's David Ansen wrote: "But after an hour of dissecting the '80s culture of materialism, narcissism and greed, the movie begins to repeat itself. It becomes more grisly and surreal, but not more interesting". In his review for The Village Voice, J. Hoberman wrote: "If anything, Bale is too knowing. He eagerly works within the constraints of the quotation marks Harron puts around his performance". Rolling Stones Peter Travers wrote: "Whenever Harron digs beneath the glitzy surface in search of feelings that haven't been desensitized, the horrific and hilarious American Psycho can still strike a raw nerve". In a somewhat positive review for Slate magazine, David Edelstein noted the toned-down brutality and sexual content in comparison to the novel and wrote that the moment where Bateman spares his secretary is when "this one-dimensional film blossoms like a flower". Owen Gleiberman gave the film an "A−" rating, writing for Entertainment Weekly: "By treating the book as raw material for an exuberantly perverse exercise in '80s Nostalgia, Harron recasts the go-go years as a template for the casually brainwashing-consumer/fashion/image culture that emerged from them. She has made a movie that is really a parable of today". Time magazine's Richard Corliss wrote that "Harron and co-screenwriter Guinevere Turner do understand the book, and they want their film to be understood as a period comedy of manners". A.O. Scott (also from The New York Times) praised the film as well. Bloody Disgusting ranked the film at No. 19 in its list of the "Top 20 Horror Films of the Decade", with the article praising "Christian Bale's disturbing/darkly hilarious turn as serial killer/Manhattan businessman Patrick Bateman, a role that in hindsight couldn't have been played by any other actor. ... At its best, the film reflects our own narcissism, and the shallow American culture it was spawned from, with piercing effectiveness. Much of the credit for this can go to director Mary Harron, whose off-kilter tendencies are a good complement to Ellis's unique style". Original author Ellis said, "American Psycho was a book I didn't think needed to be turned into a movie", as "the medium of film demands answers", which would make the book "infinitely less interesting". He also said that while the book attempted to add ambiguity to the events and to Bateman's reliability as a narrator, the film appeared to make them completely literal before confusing the issue at the very end. On a 2014 appearance on the WTF with Marc Maron podcast, Ellis indicated that his feelings towards the film were more mixed than negative; he reiterated his opinion that his conception of Bateman as an unreliable narrator did not make an entirely successful transition from page to screen, adding that Bateman's narration was so unreliable that even he, as the author of the book, didn't know if Bateman was honestly describing events that actually happened or if he was lying or even hallucinating. Ellis appreciated that the film clarified the humor for audiences who mistook the novel's violence for blatant misogyny as opposed to the deliberately exaggerated satire he'd intended, and liked that it gave his novel "a second life" in introducing it to new readers. Ultimately, Ellis said "the movie was okay, the movie was fine. I just didn't think it needed to be made". Since the mid-2000s, the film has attracted a sizeable cult following, which has grown in the 2010s due to various social media platforms. Legacy Sequel A direct-to-video sequel, American Psycho 2, directed by Morgan J. Freeman and starring Mila Kunis, was released in 2002. The sequel's only connection with the original is the death of Patrick Bateman (played by Michael Kremko wearing a face mask), briefly shown in a flashback. The film was denounced by American Psycho author Bret Easton Ellis. In 2005, Kunis expressed embarrassment over the film, and spoke out against the idea of a sequel. In popular culture Finnish melodic death metal band Children of Bodom used the film's ending monologue "My pain is constant and sharp and I do not hope for a better world for anyone" as a segue between two songs on their 2003 album Hate Crew Deathroll. The film's influence can be seen in Kanye West's music video "Love Lockdown" and Maroon 5's music video "Animals". In 2013, FX and Lionsgate were developing an American Psycho television series that would have served as a sequel to the film. It was to be set in the present, with Patrick Bateman in his 50s, grooming an apprentice (Andrew Low) to be just like him. As of 2022 it is presumed to have been cancelled or in development hell. The character Bateman mistakenly attributes a quote by Edmund Kemper to Ed Gein, which has led to it being mistaken as such by others; Bateman says: "You know what Ed Gein said about women? ... He said 'When I see a pretty girl walking down the street, I think two things. One part of me wants to take her out, talk to her, be real nice and sweet and treat her right ... [the other part wonders] what her head would look like on a stick'". Funny or Die recreated the "Hip to be Square" scene with Huey Lewis in the Bateman role and "Weird Al" Yankovic in the Allen role. In the scene, Lewis discusses the artistic merits of the film American Psycho and shows the actual scene. It ends with Lewis killing Yankovic saying "Try parodying one of my songs now, you stupid bastard!" The video then plays "I Want a New Duck", Yankovic's parody of the Huey Lewis and the News song "I Want a New Drug". American metalcore band Ice Nine Kills wrote a song based on the film for their 2021 album The Silver Scream 2: Welcome to Horrorwood called "Hip to Be Scared" and features Papa Roach vocalist Jacoby Shaddix. The film is frequently a topic of memes and has been said by some to be relevant due to its themes and satirical nature; on the other hand however, the character of Patrick Bateman has seen unironic adoration among men attracted to the idea of the "sigma male" and the capitalist ideals of "hustle culture" espouses symbolized by Bateman. Notes References Citations Works cited External links Am.Psycho2000 e-mails Bret Easton Ellis talks film adaptations at SCAD 2000 horror films 2000s crime comedy-drama films 2000s American films American business films American crime comedy-drama films American horror thriller films American Psycho American satirical films American serial killer films 2000 black comedy films 2000s serial killer films BDSM in films 2000s English-language films English-language Canadian films Fiction with unreliable narrators Films about businesspeople Films about cannibalism Films about consumerism Films about narcissism Films about rape in the United States Films about the upper class Films about violence against women Films based on American horror novels Films based on works by Bret Easton Ellis Films directed by Mary Harron Films scored by John Cale Films set in apartment buildings Films set in New York City Films set in 1987 Films shot in New York City Films shot in Toronto Lionsgate films Wall Street films Columbia Pictures films 2000 drama films 2000 films Postmodern films Films set in the 1980s American psychological horror films Canadian crime comedy-drama films Canadian horror thriller films Canadian satirical films Canadian serial killer films Canadian psychological horror films Necrophilia in film Film and television memes 2000 independent films American independent films Film controversies in Canada Film controversies in the United States Obscenity controversies in film 2000s Canadian films Crimes against sex workers in fiction
4846714	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hirooki%20Goto	Hirooki Goto	is a Japanese professional wrestler. Since his debut, he has wrestled primarily for New Japan Pro-Wrestling, where is currently one-half of the IWGP Tag Team Champions, alongside Yoshi-Hashi, in Goto's fourth reign and the duo's third reign. He is known for being the longest reigning NEVER Openweight 6-Man Tag Team Champion with his Chaos stablemates, Tomohiro Ishii and Yoshi-Hashi, a two-time IWGP Intercontinental Champion, four-time IWGP Tag Team Champion, one-time IWGP Junior Heavyweight Tag Team Champion, five-time NEVER Openweight Champion, one-time winner of the G1 Climax (2008), four-time winner of the World Tag League (2012, 2014, and 2021, 2022), and a record three-time winner of the New Japan Cup (2009, 2010, and 2012). Early life Goto attended Kuwana Kogyo High School in Kuwana, Mie, where he was classmates with Katsuyori Shibata. Goto later attended Kokushikan University, where he took part in freestyle wrestling and Greco-Roman wrestling. Professional wrestling career New Japan Pro-Wrestling Junior heavyweight (2003–2005) Goto's first approach to pro wrestling was Fire pro Wrestling videogame. Then, he started watching JPW, NJPW, AJPW, and Michinoku Pro. Upon graduating, Goto qualified to join New Japan Pro-Wrestling (NJPW), but left the promotion after incurring a shoulder injury. He returned to NJPW in November 2002 after healing and began training in the NJPW dojo. He debuted on July 6, 2003, in Gifu, Gifu, wrestling Ryusuke Taguchi. The two men competed in the junior heavyweight division, and teamed together the same year to try to take the vacant IWGP Junior Heavyweight Tag Team Championship in a tournament, but were defeated in the final by veterans Gedo and Jado. In early 2005, he won the NJPW Young Lion Cup, defeating Hiroyuki Itō in the tournament final. After turning heel and joining Jyushin Thunder Liger's "Control Terrorism Unit" ("C.T.U.") stable, Goto adopted the ring name "C.T.U Ranger Red". He won his first championship on May 15, 2005, teaming with Minoru to defeat Koji Kanemoto and Wataru Inoue in the Tokyo Dome for the IWGP Junior Heavyweight Tag Team Championship. The duo held the titles for nine months, losing to El Samurai and Ryusuke Taguchi on February 19, 2006 in Tokyo. Foreign excursion (2006–2007) In 2006, Goto joined the American Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (TNA) promotion as a member of Team Japan (consisting of CTU members Goto, Jyushin Thunder Liger, Black Tiger and Minoru), one of the four teams competing in the TNA 2006 World X Cup Tournament. He debuted in TNA on April 23, 2006 at Lockdown, where he teamed with Black Tiger and Minoru against Team USA members Sonjay Dutt, Jay Lethal and Alex Shelley. Team Japan defeated USA when Black Tiger pinned Lethal. On the April 27, 2006, episode of TNA Impact!, Goto and Minoru lost to Dutt and Shelley, giving a first round victory and two points to Team USA. On May 14, 2006 at Sacrifice, Goto and the other members of Team Japan accompanied Liger to ringside, assisting him in his victory over Team Canada captain Petey Williams. Later that night, all four members of Team Japan took part in a gauntlet match that was won by Team Canada captain Petey Williams. The 2006 World X Cup was won by Team USA (with five points), with Team Japan coming last with three points. On August 1, 2006, Goto left for a lengthy learning excursion to Mexico after losing in a farewell match at the CTU 2nd Anniversary Show. While in Mexico he wrestled primarily for Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre and for Último Dragón's Toryumon Mexico. During his time in Mexico, he formed a rudo unit with Hajime Ohara and Shigeo Okumura in CMLL. RISE (2007–2009) In August 2007, Goto returned to New Japan after his almost one-year stay in Mexico. Upon his return, the now much more muscular Goto graduated from a Jr. heavyweight to a Heavyweight. Goto showed a great deal of promise and skill since last seen in July 2006. He showcased a whole new moveset and he quickly tried to establish himself as one of the top Heavyweights in New Japan. Not that far into his return Goto join the Stable "R.I.S.E" with Shinsuke Nakamura, Travis Tomko, Giant Bernard, and fellow former CTU teammates Minoru, Milano Collection AT, and Prince Devitt. On November 11, he challenged Hiroshi Tanahashi for the IWGP Heavyweight Championship, but after a long and hard-fought match, Tanahashi would win with the Texas Cloverleaf. Shortly after that Goto entered the 2007 G1 Tag League with Milano Collection AT, but the pair would finish in third place. In 2008 Goto wrestled one of his childhood idols, The Great Muta at New Japan's annual January 4 Tokyo Dome Show. Although having a good showing, Goto would fall to Muta. Goto's progress was good through 2008 but a surprise victory in New Japan's prestigious G1 Climax in August surpassed everyone's expectations. Goto earned 8 points in Block B, tied for first with Nakamura, but he advanced to the final due to a direct win over the former IWGP champion and RISE leader. Meeting Togi Makabe in the final, Goto overcame outside interference and blood loss to defeat the leader of the Great Bash Heel (G.B.H.) faction, pinning him with the Shouten. In March 2009 Goto defeated Karl Anderson, Shinsuke Nakamura, Yuji Nagata and Giant Bernard to win the 2009 New Japan Cup and earn a shot at Hiroshi Tanahashi's IWGP Heavyweight Championship. On May 3, 2009, at Wrestling Dontaku 2009, Tanahashi defeated Goto to retain the IWGP Heavyweight Championship. Tournament wins (2010–2013) On January 4, 2010, at Wrestle Kingdom IV in Tokyo Dome, Takashi Sugiura successfully defended his GHC Heavyweight Championship against Goto. In March, Goto defeated Yujiro Takahashi, Masato Tanaka and Togi Makabe to win the 2010 New Japan Cup for the second year in a row. Goto went on to challenge the IWGP Heavyweight Champion Shinsuke Nakamura on April 4, but would once again fail in his attempt to win the title. On June 28, 2010, Goto, teaming up with Prince Devitt and Ryusuke Taguchi entered the J Sports Crown Openweight 6 Man Tag Tournament. Two days later the trio defeated Hiroshi Tanahashi, Tajiri and Kushida in the finals to win the tournament. During August's G1 Climax Goto debuted a new finishing maneuver, a cross-legged cradle, which he initially titled as Goto Special but was later renamed Goto-Shiki Hold (Goto Style Hold), has earned him pinfall victories over former IWGP Heavyweight Champions Yuji Nagata and Shinsuke Nakamura, but a loss to eventual G1 winner Satoshi Kojima on the final day of the tournament dropped him fourth in his block, narrowly missing the finals. On October 11 Goto defeated Shinsuke Nakamura to earn the right to challenge for the IWGP Heavyweight Championship. However, the reigning IWGP Heavyweight Champion Satoshi Kojima vetoed the result of the match and named Nakamura his first challenger for the belt. On December 11, while Kojima successfully defended his title against Nakamura, Goto was derailed from his quest to win the IWGP Heavyweight Championship with a loss against Hiroshi Tanahashi. The following day Kojima defeated Goto in a non–title match, ending Goto's dream of main eventing Wrestle Kingdom V in Tokyo Dome. Instead, Goto teamed with the returning Kazuchika Okada in a tag team match, where they were defeated by Pro Wrestling Noah representatives Yoshihiro Takayama and Takashi Sugiura. On March 6 Goto began his quest to win his third New Japan Cup in a row, but was defeated in the first round by Shinsuke Nakamura. On March 20, the final day of the tournament, Goto turned heel by abandoning IWGP Heavyweight Champion Hiroshi Tanahashi during a tag team match against Satoshi Kojima and MVP. This marked Goto's final appearance for New Japan, before leaving for his second excursion to Mexico. Goto made his return to CMLL on March 25 and would, for the next month, work for the promotion as a heel, culminating in a match on April 29 at Arena México's 55th anniversary show, where he unsuccessfully challenged Último Guerrero for the CMLL World Heavyweight Championship in a Two Out of Three Falls match. Goto returned to New Japan on May 3, when he teamed with Tama Tonga to defeat Takashi Sugiura and Makoto Hashi in a tag team match. Later in the event, Goto attacked and declared a war on Hiroshi Tanahashi after he had successfully defended the IWGP Heavyweight Championship against Shinsuke Nakamura. Goto would once again fail in his IWGP Heavyweight Championship challenge on June 18, 2011. After the match, Goto and Tanahashi seemingly made peace with each other, with Tanahashi suggesting that they go for the IWGP Tag Team Championship together. On June 23, Goto, Prince Devitt and Ryusuke Taguchi won their second J Sports Crown Openweight 6 Man Tag Tournament in a row by defeating the team of Giant Bernard, Jyushin Thunder Liger and Karl Anderson in the finals of the three-day-long tournament. On July 3 Goto and Tanahashi failed in their attempt to capture the IWGP Tag Team Championship from Giant Bernard and Karl Anderson. On August 1, Goto entered the 2011 G1 Climax, where he went on to win six out of his nine matches, but a loss to Strong Man on the final day of the tournament dropped him to second place in his block, causing him to narrowly miss the finals of the tournament. In the 2011 G1 Tag League, Goto teamed with Hiroshi Tanahashi as "The Billion Powers". After picking up two wins and two losses in their first four matches in the group stage of the tournament, Goto and Tanahashi defeated the Beast Combination (Satoshi Kojima and Togi Makabe) on November 4 to advance to the semifinals of the tournament. On November 6, Goto and Tanahashi were eliminated from the tournament in the semifinals by Bad Intentions. On November 12 at Power Struggle, Goto unsuccessfully challenged Masato Tanaka for the IWGP Intercontinental Championship. On January 4, 2012, at Wrestle Kingdom VI in Tokyo Dome, Goto reignited his rivalry with Pro Wrestling Noah's Takashi Sugiura, defeating him in a singles match. On February 12 at The New Beginning, Goto defeated Masato Tanaka to win the IWGP Intercontinental Championship for the first time. Goto made his first title defense on March 11, defeating Yujiro Takahashi. On April 1, Goto entered the 2012 New Japan Cup. After victories over Yujiro Takahashi, La Sombra and Togi Makabe, Goto defeated Hiroshi Tanahashi on April 8 in the finals to win the tournament for the third time and earn another shot at the IWGP Heavyweight Championship. On May 3 at Wrestling Dontaku 2012, Goto unsuccessfully challenged Kazuchika Okada for the IWGP Heavyweight Championship. On May 20, Goto made his second successful defense of the IWGP Intercontinental Championship against Tomohiro Ishii. On July 22, Goto lost the title to Shinsuke Nakamura in his third defense. On October 8 at King of Pro-Wrestling, Goto received a rematch for the title, but was again defeated by Nakamura. On November 11 at Power Struggle, Goto unsuccessfully challenged Kazuchika Okada for the right to challenge for the IWGP Heavyweight Championship at the Tokyo Dome. From November 20 to December 1, Goto took part in the round-robin portion of the 2012 World Tag League, alongside Karl Anderson under the team name "Sword & Guns". The team finished with a record of four wins and two losses, finishing second in their block and advancing to the semifinals of the tournament. On December 2, Goto and Anderson defeated Tencozy (Hiroyoshi Tenzan and Satoshi Kojima) to advance to the finals of the tournament, where, later that same day, they defeated the reigning IWGP Tag Team Champions, K.E.S. (Davey Boy Smith Jr. and Lance Archer), to win the tournament. Sword & Guns received their shot at the IWGP Tag Team Championship on January 4, 2013, at Wrestle Kingdom 7 in Tokyo Dome, but were defeated in a rematch by K.E.S. Storyline with Katsuyori Shibata (2013–2015) In February 2013, Goto made a challenge towards former high school classmate Katsuyori Shibata, which led to a tag team match on February 10, where he and Wataru Inoue were defeated by Shibata and Kazushi Sakuraba. Afterwards, Goto and Shibata had a heated confrontation, building to a future singles match between the two. In March, Goto once again made it to the finals of the New Japan Cup, before losing to Kazuchika Okada. Goto and Shibata finally faced off in a singles match on May 3 at Wrestling Dontaku 2013, which ended in a draw. A rematch between the two took place on June 22 at Dominion 6.22, where Shibata was victorious. A third match between the two on July 20 ended in another draw. During early August, Goto participated in the 2013 G1 Climax. On August 8, however, it was revealed that Goto had suffered a fractured jaw and was pulled from the tournament. He was leading the A block with four wins (which included a big win over IWGP Heavyweight Champion Kazuchika Okada) and two losses and had three matches left when he was pulled from the G1. Goto returned on December 8, challenging Katsuyori Shibata to a match at Wrestle Kingdom 8 in Tokyo Dome. On January 4, 2014, Goto defeated Shibata in his return match. The match ended the rivalry between Goto and Shibata and led to the two forming a tag team. The following day, Goto scored the pinfall in an eight-man tag team main event against Chaos, after which he challenged Kazuchika Okada to a match for the IWGP Heavyweight Championship. On February 11 at The New Beginning in Osaka, Goto received his seventh shot at the IWGP Heavyweight Championship, but was yet again unsuccessful in capturing the title. Afterwards, Goto and Shibata entered the IWGP Tag Team Championship picture, defeating the reigning champions, Bullet Club (Doc Gallows and Karl Anderson), in a non-title match at New Japan's 42nd anniversary event on March 6. They received their title shot on April 6 at Invasion Attack 2014, but were defeated by Gallows and Anderson. From July 21 to August 8, Goto took part in the 2014 G1 Climax, where he finished with a record of four wins and six losses. During the tournament final event on August 10, Goto and Shibata faced off in another singles match, where Shibata was victorious. Goto then entered a storyline, where he started leading a counterattack against the Bullet Club and Chaos stables, with the goal of revitalizing the New Japan Seikigun ("regular army"), which he represented alongside the likes of Shibata and Hiroshi Tanahashi. On November 8 at Power Struggle, Goto received his first shot at the NEVER Openweight Championship, but was defeated by the defending champion, Tomohiro Ishii. Later in the month, Goto and Shibata entered the 2014 World Tag League, where they opened with a three match losing streak, only to come back and win their four remaining matches, winning their block and advancing to the finals. On December 7, Goto and Shibata defeated Doc Gallows and Karl Anderson in the finals to win the 2014 World Tag League. This led to a rematch between the two teams on January 4, 2015, at Wrestle Kingdom 9 in Tokyo Dome, where Goto and Shibata defeated Anderson and Gallows to become the new IWGP Tag Team Champions. Goto and Shibata's reign ended in their first defense on February 11 at The New Beginning in Osaka, where they were defeated by Anderson and Gallows. On March 8, Goto and Shibata once again faced off in the second round of the 2015 New Japan Cup in a match, where Goto was victorious. Goto eventually made it to the finals of the tournament on March 15, where he was defeated by Kota Ibushi. On May 3 at Wrestling Dontaku 2015, Goto defeated Shinsuke Nakamura to win the IWGP Intercontinental Championship for the second time. Goto made his first title defense on July 5 at Dominion 7.5 in Osaka-jo Hall, defeating Nakamura in a rematch. From July 23 to August 15, Goto took part in the 2015 G1 Climax. After six victories, one of which came over reigning IWGP Heavyweight Champion Kazuchika Okada, Goto entered the final day with a chance to advance from his block, but was eliminated after suffering his third loss of the tournament against Yuji Nagata. Through NJPW's working relationship with the Ring of Honor (ROH) promotion, Goto returned to the United States on August 21, teaming with Jay Briscoe and Mark Briscoe in a six-man tag team match, where they defeated Okada, Beretta and Rocky Romero. Goto's Intercontinental Championship reign ended on September 27 at Destruction in Kobe, when he was defeated by Shinsuke Nakamura in another title rematch. Chaos (2016–present) After defeating Tetsuya Naito on January 4, 2016, at Wrestle Kingdom 10 in Tokyo Dome, Goto received his eighth shot at the IWGP Heavyweight Championship, but yet again failed to win the title, being defeated by the defending champion, Kazuchika Okada, on February 11 at The New Beginning in Osaka. Goto went into the match with new attire, painting his body white and covering himself with script. Following the match, Okada offered Goto a spot in the Chaos stable. Over the next several events, Okada tried to shake hands with Goto and get him to join Chaos on multiple occasions, but was turned down each time. In March, Goto made it to the finals of the 2016 New Japan Cup, but was defeated there by Tetsuya Naito. After the final match, Goto finally agreed to shake hands with Okada, after he saved him from a post-match assault by Naito and his Los Ingobernables de Japón stable, and joined Chaos. From July 18 to August 12, Goto took part in the round-robin portion of the 2016 G1 Climax, where he won his block, besting both Hiroshi Tanahashi and reigning IWGP Heavyweight Champion Kazuchika Okada, with a record of six wins and three losses, advancing to the finals. On August 14, Goto was defeated in the finals by Kenny Omega. At the end of the year, Goto took part in the 2016 World Tag League, teaming with Chaos stablemate Tomohiro Ishii. The two finished the tournament with a record of four wins and three losses, failing to advance to the finals due to losing to block winners Togi Makabe and Tomoaki Honma in their final round-robin match. On January 4, 2017, at Wrestle Kingdom 11 in Tokyo Dome, Goto defeated Katsuyori Shibata to win the NEVER Openweight Championship for the first time. Goto made his first successful title defense on February 5 at The New Beginning in Sapporo against Juice Robinson. His second defense took place at the NJPW and ROH co-produced Honor Rising: Japan 2017 event, where he defeated ROH wrestler Punisher Martinez. On April 9 at Sakura Genesis 2017, Goto made his third successful defense against Zack Sabre Jr., despite outside interference from Sabre's Suzuki-gun stablemates Minoru Suzuki and El Desperado. Afterwards, Goto brawled with Suzuki, setting up his next title defense. On April 27, Goto lost the NEVER Openweight Championship to Suzuki. On June 11 at Dominion 6.11 in Osaka-jo Hall, he failed to reclaim the title in a rematch against Suzuki in a Lumberjack Deathmatch. The following month, Goto entered the 2017 G1 Climax, where he finished with a record of five wins and four losses, failing to advance from his block. At the end of the year, Goto teamed with Yoshi-Hashi in the 2017 World Tag League. Finishing with a record of four wins and three losses, the team failed to qualify for the finals, after losing to Evil and Sanada in their final round-robin match. On January 4, 2018, Goto defeated Minoru Suzuki in a Hair vs. Hair match to win the NEVER Openweight Championship, forcing Suzuki to have his head shaved bald. On January 5, 2018, at New Year's Dash, he was challenged to a title match by Evil, which he accepted. The match took place on February 10, 2018 at The New Beginning in Osaka, where Goto was victorious. On February 23, 2018, Goto made his second successful defense of the NEVER Openweight Championship against The Beer City Bruiser at the NJPW and ROH co-produced Honor Rising: Japan 2018 event. On April 27, 2018, at Road to Wrestling Dontaku, Goto made his third successful defense of the NEVER Openweight championship in a rematch with Juice Robinson. On June 9, 2018 at Dominion 6.9 in Osaka-jo hall, Goto lost the NEVER Openweight Championship to Michael Elgin in a 3-way match which also involved Taichi, ending his second reign at 156 days. On June 17, 2018 at Kizuna Road, Goto defeated Elgin in a rematch for the NEVER Openweight Championship to win back the title Goto made his first successful title defence against Jeff Cobb at G1 Special in San Francisco. From July 14 to August 12 Goto took part in the G1 Climax 2018 and he ended up with 3 wins and 6 losses, failing to advance to the finals. On the final day of the G1 Climax, a returning Taichi later challenged him for the NEVER Openweight Championship, which Goto accepted. On September 17, at Destruction in Beppu, Goto lost the NEVER Openweight Championship to Taichi in his second defense. On October 27, Goto requested for a rematch for the NEVER Openweight Championship, replacing his Chaos stablemate Will Ospreay, who was scheduled to challenge Taichi at Power Struggle for the title but was unable to do so due to Ospreay suffering an injury. Taichi, however, waved off Goto's challenge and declined immediately. Despite this, the title match was eventually still set at Power struggle which took place on November 3. At the event, Goto defeated Taichi to win the NEVER Openweight Championship for the fourth time. Goto would lose the belt to Kota Ibushi on December 9, without having any defenses. 2019 would see Goto change effectively. After some massive losses, including one to Jay White on April 29, Goto would travel to the United States to train under Shibata's LA Dojo system to improve as he also briefly wrestled for Ring of Honor during their War Of The Worlds series. From July 6 until August 11, 2019, Goto returned and took part in the 2019 G1 Climax, where he finished the tournament with a record of five wins (one against Jay White) and four losses, failing to advance to the finals of the tournament, due to losing to Shingo Takagi in their head-to-head match. Goto would avenge his loss to Shingo at September's Destruction in Kobe however. In the same event, he would challenge White for his newly won Intercontinental Championship, although White repeatedly refused, the match was set up anyway for Power Struggle, where Goto would lose. From November 16 until December 8, Goto and Karl Fredericks took part in the 2019 World Tag League, failing to win the tournament with a record of three wins and twelve losses. Afterward, Goto began feuding with KENTA. Throughout the 2019 World Tag League, KENTA began mocking Goto after his matches, leading Goto to attack him on November 29. Despite being attacked by Goto, KENTA continued to mock Goto leading him to attack KENTA again on December 8. At a press conference the following day, Goto drew the ire of KENTA, after calling into question his in-ring abilities, leading KENTA to return the favor and attack him. On January 5, 2020, on the second night of Wrestle Kingdom 14 in Tokyo Dome, Goto defeated KENTA to win the NEVER Openweight Championship for the fifth time. He lost the title to Shingo Takagi on February 1, at The New Beginning in Sapporo. In June, Goto took part in the 2020 New Japan Cup, being eliminated from the tournament by EVIL in the second round. On August 9, Goto, Ishii & Yoshi-Hashi defeated fellow CHAOS stablemates Kazuchika Okada, Toru Yano & Sho in a tournament final to win NEVER Openweight 6-Man Tag Team Championship. From September 19 until October 17, Goto took part in the 2020 G1 Climax, finishing the tournament with a record of four wins and five losses, failing to advance to the finals of the tournament. During the tournament, Goto and Toru Yano broke the record of the shortest match in the tournament's history with the match lasting 18 seconds, surpassing the record held by Kenzo Suzuki against Tadao Yasuda in the 2002 tournament, which their match lasted 37 seconds. From November 15 until December 6, Goto and Yoshi-Hashi took part in the 2020 World Tag League, finishing the tournament with a record of five wins and four losses, failing to advance to the finals of the tournament. In March 2021, Goto took part in the 2021 New Japan Cup, losing in the second round to eventual finalist Shingo Takagi on March 13. From September 19 to October 20, Goto took part in the 2021 G1 Climax, where he finished with a record of three wins and six losses, failing to advance to the finals of the tournament. Goto, Ishii & Yoshi-Hashi's reign would break the record for the longest reign as champions at 454 days and the most successful title defenses with 9 defenses, before losing the titles to House of Torture (EVIL, Sho & Yujiro Takahashi) on November 6 at Power Struggle. From November 14 to December 12, Goto took part in the round-robin portion of the 2021 World Tag League, alongside Yoshi-Hashi. The team finished with a record of nine wins and two losses, advancing to the finals of the tournament. On December 15, Goto & Yoshi-Hashi defeated EVIL & Yujiro Takahashi in the finals to win the 2021 World Tag League. On January 4, 2022, on the first night of Wrestle Kingdom 16, Goto and Yoshi-Hashi defeated Taichi & Zack Sabre Jr. to win the IWGP Tag Team Championship. On Night 2, Goto, Yoshi-Hashi and Yoh, failed to capture the NEVER Openweight 6-man Tag Team championships from House of Torture. In March, Goto competed in the New Japan Cup, defeating Yuji Nagata and Dick Togo, before being defeated by Cima in the third round. At Hyper Battle, Goto and Yoshi-Hashi, now going by the tag- team name Bishamon, lost the IWGP Tag Team Championships to United Empire's Jeff Cobb and Great-O-Khan. At Dominion 6.12 in Osaka-jo Hall, Goto competed in an AEW Interim World Championship eliminator match for a chance to face Jon Moxley for the title at Forbidden Door, a co-produced show between NJPW and American wrestling company All Elite Wrestling. At the event, Goto was defeated by Hiroshi Tanahashi. Instead at the show, Goto and Yoshi-Hashi competed in the opening match on the Buy-In, defeating Q. T. Marshall and Aaron Solo. This win lead to the pair getting an AEW World Tag Team Championship eliminator match on AEW Rampage, making their AEW debuts against current champions The Young Bucks, which they lost. In June, Goto was announced to be competing in the G1 Climax 32 tournament in July, as a part of the C Block. Prior to the beginning of the tournament, Goto teamed with Yoshi-Hashi and Yoh to win the Never Openweight 6-man tag-team championships in a Wrestle Kingdom rematch. Goto finished his G1 campaign with a total of 6 points, failing to advance to the semi-finals. In September at Burning Spirit, Goto, Yoshi-Hashi and Yoh, lost the 6-man tag-team championships back to House of Torture. The month after this, Goto competed in a tournament to crown the inaugural NJPW World Television Champion, but was defeated by Kenta in the first round. In November, Bishamon competed in the World Tag League, finishing joint-top of the block and thus advancing to the finals. In the finals, Bishamon defeated Aussie Open (Kyle Fletcher and Mark Davis) to win the tournament for a second year in a row. On January 4 2023, at Wrestle Kingdom 17, the duo defeated FTR to win the IWGP Tag Team Championship for the second time as a tag-team. Bishamon made their first title defense at The New Beginning in Sapporo in February, defeating TMDK (Mikey Nicholls and Shane Haste). A month later, the duo successfully defended the titles against Kazuchika Okada and Hiroshi Tanahashi. Later in the month, Goto competed in the 2023 New Japan Cup, receiving a bye to the second round, where he defeated Kyle Fletcher. In the following round, Goto was defeated by Tama Tonga. In April at Sakura Genesis, Bishamon lost the IWGP Tag Team titles to Aussie Open, ending their third reign at 94 days. Later in the month, Goto made his debut on Tamashii, NJPW's Australasian subsidiary. In June at Dominion 6.4 in Osaka-jo Hall, Bishamon won their third IWGP Heavyweight Tag Team Championship and Goto's overall fourth, defeating House of Torture and United Empire to win both the vacant IWGP Tag Team titles and the Strong Openweight Tag Team Championships, thus becoming double champions. Five Days later, Bishamon reunited with Tomohiro Ishii at All Together Again, a joint event between NJPW, Pro Wrestling Noah (NOAH) and All Japan Pro Wrestling (AJPW), to defeat NOAH's Masa Kitamiya, Daiki Inaba and Yoshiki Inamura. On July 4 on night 1 of NJPW Independence Day, Bishamon lost the Strong Openweight Championships, to Bullet Club Wardogs (Alex Coughlin and Gabriel Kidd). The following night in a rematch, the duo defeated Coughlin and Kidd to retain the IWGP Tag Team Championships. The following week, Goto entered the G1 Cimax tournament, where he'd compete in the D Block. Goto finished with 6 points, failing to advance to the tournament's quarterfinals. Other media Goto made his acting debut in 2016 with a cameo appearance as a gangster in the Indonesian action film Headshot. In 2020, Goto appeared in Kamen Rider Zero-One the Movie: Real×Time as Buga, a computer avatar and one of the users of the Kamen Rider Abaddon powers. Championships and accomplishments New Japan Pro-Wrestling IWGP Intercontinental Championship (2 times) IWGP Junior Heavyweight Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Minoru IWGP Tag Team Championship (4 times, current) – with Katsuyori Shibata (1) and Yoshi-Hashi (3) NEVER Openweight Championship (5 times) NEVER Openweight 6-Man Tag Team Championship (2 times) – with Yoshi-Hashi and Tomohiro Ishii (1) and Yoshi-Hashi and Yoh (1) Strong Openweight Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Yoshi-Hashi G1 Climax (2008) New Japan Cup (2009, 2010, 2012) World Tag League (2012 with Karl Anderson, 2014 with Katsuyori Shibata, 2021, 2022 with Yoshi-Hashi) Young Lion Cup (2005) J Sports Crown Openweight 6 Man Tag Tournament (2010, 2011) – with Prince Devitt and Ryusuke Taguchi Samurai! TV Openweight Tag Tournament (2005) – with Yuji Nagata Jr. Heavyweight Tag MVP Award (2005) – with Minoru Pro Wrestling Illustrated Ranked No. 35 of the top 500 singles wrestlers in the PWI 500 in 2010 Toryumon Mexico NWA International Junior Heavyweight Championship (1 time) Yamaha Cup (2007) Luchas de Apuestas record References External links Puroresu Central profile 1979 births Living people 21st-century professional wrestlers Japanese male professional wrestlers Sportspeople from Mie Prefecture Chaos (professional wrestling) members IWGP Intercontinental champions NEVER Openweight champions NEVER Openweight 6-Man Tag Team Champions IWGP Heavyweight Tag Team Champions NWA International Junior Heavyweight Champions Strong Openweight Tag Team Champions Young Lion Cup winners World Tag League (NJPW) winners G1 Climax winners
4846933	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaweah%20River	Kaweah River	The Kaweah River is a river draining the southern Sierra Nevada in Tulare County, California in the United States. Fed primarily by high elevation snowmelt along the Great Western Divide, the Kaweah begins as four forks in Sequoia National Park, where the watershed is noted for its alpine scenery and its dense concentrations of giant sequoias, the largest trees on Earth. It then flows in a southwest direction to Lake Kaweah – the only major reservoir on the river – and into the San Joaquin Valley, where it diverges into multiple channels across an alluvial plain around Visalia. With its Middle Fork headwaters starting at almost above sea level, the river has a vertical drop of nearly on its short run to the San Joaquin Valley, making it one of the steepest river drainages in the United States. Although the main stem of the Kaweah is only long, its total length including headwaters and lower branches is nearly . The lower course of the river and its many distributaries – including the St. John's River and Mill Creek – form the Kaweah Delta, a productive agricultural region spanning more than . Before the diversion of its waters for irrigation, the river flowed into Tulare Lake, the usually dry terminal sink of a large endorheic basin in the southern San Joaquin Valley, also fed by the Kern and Tule Rivers and southern branches of the Kings River. The Yokuts and Western Mono are the main Native American groups in the Kaweah River basin, which was explored by the Spanish in the early 1800s and heavily logged after the 1850s by American colonists, before its upper reaches became part of Sequoia National Park in 1890. Etymology The name "Kaweah" (commonly rendered as ; the traditional pronunciation is ) comes from a native Yokutsan ethnonym for the Kaweah tribelet, traditionally said to mean "crow cry," from gá "raven" and wea "to weep." Frank F. Latta traced the etymology of gá to an onomatopoeia of a corvid's call, cf. "caw". An informant for Latta, Aida Icho, provided an idiom related to the allegedly quarrelsome nature of the (by then extinct) Kaweah: Course The Kaweah River originates along the Great Western Divide, a chain of peaks in the middle of Sequoia National Park. The divide separates the Kaweah drainage from the Kern River drainage to the east. The Middle Fork, sometimes considered part of the main stem, flows southwest from the confluence of Lone Pine Creek and Hamilton Creek, whose lake sources lie at or above in the Mount Stewart area. The Marble Fork begins in a high plateau area known as the Tableland and drops over a glacial headwall, forming Tokopah Falls, before flowing west past Lodgepole Village and turning south. The two forks join at the bottom of a deep gorge directly below Moro Rock to form the main stem of the Kaweah River. The Kaweah River flows in a southwest direction, paralleled by Highway 198 in its narrow canyon. A short distance outside Sequoia National Park it picks up the East Fork, which originates above elevation in the Mineral King valley, from the left. It continues past the town of Three Rivers, where it receives the North Fork, which begins in the Grant Grove area of Kings Canyon National Park. The South Fork enters from the left before the river empties into Lake Kaweah, the reservoir formed by Terminus Dam in the Sierra Nevada foothills. Terminus Dam, a high earthfill dam, has the primary purpose of flood control but also supplies water for irrigation and hydroelectricity. Below the dam the Kaweah River passes Lemon Cove, receives Dry Creek (also known as Lime Kiln Creek) from the right and flows into the San Joaquin Valley where it divides into several major distributaries. At the McKay Point Dam, the St. John's River splits off to the northwest, making a wide loop around Visalia before becoming Cross Creek north of Goshen, from where it flows south. The main channel of the Kaweah River continues to the southwest through farmland, with Outside Creek and Deep Creek splitting to the south before the Kaweah itself divides into Mill Creek and Packwood Creek. Mill Creek continues westward through Visalia, and Packwood Creek skirts to the south of the city, terminating in a small flood control basin. Mill Creek ends at a confluence with Cross Creek, which flows southward to the old Tulare Lake bed near Corcoran, joining a channel carrying water from the Tule River. The Kaweah Delta region, as defined by the Kaweah Delta Water Conservation District, covers about in Tulare and Kings Counties; the main cities are Visalia and Tulare. The length of the Kaweah River is between the confluence of the Middle and Marble Forks and the bifurcation of Mill and Packwood Creeks. However, including its tributaries and distributaries, the river is much longer. Mill Creek (the largest distributary stream) flows westward for to Cross Creek, for a total distance of . Including the upstream Middle Fork, which is about long, and the length of Cross Creek below Mill Creek, which is , some water in the Kaweah system flows from the head of the Middle Fork to the Tulare Lake bed. Most of the Kaweah River's runoff comes from the mountain watershed above Visalia, which covers a total of . Including all the lands drained and crossed by the river's many distributaries down to the Tulare Lake bed, the Kaweah River hydrologic region covers . The annual runoff of the Kaweah River between 1975 and 1995 was , or about . The river's highest flows are during the peak snowmelt months of May and June; winter flows are usually more of a trickle, although the river often experiences flooding during rainstorms. Most of the water is diverted above Visalia for irrigation and groundwater recharge. With the exception of agricultural wastewater, water rarely flows any further downstream except in wet years. Extremely large storms can temporarily refill Tulare Lake, as occurred most recently in 2023. Natural features and environment Due to its steep fall from the Sierra Nevada to the San Joaquin Valley, the Kaweah River passes through a wide range of climate and vegetation zones in a relatively short distance. Historically, the lower Kaweah flowed into a vast area of seasonally flooded wetlands surrounding Tulare Lake, almost all of which have been diked and drained for agriculture. The Kaweah historically formed a large overflow area east of Visalia known as the "Visalia Swamp" and in areas west of Visalia stream channels were poorly defined, often simply disappearing into the marsh lands during periods of high water. The foothill zone is characterized mostly by grassland and rangeland; California oak woodland occurs along the Kaweah River and its perennial tributaries, although its range has been much reduced since Native American times. Further upstream and higher in elevation, the watershed is mostly mixed coniferous forest (pines and firs). The largest concentrations of giant sequoias, which grow only on the western slope of the Sierra Nevada, are found in this section of the Kaweah watershed at mean elevations of , although specimens have been found as low as . The Kaweah watershed includes Giant Forest, the most visited and accessible of all the sequoia groves, located on the divide between the Middle and Marble Forks; it includes the General Sherman Tree, the largest tree in the world by volume. Redwood Mountain Grove, the largest sequoia grove in the world at , and 21 other groves are also located in the Kaweah watershed. A relatively small portion of the Kaweah basin is high, craggy alpine country typical of the southern Sierra; such treeless, lake-studded areas of exposed granite are mostly found along the crest of the Great Western Divide. Today, mule deer are the largest wild animal inhabiting the valley and foothill area; historically, large herds of tule elk frequented the area, but their habitat in the Kaweah Delta has been almost eliminated by agriculture. There are many species of foxes, wildcats, squirrels, and rabbits including the endemic San Joaquin kit fox, San Joaquin antelope squirrel, and others. California grizzly bear and beaver were once common to the area but were hunted or trapped out entirely by the early 1900s. The mountain areas continue to provide habitat for black bears, mule deer, and bighorn sheep, and the Kaweah River above Three Rivers has native rainbow trout and introduced brown trout and bass. In alpine areas above the tree line, small mammals such as marmots and pika are common. History The Kaweah River watershed was originally inhabited by the indigenous Yokuts people of the Central Valley. By at least 3,000 years ago, a group known as the Wukchumni had permanent settlements along the river. The greatest concentration of Native American settlements was along the foothill reach of the Kaweah River, in what is today Three Rivers and Lake Kaweah. The Wukchumni spent summers hunting game and gathering herbs along the East Fork, and they traded with the Paiute peoples of the Great Basin. Around 700 to 500 years ago, the Western Mono came to settle in the region as well. Oak trees grew in abundance along low-elevation, permanent streams and provided the staple food of acorns, which were used to make cakes and bread. Native Americans ground acorns into a fine mush using holes in the local granite bedrock as mortars. Permanent winter settlements in the foothills consisted of pit houses thatched with tules (vast amounts of which once grew in the marshes of the Kaweah delta) up to in diameter. Hospital Rock, a flat next to the Middle Fork, was used as a camp possibly as early as the 1300s AD. Spanish explorers came to the Kaweah River area in the early 1800s, although it is not clear who first explored the Kaweah Delta (possibly the Gabriel Moraga party in 1806). Early Spanish names for the river included Rio de San Gabriel and Rio San Francisco. Several such expeditions were sent into the region, in order to conscript Native Americans into the mission system. Father Pedro Muñoz wrote that the Kaweah would be a good place for a mission, but none were ever established there, because it was too far from the coast and could not be easily defended. In the following decades, Native American resistance to Spanish colonial government prompted many military raids, killing many of the natives who had not already succumbed to European diseases. After California became a U.S. state, the California Gold Rush drew some prospectors to the Kaweah in the 1850s, but not much gold mining occurred in the area. During this time, the Kaweah was often known as the "River Francis", a corruption of the old Spanish name. Hale Tharp, a stockman and early settler in Three Rivers, discovered the Giant Forest in 1858 with the help of Native American guides. In 1861 Tharp returned to this area between the Middle and Marble forks of the Kaweah River, using a hollowed-out fallen sequoia log (Tharp's Log) as a cabin. In 1873, a silver boom in Mineral King attracted thousands of people to the high mountain valley along the East Fork. The peak of mining had passed by 1882, when the Empire Mine (owned by state senator Thomas Fowler, who invested most of his fortune in the mine) went under. Small operations continued, sporadically, into the late 1920s. After the end of silver mining, Mineral King became a popular summer resort. The one resource extraction industry that succeeded in the Kaweah basin was timber; many logging camps sprang up in the heavily forested western slopes of the Sierra, including in the watershed's sequoia groves. The Kaweah Colony was a utopian socialist community founded in 1886, along the Kaweah River in what is now Sequoia National Park. Although giant sequoia wood is generally too soft to be useful in construction, many sequoias were felled between the 1860s and the 1880s when the U.S. government began establishing timber reserves in the area, under pressure from conservationists, including John Muir, who visited the Kaweah's Marble Fork and named Giant Forest in 1875. Logging mostly ended after Sequoia National Park was founded in 1890; the bill establishing the park was pushed through in part due to the actions of the Southern Pacific Railroad, which saw the Kaweah colony as a competitor to logging operations that it owned elsewhere. Some settlers in the Kaweah Colony attempted to continue their operations but were later convicted of illegal logging, after which the colony dissolved in 1892. The Kaweah Delta (historically also known as the "Four Creeks area", after the four major branches of the Kaweah River) was one of the earliest places in the San Joaquin Valley to be populated and farmed by U.S. settlers, although before the construction of Terminus Dam the entire area was frequently flooded; the Great Flood of 1862 temporarily changed the course of the river, creating the distributary today known as St. John's River. Agriculture began in the Kaweah Delta around 1864 when a group of local farmers dug the Consolidated Peoples' Ditch. The people of Visalia hired Native Americans to extend a canal from Mill Creek to power the expanding settlement's flour mill. In addition, multiple channels had to be dug to redirect the flow of St. John's River back into the Kaweah, which had been blocked by sediment during the 1862 flood. It was not until after the Wright Act of 1887, however, that farming expanded significantly. The Wright Act allowed the formation of the Tulare Irrigation District, which began to establish a network of canals across the Kaweah Delta. Surface water provided the main supply as late as 1900, after which the area's abundant groundwater reserves were pumped at increasing rates. Tulare Lake disappeared by the early 1900s, and by the 1930s, agricultural development had surpassed the capacity of local water resources. In the 1960s Disney proposed to construct a ski resort in Mineral King, which would have brought one of the most intense developments in the history of the upper Kaweah watershed. The resort would have included 22 ski lifts, a 1,030-room hotel, ten restaurants, and a railroad along the canyon of the East Fork Kaweah River to transport visitors from a parking area further down the mountain. Environmentalists fought against the proposal for many years, and in 1978 the National Parks and Recreation Act designated the area as part of Sequoia National Park. River modifications In order to make the Kaweah Delta suitable for agriculture and eventually urban development, the tangle of diverging seasonal channels and marshes had to be drained and diked extensively. As early as the 1870s local irrigation companies were dredging some creeks and blocking off side channels in order to direct floodwater away from farms. A major early 20th century project was the channelization of Mill Creek, which runs through the middle of Visalia and posed a major flooding threat before it was straightened, deepened and widened in 1910 at a cost of $70,000. Dams were built in the 1920s and 1930s at McKays Point to divide water flow between the Kaweah and St. Johns Rivers, to satisfy downstream water rights. Today, the Kaweah Delta has very little resemblance to historic times; most of the streams have either disappeared or been channelized, and Tulare Lake itself is now a dry, diked basin that only very occasionally floods. The Kaweah Delta Water Conservation District manages the distribution of water to irrigation districts and city water districts over a service area. The primary crops grown in the district are cotton, various fruits, nuts, alfalfa, and other field crops. In addition to surface water, the district utilizes Central Valley Project water from the Friant-Kern Canal, which delivers water from the San Joaquin River to the Tulare Basin. Water can be turned out into either the Kaweah or St. Johns rivers, augmenting the water supply available to Kaweah Delta users. Groundwater is the other important source of water supply for the basin. The local aquifer has suffered from overdraft for many decades with an estimated annual deficit of between pumping and replenishment. In order to increase the rate of groundwater recharge, more than 40 recharge basins or spreading grounds totaling have been constructed throughout the district, which allow floodwaters to percolate into the ground. Hydroelectric power development on the Kaweah River began when the Mount Whitney Power Company built a diversion, flume and the Kaweah No. 1 powerhouse on the East Fork in 1899. In 1905 it completed Kaweah No. 2 powerhouse on the Middle Fork. The company then applied for permission to construct a third power plant on the Middle Fork inside Sequoia National Park, which was approved partly because at the time, this was an infrequently visited area of the park. The Kaweah No. 3 plant was completed by 1913, and was followed by more plans to construct a reservoir at Wolverton and at least two additional power plants. The Kaweah plants brought electricity to Visalia for the first time, and the power was also used by farmers to pump groundwater. However, construction of the Wolverton dam was thwarted by bad foundation rock and the other power plants were also never built. Taken over by Southern California Edison in 1917, the system today consists of six dams, three powerhouses, three forebays and many miles of concrete and wooden flumes. The Kaweah No. 3 plant is an eligible property for the National Register of Historic Places. Terminus Dam was constructed by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers in 1962 to help relieve the Kaweah Delta's chronic flooding. Prior to damming, the river could reach very high flows during winter storms, with a maximum of in December 1955. However, the capacity of the main channel of the Kaweah River is only , and its distributaries have an even lower capacity. Four years after the dam's completion, it prevented $19.6 million of damage during a single storm in December 1966. However, the capacity of the reservoir, Lake Kaweah, was too small to control the most severe floods, and was so for many years until the completion of a spillway enhancement project in 2004. Six huge fuse gates, the largest of their type in the world, were added to the dam; the reservoir can now safely hold of water, an increase of 30 percent from the original capacity. Recreation All the forks of the Kaweah River are located in Sequoia National Park, which receives more than 1.2 million recreational visitors each year. The river is a major park attraction for boating and fishing, but can be "extremely hazardous" during high water in the spring and summer. Several commercial outfitters serve the traditional Class IV section of the Kaweah River between the Pumpkin Hollow bridge (near the park entrance) and Lake Kaweah. Advanced kayakers frequent the Class V Middle Fork at Hospital Rock, further upstream in Sequoia National Park; the North Fork is a wilderness run, requiring boaters to carry all their equipment to the put-in. The river is free-flowing above Lake Kaweah so the rafting season depends entirely on the natural snowmelt, typically between April and July. Access to the Kaweah River for fishing, swimming and water play can be difficult in the Three Rivers area, because most of the river banks are on private property. In Sequoia National Park the river flows at the bottom of a deep canyon and can also be difficult to reach. The river just above Lake Kaweah is publicly accessible at the Slick Rock Recreation Area; however, this location is inundated most summers when the level of Lake Kaweah is high. Slick Rock, known to locals as "Boulder Beach", has rock climbing areas and historic Native American bedrock mortars. Lake Kaweah itself offers shoreline fishing and flatwater boating. The upper South Fork in Sequoia National Park has good fishing for wild rainbow trout, although a long hike is required to reach it. A California fishing license is required for visitors older than age 16 in the park. The upper Kaweah is also home to many hiking trails. Day hikes include the walk along Marble Fork to Tokopah Falls, and the Mineral King area along the East Fork also has a number of short trails. Backpacking is popular on the High Sierra Trail, which runs from Giant Forest through the Middle Fork canyon, and summits the Great Western Divide via Kaweah Gap en route toward the John Muir Trail to Mount Whitney. The Bearpaw Meadow High Sierra Camp is located along the High Sierra Trail near the headwaters of the Middle Fork. See also List of rivers of California Wukchumni Notes References External links Kaweah River Geography and History Kaweah Commonwealth News Publication Kaweah River Basin streamflow and reservoir storage data - U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Rivers of the Sierra Nevada (United States) Rivers of Tulare County, California Tulare Basin watershed Geography of the San Joaquin Valley Sequoia National Forest Sequoia National Park Rivers of Northern California Rivers of the Sierra Nevada in California
4847318	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Executioner%20%28book%20series%29	The Executioner (book series)	The Executioner (a.k.a. Mack Bolan) is a monthly men's action-adventure paperback book series (published from 1969 - 2020) following the exploits of the character Mack Bolan and his wars against organized crime and international terrorism. The series has sold more than 200 million copies since its 1969 debut installment, War Against the Mafia. The regular series includes 464 novels (as of December 2020 when the series ended). Every other month, the Executioner series was complemented by the release of a Super Bolan, which were twice the length of a standard Executioner novel. There were 178 "Super Bolans" (as of December, 2015 when that series ended). The Executioner was created and initially written by American author Don Pendleton, who penned 37 of the original 38 Bolan novels (he did not write #16). In 1980, Pendleton licensed the rights to Gold Eagle and was succeeded by a collective of ghostwriters. Some Pinnacle printings in the middle of Pendleton's original series carried a photo and brief article on the author, showing that Pendleton was not just a "house name". Pinnacle Books was bought by Kensington Publishing (Zebra Books and others), and retained the rights to the original 38 novels; they were briefly reissued in the late 1980s-early 1990s. Since its inception in 1969, The Executioner series has spawned several spin-off series including Able Team (1982), Phoenix Force (1982), and Stony Man (the series into which Able Team and Phoenix Force were eventually merged in 1991). The Stony Man series began in 1991 with "Stony Man" #2 (since the first "Stony Man" novel was published as a one-shot back in 1983, titled "Stony Man Doctrine" which is also regarded as the first "Super Bolan" novel). Spinoff series In the Mack Bolan universe Stony Man is an anti-terrorist organization, with two teams - Able Team and Phoenix Force. Each had its own series of books from 1982 until 1991, when the publisher combined both series into Stony Man. In addition, the Super Bolan series emerged in 1985, a separate series of Mack Bolan adventures that ran concurrently with the regular monthly series. These books were double the size of a regular Executioner novel and were released every other month. Technically the first "Super Bolan" book was Stony Man Doctrine (1983) which is also considered the first book in the "Stony Man" series. The Super Bolan's then commenced with Book #2 in 1985 and ran a total of 178 novels. In France, a new spin-off series, Kira B., featuring Mack Bolan's "daughter" Kira, was introduced by the publisher Vauvenargues, in 2012. Written under the pen name Steven Belly, the series follows the adventures of Kira, a young woman who appeared in L'Exécuteur nº300: Le réseau Phénix, where she manipulated Mack Bolan to come out of retirement to fight against cyber-criminals. Since then, she has helped her "father" in his fight against crime and now is the heroine of her own, eponymous series. There were 453 novels in the original Executioner series (1969-2017), plus the following spinoff series..... The Executioner Mystery Magazine In 1975, Leonard J. Ackerman Productions produced Don Pendleton's The Executioner Mystery Magazine, a digest-sized, pulp magazine anthology series along the same lines as the Alfred Hitchcock Mystery Magazine. The magazine had little connection to the Mack Bolan books save for the occasional story related to the Mafia. The magazine ran for only four issues, ending in August 1975, with the final issue titled simply The Executioner Mystery Magazine. Other media Audio books Select Executioner titles were distributed on audiocassette by DH Audio through #241, although the company was dissolved in Fall 2001. These abridged versions of the books, read by Richard Rohan performing multiple voices, ran about 3 hours. Stony Man Doctrine was also published as an audio cassette tape. The first three books in the Executioner series in audio format were published by Books in Motion as cassette tapes. Cutting Edge Audio published the Executioner & Stony Man series on audio, starting in October 2004 and beginning with Executioner 301 Blast Radius and Stony Man 68 Outbreak. They were available throughout North America and online via Cuttingaudio.com. The company had no plans for selling them through regular retail outlets. They stopped publishing them in 2006. Movie screenplay Joseph E. Levine contracted Richard Maibaum in 1972 to write a screenplay, based on the fifth and sixth volumes, Continental Contract and Assault on Soho. Some Pinnacle printings at the time had a strapline in a corner of the cover with "Soon to be a major motion picture from Avco-Embassy." A later attempt to adapt The Executioner to the screen by William Friedkin was to star Sylvester Stallone and Cynthia Rothrock, but the production was scrapped. It was announced in August 2014, that Shane Salerno, Hollywood producer and screenwriter, acquired the rights to turn the novel series into a film franchise. Four days later, Deadline reported that Warner Bros. had acquired the film rights from Salerno, hoping to sign Bradley Cooper to star as Bolan and Todd Phillips to direct. Salerno would write the script and produce. Comics Mack Bolan: The Executioner was a comic book adaptation of War Against the Mafia adapted by Don and Linda Pendleton, published in 1993 by Innovation Publishing with art by Sandu Florea. Intended to run four issues, the final installment was not published due to Innovation closing. The Executioner: Death Squad was adapted by Linda Pendleton with art by Sandu Florea. It was a 128-page black and white comic, published in 1996 by Vivid Comics. The Executioner was adapted into a five-part comic book series by IDW, written by Doug Wojtowicz and illustrated by S. I. Gallant. It was reissued as the graphic novel Don Pendleton's The Executioner: The Devil's Tool in November 2008. The reissued version contained an introduction by Linda Pendleton, "Don Pendleton's Creation of Mack Bolan, The Executioner". Podcast The Executioner books and spin-offs are featured on the August 5, 2019 episode of the Paperback Warrior podcast. The show's hosts, Eric Compton and Tom Simon, discuss the series' origins including its impact on popular culture. Additionally, the show spotlights key authors that contributed to the series and its spin-offs. During that episode, Eric Compton reviews Executioner #88 Baltimore Trackdown by Chet Cunningham. Authors Series listing 001: War Against the Mafia 002: Death Squad 003: Battle Mask 004: Miami Massacre 005: Continental Contract 006: Assault on Soho 007: Nightmare in New York 008: Chicago Wipeout 009: Vegas Vendetta 010: Caribbean Kill 011: California Hit 012: Boston Blitz 013: Washington I.O.U. 014: San Diego Siege 015: Panic in Philly 016: Sicilian Slaughter (written by "Jim Peterson," a pseudonym for William Crawford) 017: Jersey Guns 018: Texas Storm 019: Detroit Deathwatch 020: New Orleans Knockout 021: Firebase Seattle 022: Hawaiian Hellground 023: St. Louis Showdown 024: Canadian Crisis 025: Colorado Kill-Zone 026: Acapulco Rampage 027: Dixie Convoy 028: Savage Fire The Executioner's War Book (not a novel, but an overview of the series to this point, with descriptions and schematic drawings of Bolan's weapons and War Wagon, lists of characters, excerpts from the novels, and letters from fans with Pendleton's original return mail replies) 029: Command Strike 030: Cleveland Pipeline 031: Arizona Ambush 032: Tennessee Smash 033: Monday's Mob The Great American Detective Anthology (contains the Mack Bolan short story Willing To Kill) 034: Terrible Tuesday 035: Wednesday's Wrath 036: Thermal Thursday 037: Friday's Feast 038: Satan's Sabbath (Pendleton's last) 039: The New War (series was taken over at this point by a team of ghost writers as "Don Pendleton's Mack Bolan") 040: Double Crossfire 041: The Violent Streets 042: The Iranian Hit (written by Stephen Mertz) 043: Return to Vietnam (written by Stephen Mertz) 044: Terrorist Summit 045: Paramilitary Plot 046: Bloodsport 047: Renegade Agent 048: The Libya Connection (written by Stephen Mertz) 049: Doomsday Disciples 050: Brothers in Blood 051: Vulture's Vengeance 052: Tuscany Terror (written by Stephen Mertz) 053: The Invisible Assassins 054: Mountain Rampage 055: Paradine's Gauntlet 056: Island Deathtrap 057: Flesh Wounds 058: Ambush on Blood River 059: Crude Kill 060: Sold for Slaughter 061: Tiger War 062: Day of Mourning (written by Stephen Mertz) 063: The New War Book (not a novel, but an overview of the series post-Pinnacle) 064: Dead Man Running (written by Stephen Mertz) 065: Cambodia Clash 066: Orbiting Omega 067: Beirut Payback (written by Stephen Mertz) 068: Prairie Fire 069: Skysweeper 070: Ice Cold Kill 071: Blood Dues 072: Hellbinder 073: Appointment in Kabul (written by Stephen Mertz) 074: Savannah Swingsaw 075: The Bone Yard 076: Teheran Wipeout (written by Stephen Mertz) 077: Hollywood Hell 078: Death Games 079: Council of Kings 080: Running Hot 081: Shock Waves 082: Hammerhead Reef 083: Missouri Deathwatch 084: Fastburn 085: Sunscream 086: Hell's Gate 087: Hellfire Crusade 088: Baltimore Trackdown 089: Defenders and Believers 090: Blood Heat Zero 091: The Trial 092: Moscow Massacre (written by Stephen Mertz) 093: The Fire Eaters 094: Save the Children (written by Stephen Mertz) 095: Blood and Thunder 096: Death Has a Name 097: Meltdown 098: Black Dice 099: Code of Dishonor 100: Blood Testament 101: Eternal Triangle 102: Split Image 103: Assault on Rome 104: Devil's Horn 105: Countdown to Chaos 106: Run to Ground 107: American Nightmare 108: Time to Kill 109: Hong Kong Hit List 110: Trojan Horse 111: The Fiery Cross 112: Blood of the Lion 113: Vietnam Fallout 114: Cold Judgment 115: Circle of Steel 116: The Killing Urge 117: Vendetta in Venice 118: Warrior's Revenge 119: Line of Fire 120: Border Sweep 121: Twisted Path 122: Desert Strike 123: War Born 124: Night Kill 125: Dead Man's Tale 126: Death Wind 127: Kill Zone 128: Sudan Slaughter 129: Haitian Hit 130: Dead Line 131: Ice Wolf 132: The Big Kill 133: Blood Run 134: White Line War 135: Devil Force 136: Down and Dirty 137: Battle Lines 138: Kill Trap 139: Cutting Edge 140: Wild Card 141: Direct Hit 142: Fatal Error 143: Helldust Cruise 144: Whipsaw 145: Chicago Payoff 146: Deadly Tactics 147: Payback Game 148: Deep and Swift 149: Blood Rules (The Medellin Trilogy #1) 150: Death Load 151: Message to Medellin (The Medellin Trilogy #3) 152: Combat Stretch 153: Firebase Florida 154: Night Hit 155: Hawaiian Heat 156: Phantom Force 157: Cayman Strike 158: Firing Line 159: Steel and Flame 160: Storm Warning (Storm Trilogy #1) 161: Eye of the Storm (Storm Trilogy #2) 162: Colors of Hell 163: Warrior's Edge 164: Death Trail 165: Fire Sweep 166: Assassin's Creed 167: Double Action 168: Blood Price 169: White Heat 170: Baja Blitz 171: Deadly Force 172: Fast Strike 173: Capital Hit 174: Battle Plan (Freedom Trilogy #1) 175: Battle Ground (Freedom Trilogy #2) 176: Ransom Run 177: Evil Code 178: Black Hand 179: War Hammer 180: Force Down 181: Shifting Target 182: Lethal Agent 183: Clean Sweep 184: Death Warrant 185: Sudden Fury 186: Fire Burst (Terror Trilogy #1) 187: Cleansing Flame (Terror Trilogy #2) 188: War Paint 189: Wellfire 190: Killing Range 191: Extreme Force 192: Maximum Impact 193: Hostile Action 194: Deadly Contest 195: Select Fire (Arms Trilogy #1) 196: Triburst (Arms Trilogy #2) 197: Armed Force (Arms Trilogy #3) 198: Shoot Down 199: Rogue Agent 200: Crisis Point 201: Prime Target 202: Combat Zone 203: Hard Contact 204: Rescue Run 205: Hell Road 206: Hunting Cry 207: Freedom Strike 208: Death Whisper 209: Asian Crucible 210: Fire Lash (Red Dragon Trilogy #1) 211: Steel Claws (Red Dragon Trilogy #2) 212: Ride the Beast (Red Dragon Trilogy #3) 213: Blood Harvest 214: Fission Fury 215: Fire Hammer 216: Death Force 217: Fight or Die 218: End Game 219: Terror Intent 220: Tiger Stalk 221: Blood and Fire 222: Patriot Gambit (American Trilogy #1) 223: Hour of Conflict (American Trilogy #2) 224: Call to Arms (American Trilogy #3) 225: Body Armor 226: Red Horse 227: Blood Circle 228: Terminal Option 229: Zero Tolerance 230: Deep Attack 231: Slaughter Squad 232: Jackal Hunt 233: Tough Justice 234: Target Command (Power Trilogy #1) 235: Plague Wind (Power Trilogy #2) 236: Vengeance Rising (Power Trilogy #3) 237: Hellfire Trigger 238: Crimson Tide 239: Hostile Proximity 240: Devil's Guard 241: Evil Reborn (The Hydra Trilogy #1) 242: Doomsday Conspiracy (The Hydra Trilogy #2) 243: Assault Reflex (The Hydra Trilogy #3) 244: Judas Kill 245: Virtual Destruction 246: Blood of the Earth 247: Black Dawn Rising 248: Rolling Death 249: Shadow Target 250: Warning Shot (The Border Fire Trilogy #1) 251: Kill Radius (The Border Fire Trilogy #2) 252: Death Line (The Border Fire Trilogy #3) 253: Risk Factor 254: Chill Effect 255: War Bird 256: Point of Impact 257: Precision Play 258: Target Lock 259: Nightfire (Lord of the Seas Trilogy #1) 260: Dayhunt (Lord of the Seas Trilogy #2) 261: Dawnkill (Lord of the Seas Trilogy #3) 262: Trigger Point (COMCON Wars #1) 263: Skysniper 264: Iron Fist (COMCON Wars #2) 265: Freedom Force 266: Ultimate Price (COMCON Wars #3) 267: Invisible Invader 268: Shattered Trust (The Conspiracy Trilogy #1) 269: Shifting Shadows (The Conspiracy Trilogy #2) 270: Judgment Day (The Conspiracy Trilogy #3) 271: Cyberhunt 272: Stealth Striker 273: Uforce 274: Rogue Target 275: Crossed Borders 276: Leviathan 277: Dirty Mission 278: Triple Reverse 279: Fire Wind 280: Fear Rally 281: Blood Stone 282: Jungle Conflict 283: Ring of Retaliation 284: Devil's Army (The Doomsday Trilogy #1) 285: Final Strike (The Doomsday Trilogy #2) 286: Armageddon Exit (The Doomsday Trilogy #3) 287: Rogue Warrior 288: Arctic Blast 289: Vendetta Force 290: Pursued 291: Blood Trade 292: Savage Game 293: Death Merchants 294: Scorpion Rising 295: Hostile Alliance 296: Nuclear Game (The Moon Shadow Trilogy #1) 297: Deadly Pursuit (The Moon Shadow Trilogy #2) 298: Final Play (The Moon Shadow Trilogy #3) 299: Dangerous Encounter 300: Warrior's Requiem 301: Blast Radius 302: Shadow Search 303: Sea of Terror 304: Soviet Specter 305: Point Position 306: Mercy Mission 307: Hard Pursuit 308: Into the Fire (OrgCrime Trilogy #1) 309: Flames of Fury (OrgCrime Trilogy #2) 310: Killing Heat (OrgCrime Trilogy #3) 311: Night of the Knives 312: Death Gamble 313: Lockdown 314: Lethal Payload 315: Agent of Peril 316: Poison Justice 317: Hour of Judgement 318: Code of Resistance 319: Entry Point (The Carnivore Project #1) 320: Exit Code (The Carnivore Project #2) 321: Suicide Highway 322: Time Bomb 323: Soft Target 324: Terminal Zone 325: Edge of Hell 326: Blood Tide 327: Serpent's Lair 328: Triangle of Terror 329: Hostile Crossing 330: Dual Action 331: Assault Force 332: Slaughter House 333: Aftershock 334: Jungle Justice 335: Blood Vector 336: Homeland Terror 337: Tropic Blast 338: Nuclear Reaction 339: Deadly Contact 340: Splinter Cell 341: Rebel Force 342: Double Play 343: Border War 344: Primal Law 345: Orange Alert 346: Vigilante Run 347: Dragon's Den 348: Carnage Code 349: Firestorm 350: Volatile Agent 351: Hell Night 352: Killing Trade 353: Black Death Reprise 354: Ambush Force 355: Outback Assault 356: Defense Breach 357: Extreme Justice 358: Blood Toll 359: Desperate Passage 360: Mission to Burma 361: Final Resort 362: Patriot Acts 363: Face of Terror 364: Hostile Odds 365: Collision Course 366: Pele's Fire 367: Loose Cannon 368: Crisis Nation 369: Dangerous Tides 370: Dark Alliance 371: Fire Zone 372: Lethal Compound 373: Code of Honor 374: System Corruption 375: Salvador Strike 376: Frontier Fury 377: Desperate Cargo 378: Death Run 379: Deep Recon 380: Silent Threat 381: Killing Ground 382: Threat Factor 383: Raw Fury 384: Cartel Clash 385: Recovery Force 386: Crucial Intercept 387: Powder Burn 388: Final Coup 389: Deadly Command 390: Toxic Terrain 391: Enemy Agents 392: Shadow Hunt 393: Stand Down 394: Trial by Fire 395: Hazard Zone 396: Fatal Combat 397: Damage Radius 398: Battle Cry 399: Nuclear Storm 400: Blind Justice (March 2012) 401: Jungle Hunt (April 2012) 402: Rebel Trade (May 2012) 403: Line of Honor (June 2012) 404: Final Judgement (July 2012) 405: Lethal Diversion (August 2012) 406: Survival Mission (September 2012) 407: Throw Down (October 2012) 408: Border Offensive (November 2012) 409: Blood Vendetta (December 2012) 410: Hostile Force (January 2013) 411: Cold Fusion (February 2013) 412: Night's Reckoning (March 2013) 413: Double Cross (April 2013) 414: Prison Code (May 2013) 415: Ivory Wave (June 2013) 416: Extraction (July 2013) 417: Rogue Assault (August 2013) 418: Viral Siege (September 2013) 419: Sleeping Dragons (October 2013) 420: Rebel Blast (November 2013) 421: Hard Targets (December 2013) 422: Nigeria Meltdown (January 2014) 423: Breakout (February 2014) 424: Amazon Impunity (March 2014) 425: Patriot Strike (April 2014) 426: Pirate offensive (May 2014) 427: Pacific Creed (June 2014) 428: Desert Impact (July 2014) 429: Arctic Kill (August 2014) 430: Deadly Salvage (September 2014) 431: Maximum Chaos (October 2014) 432: Slayground (November 2014) 433: Point Blank (December 2014) 434: Savage Deadlock (January 2015) 435: Dragon Key (February 2015) 436: Perilous Cargo (March 2015) 437: Assassins Tripwire (April 2015) 438: The Cartel Hit (May 2015) 439: Blood Rites (June 2015) 440: Killpath (July 2015) 441: Murder Island (August 2015) 442: Syrian Rescue (September 2015) 443: Uncut Terror (October 2015) 444: Dark Savior (November 2015) 445: Final Assault (December 2015) 446: Kill Squad (March 2016) 447: Death Game (June 2016) 448: Terrorist Dispatch (September 2016) 449: Combat Machines (December 2016) 450: Omega Cult (March 2017) 451: Fatal Prescription (June 2017) 452: Death List (September 2017) 453: Rogue Elements (December 2017) 454: Enemies Within (2018) 455: Chicago Vendetta (2018) 456: Thunder Down Under (2018) 457: Dying Art (2018) 458: Killing Kings (2019) 459: Stealth Assassin (2019) 460: Lethal Vengeance (2019) 461: Cold Fury (2019) 462: Cyberthreat (2020) 463: Righteous Fear (2020) 464: Blood Vortex (2020) List of SuperBolan books 001: Stony Man Doctrine (1983) 002: Terminal Velocity (April 1984) 003: Resurrection Day (February 1985) 004: Dirty War (September 1985) 005: Flight 741 (April 1986) 006: Dead Easy (September 1986) 007: Sudden Death (January 1987) 008: Rogue Force (May 1987) 009: Tropic Heat (August 1987) 010: Fire in the Sky (1988) 011: Anvil of Hell (March 1988) 012: Flash Point (July 1988) 013: Flesh and Blood (October 1988) 014: Moving Target (January 1989) 015: Tightrope (April 1989) 016: Blowout (1989) 017: Blood Fever (October 1989) 018: Knockdown (February 1990) 019: Assault (April 1990) 020: Backlash (September 1990) 021: Siege (November 1990) 022: Blockade (March 1991) 023: Evil Kingdom (June 1991) 024: Counterblow (August 1991) 025: Hardline (November 1991) 026: Firepower (February 1992) 027: Storm Burst (Storm Trilogy #3) (June 1992) 028: Intercept (August 1992) 029: Lethal Impact (November 1992) 030: Deadfall (Jan 1993) 031: Onslaught (May 1993) 032: Battle Force (Freedom Trilogy #3) (July 1993) 033: Rampage (November 1993) 034: Takedown (January 1994) 035: Death's Head (March 1994) 036: Hellground (June 1994) 037: Inferno (Terror Trilogy #3) (July 1994) 038: Ambush (September 1994) 039: Blood Strike (November 1994) 040: Killpoint (January 1995) 041: Vendetta (March 1995) 042: Stalk Line May 1995) 043: Omega Game (August 1995) 044: Shock Tactic (September 1995) 045: Showdown (November 1995) 046: Precision Kill (January 1996) 047: Jungle Law (April 1996) 048: Dead Center (June 1996) 049: Tooth and Claw (August 1996) 050: Red Heat (October 1996) 051: Thermal Strike (December 1996) 052: Day of the Vulture (February 1997) 053: Flames of Wrath (March 1997) 054: High Aggression (June 1997) 055: Code of Bushido (August 1997) 056: Terror Spin (October 1997) 057: Judgment in Stone (December 1997) 058: Rage for Justice (January 1998) 059: Rebels and Hostiles (April 1998) 060: Ultimate Game (April 1998) 061: Blood Feud (June 1998) 062: Renegade Force (October 1998) 063: Retribution (December 1998) 064: Initiation (Four Horsemen Trilogy #1) (February 1999) 065: Cloud of Death (Four Horsemen Trilogy #2) (April 1999) 066: Termination Point (Four Horsemen Trilogy #3) (June 1999) 067: Hellfire Strike (August 1999) 068: Code of Conflict (October 1999) 069: Vengeance (December 1999) 070: Executive Action (February 2000) 071: Killsport (April 2000) 072: Conflagration (June 2000) 073: Storm Front (July 2000) 074: War Season (September 2000) 075: Evil Alliance (November 2000) 076: Scorched Earth (January 2001) 077: Deception (March 2001) 078: Destiny's Hour (The Tyranny Files #1)(May 2001) 079: Power of the Lance (The Tyranny Files #2)(July 2001) 080: A Dying Evil (The Tyranny Files #3) (January 2002) 081: Deep Treachery (November 2001) 082: Warload (January 2002) 083: Sworn Enemies (March 2002) 084: Dark Truth (May 2002) 085: Breakaway (July 2002) 086: Blood and Sand (September 2002) 087: Caged (November 2002) 088: Sleepers (January 2003) 089: Strike and Retrieve March (March 2003) 090: Age of War (May 2003) 091: Line of Control (Frontier Wars duology, #1) (July 2003) 092: Breached (Frontier Wars duology, #2) (September 2003) 093: Retaliation (Sequel to MB #300) (November 2003) 094: Pressure Point (January 2004) 095: Silent Running (March 2004) 096: Stolen Arrows (May 2004) 097: Zero Option (July 2004) 098: Predator Paradise (September 2004) 099: Circle of Deception (November 2004) 100: Devil's Bargain (January 2005) 101: False Front (March 2005) 102: Lethal Tribute (May 2005) 103: Season of Slaughter (July 2005) 104: Point of Betrayal (September 2005) 105: Ballistic Force (November 2005) 106: Renegade (January 2006) 107: Survival Reflex (March 2006) 108: Path to War (May 2006) 109: Blood Dynasty (July 2006) 110: Ultimate Stakes (September 2006) 111: State of Evil (November 2006) 112: Force Lines (January 2007) 113: Contagion Option (March 2007) 114: Hellfire Code (May 2007) 115: War Drums (July 2007) 116: Ripple Effect (September 2007) 117: Devil's Playground (November 2007) 118: The Killing Rule (January 2008) 119: Patriot Play (September 2007) 120: Appointment in Baghdad (November 2007) 121: Havana Five (July 2008) 122: The Judas Project (October 2007) 123: Plains of Fire (May 2008) 124: Colony of Evil (January 2009) 125: Hard Passage (March 2009) 126: Interception (May 2009) 127: Cold War Reprise (July 2009) 128: Mission: Apocalypse (September 2009) 129: Altered State (October 2009) 130: Killing Game (November 2009) 131: Diplomacy Directive (January 2010) 132: Betrayed (March 2010) 133: Sabotage (April 2010) 134: Conflict Zone (June 2010) 135: Blood Play (July 2010) 136: Desert Fallout (September 2010) 137: Extraordinary Rendition (October 2010) 138: Devil's Mark (December 2010) 139: Savage Rule (January 2011) 140: Infiltration (March 2011) 141: Resurgence (April 2011) 142: Kill Shot (June 2011) 143: Stealth Sweep (July 2011) 144: Grave Mercy (September 2011) 145: Treason Play (October 2011) 146: Assassin's Code (November 2011) 147: Shadow Strike (January 2012) 148: Decision Point (March 2012) 149: Road of Bones (April 2012) 150: Radical Edge (June 2012) 151: Fireburst (July 2012) 152: Oblivion Pact (September 2012) 153: Enemy Arsenal (October 2012) 154: State of War (December 2012) 155: Ballistic (January 2013) 156: Escalation Tactic (March 2013) 157: Crisis Diplomacy (April 2013) 158: Apocalypse Ark (June 2013) 159: Lethal Stakes (July 2013) 160: Illicit Supply (September 2013) 161: Explosive Demand (October 2013) 162: Ground Zero (December 2013) 163: Jungle Firestorm (January 2014) 164: Terror Ballot (March 2014) 165: Death Metal (April 2014) 166: Justice Run (June 2014) 167: China White (July 2014) 168: Payback (September 2014) 169: Chain Reaction (October 2014) 170: Nightmare Army (December 2014) 171: Critical Exposure (January 2015) 172: Insurrection (March 2015) 173: Armed Response (April 2015) 174: Desert Falcons (June 2015) 175: Ninja Assault (July 2015) 176: Lethal Risk (September 2015) 177: Dead Reckoning (October 2015) 178: War Everlasting (December 2015) List of Kira B. books Kira 1: Ondes de Choc dans l'Oregon (2012, Shockwaves in Oregon) Kira 2: L'Aigle de Brandebourg (2013, Brandeburger Eagle) Kira 3: Neige de sang sur Oslo (2013) Kira 4: Crisis (2013) Kira 5: La Quadrature sibérienne (2013) See also Punisher References External links MackBolan.com Official website of Don Pendleton, the creator of The Executioner, Mack Bolan Series executionerseries.com Original Executioner Series American adventure novels Book series introduced in 1969 Fictional vigilantes Male characters in literature Novel series
4847582	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/21st%20Space%20Wing	21st Space Wing	The 21st Space Wing (21 SW) was the United States Space Force's ground–based missile warning and space control wing. The 21st Space Wing was assigned to Space Operations Command and headquartered at Peterson Air Force Base, Colorado. The 21st Space Wing controlled Peterson Air Force Base, Cheyenne Mountain Air Force Station, Thule Air Base, Clear Air Force Station, Cape Cod Air Force Station, and Cavalier Air Force Station. It was established in 1953 as the 21st Fighter-Bomber Wing, deploying to Europe to join NATO's Allied Command Europe, before being inactivated in 1958. It reactivated in 1958 as the 21st Tactical Fighter Wing, executing air defense operations over Japan and deterring North Korea, being inactivated in 1960. It was reactivated in 1966 as the 21st Composite Wing, and in 1979 redesignated the 21st Tactical Fighter Wing, performing air defense, close air support, and a variety of other missions in Alaska, before being redesignated the 21st Wing and being inactivated in 1991. The 21st Wing was activated as a space wing on 15 May 1992, replacing the 1st Space Wing and 3rd Space Support Wing. It was inactivated on 24 July 2020 and replaced by the Peterson-Schriever Garrison, with the 21st Operations Group being redesignated as Space Delta 2, the 73 Space Group was redesignated as Space Delta 3, and its ground–based missile warning units, combined with overhead persistent infrared units of the 460th Operations Group, was redesignated as Space Delta 4. Operations The 21st Space Wing was the United States Space Force's ground–based missile warning and space control wing. It was also the Space Force's, and prior to its transfer the Air Force's, most geographically dispersed wing, with forces spread across 22 locations. Its ground–based radars included the Precision Acquisition Vehicle Entry Phased Array Warning System (PAVE PAWS), Ballistic Missile Early Warning System (BMEWS), and Perimeter Attack Radar Characterization System (PARCS). At the time of its inactivation on 24 July 2020, the 21st Space Wing had 4,200 space professionals and airmen under its command. The 21st Space Wing served as the host wing for Peterson Air Force Base, providing base support for the combined United States–Canadian North American Aerospace Defense Command, United States Space Command, United States Northern Command, elements of the United States Army's Space and Missile Defense Command, the United States Air Force's 367th Recruiting Squadron, and Air Force Reserve Command's 302nd Airlift Wing. Structure in 2020 21st Operations Group (21 OG) 6th Space Warning Squadron (6 SWS), Cape Cod Air Force Station 7th Space Warning Squadron (7 SWS), Beale Air Force Base 10th Space Warning Squadron (10 SWS), Cavalier Air Force Station 12th Space Warning Squadron (12 SWS), Thule Air Base 13th Space Warning Squadron (13 SWS), Clear Air Force Station 18th Space Control Squadron (18 SPCS), Vandenberg Air Force Base 20th Space Control Squadron (20 SPCS), Eglin Air Force Base Detachment 1, 20th Space Control Squadron, White Sands Missile Range Detachment 2, 20th Space Control Squadron, Naval Support Facility Diego Garcia Detachment 3, 20th Space Control Squadron, Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory Operating Location – Fylingdales (OL-F), RAF Fylingdales 21st Operations Support Squadron (21 OSS) 21st Mission Support Group (21 MSG) 21st Civil Engineer Squadron (21 CES) 21st Communications Squadron (21 CS) 21st Contracting Squadron (21 CONS) 21st Force Support Squadron (21 FSS) 21st Security Forces Squadron (21 SFS) 21st Medical Group (21 MDG) 21st Healthcare Operations Squadron (21 HCOS) 21st Operational Medical Readiness Squadron (21 OMRS) 721st Operations Group (721 OG) 4th Space Control Squadron (4 SCS) 5th Space Control Squadron (5 SCS) 16th Space Control Squadron (16 SCS) 721st Operations Support Squadron (721 OSS) 821st Air Base Group (821 ABG), Thule Air Base 821st Support Squadron (821 SPTS) 821st Security Forces Squadron (821 SFS) 21st Comptroller Squadron (21 CPTS) Shield The 21st Space Wing shield was approved for use on 23 July 1957. The blue shield represents the sky, which is the 21st Space Wing's area of operations. The upraised sword represents the strength and readiness of the 21st Space Wing to perform its mission, in both peace and war. The lightning is symbol of the heavens beyond and the power of the 21st Space Wing. The blue, red, and yellow signify the three original fighter squadrons of the 21st Fighter-Bomber wing. The motto of the 21st Space Wing, "Strength and Preparedness" was derived from the original motto of the 21st Fighter-Bomber Wing, "Fortitudo et Preparatio." History 21st Fighter-Bomber Wing (1953–1958) On 1 January 1953 the 21st Fighter-Bomber Wing (21 FBW) was activated as a part of Tactical Air Command's Ninth Air Force at George Air Force Base, California. It directly commanded the 21st Fighter-Bomber Group, which oversaw the 72nd Fighter-Bomber Squadron, 416th Fighter-Bomber Squadron, and the 531st Fighter-Bomber Squadron. All fighter-bomber squadrons initially flew North American F-51 Mustang piston engine fighters, but within six months of activation upgraded to fly the North American F-86F Sabre jet fighter. In September and October 1953, each of the 21st Fighter-Bomber Wing's squadrons rotated through a two-week arctic indoctrination program at Eielson Air Force Base, Alaska to prepare it for winter warfare operations. The 21st FBW also participated in defense diplomacy, sending six of its F-86F Sabres to participate in Project Willtour, visiting twelve different Central American, South American, and Caribbean states and performing joint training with their armed forces. In April and May 1954 the 21 FBW conducted Operation Boxkite, an exercise at North Field, South Carolina, which was designed to test the ability of a tactical wing to deploy to a forward base and sustain combat operations for thirty days. On 22 June 1954 it was announced that the 21st Fighter-Bomber Wing would be transferred to Europe to reinforce NATO forces deterring the Soviet Union and Warsaw Pact. On 12 December 1954 it was reassigned to United States Air Forces in Europe's Twelfth Air Force and stationed at Chambley Air Base, France, however the airbase was not operational until June 1956. The fighter-bomber squadrons deployed in four tranches between November 1954 and January 1955, with flying units making stopovers at Labrador, Greenland, Iceland, and Scotland. When they arrived in France the fighter-bomber squadrons operated out of alternate airfields until Chambley AB could support flying operations. In Europe the 21st Fighter-Bomber Wing conduced close air support exercises with United States Army Europe, as well as NATO's Northern Army Group and Central Army Group. They also took part in USAFE's gunnery meet at Wheelus Field, Libya and the "Carte Blanche" atomic warfare exercise. In 1956, the 21st Fighter-Bomber Wing also took second place at the gunnery meet at Nellis Air Force Base, Nevada and won the USAFE Award for Tactical Proficiency for January–June 1957. Among the pilots of the 21st Fighter-Bomber wing was then First Lieutenant Michael Collins, who would later go on to become a NASA astronaut on Apollo 11, the first crewed mission to the Moon. On 8 February 1958 the 21st Fighter-Bomber Wing was inactivated, with its assets distributed to various USAFE units. 21st Tactical Fighter Wing (1958–1960) On 1 July 1958 the 21st Tactical Fighter Wing (21 TFW) was reactivated at Misawa Air Base, Japan. Initially directly subordinated to Pacific Air Forces' Fifth Air Force, on 10 November 1958 the 21 TFW was reassigned to Fifth Air Force's 39th Air Division. The 21st Tactical Fighter Wing was composed of the 416th Tactical Fighter Squadron, 531st Tactical Fighter Squadron, 21st Armament and Electronics Squadron, 21st Field Maintenance Squadron, and the 21st Tactical Hospital. The 21st Tactical Fighter Wing was tasked, along with the Japan Air Self Defense Force, with the air defense of northern Japan against Soviet Air Forces aircraft. The 21 TFW was also postured to perform strategic bombing against North Korea as enumerated in the Quick Strike contingency plan, if hostilities broke out again. At the time of reactivation both the 416th Tactical Fighter Squadron and 531st Tactical Fighter Squadron flew Republic F-84G Thunderjet fighter-bomber, however, the 531 TFS began transitioning to the North American F-100D Super Sabre, with the 416 TFS performing the warfighting mission in the interim. Once the 531 TFS became fully combat capable in April 1959 it assumed the warfighting mission and the 416 TFS began transitioning to the F-100D. Even with two units transitioning to different platforms, the 21st Tactical Fighter Wing still managed to achieve an "Excellent" rating in the Fifth Air Force's tactical evaluation and operational readiness inspection in August and September 1959, achieving the best bomb score average in the history of the Fifth Air Force. These training successes were repeated in operations, with the 21st Tactical Fighter Wing regularly intercepting Soviet Air Forces Tupolev Tu-16 Badger and Myasishchev M-4 Bison bombers encroaching on Japanese airspace, with First Lieutenant Charles Ferguson of the 531st Fighter Squadron achieving the first ever interception of a M-4 Bison bomber on 1 October 1959 and others taking valuable air-to-air photos of the Tu-16 Badger bomber for Air Force intelligence. In addition to conducting air defense operations, the 21st Tactical Fighter Wing also deployed forces to South Korea, deterring North Korea from resuming hostilities. On 7 August 1959, two F-100D's from the 531st Tactical Fighter Squadron conducted the first transpolar flight by American jet aircraft, flying from Weathersfield, England to Eielson Air Force Base, Alaska. On 18 June 1960 the 21st Tactical Fighter Wing was inactivated again, due to the United States placing a limit on the amount of fighter wings in the Air Force, resulting in a reorganization of Fifth Air Force. The assets of the 21st Tactical Fighter Wing were transferred among the rest of the assets of the 39th Air Division. 21st Composite Wing (1966–1979), 21st Tactical Fighter Wing (1979–1991), and 21st Wing (1991) On 8 July 1966 the 21st Composite Wing (21 CW) was reactivated at Elmendorf Air Force Base, Alaska and assigned to Alaskan Air Command, which also supported Continental Air Defense Command and the Alaskan NORAD Region. As a composite wing, it was assigned the missions of air defense, tactical airlift, and search and rescue. The air defense mission was carried out by the 317th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron, which was equipped with the Convair F-102A Delta Dagger and TF-102 interceptors, two of which were always on alert at Elmendorf Air Force Base, Eielson Air Force Base, King Salmon Airport, and Galena Airport. 317 FIS was considered an elite unit, having been the only squadron to have won the Hughes Achievement Trophy for air defense three times. The 17th Troop Carrier Squadron, which was redesignated the 17th Tactical Airlift Squadron in 1967, conducted the airlift mission with Douglas C-124 Globemaster II and Lockheed C-130 Hercules tactical transports, performing resupply to Alaskan Air Command and Army air defense and space tracking radars. 17 TAS also stationed two cold-weather C-130s at Sondrestrom Air Base, Greenland to support the Distant Early Warning Line. The search and rescue mission was conducted by the 21st Operations Squadron and 5040th Helicopter Squadron, which flew the Piasecki H-21 helicopters. The 21st Operations Squadron also flew the Douglas C-47 Skytrain, Douglas C-54 Skymaster, Douglas C-118 Liftmaster, and Douglas C-124 Globemaster II transports to perform utility airlift. On 1 January 1970, the 21st Operations Squadron was inactivated, and the search and rescue mission was entirely turned over to the 5040th Helicopter Squadron, which also transitioned from the older H-21s to the Sikorsky HH-3E Jolly Green Giant. On 1 October 1971, the 5041st Tactical Operations Squadron was activating, operating a variety of aircraft, including the Douglas C-124 Globemaster II, Lockheed T-33 Shooting Star, North American T-39 Sabreliner, Douglas EC-118, Douglas VC-118, Martin B-57 Canberra, and Martin EB-57. The technologically outdated F-102s were starting to become ineffective against Soviet Air Forces intruders, resulting in Alaska Air Command to try to upgrade them to more advanced F-4 Phantom IIs, however Tactical Air Command and Pacific Air Forces fighter squadrons tasked for the Vietnam War got first priority. Air Defense Command augmented Alaska Air Command by sending squadrons equipped with the Convair F-106 Delta Dart to Alaska on a rotational basis. In 1969, due to the age of their F-102 fighters, the 317th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron was inactivated. In 1970 the 43rd Tactical Fighter Squadron was assigned to the 21st Composite Wing and equipped with advanced McDonnell Douglas F-4E Phantom II. The 43rd Tactical Fighter Squadron, despite mechanical issues due to the Alaskan winter, also assumed the close air support mission role in support of the Army. Despite these issues the 43rd Tactical Fighter Squadron proved itself, conducting combat alerts, intercepts against Soviet Air Forces intruders, and combat exercises. In June 1972 the 43rd Tactical Fighter Squadron sent a detachment to Operation Cool Shoot at Tyndall Air Force Base, Florida and was awarded the Hughes Achievement Trophy in December of that year. 21 CW continued to compete in exercised during 1976, including Jack Frost, the Tactical Air Command Weapons System Evaluation Program at Eglin Air Force Base, Florida, and the William Tell fighter weapons competition in October and November at Tyndall AFB, where the 21st Composite Wing won the awards for the best F-4 crew, best maintenance crew, the Apple Splitter award for most drones destroyed, and the Top Gun award. 43 TFS won the Hughes Achievement Trophy again in 1977 and went to the Canadian Forces Air Command's Maple Flag in September 1978 and U.S. Air Force's Red Flag in April 1979. In 1975 the 21st Composite Wing was divested of its helicopter and transport forces and inactivated the 5021st Helicopter Squadron, which were realigned under Military Airlift Command across the Air Force, however the 21 CW gained two airbase wings and responsibility for all of Alaska's air control and missile and space warning sites. In 1977 the 343rd Tactical Fighter Group and 18th Tactical Fighter Squadron, equipped with F-4Es, was activated under the 21st Composite Wing. The 43rd Tactical Fighter Squadron was moved to the 343rd Tactical Fighter Group as well. The 18th Tactical Fighter Squadron assumed responsibility for close air support, while the 43rd Tactical Fighter Squadron specialized in the air defense mission. In October 1977 the 5041 Tactical Operations Squadron was inactivated as well. On 1 October 1979 the 21st Composite Wing was redesignated as the 21st Tactical Fighter Wing (21 TFW), reorganizing it along the lines of a standard tactical fighter wing in response to a study initiated by its commander, Colonel Michael Nelson. All of the aircraft from the composite wing were dispersed to other units, except for its 40 F-4E fighters, 12 T-33 trainers, and a Beechcraft C-12 Huron. The F-4Es remained with the 43rd Tactical Fighter Squadron and 18th Tactical Fighter Squadron, while the T-33s and C-12 were assigned to the newly activated 5021st Tactical Operations Squadron. F-4Es from the 21st Tactical Fighter Wing deployed to Chongju Air Base, South Korea to participate in Exercise Team Spirit with the Republic of Korea Air Force. The 21st Tactical Fighter Wing also practiced dissimilar air combat training starting in March 1980, while also conducting combat air patrols, air interdiction operations, and composite force tactics training. In March 1980, the 21st Tactical Fighter Wing received its first McDonnell Douglas F-15A Eagles for the 43rd Tactical Fighter Squadron. The 18th Tactical Squadron was moved to the 343rd Composite Wing, where it was equipped with A-10 Thunderbolt II ground attack planes. The 21st Tactical Fighter Wing became the first unit in the Air Force to reach Initial Operitonal Capability on the F-15 without any outside assistance. On 24 November 1982 it made its first intercept with the F-15A Eagle, intercepting a Soviet Air Forces Tupolev Tu-95. 21 TFW F-15s conducted several deployments and exercises, such as United States Readiness Command's arctic exercise Brim Frost, the 1985 Team Spirit exercises with the Republic of Korea Air Force and Japan Air Self Defense Force, and numerous training exercises with the Canadian Forces Air Command. Three F-15As of the 21st Tactical Fighter Wing also became the first Alaskan single-seat fighters to circle the North Pole. In May 1987, the 21st Tactical Fighter Wing received its first F-15C and F-15D Eagles, with the D variants replacing the T-33 as the unit's trainer and resulting in the inactivation of the 5021 Tactical Operations Squadron in 1988. The 21st Tactical Fighter Wing also hosted numerous dignitaries, such as President George H. W. Bush on his way to the state funeral of the Emperor of Japan Hirohito. In 1989, F-15Cs of the 21st Tactical Fighter Wing escorted the first two Soviet Air Forces Mikoyan MiG-29s to attend an airshow in North America. In 1990, Alaskan Air Command became Pacific Air Forces' Eleventh Air Force. In May 1991, the 21st Tactical Fighter Wing activated the 90th Tactical Fighter Squadron which was equipped with McDonnell Douglas F-15E Strike Eagle strike fighters. In 1991 the Air Force directed the implementation of the one wing, one base policy resulting in the redesignation of the 21st Tactical Fighter Wing as the 21st Wing (21 WG) on 26 September 1991, in preparation for its inactivation on 19 December 1991. It's flying units were consolidated under the 3rd Wing. 21st Space Wing (1992–present) On 15 May 1992, the 21st Space Wing (21 SW) was reactivated at Peterson Air Force Base, Colorado and assigned to Air Force Space Command. The 21st Space Wing replaced Air Force Space Command's 1st Space Wing, which managed ground and space-based sensors, and the 3rd Space Support Wing, which was the host wing for Peterson Air Force Base and Cheyenne Mountain Air Force Station. Replacing the 1st Space Wing and 3rd Space Support Wing with the 21st Space Wing was part of a larger Air Force initiative designed to preserve early Air Force flying heritage, and bestowed upon the 21st Space Wing the history and honors of the World War II-era 21st Fighter Group and 21st Bombardment Group. On 20 September 1993, the 21st Space Wing was assigned to the Air Force Space Command's Fourteenth Air Force. The 21st Space Wing's primary mission was missile warning, which was conducted via terrestrial and space-based sensors operated by the 21st Operations Group. The 2nd Space Warning Squadron, based at Buckley Air National Guard Base, and the 5th Space Warning Squadron, based Woomera Air Station, Australia, flew the Defense Support Program infra-red missile launch detection satellites. The 4th Space Warning Squadron, stationed at Holloman Air Force Base, operated the Defense Support Program's Mobile Ground Station, before having its mission transferred to the Air National Guard's 137th Space Warning Squadron in 1997. On 1 October 1994 the 11th Space Warning Squadron was activated at Falcon Air Force Base to provide accurate and timely missile warning to theater forces through the Attack and Launch Early Reporting to Theater (ALERT) system. In addition to these space systems, the 21st Space Wing operated a number of terrestrial radar sites, spread across the world. The 6th Space Warning Squadron, stationed at Cape Cod Air Force Station, 7th Space Warning Squadron, stationed at Beale Air Force Base, 8th Space Warning Squadron, stationed at Eldorado Air Force Station, and 9th Space Warning Squadron, stationed at Robins Air Force Base all operated the Phased Array Warning System (PAVE PAWS), which had been in operation since the 1980s. The 10th Space Warning Squadron, stationed at Cavalier Air Force Station, operated the Perimeter Acquisition Radar Characterization System (PARCS), which served as part of the sea launched ballistic missile warning network for the Arctic region. The 12th Space Warning Squadron, stationed at Thule Air Base, Greenland, 13th Space Warning Squadron, stationed at Clear Air Force Station, Alaska, and a British detachment out of RAF Fylingdales operated the Ballistic Missile Early Warning System (BMEWS) radar network. The Ballistic Missile Early Warning System had been in operation since the 1960s, and was updated to the Solid State Phased Array Radar System (SSPAR), which became operational at Thule Air Base in 1987, RAF Fylingdales in 1992, and at Clear Air Force Station in 2001. Due to budgetary reasons the 8th Space Warning Squadron and 9th Space Warning Squadron, and there radar systems, were inactivated in July 1995. In April 1995 the 21st Space Wing gained the 721st Space Group, which would later be redesignated the 721st Support Group, and in 2002 the 721st Mission Support Group, which oversaw operations at Cheyenne Mountain Air Force Station. On 26 April 1995, the 73rd Space Group, which was stationed at Falcon Air Force Base and conducted space surveillance operations, was inactivated and its mission was assumed by the 21st Space Wing. The assimilation of the 73rd Space Wing brought a number of space surveillance units into the 21st Space Wing. The 19th Space Surveillance Squadron, which was stationed at Pirinclik Air Force Station and operated the AN/FPS-79 radar to monitory space and missile launches from the former Soviet Union, Russian Federation, and Middle East. 19 SPSS, through earlier units, had monitored space and missile launches from the Soviet Union starting in 1955, including the launches of Sputnik 1 and Vostok 1. The 20th Space Surveillance Squadron, stationed at Eglin Air Force Base, operated the AN/FPS-85 radar, which was Air Force Space Command's first electronically steered radar. The 21st Space Wing also inherited the Ground-Based Electro-Optical Deep Space Surveillance System from the 73rd Space Group, which it operated through Detachment 1 at Socorro, New Mexico, Detachment 2 at Naval Support Facility Diego Garcia, and Detachment 3 at the Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory, which conducted deep-space surveillance and space-object identification. Detachment 4 was activated at Morón Air Base, Spain to operate the Transportable Optical System (TOS) in September 1998, and was renamed the Morón Optical Surveillance System (MOSS) in April 1999. Morón would receive the El Raven telescope in November 2005 and the RO4 high-volume superior resolution camera in June 2006 to enhance its space control mission. The 3rd Space Surveillance Squadron, stationed at Misawa Air Base, Japan and the 5th Space Surveillance Squadron, stationed at RAF Feltwell operated the Deep Space Tracking System (DSTS). The 1st Space Surveillance Squadron, stationed at Griffiss Air Force Base, the 4th Space Surveillance Squadron, stationed at Lackland Air Force Base, 17th Space Surveillance Squadron, stationed at RAF Edzell, and Detachment 1, stationed at Osan Air Base, South Korea operated the Low Altitude Space Surveillance System (LASS). The 21st Space Wing also inherited a number of command and control units, including the included the 721st Mobile Command and Control Squadron, which operated the mobile command and control center, 1st Command and Control Squadron, which was at Cheyenne Mountain Air Force Station and tasked the worldwide space surveillance network and maintained the space catalog, 2nd Command and Control Squadron, which was stationed at Schriever Air Force Base and supported the passive space surveillance network, and the 3rd Command and Control Squadron, which was stationed at Offutt Air Force Base and was the alternate missile warning center. Due to the obsolescence of passive radar systems, the Deep Space Tracking System and Low Altitude Space Surveillance System was decommission, with 1 SPSS inactivating in 1995, 17 SPSS inactivating in 1996, Detachment 1 at Osan AB inactivating in 1997, 5 SPSS inactivating in January 2002, and 3 SPSS inactivating in February 2002. 19 SPSS and its Turkish radar site was inactivated in 1999. The 721st Mobile Command and Control Squadron was inactivated in 1998, but reactivated as the 153d Command and Control Squadron in support of United States Strategic Command. 2 CACS transferred to 14th Air Force in 1998. 3 CACS was inactivated in 1999 as the upgrades of Cheyenne Mountain Operations Center removed the need for an alternate missile warning center. In June 2008 1 CACS was realigned under the 614th Air and Space Operations Center. In 1996, the 821st Space Group at Buckley Air National Guard Base was activated under the 21st Space Wing, to run the Defense Support Program satellites, separate from the 21st Operations Group. The Defense Support Program began to draw down as the 821st Space Group transitioned to the Space-Based Infrared System, resulting in the inactivation of the 5th Space Warning Squadron. The 21st Space Wing also lost its last renaming aviation mission with the transition of the 84th Airlift Flight and its Learjet C-21 transports to Air Mobility Command in 1997. In an attempt to achieve greater efficiencies the 21st Medical Group was inactivated and reassigned to the United States Air Force Academy as the 10th Medical Group in 1998. During the September 11 attacks the 21st Space Wing went to a heightened alert, closing the blast doors at the Cheyenne Mountain Complex for the first time in history. The 21st Space Wing also deployed space forces across the world in support of Operation Enduring Freedom. In May 2001 the 11th Space Warning Squadron was reassigned from the 821st Operations Group to the 21st Operations Group and inactivated in September 2001. The 821st Operations Group and its three remaining component squadrons were inactivated in October 2001, with elements moving to the newly created 460th Air Base Wing, which oversaw Buckley Air Force Base, having transitioned from the Air National Guard to Air Force Space Command in October 2000. The activation of the 460 ABW saw 21 SW cease to be Buckley AFB's host wing. In December 2001, 2 SWS achieved initial operation capability on the Space Based Infrared System. In August 2004, the 21st Space Wing transitioned the Defense Support Program and Space Based Infrared System to the 460th Space Wing, ending the 21st Space Wing's spaceflight mission. The 21st Space Wing began to focus more on counter-space capabilities, assuming the space control mission. In 2000, it activated the 76th Space Operations Squadron, which operated the Counter Communications System, achieving initial operational capability in September 2004. The 76th Space Operations Squadron was redesignated the 76th Space Control Squadron in recognition of its mission in January 2001, and all former space surveillance squadrons were redesignated as space control squadrons on 1 March 2003. The 4th Space Control Squadron began transitioning into the space control mission in July 2005, activating its first counter communications system in April 2006. In July 2014, 4 SPCS relocated from Holloman AFB to Peterson AFB and consolidated with 76 SPCS into a single squadron, which assumed the name 4th Space Control Squadron. The 16th Space Control Squadron was activated as a defensive space control unit in May 2007 at Peterson AFB. As the space control mission grew, so did the requirement for space situational awareness. To this end, the four detachments of the 21st Operations Group, worked with the 20th Space Control Squadron at Eglin Air Force Base, 20 SPCS' Detachment 1 at Dahlgren, Virginia, and the Globus II at Vardo, Norway. In June 2002 the 821st Air Base Group was activated to provide base support at Thule Air Base, Greenland, freeing the 12th Space Warning Squadron to focus entirely on its operational mission. On 1 October 2002, the 21st Space Wing was aligned along the standard combat wing structure, redesignated the 21st Support Group as the 21st Mission Support Group and the 721st Support Group as the 721st Mission Support Group. On the same day it activated the 21st Maintenance Group and 21st Logistics Readiness Squadron. It also regained control of the 21st Medical Group from the Air Force Academy in October 2003, expanding it with the activation of the 21st Dental Squadron in July 2005 and the 21st Medical Squadron in June 2012. In February 2004, the 721st Civil Engineer Squadron was inactivated, but later was reactivated in June 2012. As part of the Air Force's manpower reductions, in July 2004 the 18th Space Control Squadron was inactivated and its detachments were realigned under the 21st Operations Group. In August 2004, Detachment 1, 20th Space Control Squadron, was activated in order to operate the Navy Space System and Alternate Space Control Center. As art of Program Budget Decision 720 the 21st Maintenance Group was inactivated in May 2008. The 21st Communications Squadron was transferred to the 21st Mission Support Group, while other elements were moved into the 21st Operations Group or the 21st Space Wing Director of Staff. Elements of the 21st Mission Support Group also experienced changes, as the 21st Mission Support Squadron was redesignated as the 21st Force Support Squadron, and the 21st Services Squadron merged into the 21st Force Support Squadron on 15 July 2008 as part of a larger Air Force restructuring. Detachment 1, 20 SPCS at Dahlgren inactivated in April 2010, and Detachment 4, 21 OG at Morón AB inactivated in March 2013. In April 2013, the 13th Space Warning Squadron began oversight of the Cobra Dane radar site in Alaska. Members of the 21st Space Wing were deployed to support Operation Enduring Freedom and Operation Inherent Resolve. These included Airman First Class Matthew Seidler, a member of the 21st Civil Engineering Squadron, Explosive Ordinance Disposal Flight, who was killed in action on 5 January 2012 and Captain David Lyon, an officer of the 21st Logistics Readiness Squadron and member of the United States Air Force Academy's class of 2008, was killed in Afghanistan on 27 December 2013. The 21st Space Wing also earned numerous awards, including the General Robert T. Herres Award for Best Space Wing in and General Thomas S. Moorman, Jr. Award for Air Force Space Command's Best Operational Wing in 2013. The 21st Space Wing also made increased strides in activating the new Space Fence and Long Range Discrimination Radar. Detachment 4, 21st Operations Group was activated on 8 December 2015, while the remaining GEODSS 21 OG detachments transferred to the 20th Space Control Squadron on 20 April 2016. On 22 July 2016 the 18th Space Control Squadron was reactivated at Vandenberg Air Force Base. On 20 December 2019 the 21st Space Wing, along with the rest of Air Force Space Command became part of the United States Space Force. The Fourteenth Air Force was redesignated as Space Operations Command, which the 21st Space Wing remained assigned to. On 21 Oct 2020, Space Operations Command was redesignated back to Fourteenth Air Force and returned to the United States Air Force. On the same day, Space Operations Command (formerly, Air Force Space Command) was activated on 21 Oct 2020. On 24 July 2020, the 21st Space Wing was inactivated for a final time, being replaced by the Peterson-Schriever Garrison, while its space domain awareness units were reassigned to Space Delta 2, the 73 Space Group became Space Delta 3, responsible for electronic warfare, and its missile warning squadrons were transferred to Space Delta 4, which used to be the 460th Operations Group at Buckley AFB. Commanders Commander, 21st Fighter-Bomber Wing Commander, 21st Tactical Fighter Wing Commander, 21st Composite Wing Commander, 21st Tactical Fighter Wing Commander, 21st Wing Commander, 21st Space Wing References Wings of the United States Space Force Space wings of the United States Air Force Military units and formations in Colorado Organizations based in Colorado Springs, Colorado Military units and formations disestablished in 2021
4848143	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20York%20Yankees	New York Yankees	The New York Yankees are an American professional baseball team based in the New York City borough of the Bronx. The Yankees compete in Major League Baseball (MLB) as a member club of the American League (AL) East division. They are one of two major league clubs based in New York City alongside the National League (NL)'s New York Mets. The team was founded in when Frank Farrell and Bill Devery purchased the franchise rights to the defunct Baltimore Orioles (no relation to the current team of the same name) after it ceased operations and used them to establish the New York Highlanders. The Highlanders were officially renamed the New York Yankees in . The team is owned by Yankee Global Enterprises, a limited liability company that is controlled by the family of the late George Steinbrenner. Steinbrenner purchased the team from CBS in 1973. Currently, Brian Cashman is the team's general manager, and Aaron Boone is the team's field manager. The team's home games were played at the original Yankee Stadium in the Bronx from 1923 to 1973 and from 1976 to 2008. In 1974 and 1975, the Yankees shared Shea Stadium with the Mets, in addition to the New York Jets and the New York Giants. In 2009, they moved into a new ballpark of the same name that was constructed adjacent to the previous facility, which was closed and demolished. The team is perennially among the leaders in MLB attendance. Arguably the most successful professional sports franchise in the United States, the Yankees have won 20 American League East Division titles, 40 American League pennants, and 27 World Series championships, all of which are MLB records. The team has won more titles than any other franchise in the four major North American sports leagues, after briefly trailing the NHL's Montreal Canadiens between 1993 and 1999. The Yankees have had 44 players and 11 managers inducted into the National Baseball Hall of Fame, including many of the sport's most iconic figures in history such as Babe Ruth, Lou Gehrig, Joe DiMaggio, Mickey Mantle, Yogi Berra, Whitey Ford, Reggie Jackson, and Goose Gossage; more recent inductees include Mariano Rivera and Derek Jeter, who received the two highest vote percentages of all Hall of Fame members. According to Forbes, the Yankees are the fourth-highest valued sports franchise in the world, after the NFL's Los Angeles Rams, with an estimated value in 2022 of approximately $6 billion. The team has garnered enormous popularity and a dedicated fanbase, as well as widespread enmity from fans of other MLB teams. The team's rivalry with the Boston Red Sox is one of the most well-known rivalries in North American sports. The team's logo is internationally known as a fashion item, and as an icon of New York City and the United States. From 1903 through the 2022 season, the Yankees' overall win–loss record is 10,602–8,000 (a winning percentage). History 1901–1902: Origins in Baltimore In 1900, Ban Johnson, the president of a minor league known as the Western League (1894–1899), changed the Western League name to the American League (AL) and asked the National League to classify it as a major league. Johnson held that his league would operate on friendly terms with the National League, but the National League demanded concessions which Johnson did not agree with and declared major league status for the AL in 1901 anyway. Plans to add an AL team in New York City were blocked by the NL's New York Giants. A team was instead placed in Baltimore, Maryland, in 1901 and named the Orioles. The Orioles were managed by John McGraw, who was also a part owner. After many personal clashes with Johnson, during the season McGraw jumped to become the new manager of the Giants, taking many players with him. The Orioles limped through the remainder of the season under league control, using a roster of players loaned from the rest of the AL clubs. The Orioles were disbanded at the end of the season. In early 1903, the two leagues decided to settle their disputes and try to coexist. At a conference, Johnson requested that an AL team be put in New York, to play alongside the NL's Giants. It was put to a vote, and 15 of the 16 major league owners agreed on it. The franchise was awarded to Frank J. Farrell and William S. Devery. 1903–1912: Establishment in New York and the Highlanders years The team's new ballpark, Hilltop Park (formally known as "American League Park"), was constructed in one of Upper Manhattan's highest points—between 165th and 168th Streets in the Washington Heights neighborhood. The team was named the New York Highlanders. Fans believed the name was chosen because of the team's elevated location in Upper Manhattan, or as a nod to team president Joseph Gordon's Scottish-Irish heritage (the Gordon Highlanders were a well known Scottish military unit). The land was owned by the New York Institute for the Education of the Blind and was leased to the Highlanders for 10 years. Initially, the team was commonly referred to as the New York Americans. The team was also referred to as the "Invaders" in the Evening Journal and The Evening World. New York Press Sports Editor Jim Price coined the unofficial nickname Yankees (or "Yanks") for the club as early as 1904, because it was easier to fit in headlines. The Highlanders finished second in the AL in 1904, 1906, and 1910. In 1904, they lost the deciding game on a wild pitch to the Boston Americans, who later became the Boston Red Sox. That year, Highlander pitcher Jack Chesbro set the single-season wins record at 41. At this time there was no formal World Series agreement wherein the AL and NL winners would play each other. 1913–1922: New owners, a new home, and a new name: Years at the Polo Grounds The Polo Grounds, located on the shore of the Harlem River in Washington Heights, was home to the New York Giants of the National League. The Giants were inter-city rivals with the Highlanders, dating back to when Giants manager John McGraw feuded with Ban Johnson after McGraw jumped from the Orioles to the Giants. Polo Grounds III burned down in 1911 and the Highlanders shared Hilltop Park with the Giants during a two-month renovation period. Later, from 1913 to 1922, the Highlanders shared the Polo Grounds with the Giants after their lease with Hilltop Park expired. While playing at the Polo Grounds, the name "Highlanders" fell into disuse among the press. In 1913 the team became officially known as the New York Yankees. In the mid‑1910s, the Yankees finished towards the bottom of the standings. The relationship between Farrell and Devery became strained due to money issues and the team performance. At the start of 1915, the pair sold the team to Colonel Jacob Ruppert, a brewer, and Captain Tillinghast L'Hommedieu Huston, a contractor-engineer. Ruppert and Huston paid $350,000 () with both men contributing half of the total price. After the purchase, Ruppert assumed the role of team president with Huston becoming team secretary and treasurer. 1923–1935: Sluggers and the Stadium: Ruth, Gehrig, and Murderer's Row In the years around 1920, the Yankees, the Red Sox, and the Chicago White Sox had a détente. The trades between the three ball clubs antagonized Ban Johnson and garnered the teams the nickname "The Insurrectos". This détente paid off well for the Yankees as they increased their payroll. Most new players who later contributed to the team's success came from the Red Sox, whose owner, Harry Frazee, was trading them for large sums of money to finance his theatrical productions. Pitcher-turned-outfielder Babe Ruth was the most talented of all the acquisitions from Boston, and the outcome of that trade would haunt the Red Sox for the next 86 years, a span in which the team did not win a single World Series championship. This phenomenon eventually became known as the Curse of the Bambino, which was coined by writer Dan Shaughnessy in the 1990 book of the same name. Ruth's multitude of home runs proved so popular that the Yankees began drawing more people than their National League counterpart, the Giants. In 1921 — the year after acquiring Ruth — the Yankees played in their first World Series. They competed against the Giants, and all eight games of the series were played in the Polo Grounds. After the 1922 season, the Yankees were told to move out of the Polo Grounds. Giants manager John McGraw became upset with the increase of Yankees attendance along with the number of home runs. He was said to have commented that the Yankees should "move to some out-of-the-way place, like Queens", but they instead broke ground for a new ballpark in the Bronx, right across the Harlem River from the Polo Grounds. In 1922, the Yankees returned to the World Series again and were dealt a second defeat at the hands of the Giants. Manager Miller Huggins and general manager Ed Barrow were important newcomers in this period. The hiring of Huggins by Ruppert in 1918 caused a rift between the owners that eventually led to Ruppert buying Huston out in 1923. In 1923, the Yankees moved to their new home, Yankee Stadium, which took 11 months to build and cost $2.5 million (). The team announced that 99,200 fans showed up on Opening Day and 25,000 were turned away. In the first game at Yankee Stadium, Ruth hit a home run. The stadium was nicknamed "The House That Ruth Built", due mainly to the fact that Ruth had doubled Yankees' attendance, which helped the team pay for the new stadium. At the end of the season, the Yankees faced the Giants in the World Series for the third straight year and won their first championship. In the 1927 season, the Yankees featured a lineup that became known as "Murderers' Row", and some consider this team to be the best in the history of baseball (though similar claims have been made for other Yankee squads, notably those of 1939, 1961 and 1998). The name originated from The Tombs, a jail complex in Lower Manhattan that had specific cell block for murderers. That season, the Yankees became the first team in baseball to occupy first place every day of the season, winning 110 games. The team also swept the Pittsburgh Pirates in the World Series. Ruth's home run total of 60 in 1927 set a single-season home run record that stood until it was broken by Roger Maris in 1961, although Maris had eight additional games in which to break the record. Meanwhile, first baseman Lou Gehrig had his first big season, batting .373 with 47 home runs and 175 runs batted in (RBI), beating Ruth's single-season RBI mark which he had set in 1921. The Yankees won the World Series again in 1928. In 1931, Joe McCarthy, who was previously manager of the Chicago Cubs, was hired as manager and brought the Yankees back to the top of the AL. They swept the Chicago Cubs in the 1932 World Series, and brought the team's streak of consecutive World Series game wins to 12. This series was made famous by Babe Ruth's "Called Shot" in game three of the series at Wrigley Field, in which Ruth pointed to center field before hitting a home run. In 1935, Ruth left the Yankees to join the NL's Boston Braves, and he made his last major league baseball appearance on May 30 of that year. 1936–1951: Joltin' Joe DiMaggio After Ruth left the Yankees following the 1934 season, Gehrig finally had a chance to take center stage, but it was only one year before a new star appeared, Joe DiMaggio. The team won an unprecedented four straight World Series titles from 1936 to 1939. For most of 1939, however, they had to do it without Gehrig, who took himself out of the lineup on May 2 and retired due to amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, which was later known as "Lou Gehrig's Disease" in his memory. The Yankees declared July 4, 1939 to be "Lou Gehrig Day", on which they retired his number 4, the first retired number in baseball. Gehrig made a famous speech in which he declared himself to be "the luckiest man on the face of the earth." He died two years later on June 2, 1941. The acclaimed movie The Pride of the Yankees about Gehrig was released in 1942. The 1941 season was often described as the last year of the "Golden Era" before the United States entered World War II and other realities intervened. Numerous achievements were made in the early 1940s including Ted Williams of the Red Sox hitting for the elusive .400 batting average and Joe DiMaggio getting hits in consecutive ballgames. By the end of his hitting streak, DiMaggio hit in 56 consecutive games, the current major league record and one often deemed unbreakable. Two months after the Yankees beat the Brooklyn Dodgers in the 1941 World Series, the first of seven October meetings between the two crosstown rivals before the Dodgers moved to Los Angeles. As a result of the mandatory draft following the attack on Pearl Harbor, more than 90 percent of the players, including DiMaggio, were forced to suspend their playing careers and enter the military. Despite losing many of their players, the Yankees still managed to pull out a win against the St. Louis Cardinals in the 1943 World Series. Following Jacob Ruppert's death in 1939, his heirs assumed control on the team. In 1945 construction and real estate magnate Del Webb along with partners Dan Topping and Larry MacPhail purchased the team from the Ruppert estate for $2.8 million (equivalent to $ million in ); MacPhail, who was the team president, treasurer, and general manager, was bought out following the 1947 World Series. After a few slumping seasons, McCarthy left the organization in 1946. A few interim managers later, Bucky Harris took the job, righting the ship and taking the Yankees to a hard-fought series victory against the Dodgers. Despite finishing only three games behind the Cleveland Indians in the 1948 pennant race, Harris was relieved of his duties and replaced by Casey Stengel, who had a reputation of being a clown and managing bad teams. His tenure as Yankees' field manager, however, was marked with success. The "underdog" Yankees came from behind to catch and surprise a powerful Red Sox team on the last two days of the 1949 season, a face-off that fueled the beginning of the modern Yankees–Red Sox rivalry. By this time, however, DiMaggio's career was winding down, and the "Yankee Clipper" retired after the 1951 season after numerous injuries. That year marked the arrival of Mickey Mantle, who was one of several rookies to fill the gap. 1951–1959: Stengel's Squad Bettering the clubs managed by Joe McCarthy, the Yankees won the World Series five consecutive times from to under Stengel, which remains an MLB record. Led by players like center fielder Mickey Mantle, pitcher Whitey Ford, and catcher Yogi Berra, Stengel's teams won ten pennants and seven World Series titles in his 12 seasons as the Yankees manager. The title was the only one of those five championships not to be won against either the New York Giants or Brooklyn Dodgers; it was won in four straight games against the Whiz Kids of the Philadelphia Phillies. In 1954, the Yankees won 103 games, but the Cleveland Indians took the pennant with a then-AL record 111 wins; 1954 was famously referred to as "The Year the Yankees Lost the Pennant". The term was coined by writer Douglass Wallop, who wrote a novel of the same name. The novel was then adapted into a musical called Damn Yankees. In , the Dodgers finally beat the Yankees in the World Series, after five previous Series losses to them. The Yankees came back strong the next year. In Game 5 of the 1956 World Series against the Dodgers, pitcher Don Larsen threw the only perfect game in World Series history, which remains the only perfect game in postseason play and the only postseason no-hitter until 2010. The Yankees lost the 1957 World Series to the Milwaukee Braves when Lew Burdette won three games for the Braves and was awarded World Series MVP. Following the Series, the New York Giants and the Brooklyn Dodgers both left for San Francisco and Los Angeles, respectively. This left the Yankees as New York's only baseball team. In the 1958 World Series, the Yankees got their revenge against the Braves and became the second team to win the Series after being down 3–1. For the decade, the Yankees won six World Series championships (1950, 1951, 1952, 1953, 1956, 1958) and eight American League pennants (those six plus 1955 and 1957). Led by Mantle, Ford, Berra, Elston Howard (the Yankees' first African-American player), and the newly acquired Roger Maris, the Yankees entered the 1960s seeking to replicate their success of the 1950s. 1960–1964: Mantle and Maris Arnold Johnson, owner of the Kansas City Athletics, was a longtime business associate of Yankees co-owners Del Webb and Dan Topping. Because of this "special relationship" with the Yankees, he traded young players to them in exchange for cash and aging veterans. Invariably, these trades ended up being heavily tilted in the Yankees' favor, leading to accusations that the Athletics were little more than a Yankees farm team at the major league level. Kansas City had been home to the Yankees' top farm team, the Kansas City Blues, for almost 20 years before the Athletics moved there from Philadelphia in 1954. In 1960, Charles O. Finley purchased the Athletics and put an end to the trades with the Yankees. At that point, however, the Yankees had already strengthened their supply of future prospects, which included a young outfielder named Roger Maris. In 1960, Maris led the league in slugging percentage, RBI, and extra-base hits. He finished second in home runs (one behind Mickey Mantle) and total bases, and won a Gold Glove, which garnered enough votes for the American League MVP award. The year 1961 was one of the most memorable in Yankees history. Mantle and Maris hit home runs at a fast pace and became known as the "M&M Boys". Ultimately, a severe hip infection forced Mantle to leave the lineup at the end of the regular season. Maris continued though, and on October 1, the last day of the regular season, he hit home run number 61, surpassing Babe Ruth's single-season home run record of 60. However, MLB Commissioner Ford Frick decreed that since Maris had played in a 162-game season, and Ruth (in 1927) had played in a 154-game season. They were considered two separate records for 30 years, until MLB reversed course and stated Maris held the record alone. His record would be broken by Mark McGwire, who hit 70 home runs in 1998. Maris held the American League record until 2022 when Aaron Judge hit 62. The Yankees won the pennant with a 109–53 record and went on to defeat the Cincinnati Reds in the 1961 World Series. The team finished the year with 240 home runs, which was an MLB record until surpassed by the 1996 Baltimore Orioles team with 257 home runs. In 1962, the sports scene in New York changed when the National League added an expansion team, the New York Mets. The Mets played at the Giants' former home, the Polo Grounds, for two seasons while Shea Stadium was under construction in nearby Flushing, Queens. This restored New York as a city with more than one team, as it had been from the late 1800s until 1957. The Yankees won the 1962 World Series, their tenth in the past sixteen years, defeating the San Francisco Giants 4–3. It was the Yankees' last championship until 1977. The Yankees easily reached the 1963 World Series when they won the pennant by 10.5 games, but they scored only four runs in the series and were swept by the Los Angeles Dodgers and their ace pitcher, Sandy Koufax. The series was the first between the Yankees and the new Los Angeles Dodgers, after their move in 1958. After the season, Yogi Berra, who had just retired from playing, took over managerial duties. The aging Yankees returned the next year for a fifth straight World Series, but were beaten 4–3 by the St. Louis Cardinals. It would be the Yankees' last World Series appearance until 1976. 1965–1972: New ownership and a steep decline After the 1964 season, broadcasting company CBS purchased 80% of the Yankees from Topping and Webb for $11.2 million (equivalent to $ million in ). With the new ownership, the team began to decline. The 1965 edition of the team posted a record of 77–85 — the Yankees' first losing record in 40 years. In 1966, the Yankees finished in last place in the AL for the first time since 1912. It also marked their first consecutive losing seasons since 1917 and 1918. The 1967 season was not much better; they finished only ahead of the Kansas City Athletics in the American League. While their fortunes improved somewhat in the late 1960s and early 1970s, they finished higher than fourth only once during CBS' ownership, in 1970. The Yankees were not able to replace their aging superstars with promising young talent, as they had consistently done in the previous five decades. As early as the 1961–62 off-season, longtime fans noticed that the pipeline of talent from the minor league affiliates had started to dry up. This was worsened by the introduction of the amateur draft that year, which meant that the Yankees could no longer sign any player they wanted. The Yankees were one of four teams who voted against the establishment of the draft, with the Dodgers, Mets, and Cardinals also objecting. While the Yankees usually drafted fairly early during this period due to their lackluster records, Thurman Munson was the only pick who lived up to his billing. 1973–1981: Steinbrenner, Martin, Jackson, and Munson: the Bronx Zoo On January 3, 1973, CBS announced they were selling the club to a group of investors, led by Cleveland-based shipbuilder George Steinbrenner (1930–2010), for $10 million (equivalent to $ million in ). E. Michael Burke, who assumed the role of team president in 1966, resigned as president in April but stayed with the organization as a consultant to the owner. Within a year, Steinbrenner bought out most of his other partners and became the team's principal owner, although Burke continued to hold a minority share into the 1980s. One of Steinbrenner's major goals was to renovate Yankee Stadium. Both the stadium and the surrounding neighborhood had deteriorated by the late 1960s. CBS initially suggested renovations, but the team needed to play elsewhere, and the Mets refused to open their home, Shea Stadium, to the Yankees. A new stadium in the Meadowlands, across the Hudson River in New Jersey, was suggested (and was eventually built, as Giants Stadium, specifically for football). Finally, in mid-1972, Mayor John Lindsay stepped in. The city bought the stadium and began an extensive two-year renovation period. Since the city also owned Shea Stadium, the Mets were forced to allow the Yankees to play two seasons there. The renovations modernized the look of the stadium, significantly altered the dimensions, and reconfigured some of the seating. In 1973, Steinbrenner instituted a personal appearance policy that included being clean-shaven, with long hair slicked back or trimmed. In an interview with The New York Times, Steinbrenner stated the policy was to " instill a certain sense of order and discipline" in the players. The policy originated from Steinbrenner's service in the United States Air Force, which had a similar appearance policy. This rule is still in effect today, and enforced by his sons after George's passing. The Cincinnati Reds had the same personal appearance policy from 1967 until 1999. After the 1974 season, Steinbrenner made a move that started the modern era of free agency, signing star pitcher Catfish Hunter away from Oakland. Midway through the 1975 season, the team hired former second baseman Billy Martin as manager. With Martin at the helm, the Yankees reached the 1976 World Series, but were swept by the Cincinnati Reds and their famed "Big Red Machine." After the 1976 campaign, Steinbrenner added star Oakland outfielder Reggie Jackson—who had spent 1976 with the Baltimore Orioles—to his roster. During spring training of 1977, Jackson alienated his teammates with controversial remarks about the Yankees captain, catcher Thurman Munson. He had bad blood with manager Billy Martin, who had managed the Detroit Tigers when Jackson's Athletics defeated them in the 1972 playoffs. Jackson, Martin, and Steinbrenner repeatedly feuded with each other throughout Jackson's 5-year contract. Martin was hired and fired by Steinbrenner five times over the next 13 years. This conflict, combined with the extremely rowdy Yankees fans of the late 1970s and the bad conditions of the Bronx, led to the Yankees organization and stadium being referred to as the "Bronx Zoo". Despite the turmoil, Jackson hit four home runs in the 1977 World Series; hit three of those home runs on the first pitch of his at bats in the fourth, fifth and eighth innings of the sixth game of the World Series; earned the Series MVP Award; and got the nickname "Mr. October." Throughout the late 1970s, the race for the pennant was often a close competition between the Yankees and the Red Sox. Despite that, during the 1978 season, the Red Sox were games ahead of the Yankees in July. In late July, Martin suspended Reggie Jackson and fined him $9,000 (equivalent to $ in ) for "defiance" after he bunted while Martin had the "swing" signal on. Upon Jackson's return, Martin made a famous statement against both Jackson and owner Steinbrenner: "They deserve each other. One's a born liar; the other's convicted." Martin was forced to resign the next day and was replaced by Bob Lemon. This came while the team was winning five games in a row and Boston was losing five in a row. The Yankees continued to win games, and by the time they met Boston for a pivotal four-game series at Fenway Park in early September, the Yankees were four games behind the Red Sox. The Yankees swept the Red Sox in what became known as the "Boston Massacre", winning the games 15–3, 13–2, 7–0, and 7–4. The third game was a shutout pitched by Ron Guidry, who led the majors with nine shutouts, a 25–3 record, and a 1.74 ERA. On the last day of the season, the two clubs finished in a tie for first place in the AL East, and a tiebreaker game was held at Fenway Park. With Guidry pitching against former Yankee Mike Torrez, the Red Sox took an early 2–0 lead. In the seventh inning, light-hitting Yankee shortstop Bucky Dent drove a three-run home run over the Fenway Park's Green Monster, putting the Yankees up 3–2. Reggie Jackson's solo home run in the following inning sealed the eventual 5–4 win that gave the Yankees their one-hundredth win of the season and their third straight AL East title. Guidry earned his 25th win of the season. After defeating the Kansas City Royals for the third consecutive year in the ALCS, the Yankees faced the Los Angeles Dodgers in the World Series. They lost the first two games in Los Angeles, but won all three games at Yankee Stadium and Game 6 back in Los Angeles, winning their 22nd world championship. Changes occurred during the 1979 season. Former Cy Young Award-winning closer Sparky Lyle was traded to the Texas Rangers for several players, including Dave Righetti. Tommy John was acquired from the Dodgers and Luis Tiant from the Red Sox to bolster the pitching staff. During the season, Bob Lemon was replaced by Billy Martin, who was serving his second stint as Yankees manager. The 1970s ended on a tragic note for the Yankees. On August 2, 1979, catcher Thurman Munson died when his private plane crashed while he was practicing touch-and-go landings. Four days later, the entire team flew out to Canton, Ohio, for the funeral, despite having a game later that day against the Orioles. Bobby Murcer, a close friend of Munson's, along with Lou Piniella, were chosen to give the eulogy at his funeral. In a nationally televised and emotional game, Murcer used Munson's bat (which he gave to Munson's wife after the game), and drove in all five of the team's runs in a dramatic 5–4 walk-off victory. Before the game, Munson's locker sat empty except for his catching gear, a sad reminder for his teammates. His locker, labeled with his number 15, has remained empty in the Yankees clubhouse as a memorial. When the Yankees moved across the street, Munson's locker was torn out and installed in the new stadium's museum. Immediately after Munson's death, the team announced his number 15 would be retired. The 1980 season brought more changes. Billy Martin was fired once again and Dick Howser took his place. Chris Chambliss was traded to the Toronto Blue Jays for catcher Rick Cerone. Reggie Jackson hit .300 for the only time in his career with 41 homers, and finished second in the MVP voting to Kansas City's George Brett. The Yankees won 103 games and the AL East by three games over the Baltimore Orioles, but were swept by the Royals in the ALCS. After the season ended, the Yankees signed Dave Winfield to a 10-year contract. A contract misunderstanding led to a feud between Winfield and Steinbrenner. The team fired Howser and replaced him with Gene Michael. Under Michael, the Yankees led the AL East before a strike hit in June 1981. The Yankees struggled under Bob Lemon, who replaced Michael for the second half of the season. Thanks to the split-season playoff format, the Yankees faced the second-half winner Milwaukee Brewers in the special 1981 American League Division Series. After defeating Milwaukee 3–2, they swept the Oakland Athletics in a three-game ALCS. In the World Series, the Yankees won the first two games against the Los Angeles Dodgers. But the Dodgers fought back to win the next four games to claim the World Series title. This World Series would be the most recent between the Yankees and the Dodgers. 1982–1995: Struggles during the Mattingly years Following the team's loss to the Dodgers in the 1981 World Series, the Yankees began their longest absence from the playoffs since 1921. Steinbrenner announced his plan to transform the Yankees from the "Bronx Bombers" into the "Bronx Burners", increasing the Yankees' ability to win games based on speed and defense instead of relying on home runs. As a first step towards this end, the Yankees signed Dave Collins from the Cincinnati Reds during the 1981 off-season. Collins was traded to the Toronto Blue Jays after the 1982 season in a deal that also included future All-Stars Fred McGriff and Mike Morgan. In return the Yankees got Dale Murray and Tom Dodd. The Yankees of the 1980s were led by All-Star first baseman Don Mattingly. In spite of accumulating the most total wins of any major league team, they failed to win a World Series (the 1980s were the first decade since the 1910s in which the Yankees did not win at least two Series) and had only two playoff appearances. They consistently had a powerful offense, with Mattingly and Winfield competing for the best average in the AL for the 1984 season. Despite their offense, the Yankees teams of the 1980s lacked sufficient starting pitching to win a championship in the 1980s. After posting a 22–6 record in 1985, arm problems caught up with Guidry, and his performance declined over the next three years. He retired after the 1988 season. Of the remaining mainstays of the Yankees' rotation, only Dave Righetti stood out, pitching a no-hitter on July 4, 1983, but he was moved to the bullpen the next year where he helped to define the closer role. Despite the Yankees' lack of pitching success during the 1980s, they had three of the premier pitchers of the early 1990s on their roster during these years in Al Leiter, Doug Drabek and José Rijo. All were mismanaged and dealt away before they could reach their full potential, with only Rijo returning much value – he was traded to the Oakland A's in the deal that brought Henderson to New York. The team came close to winning the AL East in 1985 and 1986, finishing second to the Toronto Blue Jays and Boston Red Sox, respectively, but fell to fourth place in 1987 and fifth in 1988, despite having mid-season leads in the AL East both years. By the end of the decade, the Yankees' offense declined. Henderson and third baseman Mike Pagliarulo had departed by the middle of 1989, while back problems hampered both Winfield (who missed the entire 1989 season) and Mattingly (who missed almost the entire second half of 1990). Winfield's tenure with the team ended when he was dealt to the California Angels. From 1989 to 1992, the team had a losing record, spending significant money on free-agents and draft picks who did not live up to expectations. In 1990, the Yankees had the worst record in the American League, and their fourth last-place finish in franchise history. During the 1990 season, Yankee fans started to chant "1918!" to taunt the Red Sox, reminding them of the last time they won a World Series one weekend the Red Sox were there in 1990. Each time the Red Sox were at Yankee Stadium afterward, chants of "1918!" echoed through the stadium. Yankee fans also taunted the Red Sox with signs saying "CURSE OF THE BAMBINO", pictures of Babe Ruth, and wearing "1918!" T-shirts each time they were at the stadium. These fans came to be known as the Bleacher Creatures. The poor showings in the 1980s and early 1990s soon changed. Steinbrenner hired Howard Spira to uncover damaging information on Winfield and was subsequently suspended from day-to-day team operations by Commissioner Fay Vincent for two years when the plot was revealed. This turn of events allowed management to implement a coherent acquisition and development program without owner interference. General Manager Gene Michael, along with manager Buck Showalter, shifted the club's emphasis from high-priced acquisitions to developing talent through the farm system. This new philosophy developed key players such as outfielder Bernie Williams, shortstop Derek Jeter, catcher Jorge Posada, and pitchers Andy Pettitte and Mariano Rivera. The first significant success came in 1994, when the Yankees had the best record in the AL, but the season was cut short by a players' strike. Because the Yankees were last in a postseason in a season cut short by a strike, the news media constantly reminded the Yankees about the parallels between these two Yankees teams, which included both teams having division leads taken away by strike. Throughout October, the media continued to speculate about what might have been if there had not been a strike, making references to the day's games in the postseason would have been played. A year later, the team qualified for the playoffs in the new wild card slot in the strike-shortened 1995 season. In the memorable 1995 American League Division Series against the Seattle Mariners, the Yankees won the first two games at home and lost the next three in Seattle. Although Mattingly batted .417 with a home run and six RBI in the only postseason series of his career, his back problems led him to retire after the 1997 season after sitting out the 1996 season. 1996–2007: Core Four: Jeter, Posada, Pettitte, and Rivera Joe Torre had a mediocre run as a manager in the National League, and the choice was initially derided ("Clueless Joe" was a headline in the New York Daily News). However, his calm demeanor proved to be a good fit, and his tenure was the longest under George Steinbrenner's ownership. Torre was announced as the new Yankees manager in November 1995. The 1996 season saw the rise of three Yankees who formed the core of the team for years to come: rookie shortstop Derek Jeter, second-year starting pitcher Andy Pettitte, and second-year pitcher Mariano Rivera, who served as setup man in 1996 before becoming closer in 1997. Aided by these young players, the Yankees won their first AL East title in 15 years. They defeated the Texas Rangers in the ALDS, and in ALCS beat the Baltimore Orioles 4–1, which included a notable fan interference by Jeffrey Maier that was called as a home run for the Yankees. In the World Series the team rebounded from an 0–2 series deficit and defeated the defending champion Atlanta Braves, ending an 18-year championship drought. Jeter was named Rookie of the Year. In 1997, the Yankees lost the 1997 ALDS to the Cleveland Indians 3–2. General manager Bob Watson stepped down and was replaced by assistant general manager Brian Cashman. The 1998 Yankees are widely acknowledged to be one of the greatest teams in baseball history, compiling a record of 114–48, a then–AL record for the most wins in a season. On May 17, 1998, David Wells pitched a perfect game against the Minnesota Twins. The Yankees went on to sweep the San Diego Padres in the World Series. Their 125 combined regular and postseason wins remains an MLB single-season record. On July 18, 1999, David Cone pitched a perfect game against the Montreal Expos. The ALCS was the Yankees' first postseason meeting with the rival Red Sox. The 1999 Yankees defeated the Red Sox 4–1 and swept the Braves in the 1999 World Series giving the 1998–99 Yankees a combined 22–3 record in the (including four series sweeps) in the six post-season series those years. In 2000, the Yankees faced the Mets in the first New York City Subway World Series in 44 years. The Yankees won the series in 5 games, but a loss in Game 3 snapped their streak of consecutive games won in World Series contests at 14, surpassing the club's previous record of 12 (in 1927, 1928, and 1932). The Yankees are the last MLB team to repeat as World Series champions and after the 2000 season they joined the Yankees teams of 1936–39 and 1949–53, as well as the 1972–74 Oakland Athletics as the only teams to win at least three consecutive World Series. In aftermath of the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, the Yankees defeated the Oakland Athletics in the ALDS, and the Seattle Mariners in the ALCS. By winning the pennant for a fourth straight year, the 1998–2001 Yankees joined the 1921–24 New York Giants, and the Yankees teams of 1936–39, 1949–53, 1955–58 and 1960–64 as the only teams to win at least four straight pennants. The Yankees won 11 consecutive postseason series in this 4-year period. In the World Series against the Arizona Diamondbacks, the Yankees lost the series when Rivera uncharacteristically blew a save in the bottom of the ninth inning of Game 7. Also, despite a very poor series overall, batting under .200, Derek Jeter got the nickname, "Mr. November", echoing comparisons to Reggie Jackson's "Mr. October", for his walk-off home run in Game 4, though it began October 31, as the game ended in the first minutes of November 1. In addition, Yankee Stadium played host for a memorial service titled "Prayer for America" for the September 11 victims. A vastly revamped Yankees team finished the 2002 season with an AL-best record of 103–58. The season was highlighted by Alfonso Soriano becoming the first second baseman ever to hit 30 home runs and steal 30 bases in a season. In the ALDS the Yankees lost to the eventual World Series champion Anaheim Angels 3–1. In 2003, the Yankees again had the best league record (101–61), highlighted by Roger Clemens' 300th win and 4000th strikeout. In the ALCS, they defeated the Boston Red Sox in a dramatic seven-game series, which featured a bench-clearing incident in Game 3 and a series-ending walk-off home run by Aaron Boone in the bottom of the 11th inning of Game 7. In the World Series the Yankees lost in 6 games to the Florida Marlins. In 2004, the Yankees signed free agents Kenny Lofton and Gary Sheffield; and traded Alfonso Soriano to the Texas Rangers in exchange for star shortstop Alex Rodriguez, who moved to third base from his usual shortstop position to accommodate Jeter. In the ALCS, the Yankees met the Boston Red Sox again, and became the first team in professional baseball history, and only the third team in North American professional sports history, to lose a best-of-seven series after taking a 3–0 series lead. The Red Sox would go on to defeat the Cardinals in the World Series, their first championship since 1918. In 2005 Alex Rodriguez won the American League MVP award, becoming the first Yankee to win the award since Don Mattingly in 1985. The Yankees again won the AL East by virtue of a tiebreaker but lost the ALDS 3–2 to the Angels. The 2006 season was highlighted by a 5-game series sweep of the Red Sox at Fenway Park (sometimes referred to as the "Second Boston Massacre"), outscoring the Red Sox 49–26. Despite winning the AL East for the ninth consecutive year, the Yankees lost again in the 2006 ALDS, this time to the Detroit Tigers. After the ALDS was over, tragedy struck when pitcher Cory Lidle died when his plane crashed into a highrise apartment building in Manhattan. Along with Thurman Munson, Lidle was the second active Yankee to be killed in a private plane crash. On June 18, 2007, the Yankees broke new ground by signing the first two professional baseball players from the People's Republic of China to MLB, and became the first team in MLB history to sign an advertising deal with a Chinese company. The Yankees' streak of nine straight AL East division titles ended in 2007, but they still reached the playoffs with the AL Wild Card. For the third year in a row, the team lost in the first round of the playoffs, as the Cleveland Indians defeated the Yankees, 3–1, in the 2007 ALDS. After the series, Joe Torre declined a reduced-length and compensation contract offer from the Yankees and returned to the National League as manager of the Los Angeles Dodgers. 2008–2016: Championship run, followed by pennant drought After Torre's departure, the Yankees signed former catcher Joe Girardi to a three-year contract to manage the club. The 2008 season was the last season played at Yankee Stadium. To celebrate the final year and history of Yankee Stadium, the 2008 Major League Baseball All-Star Game was played there. The final regular-season game at Yankee Stadium was played on September 21, 2008 with the Yankees defeating the Orioles. After the game, Jeter addressed the crowd, thanking them for their support over the years, and urging them to "take the memories of this field, add them to the new memories that will come at the new Yankee Stadium and continue to pass them on from generation to generation." Despite multiple midseason roster moves, the team was hampered by injuries and missed the playoffs for the first time in 14 seasons. During the off-season, the Yankees retooled their roster with several star free agent acquisitions, including CC Sabathia, Mark Teixeira, and A. J. Burnett. At the beginning of the 2009 season, the Yankees opened the new Yankee Stadium, located just a block north on River Avenue from their former home. The Yankees set a major league record by playing error-free ball for 18 consecutive games from May 14 to June 1, 2009. Midway during the season at the trade deadline, the Yankees added OF/3B Eric Hinske from the Pirates, 3B Jerry Hairston Jr. from the Reds, and P Chad Gaudin from the Padres. The Yankees finished first in the AL East. In the ALDS they swept the Minnesota Twins before defeating the Los Angeles Angels in the ALCS, 4–2. They Yankees defeated the Philadelphia Phillies, in the World Series 4–2, their 27th World Series title. The 2010 season featured the rivalry between the Yankees and Red Sox being revived to start and end the season. The Yankees and the Red Sox started and finished the season against each other at Fenway Park. This was the first time since 1950 this had happened. In June, Joe Torre's Dodgers played games against the Yankees for the first time since he became manager of the Dodgers, with the Yankees taking two out of three games in the series. During the 2010 All-Star break, public address announcer Bob Sheppard and principal owner George Steinbrenner died. Eight days later, another longtime Yankee icon, former player and manager Ralph Houk, died. The Yankees won the American League Wild Card. They swept the Minnesota Twins in the 2010 American League Division Series, but lost to the Texas Rangers in the ALCS, 4–2. In a 22–9 win over the Oakland Athletics on August 25, 2011, the Yankees became the first team in Major League history to hit three grand slams in a single game. They were hit by Robinson Canó, Russell Martin, and Curtis Granderson. The Yankees won the AL East title, finishing with 97 wins and took home field throughout the AL postseason. However, they were defeated by the Tigers, 3–2, in the ALDS. In 2012, the Yankees again finished the season with the AL's best record at 95–67. In mid-July, the Yankees traded two prospects to the Seattle Mariners for Ichiro Suzuki. They faced the Orioles in the ALDS. In Game 3, Raúl Ibañez became the oldest player to hit two home runs in a game, the oldest to hit a walk-off home run, the first substitute position player in a postseason game to hit two home runs, and the first to hit two home runs in the 9th inning or later in a postseason game, in the Yankees' 3–2 win. The Yankees defeated the Orioles in five games. However, in the ALCS, the Yankees lost to the Tigers again, this time in a four-game sweep, which was compounded with a struggling offense and a season-ending injury to Derek Jeter. The 2013 season was riddled with injuries. Mark Teixeira strained his elbow during the World Baseball Classic prior to the start of the season and played only 15 games for the Yankees. Alex Rodriguez played only 44 games after a hip surgery, Jeter played only 17 games due to his ankle injury from the 2012 ALCS, and Curtis Granderson played only 61 games due to forearm and knuckle injuries. On April 12, 2013, the Yankees made their second triple play ever. It was scored as 4–6–5–6–5–3–4, the first triple play of its kind in baseball history. On September 25, the Yankees lost to the Tampa Bay Rays, which for the second time in the wild-card era, eliminated them from playoff contention. They ended the season 85–77, finishing in 3rd place in the AL East. During the 2013–14 off-season, the Yankees signed Brian McCann, Jacoby Ellsbury, Masahiro Tanaka, and Carlos Beltrán. Despite that, the Yankees missed the playoffs, finishing 2nd in the AL East with an 84–78 record. Rodriguez missed the entire season due to a 162-game suspension for his participation in the Biogenesis baseball scandal. One notable moment happened on September 25, 2014, when Jeter – playing his final home game – hit a walk-off single off pitcher Evan Meek to defeat the Baltimore Orioles in front of a sold out stadium. Reliever Dellin Betances finished 3rd in voting for AL Rookie of the Year, while starting pitcher Masahiro Tanaka finished 5th. The Yankees would return to the playoffs in 2015. In his return from suspension, Rodriguez hit 33 home runs, his most since 2008, and tied Hank Aaron's record of fifteen 30-home-run seasons. Teixeira hit 31 home runs before a hit-by-pitch ended his season in August. Rookie first baseman Greg Bird had an impressive showing in Teixeira's place, hitting 11 home runs in 46 games, while rookie starting pitcher Luis Severino went 5–3 with a 2.89 ERA in innings after getting called up in August. Closer Andrew Miller won the AL Reliever of the Year Award. The Yankees led the AL East for most of the year before being felled by a surging Toronto Blue Jays team, ending the season 87–75 and in 2nd place. They were defeated by the Houston Astros in the 2015 American League Wild Card Game. In the off-season, the Yankees traded for Cincinnati Reds' closer Aroldis Chapman after a domestic violence allegation lowered his value. Chapman was later suspended 30 games. The Yankees struggled through the 2016 season, ending at 4th place in the AL East. The resurgent 2015 experienced by Rodriguez and Teixeira did not carry over, as they batted .200 and .204 for the season, respectively. Bird was ruled out for the season after undergoing shoulder surgery. Starting pitcher Michael Pineda struggled, going 6–12 with a 4.82 ERA, the 7th-highest in baseball. At the trade deadline, the Yankees stood at an uninspiring 52–52, and traded Chapman and Miller to the Cubs and Indians, respectively. 2017–present: Baby Bombers The Aroldis Chapman and Andrew Miller trade brought a group of players that included top shortstop prospect Gleyber Torres, outfielder Clint Frazier and pitcher Justus Sheffield. In addition, the Yankees traded 39-year-old designated hitter Carlos Beltran to the Texas Rangers for minor league prospects. The Yankees' decision to be sellers, rather than buyers, at the trade deadline was unusual, given the Yankees' typical win-now approach. In discussing the midseason trades, Yankees general manager Brian Cashman said that the Yankees recognized the "need to look toward the future." In early August, both Teixeira and Rodriguez revealed their plans to retire by the season's end. Rodriguez played his final game on August 12, 2016, accepting a front office job with the Yankees shortly after. In one of his final games, Teixeira hit a walk-off grand slam against the Boston Red Sox, his 409th and last career home run. The Yankees called up Tyler Austin and outfielder Aaron Judge in August. They made their debuts on August 13, hitting back-to-back home runs in their first career at-bats. Catcher Gary Sánchez hit 20 home runs in 53 games, finishing 2nd in AL Rookie of the Year voting and setting the record at the time as the fastest to reach 20 career home runs. Sanchez, Judge and Austin, as well as the Yankees' prosperous farm system in general, became nicknamed the "Baby Bombers". After having traded Chapman to the Cubs during the 2016 season, the Yankees signed him as a free agent during the 2016–17 off-season; Chapman agreed to a five-year, $86 million contract, the most lucrative in history for a relief pitcher. In 2017, the Yankees finished the season with a record of 91–71. They finished second in the AL East behind the Boston Red Sox, but captured the first AL Wild Card spot. Judge and Sánchez combined for 85 home runs. Sanchez finished with 33, the most by a Yankees catcher in a single season. Judge led the American League with 52 home runs, breaking Mark McGwire's major league record for most home runs by a rookie in a single season (McGwire hit 49 in 1987). The Yankees starting pitching was led by ace Luis Severino, who rebounded from his last season to lead the Yankees' pitching staff. On July 1, Clint Frazier made his MLB debut where he went 2 for 4 with a home run. The Yankees sent Dellin Betances, Starlin Castro, Sánchez, Severino, and Judge to the 2017 All-Star Game. Judge won the 2017 Home Run Derby, making the Yankees the team with the most players in history to win a Home Run Derby. After the 2017 All-Star break, the Yankees made a series of moves to acquire third baseman Todd Frazier, former Yankees reliever David Robertson, reliever Tommy Kahnle, starter Sonny Gray, and starter Jaime Garcia. In the 2017 AL Wild Card Game the Yankees defeated the Minnesota Twins to move on the ALDS. In the ALDS, the Yankees lost the first two games to the Cleveland Indians before winning the final three games and taking the series. They played the Houston Astros in the 2017 American League Championship Series and lost the series in seven games. In the 2017–18 off-season, the Yankees hired Aaron Boone to succeed Girardi as their new manager. The Yankees traded Starlin Castro and prospects Jorge Guzman and Jose Devers to the Miami Marlins for reigning National League Most Valuable Player Giancarlo Stanton. A right fielder who bats right-handed, Stanton hit 59 home runs and drove in 132 runs—both major league highs—in 2017; his contract was the largest player contract in the history of professional sports in North America at the time. The Yankees also traded third baseman Chase Headley and pitcher Bryan Mitchell to the San Diego Padres for outfielder Jabari Blash; following the move, Yankees GM Brian Cashman stated that the trade "create[d] payroll flexibility". On September 29, 2018 Gleyber Torres hit the Yankees 265th home run of the season which broke the record of the most home runs in a season, previously held by the 1997 Seattle Mariners. The Yankees ended the 2018 season with 267 home runs as well as a record of 100–62. In the 2018 playoffs, the Yankees defeated the Oakland Athletics in the Wild Card game, advancing to face the 108-win Red Sox in the ALDS. The Yankees fell to the Red Sox in the ALDS 3–1. In Game 3, the Yankees suffered their worst playoff defeat in team history, by a score of 16–1. On June 25, 2019, the Yankees broke the record for the most home runs in consecutive games against the Toronto Blue Jays. On September 27, the Yankees became the second team to reach 300 homers in a season, achieved by their ALDS opponent, the Minnesota Twins, a day earlier. The Yankees traveled to London in late June to play the Red Sox in the first ever MLB London Series, in addition to the first MLB games played in Europe. The Yankees swept Boston in the two-game series, with the first game lasted 4 hours and 42 minutes, 3 minutes shorter than the longest MLB 9-inning game. The Yankees ended the 2019 season with a record of 103–59, winning the AL East division title for the first time since 2012. The Yankees beat the Twins in a three-game sweep to advance to the ALCS for the second time in three seasons. However, on October 19, the Houston Astros beat the Yankees in the ALCS 4–2. With this loss, the 2010s decade became the first since the 1980s to have the Yankees fail to win a World Series and the first since the 1910s to have the Yankees failing to play in one. During the 2019 offseason, on December 18, 2019, the Yankees signed Gerrit Cole to a nine-year, $324 million contract. The contract is one of the biggest free agent contracts in MLB history, behind Bryce Harper of the Phillies and Corey Seager of the Texas Rangers. On August 28, 2020, the Yankees gave up a walk-off home run to Amed Rosario of the Mets in Yankee Stadium. The Mets were the home team because they were making up for a previously cancelled game. It was the first time a visiting player had hit a walk-off home run since Ed McKean hit one for the St. Louis Perfectos against the Cleveland Spiders in 1899. The Yankees finished the shortened 2020 season with a record of 33–27, finishing second in AL East. In the first round of the playoffs they swept the Cleveland Indians beating them in 2 games in the wild card series. In the ALDS, however, the Yankees were defeated by the Tampa Bay Rays in five games, marking four consecutive playoff exits. Throughout the 2021 season, the Yankees finished with a 92–70 record, finishing in third place in the division. They made it in the second wild card spot, where they would play the Boston Red Sox in the Wild Card game at Fenway Park. The Yankees lost by a score of 6–2 after a poor performance by starter and ace Gerrit Cole. Some highlights from the 2021 season include the transactions of former all star players Rougned Odor, Corey Kluber, Anthony Rizzo, and Joey Gallo. On May 19, 2021, former Cy Young Award winner Corey Kluber threw a no-hitter against the Texas Rangers. This was the Yankees 12th no-hitter of all time, and the first since David Cone's perfect game in 1999. The Yankees also recorded a record-tying three triple plays throughout the 2021 season. During the 2021 offseason, owners of MLB teams initiated a work stoppage after the 2016 collective bargaining agreement between the league and players expired. On March 10, 2022, the lockout ended when the league and Major League Baseball Players Association agreeing on a CBA. Before the start of the 2022, the Yankees would trade away Gio Urshela, and Gary Sánchez for former AL MVP, Josh Donaldson and Isiah Kiner-Falefa. Yankees general manager Brian Cashman, and the Yankees organization were criticized by the fans for not signing many of the big name free agents that were available to sign, including Carlos Correa and Freddie Freeman. The Yankees started hot at the start of the 2022 season, as they were 64–28 in the first half of the season leading to the All-Star Game. However, in the second half they would then go 35–35, failing to win 100 games after being on track for it in June. Despite their struggles in the second half of the season, the Yankees clinched their 30th straight winning season. On October 4, Aaron Judge hit his 62nd home run, breaking the American League single-season home run record set in 1961 by Roger Maris. The Yankees would go on to win the AL East division title and defeat the Cleveland Guardians in the ALDS in five games. However, the Yankees would once again lose to the Houston Astros in the ALCS, being swept in four games. In the offseason, Jose Trevino would become the first Yankee ever to win the Platinum Glove Award. Aaron Judge would also win AL MVP after having an historic season, being the first Yankee to win the award since Alex Rodriguez did in 2007. On December 21, 2022 Aaron Judge was named the 16th captain in Yankees history, after getting resigned to a nine-year, $360 million contract. Judge was named the first captain of the team since Derek Jeter retired in 2014. Distinctions The Yankees have won 27 World Series in 40 appearances, the most in Major League Baseball in addition to major North American professional sports leagues. The St. Louis Cardinals are in second place with 11 World Series championships with their last win in 2011. The Dodgers are second in total World Series appearances with 20. The Yankees have lost 13 World Series, the second most in MLB behind the Dodgers, who have 14 losses. The Yankees have faced the Dodgers 11 times, going 8–3. Among North American major sports, the Yankees' success is approached by only the 24 Stanley Cup championships of the Montreal Canadiens of the National Hockey League. The Yankees have played in the World Series against every National League pennant winner except the Houston Astros (who now play in the American League) and the Colorado Rockies. Through 2021, the Yankees have an all-time regular season winning percentage of .570 (a 10,548 – 7,953 record), the best of any team in MLB history. On June 25, 2019, they set a new major league record for homering in 28 consecutive games, breaking the record set by the 2002 Texas Rangers. The streak would reach 31 games, during which they hit 57 home runs. With the walk-off solo home run by DJ LeMahieu to win the game against the Oakland Athletics on August 31, 2019, the Yankees ended the month of August that year now holding a new record of 74 home runs hit in the month alone, a new record for the most home runs hit in a month by a single MLB team. World Series championships The Yankees have won a record 27 World Series championships. Their most recent one came when the new stadium opened in 2009; they defeated the Philadelphia Phillies in six games under manager Joe Girardi. Team nicknames The team has acquired different nicknames over the years by both baseball personalities and the media. Sportswriter Fred Lieb, in a 1922 story for the Baseball Magazine, said he will call the club "the Yanks" in his articles. He stated the nickname "will fit into heads better". Their most prominently used nickname is "the Bronx Bombers" or simply "the Bombers", a reference to their home and their prolific hitting. The nickname "Bronx Bombers" was first used in an article in the New York World-Telegram in 1936. Writer Paul Dickson said the nickname originated from boxer Joe Louis, whose nickname is the "Brown Bomber". A less used nickname is "the Pinstripes" or "Pinstripers", in reference to the iconic feature on their home uniforms. The term "Murderers' Row" has historically been used to refer to both the 1920s Yankees and the team altogether. Critics often refer to the team and the organization as "the Evil Empire", a term applied to the Yankees by Boston Red Sox president Larry Lucchino in a 2002 interview with The New York Times after the Yankees signed pitching prospect José Contreras. Ironically, Yankee fans and supporters refer to their team as the "Evil Empire" as a badge of honor and in fact enjoy having their team play the villain. The team also embraced the label as well, with the stadium playing "The Imperial March" from Star Wars, the song associated with antagonist Darth Vader, at home games. A term from the team's tumultuous late 1970s, "the Bronx Zoo", is sometimes used by detractors, as well as the "Damn Yankees", after the musical of the same name. Logos and uniforms The Yankees logo and uniform design has changed throughout the team's history. During the inaugural Highlanders season in 1903, the uniform featured a large "N" and a "Y" on each breast. In 1909, the "N" and "Y" were combined and was added to both the left breast and caps. According to history, the interlocking "NY" letters predates the New York Yankees. The letters appear on the New York City Police Department Medal for Valor, which was established in 1877 and was designed by Tiffany & Co. Three years later, black pinstripes were added to the Highlander uniforms for the first time. The current cap look, a navy blue hat with the white interlocking "NY" letters, was adopted in 1932. Both the home and away uniforms has been relatively unchanged since the 1920s and 1940s, respectively. The away uniform is grey in color with "NEW YORK" across the chest. Merchandise with the Yankees logo, such as baseball caps, is popular worldwide, including in countries where the sport of baseball is not popular. According to a 2023 New York Times report, for instance, Yankees caps (mostly counterfeit) are "viral" in Brazil. Customers there mostly do not know that the logo represents a baseball team, but think of it as "a classic piece of Americana, a status symbol, or a generic — perhaps chic — emblem of the West". Popularity Fan support With their recurring success since the 1920s, the Yankees have since been one of the most popular teams in the world, with their fan base coming from much further than the New York metropolitan area. The Yankees typically bring an upsurge in attendance at all or most of their various road-trip venues, drawing crowds of their own fans, as well as home-town fans whose interest is heightened when the Yankees come to town. The Yankees have consistently been the most attended MLB games. The first 1 million-fan season was in 1920, when more than 1.2 millions fans attended Yankee games at the Polo Grounds. According to Baseball-Reference.com, the 2008 season saw the most fans per game in Yankees history, with an average of 53,000 per game. In the past seven years, the Yankees have drawn over three million fans each year, with an American League record-setting 4,090,696 in 2005, becoming only the third franchise in sports history to draw over four million in regular-season attendance in their own ballpark. The Yankees were the league leaders in "road attendance" each year from 2001 through 2006. Some Yankees superfans have become notable in their own right. One famous fan was Freddy Schuman, popularly known as "Freddy Sez." For over 50 years, he came to the Yankees' home games with a baseball cap, a Yankees' jersey (which on the back bears his own name), and a cake pan with a shamrock painted on it, which was connected to a sign inscribed with words of encouragement for the home team. Schuman died on October 17, 2010, at the age of 85. The popularity of the Yankees also extended internationally. According to a Major League Baseball executive, the Yankees logo is considered a "sign of quality" despite many people not knowing the team. The Bleacher Creatures The "Bleacher Creatures" are a group of fans known for their strict allegiance to the Yankees and are often merciless to opposing fans who sit in the section and cheer for the road team. They occupied Section 39 in the right-field bleachers at the old Yankee Stadium and occupy Section 203 in the new stadium. The Bleacher Creatures are known for their use of chants and songs, with the "roll call" at the beginning of each home game being the most prominent. The "creatures" got their nickname from New York Daily News columnist Filip "Flip" Bondy, who spent the 2004 season sitting in the section for research on his book about the group, Bleeding Pinstripes: A Season with the Bleacher Creatures of Yankee Stadium, published in 2005. Throughout the years both at the old and new stadiums, the Bleacher Creatures have attracted controversy for the use of derogatory and homophobic chants and rowdiness aimed at both opposing fans and players. The Judge's Chambers at Yankee Stadium In 2017, team management ordered the creation of a special cheer section within Section 104 for fans of Yankees outfielder Aaron Judge, called "the Judge's Chambers". They were the second AL team to create a special cheering section, following the Seattle Mariners and the "King's Court" for pitcher Félix Hernández. The Judge's Chambers was added in response to his rise as one of the league's most popular young stars. The section's 18 seats are given to lucky ticketholders and their families, along with black judicial robes with the team logo on the front and Judge's 99 jersey number on the back; prior to the addition of the section, fans were wearing white wigs and judicial robes to games in support of Judge. Occasionally, community organizations, charities and Little League teams are given precedence when selecting participants. The seats, which are close to his position in right field, are surrounded by mahogany wood to emulate the appearance of the city's courthouses. Team ownership The Yankees baseball club is formally owned by Yankee Global Enterprises, a holding company in turn majorly owned by the Steinbrenner family. Yankee Global Enterprises also has a minority stake in the YES Network, the Yankees main television network. Since purchasing the team from CBS in 1973, George Steinbrenner was involved in daily team operations, including player and manager signings. Steinbrenner retired from day-to-day team operations in 2005, handing over control to Steve Swindal, his then son-in-law. Swindal was bought out in 2007 with George's son Hal Steinbrenner becoming chairman of Yankee Global Enterprises and the team's managing partner. George Steinbrenner, citing declining health, formally handed control of the team to both Hal and brother Hank in October 2007. George Steinbrenner died in 2010 and Hank died ten years later, leaving Hal as the main managing partner. In 2008, the Yankees announced a joint venture with the National Football League's Dallas Cowboys to form the basis for a partnership in running food and beverage, and other catering services to both teams' stadiums. The Yankees has consistently been one of the most valuable sport teams in the world. In 2013, Forbes magazine ranked New York Yankees as the fourth most valuable sports team in the world, behind association football clubs Real Madrid of La Liga, Manchester United of the Premier League and Barcelona of La Liga, a value of $2.3 billion. In 2017, Forbes magazine ranked the Yankees as the second most valuable sports team at $3.7 billion behind the Dallas Cowboys, up 9% from 2016. In 2019, Forbes magazine again ranked the Yankees as the most valuable MLB team at $4.6 billion, up 15% from 2018, behind only the Dallas Cowboys. In 2022, the Yankees were again ranked as the second most valuable team behind the Cowboys, valued at $6 billion. The team's value rose again in 2023, rising 17% from 2022 to $7.1 billion. As at 2023, the trio of Patrick Bet-David, Marvin Goldklang and Lester Crown were minority part owners, owning 30% stake of the franchise separated amongst them. Criticism With the long-term success of the franchise and a large Yankee fanbase, many fans of other teams have come to dislike the Yankees. When the Yankees are on the road, it is common for the home fans to chant "Yankees Suck". According to the opinion poll and analytics website FiveThirtyEight, the Yankees were MLB's least liked team, with 48% of fans expressing an "unfavorable" view of the team. Much of the animosity toward the team may derive from its high payroll and "buying" champions instead of developing players. Their payroll was around $200 million at the start of the 2008 season, the highest of any American sports team. In 2005, the team's average player salary was $2.6 million with the Yankees having the five highest paid players in MLB. During his tenure as team owner, George Steinbrenner attracted controversy for his public criticism of players and managers and for high personnel turnover. Manager Billy Martin was hired and fired a total of five times under Steinbrenner. Chicago Tribune columnist Mike Royko noted, "Hating the Yankees is as American as pizza pie, unwed mothers, and cheating on your income tax." Fight and theme songs The official fight song for the Yankees is "Here Come the Yankees", written in 1967 by Bob Bundin and Lou Stallman. The song was used extensively in radio and television broadcast introductions. The song, however, did not catch on with fans and has been rarely used past the 1990s. This is contrasted to other, more popular fight songs such as "Meet the Mets", which is played at every Mets home game. Another song strongly linked to the team is "New York, New York", which is played in the stadium after home games. George Steinbrenner started playing the song during the 1980 season. The Frank Sinatra cover version is traditionally played after victories, and the Liza Minnelli original version after losses. However, due to a complaint from Minnelli, the Frank Sinatra version is played after home games, regardless of the result. A wide selection of songs are played regularly at the stadium, many of them live on the Stadium's Hammond organ. One of the popular songs is "God Bless America", which has been played during the seventh-inning stretch since September 11. The version typically played for many years since 2001 was an abbreviated version of Kate Smith's rendition. In 2019 the Yankees stopped playing Smith's rendition to allegations of racism in some of her songs. The team switched to a live version by the stadium organist during the stretch in the interim. In 2021, the organ version was replaced by a recording of the Robert Merrill cover of the song. Merrill was the national anthem singer in the old Yankees Stadium for Opening Day and other special events before passing away in 1998. During the 5th inning, the grounds crew, while performing their duties, dance to "Y.M.C.A.". Former Yankees executive Joseph Molloy said that he saw fans dancing to the song during a spring training game in the mid 1990s. Molloy told Steinbrenner, who started to play the song at the stadium. Radio and television The Yankees Entertainment and Sports (YES) Network was launched in 2002 and serves as the primary home of the New York Yankees. As of 2022, Michael Kay is the play-by-play announcer with David Cone, John Flaherty, and Paul O'Neill working as commentators as part of a three-man, or occasionally two-man, booth. Bob Lorenz hosts both the pre-game and the post-game shows with Jack Curry, and Meredith Marakovits and Nancy Newman are the on-site reporters. Select games are available streaming only on Amazon Prime in the New York metropolitan area, these games formally aired on WPIX and WWOR-TV. Radio broadcasts are on the Yankees Radio Network, the flagship station being WFAN 660 AM, with John Sterling as the play-by-play announcer and Suzyn Waldman providing the commentary. Spanish-language broadcasts are on WADO 1280 AM, with Rickie Ricardo calling the games. Past announcers Mel Allen was the team's lead announcer from 1948 to 1964. He was known as "The voice of the Yankees." Russ Hodges had a brief stint with Mel Allen before he took over as the lead announcer with the New York Giants. Red Barber called Yankees games for 13 seasons, from 1954 to 1966. Jerry Coleman called Yankees games from 1963 to 1970. Coleman was the Yankees second baseman from 1949 to 1957. Joe Garagiola called Yankees games from 1965 to 1967. Frank Messer, Phil Rizzuto and Bill White teamed together in the 1970s and 1980s. Rizzuto, with 40 years in the broadcast booth, was the longest-serving broadcaster in the history of the club. Messer and White each worked nearly two decades for the Yankees, with White notably moving on to become president of the National League in 1989. Bobby Murcer also called games for over twenty years, and continued with the YES Network until shortly before his death from brain cancer in 2008. Roster Retired numbers The Yankees have retired 22 numbers for 24 individuals, the most in Major League Baseball. The retired numbers were displayed behind the old Yankee Stadium's left-field fence and in front of the opposing team's bullpen, forming a little alley that connects Monument Park to the left-field stands. When the franchise moved across the street to the new stadium, the numbers were incorporated into Monument Park that sits place in center field between both bullpens. The 21 numbers are placed on the wall in chronological order, beginning with Lou Gehrig's number 4. This was retired soon after Gehrig left baseball on July 4, 1939, the same day he gave his famous farewell speech. His was the first number retired in Major League Baseball history. Beneath the numbers are plaques with the names of the players and a descriptive paragraph. The number 42 was retired throughout Major League Baseball in honor of Jackie Robinson on April 15, 1997, the 50th anniversary of his breaking the color barrier. The day was declared Jackie Robinson Day, and was later observed by all of baseball, with select players from every team wearing the number 42. Players who wore No. 42 at the time were allowed to continue to wear it until they left the team with which they played on April 15, 1997; Mariano Rivera was the last active player covered under that grandfather clause. In 1972, the number 8 was retired for two players on the same day, in honor of catcher Bill Dickey and his protege, catcher Yogi Berra. Berra inherited Dickey's number in 1948 after Dickey ended his playing career and became a coach. The numbers 37 and 6, retired for Casey Stengel and Joe Torre respectively, are the only numbers retired by the Yankees for someone who served solely as manager of the team. Stengel managed the Yankees to ten pennants and seven world championships between 1949 and 1960, including a record five consecutive world championships from 1949 through 1953. Joe Torre managed the Yankees from 1996 to 2007, winning six pennants and four World Series championships. On May 14, 2017, the Yankees retired number 2 in honor of Derek Jeter. This leaves 0 as the only single-digit number available for future Yankees, currently worn by pitcher Domingo Germán. Hall of Famers Rivalries The Yankees have multiple rivalries across the league, most notably The Boston Red Sox. The Yankees have also had historical rivalries with former crosstown National League teams the Los Angeles Dodgers and San Francisco Giants, and current crosstown rivals the New York Mets. The much storied Dodgers-Yankees rivalry goes back to the Dodgers' tenure in Brooklyn. The two teams have met in the World Series 11 times including four matchups since the Dodgers relocated to Los Angeles in 1958. The Yankees also forged an unlikely rivalry with the Cleveland Guardians, built by stark financial contrasts between the two teams, a fatal on-field death in 1920, and heated pennant races and postseason matchups in subsequent years. During the late 1990s, the Yankees built a rivalry with the Seattle Mariners as the two teams met in the postseason three times near the end of the decade. Most recently the team has developed a rivalry with the Houston Astros, fueled in part by the Houston Astros sign stealing scandal, believed by some Yankee fans to have contributed to their team's loss in the 2017 ALCS. The two teams have met in the postseason four times since 2015, and have pursued the same free agents and shared vitriol between both fanbases. Boston Red Sox The Yankees–Red Sox rivalry is one of the oldest, most famous, and fiercest rivalries in professional sports. The inaugural game between the two teams occurred more than 100 years ago, in 1903, when the Yankees (then known as the Highlanders) hosted the Red Sox (then named the Americans) at Hilltop Park. One of the major aspects of the rivalry is the Curse of the Bambino, where Babe Ruth was traded to the Yankees in 1920. Following the trade, the Red Sox did not win a World Series for 86 years, until 2004. The rivalry is sometimes so polarizing that it is often a heated subject, especially in the Northeastern United States. Since the inception of the wild card team and an added Division Series, the rivals have met in the playoffs five times (with the Yankees winning the 1999 and 2003 American League Championship Series and the Red Sox winning in the 2004 American League Championship Series, 2018 American League Division Series and the 2021 American League Wild Card Game). In addition, the teams have twice met in the last regular-season series of a season to decide the AL pennant, in 1904 (when the Red Sox won) and 1949 (when the Yankees won). Games between the two teams are often broadcast on national television and often yield high television ratings. The teams also finished tied for first in 1978, when the Yankees won a high-profile tie-breaker playoff for the AL East division title. The 1978 division race is memorable for the Red Sox having held a 14-game lead over the Yankees more than halfway through the season. Similarly, the 2004 ALCS is notable for the Yankees leading 3 games to 0 and ultimately losing the next four games and the series. The Red Sox comeback was the only time in MLB history that a team has come back from a 0–3 deficit to win a postseason series. Houston Astros The rivalry between the Yankees and the Houston Astros emerged in the mid-2010s after the Astros moved to the American League and eventually ascended to title contenders. The two teams have met in four postseason rounds, all of which were won by Houston. Animosity grew immediately after the Astros were revealed to have stolen signs during their 2017 championship season, as well as the Yankees' inability to overcome Houston in the playoffs despite fielding equally strong rosters. Both teams are tied all-time with 43 wins apiece, but the Astros own a 13–5 postseason record. Subway Series The Subway Series is a series of games played between teams based in New York City. The name originates from the New York City Subway and the accessibility of the each team's stadium within the subway system. Historically, the term "Subway Series" referred to games played between the Yankees and either the New York Giants or the Brooklyn Dodgers. When the Dodgers and Giants moved to California in the late 1950s, the New York Mets were established as an expansion team in 1962. The term's historic usage has been in reference to World Series games played between New York teams. The Yankees have appeared in all Subway Series games as they have been the only American League team in the city, and have compiled an 11–3 record in the 14 championship Subway Series. The most recent World Series between the two New York teams was in 2000, when the Yankees defeated the Mets, in five games. Since 1997, the term Subway Series has also been applied to interleague play during the regular season between the Yankees and National League New York Mets. Minor league affiliations As of the 2023 season, the New York Yankees farm system consists of six minor league affiliates. See also List of World Series champions List of New York Yankees managers References Notes Sources Bibliography New York Yankees: Manager and Coaches External links A Boy and His Job 1969-06-04. Elliott Ashley, bat boy for the New York Yankees, explains his duties in this documentary produced by National Educational Television, preserved in the American Archive of Public Broadcasting. Baseball-Reference.com – year-by-year franchise index Baseball Almanac Sports E-Cyclopedia 1903 establishments in New York City Baseball teams established in 1903 Baseball teams in New York City Former CBS Corporation subsidiaries Grapefruit League Major League Baseball teams Sports in the Bronx Yankee Global Enterprises
4848272	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald%20Trump	Donald Trump	Donald John Trump (born June 14, 1946) is an American politician, media personality, and businessman who served as the 45th president of the United States from 2017 to 2021. Trump received a BS in economics from the University of Pennsylvania in 1968, and his father named him president of his real estate business in 1971. Trump renamed it the Trump Organization and expanded its operations to building and renovating skyscrapers, hotels, casinos, and golf courses. After a series of business reversals in the late twentieth century, he successfully launched various side ventures that required little capital, mostly by licensing the Trump name. From 2004 to 2015, he co-produced and hosted the reality television series The Apprentice. He and his businesses have been plaintiff or defendant in more than 4,000 state and federal legal actions, including six business bankruptcies. Trump won the 2016 presidential election as the Republican nominee against Democratic nominee Hillary Clinton while losing the popular vote. During the campaign, his political positions were described as populist, protectionist, isolationist, and nationalist. His election and policies sparked numerous protests. He was the first U.S. president with no prior military or government experience. The 2017–2019 special counsel investigation established that Russia had interfered in the 2016 election to favor Trump's campaign. Trump promoted conspiracy theories and made many false and misleading statements during his campaigns and presidency, to a degree unprecedented in American politics. Many of his comments and actions have been characterized as racially charged or racist and many as misogynistic. As president, Trump ordered a travel ban on citizens from several Muslim-majority countries, diverted military funding toward building a wall on the U.S.-Mexico border, and implemented a policy of family separations for migrants detained at the U.S. border. He weakened environmental protections, rolling back more than 100 environmental policies and regulations. He signed the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017, which cut taxes for individuals and businesses and rescinded the individual health insurance mandate penalty of the Affordable Care Act. He appointed Neil Gorsuch, Brett Kavanaugh, and Amy Coney Barrett to the U.S. Supreme Court. He initiated a trade war with China and withdrew the U.S. from the proposed Trans-Pacific Partnership trade agreement, the Paris Agreement on climate change, and the Iran nuclear deal. He met with North Korean leader Kim Jong Un three times but made no progress on denuclearization. He reacted slowly to the COVID-19 pandemic, ignored or contradicted many recommendations from health officials, used political pressure to interfere with testing efforts, and spread misinformation about unproven treatments. Trump lost the 2020 presidential election to Joe Biden. He refused to concede defeat, falsely claiming widespread electoral fraud, and attempted to overturn the results by pressuring government officials, mounting scores of unsuccessful legal challenges, and obstructing the presidential transition. On January 6, 2021, he urged his supporters to march to the U.S. Capitol, which many of them then attacked, resulting in multiple deaths and interrupting the electoral vote count. Trump is the only American president to have been impeached twice. After he tried to pressure Ukraine in 2019 to investigate Biden, he was impeached in December by the House of Representatives for abuse of power and obstruction of Congress; he was acquitted by the Senate in February 2020. The House impeached him a second time in January 2021, for incitement of insurrection, and the Senate acquitted him the next month. Scholars and historians rank Trump as one of the worst presidents in American history. Since leaving office, Trump has remained heavily involved in the Republican Party. In November 2022, he announced his candidacy for the Republican nomination in the 2024 presidential election. In March 2023, a Manhattan grand jury indicted him on 34 felony counts of falsifying business records. In June, a Miami federal grand jury indicted him on 40 felonies related to his handling of classified documents. In August, a Washington, D.C., federal grand jury indicted him on four felony counts of conspiracy and obstruction related to efforts to overturn the 2020 election. Later in August, a Fulton County, Georgia, grand jury indicted him on 19 charges for racketeering and other felonies committed in an effort to overturn the state's 2020 election results. Trump pleaded not guilty to all charges. Personal life Early life Donald John Trump was born on June 14, 1946, at Jamaica Hospital in Queens, New York City, the fourth child of Fred Trump, a Bronx-born real estate developer whose parents were German immigrants, and Mary Anne MacLeod Trump, an immigrant from Scotland. Trump grew up with older siblings Maryanne, Fred Jr., and Elizabeth and younger brother Robert in the Jamaica Estates neighborhood of Queens, and attended the private Kew-Forest School from kindergarten through seventh grade. At age 13, he was enrolled at the New York Military Academy, a private boarding school, and, in 1964, he enrolled at Fordham University. Two years later, he transferred to the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania, graduating in May 1968 with a Bachelor of Science in economics. In 2015, Trump's lawyer Michael Cohen threatened Trump's colleges, high school, and the College Board with legal action if they released Trump's academic records. While in college, Trump obtained four student draft deferments during the Vietnam War era. In 1966, he was deemed fit for military service based upon a medical examination, and in July 1968, a local draft board classified him as eligible to serve. In October 1968, he was classified , a conditional medical deferment, and in 1972, he was reclassified due to bone spurs, permanently disqualifying him from service. Family In 1977, Trump married Czech model Ivana Zelníčková. They had three children: Donald Jr. (born 1977), Ivanka (born 1981), and Eric (born 1984). Ivana became a naturalized United States citizen in 1988. The couple divorced in 1990, following Trump's affair with actress Marla Maples. Trump and Maples married in 1993 and divorced in 1999. They have one daughter, Tiffany (born 1993), who was raised by Marla in California. In 2005, Trump married Slovenian model Melania Knauss. They have one son, Barron (born 2006). Melania gained U.S. citizenship in 2006. Religion Trump went to Sunday school and was confirmed in 1959 at the First Presbyterian Church in Jamaica, Queens. In the 1970s, his parents joined the Marble Collegiate Church in Manhattan, which belongs to the Reformed Church in America. The pastor at Marble, Norman Vincent Peale, ministered to the family until his death in 1993. Trump has described him as a mentor. In 2015, the church stated that Trump was not an active member. In 2019, he appointed his personal pastor, televangelist Paula White, to the White House Office of Public Liaison. In 2020, he said he identified as a non-denominational Christian. Health habits Trump has called golfing his "primary form of exercise" but usually does not walk the course. He considers exercise a waste of energy because he believes exercise depletes the body's energy "like a battery, with a finite amount of energy". In 2015, Trump's campaign released a letter from his longtime personal physician, Harold Bornstein, stating that Trump would "be the healthiest individual ever elected to the presidency". In 2018, Bornstein said Trump had dictated the contents of the letter and that three Trump agents had seized his medical records in a February 2017 raid on the doctor's office. Wealth In 1982, Trump made the initial Forbes list of wealthy people for holding a share of his family's estimated $200 million net worth (equivalent to $ million in ). His losses in the 1980s dropped him from the list between 1990 and 1995. After filing the mandatory financial disclosure report with the FEC in July 2015, he announced a net worth of about $10 billion. Records released by the FEC showed at least $1.4 billion in assets and $265 million in liabilities. Forbes estimated his net worth dropped by $1.4 billion between 2015 and 2018. In their 2021 billionaires ranking, Trump's net worth was estimated to be $2.4 billion (1,299th in the world). Journalist Jonathan Greenberg reported that Trump called him in 1984, pretending to be a fictional Trump Organization official named "John Barron". Greenberg said that Trump, speaking as "Barron", falsely asserted that he owned more than 90 percent of his father's business to get a higher ranking for himself on the Forbes 400 list of wealthy Americans. Greenberg also wrote that Forbes had vastly overestimated Trump's wealth and wrongly included him on the Forbes 400 rankings of 1982, 1983, and 1984. Trump has often said he began his career with "a small loan of one million dollars" from his father and that he had to pay it back with interest. He was a millionaire by age eight, borrowed at least $60 million from his father, largely failed to repay those loans, and received another $413 million (adjusted for inflation) from his father's company. In 2018, he and his family were reported to have committed tax fraud, and the New York State Department of Taxation and Finance started an investigation. His investments underperformed the stock and New York property markets. Forbes estimated in October 2018 that his net worth declined from $4.5 billion in 2015 to $3.1 billion in 2017 and his product-licensing income from $23 million to $3 million. Contrary to his claims of financial health and business acumen, Trump's tax returns from 1985 to 1994 show net losses totaling $1.17 billion. The losses were higher than those of almost every other American taxpayer. The losses in 1990 and 1991, more than $250 million each year, were more than double those of the nearest taxpayers. In 1995, his reported losses were $915.7 million (equivalent to $ billion in ). In 2020, the New York Times obtained Trump's tax information extending over two decades. Its reporters found that Trump reported losses of hundreds of millions of dollars and had, since 2010, deferred declaring $287 million in forgiven debt as taxable income. His income mainly came from his share in The Apprentice and businesses in which he was a minority partner, and his losses mainly from majority-owned businesses. Much income was in tax credits for his losses, which let him avoid annual income tax payments or lower them to $750. During the 2010s, Trump balanced his businesses' losses by selling and borrowing against assets, including a $100 million mortgage on Trump Tower (due in 2022) and the liquidation of over $200 million in stocks and bonds. He personally guaranteed $421 million in debt, most of which is due by 2024. As of October 2021, Trump had over $1.3 billion in total debts, much of which is secured by his assets. In 2020, he owed $640 million to banks and trust organizations, including Bank of China, Deutsche Bank, and UBS, and approximately $450 million to unknown creditors. The value of his assets exceeds his debt. Business career Real estate Starting in 1968, Trump was employed at his father's real estate company, Trump Management, which owned racially segregated middle-class rental housing in New York City's outer boroughs. In 1971, he became president of the company and began using the Trump Organization as an umbrella brand. Between 1991 and 2009, he filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection for six of his businesses, the Plaza Hotel in Manhattan, the casinos in Atlantic City, New Jersey, and the Trump Hotels & Casino Resorts company. Manhattan developments Trump attracted public attention in 1978 with the launch of his family's first Manhattan venture, the renovation of the derelict Commodore Hotel, adjacent to Grand Central Terminal. The financing was facilitated by a $400 million city property tax abatement arranged for Trump by his father who also, jointly with Hyatt, guaranteed a $70 million bank construction loan. The hotel reopened in 1980 as the Grand Hyatt Hotel, and that same year, Trump obtained rights to develop Trump Tower, a mixed-use skyscraper in Midtown Manhattan. The building houses the headquarters of the Trump Corporation and Trump's PAC and was Trump's primary residence until 2019. In 1988, Trump acquired the Plaza Hotel with a loan from a consortium of sixteen banks. The hotel filed for bankruptcy protection in 1992, and a reorganization plan was approved a month later, with the banks taking control of the property. In 1995, Trump defaulted on over $3 billion of bank loans, and the lenders seized the Plaza Hotel along with most of his other properties in a humiliating restructuring that allowed Trump to avoid personal bankruptcy. The lead bank's attorney said of the banks' decision that they "all agreed that he’d be better alive than dead." In 1996, Trump acquired the mostly vacant 71-story skyscraper at 40 Wall Street, later rebranded as the Trump Building, and renovated it. In the early 1990s, Trump won the right to develop a tract in the Lincoln Square neighborhood near the Hudson River. Struggling with debt from other ventures in 1994, Trump sold most of his interest in the project to Asian investors, who were able to finance the project's completion, Riverside South. Atlantic City casinos In 1984, Trump opened Harrah's at Trump Plaza, a hotel and casino, with financing and management help from the Holiday Corporation. It was unprofitable, and Trump paid Holiday $70 million in May 1986 to take sole control. In 1985, Trump bought the unopened Atlantic City Hilton Hotel and renamed it Trump Castle. His wife Ivana managed it until 1988. Both casinos filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection in 1992. Trump bought a third Atlantic City venue in 1988, the Trump Taj Mahal. It was financed with $675 million in junk bonds and completed for $1.1 billion, opening in April 1990. Trump filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection in 1991. Under the provisions of the restructuring agreement, Trump gave up half his initial stake and personally guaranteed future performance. To reduce his $900 million of personal debt, he sold the Trump Shuttle airline; his megayacht, the Trump Princess, which had been leased to his casinos and kept docked; and other businesses. In 1995, Trump founded Trump Hotels & Casino Resorts (THCR), which assumed ownership of the Trump Plaza. THCR purchased the Taj Mahal and the Trump Castle in 1996 and went bankrupt in 2004 and 2009, leaving Trump with 10 percent ownership. He remained chairman until 2009. Mar-a-Lago In 1985, Trump acquired the Mar-a-Lago estate in Palm Beach, Florida. In 1995, he converted the estate into a private club with an initiation fee and annual dues. He continued to use a wing of the house as a private residence. In 2019, Trump declared Mar-a-Lago his primary residence. Golf courses The Trump Organization began building and buying golf courses in 1999. It owns fourteen and manages another three Trump-branded courses worldwide. Trump visited a Trump Organization property on 428 (nearly one in three) of the 1,461 days of his presidency and is estimated to have played 261 rounds of golf, one every 5.6 days. Licensing of the Trump brand The Trump name has been licensed for various consumer products and services, including foodstuffs, apparel, adult learning courses, and home furnishings. According to an analysis by The Washington Post, there are more than 50 licensing or management deals involving Trump's name, and they have generated at least $59 million in revenue for his companies. By 2018, only two consumer goods companies continued to license his name. Side ventures In September 1983, Trump purchased the New Jersey Generals, a team in the United States Football League. After the 1985 season, the league folded, largely due to Trump's strategy of moving games to a fall schedule (when they competed with the NFL for audience) and trying to force a merger with the NFL by bringing an antitrust suit against the organization. Trump's businesses have hosted several boxing matches at the Atlantic City Convention Hall, adjacent to and promoted as taking place at the Trump Plaza in Atlantic City. In 1989 and 1990, Trump lent his name to the Tour de Trump cycling stage race, which was an attempt to create an American equivalent of European races such as the Tour de France or the Giro d'Italia. From 1986 to 1988, Trump purchased significant blocks of shares in various public companies while suggesting that he intended to take over the company and then sold his shares for a profit, leading some observers to think he was engaged in greenmail. The New York Times found that Trump initially made millions of dollars in such stock transactions, but later "lost most, if not all, of those gains after investors stopped taking his takeover talk seriously". In 1988, Trump purchased the Eastern Air Lines Shuttle, financing the purchase with $380 million (equivalent to $ million in ) in loans from a syndicate of 22 banks. He renamed the airline Trump Shuttle and operated it until 1992. Trump defaulted on his loans in 1991, and ownership passed to the banks. The airline was eventually sold to US Airways. In 1992, Trump, his siblings Maryanne, Elizabeth, and Robert, and his cousin John W. Walter, each with a 20 percent share, formed All County Building Supply & Maintenance Corp. The company had no offices and is alleged to have been a shell company for paying the vendors providing services and supplies for Trump's rental units, then billing those services and supplies to Trump Management with markups of 20–50 percent and more. The owners shared the proceeds generated by the markups. The increased costs were used as justification to get state approval for increasing the rents of Trump's rent-stabilized units. From 1996 to 2015, Trump owned all or part of the Miss Universe pageants, including Miss USA and Miss Teen USA. Due to disagreements with CBS about scheduling, he took both pageants to NBC in 2002. In 2007, Trump received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for his work as producer of Miss Universe. NBC and Univision dropped the pageants from their broadcasting lineups in June 2015. Trump University In 2004, Trump co-founded Trump University, a company that sold real estate training courses priced from $1,500 to $35,000. After New York State authorities notified the company that its use of the word "university" violated state law (as it was not an academic institution), its name was changed to the Trump Entrepreneur Initiative in 2010. In 2013, the State of New York filed a $40 million civil suit against Trump University, alleging that the company made false statements and defrauded consumers. In addition, two class actions were filed in federal court against Trump and his companies. Internal documents revealed that employees were instructed to use a hard-sell approach, and former employees testified that Trump University had defrauded or lied to its students. Shortly after he won the 2016 presidential election, Trump agreed to pay a total of $25 million to settle the three cases. Foundation The Donald J. Trump Foundation was a private foundation established in 1988. In the foundation's final years, its funds mostly came from donors other than Trump, who did not donate any personal funds to the charity from 2009 until 2014. The foundation gave to health-care- and sports-related charities, as well as conservative groups. In 2016, The Washington Post reported that the charity committed several potential legal and ethical violations, including alleged self-dealing and possible tax evasion. Also in 2016, the New York Attorney General determined the foundation to be in violation of state law for soliciting donations and ordered it to immediately cease its fundraising activities in New York. Trump's team announced in December 2016 that the foundation would be dissolved. In June 2018, the New York attorney general's office filed a civil suit against the foundation, Trump, and his adult children, seeking $2.8 million in restitution and additional penalties. In December 2018, the foundation ceased operation and disbursed its assets to other charities. In November 2019, a New York state judge ordered Trump to pay $2 million to a group of charities for misusing the foundation's funds, in part to finance his presidential campaign. Legal affairs and bankruptcies Roy Cohn was Trump's fixer, lawyer, and mentor for 13 years in the 1970s and 1980s. According to Trump, Cohn sometimes waived fees due to their friendship. In 1973, Cohn helped Trump countersue the United States government for $100 million (equivalent to $ million in ) over its charges that Trump's properties had racial discriminatory practices. Trump's counterclaims were dismissed, and the government's case went forward, ultimately resulting in a settlement. In 1975, an agreement was struck requiring Trump's properties to furnish the New York Urban League with a list of all apartment vacancies, every week for two years, among other things. Cohn introduced political consultant Roger Stone to Trump, who enlisted Stone's services to deal with the federal government. According to a review of state and federal court files conducted by USA Today in 2018, Trump and his businesses had been involved in more than 4,000 state and federal legal actions. While Trump has not filed for personal bankruptcy, his over-leveraged hotel and casino businesses in Atlantic City and New York filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection six times between 1991 and 2009. They continued to operate while the banks restructured debt and reduced Trump's shares in the properties. During the 1980s, more than 70 banks had lent Trump $4 billion. After his corporate bankruptcies of the early 1990s most major banks, with the exception of Deutsche Bank, declined to lend to him. After the January 6 United States Capitol attack, the bank decided not to do business with Trump or his company in the future. Media career Books Using ghostwriters, Trump has produced up to 19 books on business, financial, or political topics under his name. His first book, The Art of the Deal (1987), was a New York Times Best Seller. While Trump was credited as co-author, the entire book was written by Tony Schwartz. According to The New Yorker, "The book expanded Trump's renown far beyond New York City, making him an emblem of the successful tycoon." Trump has called the volume his second favorite book, after the Bible. Film and television Trump made cameo appearances in many films and television shows from 1985 to 2001. Trump had a sporadic relationship with the professional wrestling promotion WWE since the late 1980s. He appeared at WrestleMania 23 in 2007 and was inducted into the celebrity wing of the WWE Hall of Fame in 2013. Starting in the 1990s, Trump was a guest about 24 times on the nationally syndicated Howard Stern Show. He also had his own short-form talk radio program called Trumped! (one to two minutes on weekdays) from 2004 to 2008. From 2011 until 2015, he was a weekly unpaid guest commentator on Fox & Friends. From 2004 to 2015, Trump was co-producer and host of reality shows The Apprentice and The Celebrity Apprentice. Trump played a flattering, highly fictionalized version of himself as a superrich and successful chief executive who eliminated contestants with the catchphrase "You're fired". The shows remade his image for millions of viewers nationwide. With the related licensing agreements, they earned him more that $400 million which he invested in largely unprofitable businesses. In February 2021, Trump resigned from the Screen Actors Guild he had been a member of since 1989 rather than face a disciplinary committee hearing for inciting the January 6, 2021, mob attack on the U.S. Capitol and for his "reckless campaign of misinformation aimed at discrediting and ultimately threatening the safety of journalists". Two days later, the union permanently barred him from readmission. Political career Trump's political party affiliation has changed numerous times. He registered as a Republican in 1987; a member of the Independence Party, the New York state affiliate of the Reform Party, in 1999; a Democrat in 2001; a Republican in 2009; unaffiliated in 2011; and a Republican in 2012. In 1987, Trump placed full-page advertisements in three major newspapers, expressing his views on foreign policy and on how to eliminate the federal budget deficit. He ruled out running for local office but not for the presidency. In 1988, he approached Lee Atwater, asking to be put into consideration to be Republican nominee George H. W. Bush's running mate. Bush found the request "strange and unbelievable". Presidential campaigns (2000–2016) In 2000, Trump ran in the California and Michigan primaries for nomination as the Reform Party candidate for the 2000 United States presidential election but withdrew from the race in February 2000. A July 1999 poll matching him against likely Republican nominee George W. Bush and likely Democratic nominee Al Gore showed Trump with seven percent support. In 2011, Trump speculated about running against President Barack Obama in the 2012 election, making his first speaking appearance at the Conservative Political Action Conference (CPAC) in February 2011 and giving speeches in early primary states. In May 2011, he announced he would not run, and he endorsed Mitt Romney in February 2012. Trump's presidential ambitions were generally not taken seriously at the time. 2016 presidential campaign Trump's fame and provocative statements earned him an unprecedented amount of free media coverage, elevating his standing in the Republican primaries. He adopted the phrase "truthful hyperbole", coined by his ghostwriter Tony Schwartz, to describe his public speaking style. His campaign statements were often opaque and suggestive, and a record number of them were false. The Los Angeles Times wrote, "Never in modern presidential politics has a major candidate made false statements as routinely as Trump has." Trump said he disdained political correctness and frequently made claims of media bias. Trump announced his candidacy in June 2015. His campaign was initially not taken seriously by political analysts, but he quickly rose to the top of opinion polls. He became the front-runner in March 2016 and was declared the presumptive Republican nominee in May. Hillary Clinton led Trump in national polling averages throughout the campaign, but, in early July, her lead narrowed. In mid-July Trump selected Indiana governor Mike Pence as his vice presidential running mate, and the two were officially nominated at the 2016 Republican National Convention. Trump and Clinton faced off in three presidential debates in September and October 2016. Trump twice refused to say whether he would accept the result of the election. Campaign rhetoric and political positions Trump's political positions and rhetoric were right-wing populist. Politico described them as "eclectic, improvisational and often contradictory", quoting a health-care policy expert at the American Enterprise Institute as saying that his political positions were "a total random assortment of whatever plays publicly". NBC News counted "141 distinct shifts on 23 major issues" during his campaign. Trump questioned the need for NATO and espoused views that were described as isolationist, non-interventionist, and protectionist. His campaign platform emphasized renegotiating U.S.–China relations and free trade agreements such as NAFTA and the Trans-Pacific Partnership, strongly enforcing immigration laws, and building a new wall along the U.S.–Mexico border. Other campaign positions included pursuing energy independence while opposing climate change regulations such as the Clean Power Plan and the Paris Agreement, modernizing and expediting services for veterans, repealing and replacing the Affordable Care Act, abolishing Common Core education standards, investing in infrastructure, simplifying the tax code while reducing taxes for all economic classes, and imposing tariffs on imports by companies that offshore jobs. He advocated a largely non-interventionist approach to foreign policy while increasing military spending, extreme vetting or banning immigrants from Muslim-majority countries to pre-empt domestic Islamic terrorism, and aggressive military action against the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant. He described NATO as "obsolete". Trump helped bring far-right fringe ideas, beliefs, and organizations into the mainstream. Trump was slow to disavow an endorsement from David Duke after he was questioned about it during a CNN interview on February 28, 2016. Duke enthusiastically supported Trump and said he and like-minded people voted for Trump because of his promises to "take our country back". In August 2016, Trump hired Steve Bannon, the executive chairman of Breitbart News—described by Bannon as "the platform for the alt-right"—as his campaign CEO. The alt-right movement coalesced around and supported Trump's candidacy, due in part to its opposition to multiculturalism and immigration. Financial disclosures Trump's FEC-required reports listed assets above $1.4 billion and outstanding debts of at least $315 million. Trump did not release his tax returns, contrary to the practice of every major candidate since 1976 and his promises in 2014 and 2015 to do so if he ran for office. He said his tax returns were being audited, and that his lawyers had advised him against releasing them. After a lengthy court battle to block release of his tax returns and other records to the Manhattan district attorney for a criminal investigation, including two appeals by Trump to the United States Supreme Court, in February 2021 the high court allowed the records to be released to the prosecutor for review by a grand jury. In October 2016, portions of Trump's state filings for 1995 were leaked to a reporter from The New York Times. They show that Trump had declared a loss of $916 million that year, which could have let him avoid taxes for up to 18 years. Election to the presidency On November 8, 2016, Trump received 306 pledged electoral votes versus 232 for Clinton, though, after elector defections on both sides, the official count was ultimately 304 to 227. Trump received nearly 2.9 million fewer popular votes than Clinton, which made him the fifth person to be elected president while losing the popular vote. Trump also became the only president who neither served in the military nor held any government office prior to becoming president. Trump's victory was a political upset. Polls had consistently shown Clinton with a nationwide—though diminishing—lead, as well as an advantage in most of the competitive states. Trump's support had been modestly underestimated, while Clinton's had been overestimated. Trump won 30 states, including Michigan, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin, states which had been considered a blue wall of Democratic strongholds since the 1990s. Clinton won 20 states and the District of Columbia. Trump's victory marked the return of an undivided Republican government—a Republican White House combined with Republican control of both chambers of Congress. Trump's election victory sparked protests in major U.S. cities in the days following the election. On the day after Trump's inauguration, an estimated 2.6 million people worldwide, including an estimated half million in Washington, D.C., protested against Trump in the Women's Marches. Presidency (2017–2021) Early actions Trump was inaugurated on January 20, 2017. During his first week in office, he signed six executive orders, which authorized: interim procedures in anticipation of repealing the Affordable Care Act ("Obamacare"), withdrawal from the Trans-Pacific Partnership negotiations, reinstatement of the Mexico City policy, advancement of the Keystone XL and Dakota Access Pipeline construction projects, reinforcement of border security, and a planning and design process to construct a wall along the U.S. border with Mexico. Trump's daughter Ivanka and son-in-law Jared Kushner became his assistant and senior advisor, respectively. Conflicts of interest Before being inaugurated, Trump moved his businesses into a revocable trust run by his sons, Eric and Donald Jr., and a business associate. Though he said he would eschew "new foreign deals", the Trump Organization pursued expansions of its operations in Dubai, Scotland, and the Dominican Republic. Trump continued to profit from his businesses and to know how his administration's policies affected his businesses. He was sued for violating the Domestic and Foreign Emoluments Clauses of the U.S. Constitution, marking the first time that the clauses had been substantively litigated. One case was dismissed in lower court. Two were dismissed by the U.S. Supreme Court as moot after the end of Trump's term. Domestic policy Economy Trump took office at the height of the longest economic expansion in American history, which began in June 2009 and continued until February 2020, when the COVID-19 recession began. In December 2017, Trump signed the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017. The bill had been passed by both Republican-controlled chambers of Congress without any Democratic votes. It reduced tax rates for businesses and individuals, with business tax cuts to be permanent and individual tax cuts set to expire after 2025, and eliminated the penalty associated with Affordable Care Act's individual mandate. The Trump administration claimed that the act would either increase tax revenues or pay for itself by prompting economic growth. Instead, revenues in 2018 were 7.6 percent lower than projected. Despite a campaign promise to eliminate the national debt in eight years, Trump approved large increases in government spending and the 2017 tax cut. As a result, the federal budget deficit increased by almost 50 percent, to nearly $1 trillion in 2019. Under Trump, the U.S. national debt increased by 39 percent, reaching $27.75trillion by the end of his term, and the U.S. debt-to-GDP ratio hit a post-World War II high. Trump also failed to deliver the $1 trillion infrastructure spending plan on which he had campaigned. Trump is the only modern U.S. president to leave office with a smaller workforce than when he took office, by 3 million people. Climate change, environment, and energy Trump rejects the scientific consensus on climate change. He reduced the budget for renewable energy research by 40 percent and reversed Obama-era policies directed at curbing climate change. In June 2017, Trump announced the withdrawal of the United States from the Paris Agreement, making the U.S. the only nation in the world to not ratify the agreement. Trump aimed to boost the production and exports of fossil fuels. Natural gas expanded under Trump, but coal continued to decline. Trump rolled back more than 100 federal environmental regulations, including those that curbed greenhouse gas emissions, air and water pollution, and the use of toxic substances. He weakened protections for animals and environmental standards for federal infrastructure projects, and expanded permitted areas for drilling and resource extraction, such as allowing drilling in the Arctic Refuge. Trump's actions while president have been called "a very aggressive attempt to rewrite our laws and reinterpret the meaning of environmental protections". Deregulation In January 2017, Trump signed Executive Order 13771, which directed that, for every new regulation, federal agencies "identify" two existing regulations for elimination, though it did not require elimination. He dismantled many federal regulations on health, labor, and the environment, among other topics. Trump signed 14 Congressional Review Act resolutions repealing federal regulations, including a bill that made it easier for severely mentally ill persons to buy guns. During his first six weeks in office, he delayed, suspended, or reversed ninety federal regulations, often "after requests by the regulated industries". The Institute for Policy Integrity found that 78 percent of Trump's proposals were blocked by courts or did not prevail over litigation. Health care During his campaign, Trump vowed to repeal and replace the Affordable Care Act (ACA). In office, he scaled back the Act's implementation through executive orders 13765 and 13813. Trump expressed a desire to "let Obamacare fail"; his administration cut the ACA enrollment period in half and drastically reduced funding for advertising and other ways to encourage enrollment. Trump falsely claimed he saved the coverage of pre-existing conditions provided by the ACA. In June 2018, the Trump administration joined 18 Republican-led states in arguing before the Supreme Court that the elimination of the financial penalties associated with the individual mandate had rendered the ACA unconstitutional. If they had succeeded, it would have eliminated health insurance coverage for up to 23 million Americans. During the 2016 campaign, Trump promised to protect funding for Medicare and other social safety-net programs, but in January 2020, he suggested he was willing to consider cuts to such programs. In response to the opioid epidemic, Trump signed legislation in 2018 to increase funding for drug treatments, but was widely criticized for failing to make a concrete strategy. U.S. opioid overdose deaths declined slightly in 2018, but surged to a record 50,052 deaths in 2019. Social issues Trump barred organizations that provide abortions or abortion referrals from receiving federal funds. He said he supported "traditional marriage" but considered the nationwide legality of same-sex marriage a "settled" issue. In March 2017, his administration rolled back key components of the Obama administration's workplace protections against discrimination of LGBT people. Trump has said he is opposed to gun control in general, although his views have shifted over time. After several mass shootings during his term, he said he would propose legislation to curtail gun violence, but he abandoned that effort in November 2019. His administration took an anti-marijuana position, revoking Obama-era policies that provided protections for states that legalized marijuana. Trump is a long-time advocate of capital punishment. Under his administration, the federal government executed 13 prisoners, more than in the previous 56 years combined and after a 17-year moratorium. In 2016, Trump said he supported the use of interrogation torture methods such as waterboarding but later appeared to recant this due to the opposition of Defense Secretary James Mattis. Pardons and commutations Trump granted 237 requests for clemency, fewer than all presidents since 1900 with the exception of George H. W. Bush and George W. Bush. Only 25 of them had been vetted by the Justice Department's Office of the Pardon Attorney; the others were granted to people with personal or political connections to him, his family, and his allies, or recommended by celebrities. From 2017 to 2019, he pardoned, amongst others, former Navy sailor Kristian Saucier, who was convicted of taking classified photographs of classified areas inside a submarine; and right-wing commentator Dinesh D'Souza. Following a request by celebrity Kim Kardashian, Trump commuted the life sentence of Alice Marie Johnson, who had been convicted of drug trafficking. Trump also pardoned or reversed the sentences of three American servicemen convicted or accused of committing war crimes in Afghanistan or Iraq. In November and December 2020, Trump pardoned four Blackwater private security contractors convicted of killing Iraqi civilians in the 2007 Nisour Square massacre; white-collar criminals Michael Milken and Bernard Kerik; daughter Ivanka's father-in-law Charles Kushner; and five people convicted as a result of investigations into Russian interference in the 2016 presidential elections. Among them were Michael Flynn; Roger Stone, whose 40-month sentence for lying to Congress, witness tampering, and obstruction he had already commuted in July; and Paul Manafort. In his last full day in office, Trump granted 73 pardons, including to Steve Bannon and Trump fundraiser Elliott Broidy, and commuted 70 sentences. Lafayette Square protester removal and photo op On June 1, 2020, federal law-enforcement officials used batons, rubber bullets, pepper spray projectiles, stun grenades, and smoke to remove a largely peaceful crowd of protesters from Lafayette Square, outside the White House. Trump then walked to St. John's Episcopal Church, where protesters had set a small fire the night before; he posed for photographs holding a Bible, with senior administration officials later joining him in photos. Trump said on June 3 that the protesters were cleared because "they tried to burn down the church [on May 31] and almost succeeded", describing the church as "badly hurt". Religious leaders condemned the treatment of protesters and the photo opportunity itself. Many retired military leaders and defense officials condemned Trump's proposal to use the U.S. military against anti-police-brutality protesters. Immigration Trump's proposed immigration policies were a topic of bitter and contentious debate during the campaign. He promised to build a wall on the Mexico–United States border to restrict illegal movement and vowed Mexico would pay for it. He pledged to deport millions of illegal immigrants residing in the United States, and criticized birthright citizenship for incentivizing "anchor babies". As president, he frequently described illegal immigration as an "invasion" and conflated immigrants with the criminal gang MS-13, though available research shows undocumented immigrants have a lower crime rate than native-born Americans. Trump attempted to drastically escalate immigration enforcement, including implementing harsher immigration enforcement policies against asylum seekers from Central America than any modern U.S. president. From 2018 onward, Trump deployed nearly 6,000 troops to the U.S.–Mexico border to stop most Central American migrants from seeking U.S. asylum. In 2020, his administration widened the public charge rule to further restrict immigrants who might use government benefits from getting permanent residency via green cards. Trump reduced the number of refugees admitted into the U.S. to record lows. When Trump took office, the annual limit was 110,000; Trump set a limit of 18,000 in the 2020 fiscal year and 15,000 in the 2021 fiscal year. Additional restrictions implemented by the Trump administration caused significant bottlenecks in processing refugee applications, resulting in fewer refugees accepted compared to the allowed limits. Travel ban Following the 2015 San Bernardino attack, Trump proposed to ban Muslim foreigners from entering the United States until stronger vetting systems could be implemented. He later reframed the proposed ban to apply to countries with a "proven history of terrorism". On January 27, 2017, Trump signed Executive Order 13769, which suspended admission of refugees for 120 days and denied entry to citizens of Iraq, Iran, Libya, Somalia, Sudan, Syria, and Yemen for 90 days, citing security concerns. The order took effect immediately and without warning, causing confusion and chaos at airports. Protests against the ban began at airports the next day. Legal challenges to the order resulted in nationwide preliminary injunctions. A March 6 revised order, which excluded Iraq and gave other exemptions, again was blocked by federal judges in three states. In a decision in June 2017, the Supreme Court ruled that the ban could be enforced on visitors who lack a "credible claim of a bona fide relationship with a person or entity in the United States". The temporary order was replaced by Presidential Proclamation 9645 on September 24, 2017, which restricted travel from the originally targeted countries except Iraq and Sudan, and further banned travelers from North Korea and Chad, along with certain Venezuelan officials. After lower courts partially blocked the new restrictions, the Supreme Court allowed the September version to go into full effect on December 4, 2017, and ultimately upheld the travel ban in a June 2019 ruling. Family separation at border The Trump administration separated more than 5,400 children of migrant families from their parents at the U.S.–Mexico border, a sharp increase in the number of family separations at the border starting from the summer of 2017. In April 2018, the Trump administration announced a "zero tolerance" policy whereby every adult suspected of illegal entry would be criminally prosecuted. This resulted in family separations, as the migrant adults were put in criminal detention for prosecution, while their children were separated as unaccompanied alien minors. Administration officials described the policy as a way to deter illegal immigration. The policy of family separations was unprecedented in previous administrations and sparked public outrage. Trump falsely asserted that his administration was merely following the law, blaming Democrats, despite the separations being his administration's policy. Although Trump originally argued that the separations could not be stopped by an executive order, he acceded to intense public objection and signed an executive order on June 20, 2018, mandating that migrant families be detained together unless "there is a concern" doing so would pose a risk to the child. On June 26, 2018, Judge Dana Sabraw concluded that the Trump administration had "no system in place to keep track of" the separated children, nor any effective measures for family communication and reunification; Sabraw ordered for the families to be reunited and family separations stopped except in limited circumstances. After the federal-court order, the Trump administration separated more than a thousand migrant children from their families; the ACLU contended that the Trump administration had abused its discretion and asked Sabraw to more narrowly define the circumstances warranting separation. Trump wall and government shutdown One of Trump's central campaign promises was to build a border wall to Mexico and have Mexico pay for it. By the end of his term, the U.S. had built " of new primary wall and of secondary wall" in locations where there had been no barriers and of primary or secondary border fencing replacing dilapidated or outdated barriers. In 2018, Trump refused to sign any appropriations bill from Congress unless it allocated $5.6 billion in funds for the border wall, resulting in the federal government partially shutting down for 35 days from December 2018 to January 2019, the longest U.S. government shutdown in history. Around 800,000 government employees were furloughed or worked without pay. Trump and Congress ended the shutdown by approving temporary funding that provided delayed payments to government workers but no funds for the wall. The shutdown resulted in an estimated permanent loss of $3 billion to the economy, according to the Congressional Budget Office. About half of those polled blamed Trump for the shutdown, and Trump's approval ratings dropped. To prevent another imminent shutdown in February 2019, Congress passed and Trump signed a funding bill that included $1.375 billion for of bollard border fencing. Trump also declared a National Emergency Concerning the Southern Border of the United States, intending to divert $6.1 billion of funds Congress had allocated to other purposes. Trump vetoed a joint resolution to overturn the declaration, and the Senate voted against a veto override. Legal challenges to the diversion of $2.5 billion originally meant for the Department of Defense's drug interdiction efforts and $3.6 billion originally meant for military construction were unsuccessful. Foreign policy Trump described himself as a "nationalist" and his foreign policy as "America First". His foreign policy was marked by praise and support of populist, neo-nationalist, and authoritarian governments. Hallmarks of foreign relations during Trump's tenure included unpredictability and uncertainty, a lack of a consistent foreign policy, and strained and sometimes antagonistic relationships with the U.S.'s European allies. He criticized NATO allies and privately suggested on multiple occasions that the United States should withdraw from the alliance. Trade Trump withdrew the U.S. from the Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP) negotiations, imposed tariffs on steel and aluminum imports, and launched a trade war with China by sharply increasing tariffs on 818 categories (worth $50 billion) of Chinese goods imported into the U.S. While Trump said that import tariffs are paid by China into the U.S. Treasury, they are paid by American companies that import goods from China. Although he pledged during the campaign to significantly reduce the U.S.'s large trade deficits, the trade deficit in July 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic, "was the largest monthly deficit since July 2008". Following a 2017–2018 renegotiation, the United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA) became effective in July 2020 as the successor to NAFTA. Russia The Trump administration "water[ed] down the toughest penalties the U.S. had imposed on Russian entities" after its 2014 annexation of Crimea. Trump withdrew the U.S. from the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty, citing alleged Russian non-compliance, and supported a potential return of Russia to the G7. Trump repeatedly praised and rarely criticized Russian president Vladimir Putin but opposed some actions of the Russian government. After he met Putin at the Helsinki Summit in July 2018, Trump drew bipartisan criticism for accepting Putin's denial of Russian interference in the 2016 presidential election, rather than accepting the findings of U.S. intelligence agencies. Trump did not discuss alleged Russian bounties offered to Taliban fighters for attacking American soldiers in Afghanistan with Putin, saying both that he doubted the intelligence and that he was not briefed on it. China Before and during his presidency, Trump repeatedly accused China of taking unfair advantage of the U.S. As president, Trump launched a trade war against China that was widely characterized as a failure, sanctioned Huawei for its alleged ties to Iran, significantly increased visa restrictions on Chinese students and scholars, and classified China as a currency manipulator. Trump also juxtaposed verbal attacks on China with praise of Chinese Communist Party leader Xi Jinping, which was attributed to trade war negotiations with the leader. After initially praising China for its handling of the COVID-19 pandemic, he began a campaign of criticism over its response starting in March 2020. Trump said he resisted punishing China for its human rights abuses against ethnic minorities in the northwestern Xinjiang region for fear of jeopardizing trade negotiations. In July 2020, the Trump administration imposed sanctions and visa restrictions against senior Chinese officials, in response to expanded mass detention camps holding more than a million of the country's Uyghur Muslim ethnic minority. North Korea In 2017, when North Korea's nuclear weapons were increasingly seen as a serious threat, Trump escalated his rhetoric, warning that North Korean aggression would be met with "fire and fury like the world has never seen". In 2017, Trump declared that he wanted North Korea's "complete denuclearization", and engaged in name-calling with leader Kim Jong Un. After this period of tension, Trump and Kim exchanged at least 27 letters in which the two men described a warm personal friendship. Trump met Kim three times: in Singapore in 2018, in Hanoi in 2019, and in the Korean Demilitarized Zone in 2019. Trump became the first sitting U.S. president to meet a North Korean leader or to set foot on North Korean soil. Trump also lifted some U.S. sanctions against North Korea. However, no denuclearization agreement was reached, and talks in October 2019 broke down after one day. While conducting no nuclear tests since 2017, North Korea continued to build up its arsenal of nuclear weapons and ballistic missiles. Afghanistan U.S. troop numbers in Afghanistan increased from 8,500 in January 2017 to 14,000 a year later, reversing Trump's pre-election position critical of further involvement in Afghanistan. In February 2020, the Trump administration signed a conditional peace agreement with the Taliban, which called for the withdrawal of foreign troops in 14 months "contingent on a guarantee from the Taliban that Afghan soil will not be used by terrorists with aims to attack the United States or its allies" and for the U.S. to seek the release of 5,000 Taliban imprisoned by the Afghan government. By the end of Trump's term, 5,000 Taliban had been released, and, despite the Taliban continuing attacks on Afghan forces and integrating Al-Qaeda members into its leadership, U.S. troops had been reduced to 2,500. Israel Trump supported many of the policies of Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu. Under Trump, the U.S. recognized Jerusalem as the capital of Israel and Israeli sovereignty over the Golan Heights, leading to international condemnation including from the United Nations General Assembly, the European Union, and the Arab League. Saudi Arabia Trump actively supported the Saudi Arabian–led intervention in Yemen against the Houthis and in 2017 signed a $110 billion agreement to sell arms to Saudi Arabia, In 2018, the U.S. provided limited intelligence and logistical support for the intervention. Following the 2019 attack on Saudi oil facilities, which the U.S. and Saudi Arabia blamed on Iran, Trump approved the deployment of 3,000 additional U.S. troops, including fighter squadrons, two Patriot batteries, and a Terminal High Altitude Area Defense system (THAAD), to Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates. Syria Trump ordered missile strikes in April 2017 and in April 2018 against the Assad regime in Syria, in retaliation for the Khan Shaykhun and Douma chemical attacks, respectively. In December 2018, Trump declared "we have won against ISIS", contradicting Department of Defense assessments, and ordered the withdrawal of all troops from Syria. The next day, Mattis resigned in protest, calling his decision an abandonment of the U.S.'s Kurdish allies who played a key role in fighting ISIS. One week after his announcement, Trump said he would not approve any extension of the American deployment in Syria. In October 2019, after Trump spoke to Turkish president Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, U.S. troops in northern Syria were withdrawn from the area and Turkey invaded northern Syria, attacking and displacing American-allied Kurds in the area. Later that month, the U.S. House of Representatives, in a rare bipartisan vote of 354 to 60, condemned Trump's withdrawal of U.S. troops from Syria, for "abandoning U.S. allies, undermining the struggle against ISIS, and spurring a humanitarian catastrophe". Iran After an Iranian missile test on January 29, 2017, and Houthi attacks on Saudi warships, the Trump administration sanctioned 12 companies and 13 individuals suspected of being involved in Iran's missile program. In May 2018, Trump withdrew the United States from the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA), the 2015 agreement between Iran, the U.S., and five other countries that lifted most economic sanctions against Iran in return for Iran agreeing to restrictions on its nuclear program. Analysts determined that, after the United States's withdrawal, Iran moved closer to developing a nuclear weapon. In January 2020, Trump ordered a U.S. airstrike that killed Iranian general Qasem Soleimani, who had planned nearly every significant operation by Iranian forces over the past two decades. Trump threatened to hit 52 Iranian sites, including some "important to Iran & the Iranian culture", if Iran retaliated. The threat to hit cultural sites was seen as illegal and both Defense Secretary Mark Esper and Secretary of State Mike Pompeo said that the U.S. would not attack such sites, but would "follow the laws of armed conflict" and "behave inside the system". Iran did retaliate with ballistic missile strikes against two U.S. airbases in Iraq. On the same day, amid the heightened tensions between the United States and Iran, Iran accidentally shot down Ukraine International Airlines Flight 752 after takeoff from Tehran airport. In August 2020, the Trump administration unsuccessfully attempted to trigger a mechanism that was part of the agreement that would have led to the return of U.N. sanctions against Iran. Personnel The Trump administration had a high turnover of personnel, particularly among White House staff. By the end of Trump's first year in office, 34 percent of his original staff had resigned, been fired, or been reassigned. , 61 percent of Trump's senior aides had left and 141 staffers had left in the previous year. Both figures set a record for recent presidents—more change in the first 13 months than his four immediate predecessors saw in their first two years. Notable early departures included National Security Advisor Flynn (after just 25 days in office), and Press Secretary Sean Spicer. Close personal aides to Trump including Bannon, Hope Hicks, John McEntee, and Keith Schiller quit or were forced out. Some, including Hicks and McEntee, later returned to the White House in different posts. Trump publicly disparaged several of his former top officials, calling them incompetent, stupid, or crazy. Trump had four White House chiefs of staff, marginalizing or pushing out several. Reince Priebus was replaced after seven months by retired Marine general John F. Kelly. Kelly resigned in December 2018 after a tumultuous tenure in which his influence waned, and Trump subsequently disparaged him. Kelly was succeeded by Mick Mulvaney as acting chief of staff; he was replaced in March 2020 by Mark Meadows. On May 9, 2017, Trump dismissed FBI director James Comey. While initially attributing this action to Comey's conduct in the investigation about Hillary Clinton's emails, Trump said a few days later that he was concerned with Comey's roles in the ongoing Trump-Russia investigations, and that he had intended to fire Comey earlier. At a private conversation in February, Trump said he hoped Comey would drop the investigation into Flynn. In March and April, Trump asked Comey to "lift the cloud impairing his ability to act" by saying publicly that the FBI was not investigating him. Turnover was relatively high within the Trump Cabinet. Trump lost three of his 15 original cabinet members within his first year. Health and Human Services secretary Tom Price was forced to resign in September 2017 due to excessive use of private charter jets and military aircraft. Environmental Protection Agency administrator Scott Pruitt resigned in 2018 and Secretary of the Interior Ryan Zinke in January 2019 amid multiple investigations into their conduct. Trump was slow to appoint second-tier officials in the executive branch, saying many of the positions are unnecessary. In October 2017, there were still hundreds of sub-cabinet positions without a nominee. By January 8, 2019, of 706 key positions, 433 had been filled (61 percent) and Trump had no nominee for 264 (37 percent). Judiciary Trump appointed 226 Article III judges, including 54 to the courts of appeals and three to the Supreme Court: Neil Gorsuch, Brett Kavanaugh, and Amy Coney Barrett. Trump's Supreme Court nominees were noted as having politically shifted the Supreme Court to the right. In the 2016 campaign, Trump pledged that Roe v. Wade would be overturned "automatically" if he were elected and provided the opportunity to appoint two or three pro-life justices. Trump later took credit when Roe was overturned in Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization; all three of his Supreme Court nominees voted with the majority. Trump disparaged courts and judges he disagreed with, often in personal terms, and questioned the judiciary's constitutional authority. Trump's attacks on the courts drew rebukes from observers, including sitting federal judges, concerned about the effect of Trump's statements on the judicial independence and public confidence in the judiciary. COVID-19 pandemic In December 2019, COVID-19 erupted in Wuhan, China; the SARS-CoV-2 virus spread worldwide within weeks. The first confirmed case in the U.S. was reported on January 20, 2020. The outbreak was officially declared a public health emergency by Health and Human Services (HHS) Secretary Alex Azar on January 31, 2020. Trump's public statements on COVID-19 were at odds with his private statements. In February 2020 Trump publicly asserted that the outbreak in the U.S. was less deadly than influenza, was "very much under control", and would soon be over. At the same time he acknowledged the opposite in a private conversation with Bob Woodward. In March 2020, Trump privately told Woodward that he was deliberately "playing it down" in public so as not to create panic. Initial response Trump was slow to address the spread of the disease, initially dismissing the threat and ignoring persistent public health warnings and calls for action from health officials within his administration and Secretary Azar. Throughout January and February he focused on economic and political considerations of the outbreak, and largely ignored the danger. By mid-March, most global financial markets had severely contracted in response to the emerging pandemic. On March 6, Trump signed the Coronavirus Preparedness and Response Supplemental Appropriations Act into law, which provided $8.3 billion in emergency funding for federal agencies. On March 11, the World Health Organization (WHO) recognized the spread of COVID-19 as a pandemic, and Trump announced partial travel restrictions for most of Europe, effective March 13. That same day, he gave his first serious assessment of the virus in a nationwide Oval Office address, calling the outbreak "horrible" but "a temporary moment" and saying there was no financial crisis. On March 13, he declared a national emergency, freeing up federal resources. Trump falsely claimed that "anybody that wants a test can get a test", despite the availability of tests being severely limited. In September 2019, the Trump administration terminated United States Agency for International Development's PREDICT program, a $200 million epidemiological research program initiated in 2009 to provide early warning of pandemics abroad. The program trained scientists in sixty foreign laboratories to detect and respond to viruses that have the potential to cause pandemics. One such laboratory was the Wuhan lab that first identified the virus that causes COVID-19. After revival in April 2020, the program was given two 6-month extensions to help fight COVID-19 in the U.S. and other countries. On April 22, Trump signed an executive order restricting some forms of immigration to the United States. In late spring and early summer, with infections and death counts continuing to rise, he adopted a strategy of blaming the states for the growing pandemic, rather than accepting that his initial assessments of the course of the pandemic were overly optimistic or his failure to provide presidential leadership. White House Coronavirus Task Force Trump established the White House Coronavirus Task Force on January 29, 2020. Beginning in mid-March, Trump held a daily task force press conference, joined by medical experts and other administration officials, sometimes disagreeing with them by promoting unproven treatments. Trump was the main speaker at the briefings, where he praised his own response to the pandemic, frequently criticized rival presidential candidate Joe Biden, and denounced the press. On March 16, he acknowledged for the first time that the pandemic was not under control and that months of disruption to daily lives and a recession might occur. His repeated use of the terms "Chinese virus" and "China virus" to describe COVID-19 drew criticism from health experts. By early April, as the pandemic worsened and amid criticism of his administration's response, Trump refused to admit any mistakes in his handling of the outbreak, instead blaming the media, Democratic state governors, the previous administration, China, and the World Health Organization (WHO). The daily coronavirus task force briefings ended in late April, after a briefing at which Trump suggested the dangerous idea of injecting a disinfectant to treat COVID-19; the comment was widely condemned by medical professionals. In early May, Trump proposed the phase-out of the coronavirus task force and its replacement with another group centered on reopening the economy. Amid a backlash, Trump said the task force would "indefinitely" continue. By the end of May, the coronavirus task force's meetings were sharply reduced. World Health Organization Prior to the pandemic, Trump criticized the World Health Organization (WHO) and other international bodies, which he asserted were taking advantage of U.S. aid. His administration's proposed 2021 federal budget, released in February, proposed reducing WHO funding by more than half. In May and April, Trump accused the WHO of "severely mismanaging and covering up the spread of the coronavirus" and alleged without evidence that the organization was under Chinese control and had enabled the Chinese government's concealment of the origins of the pandemic. He then announced that he was withdrawing funding for the organization. Trump's criticisms and actions regarding the WHO were seen as attempts to distract attention from his own mishandling of the pandemic. In July 2020, Trump announced the formal withdrawal of the United States from the WHO effective July 2021. The decision was widely condemned by health and government officials as "short-sighted", "senseless", and "dangerous". Testing In June and July, Trump said several times that the U.S. would have fewer cases of coronavirus if it did less testing, that having a large number of reported cases "makes us look bad". The CDC guideline at the time was that any person exposed to the virus should be "quickly identified and tested" even if they are not showing symptoms, because asymptomatic people can still spread the virus. In August 2020 the CDC quietly lowered its recommendation for testing, advising that people who have been exposed to the virus, but are not showing symptoms, "do not necessarily need a test". The change in guidelines was made by HHS political appointees under Trump administration pressure, against the wishes of CDC scientists. The day after this political interference was reported, the testing guideline was changed back to its original recommendation, stressing that anyone who has been in contact with an infected person should be tested. Pressure to abandon pandemic mitigation measures In April 2020, Republican-connected groups organized anti-lockdown protests against the measures state governments were taking to combat the pandemic; Trump encouraged the protests on Twitter, even though the targeted states did not meet the Trump administration's own guidelines for reopening. In April 2020, he first supported, then later criticized, Georgia Governor Brian Kemp's plan to reopen some nonessential businesses. Throughout the spring he increasingly pushed for ending the restrictions as a way to reverse the damage to the country's economy. Trump often refused to wear a face mask at public events, contrary to his own administration's April 2020 guidance that Americans should wear masks in public and despite nearly unanimous medical consensus that masks are important to preventing the spread of the virus. By June, Trump had said masks were a "double-edged sword"; ridiculed Biden for wearing masks; continually emphasized that mask-wearing was optional; and suggested that wearing a mask was a political statement against him personally. Trump's contradiction of medical recommendations weakened national efforts to mitigate the pandemic. Despite record numbers of COVID-19 cases in the U.S. from mid-June onward and an increasing percentage of positive test results, Trump largely continued to downplay the pandemic, including his false claim in early July 2020 that 99 percent of COVID-19 cases are "totally harmless". He also began insisting that all states should open schools to in-person education in the fall despite a July spike in reported cases. Political pressure on health agencies Trump repeatedly pressured federal health agencies to take actions he favored, such as approving unproven treatments or speeding up the approval of vaccines. Trump administration political appointees at HHS sought to control CDC communications to the public that undermined Trump's claims that the pandemic was under control. CDC resisted many of the changes, but increasingly allowed HHS personnel to review articles and suggest changes before publication. Trump alleged without evidence that FDA scientists were part of a "deep state" opposing him, and delaying approval of vaccines and treatments to hurt him politically. Outbreak at the White House On October 2, 2020, Trump tweeted that he had tested positive for COVID-19. His wife, their son Barron, and numerous staff members and visitors also became infected. Later that day Trump was hospitalized at Walter Reed National Military Medical Center, reportedly due to labored breathing and a fever. He was treated with antiviral and experimental antibody drugs and a steroid. He returned to the White House on October 5, still struggling with the disease. During and after his treatment he continued to downplay the virus. In 2021, it was revealed that his condition had been far more serious; he had dangerously low blood oxygen levels, a high fever, and lung infiltrates, indicating a severe case of the disease. Effects on the 2020 presidential campaign By July 2020, Trump's handling of the COVID-19 pandemic had become a major issue for the 2020 presidential election. Biden sought to make the pandemic the central issue of the election. Polls suggested voters blamed Trump for his pandemic response and disbelieved his rhetoric concerning the virus, with an Ipsos/ABC News poll indicating 65 percent of respondents disapproved of his pandemic response. In the final months of the campaign, Trump repeatedly claimed that the U.S. was "rounding the turn" in managing the pandemic, despite increasing numbers of reported cases and deaths. A few days before the November 3 election, the United States reported more than 100,000 cases in a single day for the first time. Investigations After he assumed office, Trump was the subject of increasing Justice Department and congressional scrutiny, with investigations covering his election campaign, transition, and inauguration, actions taken during his presidency, along with his private businesses, personal taxes, and charitable foundation. There were 30 investigations of Trump, including ten federal criminal investigations, eight state and local investigations, and twelve congressional investigations. In April 2019, the House Oversight Committee issued subpoenas seeking financial details from Trump's banks, Deutsche Bank and Capital One, and his accounting firm, Mazars USA. Trump then sued the banks, Mazars, and committee chair Elijah Cummings to prevent the disclosures. In May, DC District Court judge Amit Mehta ruled that Mazars must comply with the subpoena, and judge Edgardo Ramos of the Southern District Court of New York ruled that the banks must also comply. Trump's attorneys appealed the rulings. In September 2022, the committee and Trump agreed to a settlement about Mazars, and the accounting firm began turning over documents. Hush money payments During the 2016 presidential election campaign, American Media, Inc. (AMI), the parent company of the National Enquirer, and a company set up by Cohen paid Playboy model Karen McDougal and adult film actress Stormy Daniels for keeping silent about their alleged affairs with Trump between 2006 and 2007. Cohen pleaded guilty in 2018 to breaking campaign finance laws, saying he had arranged both payments at the direction of Trump to influence the presidential election. Trump denied the affairs and claimed he was not aware of Cohen's payment to Daniels, but he reimbursed him in 2017. Federal prosecutors asserted that Trump had been involved in discussions regarding non-disclosure payments as early as 2014. Court documents showed that the FBI believed Trump was directly involved in the payment to Daniels, based on calls he had with Cohen in October 2016. Federal prosecutors closed the investigation in 2019, but the Manhattan District Attorney subpoenaed the Trump Organization and AMI for records related to the payments and Trump and the Trump Organization for eight years of tax returns. In November 2022, The New York Times reported that Manhattan prosecutors were "newly optimistic about building a case" against Trump. Russian election interference In January 2017, American intelligence agencies—the CIA, the FBI, and the NSA, represented by the Director of National Intelligence—jointly stated with "high confidence" that the Russian government interfered in the 2016 presidential election to favor the election of Trump. In March 2017, FBI Director James Comey told Congress, "[T]he FBI, as part of our counterintelligence mission, is investigating the Russian government's efforts to interfere in the 2016 presidential election. That includes investigating the nature of any links between individuals associated with the Trump campaign and the Russian government, and whether there was any coordination between the campaign and Russia's efforts." Many suspicious links between Trump associates and Russian officials and spies were discovered and the relationships between Russians and "team Trump" were widely reported by the press. Manafort, one of Trump's campaign managers, worked from December 2004 to February 2010 to help pro-Russian politician Viktor Yanukovych win the Ukrainian presidency. Other Trump associates, including Flynn and Stone, were connected to Russian officials. Russian agents were overheard during the campaign saying they could use Manafort and Flynn to influence Trump. Members of Trump's campaign and later his White House staff, particularly Flynn, were in contact with Russian officials both before and after the November election. On December 29, 2016, Flynn talked with Russian Ambassador Sergey Kislyak about sanctions that were imposed that same day; Flynn later resigned in the midst of controversy over whether he misled Pence. Trump told Kislyak and Sergei Lavrov in May 2017 he was unconcerned about Russian interference in U.S. elections. Trump and his allies promoted a conspiracy theory that Ukraine, rather than Russia, interfered in the 2016 election—which was also promoted by Russia to frame Ukraine. After the Democratic National Committee was hacked, Trump first claimed it withheld "its server" from the FBI (in actuality there were more than 140 servers, of which digital copies were given to the FBI); second, that CrowdStrike, the company that investigated the servers, was Ukraine-based and Ukrainian-owned (in actuality, CrowdStrike is U.S.-based, with the largest owners being American companies); and third that "the server" was hidden in Ukraine. Members of the Trump administration spoke out against the conspiracy theories. FBI Crossfire Hurricane and 2017 counterintelligence investigations In July 2016, the FBI launched an investigation, codenamed Crossfire Hurricane, into possible links between Russia and the Trump campaign. After Trump fired FBI director James Comey in May 2017, the FBI opened a counterintelligence investigation into Trump's personal and business dealings with Russia. Crossfire Hurricane was transferred to the Mueller investigation, but deputy attorney general Rod Rosenstein ended the investigation into Trump's direct ties to Russia while giving the bureau the false impression that Mueller would pursue the matter. Mueller investigation In May 2017, Deputy Attorney General Rod Rosenstein appointed Robert Mueller, a former director of the FBI, special counsel for the Department of Justice (DOJ), ordering him to "examine 'any links and/or coordination between the Russian government' and the Trump campaign". He privately told Mueller to restrict the investigation to criminal matters "in connection with Russia's 2016 election interference". The special counsel also investigated whether Trump's dismissal of James Comey as FBI director constituted obstruction of justice and the Trump campaign's possible ties to Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, Turkey, Qatar, Israel, and China. Trump sought to fire Mueller and shut down the investigation multiple times but backed down after his staff objected or after changing his mind. In March 2019, Mueller concluded his investigation and gave his report to Attorney General William Barr. Two days later, Barr sent a letter to Congress purporting to summarize the report's main conclusions. A federal court, as well as Mueller himself, said Barr mischaracterized the investigation's conclusions and, in so doing, confused the public. Trump repeatedly and falsely claimed that the investigation exonerated him; the Mueller report expressly stated that it did not exonerate him. A redacted version of the report was publicly released in April 2019. It found that Russia interfered in 2016 to favor Trump's candidacy and hinder Clinton's. Despite "numerous links between the Russian government and the Trump campaign", the report found that the prevailing evidence "did not establish" that Trump campaign members conspired or coordinated with Russian interference. The report revealed sweeping Russian interference and detailed how Trump and his campaign welcomed and encouraged it, believing "[they] would benefit electorally from information stolen and released through Russian efforts". The report also detailed multiple acts of potential obstruction of justice by Trump but did not make a "traditional prosecutorial judgment" on whether Trump broke the law, suggesting that Congress should make such a determination. Investigators decided they could not "apply an approach that could potentially result in a judgment that the President committed crimes" as an Office of Legal Counsel opinion stated that a sitting president could not be indicted, and investigators would not accuse him of a crime when he cannot clear his name in court. The report concluded that Congress, having the authority to take action against a president for wrongdoing, "may apply the obstruction laws". The House of Representatives subsequently launched an impeachment inquiry following the Trump–Ukraine scandal, but did not pursue an article of impeachment related to the Mueller investigation. Several Trump associates pleaded guilty or were convicted in connection with Mueller's investigation and related cases, including Manafort, convicted on eight felony counts, deputy campaign manager Rick Gates, foreign policy advisor Papadopoulos, and Flynn. Cohen pleaded guilty to lying to Congress about Trump's 2016 attempts to reach a deal with Russia to build a Trump Tower in Moscow. Cohen said he had made the false statements on behalf of Trump, who was identified as "Individual-1" in the court documents. In February 2020, Stone was sentenced to 40 months in prison for lying to Congress and witness tampering regarding his attempts to learn more about hacked Democratic emails during the 2016 election. The sentencing judge said Stone "was prosecuted for covering up for the president". First impeachment In August 2019, a whistleblower filed a complaint with the Inspector General of the Intelligence Community about a July 25 phone call between Trump and President of Ukraine Volodymyr Zelenskyy, during which Trump had pressured Zelenskyy to investigate CrowdStrike and Democratic presidential candidate Biden and his son Hunter. The whistleblower said that the White House had attempted to cover up the incident and that the call was part of a wider campaign by the Trump administration and Trump attorney Rudy Giuliani that may have included withholding financial aid from Ukraine in July 2019 and canceling Pence's May 2019 Ukraine trip. House Speaker Nancy Pelosi initiated a formal impeachment inquiry on September 24. Trump then confirmed that he withheld military aid from Ukraine, offering contradictory reasons for the decision. On September 25, the Trump administration released a memorandum of the phone call which confirmed that, after Zelenskyy mentioned purchasing American anti-tank missiles, Trump asked him to discuss investigating Biden and his son with Giuliani and Barr. The testimony of multiple administration officials and former officials confirmed that this was part of a broader effort to further Trump's personal interests by giving him an advantage in the upcoming presidential election. In October, William B. Taylor Jr., the chargé d'affaires for Ukraine, testified before congressional committees that soon after arriving in Ukraine in June 2019, he found that Zelenskyy was being subjected to pressure directed by Trump and led by Giuliani. According to Taylor and others, the goal was to coerce Zelenskyy into making a public commitment investigating the company that employed Hunter Biden, as well as rumors about Ukrainian involvement in the 2016 U.S. presidential election. He said it was made clear that until Zelenskyy made such an announcement, the administration would not release scheduled military aid for Ukraine and not invite Zelenskyy to the White House. On December 13, the House Judiciary Committee voted along party lines to pass two articles of impeachment: one for abuse of power and one for obstruction of Congress. After debate, the House of Representatives impeached Trump on both articles on December 18. Impeachment trial in the Senate During the trial in January 2020, the House impeachment managers presented their case for three days. They cited evidence to support charges of abuse of power and obstruction of Congress, and asserted that Trump's actions were exactly what the founding fathers had in mind when they created the Constitution's impeachment process. Responding over the next three days, Trump's lawyers did not deny the facts as presented in the charges but said Trump had not broken any laws or obstructed Congress. They argued that the impeachment was "constitutionally and legally invalid" because Trump was not charged with a crime and that abuse of power is not an impeachable offense. On January 31, the Senate voted against allowing subpoenas for witnesses or documents; 51 Republicans formed the majority for this vote. The impeachment trial was the first in U.S. history without witness testimony. Trump was acquitted of both charges by the Republican majority, 52–48 on abuse of power and 53–47 on obstruction of Congress. Senator Mitt Romney was the only Republican who voted to convict Trump on one charge, the abuse of power. Following his acquittal, Trump fired impeachment witnesses and other political appointees and career officials he deemed insufficiently loyal. 2020 presidential campaign Breaking with precedent, Trump filed to run for a second term with the FEC within a few hours of assuming the presidency. He held his first re-election rally less than a month after taking office and officially became the Republican nominee in August 2020. In his first two years in office, Trump's reelection committee reported raising $67.5 million and began 2019 with $19.3 million in cash. By July 2020, the Trump campaign and the Republican Party had raised $1.1 billion and spent $800 million, losing their cash advantage over Biden. The cash shortage forced the campaign to scale back advertising spending. Trump campaign advertisements focused on crime, claiming that cities would descend into lawlessness if Biden won the presidency. Trump repeatedly misrepresented Biden's positions and shifted to appeals to racism. 2020 presidential election Starting in spring 2020, Trump began to sow doubts about the election, claiming without evidence that the election would be rigged and that the expected widespread use of mail balloting would produce massive election fraud. In July, Trump raised the idea of delaying the election. When, in August, the House of Representatives voted for a $25 billion grant to the U.S. Postal Service for the expected surge in mail voting, Trump blocked funding, saying he wanted to prevent any increase in voting by mail. He repeatedly refused to say whether he would accept the results of the election and commit to a peaceful transition of power if he lost. Biden won the election on November 3, receiving 81.3 million votes (51.3 percent) to Trump's 74.2 million (46.8 percent) and 306 Electoral College votes to Trump's 232. False claims of voting fraud, attempt to prevent presidential transition At 2 a.m. the morning after the election, with the results still unclear, Trump declared victory. After Biden was projected the winner days later, Trump stated that "this election is far from over" and baselessly alleged election fraud. Trump and his allies filed many legal challenges to the results, which were rejected by at least 86 judges in both the state and federal courts, including by federal judges appointed by Trump himself, finding no factual or legal basis. Trump's unsubstantiated allegations of widespread voting fraud were also refuted by state election officials. After Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency (CISA) director Chris Krebs contradicted Trump's fraud allegations, Trump dismissed him on November 17. On December 11, the U.S. Supreme Court declined to hear a case from the Texas attorney general that asked the court to overturn the election results in four states won by Biden. Trump withdrew from public activities in the weeks following the election. He initially blocked government officials from cooperating in Biden's presidential transition. After three weeks, the administrator of the General Services Administration declared Biden the "apparent winner" of the election, allowing the disbursement of transition resources to his team. Trump still did not formally concede while claiming he recommended the GSA begin transition protocols. The Electoral College formalized Biden's victory on December 14. From November to January, Trump repeatedly sought help to overturn the results of the election, personally pressuring various Republican local and state office-holders, Republican state and federal legislators, the Justice Department, and Vice President Pence, urging various actions such as replacing presidential electors, or a request for Georgia officials to "find" votes and announce a "recalculated" result. On February 10, 2021, Georgia prosecutors opened a criminal investigation into Trump's efforts to subvert the election in Georgia. Trump did not attend Biden's inauguration, leaving Washington for Florida hours before. Concern about a possible coup attempt or military action In December 2020, Newsweek reported the Pentagon was on red alert, and ranking officers had discussed what they would do if Trump decided to declare martial law. The Pentagon responded with quotes from defense leaders that the military has no role to play in the outcome of elections. When Trump moved supporters into positions of power at the Pentagon after the November 2020 election, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Mark Milley and CIA director Gina Haspel became concerned about the threat of a possible coup attempt or military action against China or Iran. Milley insisted that he should be consulted about any military orders from Trump, including the use of nuclear weapons, and he instructed Haspel and NSA director Paul Nakasone to monitor developments closely. January 6 Capitol attack On January 6, 2021, while congressional certification of the presidential election results was taking place in the United States Capitol, Trump held a noon rally at the Ellipse, Washington, D.C.. He called for the election result to be overturned and urged his supporters to "take back our country" by marching to the Capitol to "show strength" and "fight like hell". Many supporters did, joining a crowd already there. Around 2:15p.m. the mob broke into the building, disrupting certification and causing the evacuation of Congress. During the violence, Trump watched TV and posted messages on Twitter without asking the rioters to disperse. At 6p.m., Trump tweeted that the rioters should "go home with love & in peace", calling them "great patriots" and "very special" and repeating that the election was stolen from him. After the mob was removed from the Capitol, Congress reconvened and confirmed the Biden election win in the early hours of the following morning. According to the Department of Justice, more than 140 police officers were injured, and five people died. In March 2023, Trump collaborated with incarcerated rioters on a song to benefit the prisoners, and, in June, he said that, if elected, he would pardon a large number of them. Second impeachment On January 11, 2021, an article of impeachment charging Trump with incitement of insurrection against the U.S. government was introduced to the House. The House voted 232–197 to impeach Trump on January 13, making him the first U.S. president to be impeached twice. Ten Republicans voted for the impeachment—the most members of a party ever to vote to impeach a president of their own party. On February 13, following a five-day Senate trial, Trump was acquitted when the Senate voted 57–43 for conviction, falling ten votes short of the two-thirds majority required to convict; seven Republicans joined every Democrat in voting to convict, the most bipartisan support in any Senate impeachment trial of a president or former president. Most Republicans voted to acquit Trump, although some held him responsible but felt the Senate did not have jurisdiction over former presidents (Trump had left office on January 20; the Senate voted 56–44 the trial was constitutional); included in the latter group was Mitch McConnell. Post-presidency (2021–present) At the end of his term, Trump went to live at his Mar-a-Lago club. As provided for by the Former Presidents Act, he established an office there to handle his post-presidential activities. Trump's false claims concerning the 2020 election were commonly referred to as the "big lie" in the press and by his critics. In May 2021, Trump and his supporters attempted to co-opt the term, using it to refer to the election itself. The Republican Party used Trump's false election narrative to justify the imposition of new voting restrictions in its favor. As late as July 2022, Trump was still pressuring state legislators to overturn the 2020 election by rescinding the state's electoral votes for Biden. Trump resumed his campaign-style rallies with an 85-minute speech at the annual North Carolina Republican Party convention on June 6, 2021. On June 26, he held his first public rally since the January 6 rally that preceded the riot at the Capitol. Unlike other former presidents, Trump continued to dominate his party; he has been compared to a modern-day party boss. He continued fundraising, raising more than twice as much as the Republican Party itself, hinted at a third candidacy, and profited from fundraisers many Republican candidates held at Mar-a-Lago. Much of his focus was on the people in charge of elections and how elections are run. In the 2022 midterm elections he endorsed over 200 candidates for various offices, most of whom supported his false claim that the 2020 presidential election was stolen from him. A majority of candidates endorsed by him won in Republican primary elections. Trump registered a new company in February 2021. Trump Media & Technology Group (TMTG) was formed for providing "social networking services" to "customers in the United States". In October 2021, Trump announced the planned merger of TMTG with Digital World Acquisition, a special-purpose acquisition company (SPAC). A main backer of the SPAC is China-based financier ARC Group, who was reportedly involved in setting up the proposed merger. The transaction is under investigation by the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. In February 2022, TMTG launched Truth Social, a Twitter-like social-media platform. As of March 2023, Trump Media, which had taken $8 million from Russia-connected entities, was being investigated by federal prosecutors for possible money laundering. Investigations, criminal charges, civil lawsuits Trump is the subject of numerous probes into his actions and business dealings before, during and after his presidency. In February 2021, the district attorney for Fulton County, Georgia, Fani Willis, announced a criminal probe into Trump's phone calls to Georgia Secretary of State Brad Raffensperger. The New York State Attorney General's Office is conducting criminal investigations into Trump's business activities in conjunction with the Manhattan District Attorney's Office. By May 2021, a special grand jury was considering indictments. In July 2021, New York prosecutors charged the Trump Organization with a "15 year 'scheme to defraud' the government". In January 2023, the organization's chief financial officer, Allen Weisselberg, was sentenced to five months in jail and five years probation for tax fraud after a plea deal. FBI investigations When Trump left the White House in January 2021, he took government documents and material with him to Mar-a-Lago. By May 2021, the National Archives and Records Administration (NARA), the federal agency that preserves government records, realized that important documents had not been turned over to them at the end of Trump's term and asked his office to locate them. In January 2022, they retrieved 15 boxes of White House records from Mar-a-Lago. NARA later informed the Department of Justice that some of the retrieved documents were classified material. The Justice Department began an investigation in April 2022 and convened a grand jury. The Justice Department sent Trump a subpoena for additional material on May 11. On June 3, Justice Department officials visited Mar-a-Lago and received some classified documents from Trump's lawyers. One of the lawyers signed a statement affirming that all material marked as classified had been returned to the government. Later that month an additional subpoena was sent requesting surveillance footage from Mar-a-Lago, which was provided. On August 8, 2022, FBI agents searched Trump's residence, office, and storage areas at Mar-a-Lago to recover government documents and material Trump had taken with him when he left office in violation of the Presidential Records Act, reportedly including some related to nuclear weapons. The search warrant, authorized by U.S. Attorney General Merrick Garland and approved by a federal magistrate judge, and the written inventory of the seized items were made public on August 12. The text of the search warrant indicates an investigation of potential violations of the Espionage Act and obstruction of justice laws. The items taken in the search included 11 sets of classified documents, four of them tagged as "top secret" and one as "top secret/SCI", the highest level of classification. On November 18, 2022, Garland appointed a special counsel, federal prosecutor Jack Smith, to oversee the federal criminal investigations into Trump retaining government property at Mar-a-Lago and examining Trump's role in the events leading up to the January 6, 2021, Capitol attack. Criminal referral by the House January 6 Committee On December 19, 2022, the United States House Select Committee on the January 6 Attack recommended criminal charges against Trump for obstructing an official proceeding, conspiracy to defraud the United States, and inciting or assisting an insurrection. Federal and state criminal cases against Trump New York prosecution for falsifying business records On March 30, 2023, a New York grand jury indicted Trump on 34 felony counts of falsifying business records. On April 4, he surrendered and was arrested and arraigned; he pleaded not guilty on all counts and was released. The trial is scheduled to begin on March 25, 2024. Government and classified documents case On June 8, the Justice Department indicted Trump in Miami federal court for 31 counts of "willfully retaining national defense information under the Espionage Act", one count of making false statements, and, jointly with a personal aide, single counts of conspiracy to obstruct justice, withholding government documents, corruptly concealing records, concealing a document in a federal investigation and scheming to conceal their efforts. Trump pleaded not guilty to all charges. In July a superseding indictment added three additional criminal charges, bringing the number of charges in the case to 40. The trial is scheduled to begin on May 20, 2024. Election obstruction case On August 1, a Washington, D.C., federal grand jury indicted Trump on four counts for his efforts to overturn the 2020 election results. He was charged with conspiring with unnamed co-conspirators to defraud the United States, obstruct the certification of the Electoral College vote, and deprive people of the civil right to have their votes counted, as well as obstructing an official proceeding. Trump pleaded not guilty to all charges. The case is slated to go to trial on March 4, 2024. Georgia election interference case On August 14, a Fulton County, Georgia, grand jury indicted Trump and 18 allies for racketeering – among other felonies – after Trump campaign officials accessed voting machines with election officials. On August 24, Trump surrendered, was placed under arrest and processed at Fulton County Jail, and released on bail. He posted the mug shot on Twitter and on his campaign website with a fundraising pitch. On August 31, he pleaded not guilty. Civil lawsuits against Trump Class action lawsuit for fraud In 2018, four investors filed a federal class action lawsuit against Trump, the Trump Organization, and his three eldest children for not disclosing that they were paid by ACN, Inc., when they recommended the company as a sound investment on The Apprentice. In July 2019, a district judge permitted the lawsuit to proceed with state-level claims of fraud, false advertising, and unfair competition. The case is slated to go to trial on January 29, 2024. New York State's civil fraud case In September 2022, the New York State Attorney General filed a civil fraud case against Trump, his three oldest children, and the Trump Organization. In December 2021, the Attorney General's office had subpoenaed Trump to produce documents related to his business. In April 2022, a New York state judge held Trump in contempt of court for failing to comply with the subpoena and imposed a fine of $10,000 per day until he does. Trump was deposed in August and invoked his Fifth Amendment right against self-incrimination more than 400 times. The judge presiding over the civil suit ruled in September 2023 that Trump, his adult sons and the Trump Organization repeatedly committed fraud and ordered their New York business certificates canceled and their business entities sent into receivership for dissolution. E. Jean Carroll's lawsuits In May 2023, a New York jury in a federal lawsuit brought by journalist E. Jean Carroll found Trump liable for sexual abuse and defamation and ordered him to pay her $5 million. Trump asked the district court for a new trial or a reduction of the damage award, arguing that the jury had not found him liable for rape, and also, in a separate lawsuit, countersued Carroll for defamation. The judge for the two lawsuits ruled against Trump in July and August. Trump appealed both decisions to an appeals court. The trial in the defamation case is scheduled to begin on January 15, 2024. 2024 presidential campaign On November 15, 2022, Trump announced his candidacy for the 2024 United States presidential election and set up a fundraising account. In March 2023, the campaign began diverting 10 percent of the donations to Trump's leadership PAC which had paid $16 million for his legal bills by June 2023. Public image Scholarly assessment and public approval surveys C-SPAN, which has surveyed presidential historians on presidential leadership each time the administration changed since 2000, ranked Trump fourth–lowest overall in their Presidential Historians Survey 2021, with Trump rated lowest in the leadership characteristics categories for moral authority and administrative skills. The Siena College Research Institute (SCRI) has surveyed presidential scholars during the second year of the first term of each president since 1982. In their 2022 survey, SCRI ranked Trump 43rd out of 45 presidents. He was ranked last on background, integrity, intelligence, foreign policy accomplishments, and executive appointments, and second to last on ability to compromise, executive ability, and present overall view. He was ranked near the bottom in all categories except for luck, willingness to take risks, and party leadership. Trump was the only president to never reach a 50 percent approval rating in the Gallup poll dating to 1938. His approval ratings showed a record-high partisan gap: 88 percent among Republicans and 7 percent among Democrats. Until September 2020, the ratings were unusually stable, reaching a high of 49 percent and a low of 35 percent. Trump finished his term with an approval rating between 29 percent and 34 percent—the lowest of any president since modern polling began—and a record-low average of 41 percent throughout his presidency. In Gallup's annual poll asking Americans to name the man they admire the most, Trump placed second to Obama in 2017 and 2018, tied with Obama for most admired man in 2019, and was named most admired in 2020. Since Gallup started conducting the poll in 1948, Trump is the first elected president not to be named most admired in his first year in office. A Gallup poll in 134 countries comparing the approval ratings of U.S. leadership between the years 2016 and 2017 found that Trump led Obama in job approval in only 29 countries, most of them non-democracies; approval of U.S. leadership plummeted among allies and G7 countries. Overall ratings were similar to those in the last two years of the George W. Bush presidency. By mid-2020, only 16 percent of international respondents to a 13-nation Pew Research poll expressed confidence in Trump, a lower score than those accorded to Russia's Vladimir Putin and China's Xi Jinping. False or misleading statements As a candidate and as president, Trump frequently made false statements in public speeches and remarks to an extent unprecedented in American politics. His falsehoods became a distinctive part of his political identity. Trump's false and misleading statements were documented by fact-checkers, including at The Washington Post, which tallied a total of 30,573 false or misleading statements made by Trump over his four-year term. Trump's falsehoods increased in frequency over time, rising from about six false or misleading claims per day in his first year as president to 16 per day in his second year, 22 per day in his third year, and 39 per day in his final year. Some of Trump's falsehoods were inconsequential, such as his claim of the "biggest inaugural crowd ever". Others had more far-reaching effects, such as his promotion of unproven antimalarial drugs as a treatment for COVID-19 in a press conference and on Twitter. The claims had consequences worldwide, such as a shortage of these drugs in the United States and panic-buying in Africa and South Asia. Other misinformation, such as misattributing a rise in crime in England and Wales to the "spread of radical Islamic terror", served Trump's domestic political purposes. As a matter of principle, Trump does not apologize for his falsehoods. Despite the frequency of Trump's falsehoods, the media rarely referred to them as lies. The first time The Washington Post did so was in August 2018, when it declared that some of Trump's misstatements, in particular those concerning hush money paid to Stormy Daniels and Playboy model Karen McDougal, were lies. In 2020, Trump was a significant source of disinformation on mail-in voting and misinformation on the COVID-19 pandemic. His attacks on mail-in ballots and other election practices served to weaken public faith in the integrity of the 2020 presidential election, while his disinformation about the pandemic delayed and weakened the national response to it. James Pfiffner, professor of policy and government at George Mason University, wrote in 2019 that Trump lies differently from previous presidents, because he offers "egregious false statements that are demonstrably contrary to well-known facts"; these lies are the "most important" of all Trump lies. By calling facts into question, people will be unable to properly evaluate their government, with beliefs or policy irrationally settled by "political power"; this erodes liberal democracy, wrote Pfiffner. Promotion of conspiracy theories Before and throughout his presidency, Trump has promoted numerous conspiracy theories, including Obama birtherism, the Clinton body count conspiracy theory, the conspiracy theory movement QAnon, the Global warming hoax theory, Trump Tower wiretapping allegations, a John F. Kennedy assassination conspiracy theory involving Rafael Cruz, linking talk show host Joe Scarborough to the death of a staffer, alleged foul-play in the death of Justice Antonin Scalia, alleged Ukrainian interference in U.S. elections, and that Osama bin Laden was alive and Obama and Biden had members of Navy SEAL Team 6 killed. In at least two instances, Trump clarified to press that he also believed the conspiracy theory in question. During and since the 2020 presidential election, Trump has promoted various conspiracy theories for his defeat including dead people voting, voting machines changing or deleting Trump votes, fraudulent mail-in voting, throwing out Trump votes, and "finding" suitcases full of Biden votes. Incitement of violence Research suggests Trump's rhetoric caused an increased incidence of hate crimes. During his 2016 campaign, he urged or praised physical attacks against protesters or reporters. Numerous defendants investigated or prosecuted for violent acts and hate crimes, including participants of the January 6, 2021, storming of the U.S. Capitol, cited Trump's rhetoric in arguing that they were not culpable or should receive a lighter sentence. A nationwide review by ABC News in May 2020 identified at least 54 criminal cases from August 2015 to April 2020 in which Trump was invoked in direct connection with violence or threats of violence mostly by white men and primarily against members of minority groups. Social media Trump's social media presence attracted worldwide attention after he joined Twitter in 2009. He tweeted frequently during the 2016 election campaign and as president until Twitter banned him in the final days of his term. Trump often used Twitter as a direct means of communication with the public and sidelining of the press. In June 2017, a White House press secretary said that Trump's tweets were official presidential statements. Trump often announced terminations of administration officials over Twitter. After years of criticism for allowing Trump to post misinformation and falsehoods, Twitter began to tag some of his tweets with fact-checking warnings in May 2020. In response, Trump tweeted that "Social Media Platforms totally silence conservative[] voices" and that he would "strongly regulate[] or close them down". In the days after the storming of the United States Capitol, Trump was banned from Facebook, Instagram, Twitter and other platforms. The loss of Trump's social media presence diminished his ability to shape events and prompted a dramatic decrease in the volume of misinformation shared on Twitter. Trump's early attempts to re-establish a social media presence were unsuccessful. In February 2022, he launched social media platform Truth Social where he only attracted a fraction of his Twitter following. Elon Musk, the new owner of Twitter, reinstated Trump's Twitter account in November 2022. Relationship with the press Trump sought media attention throughout his career, sustaining a "love–hate" relationship with the press. In the 2016 campaign, Trump benefited from a record amount of free media coverage, elevating his standing in the Republican primaries. The New York Times writer Amy Chozick wrote in 2018 that Trump's media dominance enthralled the public and created "must-see TV." As a candidate and as president, Trump frequently accused the press of bias, calling it the "fake news media" and "the enemy of the people". In 2018, journalist Lesley Stahl recounted Trump's saying he intentionally demeaned and discredited the media "so when you write negative stories about me no one will believe you". As president, Trump privately and publicly mused about revoking the press credentials of journalists he viewed as critical. His administration moved to revoke the press passes of two White House reporters, which were restored by the courts. In 2019, a member of the foreign press reported many of the same concerns as those of media in the U.S., expressing concern that a normalization process by reporters and media results in an inaccurate characterization of Trump. The Trump White House held about a hundred formal press briefings in 2017, declining by half during 2018 and to two in 2019. Trump also deployed the legal system to intimidate the press. In early 2020, the Trump campaign sued The New York Times, The Washington Post, and CNN for defamation in opinion pieces about Russian election interference. Legal experts said that the lawsuits lacked merit and were not likely to succeed. By March 2021, the lawsuits against The New York Times and CNN had been dismissed. Racial views Many of Trump's comments and actions have been considered racist. In national polling, about half of respondents said that Trump is racist; a greater proportion believed that he emboldened racists. Several studies and surveys found that racist attitudes fueled Trump's political ascent and were more important than economic factors in determining the allegiance of Trump voters. Racist and Islamophobic attitudes are a powerful indicator of support for Trump. In 1975, he settled a 1973 Department of Justice lawsuit that alleged housing discrimination against black renters. He has also been accused of racism for insisting a group of black and Latino teenagers were guilty of raping a white woman in the 1989 Central Park jogger case, even after they were exonerated by DNA evidence in 2002. As of 2019, he maintained this position. In 2011, when he was reportedly considering a presidential run, he became the leading proponent of the racist "birther" conspiracy theory, alleging that Barack Obama, the first black U.S. president, was not born in the United States. In April, he claimed credit for pressuring the White House to publish the "long-form" birth certificate, which he considered fraudulent, and later said this made him "very popular". In September 2016, amid pressure, he acknowledged that Obama was born in the U.S. In 2017, he reportedly expressed birther views in private. According to an analysis in Political Science Quarterly, Trump made "explicitly racist appeals to whites" during his 2016 presidential campaign. In particular, his campaign launch speech drew widespread criticism for claiming Mexican immigrants were "bringing drugs, they're bringing crime, they're rapists". His later comments about a Mexican-American judge presiding over a civil suit regarding Trump University were also criticized as racist. Trump's comments on the 2017 far-right rally in Charlottesville, Virginia, condemning "this egregious display of hatred, bigotry and violence on many sides" and stating that there were "very fine people on both sides", were widely criticized as implying a moral equivalence between the white supremacist demonstrators and the counter-protesters. In a January 2018 Oval Office meeting to discuss immigration legislation, Trump reportedly referred to El Salvador, Haiti, Honduras, and African nations as "shithole countries". His remarks were condemned as racist. In July 2019, Trump tweeted that four Democratic congresswomen—all from minorities, three of whom are native-born Americans—should "go back" to the countries they "came from". Two days later the House of Representatives voted 240–187, mostly along party lines, to condemn his "racist comments". White nationalist publications and social media sites praised his remarks, which continued over the following days. Trump continued to make similar remarks during his 2020 campaign. Misogyny and allegations of sexual misconduct Trump has a history of insulting and belittling women when speaking to media and on social media. He made lewd comments, demeaned women's looks, and called them names, such as "dog", "crazed", "crying lowlife", "face of a pig", or "horseface". At least 26 women publicly accused Trump of rape, kissing, and groping without consent; looking under women's skirts; and walking in on naked teenage pageant contestants. Trump has denied all of the allegations. In October 2016, two days before the second presidential debate, a 2005 "hot mic" recording surfaced in which Trump was heard bragging about kissing and groping women without their consent, saying that "when you're a star, they let you do it. You can do anything. ... Grab 'em by the pussy." The incident's widespread media exposure led to Trump's first public apology during the campaign and caused outrage across the political spectrum. Popular culture Trump has been the subject of parody, comedy, and caricature on television, in films, and in comics. He has been named in hundreds of hip hop songs since the 1980s—until 2015, most of these references cast Trump in a positive light, but they turned largely negative after he began running for office. Notes References Works cited External links Archive of Donald Trump's tweets Donald Trump on the Internet Archive Donald Trump's page on whitehouse.gov 1946 births Living people 20th-century American businesspeople 21st-century American businesspeople 21st-century presidents of the United States American billionaires American casino industry businesspeople American chairpersons of corporations American computer businesspeople American conspiracy theorists American critics of Islam American hoteliers American Internet company founders American nationalists American people of German descent American people of Scottish descent American real estate businesspeople American reality television producers American television hosts Articles containing video clips Businesspeople from Queens, New York Candidates in the 2000 United States presidential election Candidates in the 2016 United States presidential election Candidates in the 2020 United States presidential election Candidates in the 2024 United States presidential election COVID-19 conspiracy theorists Florida Republicans Impeached presidents of the United States Illeists New York Military Academy alumni New York (state) Democrats New York (state) Independents New York (state) Republicans People associated with Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections People charged under the Espionage Act of 1917 People charged with fraud People charged with racketeering People stripped of honorary degrees Politicians from Queens, New York Presidents of the United States Reform Party of the United States of America politicians Republican Party (United States) presidential nominees Republican Party presidents of the United States Right-wing populism in the United States Right-wing populists The State of Georgia v. Donald J. Trump, et al. defendants Television producers from Queens, New York Time Person of the Year Donald The Trump Organization employees United States Football League executives Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania alumni WWE Hall of Fame inductees
4848506	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20enclaves%20and%20exclaves	List of enclaves and exclaves	In political geography, an enclave is a piece of land belonging to one country (or region etc.) that is totally surrounded by another country (or region). An exclave is a piece of land that is politically attached to a larger piece but not physically contiguous with it (connected to it) because they are completely separated by a surrounding foreign territory or territories. Many entities are both enclaves and exclaves. Enclaves that are also exclaves Each enclave listed in this section has an administrative level equivalent to that of the one other entity that entirely surrounds it. Each enclave is also a part of a main region; hence, it is an exclave of that region. National level First-order subnational level Other subnational In Australia: The larger of the two parts of the Aboriginal Shire of Doomadgee in Queensland is surrounded by the Shire of Burke. Except for the ocean, the smaller part is nearly surrounded also by the Shire of Burke. In China: Chaoyang District has one exclave that comprises Terminals 1 and 2 of Beijing Capital International Airport and the immediately surrounding service area. It is an enclave of Shunyi that used to be Shunyi Subdistrict of Chaoyang District. The main reason for the existence of this exclave is because the financing for the building of these Terminals was largely carried by Chaoyang District and this political organisation ensures that they continue to pay taxes to Chaoyang District. Note: Terminal 3 is not a part of this exclave as it was built for the 2008 Olympics and was built after the formation of Shunyi District. See a map of the exclave, not including Terminal 3, on Google Maps. In Croatia: In Osijek-Baranja County, the municipality of Bilje has one exclave (Zlatna Greda) inside the municipality of Kneževi Vinogradi. In Estonia: In Ida-Viru County, the town of Kohtla-Järve consists of five separated areas within a distance of 22 km. Of these exclaves, Kukruse and Oru districts are also enclaves, since they are surrounded by Toila Parish. Kudruküla and Olgina districts of Narva town are surrounded by the town of Narva-Jõesuu. In France (départements): Meurthe-et-Moselle has one exclave inside Meuse. Nord has one exclave in Pas-de-Calais. Oise has three exclaves in Aisne: one comprises the village of Chavres, while the other two are uninhabited parcels of land in the Forest of Retz. In Germany: is an exclave of Nuremberg, Middle Franconia, Bavaria. In Indonesia, the district of Mulyorejo in Surabaya has an exclave inside the neighbouring Sukolilo district. In India, the district of Kangpokpi in Manipur state has an exclave that is an enclave within Imphal East district. In Italy: In Aosta Valley: the municipality of La Magdeleine has an exclave within the municipality of Antey-Saint-André. In Apulia: the Metropolitan City of Bari (the municipality of Locorotondo) has three exclaves inside the Province of Taranto; In the Metropolitan City of Bari: Castellana Grotte has an exclave within Alberobello and one within Conversano; Polignano a Mare has two exclaves inside Conversano; Santeramo in Colle has an exclave within Cassano delle Murge; Terlizzi has an exclave inside Ruvo di Puglia. In the Province of Taranto: Massafra has five exclaves inside Crispiano; Taranto has an exclave inside Grottaglie. In the Province of Foggia: San Marco in Lamis has an exclave inside San Giovanni Rotondo; Manfredonia has one exclave inside San Giovanni Rotondo, and San Giovanni Rotondo has one inside Manfredonia; San Severo has two exclaves inside Foggia; Pietramontecorvino has four exclaves inside Lucera; Stornara has two exclaves inside Orta Nova. In Basilicata: the Province of Matera has an exclave inside the Province of Potenza. In Campania: Pannarano is an exclave of the Province of Benevento inside the Province of Avellino. In the Province of Caserta: Caserta has three exclaves inside Capua. In the Metropolitan City of Naples: Ottaviano has two small exclaves within Nola. In Friuli Venezia Giulia: Grimacco has an enclave within Drenchia, and Drenchia has one in Grimacco. In Lombardy In the Province of Pavia: Pieve del Cairo has enclave inside Mezzana Bigli. In Marche: the Province of Pesaro and Urbino (the municipality of Monte Porzio) has two small exclaves within the Province of Ancona. In Molise: In the Province of Campobasso: Montenero di Bisaccia has an exclave inside Tavenna. In Piedmont, the Province of Cuneo has an enclave (Carutti in the municipality of Barge) inside the Metropolitan City of Turin. In the Province of Asti, Soglio has two and Cinaglio one exclave inside Camerano Casasco. In the Metropolitan City of Turin, Carignano has three exclaves inside Carmagnola. In Sicily, the Metropolitan City of Palermo has an enclave within Agrigento (San Biagio); the province of Caltanissetta has an enclave within Palermo (Resuttano); and the province of Enna has an enclave within Caltanissetta. In the Metropolitan City of Palermo: Roccapalumba has an exclave within Caccamo. In the Province of Trapani: Gibellina has a small exclave within Santa Ninfa. In the Province of Enna: Piazza Armerina has one exclave within Enna and another one within Aidone. In the Province of Caltanissetta: Serradifalco has an exclave inside Caltanissetta. In Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol: In the Autonomous Province of Trentino: Pellizzano has an exclave within Peio; Calliano has an exclave inside Besenello. In Japan: The Aichi Prefecture town and city on Kōta, has an exclave surrounded by Nishio. The ward of Nagoya has an enclave, also known Honjigaoka, that is surrounded by Owariasahi. The city of Fujiyoshida and town of Fujikawaguchiko in Yamanashi Prefecture have enclaves within each other: Fujiyoshida in has two exclaves within Fujikawaguchiko. Fujikawaguchiko has three exclaves within Fujiyoshida, one being a Shinto Shrine on Mount Fuji. The city of Funabashi, Chiba Prefecture, has an enclave surrounded by Kamagaya The town of Kasagi, Kyoto has an exclave surrounded by the city of Kizugawa The city of Ide, Kyoto has an exclave surrounded by Kizugawa. The town of Kumiyama, Kyoto has an exclave surrounded by Uji In Norway, the municipality of Sandefjord has one exclave, Himberg, inside the neighbouring municipality of Larvik. In the Philippines: Manila South Cemetery is an exclave of the district of San Andres, located in the capital city of Manila. It is divided and surrounded by Makati. In Portugal, as a consequence of administrative reforms during the 19th century (in the 1830s, then again in the 1850s, and to a much lesser extent in the 1890s), as well as more recent legislation forbidding the creation of territorial discontinuities, there are almost no sub-national exclaves or enclaves, and the few that persist are on the municipal or civil parish level: In the Coimbra municipality, the civil parish of Taveiro has an exclave that is enclaved within the civil parish of Ribeira de Frades. In the Vila Real de Santo António municipality, the entire civil parish of Vila Nova de Cacela is an exclave that is enclaved within the Castro Marim municipality. In Russia, within the city of Moscow, the Western Administrative Okrug has three exclaves that are not exclaves of Moscow itself. Two of them make up Vnukovo District, and one of these is enclaved by the Novomoskovsky Administrative Okrug. Vnukovo was an exclave of Moscow until the 2012 creation of "New Moscow". In Spain the following provincial level exclaves that are also enclaves exist: In Andalusia, Villar is an exclave of the province of Córdoba within the province of Seville. In Castile and León: is an exclave of the province of Valladolid within the province of León. Villodrigo and Aguanares are exclaves of the province of Palencia within the province of Burgos. is an exclave of the province of Burgos within the province of Palencia. In Catalonia: is an exclave of the province of Tarragona within the province of Barcelona. is an exclave of the province of Lleida within the province of Barcelona. Rovira de Baix is an exclave of the province of Girona within the province of Barcelona. and Sant Pere de Graudescales are exclaves of the province of Barcelona within the province of Lleida. In Sweden many municipalities have exclaves (most notably the municipalities of Dalarna County). In the United States of America: In Alaska, the community of Klukwan is surrounded by Haines Borough, even though the community is part of the Hoonah-Angoon Census Area, which is in turn part of the Unorganized Borough. In California San Jose has eight exclaves surrounded by unincorporated Santa Clara County, one of which is connected at a quadripoint. Vacaville has a two exclaves, both surrounded by unincorporated Solano County. One is separated from the main city limits by the unincorporated village of Elmira. Adelanto has three exclaves, surrounded by incorporated Victorville. San Bernardino has two exclaves, surrounded by unincorporated San Bernardino County. Loma Linda has three exclaves, surrounded by the city of San Bernardino Redlands has four exclaves. One surrounded by the city of San Bernardino, and three surrounded by unincorporated San Bernardino county In Colorado, Arapahoe County has seven exclaves within the City and County of Denver, including the city of Glendale and the unincorporated neighborhood of Holly Hills. In turn, Denver has a counter-exclave surrounded by Glendale. Jefferson County also has five exclaves, three of which are surrounded by Denver. Additionally, Boulder and Weld counties both have an exclave within the City and County of Broomfield, and Broomfield has an exclave in Boulder County. In Georgia, Bibb County has an exclave within Monroe County. This boundary is disputed, however. In Kentucky, following the merger of the Louisville and Jefferson County governments in 2003, the new Louisville Metro has several disjoint parcels of land throughout the county, of which some are enclaves in other cities. In Minnesota, Mendota Heights has an exclave that is surrounded by Lilydale. In New Jersey, Middletown Township in Monmouth County has an exclave surrounded by the borough of Keansburg. In Ohio: In Montgomery County, there are several cities with enclaves and exclaves. Dayton has one exclave, consisting of Dayton International Airport. Dayton also surrounds several enclaves that belong to the cities of Trotwood and Riverside. Riverside also has several exclaves that border more than one city as well as additional parcels that are connected to the city only by a roadway. Clayton contains several enclaves surrounded by Englewood and one that is completely surrounded by Union. Other than Dayton's exclave, these enclaves and exclaves were formed by municipality-township mergers in the 1990s. In Summit County: The city of Cuyahoga Falls has four small enclave/exclaves along its border with the city of Akron. Several houses along Smith Road are legally in the Falls, while neighbors and municipal lands on all sides of the properties are legally within Akron. Bath Township has four exclaves, of which one is an enclave of Akron. Springfield Township has six exclaves, of which two are enclaves in Akron. Coventry Township has six exclaves, of which five are enclaves in Akron. Two of these are joined at a quadripoint. Twinsburg Township has seven exclaves, of which four are enclaves in the city of Twinsburg. The city in turn has one piece connected by only a quadripoint, otherwise surrounded by the township. In Oregon, the location of several businesses, including the world headquarters of Nike, Inc., is surrounded by the city of Beaverton, but is within unincorporated Washington County. In Pennsylvania, Cumru Township in Berks County has two exclaves, both separated by the city of Reading, and one of them is an enclave in Reading. In Tennessee: Loudon County, Tennessee has two exclaves, one of which is surrounded by Monroe County. There is a third parcel connected at a quadripoint, but otherwise surrounded by Roane County. Dickson County has an exclave surrounded by Cheatham County. Davidson County has an exclave surrounded by Wilson County. In Virginia, Fairfax County has an exclave within the City of Fairfax that houses the county courthouse and some other county governmental offices. Prince William County has an exclave within the City of Manassas that houses the county courthouse and some other county governmental offices. Montgomery County has a small exclave consisting of two houses inside the independent city of Radford. Note that in Virginia, communities that are incorporated as cities are completely separate from counties; see Political subdivisions of Virginia. Enclaves that are not exclaves Each enclave listed in this section has a legal status equivalent to the one other entity that entirely surrounds it. None of the enclaves has a separate main region of which it is a part. National level Some enclaves are sovereign states, completely surrounded by another one, and therefore not exclaves. Three such sovereign countries exist: The same logic applies to many of the sub-national enclaves listed immediately following. First-order subnational level Other subnational In Australia: In New South Wales, the City of Broken Hill is surrounded by the Unincorporated Far West Region. In South Australia: The District Council of Coober Pedy is surrounded by the Outback Communities Authority. The City of Mount Gambier is surrounded by the District Council of Grant. The Municipal Council of Roxby Downs is surrounded by the Outback Communities Authority. In Queensland The Cherbourg Aboriginal Shire Council is surrounded by the South Burnett Regional Council. In the Northern Territory The Town of Alice Springs is surrounded by the MacDonnell Regional Council. In Victoria, a few unincorporated areas for ski resorts form enclaves within the surrounding shires: Falls Creek and Mount Hotham within Alpine Shire and Mount Baw Baw in Baw Baw Shire. In addition, Mount Buller and Mount Stirling share a border with each other, but are surrounded by Mansfield Shire. In Austria: In Tyrol, Innsbruck-Land District completely surrounds the district of Innsbruck. In Brazil: In Goiás: Portelândia is surrounded by Mineiros. In Mato Grosso do Sul: Ladário is surrounded by Corumbá. In Rio Grande do Sul: Arroio do Padre is surrounded by Pelotas. In São Paulo: Águas de São Pedro is surrounded by São Pedro. In Canada: In Quebec, the city of Westmount, the town of Mount Royal, and, collectively, the municipalities of Hampstead, Côte Saint-Luc and Montreal West (Montréal-Ouest) are all enclaves in the city of Montreal. Similarly, the city of L'Ancienne-Lorette is an enclave in Quebec City after the demerger on 1 January 2006. In the People's Republic of China: In the Xinjiang autonomous region, the prefecture-level city of Karamay (that has two non-contiguous parts) and the county-level city of Kuytun (a part of the Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture) are completely surrounded by the Tacheng Prefecture (that is also technically part of the Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture). In Colombia, in the Capital District, La Candelaria municipality is an enclave of Santa Fe. In Estonia, two towns are enclaves, surrounded by a single parish: Viljandi town is surrounded by Viljandi Parish Võru town is surrounded by Võru Parish In Ethiopia: The town and woreda of Debre Berhan is an enclave inside Basona Werana ("Baso and Werana") woreda, located in the Semien Shewa Zone in the Amhara Region. The city and separate woreda of Gambela is surrounded by Gambela Zuria ("Greater Gambela") woreda, located in the Anuak Zone in the Gambela Region. The city and special zone of Mek'ele (comprising two woredas) is an enclave within Enderta woreda, located in the Debub Misraqawi (Southeastern) Zone in the Tigray Region. The town and woreda of Weldiya is an enclave inside Guba Lafto woreda, located in the Semien Wollo Zone in the Amhara Region. The town and woreda of Debre Marqos is an enclave inside Guzamn woreda, located in the Misraq Gojjam Zone in the Amhara Region. In Finland: The town of Kauniainen is enclosed by the city of Espoo. The two are located west of Helsinki, in the Helsinki Metropolitan Area. The municipality of Enonkoski is encircled by the city of Savonlinna. In Iceland, the municipality of Hveragerði is an enclave in Sveitarfélagið Ölfus. In Indonesia: In North Sumatra: Padang Sidempuan City is surrounded by South Tapanuli Regency. Pematangsiantar City is surrounded by Simalungun Regency. Tanjungbalai City is surrounded by Asahan Regency. Tebing Tinggi City is surrounded by Serdang Bedagai Regency. In West Sumatra: Bukittinggi City is surrounded by Agam Regency. Payakumbuh City is surrounded by Lima Puluh Kota Regency. In Jambi, Jambi City is surrounded by Muaro Jambi Regency. In West Java: Bogor City is surrounded by Bogor Regency. Sukabumi City is surrounded by Sukabumi Regency. In Central Java: Magelang City is surrounded by Magelang Regency. Salatiga City is surrounded by Semarang Regency. In East Java: Blitar City is surrounded by Blitar Regency. Kediri City is surrounded by Kediri Regency. Malang City is surrounded by Malang Regency. In East Kalimantan, Samarinda City is surrounded by Kutai Kartanegara Regency. In North Sulawesi, Tomohon City is surrounded by Minahasa Regency. In Ireland: In Kildare County Council, Naas Urban Electoral division is surrounded by Naas Rural ED. In Italy: In Apulia, in the Province of Lecce, the municipality of Surbo is an enclave inside the municipality of Lecce. In Sicily: In the Province of Agrigento: San Giovanni Gemini is an enclave inside Cammarata. In the Province of Catania: Maletto is an enclave within Bronte and meets Bronte and eight other municipalities (Adrano, Belpasso, Biancavilla, Castiglione di Sicilia, Nicolosi, Randazzo, Sant'Alfio, Zafferana Etnea) at one point at the top of Mount Etna. In Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol: In the Autonomous Province of Trentino: Samone is an enclave inside Castel Ivano. In Israel, the political system where regional councils are distinct from city councils leads to a plethora of subnational enclaves. For instance, Sderot is an enclave within the Sha'ar HaNegev Regional Council. The Bedouin towns of Rahat and Laqiya, as well as the suburb of Lehavim, are enclaves within the Bnei Shimon Regional Council. Yeruham and Mitzpe Ramon are enclaves in Ramat HaNegev Regional Council. Beit She'an is an enclave within the Emek HaMaayanot Regional Council. In Lithuania, a few city municipalities are enclaved in the district municipalities of the same names, including Šiauliai, Panevėžys, and Alytus. In Mexico, in the state of Nuevo León, the municipality of Hualahuises is surrounded by the municipality of Linares. In New Zealand, the Kawerau District territorial authority is completely surrounded by the Whakatāne District. In North Korea, in South Pyongan province, Ch'ŏngnam district is an enclave in Mundŏk county. In the Republic of China: Chiayi City is an enclave of Chiayi County. In Romania, București – Ilfov development region is enclaved within the Sud (South) development region. In Togo, in Centrale Region, the prefecture of Blitta is surrounded by the prefecture of Sotouboua. In the United Kingdom: The English unitary authorities of Nottingham, Derby, Stoke-on-Trent, and Leicester are enclaves in the administrative counties of Nottinghamshire, Derbyshire, Staffordshire, and Leicestershire, respectively. In Cambridgeshire: the City of Cambridge is a local government district completely surrounded by the district of South Cambridgeshire. In Cheshire: the unpopulated civil parish of Chester Castle is completely surrounded by the unparished area of Chester. Both form part of the borough of Cheshire West and Chester. The City of London is an enclave within the ceremonial county of Greater London. It forms its own ceremonial county. Also, the rest of Greater London consists of London boroughs, whilst the city is not a London borough. Two parliamentary constituencies in the United Kingdom may also be described as enclaves: the constituencies of Bath and York Central are completely surrounded by the constituencies of North East Somerset and York Outer, respectively. In the United States of America: In Arizona: The Hopi Reservation is surrounded by the Navajo Reservation. The city of South Tucson is an enclave in the city of Tucson. In Arkansas, the City of Cammack Village is an enclave of Little Rock. In California: In 1956, Newark withdrew from the incorporation of the communities of Washington Township as the city of Fremont and is now surrounded by Fremont. Piedmont incorporated in 1907 to avoid annexation by Oakland and is now surrounded by Oakland. San Pablo, along with two small unincorporated areas, is completely surrounded by Richmond The city of San Fernando is an enclave in the city of Los Angeles. Beverly Hills and West Hollywood together form another. Culver City and the unincorporated community of Ladera Heights form a third enclave. The city of Signal Hill is entirely surrounded by the city of Long Beach. The city of Villa Park is an enclave of the city of Orange. The unincorporated area of Broadmoor is surrounded by Daly City. The unincorporated area of Fig Garden is surrounded by Fresno. Many other California cities have small enclaves of unincorporated area. In Florida, the town of Baldwin is an enclave within the city of Jacksonville. The Village of Lazy Lake is contained entirely within the borders of the city of Wilton Manors. In Georgia, Remerton is an enclave of Valdosta; similarly, Payne City was an enclave within the city of Macon until it was dissolved in 2015. In Idaho, Garden City is an enclave in the city of Boise. In Illinois, Norridge and Harwood Heights together form an enclave in the city of Chicago. In Indiana, after the passage of Unigov in 1970 by the state legislature that merged the government of Indianapolis and Marion County, four cities remained independent and did not merge with Indianapolis – three of those cities Beech Grove, Southport, and Speedway became enclaves of Indianapolis. In Iowa, the city of University Heights is entirely surrounded by Iowa City. In Kansas, the city of Eastborough is entirely surrounded by Wichita. In Kentucky, when the governments of Louisville and Jefferson County merged in 2003, a bewildering array of enclaves was created, as all other incorporated cities in Jefferson County retained their status as separate cities. Note that the entire Ohio River between the northern and southern low-water marks is now part of Louisville Metro. Three other cities were, and still are, enclaved in cities other than Louisville: Norbourne Estates and Richlawn are enclaves of St. Matthews. Woodland Hills is an enclave of Middletown. The merger created many other enclaves within the portion of Louisville Metro that includes pre-merger Louisville but excludes all other pre-existing cities, an entity defined by the United States Census Bureau as the "Louisville-Jefferson County balance". As municipalities, these enclaves are not parts of the "balance," but rather, they are surrounded by the "balance." These individual enclaves: Creekside, Fincastle, Glenview Hills, Hickory Hill, Hills and Dales, Hollow Creek, Hollyvilla, Lynnview, Minor Lane Heights, Shively, South Park View, Spring Mill, and Thornhill. The combination of Cambridge, Houston Acres, Lincolnshire, and St. Regis Park. The combination of Poplar Hills, Watterson Park, and West Buechel. The aforementioned cities of Middletown, Norbourne Estates, Richlawn, St. Matthews, and Woodland Hills, along with 46 other municipalities are part of a large composite enclave within the "balance." In Michigan: The city of Center Line is completely surrounded by Warren. Highland Park and Hamtramck border each other, but the two together are completely surrounded by Detroit. The city of Lathrup Village is completely surrounded by Southfield. The city of Springfield is completely surrounded by Battle Creek. In Minnesota: The city of Centerville is completely surrounded by Lino Lakes. The city of Hilltop is completely surrounded by Columbia Heights. The city of Landfall is completely surrounded by Oakdale. The city of Long Lake is completely surrounded by Orono. The city of Loretto is completely surrounded by Medina. The city of Medicine Lake is completely surrounded by Plymouth. The city of Peterson is completely surrounded by Rushford Village. The city of Rushford is completely surrounded by Rushford Village. The city of St. Bonifacius is completely surrounded by Minnetrista. The city of Willernie is completely surrounded by Mahtomedi. In Missouri, the cities of Gladstone and North Kansas City are separately surrounded by Kansas City. In Montana, when the governments of Butte and Silver Bow County merged in 1977, the town of Walkerville voted not to join the consolidated government, thus becoming an enclave. In New Jersey: {\| class="wikitable" style="font-size:95%; border:1; cellpadding:5; cellspacing:0;" ! scope="col" style="width:60px;"\|County ! scope="col" style="width:100px;"\|Enclaved borough ! scope="col" style="width:130px;"\|Enclaved within ! scope="col" style="width:1px;"\| ! scope="col" style="width:60px;"\|County ! scope="col" style="width:100px;"\|Enclaved borough ! scope="col" style="width:140px;"\|Enclaved within \|- \|Burlington \| Fieldsboro \| Bordentown Township \| rowspan="13" \| \|Monmouth \| Freehold Borough \| Freehold Township \|- \|Burlington \|Medford Lakes \|Medford Township \|Morris \|Morristown \|Morris Township \|- \|Burlington \|Pemberton \|Pemberton Township \|Morris \|Chester Borough \|Chester Township \|- \|Gloucester \|Swedesboro \|Woolwich Township \|Ocean \|Lakehurst \|Manchester Township \|- \|Hunterdon \|Flemington \|Raritan Township \|Ocean \|Lavallette \|Toms River Township \|- \|Hunterdon \|Lebanon \|Clinton Township \|Ocean \|Ocean Gate \|Berkeley Township \|- \|Mercer \|Hopewell \|Hopewell Township \|Ocean \|Tuckerton \|Little Egg Harbor Township \|- \|Mercer \|Pennington \|Hopewell Township \|Salem \|Woodstown \|Pilesgrove Township \|- \|Mercer \|Hightstown \|East Windsor Township \|Sussex \|Branchville \|Frankford Township \|- \|Middlesex \|Jamesburg \|Monroe Township \|Sussex \|Sussex \|Wantage Township \|- \|Middlesex \|Metuchen \|Edison Township \|Warren \|Alpha \|Pohatcong Township \|- \|Monmouth \|Englishtown \|Manalapan Township \|rowspan="2"\|Warren \|rowspan="2"\|Washington \|rowspan="2"\|Washington Township \|- \|Monmouth \|Farmingdale \|Howell Township \|} In New York, the city of Cortland, New York, seat of Cortland County, is entirely surrounded by the town of Cortlandville, from which it is legally separate. Likewise, the city of Beacon is surrounded by the Town of Fishkill. In North Dakota, the city of Prairie Rose is an enclave of Fargo. In Ohio: The cities of Brice, Bexley, and Whitehall are all enclaves of Columbus. The city of Norwood is an enclave of Cincinnati. The cities of Elmwood Place, to the north, and St. Bernard, to the south, together form another enclave of Cincinnati. In Stark County, the village of Hills & Dales is enclaved within Jackson Township. In Summit County, the village of Lakemore is surrounded by Springfield Township. In Oregon, the city of Maywood Park is surrounded by Portland. In Pennsylvania, every county in the state other than the counties of Fulton, Philadelphia, Pike and Union contains at least one municipality in another municipality. There are at least 338 enclaves in the state comprising incorporated places and census-designated places within other county subdivisions. Usually, the enclave takes the form of a borough that is surrounded by the township of which it was originally a part, but other scenarios are possible (e.g., the Borough of Mount Oliver is an enclave of Pittsburgh; Pitcairn borough, of Monroeville; Dale borough, of Johnstown; and the Lackawanna County township of Elmhurst, of Roaring Brook Township). While Pennsylvania's urban counties contain few enclaves due to municipal fragmentation, rural areas feature numerous enclaved municipalities. Many resulted from small town centers separating from their rural surrounding areas. In Tennessee: The cities of Red Bank and Ridgeside are enclaves in the city of Chattanooga. The city of Berry Hill is an enclave of the city of Nashville. The cities of Belle Meade, Forest Hills and Oak Hill together form an enclave of the city of Nashville. Ooltewah is an enclave of Collegedale. In Texas: The cities of Alamo Heights, Balcones Heights, Castle Hills, Hill Country Village, Hollywood Park, Kirby, Leon Valley, Olmos Park, Shavano Park, and Terrell Hills are all enclaves of San Antonio. The cities of Bellaire, West University Place, and Southside Place together form an enclave of Houston. The cities of Bunker Hill Village, Hedwig Village, Hilshire Village, Hunters Creek Village, Piney Point Village, and Spring Valley Village together form another enclave of Houston. The cities of Highland Park and University Park, collectively known locally as the "Park Cities", together form an enclave of Dallas. In addition, the city of Cockrell Hill is also an enclave of Dallas. The city of Sunset Valley is enclave of Austin. The cities of Blue Mound, Edgecliff Village, Haslet, Lake Worth, River Oaks, Saginaw, Sansom Park, Westover Hills, Westworth Village, and White Settlement are enclaves of Fort Worth The cities of Dalworthington Gardens and Pantego together form an enclave of Arlington. The city of Beverly Hills is an enclave of Waco. In Vermont: The city of Rutland is an enclave of the town of Rutland. The city of St. Albans is an enclave of the town of St. Albans. In Virginia, under Virginia law, all municipalities that are incorporated as cities are legally independent of any county. Fifteen such enclaves — thirteen individual cities, plus two pairs of adjoining cities — exist within the state; some of the cities that form these enclaves serve as county seat of the surrounding county: Bedford, enclaved within and the county seat of Bedford County Buena Vista, enclaved within Rockbridge County Charlottesville, enclaved within and the county seat of Albemarle County Covington, enclaved within and the county seat of Alleghany County Emporia, enclaved within and the county seat of Greensville County Fairfax, enclaved within and the county seat of Fairfax County. As noted above, the county courthouse is located in an unincorporated portion of Fairfax County that is completely surrounded by the city. Harrisonburg, enclaved within and the county seat of Rockingham County Lexington, enclaved within and the county seat of Rockbridge County Manassas and Manassas Park together form an enclave within Prince William County. Manassas is the county seat; as noted above, the county courthouse is located in an unincorporated portion of Prince William County that is completely surrounded by the city. Martinsville, enclaved within and the county seat of Henry County Norton, enclaved within Wise County Roanoke and Salem together form an enclave within Roanoke County. The Roanoke County Courthouse is located in Salem, but the rest of the county government is located in the unincorporated community of Cave Spring. Staunton, enclaved within and the county seat of Augusta County Waynesboro, enclaved within Augusta County Winchester, enclaved within and the county seat of Frederick County In Wisconsin, the village of Thiensville is an enclave of the city of Mequon in Ozaukee County. Exclaves that are not enclaves An exclave must always be grouped with a main region of which it is a legal part. In the case of international waters, the main region consists of all international waters not in EEZs. All potential paths of travel from the exclave to its main region must cross one or more different administrative-territorial regions having the equivalent legal level. Each exclave listed in this section borders on more than one other region. National level First-order subnational level Other subnational In Australia: The state of Victoria's Murrindindi Shire has an exclave along the border with Shire of Yarra Ranges. It is separated from the rest of Murrindindi Shire by the Lake Mountain unincorporated area, which was originally a part of the shire. The Aboriginal Shire of Woorabinda consists of five non-contiguous pieces; four are sub-parts of their four communities. Three are in the Central Highlands Region (previously excised from the Shire of Duaringa), and two are in the Rockhampton Region (previously excised from the Shire of Fitzroy), meaning the main settlement of Woorabinda itself has four exclaves. In Belgium: Apart from Baarle-Hertog, there are three municipalities consisting of non-contiguous parts: Ixelles (Elsene) and Saint-Gilles (Sint-Gillis) in the Brussels Capital Region and Mesen in West Flanders. In Brazil: In Goiás: Sítio d'Abadia was cut in two as a result of the expansion of Alvorada do Norte. In Mato Grosso: Barra do Bugres was cut in two as a result of the expansion of Salto do Céu and Reserva do Cabaçal. In Pará: the town of Senador José Porfírio was cut in two as a result of the formation of Anapu. In Canada: The Caniapiscau Regional County Municipality in Quebec is separated into multiple sections including the exclaves of Lac-Vacher and Lac-Juillet surrounded by Labrador and Nunavik. Greenstone, Ontario has a large principal section and two exclaved townsites, Nakina and Caramat. In China: In Qinghai province, Tanggulashan town is an exclave of the city of Golmud and the Haixi Mongol and Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture that Golmud is part of, separated from the rest of the prefecture by a "panhandle" of Yushu Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture. In Croatia: In Koprivnica-Križevci County, the municipality of Legrad is split in two, separated by the municipality of Đelekovec. In Osijek-Baranja County: The villages of Palača and Silaš form an exclave of the municipality of Šodolovci. The main road between the two portions goes through Vukovar-Srijem County. The village of Široko Polje belongs to the city of Đakovo from which it is separated by the municipalities of Gorjani and Viškovci. In Estonia: In Harju County, Harku small borough is an exclave of Harku Parish. In Ida-Viru County, the town of Kohtla-Järve is divided into five separated districts. Of these exclaves, Ahtme, Järve and Sompa districts are not enclaves. In Tartu County, Piirissaar island in Lake Peipus is an exclave of Tartu Parish, which otherwise doesn't have a coastline at the lake. In Võru County, sixteen villages form an exclave of Setomaa Parish. In Ethiopia: in Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples' Region, Gedeo Zone is an exclave between Sidama Region and Oromia Region In Finland: In Ostrobothnia, the former municipality of Vähäkyrö is now an exclave of the city of Vaasa. In Kymenlaakso, the municipality of Iitti has a small exclave called Supinkulma, which surrounded by Lahti and Heinola, both located in Päijänne Tavastia. In France, the commune of Ménessaire is an exclave of the department of Côte-d'Or between Nièvre and Saône-et-Loire. In Germany: The Samtgemeinde Baddeckenstedt is separated from the greater part of the district Wolfenbüttel by the urban district of Salzgitter. In India: In Madhya Pradesh in central India, Datia district has an exclave surrounded by Shivpuri district of Madhya Pradesh and Jhansi district of Uttar Pradesh. The districts of Kapurthala (in Punjab state), Tumakuru (in Karnataka state), and Imphal East in Manipur state each has an exclave. In Indonesia: In North Sumatra, three subdistricts of Nias Regency, namely Botumuzoi, Hiliduho and Hili Serangkai, are separated from the rest of the regency by the city of Gunungsitoli and West Nias Regency. In South Sumatra, six subdistricts of Muara Enim Regency, namely Muara Belida, Gelumbang, Sungai Rotan, Kelekar, Lembak, and Belida Darat, are separated from the rest of the regency by the city of Prabumulih and the Penukal Abab Lematang Ilir Regency (both are split from Muara Enim). In Central Java, the subdistrict of is cut from other parts of the Karanganyar Regency by land that belongs to the regencies and cities of Boyolali, Surakarta, and Sukoharjo. In Italy: In Abruzzo: In the Province of L'Aquila: the municipality of L'Aquila has an exclave between the municipalities of Lucoli, Rocca di Mezzo, Magliano de' Marsi and the region of Lazio; Carapelle Calvisio and Castelvecchio Calvisio have two adjoining exclaves between Santo Stefano di Sessanio, Calascio and the Province of Teramo; Ofena consists of two parts separated by Castel del Monte and Villa Santa Lucia degli Abruzzi; Sulmona has an exclave between Pratola Peligna and Prezza; Cerchio has an exclave between Aielli, Collarmele and Celano; Celano consists of two non-contiguous parts separated by Aielli and Ovindoli. In the Province of Chieti: Atessa has an exclave separated from the rest of the municipality by Tornareccio and is bordering six other municipalities; San Buono has an exclave between Furci and Fresagrandinaria. In Apulia: In the Metropolitan City of Bari: Castellana Grotte has an exclave between Alberobello and Monopoli; Monopoli has an exclave between Castellana Grotte and Alberobello; Acquaviva delle Fonti has an exclave between Gioia del Colle and Santeramo in Colle; Putignano has an exclave between Gioia del Colle and Turi; Binetto has an exclave between Toritto, Palo del Colle and Bitonto. In the Province of Foggia: San Marco in Lamis has three exclaves between Foggia and San Giovanni Rotondo and one between Foggia, San Giovanni Rotondo and Manfredonia; San Severo has an exclave between Foggia, San Marco in Lamis and Rignano Garganico; Manfredonia has an exclave between Foggia and Carapelle; Poggio Imperiale has two non-contiguous parts separated by Lesina; Castelnuovo della Daunia has an exclave between Torremaggiore and Casalvecchio di Puglia and another one between Torremaggiore, Casalvecchio di Puglia, Casalnuovo Monterotaro and Santa Croce di Magliano in the region of Molise. In the Province of Lecce: Leverano has an exclave between Arnesano and Copertino; Squinzano has an exclave between Lecce and Torchiarolo in the Province of Brindisi. In Basilicata: In the Province of Matera: Tricarico has an exclave between Grottole and Grassano. In the Province of Potenza: Fardella has four exclaves; Chiaromonte has three; Atella and Noepoli have two each; Tito has one. In Calabria: In the Province of Catanzaro: Feroleto Antico has an exclave between Pianopoli and Serrastretta; Fossato Serralta has an exclave between Cicala, Gimigliano and Sorbo San Basile. In the Province of Cosenza: Bianchi has an exclave between Panettieri and the Province of Catanzaro; Oriolo has an exclave between Albidona, Alessandria del Carretto and Castroregio; Castroregio has an exclave between Oriolo, Alessandria del Carretto and the Province of Potenza; Cerchiara di Calabria has an exclave between San Lorenzo Bellizzi, Castrovillari and the Province of Potenza; Mormanno has an exclave between Laino Castello and Papasidero; Mongrassano has an exclave between Cervicati, San Marco Argentano, Cerzeto and Bisignano; Cervicati has an exclave between Mongrassano and San Marco Argentano; Acquappesa has an exclave between Mongrassano, Fagnano Castello, Cetraro and Guardia Piemontese. In the Metropolitan City of Reggio Calabria: the seat of the municipality of Roghudi is an enclave within Melito di Porto Salvo and the other, larger part of the municipality is about 40 km away and is an exclave surrounded by 6 other municipalities. Similarly, the seat of the municipality of Africo is a semi-exclave in Bianco with the larger part being an exclave between 7 other municipalities. In Emilia-Romagna: In the Metropolitan City of Bologna: Castello d'Argile has an exclave between Sala Bolognese and Argelato. In the Province of Forlì-Cesena: Sarsina consists of three non-contiguous parts, the larger two separated by Bagno di Romagna and Mercato Saraceno and the smallest one separated by Verghereto. In the Province of Modena: Modena has two exclaves between Carpi and Soliera. In the Province of Rimini: Verucchio has an exclave between San Leo and the Republic of San Marino. In Friuli Venezia Giulia: Dogna has an exclave between Moggio Udinese and Pontebba; Tramonti di Sopra has an exclave between Meduno and Tramonti di Sotto. In Lazio, the Province of Viterbo (the municipality of Gallese) has an exclave between Umbria and the Province of Rieti. In the Province of Rieti: Rieti has an exclave between Colli sul Velino, Contigliano, Greccio and the Province of Terni; Concerviano has an exclave between Rieti and Longone Sabino; Longone Sabino consists of two non-contiguous parts separated by southern part of Concerviano; Rocca Sinibalda consists of two non-contiguous parts separated by southern exclave of Longone Sabino and northern exclave of Ascrea; Ascrea consists of three non-contiguous parts separated by Castel di Tora (north and south part) and Paganico Sabino (south and east). In the Metropolitan City of Rome Capital: Polline Martignano is an exclave of Rome between Anguillara Sabazia, Campagnano di Roma and Trevignano Romano; Monte Compatri consists of three non-contiguous parts; Grottaferrata has an exclave between Marino, Rocca di Papa and Castel Gandolfo; Artena has an exclave between Lariano, Velletri and the Province of Latina; Rocca Priora has an exclave between Artena, Lariano and Rocca di Papa. In the Province of Viterbo: Viterbo has an exclave between Ronciglione and Vetralla; Vejano has an exclave between Blera and the Metropolitan City of Rome Capital. In Lombardy: Comune di San Colombano (named after the Irish missionary Saint Columbanus) is an exclave of the Metropolitan City of Milan between the provinces of Lodi and Pavia In the Province of Pavia: Cornale e Bastida has an exclave between Sannazzaro de' Burgondi, Corana and an exclave of Silvano Pietra; Silvano Pietra has an exclave between Sannazzaro de' Burgondi, Corana and an exclave of Cornale e Bastida; Casei Gerola has three exclaves (between Mezzana Bigli, Cornale e Bastida, Silvano Pietra and the region of Piedmont); Pancarana has an exclave between Mezzana Rabattone, Zinasco and Bastida Pancarana; Santa Maria della Versa has an exclave between Golferenzo and Montecalvo Versiggia. In Marche: In the Province of Ascoli Piceno: Ascoli Piceno has an exclave (Piana della Forcella) between Acquasanta Terme, Roccafluvione and Forcella (an exclave of Roccafluvione), itself between Acquasanta Terme and Piana della Forcella (Ascoli Piceno). In the Province of Fermo: Fermo has one exclave between Francavilla d'Ete, Montegiorgio, Massa Fermana and the Province of Macerata, and another one between Montegiorgio, Grottazzolina and Magliano di Tenna. In the Province of Pesaro and Urbino: Sassofeltrio has an exclave between Monte Grimano Terme and the Republic of San Marino. In Molise: In the Province of Campobasso: Campobasso has an exclave between Oratino, Castropignano and Ripalimosani; Montenero di Bisaccia has an exclave between San Felice del Molise and Tavenna, and another one between Mafalda and Tavenna. In Piedmont: In the Province of Asti: Camerano Casasco has two exclaves between Chiusano d'Asti and Montechiaro d'Asti; Pino d'Asti has one between Castelnuovo Don Bosco and Passerano Marmorito; Monastero Bormida has an exclave between Roccaverano, Bubbio and Loazzolo. In the Province of Biella: Callabiana, Pettinengo, Tavigliano, Valdilana, Bioglio, Veglio, Vallanzengo, Valle San Nicolao, Caprile and Ailoche have mountain exclaves in the northern part of the province, between the Province of Vercelli and the region of Aosta Valley; Valle San Nicolao has another exclave between Pettinengo, Bioglio and Valdilana; Muzzano has an exclave between Graglia and Sordevolo; Andorno Micca and Sagliano Micca have adjoining exclaves between Piedicavallo, Rosazza, Campiglia Cervo, Biella and the region of Aosta Valley; Pollone has an exclave between Biella, Sordevolo and the region of Aosta Valley; Magnano has an exclave between Zimone and the Metropolitan City of Turin. In the Metropolitan City of Turin: Carignano has an exclave between Castagnole Piemonte and Osasio; Carmagnola has an exclave between Carignano and Lombriasco; Claviere consists of two exclaves between Cesana Torinese and France; Traversella has an exclave between Quincinetto and Aosta Valley region; Brosso has an exclave between Traversella and Valchiusa; Castelnuovo Nigra has two exclaves between Cintano and Colleretto Castelnuovo; Castellamonte, Valchiusa, Vistrorio and Val di Chy have exclaves, some bordering each other, between Traversella, Castelnuovo Nigra, Rueglio and Lessolo. Castellamonte has another one between San Martino Canavese, Torre Canavese, Quagliuzzo and Parella; Vistrorio has two more between Issiglio and Rueglio; Prascorsano has one between Canischio and Pratiglione; Rivara has one between Pratiglione and Forno Canavese; and Pertusio has one between Valperga and Prascorsano (connected at a quadripoint). In the Province of Vercelli: Cigliano has an exclave between Moncrivello and the Metropolitan City of Turin. In Sardinia: In the Metropolitan City of Cagliari: Assemini consists of two non-contiguous parts of approximately same sizes separated by Uta; Decimomannu also has two non-contiguous parts separated by Uta; Quartucciu has two non-contiguous parts separated by Maracalagonis and Quartu Sant'Elena. In the Province of Nuoro: Triei has an exclave between Urzulei, Talana and Baunei; Arzana has an exclave (Acetorri) between Contissa (exclave of Jerzu), Quirra (exclave of Lanusei) and the Province of South Sardinia; Loceri has an exclave (Bacu Orca) between Sa Tuvada (exclave of Osini), Quirra (exclave of Lanusei) and Tertenia; Osini consists of four non-contiguous exclaves; Lanusei has an exclave (Quirra) between Sa Tuvuda (exclave of Osini), Acetorri (exclave of Arzana) and Bacu Orca (exclave of Loceri); Jerzu has an exclave (Contissa) between Ulassai, Acetorri (exclave of Arzana), Sa Tuvuda (exclave of Osini) and the Province of South Sardinia; Elini has an exclave between Ilbono, Arzana and Lanusei; Gairo has an exclave (Su Sirboni) between Tertenia and Cardedu. In the Province of Sassari: Cheremule has an exclave between Giave and Thiesi; Tempio Pausania has an exclave between Palau, Santa Teresa Gallura, Aglientu, Luogosanto and Arzachena. In the Province of South Sardinia: Iglesias has an exclave separated by Domusnovas; Gonnosfanadiga has an exclave between Guspini and Arbus. In Sicily: In the Province of Caltanissetta: Mazzarino consists of three non-contiguous parts, all three separated by Riesi. In the Metropolitan City of Catania: Motta Sant'Anastasia has an exclave between Catania and Belpasso; Tremestieri Etneo has an exclave between Catania, Sant'Agata li Battiati, San Giovanni la Punta and San Gregorio di Catania. In the Province of Enna: Piazza Armerina has an exclave between five municipalities; Assoro has three exclaves between various other municipalities. In the Metropolitan City of Palermo: Bisacquino has an exclave between Monreale, Contessa Entellina and Roccamena. In the Province of Trapani: Gibellina has an exclave (Nuova Gibellina) surrounded by Santa Ninfa except for a quadripoint with Salemi, and Santa Ninfa has an exclave between Nuova Gibellina and Salemi. In Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol: In the Autonomous Province of Trentino: Canal San Bovo, Carisolo, Cimego, Cinte Tesino, Comano Terme, Giustino, Imèr, Malosco, Massimeno, Pellizzano, Pergine Valsugana, Pieve Tesino, Ronzone, Spiazzo, Stenico, Tione di Trento, Tre Ville consist of two or three non-contiguous parts separated by other municipalities In Tuscany: In the Province of Arezzo: Poppi has one exclave between Bibbiena, Chiusi della Verna and the region of Emilia-Romagna, and another one between Bibbiena, Ortignano Raggiolo and Castel Focognano. In the Province of Lucca: Gallicano has an exclave between Barga, Fosciandora, Castelnuovo di Garfagnana and Molazzana. In Japan: In Kyoto The city of Kumiyama has an exclave surrounded by Uji, Ujitawara and Jōyō. The exclave contains the Kyoto Prefectural Sports Square. The city of Yawata has four exclaves. 3 of these are surrounded by Kumiyama and Fushimi Ward, Kyoto City. The fourth is surrounded by Kyōtanabe and Hirakata, Osaka In South Korea, is an exclave of Dalseong, Daegu and is an exclave of Wanju, North Jeolla Province. In Mexico, Torreón Municipality in the state of Coahuila consists of two segments, both touching the neighboring state of Durango. In the Netherlands, Amsterdam Zuidoost is cut from other parts of the municipality of Amsterdam by land that belongs to the municipalities of Ouder-Amstel and Diemen. In the Philippines: Caloocan is divided in two by Quezon City. In Cotabato province, the municipality of President Roxas is divided in two by Antipas municipality. In Nueva Ecija, the municipality of Talavera is divided in two by Santo Domingo. In Poland: Sławków is an exclave of Będzin County. Sławków is separated from the rest of the county by the cities of Dąbrowa Górnicza and Sosnowiec. All of these are within the Silesian Voivodeship (province). Rybnik County is split into three disjoint parts, separated by the city of Rybnik. The three parts are the municipalities of Czerwionka-Leszczyny, Świerklany, and the combined area of Lyski, Gaszowice and Jejkowice. All of these are within the Silesian Voivodeship. In Portugal, as a consequence of administrative reforms during the 19th century (in the 1830s, then again in the 1850s, and to a much lesser extent in the 1890s), as well as more recent legislation forbidding the creation of territorial discontinuities, there are almost no subnational exclaves or enclaves, and the few that persist are on the municipal or civil parish level: Municipalities with exclave civil parishes (at least one civil parish is separated from the main body): Montijo and Oliveira de Frades. Municipalities with sub-civil parish level exclaves (at least one civil parish is itself territorially discontinuous, creating an exclave also at the municipal level): Soure. Exclaves that are sub-parts of civil parishes and that yet remain within the municipal-level boundary are located in the following municipalities: Ansião, Belmonte, Coimbra, Oliveira de Frades, Penela. In Russia, Khabarovsky District in Khabarovsk Krai is separated into two parts by Amursky District In Spain, the following provincial level exclaves that are not enclaves exist. Many other exclaves exist at municipal level. Anchuras is an exclave of the province of Ciudad Real between the provinces of Toledo and Badajoz. Berzosilla is an exclave of the province of Palencia between Cantabria and the province of Burgos. Orduña is an exclave of Biscay between the Álava and the province of Burgos. Roales de Campos and Quintanilla del Molar constitute an exclave of the province of Valladolid between the provinces of León and Zamora. In Comarca de Guadix, the Aldeire municipality has an exclave to the north called "Cortijo Ramos", surrounded by the Valle del Zalabi and La Calahorra municipalities. In the United States of America: In Alaska, the Unorganized Borough is separated into multiple sections; however, the only true exclave that is not an enclave is the town of Hyder, which belongs to Prince of Wales – Hyder Census Area. In Georgia, Brooks County has a small portion separated by Lowndes County and Madison County, Florida. In Louisiana, a portion of St. Martin Parish is separated by Iberia Parish. A portion of West Feliciana Parish is separated by Concordia Parish. A portion of Madison Parish is separated by Warren County, Mississippi. In Massachusetts, Norfolk County has two exclaves: Brookline between Middlesex and Suffolk counties, and Cohasset on the coast of Plymouth County. In Michigan: In Houghton County: The city of Houghton divides Portage and Adams townships into two sections apiece, and the city of Hancock divides Quincy Township in two as well. Brownstown Township, Wayne County is separated into three parts. The two smaller parts are separated from the main portion of the township by Woodhaven. Both smaller parts are further separated by Rockwood and Gibraltar. In New Jersey: In Atlantic County, Egg Harbor Township is split into three parts. In Bergen County, the township of South Hackensack is divided into three separate parts as a result of other municipalities withdrawing from it. In Burlington County, the borough of Wrightstown has two sections. In Camden County, Haddon Township is split into three parts, of which two are joined at a quadripoint. In Monmouth County, Aberdeen Township is divided into two pieces. In Morris County, the township of Randolph has a tiny exclave, and Rockaway Township has a small portion that is joined by only a quadripoint. In New Mexico, Sandoval County has an exclave. During World War II, Los Alamos County was created out of parts of Sandoval and Santa Fe Counties, for the convenience of the Manhattan Project. That portion of Sandoval County that is within the San Ildefonso Indian Reservation, about 3 km2, became an exclave bounded by Los Alamos County on the southwest, Santa Fe County on the east and Rio Arriba County on the north. In New York: In Westchester County, Rye Town has an exclave separated by Harrison and Rye City. In Pennsylvania: In Allegheny County, O'Hara Township consists of five non-contiguous areas, with Sharpsburg, Aspinwall and Fox Chapel separating them. One area (Sixmile Island) is enclaved within Sharpsburg. In Berks County, in addition to the two exclaves of Cumru Township mentioned above, Lower Alsace Township has an exclave separated from the rest of the township by the borough of Mount Penn. In Chester County, Schuylkill Township has a small exclave separated by Phoenixville. In addition, Valley Township has an exclave created by a narrow strip of land that is part of Coatesville. Three municipalities in Delaware County have exclaves. Springfield Township has an exclave separated from the main body of the township by the village of Swarthmore; Darby Township consists of two non-contiguous areas; and part of Upper Darby is separated from the main body of the township by Aldan and Lansdowne. In Lackawanna County, South Abington Township has an exclave along Glenburn Road bordered by Clarks Summit borough and Waverly Township. The township itself is oddly shaped and borders the collective area of Clarks Summit, Clarks Green, and Waverly Township on three sides. There are four sets of exclaves in Schuylkill County. Norwegian Township has a small exclave separated by the city of Pottsville, and West Mahanoy Township is split into two sections, separated by the borough of Gilberton. In addition, the borough of Auburn creates exclaves of both South Manheim Township and West Brunswick Township. In York County, Spring Garden Township has an exclave separated from the rest of the township by the city of York. In South Carolina, Pickens County has two exclaves separated by Oconee County and Anderson County. In Tennessee: White County has a small portion separated by Cumberland County and Van Buren County. Tipton County has a small portion separated by Shelby County and Mississippi County, Arkansas. The lands within numerous Indian reservations have been fragmented, with privately owned real estate intermixed with tribal, city, county, state, and federal authorities in a bewildering array of jurisdictional geographies. Red Lake Indian Reservation has one large exclave bordering Canada (itself containing enclaves of non-reservation land) and numerous other small exclaves. Rosebud Indian Reservation also has numerous small exclaves. Semi-enclaves and semi-exclaves Semi-enclaves and semi-exclaves are areas that, except for possessing an unsurrounded sea border, would otherwise be enclaves or exclaves. Semi-enclaves can exist as independent states that border only one other state. Vinokurov (2007) declares, "Technically, Portugal, Denmark, and Canada also border only one foreign state, but they are not enclosed in the geographical, political, or economic sense. They have vast access to international waters. At the same time, there are states that, although in possession of sea access, are still enclosed by the territories of a foreign state." (At the time of publication, Canada and Denmark did not share a border.) Therefore, Vinokurov applies a quantitative principle: the land boundary must be longer than the coastline. Thus he classifies a state as a sovereign semi-enclave if it borders on just one state, and its land boundary is longer than its sea coastline. Vinokurov affirms that "no similar quantitative criterion is needed to define the scope of non-sovereign semi-enclaves/exclaves." Semi-enclaves that are not semi-exclaves National level : Surrounded by and the South China Sea : Surrounded by and the Atlantic Ocean : Surrounded by and the Mediterranean Sea Subnational level In Canada: In Newfoundland and Labrador, the town of Petty Harbour–Maddox Cove is a semi-enclave in the city of St. John's. In Japan, the village of Hiezu, Tottori is surrounded by the city of Yonago and Miho Bay In the United States of America: In California, the city of Santa Monica borders the Pacific Ocean on one side and is otherwise completely surrounded by the city of Los Angeles. Semi-enclaves that are also semi-exclaves National level Brunei: Temburong District is bounded by Malaysia and Brunei Bay. The Temburong Bridge connects Temburong to the Brunei mainland, bypassing the need to traverse through Malaysian territory. Cyprus (de facto): The de facto independent Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC), which is unrecognised internationally, has a semi-enclave in the island's Northwest, Kokkina/Erenköy, which is bounded by the U.N. buffer zone and the Mediterranean Sea. East Timor: Oecusse is bounded by Indonesia and the Savu Sea. Eritrea: The southeasternmost point of Eritrea () is surrounded by Djibouti and Bab-el-Mandeb. Oman: Musandam is bounded by the United Arab Emirates and the Strait of Hormuz. Spain: Ceuta, Melilla, and Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera are bounded by the Mediterranean Sea and by either a neutral zone or Morocco itself. United Kingdom: The overseas territory of Gibraltar is on the south coast of Spain. A neutral zone had existed at one time but appears no longer to be observed. Akrotiri and Dhekelia – British Overseas Territory on the island of Cyprus, administered as two Sovereign Base Areas, an Eastern Sovereign Base Area (ESBA) and a Western Sovereign Base Area (WSBA). The bases were retained by the UK following the independence of Cyprus in 1960. The Western Sovereign Base Area includes Akrotiri and Episkopi Cantonment, while the Eastern Sovereign Base Area includes Dhekelia Cantonment and Ayios Nikolaos. United States of America: Alaska is bounded by Canada, the Arctic Ocean, the Bering Sea and the Pacific Ocean. Alaska is the world's largest semi-enclave. Semi-exclaves that are not semi-enclaves National level Angola: Cabinda is bounded by the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the Republic of the Congo and the Atlantic Ocean. Croatia: The southern portion of Dubrovnik-Neretva County, including the historic city of Dubrovnik, is bounded by Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, and the Adriatic Sea. Neum, Bosnia and Herzegovina's only sea access, is sandwiched between the two portions of this county. This semi-exclave relies on national territorial waters as its only alternative connection to the rest of the country. It is accessible to Croatia's much larger region to the north by an 8 km road a short distance from and parallel to the Adriatic coastline, crossing Bosnia via Neum. The Pelješac Bridge, which opened July 2022, is a 2.3 km bridge to a Croatian peninsula that bypasses the Bosnian transit. Cyprus (de facto): The Greek Cypriot-controlled portion of Famagusta District, along with the easternmost exclave of Larnaca District, together are a semi-exclave, bounded by the U.N. buffer zone, Dhekelia Sovereign Base Area and the Mediterranean Sea. Equatorial Guinea: continental Río Muni is surrounded by Gabon, Cameroon and the Atlantic Ocean and can only be accessed from the capital by boat or plane. France: French Guiana (an Overseas Department), in South America, is bounded by Suriname, Brazil and the Atlantic Ocean. Russia: Kaliningrad Oblast is bounded by Lithuania, Poland and the Baltic Sea. Pene-enclaves/exclaves (including inaccessible districts) A pene-exclave is a part of the territory of one country that can be approached conveniently — in particular by wheeled traffic — only through the territory of another country. Such areas are enclaves or exclaves for practical purposes, without meeting the strict definition; hence they are also called functional enclaves or practical enclaves. Many pene-exclaves partially border their own territorial waters (i.e., they are not surrounded by other nations' territorial waters). A pene-enclave can also exist entirely on land, such as when intervening mountains render a territory inaccessible from other parts of a country except through alien territory. Thus, a pene-exclave has land borders with other territory but is not completely surrounded by the other's land or territorial waters. They can exhibit continuity of state territory across territorial waters but, nevertheless, a discontinuity on land, such as in the case of Point Roberts. Along rivers that change course, pene-enclaves can be observed as complexes comprising many small pene-enclaves. Attribution of a pene-enclave status to a territory can sometimes be disputed, depending on whether the territory is considered to be practically inaccessible from the mainland or not. National level Austria: The municipality of Jungholz is connected to the rest of Austria at a quadripoint at the summit of the mountain Sorgschrofen (1636 m). Road access is only via German land. However, Vinokurov (2007) states, "For all purposes, a connection in a single point does not mean anything. It is just like being completely separated. One cannot pass through a single point, nor is it possible to transport goods. It is not even possible to lay a telephone line." (See above: Enclaves that are also exclaves.) The Kleinwalsertal, a valley part of Vorarlberg, can only be reached by road from Oberstdorf, Germany. Hinterriß and Eng (parts of the communes of Vomp and Eben am Achensee in Tyrol, Austria) are functional exclaves accessible by road only from Germany. Belgium/France: Along the river Leie (Lys in French) between Halluin and Armentières, where the river forms the border, there are 7 small pene-exclaves of Belgium (province of Hainaut) on the southern side of the river and 7 small pene-exclaves of France (department of Nord) on the northern side of the river. This is due to minor changes in the course of the river since the border was fixed in 1830. Belgium/Luxembourg: There is a building containing both an Aldi and a Lidl supermarket, adjacent to the northernmost point of Luxembourg, that is inaccessible by road from Luxembourg and can only be accessed through Belgium. Belgium/Netherlands: On the Dutch side of the Meuse River, between the Belgian municipality of Visé and its neighbouring Dutch municipalities of Maastricht and Eijsden-Margraten, Belgium has two pene-exclaves, Presqu'ile de L'Ilal and Presqu'ile d'Eijsden. A Dutch pene-exclave, Presqu'ile Petit-Gravier, lies on the Belgian side. The states signed a treaty in 2016 to swap these plots of land, which are the result of river straightening prior to 1980. The Zeelandic Flanders (733 km2/283 sq mi) is a part of the Netherlands, but has land access only from Belgium, and through the Western Scheldt undersea tunnel built 2003. Belize: Ambergris Caye is an island in Belize located south of the Mexican state of Quintana Roo. It is separated from the rest of the country and can only be reached on land by a bridge from Mexico. Bolivia: Copacabana and the surrounding promontory are separated from the rest of Bolivia by Lake Titicaca, only joining by land to Peruvian territory. Access to Bolivia is only available via ferry. Cambodia: Prasat Preah Vihear can only be reached by traveling through Thailand. Canada: St. Regis, Quebec: Part of the Akwesasne Mohawk Nation on the south shore of the Saint Lawrence River, it has a land border with St. Regis Mohawk Reservation in New York State; road access to the rest of Canada is only available through New York State. Campobello Island, New Brunswick can be reached by road only by driving through the United States, across the border bridge to Maine. Connection with the rest of Canada is by ferry. The entrance to Aroostook Valley Country Club near Fort Fairfield, Maine, is in the U.S., but most of the club's golf course and its clubhouse are in Canada. Members and their guests, as long as they remain on the club's property, are not required to clear Canadian customs. Although a shorter route to Canada exists, members coming from Canada must do a detour to report to U.S. border inspection before proceeding to the golf club. The Haskell Free Library and Opera House straddles the border. The Canadian part of the building is a practical exclave of Canada, as most of the building is physically in Stanstead, Quebec, but the only public access to the building is via the front door on Caswell Avenue in Derby Line, Vermont, in the United States. (Emergency exits from the second floor open to Canada.) People in Canada may not enter or exit the building except by travelling into the U.S. A special exception allows library and opera house patrons to cross the border to enter and move about in the building, but they must return to their home country (or see the Customs office) to avoid being charged with illegally entering the other country. The Salmon Glacier and Granduc Mine in Premier, British Columbia can only be reached by road through Hyder, Alaska. Chile: Magallanes Region of Chile, the southernmost portion of the Chilean mainland, is a practical exclave. The southernmost location that can be reached by road from the core of Chile is Villa O'Higgins in Aysén Region. Before the construction of the Carretera Austral, and its side-routes, the practical exclave included the Aysén Region and other locations such as Futaleufú. Croatia: Croatia/Bosnia and Herzegovina: A few houses and the castle Zrinski, belonging to the municipality of Hrvatska Kostajnica, lie on the right bank of the Una river, and are connected to the municipality by a bridge. The border crosses the FK Partizan Kostajnica football club's pitch, leaving approximately 1/3 of the pitch on the Croatian territory. Croatia/Serbia: The Croatian village of Kenđija is a pene-exclave on the left bank of the Danube, and can be reached by road only through Serbia (See Croatia–Serbia border dispute). Croatia/Hungary: The Croatian village of Križnica lies on the left bank of the river Drava, and is connected to the rest of the country by a pedestrian bridge. Croatia/Slovenia: A small portion of the Croatian village of Mali Tabor lies on the right bank of the river Sutla and can be reached only through Slovenian territory. Denmark/Germany: Several farms on the border, e.g. Vilmkærgård (similar situation as Canada's Haskell Free Library, immediately above). Between 1920 and 1927, the popular German tourist island Sylt was accessible only by boat from Højer, ceded to Denmark in 1920. A direct German route was built in 1927. Estonia: Lutepää is a small village on the Värska-to-Saatse gravel road in southeast and it can only be reached by travelling through Russia (the one and only road through Lutepää cuts, on either side of the village, through Russia's Saatse Boot area). Finland/Sweden: The city centre of the Finnish city of Tornio is a pene-enclave unreachable directly by land from Finnish territory, although connected to the rest of Finland by a pair of bridges. The neighbouring Swedish municipality of Haparanda has two similar pene-enclaves unreachable directly from Swedish territory. One is an islet crossed by the international border at a golf course on the line between Tornio and Haparanda. France: The territorial water of Canada completely surrounds that of the French territorial collectivity of St Pierre and Miquelon except for an EEZ corridor 10.5 NM (19.4 km) wide stretching 200 NM (370 km) to the south. This corridor is wholly enclosed within the EEZ of Canada due to the EEZ of Sable Island to the southeast of Nova Scotia. France: The French village of Montfroc (Drôme) is a pene-exclave surrounded by Alpes-de-Haute-Provence and the salient of Drôme. Germany/Switzerland: The smaller part of the German city of Konstanz, which includes the Altstadt (old town), lies to the south of the Rhine and has no land border with Germany, being otherwise surrounded by Switzerland; it is linked to the rest of Konstanz, and by extension to the rest of Germany, by a bridge. The Swiss town of Stein am Rhein has only a bridge over the Rhine connecting it to the rest of Switzerland, which it does not border on land, and is otherwise surrounded by Germany. Guatemala/Mexico: The changing course of the Río Suchiate has created pene-exclaves on both banks of the river. Guyana/Venezuela: The coastal border runs in a straight, northwest–southeast line next to the beach, producing a pene-exclave of Guyana on Isla Corocoro 12 miles long and 300 feet wide at its narrowest. Hong Kong: Shenzhen Bay Control Point (aka Hong Kong Port Area) (0.50 km2, ), Hong Kong's immigration/customs control point that is surrounded by China (Guangdong province – Nanshan district), is located at the northern terminus of the Hong Kong–Shenzhen Western Corridor. It is contiguous with the rest of Hong Kong only by the road surface of the motorway (the sea, including the clearance between the sea and the bridge, and the airspace remain under Chinese jurisdiction). The Hong Kong Government must pay rent to the Shenzhen municipal government for the use of the port area, amounting to 6 million per year until 2018, when a deal was reached to slash it to 1,000 starting from 2019. The rental agreement lasts until 30 June 2047. Ireland/United Kingdom: The westernmost region of County Monaghan in Ireland contains a pene-enclave jutting into County Fermanagh, United Kingdom, known as the Drummully Polyp or Salient (also locally as Coleman Island after the name of its northernmost townland, Coleman). There are two inaccessible districts: Drumard in the 'polyp' itself, belongs to Ireland and is inaccessible directly by road from any other part of Ireland; the village of Summerhill, County Fermanagh in the United Kingdom is similarly inaccessible from the rest of the United Kingdom. The A3 (UK) and N54 (Ireland) road, known as the Concession Road, crosses the border here 4 times in a short distance. Italy: The Livigno valley near the Swiss border was at one time accessible only from Switzerland and was exempt from Italian customs, an exemption that continues today even though road access to the rest of Italy has been established. It is therefore excluded from EU VAT area. The village of Bagni di Craveggia can only be reached by travelling through the Canton of Ticino in Switzerland. The village never became part of Switzerland, as the pastures surrounding it were owned by the people of Vigezzo Valley, rather than the people of the Swiss Onsernone Valley, at the end of which the village is situated. Consequently, the Swiss franc is commonly used. On the San Marino/Italy border, there is Italian land east of the River San Marino that does not join to any other part of 'dry' Italian territory. This area is only a few metres wide, and follows the river's course for around 500 metres, and is close to the Strada del Lavoro. Lithuania: Curonian Spit's northern part in the Klaipėda District is bounded by Russia and the Baltic Sea, but has the common territorial waters of Lithuania. Mexico/United States of America: Shifts in the meandering course of the lower Rio Bravo del Norte (Rio Grande) have created numerous pene-exclaves. Under the Boundary Treaty of 1970 and earlier treaties, the two nations have maintained the actual course of the river as the international boundary, but both must approve proposed changes. From 1989 to 2009, there were 128 locations where the river changed course, causing land that had been on one side of the river to then occupy the opposite bank. Until the boundary is officially changed, there are 60 small pene-exclaves of the state of Texas now lying on the southern side of the river, as well as 68 such pene-exclaves of Mexico on the northern side of the river. The last such exchange (of pre-1989 river cuts) occurred in 2009, after languishing as a proposal for 20 years. Malaysia: In the state of Sarawak on the island of Borneo, the Limbang Division is completely cut off from the rest of the state's road network. The Limbang District in the division is only accessible by road through Brunei, as it is located between Brunei's main portion and the Temburong District. The Lawas District, on the other hand, lies between Temburong and the state of Sabah. As Sabah and Sarawak have autonomy in immigration affairs, immigration checks are required when travelling into or out of the Limbang Division by road. Namibia: Mpalila Island can only be reached from the rest of the country by travelling through Botswana. Netherlands: Part of the province of Zeeland, namely Zeelandic Flanders is accessible by land only through the country of Belgium, although it is accessible by sea from the rest of the province of Zeeland. There is a tunnel, the Westerscheldetunnel, which also links Zeelandic Flanders to the rest of the province. Norway/Sweden: Properties 79/3 and 79/4 () at Trosterud in the Norwegian municipality of Rømskog are only accessible by a road that follows the Norwegian–Swedish boundary. Some nearby houses in Sweden are only accessible from that road that is connected to a larger road only in Norway. Portugal: An area north of Tourém is cut off from the rest of Portuguese territory by the lake Encoro de Salas, being surrounded by Spanish territory. It is accessible by a road bridge, but otherwise does not border the rest of Portugal. Russia: Dubki area is bounded by Estonia and Lake Peipsi-Pihkva. The settlement of Maloje Kulisko is separated from the rest of the country by the Kuuleski River; the village is otherwise surrounded by Estonian territory, although as it is a bog island, it is not accessible from Estonia either. Vistula Spit's eastern part in the Kaliningrad Area is bounded by Poland and the Baltic Sea, but has the common territorial waters of Russia. Senegal: An area of marshy land, approximately south of Tiong, Mauritania is owned by Senegal, but is inaccessible from any other part of Senegal. Coastal waters, however, are contiguous. Serbia/Bosnia and Herzegovina: In the vicinity of Međurečje a salient belonging to Serbia is connected by a 30-metre-wide, 660-metre-long land corridor. It has road access only by passing through Bosnia and Herzegovina (43°36'10.3"N 19°15'49.5"E). Slovenia: A farmhouse and a few other buildings in the village of Rigonce on the left bank of the river Sotla/Sutla can only be reached through Croatia. Spain: Os de Civís is inaccessible via any other part of Spanish territory, as one has to travel via Andorra. Sweden: The settlements Naimakka, Keinovuopio and some few more farms located on the Swedish side of the Könkämäeno river have road access only on the Finnish side. Togo: A territory in the northwestern end of Togo is only accessible through Burkina Faso. Turkey: The European section of Turkey is bounded by Greece and Bulgaria. Despite that the European section and the Asian sections of Turkey are not geographically conterminous and are separated by Turkish Straits, there are three connecting bridges, one highway and one railway tunnel in Istanbul. Another bridge is under construction in Çanakkale. The valley of Macahel, which includes five villages in northeastern Turkey, can only be reached by vehicle via Batumi in Georgia. In winter, as the snow shuts the paths that are completely within the borders of Turkey, the road via Batumi is the only way to travel there. Turkey has a pene-exclave west of the Maritsa River opposite Edirne (Adrianople), with a land boundary of 10.8 km with Greece. Uganda: The extreme tip of Tanzania's Kanyiragwa peninsula is a very small pene-exclave of Uganda on the shore of Lake Victoria, created by the parallel of latitude that defines most of the border between Uganda and Tanzania. United Kingdom: Northern Ireland is bounded by Ireland, the Irish Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. United States of America/Canada: Although Alaska is itself a pene-exclave (road access is primarily via the Alaska Highway), much of the Alaska Panhandle consists of mountainous peninsulas; many communities along the coast lack road connection to other parts of Alaska directly, such as the state capital, Juneau. Three communities are connected by road to Canada with no road to any other point in Alaska: Haines via the Haines Highway; Skagway via the Klondike Highway; and Hyder to Stewart, British Columbia. The distance between Haines and Skagway is about by the Alaska Marine Highway car ferry but by road through Canada. Hyder is the only point in the U.S. that can be entered legally without reporting for border inspection; while Canada maintains a border post on the road to Stewart, the U.S. border post was closed in the 1970s. Hyder is connected to the rest of Alaska only by a seaplane service to Ketchikan, with customs inspection done on arrival in Ketchikan. Point Roberts, Washington, is bounded by British Columbia, Canada, the Strait of Georgia, and Boundary Bay. It can be reached from the rest of Washington State only via road through two border crossings. A slice of land on the edge of Lake Metigoshe lies in North Dakota's Roland Township bordering Winchester, Canada. A peninsula juts into North Dakota within the Osthus lake in Rolette County, North Dakota, 500 meters south of Gunnville Lake and 700 meters east of Wakopa Creek, in the Wakopa Wildlife Management Area. The Northwest Angle – the northernmost part of Lake of the Woods County, Minnesota, and the northernmost part of the contiguous 48 states – is bounded by Manitoba, Canada and Lake of the Woods. Access to the rest of Minnesota is only via boat or by a pair of vehicular border crossings. Elm Point, Minnesota and two small pieces of uninhabited land just to its west (Buffalo Bay Point) are also bounded by Manitoba and Lake of the Woods. The Alburgh Tongue in Lake Champlain, location of the town of Alburgh, Vermont, is bounded by Quebec, Canada to the north. The community can be reached via road bridges from Vermont or New York. Province Point, the small end of a peninsula east of Alburgh, Vermont, is bounded by Quebec and Lake Champlain. Estcourt Station, Maine, does not have public road access to the rest of Maine. Instead, Estcourt Station's houses, store and gas station access Rue Frontiere, a street on the Canadian side of the border in Pohenegamook, Quebec. Divided islands Argentina/Chile: Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego is a shared island; the eastern section is part of Argentina's Tierra del Fuego province and the western is part of Chile. The island is surrounded by the Beagle Channel, the Strait of Magellan, and the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Isla Dos Hitos in Lago General Carrera/Lago Buenos Aires is shared. The border divides an island formed by branches of the Río Mayer. Bahrain/Saudi Arabia: Middle East Causeway Embankment No. 4 is an island situated on the King Fahd Causeway in the Persian Gulf. On this small hourglass-shaped island is the border between the two nations, each connected to the island by a bridge. The border station was designed as two connected islands, with the west side designated as Saudi Arabian and the east as Bahraini. Belarus and Latvia's international border divides an island in Lake Rychy; hence, each has a pene-exclave there. Belarus/Lithuania: Sosnovec Island and another nameless island in Lake Drūkšiai are each divided by the two nations; hence, they are pene-exclaves. Bolivia and Chile share an island formed by the Río Putani and its branch, Quebrado Coipacoipani. Brunei/Indonesia/Malaysia: Borneo's subdivisions include a part of Malaysia (the states of Sabah and Sarawak), the nation of Brunei, and a part of Indonesia that are conterminous. Canada and Denmark share Hans Island in Nunavut and Greenland respectively. Djibouti and Ethiopia each have a pene-exclave on an island off Cape Aleilou in Lake Abbe. Only the eastern tip of the island belongs to Djibouti. Finland and Norway each have pene-exclaves on two divided lake islands and one divided river islet on their international border. Finland/Sweden: The Finnish municipality of Tornio and the neighbouring Swedish municipality of Haparanda share an islet crossed by the international border at a golf course on the line between the two. Märket is a small 3.3-hectare (8.2-acre) uninhabited island in the Baltic Sea, which has been divided between the two nations since the Treaty of Fredrikshamn of 1809. The unusual border consists of eight line segments and takes the form of an inverted 'S', with the island's lighthouse connected to the rest of Finland only by a short stretch of land. Kataja Island (Inakari in Finnish) is divided into two pene-exclaves, one of each nation. It was formed by the merger of two smaller islands due to post-glacial rebound. Finland/Russia: Koiluoto Island, located in the Gulf of Finland in the Baltic Sea, is divided by the two nations; hence, it consists of a pene-exclave of each. The two also divide Vanhasaari/), Jähi, and an island southeast of Peräluoto. The two nations also each have pene-exclaves on ten divided islands in lakes on their international border. Indonesia/Malaysia: Sebatik Island, a satellite island of Borneo, is divided between the two nations. Indonesia/Papua New Guinea: On the island of New Guinea, West Papua is surrounded by Papua New Guinea, the Arafura Sea and the Pacific Ocean. Indonesia/Timor-Leste: Timor island is divided between the two nations. Ireland/United Kingdom: The islet of Pollatawny in Lough Vearty lies on the international border; hence, each nation has a pene-exclave there. Lithuania/Russia: An island in the Šešupė River is divided between Lithuania and the Kaliningrad Oblast of Russia. North Korea/South Korea: A small lake island is divided between North Korea and Songsan-ri, Paju-si, Gyeonggi-do, South Korea at . A river island at is split between them. Norway and Russia each have pene-exclaves on two divided islands and one divided islet in two lakes on their international border. Norway/Sweden: On their international border, Norway and Sweden divide 16 lake islands and one river islet into pene-exclaves of each nation. Poland and Germany divide Usedom Island, in the northern part of the Szczecin Lagoon. St. Martin/Sint Maarten in the Caribbean Sea are pene-exclaves of France and the Kingdom of the Netherlands, respectively. Turkey: The tripoint junction () of the borders of Turkey, Greece and Bulgaria is on an island in the Maritsa River known as Kavak Ada or Évros Alpha. Thus it contains three pene-exclaves. Turkey and Greece divide an island in the Maritsa River known as island Q located at , thus each nation has a pene-exclave there. United States of America/Canada: The two nations share extremely long borders defined by two meridians of longitude and the 49th parallel of north latitude, crossing many lakes and rivers and, in at least 46 locations, dividing many islands. Each divided island contains a pene-exclave of each nation: Canada and the U.S. divide an island in the Columbia River at near the Waneta border crossing of Washington and British Columbia. Salt Lake in northeastern Montana, known as Alkali Lake in Saskatchewan, contains an island that is crossed by the international border at its southern tip (). When the lake is not dry, the island forms pene-exclaves of each nation. The two nations also divide two islands on their international border in Boundary Lake, North Dakota and Manitoba. The larger eastern island lies at ; the tiny western island is at . Each nation has a pene-exclave on the 77-acre Province Island at in Lake Memphremagog, Vermont and Quebec. The small southern tip is on the U.S. side; the remaining 90% of the island is Canadian. The two nations divide Pine and Curry Island in Lake of the Woods on the Minnesota/Ontario border at In addition to the above, the two nations share a border on approximately 17 other lake islands (5 are in Alaska/Yukon) and approximately 50 other river islands (37 in Alaska/Yukon, including at least 18 among greatly bifurcated flows). The 13 river islands outside of Alaska and Yukon border the states of Washington, Montana, North Dakota and Maine (1, 7, 1 and 4, respectively) and the Canadian provinces of British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Quebec and New Brunswick (1, 5, 2, 1, 1 and 3, respectively). The 17 lake islands at lower latitudes are shared by the states of Washington, Montana, North Dakota, Minnesota, Michigan, Vermont and Maine (2, 2, 9, 1, 1, 1 and 1, respectively), and the Canadian provinces of British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Ontario, Quebec and New Brunswick (2, 1, 2, 8, 2, 1 and 1, respectively). Subnational pene-enclaves/exclaves (inaccessible districts) In Australia: The sparsely-inhabited Jervis Bay Territory occupies a coastal peninsula. It is not part of the Australian Capital Territory (ACT), but the laws of the ACT do apply to it. The Jervis Bay Territory is administered by the government of the ACT and thus it is a pene-exclave, accessible only by travel through New South Wales. The border between Victoria and New South Wales runs along the top of the south bank of the Murray River as far east as the source, thus the entire bank between the source and South Australian border technically constitutes a pene-enclave of New South Wales, accessible by crossing the river by road only through Victoria. In Brazil: The village of Paranapiacaba, a district of Santo André municipality, is only accessible by road through the Rio Grande da Serra municipality. In Canada: The village of Atlin, British Columbia, is only accessible by road through the Yukon Territory. The village of Tungsten, Northwest Territories is only accessible by road through the Yukon. Similarly, to reach the towns of Fort McPherson, Tsiigehtchic and Inuvik in the Inuvik Region by road from elsewhere in the Northwest Territories, it is necessary to drive into Yukon and take the Dempster Highway. Cold Lake, a large C-shaped lake, straddles the border between Alberta and Saskatchewan in such a way that a peninsula in Albertan territory can only be reached overland by passing through Saskatchewan's Meadow Lake Provincial Park. All islands in Hudson Bay, including those within James Bay, and islands in Ungava Bay and Hudson Strait, are part of the territory of Nunavut; many of those along the Ontario or Québec coasts are accessible from those provinces over frozen ice at times rather than the rest of the territory. North Shore communities in eastern Québec are accessible by road only through Labrador, separated by a gap in Route 138. In China: Most of Chongming Island at the mouth of the Yangtze is administered as Chongming County of Shanghai municipality. However, a long swath of the northern side of the island was added to the island in the 1970s from the formerly separate island of Yonglongsha. It is divided between Haiyong and Qilong townships, which are administered as pene-exclaves of Nantong's county-level cities of Haimen and Qidong, respectively. Formerly connected only by ferry, they joined the mainland's road network with the completion of the Chongqi Bridge, although all routes now pass through Shanghai's territory In Colombia, the municipality of Tumaco (Nariño) has a pene-exclave (San Juan de la Costa) between the Pacific Ocean and the municipalities of Francisco Pizarro and Mosquera. In Croatia: Slatine on the island of Čiovo is a pene-enclave of the city of Split, as it can be reached by road only via three other municipalities (Solin, Kaštela and Trogir). The north-western part of the municipality of Tisno is separated from the rest of the municipality by the municipality of Pirovac. The villages of Vlašići and Smokvica belong to the town of Pag, but are separated from it by the municipality of Povljana. In Estonia: Haapsalu urban municipality is a coastal pene-enclave of Lääne-Nigula Parish; Loksa is a coastal pene-enclave of Kuusalu Parish; Aegna island subdistrict of Tallinn lies on the coast of Viimsi Parish, while Naissaar island of Viimsi Parish lies closer to Tallinn and Harku Parish. Kõinastu islet village of Saaremaa Parish is accessible both by sea from Saaremaa island and on land and shallow water from the insular Muhu Parish; In Finland, the South Karelian municipality of Taipalsaari is spread across several islands and peninsulas in Lake Saimaa; many are only accessible by road from its neighbouring municipalities. For example, the village of Merenlahti is located on a small peninsula, and the only way to get there by road is through Lappeenranta. In Germany, the North Sea islands of Neuwerk, Scharhörn and Nigehörn off the Lower Saxon coast are pene-exclaves of the federal state of Hamburg. During low tide, one can reach the tidal island of Neuwerk on foot or by horse carriages. In Hong Kong: 9 and 11 Anderson Road and Anderson Road Service Reservoir within Sai Kung District of the New Territories are only accessible from On Sau Road which lies within Wong Tai Sin District of New Kowloon, after this part of Anderson Road was demolished in 2014. Northernmost part of Chek Lap Kok island, part of the third runway of the Chek Lap Kok Airport, which has a land border with Islands District while itself being part of Tuen Mun District, has no direct access overland or by road with the rest of its district. Southern part of Hong Kong Disneyland Resort in Penny's Bay, part of Islands District, is only accessible over land through Tsuen Wan District. The southeastern end of the Kai Tak Development Area, itself within Kowloon City District, is only accessible by road from Kwun Tong District via Cheung Yip Street, Shing Cheong Road, Kai Tak Bridge and Shing Fung Road. Ma Wan is part of Tsuen Wan District, but only has land access with the rest of the district through Tsing Yi, which is part of Kwai Tsing District. The northern part of Sai Kung Peninsula, known collectively as Sai Kung North, is a part of Tai Po District, not Sai Kung District. There is no direct road link between the two areas. Southern tip of the west breakwater of the naval base on the southern part of Stonecutters Island, which crosses the southern edge of Sham Shui Po District into Kwai Tsing District, is only accessible from the rest of Kwai Tsing District by traveling through Sham Shui Po District. Tsing Chau Tsai Peninsula, which is located in the northeastern part of Lantau Island, is not a part of Islands District, but rather Tsuen Wan District. In Iceland: Hafnarfjörður municipality is divided into two sections, on opposite sides of a peninsula. Skagabyggð municipality has two noncontiguous pieces with sea access. The municipality of Grímsnes- og Grafningshreppur has three sections. Two sections are connected at a quadripoint, and the third is effectively separate, although administrative boundaries are undetermined. If this section is in fact connected, then the municipality of Bláskógabyggð would be divided in two (although still connected at the aforementioned quadripoint). In India: The Union Territory of Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu includes two coastal exclaves in the state of Gujarat: Diu Island and Daman district In Tamil Nadu State, the Kalakkad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve contains 27 exclaves of the two districts of Kanyakumari and Tirunelveli. In Indonesia: The province of Yogyakarta is a coastal enclave of Central Java province with access to Indian Ocean in the south. In East Java, the districts of Kasembon, Ngantang, and Pujon in Malang Regency, which lies west of Batu City, is only accessible by road to the rest of Malang Regency through Batu City. In Central Sulawesi, eleven of the sixteen districts of Donggala Regency are collectively separated from the rest of the regency by the city of Palu, Sigi Regency and Palu Bay. In South Sulawesi, six districts of Luwu Regency, namely Walenrang, East Walenrang, West Walenrang, North Walenrang, Lamasi, and East Lamasi, are separated from the rest of the regency by the city of Palopo. In West Nusa Tenggara, two districts of Bima Regency, namely Tambora, and Sanggar, are separated from the rest of the regency by the Dompu Regency. In Ireland: The townland of Aughinish in the parish of Oughtmama is a coastal pene-exclave of County Clare, from where it can be accessed by land only by travelling through County Galway. Sheanbeg is a townland east of Lismore, County Waterford that can only be accessed by road by passing through County Cork. Similarly, the adjacent townland of Marshtown in County Cork can only be accessed by passing through County Waterford. In Isle of Man, the parish of Rushen is split into two sections by Port Erin and Port St. Mary. In Italy: The southern part of the Province of Venice, Veneto, can be reached by land only by travelling through the Province of Padua. The municipality of Oliveto Lario on the shore of Lake Como belongs to the Province of Lecco, Lombardy, but can be reached by land only through the Province of Como. The village of Santa Margherita on the shore of Lake Lugano belongs to the municipality of Valsolda (Province of Como), but can be reached by land only by travelling through the municipalities of Claino con Osteno and Porlezza. In Malaysia: Cape Rachado is an exclave of state of Malacca, which lies on the coast of Negeri Sembilan. Cameron Highlands lies in the state of Pahang, but for many years the only road access was from Tapah in the state of Perak. A second route to Simpang Pulai in Perak and Gua Musang in Kelantan was opened in 2004. It was not until 2010 when the Malaysia Federal Route 102 was completed, connecting the highlands to the rest of Pahang. In Mexico, Calica and Xel-Há are two polygons of land belonging to the municipality of Cozumel in the state of Quintana Roo which are bounded by the municipalities of Solidaridad and Tulum, respectively. Both polygons possess a coastline. In Moldova, Tiraspol, the capital city of the breakaway territory of Transnistria, lies on the left bank of the Dniester River but has two pene-exclaves on the right bank inside an oxbow bend, which must be accessed on land through the Căuşeni district. In Montenegro, the southern portion of the municipality of Herceg Novi can be accessed by land only through the municipalities of Kotor and Tivat. In the Netherlands, the province of Overijssel has two pene-exclaves on the Gelderland bank of the IJssel river opposite the towns of Olst and Wijhe, in which the villages of Marle (northerly), Welsum and Welsumerveld (southerly) are situated. There are cable ferries between Olst and Welsum and between Wijhe and Vorchten in the municipality of Heerde (there is no direct connection between Marle and the rest of Overijssel). In Norway, the municipalities Asker and Bærum are separated from the rest of the county of Akershus by land that belongs to the counties of Oslo, Oppland and Buskerud, and Oslofjorden. However, these municipalities border on the bay of Oslofjord. In the Philippines: In Soccsksargen, Sarangani province is divided by General Santos and Sarangani Bay. In Zamboanga Peninsula: Isabela City is part of this region (although it is the capital of the Bangsamoro province of Basilan), but it is separated from it by Basilan Strait. Zamboanga del Sur – Zamboanga City, a chartered city, is unofficially part of this province but is separated from it by Zamboanga Sibugay. In Romblon Province, the exclave of the municipality of Looc is separated by the Looc Bay forming a peninsula with neighboring municipality of Santa Fe. In Portugal, Vila Real de Santo António is divided into 3 freguesias, with one a few kilometres west of the other two. The "main," eastern part of its territory (where the municipal seat stands and where most of its inhabitants live) is more than three times smaller than the "secondary" part. To go from the eastern part to the western, one must pass through territory belonging to the municipality of Castro Marim, or go by sea, as all 3 freguesias face the Atlantic Ocean to the South. In the Republic of China (Taiwan), Keelung City (part of Taiwan Province) faces East China Sea on one side and borders New Taipei City (a special municipality not a part of Taiwan Province) on all other sides. In Romania, the village of Nămoloasa (Galați County) can be accessed only through Vrancea County (where there is a bridge over the Siret) because it is separated by the Siret from the rest of Galați county. In Russia: Adjacent to the northwestern boundary of Moscow, there is a small exclave of the Krasnogorsk administrative district located at the 65-km mark outside of the 137-km Moscow Ring Road (Moskovskaya Koltsevaya Avtomobilnaya Doroga or MKAD), within which the administrative center and regional court are located. This area lacks access to the nearby Moscow River. In Samoa, A'ana, Palauli, Satupa'itea, and Va'a-o-Fonoti districts each have one exclave, and Gaga'emauga district has two. All parts of each district have sea access. In South Korea: Incheon Metropolitan City: Ganghwa Island is administered by Incheon, but is connected by bridges to Gyeonggi Province. Yeongjong Island, where Incheon International Airport is located, is administered by Jung-gu, but is connected by bridges to Seo-gu and Yeonsu-gu. (A "gu" is a geo-political subdivision of S. Korea's metropolitan cities). In Switzerland: Lucerne has two pieces separated from the main territory by Lake Lucerne; one borders Schwyz, the other Nidwalden. Bern has a municipitality named La Scheulte that has only a 12-metre border with the rest of the Canton of Bern, which can be reached only through the Canton of Jura or through the Canton of Solothurn. 47°20'01.9"N 7°33'08.2"E Nidwalden's district of Hergiswil is separated by an arm of Lake Lucerne. One of the pieces of Fribourg is a large exclave bounded by Vaud and Lake Neuchâtel. Vaud has one exclave, Avenches, bordered by Lake Neuchâtel, Fribourg and the tiny Bernese exclave of Clavaleyres. The coast of Lake Neuchâtel is thus in seven pieces belonging to four cantons: clockwise from the north they are Neuchâtel, Bern (main), Vaud (Avenches exclave), Fribourg (main), Vaud (main), Fribourg (exclave), Vaud (main). Within Vaud, Geneva has a pene-exclave on the shoreline on Lake Geneva. It is one of the two separate parts of the commune of Céligny. In Ukraine, Kinburn peninsula is administratively a part of Mykolaiv Oblast but can be reached by land only from Kherson Oblast, as it is surrounded by sea from the main part of Mykolaiv Oblast. In the United Arab Emirates: The emirate of Sharjah has three pene-exclaves on the Gulf of Oman: Dibba Al-Hisn, Khor Fakkan and Kalbā. Kalbā has two separate parts (east and west) connected by a middle zone that is administered jointly with Fujairah. Al 'Ayn al Ghumūr, Samāḩ and Waḩlah are located in this middle zone. Western Kalbā contains Zārūb, Maskūnah, Falaj, Ḩarrah, Mazārī', Fayyāᶁ, Wādī La'ili, Wādī Muᶁayq, Minazif and Dhabābiḩah. The emirate of Fujairah comprises two noncontiguous sections on the Gulf of Oman. The southerly of these two sections itself has two separate parts (north and south) connected by the aforementioned middle zone that is administered jointly with Sharjah. Wādī Umm al Ghāt, Wādī al Qūr and Wādī 'Abd al 'Aram are in the southernmost part. In the United Kingdom: England: The village of Pentreheyling in Shropshire, near the Welsh border and south-east of Montgomery, is disconnected from the rest of England by road. (see map). On the English side of the English/Scottish border, the hamlet of High Cocklaw is not accessible directly from any other part of England except via footpath. Newmarket is part of the County of Suffolk, but has only a small strip of land connecting it to the rest of the county and is otherwise entirely surrounded by Cambridgeshire. Scotland: There are two parts inaccessible from anywhere else other than by travelling through England: these are Edrington Castle and the village of Cawderstanes, which is accessible to the rest of Scotland by footbridge only. There is also a small area of land adjacent to a weir on the River Tweed, north of the B6350 road, due south of Coldstream and due south west of Cornhill on Tweed, from where one can reach the rest of Scotland directly only by crossing the weir. Wales: In Flintshire, on the Dee estuary, there are several bits of marshland that are separated from other bits of Wales. There is also a small area of land south of Wyastone Leys that is inaccessible from any other area of Wales directly by road, being separated by land and the River Wye. Several small uninhabited areas near the hamlet of Part-Y-Seal or Pant-Y-Seal near Grosmont, Monmouthshire are inaccessible from Wales directly; these include one farm, two river banks and a small island in the River Monnow. These appear to be due to shifts in the course of the river. In the United States of America: Shifts in the meandering course of the lower Mississippi River have created numerous pene-exclaves. Arkansas has territory at across the Mississippi River on the northwest edge of Tennessee's Fort Pillow State Park, north of the Corona/Reverie, Tennessee irregularity (see below). Illinois' Kaskaskia, Missouri's Grand Tower Island and other Illinois and Missouri territory on each other's side of the Mississippi River. The state of Mississippi controls at least 11 exclaves on the west bank of the Mississippi River in Louisiana, while Louisiana owns 8 exclaves on Mississippi's side. Mississippi state also owns 14 exclaves on the bank in Arkansas, while Arkansas has 15 of its own on Mississippi's side. In California: Coast Guard Island in the Oakland estuary is part of the city of Alameda but it is accessible only via a bridge from Oakland. The seaport of San Pedro is part of the City of Los Angeles but is connected to the rest of the city only by a narrow strip of land known as the Harbor Gateway, four city blocks wide and several miles long. The City of San Diego has a significantly large exclave. It includes the communities of San Ysidro, Otay Mesa, Palm, and other neighborhoods considered as parts of San Diego. This piece of San Diego is separated from the main portion of San Diego by 7 miles, divided by the cities of National City and Chula Vista. Technically, it is connected to the rest of San Diego by a seven-mile-long, two-inch-wide strip of land on the bottom of San Diego Bay. Hence, it is essentially an exclave, and it is commonly referred to as "South San Diego". The city of Coronado, nearly encircled by San Diego Bay, can be reached by land only via a narrow isthmus connected to Imperial Beach. A bridge also connects it to San Diego. Four other small pene-exclaves occupy the same peninsula. Coastal lands that are north of Wright Ave., at the northern end of First St., part of Coronado Ferry Landing Park, and that surround most of Naval Air Station North Island (island before 1945) are part of the city of San Diego and are accessible on land only through the city of Coronado. A large portion of the famous Coronado beach is in the City of San Diego. Redwood Shores on the San Francisco Peninsula is part of Redwood City, but is only connected with the rest of the city by an area of wetland in San Francisco Bay. It is accessible only via the cities of San Carlos and Belmont. Devils Postpile National Monument in eastern Madera County, California, is inaccessible from the remainder of the county due to wilderness areas of the Sierra Nevada mountain range. It can be reached only via Mono County near Mammoth Lakes. The General Grant Grove is an isolated, noncontiguous section of Kings Canyon National Park. Delaware – At least two parcels of land on the eastern (New Jersey) side of the Delaware River belong to the state of Delaware (the bulk of which is west of the river) and not to New Jersey. This is because within the "Twelve Mile Circle", the entire Delaware River, to the low water mark, is the territory of Delaware and not New Jersey (unlike many other river borders where the border is at some intermediate point in the river itself). As a result, certain areas (including the Killcohook National Wildlife Refuge and a portion of the Salem Nuclear Power Plant) on the New Jersey side of the river that have been expanded by adding fill into areas that were historically below the low water mark are considered part of New Castle County, Delaware, and not Salem County, New Jersey. Both of these areas are accessible by land only by traveling through New Jersey. Kentucky – Ellis Park Race Course, a Thoroughbred horse racing track in Henderson, Kentucky, actually lies to the north of the Ohio River that forms the border between Kentucky and Indiana. The border is based on the river's course when Kentucky achieved statehood in 1792; a change in course to the south left the land that would later house Ellis Park cut off from the rest of Kentucky by the river. A pair of bridges across the Ohio connect the track to the rest of Kentucky. Iowa – The town of Carter Lake, Iowa, occupied a meander on the left bank of the Missouri River, until 1877 when flooding caused the river to jump its banks, shortening the main stream. The meander became an oxbow lake and Carter Lake now found itself on the right bank, attached to Nebraska. A lengthy court case ensued; the Supreme Court of the United States finally held that the sudden change in the river's course did not change the original boundary, and Carter Lake was still part of Iowa. (Nebraska v. Iowa, 143 U.S. 359 (1892)). The Court delayed a final decree to allow Nebraska and Iowa to reach an agreement consistent with its holding, which the states did. (145 U.S. 519 (1892)). All of the roads into Carter Lake run through Omaha, Nebraska. For similar geographic reasons several portions of Nebraska lie east of the Missouri River, mainly due to flooding and changes in the river's path: DeSoto National Wildlife Refuge near Blair, which borders Iowa. A portion of Iowa is also on the Nebraska side in the same area. McKissick Island near Peru, which borders Missouri. A section of land that borders Iowa, Sloan. Onawa Materials Yard Wildlife Area and Middle Decatur Bend State Wildlife Management Area near Onawa, Iowa. Louisiana – The island of Grand Isle is part of Jefferson Parish but can be reached on land only via a bridge from Lafourche Parish. In Massachusetts: Acoaxet is a portion of the town of Westport that borders the Massachusetts–Rhode Island state line on its west, Buzzards Bay on its south, and the west branch of the Westport River on its east; it can only be accessed by road from Little Compton, Rhode Island. There is a narrow salient of Fall River that borders the Massachusetts–Rhode Island state line on its west and the west shores of South Watuppa Pond, Stony Brook and Sawdy Pond on its east; several homes and streets located within this salient can only be accessed by road from Tiverton, Rhode Island. Humarock, legally part of Scituate, was separated from the rest of the town in the Blizzard of 1898, in which the mouth of the North River shifted. The village is only accessible via a bridge that connects it to Marshfield, but has a peninsular connection to the mainland to the south at the old mouth of the North River, now Rexhame Beach. Long Island, situated in Boston Harbor, is part of the City of Boston (Suffolk County) yet remains accessible by road only from Quincy (Norfolk County). The town of Sandwich is partially separated in its northern portion by the Cape Cod Canal and is only accessible by road through the neighboring town of Bourne. A neighborhood in Webster that lies on the south shore of Lake Chaubunagungamaug (or Webster Lake) that is detached from the rest of the town's road network and can only be accessed by roads from neighboring Thompson, Connecticut. Michigan – The "Lost Peninsula" in Monroe County, Michigan, can only be reached via Toledo, Ohio. It is otherwise surrounded by Maumee Bay in Lake Erie. (Map) The Upper Peninsula is attached by land to Wisconsin. It is connected to the rest of Michigan via the Mackinac Bridge on I-75. Missouri – St. Joseph Rosecrans Memorial Airport is separated from St. Joseph and Buchanan County by the Missouri River. The airport, which lies on the west bank of the river, was once on the east bank along with the remainder of the city and county. Shifts in the course of the river put it on the west bank; part of the former course of the river became Browning Lake, an oxbow lake to the south of the airport. The only land access to the airport from Missouri is via Kansas Route 238 through Elwood. New Hampshire: Chatham is only accessible by road through Maine. In Rindge, there is a small peninsula in Lake Monomonac that is only accessible by road from Winchendon, Massachusetts. Similarly, in Wakefield, a peninsula that juts out into Great East Lake can only be accessed by road from Acton, Maine. In New Jersey: In Ocean County, Long Beach Township is split into four parts, each with sea access. Elsewhere in Ocean County, Ortley Beach and some other small sections of Toms River, otherwise inland, are located on Barnegat Peninsula. In Monmouth County, the Sandy Hook peninsula is within Middletown Township, though it is not connected to the rest of the township by land. In New York: The construction in 1895 of the Harlem River Ship Canal isolated Marble Hill, a small portion of the northern tip of Manhattan (New York County). Initially an island, it was later physically connected to the Bronx by the filling of Spuyten Duyvil Creek. It remains politically part of Manhattan, to which it is connected by the Broadway Bridge. Thus, it is part of the Borough of Manhattan and New York County, but not the island of Manhattan. Rockaway Peninsula, part of Queens, is connected to the rest of New York City only by two causeways across Jamaica Bay, or through Nassau County. Riker's Island, the jail complex of the City of New York, is considered to be in the borough of The Bronx, but is only accessible via the Riker's Island Bridge, which terminates in the Borough of Queens. Manhattan's borders often extend to the shorelines of the other boroughs so that, for example, certain piers extending from the Brooklyn waterfront are part of Manhattan but accessible only from Brooklyn. Manhattan (New York County) claims the entire East River bed. A strip of the Bronx is separated from the rest of the borough by Pelham Bay Park as a result of a past error in drawing the border. The only residential street in this pene-exclave, Park Drive, is accessible by car only via the town of Pelham, in Westchester County. A small part of the city of Mount Vernon is cut off from the rest of the city by the Cross County Parkway. The three streets of Alta Drive, Alta Parkway and Labelle Road can only be accessed by car via the town of Eastchester. The geography of the Catskill Mountains in upstate New York creates pene-exclaves in two counties. Halcott, at the southwestern corner of Greene County, and Hardenburgh, at the western corner of Ulster County, have extensive borders with neighboring towns in their respective counties. But those are along mountain ridgelines directly crossed only by hiking trails, or (in Halcott's case) poor-quality unpaved roads, and vehicles traveling to those towns from the rest of the county must take roads through neighboring counties to do so. The town of Hardenbergh is also an exclave of itself. The only road directly connecting its southern half, along the upper Beaver Kill, and the northern half along Dry Brook, now runs through state-owned Forest Preserve lands and is closed to vehicle traffic. To get between those two halves, cars must travel through neighboring Delaware County. In North Carolina: Knotts Island in Currituck County is only accessible by road through Virginia Beach, Virginia via a narrow strip of land from the west. A 45-minute ferry connects the island to the rest of Currituck. On the north shore of Lake Gaston lie several small areas connected only by land to Virginia. Most of these have road and bridge connections to North Carolina, but one small area south of Joyceville, Virginia has road connections only to Virginia. In Pennsylvania, the westernmost section of the city of Allentown is a pene-en(ex)clave connected at a quadripoint with the rest of the city; it is surrounded by South Whitehall Township. Also in Pennsylvania, Pond Eddy, an unincorporated area along the Delaware River in Pike County's Shohola Township, is not connected by road to anywhere else in the town, county, or state. It can only be reached by driving to the Pond Eddy Bridge via roads in New York. In Rhode Island, the city of Warwick has an exclave called Potowomut separated from the main body of the city by Greenwich Bay on the north and the town of East Greenwich on the west. Elsewhere in Rhode Island, Newport County consists of three islands and one mainland portion, connected to Aquidneck, by a bridge. In Tennessee, over a period of about 24 hours on 7 March 1876, the Mississippi River abandoned its former channel that defined the Tennessee-Arkansas border, and established a new channel east of the town of Reverie, Tennessee. This places Reverie on the Arkansas side, while most of the area of Tipton County is located east of the Mississippi River, the Tennessee side. The direct distance between Reverie and the county seat, Covington, Tennessee, is only 18 miles (29 km), but the road trip to Covington requires the driver to cross the Mississippi River at Memphis, and it is longer than 83 miles (134 km). In South Carolina, small parts of Horry County lie on the north shore of the Little River or the nearby Intracoastal Waterway and can only be reached by land connection from neighboring North Carolina. The land is unpopulated and no roads exist in the area. Grand Isle County, Vermont, in that state's northwest corner, consists of the Alburgh Tongue (see above) and several islands in Lake Champlain. It is only connected to the rest of the state via bridges. In Virginia: The Eastern Shore, comprising Accomack County and Northampton County, is located at the southern tip of the Delmarva Peninsula, conterminous only with Maryland on its north. It is connected to the rest of Virginia by the Chesapeake Bay Bridge-Tunnel. Several pieces of land along the shores of Kerr Lake and Lake Gaston can only be accessed by land from North Carolina. Some areas are undeveloped, but others, especially along the south shore of Kerr Lake, have state highways and settlement. Henrico County has a small parcel across the James River from the contiguous part of the county, completely surrounded by Chesterfield County and the James River. In Washington, Camano Island is part of Island County. Although Camano is contiguous with Island County via the Saratoga Passage, its residents can only drive to the rest of the county via road and bridge by traveling north through Snohomish County and Skagit County on State Route 20, or by traveling south through Snohomish County and then to Clinton via the Mukilteo-Clinton ferry on State Route 525. West Virginia – A peninsula in Monongalia County bounded by Cheat Lake and Rubles Run (), except for a walking trail over a dam, is only accessible by land from Fayette County, Pennsylvania, more specifically Springhill Township. Wisconsin – The Mont du Lac resort and the area to its north are accessible only by a section of Minnesota State Highway 23 that runs through a sliver of the town of Superior in Douglas County, in Wisconsin's northwest corner. Several local dead-end roads run off it; there is no way to reach this part of the county or state by vehicle from anywhere else in Wisconsin. Washington, D.C. – Theodore Roosevelt Island in the Potomac River is part of Washington, D.C., but only accessible by a footbridge from Virginia. Although the Theodore Roosevelt Bridge from Washington to Virginia passes over the island, one cannot exit from the bridge onto the island. In Venezuela: eastern part of the state of Zulia is connected with the rest of the state by a bridge over Lake Maracaibo, and the northeastern part of the municipality of Sucre in the state of Zulia is separated from the rest of the state by the state of Mérida. Divided islands In Australia: Boundary Islet, historically known as North East Islet, is a Hogan Group islet of less than that straddles the border of the Australian states of Victoria and Tasmania. The islet is Tasmania's only land boundary, and at long, it is the shortest land border between any Australian state or territory. In Canada: Killiniq Island is shared between Nunavut and the province of Newfoundland and Labrador. Nunavut and the Northwest Territories (NWT) share four islands that are split by the 110° W meridian: Borden Island, Mackenzie King Island, Melville Island and Victoria Island. Excluding lake crossings, Melville Island contains three separate land boundaries between Nunavut and NWT due to coastal undulation, while Victoria Island contains six such land boundaries, of which one is on a small island. In the People's Republic of China: Zhongshan Dao is divided between Guangdong Province and the Special Administrative Region and former Portuguese overseas province of Macau. Part of Hengqin Island in Zhuhai, Guangdong Province is leased to Macau until 2049 to house the new campus of the University of Macau. The university campus is sealed off from the rest of the island by a fence, and access to the area is provided by an underwater tunnel to Macau. In Croatia: Pag is divided between Lika-Senj County and Zadar County. In Indonesia: Belitung is divided between Belitung and East Belitung regencies. Buru is divided between Buru and South Buru regencies in Maluku province. Salawati is divided between Sorong and Raja Ampat regencies in West Papua province. In the United States: The City and County of San Francisco has four pene-enclaves on three islands in San Francisco Bay, which it shares with neighboring counties: On Alameda Island adjoining Alameda County, artificial fill on the border between the two counties to build the Naval Air Station Alameda (now decommissioned) created the pene-enclave. This small piece of open space can be reached on land only by passing through Oakland and Alameda. There are two small (5.37 acres) pieces of land on the eastern end of Angel Island (Quarry Point and the tip of Point Blunt) that belong to San Francisco. The rest (99.3%) of Angel Island lies in the town of Tiburon, which is in Marin County. San Francisco and Contra Costa County share Red Rock Island. A tripoint with Marin County may sometimes be exposed at low tide. Bellows Falls, Vermont and Walpole, New Hampshire share an island in the Connecticut River. Rhode Island and Connecticut share Sandy Point Island in Little Narragansett Bay. New Jersey and New York share Shooter's Island, a bird sanctuary located in the south end of Newark Bay off the north shore of Staten Island. (The small portion in New Jersey is further divided between two counties.) Delaware and Maryland share Fenwick Island. Maryland and Virginia share Smith Island in Chesapeake Bay, as well as Assateague Island on the Atlantic coast. Virginia and North Carolina share Knotts Island, Mon Island and Simon Island, separated from the Atlantic by an intracoastal waterway. North Carolina and South Carolina share Bird Island on the Atlantic coast. Florida and Alabama share Perdido Key in the Gulf of Mexico. Alabama and Mississippi share South Rigolets Island in the Gulf of Mexico, as well as an unnamed coastal island at the mouth of Bayou Heron. Minnesota and Wisconsin share Interstate Island State Wildlife Management Area in Saint Louis Bay between Duluth, Minnesota, and Superior, Wisconsin. Michigan and Ohio share Turtle Island in Lake Erie. At the mouth of the Columbia River, Oregon and Washington share Sand Island Dike and Rice Island. Historic enclaves/exclaves National level Belgium: Belgium had a counter-enclave located near Fringshaus from 6 November 1922 until 23 April 1949, while Germany owned the connecting roads that were part of the Roetgener Wald enclave. These roads met at a traffic island north of Fringshaus, with the 2279 m2 island itself being a part of Belgium. This counter-enclave was extinguished in 1949 when Belgium annexed the German roads that intersected at the traffic island. In 1958, when Belgium returned the east–west road to Germany, this traffic island also became part of the Roetgener Wald enclave. Bhutan: Tarchen, Cherkip Gompa, Dho, Dungmar, Gesur, Gezon, Itse Gompa, Khochar, Nyanri, Ringung, Sanmar and Zuthulphuk were exclaves of Bhutan within Tibet from the 1640s until 1959. China: Forbidden City – The Xinhai Revolution led to the overthrow of the Qing dynasty and the establishment of the Republic of China (ROC) in 1912. In exchange for the abdication of the last Qing emperor Puyi, the Qing court and the ROC government signed an agreement for the favourable treatment of the abdicated emperor. Puyi was allowed to retain his title as emperor and was accorded the courtesies as a foreign monarch by the ROC government, and the imperial court remained at the Forbidden City. The Dragon Flag of the Qing Dynasty remained hoisted inside the Forbidden City, certain government organs such as the Imperial Household Department, Imperial Clan Court and Ministry of Justice continued to exist within the palace walls, and the emperor continued to hold court, appoint officials and grant titles of nobility. Following the Beijing coup in 1924, the warlord Feng Yuxiang unilaterally revised the agreement, abolishing Puyi's title of emperor, his right to live in the Forbidden City and other related arrangements. Unlike Hong Kong Island, the Kowloon Peninsula and the New Territories that were added later constituted a pene-exclave of the United Kingdom from 1860/1898 until 1997. Kowloon south of Boundary Street was ceded in perpetuity, whereas the New Territories was turned over under a 99-year lease. Kowloon Walled City was a counter-enclave belonging to China on the Kowloon Peninsula of Hong Kong from 1898 to 1993. The question of jurisdiction led to a hands-off approach by Chinese and British authorities over the years until the quality of life became intolerable. A mutual decision to demolish the 2.6 hectares of structures was announced in 1987 and completed in 1994. Kwang-Chou-Wan was a pene-exclave of France on the south coast of China from 1898, upon its lease to France by Qing China, until its return by France in 1946; its territory included the islands in the bay and land on both banks of the Maxie River, covering 1300 km2 of land. Kwantung was a pene-exclave of Russia and later Japan in the southern part of the Liaodong Peninsula in Manchuria that existed from 1898 to 1945 and included the ports of Port Arthur (or Ryojun) and Dal'niy (or Dairen), the latter founded in 1899. It was leased to Russia from 1898 until 1905, when Japan replaced Russia as leaseholder. After World War II, the Soviet Union occupied the territory in 1945, jointly administering it with the Chinese before turning it over to the People's Republic of China in 1955. Jinzhou walled central city remained an enclave of Chinese territory within Kwantung under the lease with Russia. This provision was substantially ignored by Japan after it replaced Russia. Jiangxi, officially the Chinese Soviet Republic (CSR), was an unrecognised proto-state within the territory of China's Jiangxi (Kiangsi) province. The state was proclaimed on 7 November 1931 by future Chinese Communist Party leaders and comprised discontiguous territories that included 18 provinces and 4 counties under CSR control within areas controlled by the Nationalist government. Macao was a pene-exclave of Portugal on the coast of the South China Sea from 1557 until 1999. Zhongshan Dao island in the Pearl River Delta was divided between China and Macao as a pair of pene-exclaves dating from ratification of the Treaty of Tientsin in 1862 through the 1999 return of Macao to China. Qingdao, with an area of 552 km2, was a pene-exclave of Germany (also known as the Kiautschou Bay concession), and later Japan, from 1898 to 1922, adjacent to Jiaozhou Bay on the southern coast of the Shandong Peninsula in East China. The village of Qingdao became the German colony of Tsingtau. In 1914, with the outbreak of World War I, the Republic of China canceled the lease with Germany. Japan then occupied the city and province until December 1922, when it reverted to Chinese rule. Shanghai was the location of British (from 1846) and American (from 1848) Concessions (later Shanghai International Settlement from 1863 to 1943) and the Shanghai French Concession from 1849 to 1946. Unlike the British sovereign colonies of Hong Kong Island and Wei-hai-wei, these foreign concessions always remained Chinese sovereign territory. Wei-hai-wei was a pene-exclave of the United Kingdom that bordered the Yellow Sea in eastern Shantung province of China. The city was a British colony, known also as the Weihai Garrison and sometimes as Port Edward, from 1898 to 1 October 1930, when it was returned to China. Its current name is Weihai. Wei-hai-wei walled central city was excluded from the leased territory and remained an enclave of Chinese territory within Wei-hai-wei. Congo, Democratic Republic: The Lado Enclave was a 39,000 km2 exclave of the Congo Free State and later of Belgian Congo that existed from 1894 until 1910, situated on the west bank of the Upper Nile in present-day South Sudan and northwest Uganda. Denmark: Altona was a Danish exclave within Germany from 1640 to 1864. France: The island of Mont-Saint-Michel at the mouth of the Couesnon River prior to 1879 was a pene-exclave of Normandy, but only during low tide, when it was connected by a tidal causeway to the neighbouring coast. The raised causeway that was then built was replaced with a light bridge opened in 2014, thus making Mont-Saint-Michel an island again. Saint Pierre and Miquelon, a French territorial collectivity, was completely surrounded from 1763 until 1992 by the waters of Canada (what would otherwise today be considered Canada's contiguous zone), when an EEZ corridor 10.5 NM (19.4 km) wide was created, stretching 200 NM (370 km) to the south, terminating within and surrounded by Canada's EEZ. Germany East Prussia (1919–1939), a German pene-exclave during the Weimar Republic, was separated from Germany after World War I, when Poland regained access to the Baltic Sea (Polish corridor). The territory of East Prussia (essentially the old Duchy of Prussia) is now divided into Kaliningrad Oblast in Russia, the Warmian-Masurian Voivodship in Poland, and Klaipėda County in Lithuania. , (1922–1949), surrounded by Belgian territory, was the sixth and southernmost of the Vennbahn enclaves created in 1922; it contained five households. The railway suffered severe damage during World War II and was not rebuilt. It ceased being an enclave when Belgium annexed the entirety in 1949. Hemmeres was reintegrated into West Germany on 28 August 1958, by an agreement with Belgium. Jestetten is a German town in the district of Waldshut in Baden-Württemberg that was inaccessible except by travelling through Switzerland, until a connecting road was constructed. was two enclaves from 1949 to 1958. Unlike its present configuration, the German enclave in 1922 was smaller in area because the central portion (between Grenzweg and a boundary with three turning points west of the Schleebach stream) was Belgian territory. Because the road connecting the two outer German portions (Highways 258/399) was German territory until 1949, the German land formed one enclave. The intersecting north–south road from Fringshaus to Konzen (now Highway B258, which has no connection to the Belgian road network) was also part of the oddly shaped enclave. In 1949 Belgium annexed these roads, thus separating the enclave into two enclaves for the next nine years. In 1958 Belgium ceded the center section of territory to West Germany, in addition to returning the adjacent east–west connecting road. This created one larger enclave in its present form. Highway B258 is the only portion of land that, once having been a part of the Roetgener Wald enclave, is now not within the enclave. Selfkant: Between 1963 and 2002, the N274 road between Roermond and Heerlen, which was part of sovereign Dutch territory, passed through the German Selfkant, which had been annexed by the Netherlands in 1949. Selfkant, except for the road, was returned to Germany in 1963. Until the road was also returned to Germany in 2002, the western portion of Selfkant was an exclave of Germany. Verenahof was a German exclave within Switzerland until 1967, at which time its border became attached to Germany through a treaty implementing a land swap of a total of just under 1.06 km2 in equal shares. West Berlin, upon the division of Berlin after World War II and before the reunification of Germany in 1990, was de facto a West German exclave within East Germany. Twelve small West Berlin land areas, such as Steinstücken, were in turn separated from the main body of West Berlin, some by only a few metres. In addition, there were several small areas of East Berlin that were surrounded by West Berlin. All of Berlin was ruled "de jure" by the four Allied powers; this meant that West Berlin could not send voting members to the German Parliament and that its citizens were exempt from conscription. West Berlin exclaves were: (N) (1949–1971) to East Germany Böttcherberg (SE) (1949–1971) to East Germany Böttcherberg (SW) (1949–1971) to East Germany (1949–1988) land connection to West Berlin established Falkenhagener Wiese (1949–1971) to East Germany (1949–1988) land connection to West Berlin established Finkenkrug (1949–1971) inhabited, to East Germany Große Kuhlake (1949–1971) to East Germany Laßzins-Wiesen (1949–1988) to East Germany (1949–1971) to East Germany Steinstücken (1949–1971) inhabited, land connection to West Berlin established (1949–1988) to East Germany East Berlin exclaves: (E) (1949–1990) dis-enclaved at re-unification Eiskeller (N) (1949–1990) dis-enclaved at re-unification Eiskeller (S) (1949–1990) dis-enclaved at re-unification West-Staaken – de jure part of Soviet sector but de facto administered by Spandau Borough in the British sector; seized by East Germany in 1951 and made an exclave of East Berlin's Borough of Mitte, which it remained officially until being incorporated in 1961 by the neighbouring town of Falkensee in non-Berlin East Germany. Greece: Despotate of the Morea on the Peloponnesos peninsula of present-day Greece was a geographically detached province of the Byzantine Empire from 1349 to 1460; during much of that time, in addition to the Mediterranean Sea, it was surrounded by "states under Latin rule." Hungary: Between 1412 and 1772, Spiš Castle in Spišské Podhradie, has been an exclave of the Kingdom of Hungary, surrounded by the Eldership of Spisz. India: Dadra and Nagar Haveli were enclaves inland from the Arabian Sea coast covering an area of 487 km2. After invasion by pro-Indian Union forces in 1954, they achieved de facto independence from Portugal. They and three Portuguese pene-exclaves, the city of Goa and the two small coastal exclaves of Daman and Diu, were the last remnants of Portuguese India, which existed from 1505 until military conquest by India on 19 December 1961. (A 1956 map also shows a counter-enclave within Nagar Haveli belonging to Bombay, approximately corresponding to the village of Maghval – this village was not ceded to Portugal because of its inhabitants' caste's sacrosanctity). French India – Pondicherry and the other exclaves of Karaikal, Mahé and Yanaon were absorbed into India de facto in 1954 and de jure in 1962 after the Algerian War. In 1761 the British captured all of them from the French (and also Chandannagar), but the Treaty of Paris (1763) returned them to France. Those possessions passed again to British control before finally being handed over to the French in 1816/1817 under the 1814 Treaty of Paris. Pondicherry, Karaikal, Mahé and Yanaon came to be administered as the Union Territory of Puducherry in 1963. All four are now sub-national ex(en)claves within India. Pondicherry, was the site of a trading center set up by the French East India Company in 1674, which eventually became the chief French settlement in India, after passing several times between Dutch, British and French control. It comprised 12 non-contiguous parts: three pene-exclaves on the Bay of Bengal and nine nearby true enclaves. Inside the main Pondicherry exclave was a small counter-enclave belonging to India straddling the Chunnambar River. Mahé (or Mayyazhi), a small (9 km2) town, was a pene-exclave on the Malabar Coast of the Arabian Sea from 1721. Mahé was composed of three non-contiguous parts, including Mahé town and two true enclaves: Cherukallayi and one consisting of Palloor, Chalakkara and Pandakkal. Yanaon (or Yanam), a 30 km2 pene-exclave in the delta of Godavari River, nine kilometres from the Coromandel Coast and Bay of Bengal. It was a Dutch colony before France overtook it in 1723 and made it a French colony. Karaikal was a small coastal pene-exclave on the Bay of Bengal acquired by France in 1739 from the regime of Raja Pratap Singh of Tanjore. By 1760 it included 81 villages around Karaikal town. Chandannagar was a small true enclave established as a French colony in 1673, located on the right bank of the Hooghly River 30 kilometres north of Kolkata. Bengal was then a province of the Mughal Empire. The British returned the city to France in 1816, along with a 7.8 km2 nearby enclave. In May 1950, with French approval, India assumed de facto control, with the de jure transfer in June 1952. In 1955 it was integrated into West Bengal state. Trincomalee was in present-day Sri Lanka (then a part of India) located on the Indian Ocean east coast of the island. By September 1782 it was occupied by the French after the Battle of Trincomalee with the British, only to be ceded back to the British in 1783. Indonesia: The city of Bandung was an enclave surrounded by Bandung Regency until 1976, when the adjacent Cimahi became an administrative city. Israel: Mount Scopus (in Jerusalem) was an Israeli exclave in Jordan between 1948 and 1967, before being reunited with West Jerusalem following the Six-Day War. Similarly, Ein Gev, located on the eastern shore of the Sea of Galilee, was a pene-exclave in Syria until Israel took over the Golan Heights territory, again during the Six-Day War. Italy: In Italy in 1789 before the French Revolutionary Wars, the following states possessed or were true enclaves: Lordship of Tarasp was surrounded by the Free States of the Three Leagues. An exclave of the Republic of Geneva (1541–1798) was surrounded by the Duchy of Savoy. Principality of Torriglia (1760–1797) was surrounded by the Republic of Genoa. Republic of Senarica (1343–1797) was surrounded by the Kingdom of Naples. Latvia: The former Rauna Municipality was composed of Drusti parish and Rauna parish, which are non-contiguous. In 2021 Rauna Municipality was merged into Smiltene Municipality. Lithuania: Pogiriai (Pogiry) was a Lithuanian exclave of 1.7 km2 that was ceded to Belarus in 1996. Oman: Gwadar was an Omani pene-exclave on the Arabian Sea coast of present-day Pakistan from 1784 until 1958. Pakistan: East Pakistan (1947–1971), was a pene-exclave of Pakistan (if one considers West Pakistan, site of the capital, Islamabad, as the mainland) that bordered the Bay of Bengal, India and Burma. East Pakistan, with a distance of 1,600 km separating it from West Pakistan, accounted for 70% of the country's exports and was more populous than West Pakistan. Panama: Colón, an exclave of Panama from 1903 to July 27, 1939, was surrounded by the U.S. Panama Canal Zone, until a treaty provision connected it to the main part of Panama via a corridor. Panama City and the tip of Paitilla Point from 1903 to February 11, 1915, were pene-enclaves surrounded by the U.S. Panama Canal Zone and the Pacific Ocean. Maps of the Canal Zone dated before 1923 clearly show these borders. Maps dated 1924 and later show a changed border that re-connected Panama City with eastern Panama. When Madden Road was ceded to the U.S. by treaty on July 27, 1939, a Vennbahn-type Panamanian enclave was created that was bounded by Madden Road, the main Canal Zone boundary, and a contour line above Rio Chagres and Rio Chilibre. Another treaty that took effect on April 11, 1955, de-enclaved it. Panama had a water enclave in Limon Bay from 1979 to December 31, 1999. It also had jurisdiction over one building within the U.S. Summit Naval Station from October 1991 until the transfer of the station to Panama on December 31, 1999. Papal States: Comtat Venaissin was an exclave of Papal territory within France from 1348 to 1791. It contained an enclave of another Papal territory, the city of Avignon, and had a small exclave around the nearby town of Valréas. Poland: In the 1280s, the Duchy of Pomerania lost the town of Świdwin, together with the surrounding area, to the Margraviate of Brandenburg. It became a salient of Neumark which, together with the Bishopric of Cammin, separated the southeastern portion of the state from the rest of its territories. Since 1317, it controlled the Lands of Schlawe and Stolp, which were separated from the rest of its territory by the Bishopric of Cammin. From between 1227 and 1233, to between 1248 and 1264, the area around the town of Świecie was an exclave of the Duchy of Gdańsk. The Province of 13 Spisz Towns located within the Eldership of Spisz, the territory of Kingdom of Poland from 1412 to 1569 and Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth from 1569 to 1772 consisted of salient connected to the rest of the Kingdom of Poland and 5 exclaves. Between 1772 and 1793, the city of Gdańsk, together with the surrounding area, were an exclave of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, surrounded by the territory of the Kingdom of Prussia. Westerplatte peninsula was a pene-exclave of Poland in Free City of Danzig from 1920 to 1939, ended its existence after the Battle of Westerplatte and annexation to Germany together with the Polish coast. Portugal: Fort of São João Baptista de Ajudá was a Portuguese exclave (initially around 1 km2 in the area and reduced to only 2 ha by 1961) within Dahomey/Benin from 1680 until 1961 (de facto annexation by Dahomey) or 1975 (Portuguese recognition). Spain: Ifni was a pene-exclave of Spain on the Atlantic coast of Morocco from 1859 to 1969. South Africa: Bophuthatswana was a bantustan or "black homeland" that was granted nominal independence by apartheid South Africa from 1977 until being re-absorbed in April 1994, but it remained unrecognised internationally. It consisted of a scattered patchwork of individual enclaves, six that were true enclaves within South Africa and two that bordered Botswana and South Africa. Yemen: Cheikh Saïd is a rocky peninsula in present-day Yemen between the Gulf of Aden and the Red Sea. Although as late as 1970, the Petit Larousse described it as having been a "French colony from 1868 to 1936," France never claimed formal jurisdiction or sovereignty over it. The southern section of the Emirate of Ras al-Khaimah was a national-level exclave surrounded by other emirates of the UAE and Oman for three months after UAE independence in 1971 until it joined the UAE in 1972. Between 1991 and 2003, Russia had three tiny pene-exclaves on tips of the lakeshore that bordered the Lithuanian side of Lake Vištytis. Before a new border treaty went into force on 12 August 2003, the border ran along most of the waterline of the beaches on the Lithuanian side, so anyone paddling in the water was technically crossing into Russia. Schirgiswalde – In accordance with terms of the 1635 Peace Treaty of Prague, Austria transferred land (Ober- and Niederlausitz) to Saxony. However, because of religious affiliation with Austria, Schirgiswalde and five other towns (Güntersdorf, Gerlachsheim, Winkel, Taubentränke and Neuleutersdorf) within the transferred land remained with Austria, becoming Austrian enclaves within Saxony. 174 years later, to address problems as states began to consolidate, the 1809 Peace Treaty of Vienna mandated the transfer of these six enclaves from Austria to Saxony. However, the transfer did not occur until 1845 because of the need to correct mistakes in the names of the villages stated in the treaty and subsequent neglect. During that time, Schirgiswalde was de facto independent until economic reasons compelled the final transfer of the enclaves, thus extinguishing them. Sikkim – Dopta and Chumbi were exclaves of Sikkim within Tibet until China occupied them in 1958. Sweden – The Peace of Westphalia in 1648 granted certain possessions of the Holy Roman Empire to the Swedish Empire (extant 1611–1721) to be held as fiefs of the Holy Roman Empire: Bremen-Verden – states of the Holy Roman Empire bordering the North Sea; in "personal union with Sweden" until 1712, when they fell under Danish occupation in wartime. Swedish Pomerania – a state on the Baltic coast in present-day Germany and Poland; a small part was ceded to Prussia following war in 1720 and the entirety in 1815 during the Congress of Vienna. town of Wismar – town in northern Germany on the Baltic Sea; transferred to Germany in 1903 when Sweden renounced its claim. Syria was a pene-exclave of the United Arab Republic from 1958 to 1961 (if one considers Egypt as the UAR main land), bordering the Mediterranean Sea, Turkey, Iraq, Lebanon, Israel and Jordan. Transkei was a bantustan or "black homeland" that was granted nominal independence by apartheid South Africa from 1976 until being re-absorbed in April 1994, but it remained unrecognised internationally. It had two exclaves within South Africa that were true enclaves. Taebong and Goryeo – The southwest coast of South Jeolla Province in Korea was an exclave of Taebong or Goryeo, between 903 and 936. Turkey – The tomb of Suleyman Shah (b. ca. 1178–d. 1236) was located in or near Qal'at Ja'bar in modern-day Syria; in accordance with the 1921 Treaty of Ankara, the tomb "shall remain, with its appurtenances, the property of Turkey, who may appoint guardians for it and may hoist the Turkish flag there." The treaty is silent regarding sovereignty of the 6.3 hectares of land where the tomb rests. The tomb was relocated in 1973 prior to the creation of Lake Assad. Ada Kaleh – Prior to the creation of modern Turkey, the Ottoman Empire de jure held a small island in the Danube River surrounded by the waters of Romania (which de facto controlled the island), from the Berlin Treaty of 1878 until 1923 when, under the Treaty of Lausanne, Romania obtained formal sovereignty over it. It was submerged in 1970 by the construction of a hydroelectric plant, displacing up to 1000 residents. United Kingdom – Following the establishment of the Irish Free State, three deep water Treaty Ports at Berehaven, Queenstown (modern Cobh) and Lough Swilly were retained by the United Kingdom in accordance with the Anglo-Irish Treaty of 6 December 1921. As part of the settlement of the Anglo-Irish Trade War in the 1930s, the ports were transferred to Ireland (the Free State's successor) in 1938 following agreements reached between the British and Irish Governments. In 1625, King Charles I instituted the Order of the Baronets of Nova Scotia in an effort to colonize New Scotland, by offering the hereditary title, land ownership and power over new baronetcies in exchange for financing and materially supporting new settlements. Under Scots Law, Baronets "took seisin" by receiving symbolic "earth and stone" on the actual land, which was the feudal legal form of taking possession. However, to avoid a trans-Atlantic trip (and thus encourage applicants), the royal charter stated that "the realm of Nova Scotia, and original infeftment thereof, is holden of the kingdom of Scotland, and forms part of the County of Edinburgh." By royal decree, land in the courtyard at Edinburgh Castle was declared to be an integral part of Nova Scotia; thus, seisin at the castle was equivalent to seisin on the lands themselves. The ceremony of seisin was performed in the following years for 64 of the original Baronets. This decree has never been annulled, which fuels a belief that this enclave still exists as a tiny enclave of Canada within the grounds of the famous Scottish castle. United States – Horseshoe Reef (1850–1908) in Lake Erie consisted of underwater ledges of sunken rock near Buffalo, New York. Great Britain ceded a fraction of an acre of underwater land that was entirely surrounded by Canadian waters to the United States to construct a lighthouse. A 1908 treaty mandated a new survey in order to shift the boundary to include the reef in U.S. waters. The Captain Cook Monument at Kealakekua Bay and about of land around it in Hawaii, United States, the place where James Cook was killed in 1779, is owned by the United Kingdom. An historian on the occasion of the 50th anniversary recorded in 1928 that the white stone "obelisk monument [was] erected to the memory of Captain Cook, about 1876, and on land deeded outright to the British Government by Princess Likelike, sister of King Kalakaua, about the same year, so that that square is absolute British Territory." Hawaii was a sovereign nation at the time. According to a recent writer, "The land under the monument was deeded to the United Kingdom in 1877 and is considered as sovereign non-embassy land owned by the British Embassy in Washington DC. ... the Hawaiian State Parks agency maintained that as sovereign British territory it was the responsibility of the UK to maintain the site." Lake of the Woods – the American border with present-day Canada as defined under the 1783 Treaty of Paris and the Anglo-American Convention of 1818 inadvertently created two small maritime exclaves of the U.S. in Angle Inlet. The border depended on determining the northwesternmost point of the Lake of the Woods. Johann Tiarks' survey in 1825 placed its location at the edge of a pond on the Angle Inlet. (A 1940 academic study documented the location of Tiarks' point, which is in the immediate vicinity of (NAD83).) In accordance with the 1818 treaty, the border ran south from this point to the 49th parallel. However, this line was "intersected at five points by the winding course of the boundary in the channel of the Northwest Angle Inlet; thus there were anomalously left two small areas of waters totaling two and a half acres belonging to the United States, yet entirely surrounded by Canadian waters." They were centered at and . By treaty in 1925, the southernmost of these five intersecting points, 4785 ft. farther south than Tiarks' point, was adopted instead, which eliminated these exclaves. Panama Canal Zone, surrounded by Panama, the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean, was an American pene-exclave from 1903 to 1 October 1979, when the entity was extinguished by treaty with Panama. After that date, the former Canal Zone land remaining under U.S. sovereignty, greatly reduced in area, was a pene-exclave until 31 December 1999, when total transfer to Panama was complete. At El Cerro de Doscientos Pies ("200-Foot Hill"), 3.19 hectares of land in Panama near Las Minas Bay were annexed by the U.S. on 24 September 1928 and added to the Canal Zone. This true enclave apparently existed until 1 October 1979. On 1 October 1979, the day the Panama Canal Treaty of 1977 took effect, most of the land within the former Canal Zone transferred to Panama. However, the treaty set aside many Canal Zone areas and facilities for transfer during the following 20 years. The treaty specifically categorized areas and facilities by name as "Military Areas of Coordination", "Defense Sites" and "Areas Subject to Separate Bilateral Agreement". These were to be transferred by the U.S. to Panama during certain time windows or simply by the end of the 243-month treaty period. On 1 October 1979, among the many such parcels so designated in the treaty, 35 emerged as true enclaves (surrounded entirely by land solely under Panamanian jurisdiction). In later years as other areas were turned over to Panama, nine more true enclaves emerged. Of these 44 true enclaves, 14 were related to military logistics, 7 were military communications sites, 5 Federal Aviation Administration facilities, 5 military housing enclaves, 3 military base areas, 2 military research facilities, 2 parts of a bombing range, 4 secondary school parcels, 1 elementary school, and 1 hospital. At least 13 other parcels each were enclosed partly by land under the absolute jurisdiction of Panama and partly by an "Area of Civil Coordination" (housing), which under the treaty was subject to elements of both U.S. and Panamanian public law. In addition, the 1977 treaty designated numerous areas and individual facilities as "Canal Operating Areas" for joint U.S.-Panama ongoing operations by a commission. On the effective date of the treaty, many of these Canal Operating Areas, including Madden Dam, became newly surrounded by the territory of Panama. Just after noon local time on 31 December 1999, all former Canal Zone parcels of all types had come under the exclusive jurisdiction of Panama. The Val d'Aran is a valley in the Pyrenees mountains and a comarca in northwestern Catalonia, northern Spain. Most of it comprises the only part of Catalonia that is on the northern side of the Pyrenees. The Val d'Aran had been without direct access to the south side of the mountains, until the Vielha tunnel was opened in 1948. Venda was a bantustan or "black homeland" that was granted nominal independence by apartheid South Africa from 1979 until being re-absorbed in April 1994, but it remained unrecognised internationally. It was an enclave that was not an exclave, bordering only South Africa and separated narrowly from Zimbabwe by the Madimbo corridor to the north. Venda itself also had a small exclave that was a true enclave in South Africa. Walvis Bay was a South African pene-exclave bordered by the Atlantic Ocean and Namibia, before being incorporated with Namibia in 1994, four years after that country's independence. Zadar (Zara) was a 104 km2 pene-exclave of Italy, bordering the Adriatic Sea and Croatia, from 1920 to 1944 (de facto due to abandonment by the Italian civilian administration) or 1947 (de jure under treaty). Various other historical foreign concessions Innumerable medieval enclaves within Europe Subnational historic enclaves/exclaves Azerbaijan – The former Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast was an enclave in Azerbaijan, but the internationally unrecognised Nagorno-Karabakh Republic is not, as it occupies territories bordering Armenia and Iran. United Kingdom – Cumbernauld and Kirkintilloch formed an exclave at county level, as a part of the Scottish county of Dunbartonshire sandwiched between Stirlingshire and Lanarkshire. The exclave was dissolved after the municipal reforms of 1975. Ardnamurchan, Morvern and the surrounding area also formed an exclave at county level, as a part of the Scottish county of Argyllshire bordered by Inverness-shire, separated from the rest of Argyllshire by Loch Linnhe. The exclave was dissolved in 1975 following the municipal reforms of that year. Dudley in the West Midlands, England, was an exclave at municipal level, being in a part of the county of Worcestershire surrounded by Staffordshire. Upon the local government reforms of 1974, the exclave was dissolved. Furness in England was an exclave of the county of Lancashire, known as "Lancashire-beyond-the-Sands" until 1974, when it became part of Cumbria. The district of Wrexham Maelor existed from 1974 to 1996, being formed from parts of two administrative counties, including Flintshire. From Flintshire came the exclave of Maelor Rural District (bounded on three sides by England and on the west by the Welsh county of Denbighshire) and the enclave of the parish of Marford and Hoseley, surrounded and separated from Flintshire also by Denbighshire. They are now part of Wrexham. Domesday Hundreds of Cheshire map in 1086 displays an enclave of Hamestan surrounded entirely by Middlewich. The counties of Scotland before reorganisation in 1889 included dozens of exclaves. This was especially notable in the case of Cromartyshire, which was split into at least nine parts spread across Ross-shire. Wales once had a third-order sub-national semi-exclave of its county of Caernarfonshire. This county had a semi-exclave consisting of the parishes of Llysfaen and Eirias and including the town of Old Colwyn, which was transferred to the surrounding county of Denbighshire in 1923. In turn it surrounded a counter-semi-exclave of Denbighshire including the east part of Old Colwyn, which had very complex borders. This counter-semi-exclave in turn contained a counter-counter-semi-exclave of Caernarvonshire, that of "Coed-coch Cottage" covering 1.6 acres (0.65 ha). The counter-semi-exclave was annexed to the semi-exclave in 1879. Before 1974, and especially before 1844, there were many exclaves of counties in England and Wales. In Canada, East York became an exclave of York in 1922, when the township of North York was established, causing East York to be sandwiched between North York, Leaside, and Old Toronto. East York became its own township in 1924, ending its status as an exclave. All of these municipalities are part of Toronto since the 1998 amalgamation. In Central Finland, the former municipality of Säynätsalo was an exclave of Jyväskylä municipality from 1993 to 2009. Germany – The former municipality of in Saxony was an exclave of the town of Sebnitz, being separated from it by the municipality of Kirnitzschtal, until Kirnitzschtal also became a part of Sebnitz. The former Prussian province Hohenzollern was an enclave in present-day Baden-Württemberg, being surrounded by the Grand Duchy, later Republic of Baden and the Kingdom, later Free People's State of Württemberg. Königsberg, located in the Lower Franconia region of present-day Bavaria, was an enclave within that state, along with two small nearby enclaves, belonging to the Ernestine Duchy of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (which after 1825 also had five exclaves in Thuringia). In 1918 the post-monarchy duchy was split into two states, making Königsberg an exclave of the Free State of Saxe-Coburg. In 1920, the residents of that state voted to merge with the Free State of Bavaria, thus eliminating the three Bavarian enclaves. Schmalkalden/Suhl – Just after World War I, this Prussian enclave within Thuringia was divided between the two Prussian provinces of Saxony and Hesse-Nassau (thus it was a composite enclave). The two entities of Schmalkalden and Suhl separately were exclaves of their respective Prussian provinces. Innumerable medieval enclaves In India, until 1952, France maintained Chandannagar, which reported to the Governor of Pondichéry, and was an enclave in Bengal, just upriver from Calcutta. In Ireland - Until 1842, Durrow was an exclave of County Kilkenny surrounded by Queen's County. Until 1836, Ballymore Eustace and two other smaller pockets of land were exclaves of County Dublin, surrounded by County Kildare. Korea – Siheung County, South Korea, had an exclave (nowadays Gwacheon, Gunpo, and Uiwang) since Anyang was separated from Siheung in 1973. In 1989, the old county of Siheung was divided into the cities of Gunpo, Uiwang, and Siheung, thereby dissolving the enclave. Seoul was an enclave of Gyeonggi Province until neighbouring Incheon was declared a special city in 1981. In Norway, three farmsteads, Øvre Jøsås, Store Jøsås and Lille Jøsås, that belonged to Sør-Trøndelag county (Malvik) comprised two separate enclaves that were surrounded by Nord-Trøndelag county (Stjørdal). The eastern enclave at consisted of Øvre Jøsås and Store Jøsås, while Lille Jøsås was the western enclave at . The closest distance between the two enclaves was only about 8 metres. Sør-Trøndelag and Nord-Trøndelag merged into a single county on 1 January 2017, thus eliminating the Jøsås enclaves. In Portugal until 2013, two civil parishes comprised the city of Estremoz. The parish of Santa Maria (the new town and its rural environs) surrounded an enclave, the walled old town of the parish of Santo Andre. The citadel inside Santo Andre was also a counter-enclave that belonged to Santa Maria. The two parishes were united to form a new parish called Union of the Parishes of Estremoz (Santa Maria and Santo André), thus ending the only counter-enclave in Portugal. In Poland From 1345 to 1351, the Duchy of Wizna, a fiefdom within the United Kingdom of Poland, was a duchy with a personal union with the Duchy of Płock, forming the royal domain of duke Bolesław III of Płock. Both duchies were separated from each other by the Duchy of Warsaw. Between 1412 and 1778, the Spiskie Podgrodzie District, the district within the Province of 13 Szepes Towns, Eldership of Spisz, Poland, consisted of two enclaves, of areas of Spišské Podhradie and Spišské Vlachy. The two enclaves were separated from each other, and the rest of Polish territory, by the Kingdom of Hungary. From 1434 to 1772, the Chełm Land was an exclave of the Ruthenian Voivodeship, within the Kingdom of Poland. From 1585 to 1620, the District of Pilten, an autonomous region within the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, was an area composed of three exclaves separated from each other by the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia. The southeastern enclave bordered the Duchy of Samogitia, other region in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, while the two other exclaves, had access to the Baltic Sea. Until 1620, it was an exclave of the Duchy of Livonia, and from 1598 to 1620, it was part of smaller subdivision of Wenden Voivodeship. From 1621 to 1772, it was an exclave within the Inflanty Voivodeship. In the 18th century, the town of Bielino was composed of two rectangular stripes of land, both located about 1 km (0.62 miles) apart from each other, and with other towns located between them. The northern area was established in 1757, and the southern, in 1766. The town formally existed until it was incorporated into the city of Warsaw in 1794. In Russia – Sheremetyevo is the location of the primary airport for Moscow. From 1995 to 2011 it was officially an enclave of the city of Moscow, but there was ambiguity regarding its association with Moscow Oblast. In 2011, the enclave was returned to Moscow Oblast, thus extinguishing it. Vnukovo consisted of two enclaves of the city of Moscow to its southwest. On 1 July 2012, "New Moscow" was created by annexing additional land to the city, including the land that surrounded Vnukovo. The two are now exclaves of a Moscow city subdivision, and one is also an enclave. Ust-Orda Buryat Autonomous Okrug was an enclave (not exclave) within Irkutsk Oblast and was merged into it on 1 January 2008. Agin-Buryat Autonomous Okrug was an enclave (not exclave) within Zabaykalsky Krai and was merged into it on 3 January 2008. In South Africa, the Eastern Cape Province had an exclave that was surrounded by KwaZulu-Natal Province, containing the town of Umzimkulu. KwaZulu-Natal had an exclave, Mount Currie, that was surrounded by the Eastern Cape. Both were extinguished in 2006. Switzerland – The village of Samnaun could initially only be reached by road from Austria. Thus, in 1892 the village was excluded from the Swiss customs territory. The exemption was maintained even when a road was built to the Engadin valley in 1907–1912. Before 1597, the two present-day cantons of Appenzell Ausserrhoden and Appenzell Innerrhoden were one canton, Appenzell, which was an enclave completely surrounded by the Canton of St. Gallen. Turkey – Yalova was an exclave of Istanbul until it gained provincial status in 1995. The Istanbul boroughs of Maslak, Ayazağa, and Huzur (part of Ayazağa until 1989) together formed an exclave of Şişli district after the split of Kağıthane from Şişli resulting from a law passed by TBMM on 19 June 1987. They were surrounded by Sarıyer to the north and east, Beşiktaş to the southeast, Kağıthane to the southwest, and Eyüp to the west. Finally, they were given to the district of Sarıyer after passing a law on 12 November 2012. Note that Maslak and Ayazağa were part of Sarıyer between 1930 and 1954 before passing to Şişli due to the split of Şişli from Beyoğlu in 1954. United States – Maine was a pene-exclave of Massachusetts between 1652 and 1820. The Western Reserve in present-day Ohio was a pene-exclave of Connecticut from 13 September 1786 to 1800, when it reverted to the Northwest Territory. The following from pre-merger Louisville, Kentucky, no longer exist as enclaves: Audubon Park, Meadowview Estates, Parkway Village, Seneca Gardens, Wellington, and the combination of Kingsley, Strathmoor Manor, and Strathmoor Village. District of Columbia – Washington National Airport was built on reclaimed land on the south side of the Potomac River, where the river's high-water line marked the District's boundary with Virginia. Therefore, until 1945, the site was a pene-exclave of the District. Since then, the airport has been officially deemed a part of Arlington County, Virginia, but it is under exclusive federal jurisdiction and is administered as if still part of the District. Boston Corner was a pene-exclave of the town of Mount Washington, Massachusetts, and ceded to New York on January 11, 1855, because its geographical isolation from the rest of Massachusetts (as part of the Taconic range) made maintaining law and order difficult. Princeton Township surrounded the Borough of Princeton, home of Princeton University, until the two municipalities merged in 2013 to form Princeton, New Jersey. Town Line, New York voted 85 to 40 to secede from the United States in 1861, with no legal effect and no well-defined borders, to become an exclave of the Confederate States of America, unrecognized by either side (there are no written records); ceremonially voted to "rejoin" the Union in 1946. In France, in Côtes-d'Armor département, the former commune of Plessix-Balisson is surrounded by the former commune of Ploubalay. In 2017, both communes were merged into the new Beaussais-sur-Mer commune. Temporary enclaves or exclaves Sometimes land is ceded temporarily to another country as a form of legal fiction. Suite 212 at Claridges Hotel in London was ceded by the United Kingdom to Yugoslavia on 17 June 1945 to allow Crown Prince Alexander, whose parents were in exile, to be born on Yugoslav soil, though the story may be apocryphal, as there exists no documentary record of this. To establish jurisdiction, Camp Zeist, a former United States Air Force base in the Netherlands, was, in 2000, temporarily declared sovereign territory of the United Kingdom, in order to allow the Pan Am Flight 103 bombing trial to take place. In 1943, the maternity ward at the Ottawa Civic Hospital in Canada was temporarily extraterritorial so that Princess Juliana's daughter Princess Margriet would only have Dutch (by parents' nationality) and not dual nationality, because of her potential birth on Canadian soil. Dual nationality would have excluded her from the royal succession. In 1979, at Sender Zehlendorf, East Germany, an area of 300 metres in radius around a radio tower construction site was made an exclave of the Soviet Union. After a Soviet fighter plane had earlier collided with a radio transmission mast at the facility, causing it to collapse, the Soviet Union agreed to rebuild the mast. So that the stricter German safety regulations would not slow the construction progress, the area was declared a Soviet exclave for the duration of the work. Potential exclaves pending international resolution Crimea – after the 2014 invasion of the peninsula and a controversial referendum on the territory's ascension to the Russian Federation as the federal subjects of the Republic of Crimea and Sevastopol, Crimea became a de facto pene-exclave of the country separated by both Ukraine and the Kerch Strait. Most countries still internationally recognise the peninsula as fully part of Ukraine. Palanca Marshes – potential Vennbahn-type enclave of Moldova surrounded by Ukraine: Under a 2001 treaty between the two nations, Moldova is to transfer to Ukraine not only the asphalt (as it has already done), but also the real property under 7.7 kilometres of road (a portion of the 300 km road between Odesa and Reni), and to clarify the sovereignty of that land, which under that treaty is to be transferred to Ukraine. See also Serbian enclaves in Kosovo Overseas territory Notes References University of Melbourne ePrints repository has an abstract and a complete reprint (PDF: 13.59 MB). Chapter 1 (pages 1–24) is a general survey of international enclaves, with a table Enclaves of the world since 1996 on page 5. Jan S. Krogh's Geosite Smith, Barry (1997) "The Cognitive Geometry of War", in P. Koller and K. Puhl (eds.), Current Issues in Political Philosophy: Justice in Society and World Order, Vienna: Hölder-Pichler-Tempsky, 394–403. Evgeny Vinokurov, A Theory of Enclaves, Munich Personal RePEc Archive, 2007 Puducherry Map Enclaves and exclaves
4848621	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordon%20Pask	Gordon Pask	Andrew Gordon Speedie Pask (28 June 1928 – 29 March 1996) was a British cybernetician, inventor and polymath who made during his lifetime multiple contributions to cybernetics, educational psychology, educational technology, epistemology, chemical computing, architecture, and the performing arts. During his life he gained three doctorate degrees. He was an avid writer, with more than two hundred and fifty publications which included a variety of journal articles, books, periodicals, patents, and technical reports (many of which can be found at the main Pask archive at the University of Vienna). He also worked as an academic and researcher for a variety of educational settings, research institutes, and private stakeholders including but not limited to the University of Illinois, Concordia University, the Open University, Brunel University and the Architectural Association School of Architecture. He is known for the development of conversation theory. Biography Early life and education: 1928-1958 Pask was born in Derby, England, on June 28, 1928, to his parents Percy and Mary Pask. His father was "a partner in Pask, Cornish and Smart, a wholesale fruit business in Covent Garden". He had two older siblings: Alfred, who trained as an engineer before becoming a Methodist minister, and Edgar, a professor of anesthetics. His family moved to the Isle of Wight shortly after his birth. He was educated at Rydal Penrhos. According to Andrew Pickering and G. M. Furtado Cardoso Lopes, school taught Pask to "be a gangster" and he was noted for having designed bombs during his time at Rydal Penrhos which was delivered to a government ministry in relation to the war effort during the second world war. He later went on to complete two diplomas in Geology and Mining Engineering from Liverpool Polytechnic and Bangor University respectively. Pask later attended Cambridge University around 1949 to study for a bachelor's degree, where he met his future associate and business partner Robin McKinnon-Wood who was studying his undergraduate in Maths and Physics at the time. At the time, Pask was living in Jordan's Yard, Cambridge under the supervision of the scientist and engineer John Brickell. During this time, Pask was more known for his work in the arts and musical theatre rather than his later pursuits in science and education. He became interested in cybernetics and information theory in the early 1950s when Norbert Wiener was asked to give a presentation on the subject for the university. He eventually obtained an MA in natural sciences from the university in 1952, and met his future wife Elizabeth Pask (née Poole) around this time at the birthday party of a mutual friend when she was studying at Liverpool University and he was visiting his father in Wallasey, Mersey. They married in 1956 and later had two daughters together. Beginning of System Research Ltd: 1953-1961 In 1953, Pask formally founded alongside his wife Elizabeth and Robin McKinnon-Wood the research organization System Research Ltd., in Richmond, Surrey. According to McKinnon-Wood, his and Pask's early forays in musical comedy production at Cambridge through their earlier company Sirelelle lay the groundwork for his later company which they viewed as being "wholly consistent with the development of self-adaptive systems, self-organizing systems, man-machine interactions[,] etc". After rebranding the company to System Research Ltd., the company became non-profit in 1961 with significant funding being derived from the United States Army and Airforce. Throughout its existence, the company conducted a variety of research and development initiatives on behalf of civil service organizations and research councils in both the United States and the United Kingdom. During the active period of System Research Ltd., he and his associates worked on a number of projects including SAKI (self-adaptive keyboard machine), MusiColour (a light show where the colored lights would reduce their responsiveness to a given keyboard input over time so as to induce the keyboard player to play a different range of notes), and finally educational technologies such as CASTE (Couse Assembly System Tutorial Environment) and Thoughtsticker (both of which were developed in the context of what became conversation theory). During this period, Pask and McKinnon-Wood were asked to demonstrate their proof of concept for MusiColour on behalf of Billy Butlin. While the machine initially worked when the duo sought to demonstrate the technology to Butlin's deputy, after his arrival "it exploded in a cloud of white smoke", due to McKinnon-Wood "buying junk electronic capacitors". The duo managed to restart the machine; after which McKinnon-Wood purports Butlin to have remarked if such a machine could withstand an explosion like that, it must be reliable. Stafford Beer also claims to have met Pask sometime during this period at a dinner party in Sheffield, and notes of both his genius, the difficulty in following his thought, and getting hold of; remarking both that "[Pask's] conception of things is not anyone else's perception of things", and that "The man can be quite infuriating". Between the early to mid-1950s, Pask began to develop electrochemical devices designed to find their own "relevance criteria". Pask performed experiments utilizing "electrochemical assemblages, passing current through various aqueous solutions of metallic salts (e.g. ferrous sulfate) in order to construct an analog control system". During the late 1950s, Pask managed to get a prototype device working. Oliver Selfridge noted that it was the second such mechanism, whereby "a machine build a machine electronically without any physical motion", actually worked. In September 1958 in Namur, Belgium, he attended the second International Congress of Cybernetics. Pask was first introduced to Heinz von Foerster during this time, who were both informed by the attendees of the conference of having submitted similar papers. After searching for Pask through the streets of Namur, von Foerster described his first observation of Pask as that of a "leprechaun in a black double-breasted jacket over a white shirt with a black bow tie, puffing a cigarette through a long cigarette holder, and fielding questions, always with a polite smile, that were tossed at him from all directions". von Foerster later asked Pask to join him at the Biological Computer Laboratory at the University of Illinois; subsequently describing him after his death as both being difficult and yet a genius. He also this year produced SAKI (self-adaptive keyboard machine) for the instruction and development of keyboard skills aimed at the commercial marketplace. His former research assistant Bernard Scott argues that "The Mechanisation of Thought Processes" conference at the National Physics Laboratory in Teddington, London represented a critical point in the development of Pask's thinking: It was here Pask first published his paper "Physical Analogues to the Growth of a Concept" (1959) which contained a theoretical discussion on how the "growth of crystals [through the use of] electrodes suspended in an electronic solution", could be used to represent in purely physical phenomenon the growth of a concept. Warren McCulloch wrote in relation to the presentation that: "[Pask's] gadget does work; it does "take habbits" by a mechanism that Charles Peirce proposed". During the later years of this period, Pask had begun to describe himself as a mechanic philosopher to emphasize both the theoretical and experimental aspects of his role. Later period of System Research Ltd: 1961-1978 During the 1960s, Pask worked significantly with psychologist B. N. Lewis and computer scientist G. L. Mallen. In 1961, Pask published An Approach to Cybernetics. According to Ranulph Glanville, the work argued in favor of the notion that cybernetics was at its heart the art of creating defensible metaphors; this being in reference to the cross-disciplinary nature of the early cybernetics movement, which specifically stressed how analogous forms of control and communication could be found operating between disciplines. Sometime during this period, Pask met George Spencer-Brown who became a lodger at the Pask family's home while working at Stafford Beer and Roger Eddison's operational research consultancy SIGMA (Science in General Management) via strong recommendation from Bertrand Russell. It was here where Spencer-Brown is said to have written his Laws of Form for long hours whilst inebriated in the Pask family's bathtub. According to Vanilla Beer, Stafford's daughter, Pask is purported to have claimed while reminiscing about Spencer-Brown's time at his and his wife's household, that "When [Spencer-Brown] bathed, it wasn't often. He used my gin, to wash in". His wife Elizabeth is also purported to have said, in reference to Spencer-Brown having forgot her name after he ceased to be a lodger, "I wouldn't mind, but I cooked for him for six months". Pask later earned a PhD in psychology from the University of London in 1964, and later joined Brunel University in 1968 as one of the founding Professors of the Cybernetics Department at Brunel. The department was originally intended to be a research institute that was originally spearheaded by the media proprietor Cecil Harmsworth King, who was influenced by Stafford Beer's work in management consulting. King died however shortly before its opening, meaning that the Brunel enterprise mostly became a post-graduate teaching department rather than a research institute. Since Pask could not find a viable solution for intersecting his work at System Research Ltd., with the department's permission decided to become a part-time Professor there while Frank George became full-time head of the Cybernetics Department. It was here he recruited Bernard Scott who he was introduced to by David Stuart, a newly appointed lecturer at Brunel in the Department of Psychology. Scott later went on a sixth-month internship as a research assistant at System Research Ltd., who himself would later be a major contributor to the development of conversation theory. Pask later discontinued his work on chemical computers. This may have happened during the early 1960s, or during the mid-1960s. According to Peter Cariani, funding for alternative approaches to artificial intelligence had dried up. This turn in direction was triggered by a greater emphasis on research utilizing symbolic artificial intelligence. Previous approaches to artificial intelligence, which included the use of neural nets, evolutionary programming, cybernetics, bionics, and bio-inspired computing, were side-lined by various funding bodies and interest groups. This placed greater pressure on System Research Ltd., to use more orthodox digital computer approaches to technology-based issues. Peter Cariani has expressed the view, that if we were to build physical devices a la Pask, we would replicated a kind of electrochemical assemblages, which would "have properties radically different from contemporary neural networks". In 1969 System Research Ltd. designed Ecogame, which encouraged participants to reflect on their own behavior in the system. The pedagogical function was influenced by Pask's research and activity in cybernetics and media-art. According to Claudia Costa Pederson, Pask understood and put emphasis on the view that learning was a self-organized, mutual and participatory process. Ecogame was therefore a pedagogical simulation, that was supposed to engage the viewer with an intuitive interface. It was successfully demonstrated in September 1970 at the Computer '70 trade show at the Olympia conference centre in London. Ecogame was subsequently incorporated into the program of the First European Management Forum during February 1971, which later emerged as the forerunner to the World Economic Forum in Davos. A version of Ecogame was sold to IBM for management education in the Blaricum IBM center. The slide projection technology of Ecogame was incorporated by Stafford Beer into Project Cybersyn, implemented by Salvador Allende in Chile. During the early 1970s, Pask became heavily involved in joint initiatives between his company and the Centre for the Study of Human Learning (CSHL) alongside Laurie Thomas and Shelia Harri-Augstein at Brunel on behalf of the Ministry of Defence to examine conversational approaches to anger, where he exhibited alongside his associates at his company his CASTE and BOSS technologies. By 1972, Pask began the process of compiling his work into the form of "a formal theory of conversational processes". Due to the academic environment, Pask was working in, he decided early on from 1972 to 1973 to report on the experimental contents of his research due to the emphasis on empirical studies and general distrust of grand theory. Whilst visiting professor of educational technology, he obtained a DSc in cybernetics from the Open University in 1974. The collective work on Pask's interest in conversation at this time culminated in three major publications with the aid of Bernard Scott, Dionysius Kallikourdis, and others. At the same time Pask, with the assistance of the computer scientist Nick Green and others, had begun to work on military contracts on behalf of the United States Army and the United States Army Air Forces respectively. In 1975, Pask's team at System Research Ltd. had written and published The Cybernetics of Human Learning & Performance and Conversation, Cognition and Learning: A Cybernetic Theory and Methodology. In the subsequent year 1976, they published Conversation Theory: Applications in Education and Epistemology. It has been claimed that due to the prevailing orthodox attitudes of psychological research at the time, his work did not gain widespread acceptance in the area but found more success in educational research. Pask also sometime between 1975 and 1978, received funding from the Science and Engineering Research Council to develop the "Spy Ring" test in relation to his theory of learning styles. Dissolution of company and death: 1978-1996 Around 1978, Pask became more heavily involved in Ministry of Defence projects; yet was struggling to keep his own company viable. The company later disbanded in the early 1980s, whereby he moved on to teach for a time at Concordia University and then the University of Amsterdam (in the Centre for Innovation and Co-operative Technology), and the Architectural Association in London, where he acted as a doctoral supervisor for Ranulph Glanville. During the early 1980s, Pask co-authored Calculator Saturnalia (1980) with the help of Ranulph Glanville and Mike Robinson, which consisted of a collection of games to play on a calculator; he also co-authored Microman Living and Growing with Computers (1982) with Susan Curran Macmillan. Edward Barnes asserts that during this period, his work on conversation theory "was further refined during the 1980s and until Pask's death in 1996 by his research group in Amsterdam. This latter refinement is called interaction of actors (IA) theory". According to Glanville, Pask semi-retired on June 28, 1993. During the last few years of his life, Pask set up the company Pask Associates, a management consultancy firm, whose clients included the Club of Rome, Hydro Aluminium, and the Architecture Association. He also provided some preliminary work for a project on behalf of the London Underground and received initial support from Greenpeace International at the Imperial College London's Department of Electronics for a project in quantitative chemical analysis. He obtained a ScD from his college, Downing Cambridge in 1995, and later died on March the 29th 1996 at the London Clinic. Legacy and impact Pask's primary contributions to cybernetics, educational psychology, learning theory, and systems theory, as well as to numerous other fields, was his emphasis on the personal nature of reality, and on the process of learning as stemming from the consensual agreement of interacting actors in a given environment ("conversation"). In later life Pask benefited less often from the critical feedback of research peers, reviewers of proposals, or reports to government bodies in the US and UK. Nevertheless, his publications were considered a storehouse of ideas that are not fully theorized. Ted Nelson, who coined the concept of hypermedia references Pask in Computer Lib/Dream Machines. Pask acted as a consultant to Nicholas Negroponte, whose earliest research efforts at the Architecture Machine Group on Idiosyncrasy and software-based partners for design have their roots in Pask's work. Personality Andrew Pickering argues that Pask was a "character" in the traditional British sense of the term, as he likens both Stafford Beer and Grey Walter. His dress sense was eccentric and flamboyant for his time, adopting the dress of an Edwardian dandy with his signature bow tie, double-breasted jacket, and cape. His sleep pattern, later in life, was described as "nocturnal" and would often begin his work at night and sleep during the day. Furtado Cardoso Lopes notes that even from an early age, it was "Pask's curiosity, interdisciplinarity and interest in the complex nature of things that fuelled his incursion into cybernetics". Pask's "power to inspire [others] was evident throughout his working life". He was noted by his former colleagues as being capable of great kindness and generosity, yet also sometimes the utter disregard for the individuals he associated himself with. Part of this was due to his view that "conflict is a source of cognitive energy and thereby a means for moving a system forward more rapidly". According to Luis Rocha, "Conflict was in fact one of his preferred tools to achieve consensual understanding between participants in a conversation". This generation of conflict, however, is noted to have sometimes driven those around him further away than he would have preferred. This is evidenced in his own technological pursuits, where "His touch-typing tutor pushed the learner harder and harder, to the point where the rate of learning is greatest but also closest to the brink of system collapse". While his friends and colleagues often recognized his genius, they would also acknowledge him as being at times difficult to get along with, as well as "some need[ing] time to recover". He mellowed in later years and, inspired by his wife Elizabeth, converted to Roman Catholicism, which according to Scott, "deeply satisfied his need for understandings that address the great mysteries of life". Even with this mellowing, however, his innate intensity of character and interests was nonetheless always there. Personal views Artificial Intelligence According to Paul Pangaro, a former collaborator and PhD student of his, Pask was critical of certain interpretations of artificial intelligence which were common during the eras he was active in. Alex Andrew has argued that Pask's interest in what is now labelled as "artificial intelligence", came from his general interest "in constructing artifacts with brain-like properties". Pangaro claims that Pask had managed to simulate intelligence-like behaviors with electro-mechanical machines in the 1950s, with Pangaro further arguing "By realising that intelligence resides in interaction, not inside a head or box, his path was clear. To those who didn't understand his philosophical stance, the value of his work was invisible [to them]". The emphasis for Pask, according to Pangaro, was that human intellectual activity existed as part of a kind of resonance that looped from a human individual through an environment or apparatus, back through to the individual. Cybernetics Pask took a broad understanding of what cybernetics entailed. Unlike physics, cybernetics had in Pask's mind no necessary commitment to a particular image as to what constitutes the environment. Instead, the focus is on the observations one makes via observation. Pask saw it as mistaken to view cybernetics reductively. For him, cybernetics was not merely a derivative of other disciplines or applied science. Instead, Pask held true to Norbert Wiener's original vision by acknowledging that cybernetics attempts to provide a unifying framework for various disciplines by establishing "a common language and set of shared principles for understanding the organization of complex systems". Work Colloquy of mobiles Pask participated in the seminal exhibition "Cybernetic Serendipity" (ICA London, 1968) with the interactive installation "Colloquy of Mobiles", continuing his ongoing dialogue with the visual and performing arts. (cf Rosen 2008, and Dreher's History of Computer Art) Fun Palace Pask collaborated with architect Cedric Price and theatre director Joan Littlewood on the radical Fun Palace project during the 1960s, setting up the project's 'Cybernetics Subcommittee'. Musicolour Musicolour was an interactive light installation developed by Pask in 1953. It responded to musicians' variations and, if they did not vary their playing, it would become 'bored' and stop responding, prompting the musicians to respond. Musicolour was influential on Cedric Price's Generator project, via the work of consultants Julia and John Frazer. SAKI SAKI (self-adaptive keyboard machine) was an adaptable keyboard machine created by Pask which fostered interactivity between user and machine. Thoughtsticker Thoughtsticker (written as THOUGHTSTICKER) was described by Pask and his fellow collaborators in the 1970s as a special type of educational operating system. In the operating system, a user makes a concrete model or collection of concrete models in the concrete modeling facility of that operating system. The user then sets out to describe why and how the model or collection of models relates to satisfying some overarching goal or thesis via describing their cognitive model or personal construct of that relation in the cognitive modeling facility of that operating system. In explaining why and how the model or collection of models satisfies the goal or thesis, the user may add to their original concrete model, or provide new descriptions of topics for their cognitive model that had not been sufficiently elaborated upon. Compared to Pask's EXTEND unit, thoughtsticker was said to exteriorize the innovation of ideas in learning, whereas EXTEND merely permitted and recording the product of such a process. Selected publications and projects Pask wrote extensively and contributed to a variety of institutions, journals, and publishing houses. Many items in the following list of publications have been identified at the Pask archive at the University of Vienna. Books Book chapters and sections A volume dedicated to Professor P. Anohkin. Reprinted in Cybernetica No 3 1970, 140–159, and in No 4 1970, 240–250. Reprinted in Artorga Communications, 140-148 Reprinted in Cybernetics, Art and Ideas, Reichardt, J., (Ed.) Studio Vista, London, 1971, 76-99 Conference Proceedings Reprinted in Policy Analysis and System Science, 1977. Event chaired by Gregory Bateson. Prestentations took place at Recent Developments and Trends conference in Binghampton, New York and the Realities Conference via the EST Foundation at San Francisco. Reprinted in Autopoiesis (1981), Zelany, M., (Ed.) New York, North Holland Elsevier, 1981, 265-307. Encyclopaedia entries Exhibitions Journal Articles Patents Periodicals Reports and Technical Reports Final Scientific Report SSRC Grant No HR 1424/1. Final Scientific Report SSRC Grant No HR 1876/1. In School of Information Science Reports, Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia, 1973. Open University Monograph. Convened by the European Research Office, London and the US Army Research Institute for the Behavioural and Social Sciences. Contract number: SSRC HR 2371/1 Theses Unpublished monographs Footnotes References Citation Sources Books See also. PDF Conference Proceedings Journals Newspapers Online See also. PDF Further reading Bird, J., and Di Paolo, E. A., (2008) Gordon Pask and his maverick machines. In P. Husbands, M. Wheeler, O. Holland (eds), The Mechanical Mind in History, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, pp. 185 – 211. Barnes, G. (1994) "Justice, Love and Wisdom" Medicinska Naklada, Zagreb . Glanville, R. and Scott, B. (2001). "About Gordon Pask", Special double issue of Kybernetes, Gordon Pask, Remembered and Celebrated, Part I, 30, 5/6, pp. 507–508. Green, N. (2004). "Axioms from Interactions of Actors Theory", Kybernetes, 33, 9/10, pp. 1433–1462. Download Glanville, R. (ed.) (1993). Gordon Pask—A Festschrift Systems Research, 10, 3. Pangaro, P. (1987). An Examination and Confirmation of a Macro Theory of Conversations through a Realization of the Protologic Lp by Microscopic Simulation PhD Thesis Links Margit Rosen: "The control of control" – Gordon Pasks kybernetische Ästhetik. In: Ranulph Glanville, Albert Müller (eds.): Pask Present. Cat. of exhib. Atelier Färbergasse, Vienna, 2008, pp. 130–191. Scott, B. and Glanville G. (eds.) (2001). Special double issue of Kybernetes, Gordon Pask, Remembered and Celebrated, Part I, 30, 5/6. Scott, B. and Glanville G. (eds.) (2001). Special double issue of Kybernetes, Gordon Pask, Remembered and Celebrated, Part II, 30, 7/8. Scott, B. (ed. and commentary) (2011). "Gordon Pask: The Cybernetics of Self-Organisation, Learning and Evolution Papers 1960–1972" pp 648 Edition Echoraum (2011). External links Pask: Biography at International Federation for Systems Research Biography at George Washington University PDFs of Pask's books and key papers at pangaro.com Gordon Pask in the MacTutor History of Mathematics archive Pask archive Conversation theory Cybernetics Society biography: The foundations of Conversation Theory: Interactions of Actors Theory (IA) QuickTime videos of Dr. Paul Pangaro teaching Cybernetics and Pask's Entailment Meshes at Stanford QuickTime clip of Pask on Entailment Meshes Pangaro's obituary in London Guardian Rocha's obituary for International Journal of General Systems Nick Green. (2004). "Axioms from Interactions of Actors Theory" Kybernetes, vol.33, no. 9/10, pp. 1433–1455. Thomas Dreher: History of Computer Art, chap. II.3.1.1 Gordon Pask's "Musicolour System", chap. II.3.2.3 Gordon Pask's "Colloquy of Mobiles". Assertions and aphorisms of Gordon Pask at The Cybernetics Society 1928 births 1996 deaths Academics of Brunel University London Alumni of the Open University People educated at Rydal Penrhos Alumni of Liverpool John Moores University Alumni of the University of London Cyberneticists English psychologists Educational psychologists Systems psychologists Alumni of Downing College, Cambridge Articles containing proofs People from Derby 20th-century British psychologists Presidents of the International Society for the Systems Sciences
4848945	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enclave%20and%20exclave	Enclave and exclave	An enclave is a territory (or a small territory as part of a larger one) that is entirely surrounded by the territory of one other state or entity. Enclaves may also exist within territorial waters. Enclave is sometimes used improperly to denote a territory that is only partly surrounded by another state. Vatican City and San Marino, both enclaved by Italy, and Lesotho, enclaved by South Africa, are completely enclaved sovereign states. An exclave is a portion of a state or district geographically separated from the main part by surrounding alien territory (of one or more states, districts, etc.). Many exclaves are also enclaves, but not all: an exclave can be surrounded by the territory of more than one state. The Azerbaijani exclave of Nakhchivan is an example of an exclave that is not an enclave, as it borders Armenia, Turkey and Iran. Semi-enclaves and semi-exclaves are areas that, except for possessing an unsurrounded sea border (a coastline contiguous with international waters), would otherwise be enclaves or exclaves. Enclaves and semi-enclaves can exist as independent states (Monaco, The Gambia and Brunei are semi-enclaves), while exclaves and semi-exclaves proper always constitute just a part of a sovereign state (like the Kaliningrad Oblast). A pene-exclave is a part of the territory of one country that can be conveniently approached—in particular, by wheeled traffic—only through the territory of another country. Pene-exclaves are also called functional exclaves or practical exclaves. Many pene-exclaves partially border their own territorial waters (i.e., they are not surrounded by other nations' territorial waters), such as Point Roberts, Washington, and Minnesota's Northwest Angle. A pene-exclave can also exist entirely on land, such as when intervening mountains render a territory inaccessible from other parts of a country except through alien territory. A commonly cited example is the Kleinwalsertal, a valley part of Vorarlberg, Austria, that is accessible only from Germany to the north. Origin and usage The word enclave is French and first appeared in the mid-15th century as a derivative of the verb (1283), from the colloquial Latin (to close with a key). Originally, it was a term of property law that denoted the situation of a land or parcel of land surrounded by land owned by a different owner, and that could not be reached for its exploitation in a practical and sufficient manner without crossing the surrounding land. In law, this created a servitude of passage for the benefit of the owner of the surrounded land. The first diplomatic document to contain the word enclave was the Treaty of Madrid, signed in 1526. Later, the term enclave began to be used also to refer to parcels of countries, counties, fiefs, communes, towns, parishes, etc. that were surrounded by alien territory. This French word eventually entered English and other languages to denote the same concept, although local terms have continued to be used. In India, the word "pocket" is often used as a synonym for enclave (such as "the pockets of Puducherry district"). In British administrative history, subnational enclaves were usually called detachments or detached parts, and national enclaves as detached districts or detached dominions. In English ecclesiastic history, subnational enclaves were known as peculiars (see also royal peculiar). The word exclave is a logically extended back-formation of enclave. Characteristics Enclaves exist for a variety of historical, political and geographical reasons. For example, in the feudal system in Europe, the ownership of feudal domains was often transferred or partitioned, either through purchase and sale or through inheritance, and often such domains were or came to be surrounded by other domains. In particular, this state of affairs persisted into the 19th century in the Holy Roman Empire, and these domains (principalities, etc.) exhibited many of the characteristics of sovereign states. Prior to 1866 Prussia alone consisted of more than 270 discontiguous pieces of territory. Residing in an enclave within another country has often involved difficulties in such areas as passage rights, importing goods, currency, provision of utilities and health services, and host nation cooperation. Thus, over time, enclaves have tended to be eliminated. For example, two-thirds of the then-existing national-level enclaves were extinguished on 1 August 2015, when the governments of India and Bangladesh implemented a Land Boundary Agreement that exchanged 162 first-order enclaves (111 Indian and 51 Bangladeshi). This exchange thus effectively de-enclaved another two dozen second-order enclaves and one third-order enclave, eliminating 197 of the India–Bangladesh enclaves in all. The residents in these enclaves had complained of being effectively stateless. Only Bangladesh's Dahagram–Angarpota enclave remained. Netherlands and Belgium decided to keep the enclave and exclave system in Baarle. As both Netherlands and Belgium are members of the European Union and Schengen Area, people, goods and services flow freely with little or no restrictions. Enclave versus exclave For illustration, in the figure (above), A1 is a semi-enclave (attached to C and also bounded by water that only touches C's territorial water). Although A2 is an exclave of A, it cannot be classed as an enclave because it shares borders with B and C. The territory A3 is both an exclave of A and an enclave from the viewpoint of B. The singular territory D, although an enclave, is not an exclave. True enclaves An enclave is a part of the territory of a state that is enclosed within the territory of another state. To distinguish the parts of a state entirely enclosed in a single other state, they are called true enclaves. A true enclave cannot be reached without passing through the territory of a single other state that surrounds it. In 2007, Evgeny Vinokurov called this the restrictive definition of "enclave" given by international law, which thus "comprises only so-called 'true enclaves'". Two examples are Büsingen am Hochrhein, a true enclave of Germany, and Campione d'Italia, a true enclave of Italy, both of which are surrounded by Switzerland. The definition of a territory comprises both land territory and territorial waters. In the case of enclaves in territorial waters, they are called maritime (those surrounded by territorial sea) or lacustrine (if in a lake) enclaves. Most of the true national-level enclaves now existing are in Asia and Europe. While subnational enclaves are numerous the world over, there are only a few national-level true enclaves in Africa, Australia and the Americas (each such enclave being surrounded by the territorial waters of another country). A historical example is West Berlin before the reunification of Germany. Since 1945, all of Berlin was ruled de jure by the four Allied powers. However, the East German government and the Soviet Union treated East Berlin as an integral part of East Germany, so West Berlin was a de facto enclave within East Germany. Also, 12 small West Berlin enclaves, such as Steinstücken, were separated from the city, some by only a few meters. Enclaved countries Three nations qualify as completely surrounded by another country's land and/or internal waters: The Republic of San Marino, enclaved within Italy Vatican City, enclaved within the city of Rome, Italy The Kingdom of Lesotho, enclaved within South Africa Historically, four Bantustans (or "Black homelands") of South Africa were granted nominal independence, unrecognized internationally, by the Apartheid government from 1976 until their reabsorption in 1994. Others remained under government rule from 1948 to 1994. Being heavily partitioned, various parts of these Bantustans were true enclaves. The United States' constitutional principle of tribal sovereignty treats federally recognized Indian reservations as quasi-independent enclaves. True exclaves True exclave is an extension of the concept of true enclave. In order to access a true exclave from the mainland, a traveller must go through the territory of at least one other state. Examples include: Nakhchivan, which borders Turkey, Armenia and Iran, is an exclave of Azerbaijan. Gaza Strip, which borders Egypt, Israel and the Mediterranean Sea, is an exclave of the State of Palestine. Baarle-Hertog includes a collection of Belgian exclaves in the Netherlands. In the United Arab Emirates, four emirates have five true exclaves: Dubai (Hatta), Ajmān (Masfout and Manama), Ras al-Khaimah (the more southerly of the emirate's two non-contiguous sections), and Sharjah (Nahwa, also both a true national-level enclave and a counter-enclave). Llívia is an enclave and exclave of Spain surrounded by France. Campione d'Italia is an enclave and exclave of Italy surrounded by Switzerland. Büsingen am Hochrhein is an enclave and exclave of Germany surrounded by Switzerland. The shortest distance from Büsingen's borders to the main portion of German territory is only about 700 metres (about 2,300 ft). Likoma and Chizumulu Islands in Lake Malawi are lacustrine enclaves and exclaves of Malawi, surrounded by Mozambique territorial waters. Manila South Cemetery - the area is being use as part of the Philippines capital city of Manila despite of being surrounded by the jurisdiction of Makati. Related constructs and terms Semi-enclaves and semi-exclaves Semi-enclaves and semi-exclaves are areas that, except for possessing an unsurrounded sea border, would otherwise be enclaves or exclaves. Semi-enclaves can exist as independent states that border only one other state, such as Monaco, the Gambia and Brunei. Vinokurov (2007) declares, "Technically, Portugal, Denmark, and Canada also border only one foreign state, but they are not enclosed in the geographical, political, or economic sense. They have vast access to international waters. At the same time, there are states that, although in possession of sea access, are still enclosed by the territories of a foreign state." Therefore, a quantitative principle applies: the land boundary must be longer than the coastline. Thus a state is classified as a sovereign semi-enclave if it borders on just one state, and its land boundary is longer than its sea coastline. (Since Vinokurov's writing in 2007, Canada and Denmark have each gained a second bordering state—each other—with the 2022 division of Hans Island.) Vinokurov affirms that "no similar quantitative criterion is needed to define the scope of non-sovereign semi-enclaves/exclaves." Examples include: Alaska, one of the states in the United States, is the largest semi-enclave in the world, separated from the US by Canada. Oecusse, a district on the northwestern side of the island of Timor, is a semi-enclave of East Timor separated from the rest of the country by Indonesia. Ceuta and Melilla are Spanish semi-enclaves on the Mediterranean coast of Morocco. Temburong District is a Bruneian semi-enclave surrounded by Malaysia. The Temburong Bridge connects Temburong to the Brunei mainland. Kokkina, a village in the de facto state of Northern Cyprus, is a semi-enclave situated on the Mediterranean coast. It is separated from the rest of the country by the Republic of Cyprus. Kaliningrad Oblast is a federal subject of Russia (an oblast), a semi-exclave situated on the Baltic coast and bordering Lithuania and Poland. Sea access from the Russian mainland is possible from Saint Petersburg via the Gulf of Finland without passing through other states' territory. Cabinda (also spelled Kabinda, formerly Portuguese Congo) is a semi-exclave and a province of Angola on the Atlantic coast of southwestern Africa, separated by the only sea-access port of the Democratic Republic of the Congo; also bordered by the Republic of the Congo. French Guiana (a French Overseas Department), in South America, is a semi-exclave that is bounded by Suriname, Brazil, and the Atlantic Ocean. The southern part of Dubrovnik-Neretva County in Croatia is separated from the rest of the country by Neum in Bosnia and Herzegovina and is also bordered by Montenegro. The Republic of Ragusa once gave the town of Neum to the Ottoman Empire because it did not want to have a land border with Venice; this small municipality was inherited by Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Pelješac Bridge links the semi-exclave to the rest of country. Subnational enclaves and exclaves Sometimes, administrative divisions of a country, for historical or practical reasons, caused some areas to belong to one division while being attached to another. Examples include: In India: Dadra, enclaved within the state of Gujarat, is part of Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu in India. Puducherry district, of the Union Territory of Puducherry, is made of 12 non-contiguous parts, many of them are true enclaves entirely surrounded by the state of Tamil Nadu. Before Puducherry, along with the other territories of French India, was absorbed into India in 1954, they were enclaved within the Union of India, and before that the British Raj. Mahe district of Puducherry is made of three non-contiguous parts, two of which are true enclaves within the state of Kerala. Yanam district of Puducherry is an enclave surrounded entirely by the state of Andhra Pradesh. From 1947 to 1971, Bangladesh was a part of Pakistan as its East Pakistan exclave, separated from West Pakistan by 1,760 kilometers (1,100 miles) of India. It eventually gained independence in 1971, during the Bangladesh Liberation War. In the United Kingdom: Before 1974, and especially before 1844, there were many exclaves of counties in England and Wales. The counties of Scotland before reorganisation in 1889 included dozens of exclaves. This was especially notable in the case of Cromartyshire, which was split into at least nine parts spread across Ross-shire. In France: The French department of Pyrénées-Atlantiques, in the southwest of France, surrounds two enclaves of the neighbouring department of Hautes-Pyrénées. The French department of Vaucluse has a rather large exclave to its north that is an enclave within the Drôme department – the canton of Valréas (historically known as Enclave des Papes). San Colombano al Lambro is an exclave of the province of Milan at the junction between the Pavia and Lodi provinces. The exclave arose when the province of Lodi was carved out of the province of Milan, but a referendum in San Colombano indicated the locals' wish to stay in Milan. As a result, the commune is the only wine-producing area in the mostly urbanized province of Milan. In the United States: A portion of Ellis Island is an exclave of New York City within the boundaries of Jersey City, and therefore of New York State within the boundaries of New Jersey. The Kentucky Bend exists because of a meander of the Mississippi River. West Hollywood and Beverly Hills, California, adjoin one another, but are entirely surrounded by the city of Los Angeles. San Fernando, California, is entirely surrounded by the city of Los Angeles. Jeddito, Arizona, lies within a exclave of the Navajo Nation. This exclave is surrounded by territory of the Hopi Reservation, which is itself surrounded by the Navajo Nation. "Practical" enclaves, exclaves and inaccessible districts The term pene-exclave was defined in Robinson (1959) as "parts of the territory of one country that can be approached conveniently – in particular by wheeled traffic – only through the territory of another country." Thus, a pene-exclave, although having land borders, is not completely surrounded by the other's land or territorial waters. Catudal (1974) and Vinokurov (2007) further elaborate upon examples, including Point Roberts. "Although physical connections by water with Point Roberts are entirely within the sovereignty of the United States, land access is only possible through Canada." Pene-enclaves are also called functional enclaves or practical enclaves. They can exhibit continuity of state territory across territorial waters but, nevertheless, a discontinuity on land, such as in the case of Point Roberts. Along rivers that change course, pene-enclaves can be observed as complexes comprising many small pene-enclaves. A pene-enclave can also exist entirely on land, such as when intervening mountains render a territory, although geographically attached, inaccessible from other parts of a country except through alien territory. A commonly cited example is the Kleinwalsertal, a valley part of Vorarlberg, Austria, that is only accessible from Germany to the north, being separated from the rest of Austria by high mountains traversed by no roads. Another example is the Spanish village of Os de Civís, accessible from Andorra. Hence, such areas are enclaves or exclaves for practical purposes, without meeting the strict definition. Many pene-exclaves partially border the sea or another body of water, which comprises their own territorial waters (i.e., they are not surrounded by other nations' territorial waters). They border their own territorial waters in addition to a land border with another country, and hence they are not true exclaves. Still, one cannot travel to them on land without going through another country. Attribution of a pene-enclave status to a territory can sometimes be disputed, depending on whether the territory is considered to be practically inaccessible from the mainland or not. Northern Ireland, an area of the United Kingdom, is bounded by the Republic of Ireland, the Irish Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. Equatorial Guinea's continental portion, Río Muni, is a semi-exclave surrounded by Gabon, Cameroon and the Atlantic Ocean. The Northwest Angle in the U.S. state of Minnesota is geographically separated from the rest of the state (and United States) by the Lake of the Woods and is accessible on land only through the Canadian province of Manitoba. Additionally, Elm Point, south of the town of Buffalo Point in Manitoba, is separated from the rest of Minnesota by Lake of the Woods. Point Roberts, Washington, United States, is an unincorporated community in Whatcom County—located on the southernmost tip of the Tsawwassen Peninsula, south of Delta, British Columbia, Canada—that can be reached by land from the rest of the United States only by traveling through Canada. The U.S. state of Vermont has two pene-enclaves with the Canadian province of Quebec. Province Point, a few kilometres to the northeast of the town of East Alburgh, Vermont, is the southernmost tip of a small promontory approximately in size (). The promontory is cut through by the U.S./Canadian border; as such the area is a practical enclave of the United States contiguous with Canada. Similarly, the southern point of Province Island (), a small island mostly in Quebec, crosses into Vermont. It is situated in Lake Memphremagog, near Newport, Vermont. Walvis Bay, now part of Namibia, was a pene-exclave of the Cape Colony in German South-West Africa, created in 1878. It became part of the Cape Province of the Union of South Africa in 1910, but from 1922, it was administered as a de facto part of South-West Africa, a League of Nations Mandate. In 1977, it was separated from that territory and re-integrated into the Cape Province. South Africa did not relinquish sovereignty over Walvis Bay until 1994, nearly four years after Namibia's independence. Baritú National Park in Argentina can only be accessed by road through Bolivia, as it is separated from the nearest Argentinian roads by vast stretches of uninhabited rainforest. Subnational "practical" enclaves, exclaves, and inaccessible districts Although the Jervis Bay Territory, which occupies a coastal peninsula in Australia, is not part of the Australian Capital Territory, the laws of the ACT apply to it. This was to give the ACT coastal access, which it did not have as it was entirely surrounded by the state of New South Wales. The Romanian village of Nămoloasa (Galați County) can be accessed only through Vrancea County (where there is a bridge over the Siret), because it is separated by the Siret from the rest of Galați County. The southern part of the Province of Venice, Veneto, can be reached directly from the rest of the province only by boat. By land it can be reached only by traveling through the Province of Padua because territorial continuity with the main part of the province exists only through some unconnected islands and islets. It is not possible to drive from the northern half of County Leitrim in the Republic of Ireland to the southern half without leaving the county; Lough Allen and the River Shannon present a water barrier requiring one to drive through County Cavan to the east or County Roscommon to the west. The community of East Kemptville, Nova Scotia, Canada, is part of the Municipality of Argyle, but it can only be reached by road from the rest of the municipality by travelling through the Municipality of Yarmouth or the Municipality of Shelburne. The latter route also requires travelling through the Municipality of Barrington. The southeastern part of the Tai Po District (northern part of the Sai Kung Peninsula), Hong Kong, can be reached directly from the rest of the district only by boat. By land it can be reached only by traveling through the Sha Tin District because territorial continuity with the main part of the district is cut off by the Tolo Harbour. In the past, when there was no road network serving the region, the residents commonly travelled by boat to Tai Po Market for their daily lives, hence the districts were drawn this way, but now most of the ferries no longer exist, and residents travel by road to markets in Sha Tin District (Ma On Shan or Sha Tin) instead. Within the United States: Several portions of land, including parts of Finns Point and Artificial Island, on the New Jersey side of the Delaware River are Delaware territory. Within the Twelve-Mile Circle, Delaware's border extends to the low-water mark across the river. Outside of the Circle, the Delaware – New Jersey border follows the middle of the river and Delaware Bay. The Eastern Shore of Virginia on the southern portion of the Delmarva Peninsula shares a border with Maryland but is only connected to the rest of Virginia by the Chesapeake Bay Bridge-Tunnel, which is part of U.S. Route 13. The city of Carter Lake, Iowa is separated from the rest of the state of Iowa by the Missouri River, which changed course during a flood in 1877, cutting the city off from the rest of the state. It is now only accessible through Omaha, Nebraska. The village of Kaskaskia, Illinois, the state's first capital, is separated from the rest of Illinois by the Mississippi River due to a flood in 1881, which shifted the river to flow east of the town, rather than west. This resulted in the only access to the town being from Missouri. The Upper Peninsula of Michigan is separated from the Lower Peninsula by the Straits of Mackinac, so until the Mackinac Bridge was completed in 1957, the only land routes between them were through the states of Wisconsin, Illinois, and Indiana, or through the Canadian province of Ontario. The Marble Hill neighborhood of Manhattan was separated from the rest of the borough by the construction of the Harlem Ship Canal in 1895 and then connected to the North American mainland and the Bronx when the Harlem River was filled in on its north side in 1914. Although O'Hare International Airport is located in Chicago, it can only be reached directly from the rest of the city by passing through the suburban edge city of Rosemont. Enclaves within enclaves It is possible for an enclave of one country to be completely surrounded by a part of another country that is itself an enclave of the first country. These enclaves are sometimes called counter-enclaves. Two such complexes containing them exist currently: The Dutch municipality of Baarle-Nassau has seven exclaves in two exclaves of the Belgian municipality of Baarle-Hertog. Nahwa of the United Arab Emirates is surrounded by Madha, an exclave of Oman within the U.A.E. The former complex of enclaves at Cooch Behar district included 24 second-order enclaves and one small third-order enclave called Dahala Khagrabari #51: a piece of India within a part of Bangladesh, within a part of India, within Bangladesh. The Indo-Bangladesh enclaves were exchanged on 31 July 2015 by the ratified Land Boundary Agreement, and Dahala Khagrabari was ceded to Bangladesh. The border arrangements concerning the Vennbahn meant that, from 1922 to 1949, a Belgian counter-enclave existed within a German enclave. Ethnic enclaves An ethnic enclave is a community of an ethnic group inside an area in which another ethnic group predominates. Ghettos, Little Italys, barrios and Chinatowns are examples. These areas may have a separate language, culture and economic system. Székely Land is a Hungarian ethnic enclave within Romania, with its people calling themselves Székely. Originally, the name Székely Land denoted an autonomous region within Transylvania. It existed as a legal entity from medieval times until the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, when the Székely and Saxon seats were dissolved and replaced by the county system. Along with Transylvania, it became a part of Romania in 1920, according with the Treaty of Trianon signed on 4 June 1920 at the Grand Trianon Palace in Versailles, France. In 1938–1940, during World War II, post-Trianon Hungary temporarily expanded its territory and included some additional territories that were formerly part of the pre-war Kingdom of Hungary, under Third Reich auspices, the Second Vienna Award. It was later reduced to boundaries approximating those of 1920 by the peace treaties signed after World War II at Paris, in 1947. The area was called Magyar Autonomous Region between September 8, 1952, and February 16, 1968, a Hungarian autonomous region within Romania, and today there are territorial autonomy initiatives to reach a higher level of self-governance for this region within Romania. There are several Serb enclaves in Kosovo where the institutions of Kosovo are not fully operational due to disputes. Extraterritoriality Diplomatic missions, such as embassies and consulates, as well as military bases, are usually exempted from the jurisdiction of the host country, i.e., the laws of the host nation in which an embassy is located do not typically apply to the land of the embassy or base itself. This exemption from the jurisdiction of the host country is defined as extraterritoriality. Areas and buildings enjoying some forms of extraterritoriality are not true enclaves since, in all cases, the host country retains full sovereignty. In addition to embassies, some other areas enjoy a limited form of extraterritoriality. Examples of this include: Pavillon de Breteuil in France, used by the General Conference on Weights and Measures. United Nations headquarters in the United States, used by the United Nations. United Nations Office at Geneva in Switzerland, used by the United Nations. INTERPOL headquarters in Lyon, France, used by INTERPOL. NATO (political) headquarters near Evere in Haren, a part of the City of Brussels, Belgium. Headquarters of Allied Command Operations (NATO) at the area designated as Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE), north of Mons, Belgium. Palazzo Malta and the Villa del Priorato di Malta, the headquarters of Sovereign Military Order of Malta in Rome. In addition to extraterritoriality, Italy recognizes the exercise by SMOM of all the prerogatives of sovereignty in its headquarters. Therefore, Italian sovereignty and SMOM sovereignty uniquely coexist without overlapping. Extraterritorial properties of the Holy See in Rome and surroundings. By treaty of 2 November 1929, Czechoslovakia obtained the lease for 99 years of two plots of land (in the Moldauhafen and in the Saalehafen), both within the perimeter of the free port of Hamburg. Another plot, in the Peutehafen, was purchased by the Czechoslovak government in 1929; this plot lies just outside the free-port perimeter. Saalehafen – approximately 2 ha of land on Hallesches Ufer, on the southeastern bank of the Saalehafen. Moldauhafen – approximately 0.5 ha of land on Dresdener Ufer, on the southeastern bank of the Moldauhafen. Peutehafen – the narrow peninsula between the Peutekanal and the Peutehafen dock, comprising 8.054 ha of land and 0.5 ha of water surface. In Szczecin, Poland, a similar provision existed following the Treaty of Versailles for Czechoslovakia to have access to the harbor, which until the end of World War II was located in Germany. From 1945, when Szczecin became part of Poland, Czechoslovakia possessed no extraterritorial rights there. It appears that the German concession ceased at the end of the war and that no successor paid attention to the pre-war rights that Czechoslovakia had under the Versailles Treaty. Neither the Polish nor the occupying Russians appear to have assumed any of Germany's pre-war liabilities. Czechoslovakia gave up the rights to its territory in Szczecin under an agreement signed on 13 January 1956. Saimaa Canal: the longitudinal half of the canal in Russia is leased by Finland until 2063. Russian law is in principle valid, but in practice, Finland maintains the area. Under a treaty between the United Kingdom and the Kingdom of the Netherlands, a Scottish Court was established at Camp Zeist near Utrecht for the trial of those accused in the Lockerbie bombing. The premises were under the authority of the court and immune from external interference for the duration of the trial and subsequent appeal, which lasted from 1999 to 2002. Dutch law continued to apply there in principle but the court was allowed to enact superseding regulations, and court officials enjoyed diplomatic immunity. Contrary to a popular misconception, the area did not become territory of the United Kingdom and the Netherlands retained sovereignty over it as the host country, similar to the status of diplomatic missions. Land owned by a foreign country One or more parcels/holdings of land in most countries is owned by other countries. Most instances are exempt from taxes. In the special case of embassies/consulates these enjoy special privileges driven by international consensus particularly the mutual wish to ensure free diplomatic missions, such as being exempt from major hindrances and host-country arrests in ordinary times on the premises. Most non-embassy lands in such ownership are also not enclaves as they fall legally short of extraterritoriality, they are subject to alike court jurisdiction as before their grant/sale in most matters. Nonetheless, for a person's offence against the property itself, equally valid jurisdiction in criminal matters is more likely than elsewhere, assuming the perpetrator is found in the prosecuting authority's homeland. Devoid of permanent residents, formally defined new sovereignty is not warranted or asserted in the examples below. Nonetheless, minor laws, especially on flag flying, are sometimes relaxed to accommodate the needs of the accommodated nation's monument. Embassies enjoy many different legal statuses approaching quasi-sovereignty, depending on the agreements reached and in practice upheld from time-to-time by host nations. Subject to hosts adhering to basic due process of international law, including giving warnings, the enforced reduction of scope of a foreign embassy has always been a possibility, even to the point of expelling the foreign embassy entirely, usually on a breakdown of relations, in reaction to extreme actions such as espionage, or as another form of sanction. The same seems to be possible in profit-driven moving or drilling under any of the sites below, providing safeguards as the structure or a new replacement site. The same possible curtailments and alterations never apply to proper exclaves. Examples of such land other than for diplomatic missions are: Napoleon's original grave in Longwood, Saint Helena, owned by France. Victor Hugo's house in Saint Peter Port (Saint-Pierre-Port), Guernsey, owned by the city of Paris. The Brest memorial in Brest, France, is owned by the U.S. It commemorates World War I. The Normandy American Cemetery and Memorial in Normandy, France, which contains the graves of 9,386 American military dead, most of whom died during the landings and ensuing operations of World War II, owned by the United States. Pointe du Hoc, the 13-hectare site of a memorial and museum dedicated to the World War II Normandy landing at Omaha Beach, France, transferred to the U.S. on 11 January 1979. The to Russia's final Generalissimo Alexander Suvorov near Göschenen in central Switzerland, was erected 99 years after his death by the Russian Empire. The Vimy Memorial in France, which commemorates the Battle of Vimy Ridge. The French government permanently granted the about to Canada as a war memorial in 1922 in recognition of Canada's military contributions in World War I in general and at Vimy Ridge in particular. Two cemeteries on the Outer Banks of North Carolina, United States: one on Ocracoke Island and one on Hatteras Island in the town of Buxton, are owned by the United Kingdom hosting the British seamen washed ashore after World War II U-boat attacks of 10 April (one from the San Delfino) and 11 May 1942 (five from HMT Bedfordshire). Four graves are at Ocracoke and two at Buxton; three of the bodies were never identified; one of them could be that of a Canadian seaman. The plot of land at Ocracoke "has been forever ceded to England" and is maintained by the U.S. Coast Guard. The plot was leased to the Commonwealth War Graves Commission for as long as the land remained a cemetery. The graves on Hatteras Island are maintained by the U.S. National Park Service. The Captain Cook Monument at Kealakekua Bay and about of land around it in Hawaii, United States, the place where James Cook was killed in 1779, is owned by the United Kingdom. An historian on the occasion of the monument's 50th anniversary recorded in 1928 that the white stone "obelisk monument [was] erected to the memory of Captain Cook, about 1876, and on land deeded outright to the British Government by Princess Likelike, sister of King Kalakaua, about the same year, so that that square is absolute British Territory." Hawaii was a sovereign nation at the time. According to MacFarlane, "The land under the monument was deeded to the United Kingdom in 1877 and is considered as sovereign non-embassy land owned by the British Embassy in Washington DC. ... the Hawaiian State Parks agency maintained that as sovereign British territory it was the responsibility of the UK to maintain the site." Tiwinza in Peru: In the 1998 peace agreement following the 1995 Cenepa War, Peru ceded to Ecuador the property, but not the sovereignty, of one square kilometre within Tiwinza (where 14 Ecuadorian soldiers were buried). Ecuador had established a frontier military outpost in Tiwinza, an area that was specified in the agreement as belonging to Peru. The land under the John F. Kennedy memorial at Runnymede, United Kingdom, was transferred from the Crown Estates to the United States by the John F. Kennedy Memorial Act 1964 (an Act of the U.K. Parliament); however, it is in the care of the U.K.-based Kennedy Memorial Trust. The Tomb of Suleyman Shah (of Suleyman Shah, the grandfather of Osman I, the founder of the Ottoman Empire) in Aleppo Governorate, Syria, is the property of Turkey. Article 9 of the Treaty of Ankara signed between France and Turkey in 1921, provides that the tomb "shall remain, with its appurtenances, the property of Turkey, who may appoint guardians for it and may hoist the Turkish flag there". Property and land owned by Sultan of Johor in Singapore, due to historical tie between the two. Notably the Temenggong Daeng Ibrahim Mosque in Singapore is administered by Majlis Agama Islam Johor instead of Islamic Religious Council of Singapore Unusual cross-border transport channels National railway passing through another state's territory Changes in borders can make a railway that was previously located solely within a country traverse the new borders. Since diverting a railway is expensive, this arrangement may last a long time. This may mean that doors on passenger trains are locked and guarded to prevent illicit entry and exit while the train is temporarily in another country. Borders can also be in the "wrong" place, forcing railways into difficult terrain. In large parts of Europe, where the Schengen Area has eliminated border controls when travelling between its 27 member countries, this problem no longer exists, and railways can criss-cross borders with no need for border controls or locked trains. Examples include: Africa Due to inability to agree in 1963 on a shorter route through easy terrain, the iron ore railway in Mauritania originally had to use a longer route through a tunnel (built through 2 km of solid granite) near Choum to avoid the territory of Spanish Sahara. The tunnel is no longer in use and trains now use the shorter route through 5 km of Western Saharan territory controlled by the Polisario Front. In 2013, in Mozambique, the shortest railway route from coal mines at Tete to a port at Nacala passes through Malawi. A route through solely Mozambican territory is circuitous. In 1928, Belgian Congo and Portuguese Angola exchanged some land to facilitate the new route of the railway to Congo-Kinshasa. Americas Bolivia is landlocked and has no access to the sea, but a rail route runs through Chile from La Paz to the port of Arica on the Pacific Ocean. The rail route was built by Chile under the Treaty of Peace and Friendship of 1904 between Chile and Bolivia, with the Bolivian section transferred to Bolivia after 15 years. Bolivia enjoyed duty-free use of the railway and the ports connected. The Canadian National Railway's Sprague Subdivision crosses the Canada–U.S. border twice along its length. The subdivision is part of CN's main line between Chicago and Western Canada, and sees significant rail traffic. Originating in Rainy River, Ontario, the line crosses the town's namesake river and enters the U.S. at Baudette, Minnesota. It continues for 44 miles (70 km) through the State of Minnesota, before re-entering Canada and terminating 100 mi (160 km) further west in CN's Symington Yard near Winnipeg, Manitoba. Signage and signalling adhere to Canadian Rail Operating Rules throughout the subdivision, including the U.S. section, eliminating the need for crew changes at the border crossings. Arrangements with Canadian and US border officials allow for 'roll-through' border clearances and inspections. The Canadian Pacific Railway's Newport Subdivision crosses the Canada-U.S. border three times along its length. Originating at Brookport, northwest of Cowansville, Quebec, it crosses the border 26 miles (42 km) to the southeast and passes through Richford, Vermont, re-entering Quebec 1.1 miles (1.8 km) later. After a further 10.7 miles (17 km) east, it re-enters the U.S. before terminating in Newport, Vermont and connecting with the Washington County Railroad. The International Railway of Maine was a railroad constructed by the Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR) between Lac-Mégantic, Quebec, and Mattawamkeag, Maine, closing a key gap in the railway's transcontinental main line to the port of Saint John, New Brunswick. The railway was, however, at all times under American jurisdiction within the borders of the United States. The Woodland Rail Company owns an 11.8 mi (18.9 km) -long rail line that crosses the Canada-U.S. border twice along its length. Originating at an interchange with the New Brunswick Southern Railway's Milltown Spur in Calais, Maine, the line follows the former Maine Central Railroad's Calais Branch and Woodland Spur. From Saint Croix Junction, the line continues southwest, crossing the Saint Croix River at Baring, Maine, and entering Canada at Upper Mills, New Brunswick. The line continues for 5 miles (8 km) through New Brunswick before re-entering the U.S. after crossing the Saint Croix River again at Sprague Falls. The line terminates at the end of an industrial spur serving a pulp mill in Baileyville, Maine. In order to avoid such a trans-border arrangement, the United States made the Gadsden Purchase of land from Mexico, on which it was planned to build a southern route for the transcontinental railroad. Owing to the topography of the area, acquisition of the land was the only feasible way to construct such a railroad through the southern New Mexico Territory. The former San Diego and Arizona Railway, completed in 1919, ran between the California cities of San Diego and El Centro with of track in Mexico between Tijuana and Tecate. The Mexican segment is now operated as the short line Baja California Railroad. Europe Current Salzburg to Innsbruck (Austria) passes through Rosenheim, Germany. A railway line within Austria exists as well, but trains take about 1.5 hours longer than across German territory. Trains on the Birsig Valley Line from Basel to Rodersdorf, Switzerland, which passes through Leymen, France. It is operated by Baselland Transport and serviced by line no. 10, which continues into the Basel tram network. The Hochrheinbahn (High Rhine Railway) from Basel via Waldshut to Schaffhausen is part of the Deutsche Bahn network, and is mostly in Germany, but the two ends are in Switzerland and it is only connected with the rest of the German railway network via Switzerland. At both Basel and Schaffhausen the railway has extraterritorial status: one can travel by train to and from the rest of Germany without going through Swiss customs, despite travelling over territory of the Swiss Customs Area. See Basel Badischer Bahnhof. Trains from Neugersdorf, Saxony to Zittau pass Czech territory at Varnsdorf, while Czech trains from Varnsdorf to Chrastava pass through German territory at Zittau, and then a small part of Polish territory near the village of Porajów. Trains from Görlitz to Zittau, Germany, pass the border river Neisse several times (see Oder–Neisse line); the railway station for Ostritz, Germany, lies in Krzewina, Poland. Belgrade–Bar railway crosses into Bosnia and Herzegovina for , between stations Zlatibor and Priboj (both in Serbia). There is one station, Štrpci, but there are no border-crossing facilities, and trains do not call at the station. The Knin – Bihać railway between Croatia and Bosnia is split by the Croatian–Bosnian border several times. Similarly, the Savski Marof – Imeno railway was split by the Slovenian–Croatian border several times. Lučenec – Veľký Krtíš line in Slovakia passes through Hungary from Ipolytarnóc to Nógrádszakál. The local trains on the Burgenlandbahn in Austria cross the area of Hungary at Sopron. During the era of the Iron Curtain, the trains had their doors locked as they traversed Hungarian territory. The line from Ventimiglia to Limone Piemonte, Italy, via Breil-sur-Roya, France. The railway between France and Italy briefly leaves France to enter Monaco before entering France once more. The railway has a 5300-metre tunnel that goes through Monaco and further, and has an underground station in Monaco. For the Belgian Vennbahn (now a cycleway) narrow strips of Belgian territory were created running through Germany, creating five German exclaves. The former Soviet republics have numerous examples: Semikhody – Chernihiv-Ovruch railway of Ukraine passes through Belarus territory. Belarus/Lithuania: Adutiškis railway station straddles the Lithuania/Belarus border. Trains pass through Lithuanian territory while traveling to and from Belarus, and platforms are in both Belarus and Lithuania. The station is now mainly used for freight. Druzhba – Vorozhba line of Ukraine passes through Russian territory. In 2009, Russia and Kazakhstan agreed to transfer ownership of a cross-border section of line. Trains running between Schaffhausen and Rafz pass through the German towns of Jestetten and Lottstetten. Historical During the Cold War, underground lines in West Berlin ran under parts of East Berlin. Ghost stations () were stations on Berlin's U-Bahn and S-Bahn metro networks that were closed during this period of Berlin's division. In Finland, Porkkala was leased to the Soviet Union as a Soviet naval base between 1944 and 1956. Porkkala is located on the Rantarata, the main railway line between Helsinki and Turku. Initially, only Soviet traffic was permitted through, forcing Finnish State Railways to reroute the trains through a circuitous route via Toijala. However, in 1947, the Soviets agreed to let Finnish trains through. At the border, Finnish trains were shunted to a Soviet locomotive, windows were shuttered, guards were posted to the doors, and the Soviet locomotive would pull the train through the base area, to be shunted back to a Finnish locomotive at the opposite border. Proposals The shortest and straightest route for a proposed east–west high-speed railway in Austria through Linz, Salzburg and Innsbruck would pass under some mountains belonging to Germany. In 2012, a railway route was proposed from Angola proper to the enclave of Cabinda crossing not only the Congo River but also about 40 km of territory of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Highway of one state passing through another state's territory This arrangement is less common as highways are more easily re-aligned. Some examples are: Africa Congo Pedicle road: built to provide access for Zambia's Luapula Province to the Copperbelt through of territory of the DR Congo, requiring a change from driving on the left to driving on the right. In Guinea, where 20 km long tunnel(s) through a hillspur at Naigaya (elevation ), Sicourou, Bokariadi and Feraya might be avoided by crossing the border into Sierra Leone at Yana (elevation ). Senegal is practically and inconveniently divided almost in two by the sovereign territory of The Gambia. Until the completion of the Senegambia bridge in 2019, the easiest way to travel from northern Senegal to the southern Casamance region was through Gambia via the Trans-Gambia Highway, with a connecting ferry being the only way to cross the Gambia River. The fare for the ferry crossing is a source of contention between the two countries. Americas East Richford Slide Road in the U.S. state of Vermont crosses into the Canadian province of Québec for a distance of approximately 100 metres (300 feet) before returning to the United States. A cemetery lies directly on the border vista. Asia The road from Dubai to the tourist spot of Hatta, an exclave of the emirate of Dubai, passes through a small stretch of Omani territory. The highway between Bishkek and Issyk Kul, both in Kyrgyzstan, skirts the border with Kazakhstan, with the highway and the border crossing each other for short distances at various points. Europe Various roads cross the Republic of Ireland–United Kingdom border, back and forth between the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland. The N54 in County Monaghan (RoI) twice becomes the A3 in County Fermanagh (NI), before continuing as the N54. Similarly, the N53 in Monaghan passes through County Armagh (NI) as the A37, before resuming as the N53 at a point where County Armagh, County Monaghan and County Louth (RoI) all meet. , no national or border signs are present: the only indication is the change in margin markings and signs to indicate a change in speed limits between mph and km/h. It remains to be seen whether Brexit will change this friendly arrangement, which has persisted since the Good Friday Agreement of 1998. Between 1963 and 2002 the N274 road from Roermond to Heerlen, part of Dutch territory, passed through the German Selfkant, which had been annexed by the Netherlands after the Second World War but returned to Germany in 1963. Close to Narvik, a road from Norway twice enters and leaves Swedish territory, following the southern shore of the Kjårdavatnet lake. It does not connect with any other Swedish road in either location before it enters Norwegian land once more. It is private and built for hydropower plants but usable for public. Norwegian road 92 continues in Finland as road 92 before it continues as road 92 again in Norway. Norwegian road 7012 continues as road Z821 in Sweden before continuing as road 7012 in Norway again. Road Z821 (near Gäddede) had right-hand driving also before 1967 when the rest of Sweden had left-hand driving. These roads are mostly number construction and do not have special privileges. Road 402 between Podsabotin and Solkan in Slovenia, built when Slovenia was a state of Yugoslavia, passes through Italy for . This section of the road does not intersect any other roads and is confined by high concrete walls topped by fences. As Slovenia and Italy are now both signatories to the Schengen Agreement, the barriers are little more than historical curiosities, although there is modern signage indicating that photography is forbidden along the Italian part of the road and that stopping is prohibited. The Saatse Boot Road in Estonia, between the villages of Lutepää and Sesniki, passes through Russian territory. The stretch of road passing through Russia is flanked by barbed wire fences and guard towers. Stopping and/or getting out of one's vehicle on the stretch of road is forbidden; the rule is enforced by Russian border guards. The D8 coastal highway of Croatia passes through a small section of Bosnia and Herzegovina territory, at the town of Neum, as it heads south from Split, Croatia, to Dubrovnik. Geneva Airport in Switzerland has a French Sector, which, while legally and geographically in Switzerland, is a de facto French domestic terminal used solely for flights to and from destinations in metropolitan France, and staffed by French officials. Thus, prior to Switzerland's accession to the Schengen Area (which entered into force for air travel in March 2009), the French Sector saved the need for border controls for flights between France and Geneva Airport. The French Sector is only accessible by a road connecting it directly to France, which passes through Swiss territory but has no junctions or other physical access to Switzerland. This road leads to a turn-off on the French side of the Ferney-Voltaire border crossing, thus bypassing Swiss passport controls when they were operational before 2009. While Switzerland's membership of the Schengen Area now renders the convenience of avoiding passport controls obsolete, there is still a small advantage gained in using the French Sector: Switzerland is not in the EU Customs Union, so customs (but not passport) checks are still carried out at Switzerland's border posts. The French Sector, with its road that leads directly to France without access to Switzerland, bypasses this requirement. EuroAirport on French territory near Basel/Mulhouse is similar. It has a Swiss section with a customs-free road to Switzerland. Basel (Badischer) and Geneva railway stations also have similar foreign areas. Subnational highway passing through other internal territory Americas United States: Interstate 684, connecting various points in New York State, passes through Connecticut near Kensico Reservoir and Westchester County Airport but is maintained entirely by New York State. Motor vehicles cannot enter from nor exit to Connecticut roads, even though a portion of the highway is owned by Connecticut. A portion of New York State Route 17/Interstate 86 passes through South Waverly, Pennsylvania but is maintained entirely by New York State. This includes the roadway and traffic lights at the interchange with US Route 220 and a short portion of Pennsylvania Route 199. Nevertheless, Pennsylvania police enforce traffic laws on this short stretch, where there is one overpass built and owned by Pennsylvania. A portion of New Hampshire Route 153 runs along the border with and briefly passes through Parsonsfield, Maine, as it sweeps around the eastern shore of Province Lake. Minnesota State Highway 23 passes through about of Wisconsin just west of Duluth, Minnesota. Maintained by the Minnesota Department of Transportation, it intersects only a few dead-end local roads while in Wisconsin. No state line signs are present. Hopkins Road north of Newark, Delaware, briefly enters Pennsylvania where the Twelve-Mile Circle meets the Mason–Dixon Line. The road is maintained by Delaware, and it appears that at one time Arc Corner Road in Pennsylvania may have intersected here. Further east, Beaver Dam Road enters Chadds Ford Township, Pennsylvania, at the intersection of Beaver Valley Road and re-enters Delaware about 0.5 miles later. It is unclear who is supposed to maintain the section in Pennsylvania. Wyoming Highway 70 enters Moffat County, Colorado, for approximately . The route through Colorado is maintained by the Wyoming Department of Transportation. Arizona State Route 101 enters the sovereign Salt River Pima–Maricopa Indian Community for approximately as it skirts the eastern edge of Scottsdale, Arizona, whose neighborhoods were built out to the reservation boundary prior to construction. Use of the land for the freeway on Tribal land is under a lease agreement. The route is maintained by the Arizona Department of Transportation. Asia India The highway connecting Guwahati (Assam state) to Silchar (a city in Barak valley of Assam) passes through Meghalaya state. One has to travel through part of West Bengal while travelling from Jamshedpur (Tatanagar), Jharkhand to a few other cities of Jharkhand like Ranchi or Dhanbad. Kota, a city in Rajasthan surrounded by territory of Madhya Pradesh, is connected to other parts of Rajasthan by roads passing through Madhya Pradesh. Gwalior (Madhya Pradesh) is connected to few other cities of Madhya Pradesh by highways passing through Uttar Pradesh, covering the city of Jhansi. Turkey: The main road for travel to Bartın via Zonguldak actually crosses Bartın first, traverses Zonguldak a short distance, then returns to Bartın. Border transport infrastructure Africa The Kazungula Bridge connects Zambia and Botswana in Southern Africa. The shared border between the two countries is approximately 150 m long, in the middle of the Zambezi River, and thus very nearly forms a quadripoint between Zambia, Botswana, Namibia, and Zimbabwe. Because the border between Zambia and Botswana is so short and because of the orientation of the river banks, the span of the bridge curves to avoid crossing the adjacent territory of Namibia or Zimbabwe. Americas In 2009, the Canada Border Services Agency relocated its border inspection post from Cornwall Island, Ontario, a border region with the United States, to Cornwall, Ontario, across from the island and thus further inland, after protests erupted over the CBSA's firearm policy on Mohawk Nation's sovereign land. To avoid severe penalty, people entering from the United States who are destined for the island are required to proceed across the island to report to the new CBSA post in Cornwall before making a U-turn to return to the island. Residents of the island visiting Cornwall or beyond must also report to the CBSA. Those returning to the island from Cornwall are the only group not required to go through any border inspection. Asia The Hong Kong–Shenzhen Western Corridor on the Hong Kong–mainland China border: the immigration control points for Hong Kong (Shenzhen Bay Control Point) and mainland China (Shenzhen Bay Port) are co-located in the same building on the Shenzhen side of the bridge in an effective pene-exclave. The Hong Kong portion of the service building and the adjoining bridge are leased to Hong Kong, and are under Hong Kong's jurisdiction for an initial period until 30 June 2047. The Mainland Port Area in Kowloon High Speed Railway Station in downtown Hong Kong is under the jurisdiction of the Mainland Chinese authorities and courts. The 30 km long tunnel to the border is under Hong Kong jurisdiction, however, the train compartments of any train in operation (that is carrying passengers to or from the Mainland) are subject to Mainland Laws and jurisdiction. This arrangement was created to allow for immigration clearance to occur in Hong Kong for all trains travelling to and from the Mainland of China. This has stirred much controversy and multiple protests in Hong Kong. As a legacy of British Malaya, the Malaysian rail network had its southern terminus at Tanjong Pagar railway station in central Singapore. The land on which the station and the rail tracks stood was leased to Keretapi Tanah Melayu, the Malaysian state railway operator. Consequently, Malaysia had partial sovereignty over the railway land. Passengers had to clear Malaysian customs and immigration checks at Tanjong Pagar before boarding the train to Malaysia, even after Singapore shifted its border control facility to the actual border in 1998 and objected to the continued presence of Malaysian officials at the station. After a 20-year long dispute, the station was closed in 2011 and the railway land reverted to Singapore. A remnant of the rail corridor is still in use; KTM trains now terminate at Woodlands Train Checkpoint in northern Singapore near the border, which houses Malaysian and Singaporean border controls for rail passengers. Europe Several bridges cross the rivers Oder and Neisse between Germany and Poland. To avoid needing to coordinate their efforts on a single bridge, the two riparian states assign each bridge to one or the other; thus Poland is responsible for all maintenance on some of the bridges, including the German side, and vice versa. The Hallein Salt Mine crosses from Austria into Germany. Under an 1829 treaty Austria can dig under the then-Kingdom of Bavaria. In return some salt has to be given to Bavaria, and up to 99 of its citizens can be hired to work in the Austrian mine. The twin town of TornioHaparanda or HaparandaTornio lies at the mouth of river Tornio, Tornio on the Finnish side and Haparanda on the Swedish side. The two towns have a common public transportation, as well as cultural services, fire brigade, sports facilities, etc. The Basel Badischer Bahnhof is a railway station in the Swiss city of Basel. Although situated on Swiss soil, because of the 1852 treaty between the Swiss Confederation and the state of Baden (one of the predecessors of today's Germany), the largest part of the station (the platforms and the parts of the passenger tunnel that lead to the German/Swiss checkpoint) is treated administratively as an inner-German railway station operated by the Deutsche Bahn. The shops in the station hall, however, are Swiss, and the Swiss franc is used as the official currency there (although the euro is universally accepted). The Swiss post office, car rental office, restaurant and a cluster of shops are each separately located wholly within a surrounding station area that is administered by the German railway. The customs controls are located in a tunnel between the platforms and the station hall; international trains that continue to Basel SBB usually had on-board border controls, until they were abolished in 2008 when Switzerland joined the Schengen Area. The tram network in the French city of Strasbourg was extended into the neighbouring German city of Kehl in 2017. The railway stations of Audun-le-Tiche and Volmerange-les-Mines are both located in France but are owned, operated and maintained by the Luxembourg National Railway Company, as are the short stretches of railway between the stations and the Luxembourg border. Thus, holders of a Luxembourg railway pass can travel to these stations without requiring a French ticket. The stations are both end stations on different lines and are not physically connected to any French railway. There are no border issues, as both France and Luxembourg are in the Schengen Area. Likewise, a short stretch of narrow-gauge railway line connects Hendaye in south-western France to the rest of the San Sebastián Metro network over the border in Spain. The bus network of Bratislava, the capital of Slovakia, extends to the nearby Austrian village Wolfsthal where the train S7 (Schnellbahn) from Vienna has its terminal station. After the fall of the Iron Curtain, the abandoned rail road track from Wolfsthal to Bratislava could not be reinstalled because the land had been sold for housing projects. See also Flagpole annexation Landlocked country Panhandle Inner suburb Lists List of countries that border only one other country List of enclaves and exclaves List of ethnic enclaves in North American cities List of former foreign enclaves in China Citations General and cited references External links Rolf Palmberg's Enclaves of the world Jan S. Krogh's Geosite "Tangled Territories" 2005 review article on exclaves and enclaves in Europe published in Hidden Europe magazine Barry Smith's Baarle Site Evgeny Vinokurov's Theory of Enclaves – a comprehensive economic and political treatment of enclaves and exclaves Enclaves and exclaves Border-related lists Political geography
4849012	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20historical%20acts%20of%20tax%20resistance	List of historical acts of tax resistance	Tax resistance, the practice of refusing to pay taxes that are considered unjust, has probably existed ever since rulers began imposing taxes on their subjects. It has been suggested that tax resistance played a significant role in the collapse of several empires, including the Egyptian, Roman, Spanish, and Aztec. Many rebellions and revolutions have been prompted by resentment of taxation or had tax refusal as a component. Examples of historic events that originated as tax revolts include the Magna Carta, the American Revolution, and the French Revolution. This page is a partial list of global tax revolts and tax resistance actions that have come to the attention of Wikipedia's editors. This includes actions in which a person or people refused to pay a tax of some sort, either through passive resistance or by actively obstructing the tax collector or collecting authorities, and actions in which people boycotted some taxed good or activity or engaged in a strike to reduce or eliminate the tax due. Examples Before 1500 A.D. Jewish Zealots, 1st century A.D. In the 1st century AD, Jewish Zealots in Judaea resisted the poll tax instituted by the Roman Empire. Jesus was accused of promoting tax resistance prior to his torture and execution ("We found this fellow perverting the nation, and forbidding to give tribute to Cæsar, saying that he himself is Christ a King" — Luke 23:2). After the destruction of the temple in Jerusalem in 70 AD, Jews, particularly those exiled to Egypt, refused to pay the still-extant "temple tax" to Rome (which it was using to maintain pagan temples); Rome responded by destroying Jewish temples. Limoges, 578 In 578 AD residents of Limoges, encouraged by the local clergy, rioted, destroying tax-collecting paraphernalia and threatening the assessor. The government responded harshly, with punishments including torture and crucifixion, though Queen Fredegund later was said to have repented and rescinded the tax. Peace and Truce of God In councils organized by the Peace and Truce of God movement, Christian clergy resisted the exaction of taxes against church property by warlords. Danegeld, 1041 In 1041, residents of Worcester rebelled against the Danegeld being collected by King Harthacnut, and killed two of his tax collectors. Harthacnut responded by burning Worcester to the ground. Constantinople, 1197 When Alexios III Angelos tried to tax residents of Constantinople in order to come up with money to pay protection money to Henry VI, the people of Constantinople refused to pay, and Alexios was reduced to trying to collect the sum by stripping the ornaments from old tombs. Florence, 1289 A war tax instituted by the Florentine seigniory in 1288 and increased in 1289 led to mass tax resistance that forced the government to abandon the tax. Clericis laicos, 1296 In 1296, Pope Boniface VIII issued the clericis laicos, which prohibited secular governments from taxing churches without the permission of the Pope, and prohibited church officials from paying such taxes. Archbishop Robert Winchelsey used this as the basis for his refusal to pay taxes to Edward I of England, and urged the clergy under his direction to do likewise. Norman anti-tax riots, 1348–51 In Normandy in June 1348, tax resisters attacked the tax collectors of King Philip VI, "pillaging and burning their houses." In August 1351, citizens of Rouen rioted, "destroying 'the counters, boxes, and other objects necessary to make and operate' collection of" a new tax instituted by John II. In 1355, Geoffroy of Harcourt urged residents of Rouen to refuse to pay the hearth tax and allied with Charles the Bad against John II′s taxes. Wat Tyler′s rebellion, 1381 In 1381, the Peasant's Revolt occurred in England, when Wat Tyler led an uprising over a new poll tax. Tyler marched an army of tens of thousands of peasants from Kent to Canterbury, then to London, beheaded the archbishop, and exacted radical concessions from King Richard II. During the negotiations, Tyler was killed by officers of the King and was publicly beheaded, and Richard II retracted all of the concessions that he had previously made. French aides uprisings, 1381 In 1381 there was widespread tax rebellion in France. In Rouen workers in the textile trade gathered in the Old Market, chose one of their own to represent the king, and had this mock king sign acts abolishing the aides. In Paris the collectors′ threat to seize a greengrocer′s still on the Right Bank roused local residents to assemble, shout "Down with taxes!" and chase off the tax collectors.... The rebellion then spread to Caen and other towns in Normandy and to towns in Picardy, where opposition was especially virulent in Amiens. It moved through Orleans and on to Sens, finally reaching Lyons... Bundschuh movement The Bundschuh movement was in part a tax resistance movement that encouraged its followers to stop paying tithes to the Catholic Church and taxes. In France, a tithe-payer strike spread from 1529 to 1560 among both Catholics and Protestants. Flemish revolt against Maximilian of Austria, 1488 The guilds of Bruges (supported by the other Flemish cities) held later emperor Maximilian captive when he heavily disturbed the economy by raising taxes and seigniorage in order to wage war. They negotiated better terms and then released him. He then reneged on the agreement and took his armies back to Bruges in revenge. Bruges lost its administrative functions to the city of Ghent. 16th century Revolt of the Comuneros, 1520 In Spain, the people of Salamanca in 1520 refused to pay any taxes because of their belief that Charles I was sending the tax money to the Netherlands. They were joined by other towns, which eventually formed the Revolt of the Comuneros. Amicable Grant revolt in England, 1525 Under the leadership of his chief minister Thomas Wolsey, England's King Henry VIII repeatedly raised taxes and imposed forced loans in the 1520s to pay for his large-scale wars in Europe. Finally the call for an "Amicable Grant" of non-repayable loans in 1525 went too far. Parliament had not voted it, and the English landed and financial elites refused to pay. Passive resistance was widespread and England was on the verge of violent resistance when the program was hurriedly ended. Lack of money ended Henry's plans for an invasion of France, and he took England out of the war with the Treaty of the More on 30 August 1525. German Peasants′ War, 1524–25 The German Peasants' War of 1524–25 was in part a tax resistance campaign. The rebels vowed to set their own tithes, and said: The small tithes, whether ecclesiastical or lay, we will not pay at all, for the Lord God created cattle for the free use of man. We will not, therefore, pay farther an unseemly tithe which is of man′s invention.... Henceforth no one shall have to pay death taxes, whether small or large. Revolt of Ghent, 1539 The Revolt of Ghent began when the city magistrates refused to pay taxes demanded by Charles V for his war with France. Hutterites In the 16th century, Hutterites refused to pay taxes for war or capital punishment. One wrote: For war, killing, and bloodshed (where it is demanded especially for that) we give nothing, but not out of wickedness or arbitrariness, but out of the fear of God () that we may not be partakers in strange sins. Another wrote: [When] the government requires of us what is contrary to our faith and conscience — as swearing oaths and paying hangman's dues or taxes for war — then we do not obey its command. Gabelle revolts, 1542, 1548 Residents of La Rochelle rebelled against the gabelle, or salt tax, in 1542. "[A]rmed rebels thwarted the tax-collecting efforts of two successive visitations of royal commissioners sent out to enforce the [gabelle] edicts." A second revolt centered in Guyenne in 1548 was more organized, widespread, and violent; and was violently suppressed. Also in August 1548, there were violent revolts against the gabelle in Bordeaux in which tax collectors were killed and their homes burnt. The French central government sent in thousands of troops who terrorized the occupants, imposed martial law, and enforced humiliating terms; however "Amazingly, in the long run, the rebellion did achieve its aim. Unnerved by the riots, Henri II decided not to enforce the salt tax." Tariff resistance in Holland, 1543–49 Merchants in Holland successfully resisted a variety of export duties imposed by the Holy Roman Empire via Mary of Hungary. Tax strikes in France, 1579–80 In Romans-sur-Isère and other parts of Dauphiné, anti-tax leagues formed, which grew into a powerful rebellion that was crushed in the wake of the ambush and murder of many of the rebel leaders by vigilantes during the Carnival of 1580. The Revolt Against the Tribute, Philippines, 1589 In 1589, the provinces of Cagayán, Ilocos Norte, and Ilocos Sur rebelled against unjust Spanish colonial taxes and abusive tax collectors in what became known as the "Revolt Against the Tribute," the "Dingrás Revolt," or the "Ilocos Norte Revolt." Rappenkrieg, 1591–94 In a three-year-long tax refusal campaign called the Rappenkrieg or "farthing war," the residents of Basel, Switzerland refused to pay a tax destined for the bishop. Croquants, 1593–95 Peasant rebels in southwestern France called "croquants" included "refusal to pay tithes, tailles, and rents... and resistance to tax collectors and their agents." A second rebellion in Vivarais at the same time also centered on refusal to pay the taille. Sales tax resistance in France, 1597 A number of towns in France, notably Poitiers, resisted the imposition of a new sales tax by Henry IV in 1597. The King at first stubbornly enforced the tax by force, but eventually decided the expense and fuss was not worth the income and rescinded the tax. Jelali revolts The Jelali revolts were typically inspired by taxes or the action of tax collectors, and included tax resistance strategies, including "The Great Flight" — a sort of mass emigration by peasants from their land to avoid taxes. 17th Century Bolotnikov rebellion, 1606 During the Bolotnikov rebellion, tribes in western Siberia began refusing to pay taxes to the central government. Brussels, 1619 In the city of Brussels, then part of the Duchy of Brabant in the Habsburg Netherlands, there was a tax strike in 1619. When the States of Brabant (composed of representatives of the clergy, the nobility, and the four cities Leuven, Brussels, Antwerp and 's-Hertogenbosch) met to renew the standard sales tax on the "four species of consumption" (beer, wine, bread and meat), the guilds of the city of Brussels instructed their representatives not to vote the taxes through until their grievances had been addressed. As the constitutional principle was that taxes had to be passed by "full consent", this meant the taxes could not legally be collected. After two months of constitutional impasse and fruitless negotiations (May–June) the government ordered the taxes to be collected notwithstanding. The guilds made this impossible, and their defiance of the government led to a military occupation of the city in September 1619. The central authorities then revised the civic constitution to limit the power of the guilds to filibuster the States of Brabant. The deans of six of the guilds, and their legal counsel, were served with sentences of lifelong banishment from the Low Countries. English Civil War In 1627, John Hampden was imprisoned for his opposition to the loan Charles I authorised without parliamentary sanction, and he also refused to pay ship money to the Royal Navy. The attempts to imprison resisters like Hampden led to the English Civil War. From the summer of 1646 through 1648, the city of London refused to pay taxes to the New Model Army which was occupying the city. In a celebrated 1654 case, George Cony refused to pay customs duties that had been instituted by The Protectorate without consent of parliament. 17th-century tax rebellions in France In 1615, the residents of one commune refused to pay the wine tithe and threatened to throw the collector into the Rhône. In Poitiers, France, in 1624 and again on multiple occasions in 1663, mobs attacked inns where French tax farmers were staying, threatening to torch the building and kill those inside. The success of anti-tax rebellions in Saintonge and Angoumois led to other rebellions in France, including some in which excise officers were lynched. The most notorious incident was the massacre of tax officers responsible for collecting the gabelle at Agen in June 1635. A second "Croquants′ Revolt" in 1636–37 (with some outbreaks as early as 1628) concerned the taxes being raised to support France′s entry into the Thirty Years' War. The revolt included the lynching of tax officials, a tax strike, and a major battle at which over 2,000 people were killed. The major rebellion was defeated, but outbreaks of mass tax resistance continued as late as 1658. From 1638 to 1645, the residents of Pardiac refused to pay their taxes, rose up to free the officials who had been imprisoned for failure to remit the tax money, repulsed government troops sent to enforce the tax laws, and massacred a tax official and his bodyguard. In 1639–43, the revolt of the va-nu-pieds in Normandy included a tax strike and attacks on the homes of tax farmers. In 1643 there were attacks on tax collectors in multiple regions of France. The Fronde of 1646–53 was also marked by anti-tax riots. The revolt of the papier timbré in 1675 was centered on a new stamp tax, and included destruction of tax offices and attacks on tax- and tithe-collectors. In 1682, a village curate led a tax revolt in which the villagers stoned the monks and the tithe agent who had come to collect a grain tithe. Algonquian resistance, 1637 In 1637, the Algonquian resisted being taxed by Dutch colonialists to pay for improvements to Fort Amsterdam. Italian tax revolts, 1647 Residents of Palermo and of Naples revolted in 1647 and destroyed the tax offices and the homes of tax farmers. Swiss peasant war of 1653 A devaluation of Bernese money caused a tax revolt and the Swiss peasant war of 1653. The war spread from the Entlebuch valley in the Canton of Lucerne to the Emmental valley in the Canton of Bern, to the cantons of Solothurn and Basel, and to the Aargau. Resistance to Cromwell's Taxes-by-Decree, 1654 In 1654, an English merchant named George Cony refused to pay customs duties that had been established by Oliver Cromwell's government without its having bothered to go through Parliament, and thereby called into question the legal underpinnings of the whole regime. Quaker Tithe and War Tax Resistance, 1659– George Fox′s Quaker movement included resistance to tithes and other mandatory fees destined for the establishment church. Soon, the movement also incorporated resistance to militia taxes and fees, and to "trophy money" (taxes for equipping soldiers). These were early examples of war tax resistance in the Quaker movement. Revolt of the papier timbré, 1675 Scottish presbyterian dissent, 1678–88 In the 17th century, as the reformation government in Scotland reintroduced a state Episcopal church and brutally cracked down on dissident Presbyterian groups, members of those groups resisted the taxes that were being raised to pay for this repression, and advocated mass tax resistance. (When the Scottish Presbyterians gained the upper hand and became the establishment church of Scotland, the tables were turned, and members of dissident churches began to resist taxes paid for its support.) Resistance in New England, 1687 On 22 August 1687, John Wise met with some of the other "principal inhabitants" of Ipswich in New England, and decided that a new tax that had been imposed by governor Edmund Andros, without consulting the colony's General Assembly, was illegitimate and "that it was not the town's duty any way to assist that ill method of raising money." A town meeting the next day that Andros had called for in order to select tax commissioners instead issued a declaration against the tax. A number of those at the town meeting were then arrested, hauled to a jail in another town, and then put on trial before a jury hand-picked by the prosecution and a judge who referred to the defendants as "criminals" over the course of the trial. Fines and court costs followed, and, at first, the Andros tyranny was triumphant. But Wise and company had the last laugh. On 18 April 1689, in the wake of the Glorious Revolution in the home country, a "Declaration of the Gentlemen, Merchants, and Inhabitants of Boston" was issued, which proclaimed the assault on the rights of dissenting English colonists to be part of the same plot of "the great Scarlet Whore" to crush Englishmen under the thumb of the papists (that is, James II of England) again. Then followed a revolution. Andros and Judge Dudley, who had tried the case against Wise and the rest, were overthrown and imprisoned. 18th century Camisard revolt, 1700–03 Tax resistance was a feature of the Camisard revolt. New Jersey resistance to a Catholic assessor, 1715 In 1715, thirty-six New Jersey residents pledged to refuse to pay taxes "Because wee have been Illegally Assessed by an Asseser who being a Known & open profest Roman Catholick which is Utterly Repugnant to the Laws of Great Brittain & Contrary to ye Rights & Liberties of his Royall Majties faithfull Subjects." 18th-century uprisings in Japan Successful peasant uprisings in the Fukuyama fief in 1717 (and again in 1752 and 1770), in the Tsuyama fief in 1726–27, and in Iwaki Daira in 1739, focused on the oppressiveness of taxes and tax collection. Other tax revolts in Aizu in 1749, in Shinano Ueda in 1761–63, in Tenma Sodo in 1764–65, in Koyasan in 1776, in Kozuke & Musashi in 1781, and in Hokkaido in 1790, were only partially successful but also led to severe reprisals. Malt tax riots in Scotland, 1725 A duty on malt had been imposed in England to pay for a war against France. At the union with Scotland in 1707, most taxes were made uniform, but under the Treaty of Union, Scotland was given a temporary exemption from the malt tax until the end of the war. After the war, in 1725, the House of Commons applied a new malt tax which applied throughout Great Britain, but charged at only half the rate in Scotland. Scots were unused to this tax, which increased the price of beer. Enraged citizens in Glasgow drove out the military and destroyed the home of their representative in parliament, who had voted for the tax. In Edinburgh, brewers went on strike, illegally. Andrew Millar, then a book trade apprentice, helped overthrow attempts by Edinburgh magistrates to control dissemination of opinion during the unrest. The pamphlet Millar refers to in the letter to Robert Wodrow dated 10 August 1725, and his actions detailed in the letter dated 15 July, emphasized contemporary doubts and challenges to the strike's "illegality". Much later, in 1806, there were malt tax riots in Llannon, Wales, in which a mob attacked 26 excise tax collectors who were searching for malt. Excise tax riots in England, 1733 Robert Walpole's attempts to introduce an excise tax bill led to widespread, heated protest, including mobs that invaded the House of Commons. Walpole was forced to withdraw his proposal. "Jack-a-Lents", 1734–49 In Gloucester and Hereford counties, England, rioters dressed in women's clothing and blackface destroyed tollbooths, a variety of resistance that would reemerge a century later in the Rebecca Riots. A royal proclamation complained that the rebels "have made publick and open Declaration, that they would proceed to pull down ſeveral other Turnpikes; and that if any of the Commiſſioners ſhould attempt to ſet up the Turnpikes again, they would pull down their Houſes, and would cut down the Turnpikes as often as they ſhould be ſet up." A similar outbreak took place in Bristol in 1749, in which self-styled Jack o’ Lents, "many naked with their faces blacked ... destroyed the gates at Bedminster, Ashton, Don John's Cross, Dundry, Backwell, Nailsea, Redcliffe, Totterdown, Teasford and Bath Roads, Hanham, Kingswood, Stoke's Croft, &c., &c." Porteous riots, 1736 Rioters, sympathetic to condemned smugglers who were resisting excise taxes, managed to free one, but in an attempt to free another several were killed by the Edinburgh city guard, commanded by John Porteous. Porteous was convicted of these killings, but pardoned by Queen Caroline, whereupon a lynch mob seized Porteous and hanged him. Tithe resistance in France, 1736 Peasants in disguise attacked and reclaimed the grain from the granary of a tithe collector in France in 1736. Authorities could find no witnesses willing to testify against any of the attackers. North Carolina Counties Resist, 1746 In 1746, the North Carolina colonial governor tried to rejigger the composition of the colonial Assembly, taking seats away from some counties. Those counties responded by withdrawing from the Assembly and refusing to surrender any taxes to the colonial government. Other counties, not wanting to bear the whole cost of government themselves, then responded by withholding their own taxes. This state of affairs lasted eight years. French and Indian War, 1755 In the mid-18th century, American Quaker John Woolman led many Quakers to question and refuse the payment of taxes to pay for the French and Indian War. In 1755, Woolman addressed the Philadelphia Yearly Meeting with his concern, saying in part: Some of our members, who are officers in civil government, are, in one case or other, called upon in their respective stations to assist in things relative to the wars; but being in doubt whether to act or crave to be excused from their office, if they see their brethren united in the payment of a tax to carry on the said wars, may think their case not much different, and so might quench the tender movings of the Holy Spirit in their minds. Thus, by small degrees, we might approach so near to fighting that the distinction would be little else than the name of a peaceable people. A group of several like-minded Quakers, including John Woolman, John Churchman, and Anthony Benezet then sent a letter to other meetings, which read in part: [B]eing painfully apprehensive that the large sum granted by the late Act of Assembly for the king's use is principally intended for purposes inconsistent with our peaceable testimony, we therefore think that as we cannot be concerned in wars and fightings, so neither ought we to contribute thereto by paying the tax directed by the said Act, though suffering be the consequence of our refusal, which we hope to be enabled to bear with patience. The "Regulator" movement, 1767–71 The Regulator movement against the corrupt colonial administration of North Carolina from around 1767 to 1771 presaged the American Revolution. It began with organized groups of rural North Carolinans refusing to pay inflated taxes to corrupt authorities, and eventually built to an armed rebellion (which was crushed). A revolt in Palermo, 1773 Most Sicilians refused to pay new taxes imposed in 1770, and ripped down notices announcing the new levies. By 1773 the resistance led to a full-fledged revolt and ushered in a period when Palermo was under the de facto rule of the maestranze (guilds). American Revolution American colonists in the Thirteen Colonies used various methods of tax resistance to resist the British Parliament in the years leading up to the American Revolution, including the Boston Tea Party action; the Gaspée Affair; "spinning bees" in which revolutionary-minded women would make untaxed domestic cloth (prefiguring Gandhi's homespun cloth campaign); and a boycott of other taxed goods. After the revolution was underway, taxes instituted by the American patriot side were also widely resisted. One 1781 tax in Connecticut, for example, was designed to raise £288,233 but raised only £40,000 due to colonists’ unwillingness to pay. Some Quaker meetings recommended that their members not pay taxes to the revolutionary governments, and other Quakers refused to use Continental currency, which the revolutionary governments were using for seigniorage. African American protests against taxation without representation, 1780 In 1780, African American Paul Cuffe and his brother resisted the state tax of Massachusetts. Cuffe wrote to the state legislature: "While we are not allowed the privilege of free men of the state having no vote or influence in the election with those that tax us. Yet many of our color, as is well known, have cheerfully entered the field of battle in the defense of the common cause." In 1783, free taxpaying African Americans in Massachusetts were given full citizenship rights, including the right to vote. Revolt of the Comuneros, 1781 The Revolt of the Comuneros in Colombia began with bands of armed protesters confronting tax commissioners and state monopoly shops. New Hampshire secessionists, 1781 For a while, during the early days of the United States, Vermont was an independent republic of sorts, though with aspirations for statehood. Some regions of neighboring New Hampshire felt more loyal to the Vermont Republic than to the confederation of United States, and expressed this by refusing to pay taxes to the latter. York tax riot, 1786 In York, Pennsylvania, in 1786, Jacob Bixler's cow was distrained after he refused to pay a tax. Sympathizers with Bixler disrupted the subsequent auction and rescued the cow. Shays' Rebellion 1786–87 During 1786 and 1787, former Continental Army captain and farmer Daniel Shays led an armed rebellion of farmers in Western Massachusetts against the state government's repressive economic policy of tax and debt collections. Tax resistance during the French Revolution During the French Revolution and its aftermath, customs houses were burned by mobs; tax rolls were destroyed; excise collectors were made to renounce their jobs, then were run out of town (or in some cases killed). Popular tax resistance was directed both against the toppling monarchy and against the governments that would try to replace it. War taxes were levied before and after French revolutionary troops occupied the German Rhineland and the Southern Netherlands during the War of the First Coalition. Churches and monasteries were taxed heavily before they were dissolved. Huge amounts of gold and silver objects, many from the Middle Ages and irreplaceable, were melted down in this period in order to pay for these taxes. Protests occurred but did not help. The famous Trier Cathedral treasure suffered immensely; only twelve objects of precious metal survived. The equally rich Treasury of the Basilica of Saint Servatius in Maastricht lost 80% of its treasures, even though many precious objects were hidden in private homes. Aachen Cathedral Treasury remained largely untouched because the most valuable pieces were sent away to Paderborn in time. The Whiskey Rebellion, 1791–94 There was also an earlier rebellion, in 1783, against a Pennsylvania state excise tax on whiskey. In Washington County, protesters seized a fleeing tax collector, forced him to destroy his arms and paperwork, shaved his head, and paraded him through the areas he was sent to tax. White Lotus Rebellion, 1793 Members of the White Lotus Society refused to pay taxes, and their movement eventually grew into a full rebellion that lasted until 1803. Pazvantoğlu rebellion, 1794 In the wake of the Pazvantoğlu rebellion, peasants who had been expecting their taxes to be eliminated in the wake of the rebel victory fled their villages rather than pay the enduring taxes. Fries's Rebellion, 1799–1800 Resistance in Mexico, 1780–1807 There was widespread resistance to the pulque tax and other taxes in Zempoala and Otumba, beginning in 1780. 19th Century A mass tax strike in Benares, 1810–11 When the East India Company attempted to impose a house tax in Bengal, 200,000 residents of Benares shut their shops, left their homes, assembled en masse in the countryside, and petitioned the Company administration to lift the tax. The protest occurred in December 1810 – January 1811. The Company administration at first made a show of force, but eventually rescinded the tax. Radical Reformers, 1819 The "Radical Reformers" were advocates of democratic reforms in England — things like universal male suffrage and secret ballots. In the wake of a military massacre of reform demonstrators in Manchester in August, 1819, reformers vowed to refuse to buy and consume products on which the government applied an excise tax, like tea, tobacco, and alcoholic beverages. Bermuda, 1821 When residents of St. George parish refused to pay their church tithes, William Lumley, governor of Bermuda, put several in military jail. Lumley's acts were later ruled illegal (Basham v. Lumley, 1829), the court ruling that although the governor of the Bermuda colony had also been granted ecclesiastical authority by the crown, he was not authorized to use his civil authority to imprison people who refused his ecclesiastical orders; at most he could excommunicate them. Tumenggung Mohammad revolt, 1825 The followers of Tumenggung Mohammad in Indonesia practiced tax resistance, including rioting against tax collectors. Tax resistance against Charles X of France, 1829 When Charles X of France attempted to bypass the legislature and enact its own taxes in 1829, French liberals in the Breton Association organized tax resistance and created a fund to defray the costs of any tax resisters who were prosecuted. Six Parisian newspapers who printed the Association's manifesto were prosecuted by the crown. Fifteen regional organizations, including Refus de l'impôt, Aide-toi, le ciel t'aidera, and Association parisienne, were formed specifically to engage in tax resistance. Tax resistance in Georgian England In the 1820s and 1830s, activists like William Benbow and Thomas Jonathan Wooler and groups such as the National Union of the Working Classes and National Political Union advocated and practiced tax resistance. The Tithe War, 1830–38 From 1830 to 1838, Irish Catholics conducted a mass tax strike against the mandatory tithes payable to the Anglican official state Church of Ireland. The Tithe War, as it came to be called, had both a nonviolent, passive-resistance wing, led by James Warren Doyle, and a violent one, in which bands of paramilitary secret societies enforced the strike and attacked tax collectors and collaborators. The campaign was eventually successful in eliminating the tithe system, although the government essentially converted what had been tithes on the tenants into rent due through the landlords. Resistance in Syria, 1831–54 Syrians resisted being taxed both by Egypt and later by Turkey, and refused to pay these occupation governments. Tax resistance for the Reform Act of 1832 Tax resistance was an important tool in the arsenal of the Birmingham Political Union and its allies who forced the crown and the House of Lords to capitulate over the Reform Act of 1832. In the spring of 1832, residents of Carmarthen, Wales, met and vowed to stop paying taxes if the Reform Act were not passed, and some stopped paying taxes in the wake of the collapse of Lord Grey's government. Tinos, 1833 In 1833, thousands of residents of the island of Tinos stopped paying their taxes in an organized campaign. The government reacted fiercely, imprisoning many leaders of the movement and forcing the local bishop to flee. U.K. resistance to "Assessed Taxes," 1833–51 There was sporadic resistance to assessed taxes (particularly the window tax) in the United Kingdom. Resisters felt the tax was overly-regressive. Resisters formed tax resistance associations and disrupted auctions of goods seized from resisters by the tax authorities. Edinburgh Annuity/Clerico-Police Tax, 1833–61 An Annuity Tax to raise money for the establishment clergy in Edinburgh, Scotland began to be resisted by nonconformists around 1833, in particular by William Tait, publisher of Tait's Magazine who went to jail for his stand. Celebrated imprisonments like this, and occasional attempts (often unsuccessful) by the authorities to seize and auction property of the resisters, characterized the campaign. The government attempted to appease the resisters by "abolishing" the Annuity tax, but they did so by paying the clergy from funds raised by a different tax, leading the resisters to dub it the "Clerico-Police Tax" and to continue to resist it. Tax resistance in Bulgaria, 1835–37 Peasants in the western border region of Bulgaria refused to pay taxes in hopes of autonomy and assistance from the newly autonomous Serbia. Robert Purvis, 1838, 1853 African-American activist Robert Purvis refused to pay his Pennsylvania state taxes in protest against the state's denial of equal voting rights to black citizens around 1838, and then refused to pay the part of his property tax that went towards education in 1853 when his children were refused admission to the whites-only classrooms. Rebecca Riots, 1839–43 The Rebecca Riots were a protest against the high tolls which had to be paid on the local turnpike roads in Wales, and included destruction of tollhouses and harassment of toll collectors. Corn Law protests, 1842 In February, 1842 "a meeting of ladies" in Manchester opposed to the Corn Laws signed a tax resistance pledge, in which they "resolve[d] that we will form ourselves into a provisional committee, to carry out a plan of passive resistance... That by passive resistance we understand that we will allow our furniture to be seized for the payment of assessed taxes without offering any resistance to the collecting officers, at the same time urging the people not to purchase the articles so seized. And further, we mean abstinence from the several taxed luxuries used in our homes. We adopt the above pledge for three months, and further pledge ourselves during that time to use our utmost exertions to preserve perfect peace among the people." Poor Law protests, 1843 Opposition to the New Poor Law led to refusal to pay the taxes for its support. The campaign featured demonstrations of thousands of people, passive resistance, and noncooperation with government auction of distrained goods. In County Waterford the campaign was particularly strong, and openly threatened violence against tax collectors, leading the poor rate collector there to abandon plans to distrain and auction property in lieu of voluntarily paid taxes. Maryland bond protests, 1843 Some residents of Maryland, as their state government went into default over canal bonds in the wake of the Panic of 1837, refused to pay taxes the proceeds of which were destined for bond-holders. In some areas, tax collectors resigned and the government was unable to find others willing to take their places. Tax resistance was promoted in part by the Locofocos, a Democratic party splinter group. "White Quakers," 1843 The White Quakers, an Irish Quaker splinter group named for their characteristic undyed clothing, undertook tax resistance in 1843 to protest government harassment of their sect. Wine tax in Portugal, 1845 When tax farmers attempted to collect a new tax on wine in the Felgueiras district in the wine country on the Douro, the citizens gathered in (also known as São Martinho de Penacova), armed themselves, and forced the tax collectors and the soldiers protecting them to flee. The next day, military reinforcements attacked the rebels, killing ten. Zhaowen land tax, 1845 When Zhaowen magistrate Yu Cheng delayed implementing a newly-enacted tax reduction in order to continue collecting taxes at the earlier, higher rate, 40 landowners stormed his office, destroying the furnishings there and then moving on to wreck the house of the tribute clerk. This led to an uprising that spread to Taicang and lasted into late 1846. Mexican-American War, 1846 Perhaps the most famous American example of a tax resister, Henry David Thoreau, was briefly jailed in 1846 for refusing to pay taxes in protest against the Fugitive Slave Act and the Mexican–American War. In his essay on civil disobedience, he wrote: I meet this American government, or its representative, the State government, directly, and face to face, once a year, no more, in the person of its tax-gatherer; this is the only mode in which a man situated as I am necessarily meets it; and it then says distinctly, Recognize me; and the simplest, the most effectual, and, in the present posture of affairs, the indispensablest mode of treating with it on this head, of expressing your little satisfaction with and love for it, is to deny it then.... ...If a thousand men were not to pay their tax bills this year, that would not be a violent and bloody measure, as it would be to pay them, and enable the State to commit violence and shed innocent blood. This is, in fact, the definition of a peaceable revolution, if any such is possible. Thoreau was following in the footsteps of his fellow New England transcendentalists Amos Bronson Alcott and Charles Lane who had also been arrested for conscientious refusal to pay the poll tax. Sicilian revolution of independence of 1848 During the Sicilian revolution of independence of 1848 rebels destroyed tax records and assessments and many people stopped paying taxes. Karl Marx prosecuted for promoting tax resistance, 1848 During the Revolutions of 1848 in the German states, the royal and military aristocracy prohibited the first popularly elected parliament from assembling, and that parliament responded by declaring the government out-of-business: So long as the National Assembly is not at liberty to continue its sessions in Berlin, the Brandenburg cabinet has no right to dispose of government revenues and to collect taxes. Karl Marx, via his newspaper, the Neue Rheinische Zeitung, published this decree, adding: "From today, therefore, taxes are abolished! It is high treason to pay taxes. Refusal to pay taxes is the primary duty of the citizen!" Marx was later prosecuted for promoting tax resistance, but was acquitted after arguing that it was not illegal to promote tax resistance against an illegal government. Jamaica, 1848 Residents of St. Mary's parish in Jamaica launched a successful revolt against imperious tax collectors in 1848. The Great Confederated Anti-Dray and Land Tax League of South Australia, 1850 The Great Confederated Anti-Dray and Land Tax League of South Australia formed in the Spring of 1850 to resist taxes associated with a recently enacted Road Act. The League felt the taxes were excessive; oppressive to poor farmers while exempting rich merchants, mine owners, and bankers; had been imposed by a non-representative government body; and operated largely for the benefit of land-holders who were also members of the board that was imposing the tax and designing the road system. Resistance to the Foreign Miners Tax of 1850 in California The "Foreign Miners Tax" of 1850 required all California miners who were not American citizens to pay $20 per month. The tax was not so much a revenue raising instrument as a way of allowing citizens to monopolize mining and take over sites being worked by Chinese and Mexican miners. The tax resistance by foreign miners was successful. The tax was repealed by the end of 1850, though a smaller ($4/month) tax was reapplied to Chinese miners in 1852, and some particularly unscrupulous tax collectors continued to extort the tax from foreign miners even when it was no longer legal to do so. One person who was forced off of his mining claim by the Foreign Miners Tax was Joaquin Murieta, whose story became a Robin Hood-like myth in California. Prussian democrats, 1850,1864 In 1850 Lothar Bucher, leader of the radical democratic party in the Prussian national assembly, and others of similar views, were convicted for encouraging citizens to stop paying taxes to the autocratic government. Similarly, in 1864 the delegate Johann Jacoby served six months behind bars for a speech calling for tax refusal, delivered in the presence of the King, an early manifestation of opposition to the rule of Otto von Bismarck. Grape-growers′s strike in Bulgaria, 1851 In response to a tax increase on grapes and vineyards, Bulgaria′s grape pickers went on strike. Mass resistance in Jiangnan, 1853 In Qingpu, China, numerous uprisings and organized tax resistance took place around 1853, some led by Zhou Lichun. Zhou had been a precinct land tax collector, but rebelled when the local magistrate began trying to extort taxes that were unjustified by law. He organized landowners in twenty precincts to boycott taxes, and successfully resisted government reprisals. In other actions that year, thousands of Nanjui County taxpayers attacked government offices and made attempts on the life of the magistrate, three granary clerks were boiled alive by enraged taxpayers, and Huating County residents burned the boats of mercenaries who were helping a magistrate collect taxes. Ghana, 1854 Residents of the Gold Coast resisted the introduction of a poll tax by rebelling against the colonial government in 1854. The rebellion was eventually suppressed by the colonial government, which continued to levy the poll tax. License Tax resistance in Australia, 1854 Miners in Australia met at a "monster meeting" in Castlemaine to launch an organized refusal to pay a mining license tax. Resistance to the bedel, 1855–60 A majority of Syrian Christians refused to pay a military commutation tax, the bedel, which was mandatory for non-Muslims who were draft-exempt. Chinese immigrants in Australia, 1859 Anti-Chinese sentiment in Australia led the government to try to reduce Chinese immigration through a tax on immigrants. The Chinese immigrants responded with a powerful, large-scale, well-organized tax resistance campaign that used a variety of tactics including consumer and labor strikes, petitions, mass-demonstrations, threats against collaborators with the tax system and potential strikebreakers, and prison-stuffing. They eventually convinced the government to rescind the hated tax. Shantung resistance, 1860 In Shantung, tax resisters killed tax collectors and set up parallel government structures. Bhat resistance in India, 1861 In 1861, travelling bards of the Bhat caste, complaining that they had been traditionally exempt from taxation, reacted to being subjected to an income tax in an extreme demonstration that accompanied their refusal to pay: [T]hey cut themselves with knives, cursed the Assessors, bespattering them with their blood, and declared they would rather die than surrender their birthright. When several were apprehended, their wives began to hack their persons, and so severely that several have since died. Ferenc Deák and Hungarian tax resistance, 1859–67 Following military defeat by the Hungarian revolution of 1848 and the subsequent war of independence led by Lajos Kossuth, Hungarians adopted a strategy of passive resistance, including boycotting of Austrian goods and refusing Austrian taxes, while the dissolved Diet (parliament) and various agricultural, trade and educational associations continued to meet informally. The symbol of this strategy was Ferenc Deák, following his refusal to take public office under the Austrians and apparent semi-retirement in the 1850s. After Emperor Franz-Joseph issued his October Diploma in 1860, granting increased autonomy to various parts of the Austrian empire, the Hungarian county councils and Diet were reconvoked. However, the conflict with Austria continued—including renewed tax resistance—with Deák playing a more active role until the Diet's demands were conceded in 1867. Mejba Revolt, 1864–65 The Mejba Revolt was a rebellion in Tunisia against the doubling of an unpopular poll tax (the mejba) imposed on his subjects by Sadok Bey. The most extensive revolt against the rule of the Husainid Beys of Tunis, it saw uprisings all over the country and came close to prompting military intervention by Britain and France. Don Cossack resistance, 1864–1882 The Don Cossacks refused to pay the taxes levied by their provincial zemstvo after their exemption of taxes was revoked by the Russian reforms of the 1860s. Resistance to the Czar's taxes in Abkhazia, 1866 In Sukhumi, Abkhazia, "a number of persons, irritated by the imposition of direct taxes, resisted the collecting officers, killed several of them, and then set fire to the town." Georgia dockworkers, 1867 Georgia dockworkers responded to a tax specifically targeted to them by refusing to pay, even when locked out by the government. New Zealand poll tax, 1868 In 1868 residents of New Zealand were subjected to a poll tax. Some decided to resist and to form mutual insurance pacts for their defense. Louisiana, 1872–79 After a disputed election for governor in reconstruction Louisiana, the losing candidate, John McEnery, formed a shadow government and declared himself the truly elected governor. As part of this, he issued declarations saying that those people collecting taxes for the actually seated government were acting illegally and illegitimately and that citizens of Louisiana should resist these taxes. McEnery's shadow government, representing a white-supremacist Democratic party opposed to the Republican black and carpetbagger government, maintained its parallel governance until mid-1873, and then folded under pressure from the United States federal government. Rubí, Catalonia, 1873 Citizens of Rubí, Catalonia refused to pay a war tax in 1873, shortly before the military commander of Catalonia was forced to flee in the face of a mutiny. Launceston, Tasmania, 1874 The Western Railway was a financial failure, and soon after it went into operation the government had to take it over from its bankrupt owners. Landholders in the railway district felt that the government take-over had changed the relationship between taxpayers and the railway, and that they were "morally exonerated from the principle of local taxation which they had endorsed when the district was polled in 1865. Since that period an entirely new principle had been adopted in the case of the Main Line Railway, and when they hesitated to pay their special rate, they acted on the conviction that it was the Government, and not they, who had broken faith." The landholders launched a tax resistance campaign, forcing the government to capitulate and rescind the tax. White miners in Griqualand West, 1874 In 1874, a group of small-scale European diamond miners at the "New Rush" in Kimberly, South Africa (then in a British colony called Griqualand West), launched a tax strike to protest the British colonial government's lack of response to their grievances. Mexican-American Tax Resistance in Texas, 1877 During the San Elizario Salt War, residents of El Paso County, Texas with loyalties to Mexico stopped paying taxes to the United States-loyal government. South Carolina, 1877 Similarly to what happened in Louisiana, white supremacists in South Carolina who disapproved of the reconstruction government practiced tax resistance and discouraged people from loaning money to the government by vowing to repudiate any such debts should they regain power. Calls to resist in Denmark, 1877 & 1885 In 1877 and again in 1885, the Left party in Denmark urged people to refuse to pay taxes levied by the Rightist government. Tram tax resistance in Rio, 1880 When the government of Rio increased the tramway tax and have this increase apply to every passenger, Jose Lopes da Silva Trovao and other protest organizers called on people to refuse to pay the tax. Inconfidência Mineira,Brazil, 1789 Tax resistance called Inconfidência Mineira was against one-fifth tax over gold. Tax resistance launches the First Boer War, 1880 The First Boer War broke out when the British colonial government seized a wagon from Piet Bezuidenhoudt who had refused to pay a tax. When the colonial government attempted to auction off the wagon to raise the tax money, supporters of Bezuidenhoudt seized it, and met government representatives who came to arrest them. Paisley abbey manse tax resistance, 1880 Paisley instituted a tax to raise funds to repair the manse (minister's house) of Paisley Abbey. People who were not members of that church (the official Church of Scotland) did not feel they should have to pay for this, and in December 1880 they organized a tax resistance campaign. Some 200 people refused to pay the tax. The authorities took legal action against a few, but then quickly dropped the charges. Irish settlers in Canada, 1879–81 Two hundred Irish settlers in Gatineau refused to pay a county tax. According to one account: When a deputy sheriff went to make seizures, the residents threatened to string him to the nearest tree. Finally, they compelled him to eat the writs he had, and then gave him a limited time to get out of the township. The Irish Land League calls for a rent strike, 1881 In 1881, the Irish National Land League issued a manifesto calling on Irish tenants to refuse to pay rent to their absentee landlords. English hop growers, 1882 The Anglican church legally exacted "extraordinary tithes" from hop growers, who began resisting the tax and risking distraint in the hopes of prompting a change of the law. The Tswana in Bechuanaland, 1882 Montshiwa, a chief of the Rolong tribe, led a tax rebellion against the Boers in Bechuanaland in 1882. After some early successes, the rebellion was suppressed, and large hunks of territory were divided up as spoils by the victorious Boers. Resistance to Repaying Fraudulent Railroad Bonds, 1870–1913 Crooked politicians and swindlers in Missouri concocted a scheme in which the government issued bonds to pay for a railroad that never got built. Residents of the swindled areas subsequently refused to levy taxes on themselves to raise funds to pay off the bonds. The bond holders filed suit and obtained court orders that county judges institute such taxes, but the judges then went to jail for contempt rather than comply. In 1878, residents of Steuben County, New York, also refused to pay taxes to pay off crooked railroad bonds, and disrupted auctions at which the goods of resisters were being sold to pay resisted taxes. There was a similarly motivated tax revolt in Kentucky in 1906 in which a group of resisters raided the tax collector and reclaimed seized property. Cincinnati Liquor Tax revolt, 1884 3,200 (out of 3,500) saloon owners refused to pay a liquor tax in Cincinnati in 1884. The tax was eventually held to be unconstitutional. Egypt, 1884 Passive resistance to taxation was widespread in Upper Egypt as the population lost faith in the government there in the face of the Mahdist insurrection. Crete, 1880 Christians in Ottoman Crete organized to refuse to pay taxes in 1887. The government quickly reduced taxes and made other concessions to (temporarily) quiet the revolt. Samoa, 1887 Residents of Samoa refused to pay taxes to the German colonial government in 1887. The Welsh tithe war, 1887–88 A rebellion against mandatory tithes for the establishment church, similar to that which had raged in Ireland earlier, broke out in Wales in 1887, and featured the disruption of tax auctions by huge crowds of resisters. "Constable Leahy Tax" resistance, 1888 On 9 September 1887, police fired on rent strikers in Mitchelstown (Ireland), killing three, in what became known as the Mitchelstown Massacre. The authorities sided with the police, and awarded a £1,000 judgement to a constable who was wounded in the course of the massacre, ordering that the money would be raised by an additional tax on the Irish—one that would come to be called the "Constable Leahy Tax." The tax was widely refused, and parliamentarian Thomas Condon was prosecuted on criminal conspiracy charges for publicly advocating tax resistance. Dothan riot, 1889 Dothan, Alabama tried to tax all vehicles traveling through the town in 1889, in reaction to the decision by the Farmers' Alliance to avoid municipal taxation by building a warehouse outside of the town limits. Farmers attempted to evade the tax, but were violently opposed by law enforcement, which killed two resisters. "Half-Breeds" in Dakota, 1889 "Half-Breeds" in the Dakota territory of the United States seized already-collected taxes from a sheriff and announced that they would fight to the last man (there were roughly 4,000) against further attempts to tax them. Chatham Islands, 1891 Residents of the Chatham Islands refused to pay a dog tax in 1891 and prepared instead to submit to arrest and trial. "Vicars' Rate" rebellions in Halifax and Coventry, 1875–92 Opponents of a mandatory tithe for the establishment church in Halifax and later in Coventry, England, formed "Anti-Vicars' Rate Associations" and launched campaigns of tax refusal in 1875 and 1892 respectively. Guerrero, Mexico, in 1892 When people in Guerrero refused to pay federal taxes in 1892, the government sent in troops, who were routed by the tax resisters who captured a General as a hostage. Montreal merchants, 1893 Merchants in Montreal, claiming that a new tax on merchants was unjustly much higher for them than for merchants in other areas, decided to refuse to pay the tax in 1893. Fasci Siciliani, 1893 The Fasci Siciliani movement reached its peak in 1893 in a series of large anti-tax demonstrations that included the destruction of tax offices and the burning of tax records. Low Rebellion, 1895 Irish settlers in Canada stage a small scale revolt against government taxes in Low, Quebec. The militia was called out and ended the disturbances. Irish Unionists Irish unionists used (or threatened) tax resistance in order to fight against home rule. Cuban War Tax, 1897 Cuban cigar workers in Florida refused to pay a Cuban war tax that was being withheld from their paychecks in 1897. Industrialist threatens to "shrug", 1897 Industrialist James F. Hathaway of Somerville, Massachusetts refused to pay a municipal tax on his corporation stock and would periodically threaten to pack up and leave town if the city insisted on pressing for payment, in a game of bluff that sometimes led to the city waiving the tax, but other times led to Hathaway's jailing. The Hut Tax War, 1898 In 1896, the British government decreed that the inland "protectorate" adjacent to its colony of Sierra Leone should be taxed. The tax would be imposed on dwellings, at an annual rate that in some cases exceeded the value of the dwelling itself, and came to be known as the "Hut Tax." Sierra Leonians were unused to regular taxation of any sort, and interpreted the tax as meaning that the British government was assuming ownership of all of the dwellings in the area and charging rent. Resistance to the Hut Tax culminated in the Hut Tax War of 1898, which was ultimately suppressed. Tax resistance in the Philippines, 1898 In 1898, Emilio Aguinaldo's fledgling government faced tax refusal from many provinces that had expected a reduction or removal of the taxes. Māori tax resistance, 1894–1933 Māoris periodically refused to pay an unpopular dog tax to the colonial government. Crow reservation, 1897–9 Members of the Crow Nation refused to pay taxes to the state of Montana in the late 1890s, and the state seized all of the sheep on the reservation in retaliation. Tancament de Caixes, 1899–1900 Traders and industrialists in Barcelona, led by mayor Bartomeu Robert i Yarzábal, began a tax strike on 20 October 1899 that came to be known as the "Tancament de Caixes" (shutting the cashboxes). This was a protest to taxes the Spanish government was introducing to pay for the costs of its defeats in the Spanish–American War, and also against tax rates that discriminated against Barcelona in favor of Madrid. German East Africa, 1900 German colonial governor Eduard von Liebert was accused of having had 2,000 residents of German East Africa executed for their refusal to pay a hut tax. 20th century Poll tax resistance in Alabama, 1901 200 employees of the Dimmick Pipe Company in Birmingham, Alabama, walked off the job in 1901 when they learned a poll tax would be deducted from their pay. Foreigners in Japan Resist a Property Tax, 1902 Starting in Yokohama, and spreading to Kobe and elsewhere, hundreds of British and other foreign residents of Japan resisted a new "House Tax" in the hopes of forcing the legality of the tax into arbitration — passively submitting to distraint rather than paying a tax they felt to be illegal. They were backed (in the demand for arbitration, if not in the tax resistance) by the British, French, and German governments. This became one of the first cases decided by an international tribunal, with one Japanese judge, one French judge, and a Norwegian judge who turned out to be the tie-breaker, ruling in favor of the Europeans and against Japan. Cutting off Police Pay-offs in New York City, 1902 The New York City District Attorney, its Police Commissioner, agents from the Society for the Prevention of Crime, and the president of the New York County Liquor Dealers' Association in 1902 announced a joint campaign to defend liquor dealers who stopped paying police protection money. This mostly represents a government policy change in how it was going to be taxing saloonkeepers, but because the change involved rescinding an extralegal tax extorted under-the-table by city employees, it was hard for the government to accomplish in ordinary ways. So it had to nurture a tax resistance movement and encourage solidarity among its members by offering some protection of its own (including judges who reduced fines against people arrested by the police in extortion attempts to near-nothing). British nonconformists, 1903–24 In 1903, tens of thousands of British nonconformists began resisting the part of their taxes that paid for sectarian schools. Over 170 would eventually be jailed for their tax refusal. Americans in the Isle of Pines, 1903 The United States took Cuba from Spain in the Spanish–American War, including the Isle of Pines. When Cuba became independent soon after, Americans on the Isle of Pines hoped that they would continue to live under American rule, and they decided to resist paying taxes to Cuba in the hopes of bringing the issue to a head. Korea, 1903 In several Korean provinces in 1903, taxpayers rose up, reclaimed their taxes from the government treasury, and imprisoned their governors. Hut Tax resistance in Swaziland, 1903–07 Attempts to levy a hut tax in Swaziland sparked resistance led by Dinuzulu kaCetshwayo, culminating eventually in the Bambatha Rebellion. Income tax resistance in Tasmania, 1904 At open-air "monster" meetings in Tasmania in early 1904, people vowed to resist an income tax that had been instituted by the recently ousted government but unexpectedly not rescinded by the new one. Sugar manufacturers in the Dominican Republic, 1905 American-owned businesses running the sugar industry in the Dominican Republic refused to pay a new tax instituted by that country's government in 1905, shortly before the United States formally appropriated the country's economy. Opposition to Creek taxes in Oklahoma Territory, 1899–1905 White Americans living in Muscogee (Creek) territory before Oklahoma became a state in 1907 resisted paying taxes to the Creek Nation government, hoping the United States federal government would back them up if push came to shove. The Russian Revolution, 1905–06 During the Russian Revolution of 1905 a coalition of anti-government groups in Petrograd issued a manifesto calling for mass tax resistance and other economic non-cooperation against Russia's czarist government. It read, in part, "There is only one way out: to overthrow the government, to deprive it of its last strength. It is necessary to cut the government off from the last source of its existence: financial revenue." In 1906, when the Czar dissolved the First Duma, its members fled to Finland where they issued the Vyborg Manifesto which called upon the people of Russia to refuse to pay their taxes until representative government was restored. Zulus in Natal, 1906 A group of Zulus announced that they would refuse to pay the poll tax to the British colonial government in Natal. An inspector from the Natal Mounted Police killed one Zulu tax protester, and was in turn killed along with another of his party. Doukhobors in Canada, 1906 Doukhobor exiles in Canada refused to pay school taxes on their lands, saying that, as they always refused to have their children educated, lest they learn evil things, they would not pay money for school purposes. They removed their property from the district so as to evade seizure. Turkey, 1906–07 In the waning days of the Ottoman Empire, there was widespread and successful refusal to pay the sultan's poll tax. Undertakers strike in Valladolid When the municipal authorities of Valladolid imposed taxes on hearses, the undertakers of that town organised a passive resistance strike, refusing to send out either hearses or coffins. As a result, the dead had to be conveyed to the cemeteries on stretchers, carried by porters. Winemakers tax strike in France, 1907 A winegrowers' committee in Argelliers organized a tax strike in 1907 that included the mass resignations of municipal councils, and was met by military force by the central government. Greek community in Lewiston, Maine, 1907 Greek immigrants in Lewiston, Maine, organized a tax strike against a new poll tax. Silver Lake Assembly, 1908 Forty members of a Silver Lake Assembly property association launched a tax strike against what they believed to be an illegally assessed tax the town of Castile, New York was trying to subject them to, in 1908. Japanese laborers in California, 1909 Japanese-American residents of Oxnard, rebelled against being unfairly subject to both the city and county tax (one was supposed to clear the other). The county tried to pull a fast one, and swooped in on the workers while they were in the beet fields where they were temporarily working and which were outside the city limits. They declared the workers to be thereby subject to the county poll tax as well. Some of the Japanese workers left the area; others refused to pay the tax and were subjected to property seizures. Nicaragua, 1909 Shortly before the fall of president Zelaya's government to rebels backed by the United States, his government imprisoned resisters to a tax he was using to try to raise funds to prop up his regime. Italian immigrants in Pennsylvania, 1909 When Pennsylvania passed a law banning Italian immigrants from owning firearms, a number of Italians in Lanesboro began resisting their taxes in response. The Women's Tax Resistance League, 1909–1918 The British women's suffrage movement, in particular the Women's Tax Resistance League, used tax resistance in their struggle, and explicitly saw themselves in a tradition of tax resistance that included John Hampden. According to one source, "tax resistance proved to be the longest-lived form of militancy, and the most difficult to prosecute." Tax resistance among the American women's suffrage movement was less organized, but also practiced. Julia and Abby Smith, Annie Shaw, Lucy Stone, Virginia Minor, and Elizabeth Cady Stanton were among those who practiced and advocated tax resistance as a protest against "taxation without representation." Tax resistance also played a role in the women's suffrage movements of Bermuda, France, Germany, and South Africa. Unrest in China, 1907–16 The salt tax and other taxes, and conflict with organized smuggler associations, led to conflict in China, which included, in 1910, an assault on tax collectors and on the salt tax monopoly office, and the "Two Kitchen Knives Rebellion" led by He Long in 1916 in which the Salt Tax Bureau at Ba Maoqui was torched and the bureau's director was killed. In 1910, also, merchants in Beijing began withholding their payments of stamp tax to pressure the monarchy to adopt republican reforms. Poll tax resistance in Grafton, Illinois, 1910 A Socialist Party activist in Grafton, Illinois, was jailed six months for his refusal to pay the city's poll tax in 1910. Party head Ralph Korngold used the case as a rallying cry for local radicals. Málaga, 1911 In Canillas De Aceituno, Spain, residents rioted at the sale of a tax resister's goods and took up arms against government forces. Road tax resistance in Kansas, 1911 A number of towns in Kansas organized tax resistance leagues in 1911 to combat a tax variously characterized as a road tax or a poll tax that they believed had been illegally railroaded through the legislature. Rhodesia, 1911 In 1911, the Legislative Council passed an ordinance imposing a one shilling per month tax on farmers for each native laborer they hired, payable to the Labour Bureau, which coordinated the exploitation of African labor for colonial farmers and miners. The farmers decided to resist the tax. Hundreds were convicted and fined, and some were jailed after refusing to pay the fines. The farmers were successful in convincing the government to rescind the tax. Inishmurray, 1911 Residents of the island of Inishmurray considered themselves a tiny, independent monarchy, and would combat efforts by mainland authorities to tax them by refusing to let the officials disembark. Poll tax in Delaware, 1912 Socialist and labor groups in Wilmington joined forces and began resisting a new Delaware poll tax in 1912. Baby Carriage Tax disregarded in Brest, 1913 A tax on handcarts in Brest, France, was interpreted to apply also to baby carriages, which led to universal refusal to pay what was seen as a ridiculous tax. Indians in South Africa, 1913 The South African government imposed a tax on Indian immigrants, and, in one of Mahatma Gandhi's early forays into satyagraha he helped to organize a strike, an illegal march, and a tax refusal campaign in protest. The "Turra Coo", 1913 In late 1913, the government seized a cow from a Scottish resister of the taxes associated with the National Insurance Act. The government had difficulty selling the cow, as locals were sympathetic with the tax resistance. Eventually they brought in an outside auctioneer, but the auction was disrupted by protesters and the cow escaped. Today there is a statue of a cow in Turriff, Scotland commemorating the event. Master Plumbers in Joplin, Missouri, 1914 Ten master plumbers in Joplin, Missouri, signed a resolution vowing to refuse to pay a new $50 annual tax on their profession in 1914. Dog tax resistance, Yonkers, New York, 1917 Robert H. Miller stopped paying his dog license fee in 1917, complaining that "I consider said tax a unjust burden for owners who have dogs for their home and families' defence, not for luxuries, as the cost of living to raise five children is expensive enough without feeding a dog if he was not necessary in the wild section of this town, as we have no benefit from all the taxation with which we are burdened, no open streets, no police, no sewers, and many more necessities that I could mention." World War I in the United States, 1917–18 In the United States, although the decision of whether or not to purchase war bonds to support World War I was ostensibly voluntary, those who chose not to buy them were subject to strong pressure including mob violence. For example, John Schrag was beaten, arrested, and prosecuted and he and his property were smeared with yellow paint by a mob for having refused to buy war bonds. One witness said: [T]hey tried to get him to buy liberty bonds during the war, and he wouldn't buy none.... They brought him in and he never said a word, and the questions or anything they'd ask him, he never, never complained or never put up no resistance whatsoever. ... I never saw so much yellin' and a cursing and slapped him. And buffeted him and beat him and kicked him. He never offered any resistance whatsoever. One of the fellows went and got a, a hardware store and got a gallon of yellow paint. And pulled the lid off and poured it over his face. He had a long beard, kind of a short heavyset man, had a nice beard, and that run down all over his eyes, his face, and his beard, and his clothes. Of course that was yellow.... He never offered no resistance whatsoever and they, one man went to the hardware store again and he got a rope and put it around, got there, and put around his neck and marched him down to the, close to the city jail, a little calaboose there. Had a tree there and they was going to hang him to this tree. ...I don't know how many people walked right up to him and spit in his face and he never said a word. And he just looked up all the time we was doing that. Possibly praying, I don't know. But there's some kind of a glow come over his face and he just looked like Christ. ... (inaudible). Enemies smite you on one cheek, turn the other and brother he did it. He just kept doing it. They'd slug him on the one side of the face and he'd turn his cheeks on the other. He exemplified the life of Christ more than any man I ever saw in my life. Herman Bausch was imprisoned for 28 months by the state of Montana for seditious statements he allegedly made while being held captive by a violent mob who were enraged at him for his unwillingness to buy liberty bonds. Darwin Rebellion In Darwin (Northern Territory, Australia) in early 1919, citizens organized an income tax strike, and a boycott of the local (taxed) alcohol monopolist, John Gilruth, who was also the Administrator (governor). The resistance continued until Gilruth fled Darwin. Harold George Nelson, who was imprisoned for his tax resistance during this action, later became the Northern Territory's first parliamentary representative. Soft drinks tax, United States, 1919 When World War I ended, people stopped paying a tax on soft drinks that had been instituted as a war funding measure, although the tax had not yet been rescinded. The Bureau of Internal Revenue threatened tax evaders with fines and imprisonment. Northern Territory and Papua, 1919–21 Tax resistance was a tactic used both by anti-capitalist labor groups and groups agitating for democratic representation in the Northern Territory and Papua in the years around 1920. Miners in Western Australia also took up tax resistance in 1921. Welsh miners, 1919 Miners in Wales went on strike rather than pay the income tax which was newly being applied to incomes below £200. Russian Civil War, 1917–1923 Tax resistance was used by Russian peasants who were being taxed by multiple parties in the Civil War. European pacifists (1920s) After World War I, some European pacifists associated with the movement that would coalesce around War Resisters International, like Beatrice and Kees Boeke, adopted war tax resistance as one of their forms of resistance. Weimar Germany (1919–33) tax resistance Tax resistance campaigns sporadically broke out in Germany between the world wars, including a tax strike in Württemberg, Stuttgart, Cologne, Essen and other areas in 1920, an income tax strike by Prussian farmers in 1922, and the tax strikes of the Rural People's Movement (Landvolkbewegung) in Schleswig-Holstein from 1928. Burma during the 1920s Burmese Buddhist monks organized tax resistance and other forms of civil disobedience against the British colonial government during the 1920s. Dutch West Indies, 1921 Residents resisted an income tax from which Dutch settlers were exempt, then successfully disrupted an auction at which a resister's goods were being sold for back taxes. Protesting a "bachelor tax" 1921 The state of Montana applied a $3 tax on all bachelors in the state. One of them, William Atzinger, refused to pay on sex discrimination grounds. The following year the state supreme court ruled the "bachelor tax" and another poll tax applicable only to men to be unconstitutional. Sinn Féin in 1921 Sinn Féin organized tax resistance against home rule in Northern Ireland in 1921. Arkansas road tax rebellion, 1921 Craighead County residents forced the commissioners of a road improvement district to resign at gunpoint before they could spend tax money on a corrupt roads project. Guntur tax refusal, 1921 In an early manifestation of satyagraha, Indians from the Guntur district organized a noncooperation campaign and tax strike against British rule in 1921 that led to the government collecting less than 25% of the expected taxes. The Poplar Rates Rebellion, 1921 In 1921 the government of Poplar, a division of London, in protest against an unequal sharing of tax revenue between rich and poor boroughs, stopped collecting and passing on a variety of tax called "precepts" to the regional authorities. Thirty members of the Poplar Borough Council were imprisoned amid large protests. Bondelswarts Rebellion, 1922 The South African government, during their mandatory administration of South West Africa, imposed a tax on the Bondelswarts as a way of making them more dependent on taking low-wage jobs for white settlers. The Bondelswarts refused to pay, and Gysbert Hofmeyr, the Mandatory Administrator, organised in 400 armed men, and sent in aircraft to bomb the Bondelswarts. Casualties included 100 Bondelswart deaths, including women and children. Income tax evasion in France, 1922 Syndicalist groups in France promoted income tax evasion and defended evaders whose goods were in danger of government seizure. The Ruhrkampf and Bavaria, 1923 When France and Belgium invaded the Ruhr to enforce German reparations payments in 1923, the German government responded by encouraging and supporting a mass nonviolent resistance campaign against the occupation, which included tax resistance. Right-wing politician Gustav Ritter von Kahr, shortly after he was declared dictator of Bavaria in 1923, ordered Bavarians to stop paying taxes to the federal Reich government. French Stokers, 1923 French stokers (ship workers) who were upset that the government was including in their income, for tax purposes, incidental benefits like the food they were served on board, refused payment and went on strike when their company went along with government attempts to garnishee their wages. The strike was ended when the company agreed to pay the stokers' income taxes itself. Pennsylvania women win the vote, and the tax; refuse the latter, 1923–27 When women won the right to vote in the United States, this sometimes also exposed them to taxes they had hitherto been exempt from. Some chose to resist these taxes. In Pennsylvania, a school tax became the target of a massive, statewide, grassroots resistance campaign. For example: In 1923, 89 women in Pottstown said that they were not interested in voting or in paying taxes, and refused to pay a school tax they had recently become vulnerable to. The same year, 800 women in Haverford refused to pay the tax, as did 250 in Media. Some 1,700 women in Charleroi refused to pay the tax and, in 1924, were ordered to be arrested. That year in Clifton Heights, exasperated tax collectors exonerated 700 women tax delinquents rather than try to pursue them for the taxes. In 1926, 200 women in Freeland were reported as tax delinquents. In 1927, 300 women in Darby followed suit, and ultimately 2,000 delinquent tax notices were sent there. Red Spear Society, 1923–38 A peasant secret mutual-defense group in China called the Red Spear Society supported tax resistance. Indian workers in Fiji, 1924 When Fiji added a £1 a year poll tax on Indian workers (representing about 12 days' pay), they regarded this as a bait-and-switch on their contracts, and vowed to go to jail rather than pay. Indians in Kenya, 1924 Indians in British India had started migrating to the British colony of Kenya during the second half of the 19th century, and by 1924 were beginning to exercise democratic political power. This led to concerns from the colonial government in Kenya, which issued a white paper which stated that the colonial government's priority was to focus on the unenfranchised African population rather than the Indian community. Indians in Kenya responded to this with an organized tax resistance campaign, which led to some of them being imprisoned by the colonial government. Whether from the effect of these imprisonments or from concessions made through back-channel negotiations, the protest ended in a few months. Argentina, 1924 A coalition of 1,500 leading industrialists of Argentina refused to pay into a state-run pension fund following a general strike and labor lockout organized to fight the law that established the fund. London bookmakers strike, 1926 To protest a new betting tax, the bookmakers at Tattersalls Park refused to bet, thus making it impossible for the track to lay odds, and effectively shutting down business there and off-track. Cristero War, Mexico, 1926 Tax resistance was used as a tactic in the Cristero War, where some people with Catholic sympathies refused to pay taxes to the government and turned to the church for defense. Farmers in Queensland, Australia, 1927 The government of Queensland, struggling with debt, enacted a stealth tax in the form of a registration fee charged to farmers who had wells and water pumps on their farms. The farmers, organized in "Local Producers's Associations," declared a tax strike, which forced the government to back down about a month later. American Samoa, 1927 In 1927, The Committee of the Samoan League organized tax resistance against the United States Navy's occupation of the American Samoa. Shanghai, 1927 Around the time of the Shanghai massacre of 1927, businesses were conducting a strike against municipal taxes there. Western importers, backed by their governments, also refused to unload their products that were subject to a new customs duty. Samoa, 1928 Residents of Samoa refused to pay taxes to the New Zealand occupation government in 1928. Uri "bobbed hair tax" The canton of Uri in Switzerland instituted a tax on women's bobbed hair in 1928, and by the following year the government was reporting widespread resistance (and ridicule) of the law. Women's War, Nigeria, 1929 The 1929 Women's War in Nigeria began as a dispute over taxes after men were taxed in 1928 and a resistance against a census that was rumoured to be preparation for taxation. Further tax revolts in 1938 and 1956 grew out of the same movement. Indian independence campaign Mahatma Gandhi's independence campaign in India used a variety of tax resistance strategies, including attacking the British taxed monopolies on salt and textiles by advocating the illegal production of salt outside of the monopoly system and the home-based spinning of cloth. In 1930 this tax resistance culminated in Gandhi's famous Salt March to Dandi to harvest sea salt in contravention of British colonial law. Other tax resistance campaigns persisted after this period, including resistance to the Damodar Canal tax in 1937–39. The Great Depression, United States In the United States, the term "tax revolt" is sometimes used to refer to a series of anti-tax state initiative campaigns. The first significant wave of these campaigns was during the 1930s. The Great Depression introduced unprecedented tax burdens to Americans. While real-estate values plummeted and unemployment skyrocketed, the cost of government remained high. As a result, taxes as a percentage of the national income nearly doubled from 11.6 percent in 1929 to 21.1 in 1932. Most of the increase took place at the local level and especially squeezed the resources of real estate taxpayers. Local tax delinquency rose steadily to a still standing record of 26.3% in 1933. Many Americans reacted to these conditions by forming taxpayers' leagues to call for lower taxes and cuts in government spending. By some estimates, there were three thousand of them by 1933. Taxpayers' leagues endorsed such measures as laws to limit and rollback taxes, lowered penalties on tax delinquents, and cuts in government spending. Partly as a result of their efforts, sixteen states and numerous localities adopted property tax limitations while three states instituted homestead exemptions. While taxpayers' leagues usually favored traditional legal and political strategies, a few were more direct. Probably the best known of these was the Association of Real Estate Taxpayers in Chicago. From 1930 to 1933, it led one of the largest tax strikes in American history. At its height, it had 30,000 paid members, a budget of $600,000, and a weekly radio show. By 1933, the taxpayers' leagues had entered a period of decline. Several factors undermined the conditions that had nurtured revolt. For example, economic conditions gradually improved, the federal government extended aid to homeowners, and local governments reduced reliance on real estate taxes. To some extent, the tax revolt also fell victim to an effective counterattack by municipal reformers, government officials, and the holders of municipal debt such as bondholders and bankers who formed so-called "Pay Your Taxes" campaigns throughout the country. These campaigns used a combination of door-to-door solicitation, threats of coercion, and inducements, such as installment payment plans, to collect back taxes. An alternative theory describing the decline of the taxpayers' leagues is that laws limiting existing taxes and new tax revenues from the manufacture and sale of alcohol due to the repeal of prohibition eliminated the need for the taxpayers' leagues. Cedar County Cow War of 1931 During the Iowa Cow War, the 700-member Farmers Protective Association vowed to refuse tax payments if the governor did not withdraw state troops and release an imprisoned resister. Women's suffragists in Bermuda, 1931–34 Women's suffragists in Bermuda, in particular Gladys Misick Morrell, refused to pay taxes unless they gained the vote. Tithe Resistance in Britain, 1931–35 As crop prices fell during the Depression, farmers in Great Britain began refusing to pay government-mandated church tithes. Resisters used a variety of tactics to resist government retaliation. [T]hey have made conditions very unhappy for auctioneers selling property for non-payment of tithes. They have stampeded oxen so that the sale of them could not continue. They have browbeaten bidders so that prices adequate to pay the tithes have not been reached; they have stoned auctioneers, thrown them in ponds, plastered them with mud, slashed their tires, and organized mass resistance to tithe collecting in other ways. Tyrol, Austria 1931 Peasants' federations in eastern Tyrol resolved to stop paying taxes in October 1931 to protest bloated government, agricultural policy, profiteering, and a large tax burden. Real Estate Taxpayers, 1931–33, 1977 During the Great Depression in the early 1930s, Americans throughout the United States formed thousands of taxpayers' leagues to protest high property taxes. In some cases, these groups illegally withheld taxes through tax strikes and other forms of resistance. The largest tax strike was in Chicago and led by the Association of Real Estate Taxpayers. At its height, the Association had more than thirty-thousand dues-paying members. A second, similar but smaller property tax payer's revolt hit Chicago in 1977. Puerto Rico sales tax, 1932 300 businesses in Ponce, Puerto Rico declared that they would refuse to continue to pay the sales tax after the United States governor of the island refused to repeal the tax. Meo uprising, 1932 The Meo, a group of Indian Muslims, revolted against taxes imposed by a Hindu maharaja in 1932, refusing to pay and resisting collection by force. Elmira Taxpayers' League Over a thousand taxpayers in Elmira, New York signed a pledge to refuse to pay local taxes until the municipal budget had been reduced, and tax rates as well. New York City automobile owners, 1933 The automobile club of New York organized an auto tax strike in 1933 to protest a doubled license fee for City residents. Mennonite women in Pennsylvania, 1933 Claiming that the Bible did not sanction the taxation of women, some women in Warwick township, Pennsylvania, refused to pay a poll tax in 1933. Irish "Blue Shirts," 1935 To protest Irish intransigence in the Anglo-Irish Trade War, the quasi-fascist "Blue Shirts" declared a tax strike. One striker was killed during a protest designed to disrupt an auction of cattle seized from a tax striker. Meat tax strike, 1935 In 1935, some Americans held a "Meat Strike" which was meant to protest New Deal-era taxes on meat processing by boycotting meat purchases. The offensive tax was eventually thrown out as unconstitutional. French "Peasant Front," 1935 The "Peasant Front," organized by Henri Dorgères, launched a tax strike in 1935. In some regions as many as 90% of the residents refused to pay their taxes, but the campaign had limited national impact. Sales tax resistance in Montreal, 1935 Mayor Hervé Ferland of Verdun led 164 or more shopkeepers there in refusing to collect or remit Montreal's sales tax. Sales tax resistance in Arkansas, 1935 98% of merchants in Stuttgart and 59 of 60 merchants in DeWitt signed a pledge to refuse to collect or pay a new Arkansas sales tax in 1935. Sales tax resistance in Alabama, 1936 Gadsden, Alabama merchants met and unanimously voted to refuse to collect or remit the state sales tax. Montgomery, Alabama pharmacists also resisted the tax. Anti-communist Catholic veterans, 1938 149 members of a Catholic war veterans fraternity began paying their property taxes into an escrow account rather than to the government, saying they would not turn over the funds until the local government dismissed Communist Party member Si Gerson who was an advisor to the Manhattan borough president. Coal Township, 1939 Taxpayers in Coal Township, Pennsylvania, threatened a tax strike to protest the fact that the large coal companies in the region had been neglecting to pay their taxes, causing the township to fall behind on schoolteacher salaries and other expenses. This forced some concessions from the coal companies. World War II During World War II, the Christian anarchist and pacifist Ammon Hennacy refused to register for the American draft and announced that he would not pay his income taxes. He also tried to reduce his tax liability by adopting a life of simple living. He wrote: I [learned] the principle of voluntary poverty and non payment of taxes... from Tolstoy and the [Catholic Worker]. When I was working a man asked me "Why does a fellow like you, with an education, and who has been all over the country, end up in this out-of-the-way place working for very little on a farm?" I explained that all people who had good jobs in factories, etc. had a withholding tax for war taken from their pay, and that people who worked on farms had no tax taken from their pay. I told him that I refused to pay taxes. He was a returned soldier and said that he did not like war either, but what could a fellow do about it? I replied that we each did what we really wanted to. Palestine, 1936–48 In 1936, in what one author called "the first truly grass-root rebellion/uprising by Palestinians," 150 Palestinians called for a general strike and tax strike to protest against the British mandate. Between 1939 and 1948, there was widespread resistance by Jews in Palestine against the income tax imposed by the British authorities, which included bomb attacks against tax offices, and many Jews instead voluntarily paid taxes to Jewish organizations. A few years after Israel gained its independence, its government became the target of widespread tax evasion and resistance, including a major tax strike in 1954. Jews in Vichy France, 1944 Jews refused to pay taxes to the Union générale des israélites de France (General Organization of Jews in France), which had been established by the Vichy France (Nazi-collaborationist) government. This Union was ostensibly meant to act as an umbrella organization that would organize social services for Jews by coordinating existing Jewish groups, but it was really a phase in the Nazi-organized obsession with bureaucratically solving the "Jewish Problem" in Europe via elimination. As in other parts of Nazi-controlled Europe, Jews in France had to make hard decisions about how much to resist such organizations outright and how much to try to participate in them as potential tools of resistance or amelioration. All French Jews were required to be members of the Union, which presumed to control all Jewish property. The Nazis might, for example, "fine" the whole of the Jews of France, and the Union in its representative capacity would borrow money to pay off the fine by pledging Jewish property as collateral, or, apparently, by taxing the membership base. Moslem League in India, 1946 A punitive tax imposed on Muslims by the United Provinces government to discourage rioting was resisted in a refusal organized by the Moslem League. Abeokuta Women's Revolt, late-1940s The Abeokuta Women's Revolt (also called the Egba Women's Tax Riot) was a resistance movement against the imposition of unfair taxation by the Nigerian colonial government. The women of Abeokuta believed that, under colonialism, their economic roles were declining, while their taxes were increasing. Additionally, they argued that until they were granted representation in local government, they should not be required to pay taxes separately from men. As a result of their protests, four women received seats on the local council, and the taxation of women was ended. School tax protest, France, 1947 Catholic priests from Vendée, upset that the government was taxing Catholic fundraising events for Catholic schools in order to use the tax money to exclusively support non-Catholic schools, refused to pay the tax and went on trial in 1947. The birth of the modern war tax resistance movement, 1948 In 1948, a Chicago conference on "More Disciplined and Revolutionary Pacifist Activity" attracted more than 300 people, and resulted in the formation of the group Peacemakers and its "Tax Refusal Committee." This is considered to be the birth of the modern organized war tax resistance movement in the United States. Monteverde, 1951 Several Quaker conscientious objectors from the United States left the country and founded a settlement in Monteverde, Costa Rica, in order to no longer be forced to pay taxes for the United States military (Costa Rica had abolished its own military a few years earlier). Oaxaca, 1952 A general strike in Oaxaca in 1952 was directed against the government's new tax plan. Rioters in Tlacolula stoned to death mayor Diodoro Maldonado. Pittston Township Wage Tax, 1952–53 Hundreds of residents of Pittston Township, Pennsylvania refused to pay a new wage tax in 1952. The government responded by arresting 15 of them, and the resisters switched tactics to vastly underpay the tax as a way of resisting without risking immediate criminal sanctions. South China, 1952 Four hundred farmers were arrested for tax refusal in southern China in 1952. The farmers claimed that the taxes would leave them hopelessly impoverished. Social Security tax protests, 1951–53 In 1952, Louisiana newspaper editor Mary Cain protested against social security taxes by refusing to pay, concealing her assets, and even sawing the lock off of her business's front door when it was closed by the tax collector and mailing the lock to the Internal Revenue Service. From 1951 to 1954, a group of "Texas Housewives" refused to pay social security taxes on the wages of their domestic help, and took their resistance all the way to the Supreme Court (where they lost their case). Poujadism, 1955 In 1955, a right-wing, anti-tax, middle-class, populist movement led by Pierre Poujade began resisting taxes in France. The resisters used a variety of tactics, including strikes, harassment of tax collectors, disruption of government auctions, and running for office (several Poujadists were elected to the Chamber of Deputies). No Taxation Without Representation in D.C., 1955–present In 1955 District of Columbia resident Florence Jaffray Harriman announced that she would be refusing to pay federal income tax until the federal government enacted "home rule" (a locally elected government) for the District (something the District was not granted until 1973). In 1990, the non-voting Congressional representative from the district, Walter Fauntroy, started a similar tax resistance campaign for D.C. statehood. Former District of Columbia council member Carol Schwartz, upset at the lack of Congressional representation for people in the district, threatened to start resisting her federal income taxes over the issue in 2011 and called on other D.C. residents to join her. J. Bracken Lee, 1956 Utah Governor J. Bracken Lee stopped paying federal income tax in 1956 to protest what he felt was unconstitutional federal spending. He hoped to become a test case, but the Supreme Court declined to hear his case. The Amish exemption from U.S. social insurance, 1935–65 In 1965 the United States Congress allowed the Amish to be exempt from the Social Security tax, following a persistent resistance campaign from some Amish who regarded insurance programs as mistrustful of God and therefore against their religious teachings. See and (this exemption also covers Medicare taxes). Tax resistance in Ethiopia, 1943–68 There were several outbreaks of armed resistance focused on tax complaints in Ethiopia. In some cases, farmers defaulted on their taxes and abandoned their land rather than pay, some fleeing into neighboring countries. In others, districts refused to elect or admit tax assessors, and used a mix of persuasion and coercion to prevent people from obeying the tax law. Turks in Cyprus, 1958 During the struggle over the future of Cyprus in the late 1950s, Turkish communities refused to pay taxes to Greek-run municipalities. St. Regis Reservation resistance, 1959 200 Indians on the St. Regis Mohawk Reservation in New York, led by Wallace "Mad Bear" Anderson, refused to pay state income taxes "and threatened to use summonses from the Tax Department 'to light the fires in our longhouses.'" Tithe resistance in Malaysia, early 1960s In 1960, the Malaysian government converted the traditional Islamic zakāt (tithe) paid voluntarily by rice farmers into a mandatory tax payable through the government. Opposition to the new government-controlled tithe was, at least in some places, "unanimous and vehement," and rice farmers developed a number of tactics to resist the tithes, successfully reducing the government's take to a fraction of what the law allowed. Tax resistance by the "Johnson cult," 1964 In the "Johnson cult" protest in Papua New Guinea (in which locals ostensibly intended to raise money to purchase U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson and install him as their political leader), the protesters raised money for their unusual plan by withholding the £2 poll tax from the government. A court in the United Kingdom rejects war tax resistance, 1968 In 1968, in the UK case of Cheney v. Conn, an individual objected to paying a tax that, in part, would be used to procure nuclear arms in unlawful contravention, he contended, of the Geneva Conventions. His claim was dismissed by the court, the judge ruling that "What the [taxation] statute itself enacts cannot be unlawful, because what the statute says and provides is itself the law, and the highest form of law that is known to this country." There remains in the United Kingdom a significant movement of people who wish to withhold the percentage of their taxes used for war and weapons, but instead contribute them into a ring fenced pool for peace-building or peacekeeping purposes. This may be either for religious or economic reasons. See the website Peace Pays or the Peace Tax campaign "Conscience," which produces an alternative tax return form to document the withholding of the military percentage of your taxes (approximately 12% of the total tax bill in the UK). Vietnam War, 1968–72 In early 1968, 458 writers and editors put full-page ads in the New York Post, New York Times Book Review and Ramparts, declaring their intention to refuse to pay a proposed 10% Vietnam War surtax. The signatories included James Baldwin, Robert Bly, Noam Chomsky, Robert Creeley, David Dellinger, Philip K. Dick, Robert Duncan, Lawrence Ferlinghetti, Leslie Fiedler, Betty Friedan, Allen Ginsberg, Todd Gitlin, Paul Goodman, Edward S. Herman, Paul Krassner, Staughton Lynd, Dwight Macdonald, Jackson Mac Low, Norman Mailer, Peter Matthiessen, Milton Mayer, Ed McClanahan, Carl Oglesby, Tillie Olsen, Grace Paley, Thomas Pynchon, Adrienne Rich, Kirkpatrick Sale, Ed Sanders, Peter Dale Scott, Susan Sontag, Terry Southern, Benjamin Spock, Gloria Steinem, Norman Thomas, Hunter S. Thompson, Lew Welch, John Wieners, Kurt Vonnegut and Howard Zinn. An estimated 70 signed on later. In 1970, five Harvard and nine M.I.T. faculty members, including Nobel laureates Salvador E. Luria and George Wald, announced that they would be resisting taxes in protest of the war. In 1972, Jane Hart, wife of U.S. Senator Philip Hart, said that she would be resisting the federal income tax. By this time, every major I.R.S. center had a staff member assigned to be the "Viet Nam Protest Coordinator." Also in 1972, the U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania decided the case of United States v. Malinowski. That case involved John Paul Malinowski, an instructor in theology at St. Joseph's College and a member of the Philadelphia War Tax Resistance League protesting the use of tax money in the Vietnam War. The taxpayer had filed a false Form W-4, and admitted he knew that he was not legally entitled to claim the exemptions (that is, the allowances) he claimed on the W-4. Malinowski was convicted, and his motion for a new trial or acquittal was denied. Agbękoya, 1968–69 The Agbękoya Parapo Revolt was a successful tax rebellion by the Yoruba of Nigeria. Papua New Guinea, 1969 The Mataungan Organisation launched tax resistance in support of the indigenous government against a mixed indigenous/immigrant government in 1969. Students Resist El Paso Sales Tax, 1969 Calling it a tax on the poor to pay for business district improvements, delegates at the National Student Association Congress in El Paso, Texas in 1969 purchased American flags from a local retailer and refused to pay the penny sales tax on each flag, in a symbolic, media-friendly act of resistance. Resistance to the Larzac base, 1970 In 1970, when the French defense minister announced plans to expand a military base in Larzac, José Bové and other activists led a campaign to withhold 3% of their taxes (an amount they said was equivalent to the amount the government was spending on its base-expansion campaign) and redirect this money toward agricultural projects. Opposition to school tax in Stormont County, Ontario, 1970 Several property owners in Stormont County, Ontario, refused to pay a portion of their property tax in 1970 in a tax strike sponsored by the Ontario Federation of Agriculture to protest the burden on rural property owners caused by basing the tax on property value rather than income. Bangladesh independence movement, 1971 In March 1971, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman called for mass civil disobedience in the service of the independence of Bangladesh, saying that citizens should refuse to pay taxes or to cooperate with the government in other ways. According to one source "The no-tax directive of the Sheikh was followed so vigorously by both individuals and organizations that no one gave any taxes and no organization dared charge any. Even the two posh hotels of Dacca became accessible to middle-income people when food prices were drastically reduced for non-collection of taxes. The whole Income Tax Department was closed down making it quite impossible for the central government to assess and collect direct taxes from individuals and corporations." Anti-abortion tax resistance, 1971– Canadian anti-abortion activist Joe Borowski began refusing to pay federal income tax in 1971 in protest against government-funded abortions. David Little also refused to pay his Canadian federal taxes starting in 2000 for the same reason. In 1973, Brendan Finnegan, an American farmer began refusing to pay his taxes, and said he would continue “until our government passes and enforces law to protect the unborn from abortion.” Another American, John Kelly, expatriated with his family to Ireland in 1975 to avoid paying taxes for abortions in the United States. American Michael Bowman began refusing to pay federal taxes for reasons of conscientious objection to abortion funding in 1997, and has been fighting in court for the right to legally resist such payments since then. The Pope John XXIII Community in Italy started practicing conscientious objection to taxation for abortion in 1990. In 2009, Randall Terry, a prominent American anti-abortion activist, wrote: As we pour our hearts and souls into the battle to keep the slaughter of the innocent by abortion out of any health care bill, the discussion has emerged as to whether it is an ethically viable option to refuse to pay part or all of our federal taxes. Some well meaning souls have already—perhaps without much thought—repeated our Lord’s oft quoted statement: “Render unto Caesar that which is Caesar’s, and unto God that which is God’s.” The simple question is this: does this statement of our Lord apply in a situation like the present? If we know that Caesar is going to use the money to kill our neighbor—one of God’s children—are we required, by God Himself, to give the money to our political leaders? I think the answer is self-evidently, “No!” Efforts to legalize conscientious objection to military taxation, 1972– In 1972 United States Congressman Ron Dellums introduced legislation that would legalize a form of conscientious objection to military taxation, allowing some taxpayers to designate their taxes for non-military spending only. Advocated by National Campaign for a Peace Tax Fund, this legislation is regularly reintroduced in the United States Congress and has a number of cosponsors. The legislatures of other countries are also considering similar legislation. Many war tax resisters support this, but others feel that such a law would not actually address the problem that leads them to resist taxation. Refusing to pay an excise tax on air travel in the U.S., 1972 When a $1- to $2-per-ticket air travel tax was applied to five airports in the United States in 1972, thousands of travelers refused to pay the tax. Norwalk Taxpayers League, 1972 The Norwalk Taxpayers League, led by Vincent DePanfilis, collected pledges from taxpayers that they would refuse to pay any more tax in the 1973–74 tax year than they had in 1972–73. This was a rare example of tax resistance during the American tax revolt movement of the 1970s. Heinrich Böll refuses church tax, 1972 In 1972, Heinrich Böll refused to pay a Catholic church tithe that had been made mandatory and was enforced by the German government. Castine school tax resistance, 1975 In Castine, Maine, residents voted to illegally refuse, as a town, to pay a state school tax, in 1975. "A New Call to Peacemaking," 1976–78 In 1976, 1977, and 1978, representatives from the United States' "peace churches" (Mennonites, Brethren, and Quakers) met to develop what they called a "New Call to Peacemaking," a joint statement in which they called on members of their congregations to refuse to pay taxes that go to pay for war. Nicaragua, 1978 In the last months of the Anastasio Somoza regime in Nicaragua, the opposition organized a tax strike. United States, Proposition 13, 1978 A wave of tax revolts began in the late 1970s and were particularly popular in the West. In 1978, voters in California passed Proposition 13, sponsored by Howard Jarvis and passed overwhelmingly by voters in 1978, which drastically limited property tax levels in the state. In subsequent years, the state initiative process, initially championed by Populists and progressives, has been increasingly used for such purposes by conservative and corporate political forces. In the United States, notable examples include a series of initiatives in Oregon (see Oregon tax revolt) and Washington (see Tim Eyman), the Taxpayer Bill of Rights (TABOR) in Colorado, and Proposition 2 in Massachusetts. Sales Tax Boycott in Ottawa, 1981 In 1981, a tax resistance campaign in Ontario targeted the provincial sales tax and included both merchants and consumers as participants. Palestine, doctors in 1981 Doctors in Gaza City refused to pay a 12% income tax to the Israeli occupation and were supported by a two-day general strike. Archbishop Hunthausen resists, 1982 In 1982, Catholic Archbishop Raymond Hunthausen of Seattle, Washington, announced that he would be refusing to pay half of his income tax in protest against the nuclear arms race. Citing a previous pastoral letter he wrote on the subject, Archbishop Hunthausen stated that certain laws may he peacefully disobeyed under serious conditions, and that there may be times "when disobedience may be an obligation of conscience." "I believe," he said, "that the present issue is as serious as any the world has faced. The very existence of humanity is at stake." Churches resist the social security tax, 1984 The Quint City Baptist Temple in Iowa, the Indianapolis Baptist Temple, and several other churches refused to pay social security taxes on the wages of their employees, maintaining that it was unconstitutional to make them tax collectors for the government. The courts disagreed. Irish Unionists, 1986 The Democratic Unionist Party called on its supporters to refuse to pay taxes in protest against an Anglo-Irish settlement on the political status of Northern Ireland. Beit Sahour, 1988–89 In 1988–89, during the First Intifada, the Palestinian resistance urged people to stop paying taxes to Israel. At the time, The people of Beit Sahour responded to this call with an unusually organized and citywide tax strike. As a result of the tax strike, Israeli military authorities placed the town under curfew for 45 days and seized goods belonging to citizens in raids. Israel's military forces had the authority, independent from the rest of the Israeli government, to create and enforce taxes in occupied areas. As a result, they would impose taxes on Palestinians as collective punishment measures to discourage the intifada, for instance "the glass tax (for broken windows), the stones tax (for damage done by stones), the missile tax (for Gulf War damage), and a general intifada tax, among others". Among those prominent in Beit Sahour's tax resistance were Ghassan Andoni and Elias Rishmawi. Some tax resistance continued in Beit Sahour for some years after the end of the 1989 tax strike there UK Poll Tax, 1989–93 In 1989–90, the government of Margaret Thatcher reformed local taxation in Britain by replacing Domestic Rates with a new tax known officially as the Community Charge, but more widely and disparagingly known as the "Poll Tax". Whereas Rates had been, at least to some extent, a progressive tax, the Poll Tax was a flat tax irrespective of income. Many people considered the new tax to be unfair, and a major non-payment campaign saw up to 30% of the population of some council areas refusing to pay. Draconian enforcement measures caused civil unrest, and ultimately led to the Poll Tax riots. The new tax became a major electoral liability for the Conservative Party, and was a significant factor in the ousting of Mrs Thatcher by her own party. Due to its unpopularity and the disastrous impact of non-payment on local authority finances, the tax was replaced by the Council Tax in 1993. Cameroon, 1991 In 1991 Cameroon's major opposition political parties called for tax resistance in support of their campaign to end one-party rule. Native Americans in Canada, 1994 For 29 days in 1994, a group of Native Americans occupied one floor of the building housing the Revenue Canada Taxation Centre in downtown Toronto, in protest of Canada's plans to tax Native Americans who had previously been exempted from taxation as a result of treaty provisions. Many continue to resist the tax. Water tax strike, 1994–96, 2007 The Irish Congress of Trade Unions, among others, promoted a non-payment campaign against the government water monopoly in 2007. Irish water charges were abolished in December 1996, replaced with VAT and motor tax. Lech Walesa in 1995 In 1995, Poland's president Lech Walesa called for people to refuse to pay any higher income tax rates. Onondaga Nation highway blockade, 1997 Protesters upset at New York state's attempt to impose sales and excise taxes on the Iroquois in Onondaga Nation led residents to blockade Interstate 81 in May, 1997. Brutal arrests followed, with New York eventually paying $2.7 million to settle lawsuits filed by those arrested. Zapatistas municipios autónomos When the Zapatista Army of National Liberation moved from organizing armed resistance to the Mexican government to establishing autonomous villages—Rebel Zapatista Autonomous Municipalities—free from central government control, one of the things they did was to stop paying taxes to the outside governments. Fuel tax protests, 2000 In multiple areas of Europe, in 2000, people protested increases in motor vehicle fuel taxes by blockading ports, refineries, fuel depots, and highways. Zimbabwe, 2000 Opposition parties in Zimbabwe urged citizens to refuse to pay taxes to protest government misuse of funds in 2000. 21st Century Same-sex marriage rights In the United States, some gay people adopted a form of tax resistance to protest the government's lack of legal recognition of same-sex marriage. UK council tax In the United Kingdom, senior citizens in opposition to steep increases in council tax, claiming that increases of as much as 30% are not affordable to those living on a pension, refused to pay the tax in full or in part (some paying the previous year's amount plus an inflationary rise). One of these, Sylvia Hardy of Exeter, was jailed for seven days. People have also resisted the council tax on the grounds that the government was not properly discouraging travellers from setting up camp nearby, or had failed to properly clean up hazardous waste on their property. In 2013, Christopher Coverdale began refusing to pay his council tax on the grounds that the council was investing some of the money in promoting terrorist acts and war crimes. Bin Tax protests, 2001–2005 There was a long campaign of resistance to rubbish-hauling charges in Ireland. Venezuelan opposition, 2003 The political opposition to ruler Hugo Chavez launched a tax strike aimed at ending the Chavez regime's control. "Flatulence Tax" resistance, 2003 New Zealand farmers protested a livestock tax that was ostensibly designed to discourage and ameliorate methane emissions by announcing they would refuse to pay and by sending packages of manure to government ministers. Vandalism of traffic-ticket-generating machines, 2004– As governments around the world began to see the revenue-producing potential of traffic-ticket-generating cameras, drivers began to fight back. Examples of destruction or disabling of such machines have been registered in many countries. Nepal, 2006 Political parties in Nepal urged people to stop paying their taxes in 2006 as part of a push against the power of the monarchy. Tijuana, 2006 The Chamber of Commerce in Tijuana voted to pay taxes into an escrow account rather than to the government to protest the government's inability to provide adequate security. Organized resistance to paying Mafia, 2006 In 2006, after the arrest of Mafia boss Bernardo Provenzano, 100 shopkeepers in Palermo, Italy declared publicly that they would stop paying taxes to the Sicilian Mafia. They encouraged consumers to support the resisters by buycotting their stores. Tehran Bazaar, 2008 Government attempts to extend a value-added tax to cover the Tehran Bazaar were frustrated by a strike that shut down the Bazaar until the government gave in. Nankang, China, 2009 Protesters in Nankang "overturned police cars and blocked roads over plans to more strictly enforce payment of taxes." Delhi lawyers, 2009 Lawyers in Delhi, India went on strike in 2009 rather than pay a sales tax that the government was trying to extend to cover legal services. Chascomús/Lezama secessionist struggle, 2009 Groups on both sides of the debate over the secession of Lezama from the city of Chascomús used tax resistance to try to pressure the government into siding with them. Vecinos Autoconvocados in Paraná, Argentina, 2009–10 In February 2009, residents of Paraná, Argentina launched a property tax strike to protest large jumps in property assessment values. In March, residents of Justo Daract followed suit. In 2010, residents of Villa Nueva announced a tax strike to protest against inadequate government services. Residents were also urged to refuse to pay taxes for roadwork that resisters alleged had already been paid for out of federal taxes. PRD resistance in Indonesia, 2010 Members of the small Partai Rakyat Demokratik launched a tax strike against president Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono in early 2010. Hundreds of protesters pledged to refuse to pay a tax, and as part of their protest, burned their Nomer Peserta Wajib Pajak (taxpayer identification) paperwork. Party chairman Sunu Pajar said, "we refuse to pay taxes as a form of resistance." Luzerne County, 2010 A Pennsylvania county government beset with corruption hiked taxes by 10% and some residents said no. One recorded a protest song entitled "Take This Tax and Shove It" and launched a tax resistance campaign. San Juan, Argentina shopkeepers, 2010 Shopkeepers in San Juan, Argentina, upset at being undercut by untaxed street vendors, announced a tax strike in 2010. Tax refusal protests China's one-child policy Yang Zhizhu and Chen Hong protested China's one-child policy by refusing to pay a 200,000 yuan fine on their second child. Coventry "Axe the Tax" protest, 2010 Hundreds of small businesses refused to pay a municipal tax in Coventry in 2010 and successfully had the tax (and the body that levied it) rescinded. Tax protest and strike in Romania, 2010 In August 2010 a tax strike was declared after newly introduced regulations were found to force freelancers and unincorporated companies waste over 24 man-hours each month on filling tax declarations and depositing those declarations in person at three different offices, in addition to forcing freelancers pay an unemployment insurance they cannot take advantage of. The new rules apply whether the freelancers or the unincorporated companies had any income or not, and declarations have to be submitted even for amounts less than €10. Barinas, Venezuela transit licensees Licensed public transit drivers in Barinas, Venezuela who were getting undercut by unlicensed, unofficial ones launched a tax strike to protest a lack of government protection for their privilege. Ondarroa municipal tax strike, 2003–11 The government responded to an organized municipal tax strike involving hundreds of households in Ondárroa in the Basque region of Spain by cutting the water supply to 120 homes and businesses there. The residents were supporters of a banned Basque nationalist political party and ended their strike (though without paying any of the previously resisted taxes) when they regained government representation under the banner of a new, legal party in 2011. Ivory Coast, 2011 Alassane Ouattara apparently won the presidential election in Ivory Coast over incumbent Laurent Gbagbo. Gbagbo disagreed and refused to leave office. Ouattara then called on the citizens of Ivory Coast to discontinue paying taxes to the Gbagbo government, which eventually was defeated. When Ouattara took power, however, his government began pursuing those resisters for back taxes. Guinea-Bassau cashew traders strike, 2011 Cashew merchants in Guinea-Bissau went on strike in April 2011 rather than pay a new export tax on cashews. Tax resistance for Catalan Independence, 2011– In July 2011, the Catalan nationalist group Òmnium Cultural, at its 50th anniversary meeting, called on citizens to redirect their taxes from the central government to a Catalan-run fund until such time as the government concedes more autonomy to the region. In April, 2012, some Catalan separatists started paying their federal taxes into the Catalan treasury instead of submitting the money to the central Spanish government. In October, 2012, the small town of Gallifa in Catalonia began tax resistance as a municipality by refusing to pay the income tax due on the salaries of the employees at the tax office. By 2013, some 650 municipalities had begun turning their taxes over to the Catalan government rather than to the federal government. The tax resistance campaign is being organized by Catalunya Diu Prou ("Catalonia Says 'Enough'"), which says that some freelancers and independent businesses, which are responsible for their own tax withholding, will follow suit. In 2019, another tax resistance initiative, Ni 1 euro x a la repressió ("Not one euro for repression") was launched. Modeled on the Spanish war tax resistance movement, it urged people stop paying and then to redirect the portion of their taxes that would otherwise go to pay for the Spanish monarchy, and those elements of the Spanish government that suppress Catalan independence. By this time, some 17,000 Catalan taxpayers were paying their federal taxes to the Catalan tax agency rather than to the Spanish one, in acts of civil disobedience. A reboot of this campaign launched in 2020 under the name Prou Monarquia ("Enough Monarchy"), boosted by former Catalan president Carles Puigdemont. In 2020, Catalan president Quim Torra called on municipalities in Catalonia to withhold taxes from the central government's Spanish Federation of Municipalities and Provinces. In early 2021, the city government of Vic, the capital of the Osona comarca, decided to stop remitting its taxes to the Spanish federal government, but instead to send those taxes to the Catalan government. The Catalan government currently forwards these taxes to Spain, so for now this is mostly a symbolic campaign. Vic was soon joined by joined by Girona, capital of Girona province, and some other medium-sized towns. Later that year, the separatist group “Council for the Republic” began asking individual resisters to redirect €300 of their taxes from the central government to the Republican Fund for Solidarity Action. In 2022, the Catalan independence group Assemblea Nacional Catalana asked the Generalitat de Catalunya to give formal legal protection to taxpayers who send their taxes to the Catalan regional government rather than to the Spanish central government. Road toll resistance in Argentina, 2011 Argentine congresswoman Griselda Baldata noticed that nobody was maintaining the road on Route 36, but that the company in charge of maintenance was still collecting a toll. So she stopped paying and urged her constituents to do likewise. Protests against European austerity measures, 2011– In the wake of the European sovereign debt crisis, some governments raised taxes and implemented harsh austerity measures to bring down the government budget deficits and satisfy international creditors. Some people and groups who opposed these measures adopted tax resistance as a protest tactic, for instance in Spain, Germany, Greece, Italy, Cyprus, and Ireland. Before the victory of the Greek Syriza party in the 2015 elections, it had sponsored a "Have Not, Pay Not" tax resistance movement targeting the Enfia tax. The party's opposition to this tax was one of the factors in its popularity, and many people stopped paying the tax when it became likely that Syriza would win the elections and do away with the tax entirely. But Syriza found itself unable to resist raising taxes when it came into power, and citizens fought back. One anarchist / antiauthoritarian coalition sabotaged more than 200 public transit fare-enforcement machines. The government, finding it difficult to raise money through straightforward taxation, increasingly relies on increases in fares, highway tolls, and utility bills. By 2017, 40% of Greeks were unable (or unwilling) to pay their utility bills. Some Greeks used devices that interfere with electricity meters, while others enlisted Den Plirono ("Won't Pay" movement) activists to reconnect the power to their homes when they were cut off for failure to pay the electric bill. A similar "Don't Pay U.K." movement emerged in response to steep rises in utility bills in the United Kingdom in 2022. This was followed by a German campaign, modeled on the U.K. one, called Wir zahlen nicht, and another in Lebanon, in 2023. Resistance against the "household tax" in Ireland, 2012–15 A group (including Teachtaí Dála Joe Higgins, Clare Daly, Joan Collins, Richard Boyd Barrett, Mick Wallace, Thomas Pringle and Séamus Healy, European Parliamentarian Paul Murphy, and councillors Ruth Coppinger and Ted Tynan) promoted a campaign of resistance against the "stealth tax" of increased household and water rates. A campaign spokesperson explained: "This is not a charge to fund your local community, it is a tax to fund private speculators, bondholders and the bailout. Our incomes and services are being decimated to pay this private debt. Now people have a chance to register their opposition by not registering for this tax. By not registering, we can make this a referendum on the bailouts for the rich and the cuts for us." By the deadline, only about half of the households in Ireland that were required to register and pay had done so. On 6 May 2013, the Revenue Commissioners reported that 1.2 m households (74%) have paid the property tax. In August 2013, the Revenue said 1.58 m households have paid the tax, and over €175 m has been collected. In 2014, Irish Water workers trying to install the water meters were met with blockades. In February 2015, Murphy and three others were arrested and then released without charges, reportedly part of an investigation into a November 2014 Jobstown protest that trapped Tánaiste Joan Burton in her car for over two hours. Spanish autonomists, 2012–14 Autonomists in Spain, under the banner "derecho de rebelión" (right of rebellion), launched a multifaceted tax resistance campaign designed to redirect taxes from the Spanish government (which they felt had overstepped Constitutional bounds and unlawfully usurped power) to locally organized autonomous projects. Indonesia, 2012 A tax resistance movement began in Indonesia in protest of the government's prioritizing of payments to bankers and other large bondholders during the economic downturn. Honduras Crime syndicates / protogovernments rule the streets in many parts of Honduras, and these often extort more money from their subjects than does the internationally recognized Honduran government. Some people resist these taxes, known locally as "impuesto de guerra" or "war tax," but the consequences of refusal can be, and frequently are, deadly. Eight bus company employees in Choloma, for instance, were gunned down in broad daylight, a block away from a police station and by attackers in police uniforms, in retaliation against drivers who did not pay the tax. In May, 2013 bus drivers there took collective action, going on strike to demand better security. Salta, Argentina, 2013 Guillermo Durand Cornejo, president of an argentinian consumer rights organization called CODELCO, and a legislative representative, called on Salteños (citizens of Salta, Argentina) to refuse to pay a municipal tax, in the wake of property tax increases and new taxes in electricity and water bills. "Until such time as the mayor gives a response to the people concerning the tax hike, I suggest that you do not pay this month's municipal tax," he said. "I call for civil disobedience." Cornejo said he views a thirty-day tax strike as a wake up call for the government, and suggested that strikers who restrict their strike to a single month will not be subject to government reprisals. Egypt, 2013 Egyptian activists are withholding bus and subway fares as a protest against their government's continuing repression. "We are calling for civil disobedience — not to pay for the metro and buses..." one said. "They're taking that money and bringing tools to repress us. They bring bird shot, and tear gas, poison gas even." Madagascar, 2013 Businesses in Madagascar refused to submit taxes to the government, depositing the money in an escrow account instead. The businesses, which represent a large percentage of the country's tax base, were reacting to a crisis of stability and perceived legitimacy in the government. According to the chair of the Madagascar's Enterprises Union, "We no longer know with what kind of authorities we should deal at this stage." Tax protesters in Canada The tax protester phenomenon, which had long been part of the national tax scene in the United States, emerged as a difficulty for the Canadian government as well. By 2013, about 400 cases were pending in the Tax Court of Canada — "most using florid and arcane language and claiming bizarre laws that supersede or nullify Canada's regulations and laws; it prompted the Tax Court to adopt a triage approach to cope with the deluge, grouping cases and directing them to specific judges." Bonnets rouges in Brittany, 2013–14 In late 2013, a nationalist movement in Brittany called the bonnets rouges began destroying highway portals that were designed to tax truck transportation in the region. They eventually destroyed hundreds of these portals — as well as the tax office in Morlaix — leading the French government to abandon the tax. Pos me salto in Mexico, passe livre in Brazil, and Planka.nu in Sweden, 2013–14 When the Mexico city government hiked transit fares by two-thirds, frustrated commuters started leaping the turnstiles, both alone and in organized groups, in a form of protest they call pos me salto ("well, then, I'll jump"). At around the same time, a similar movement called passe livre was engaged in similarly motivated actions in Brazil. The similar Planka.nu movement in Sweden went a step further, initiating a mutual insurance plan: For a €12 monthly fee, the plan insures contributors against any tickets they are given for being caught without a ticket — compare this to €100 for a monthly transit pass, or €150 for a fare evasion citation. The plan is running at a profit, taking in about twice as much from subscribers as it has had to pay out in fine reimbursements. Crete, 2014–16 Thousands of Cretans each paid only a single euro of their road taxes in a protest there. The action was organized by "People Stop Paying," a group that protested against rising taxes at a time of increasing economic difficulties, and that the taxes were not actually going to crucially needed road improvements. That group also organized protests at government auctions of seized property. Tunisian taxi drivers, 2014 Taxi drivers in Tunisia reacted to a new tax on motorists by posting signs in the windows of their cabs reading "I will not pay tax!" and daring the police to try to enforce the new taxes against them. Businesses in Apatzingán, 2014 Some business leaders in Apatzingán, a city in the Tierra Caliente region of Michoacán, finding that the government was giving them no protection from the Knights Templar Cartel, decided to stop paying taxes. Euromaidan, 2014 During the Euromaidan in Ukraine in early 2014, a group of business owners in Lviv announced that they would stop paying value-added and income taxes to the Ukraine central government of Viktor Yanukovych (taxes that went to maintain the military and internal security forces). "Protesta fiscale ad oltranza", 2014 In northern Italy, a group of small businesses united under the banner "protesta fiscale ad oltranza" (tax protest to the bitter end) refuse paying taxes, claiming that the Constitution requires the government to leave them enough to live on and that they should not be forced to borrow money to pay the government. For example, when bed and breakfast owner Alessandra Marazzi discovered that fully 84% of what she was bringing in was going to pay taxes and state-monopolized utility fees, she decided to stop paying taxes just so her business (and her family) could survive. Caterer Andrea Polese stopped paying and put a sign on her door reading "I am a tax resister." Bar owner Mariano Pavanello posted a selfie with a sign saying "I decided to stop paying protection money to a state thief." Venetian independence movement, 2014–19 After the majority of Venetians who responded to a plebiscite voted to secede from Italy and restore the Venetian Republic, one of the first acts of the organizers of the plebiscite was to decree that the people of Venice were now free from obligations to pay taxes to the Italian state. Gianluca Busato, one of the drivers behind the initiative, went so far as to say that "The payment of taxes to foreign governments [e.g. Italy's], as well as immoral, it's illegal." The separatists claimed that 3,407 businesses initially signed on to the tax strike, and as many as 93,000 others may be resisting less openly. In 2016, the government struck back, arresting 20 people in 19 raids in Vicenza, Treviso, and Verona and charging them with inciting tax evasion. In 2019, separatists again refused to pay their federal taxes to Italy, redirecting them instead to Veneto State. Anti-corruption resistance in Austria, 2014 Some business owners in Austria, notably Wolfgang Reichl and Gerhard Höller, began paying their federal taxes into escrow accounts rather than turning them over to the government, largely in protest over the Hypo scandal. Höller launched a project called Der Steuerstreik ("the tax strike") in an attempt to get more business owners to participate in tax resistance. Wakulima market vendors, 2014 Hundreds of vendors at the Wakulima market in Nakuru, Kenya, refused to pay taxes to the county government in June, 2014 in a tax strike to protest the government's failure to provide the market the sanitation and sewage services the taxes ostensibly pay for. Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf, 2014 In August, 2014, Imran Khan, leader of Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf, a prominent political party in Pakistan, gave a speech in which he called for a "civil disobedience movement" in which "we will not pay taxes, electricity or gas bills," to the central government, in hopes of forcing the resignation of Pakistan's prime minister Nawaz Sharif. Khan's party was in charge of the government in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, and that government itself planned to withhold its federal taxes and utility payments. Asked what they would do if the government responded by cutting off utility service to the province, province Information Minister Mushtaq Ghani said that they would retaliate by cutting off the neighboring province of Punjab from the power generated by the Tarbela Dam, which is located in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. Umbrella Movement, 2014–15 As Hong Kong's Umbrella Movement began to move away from the Occupy Central mode of street protests, it began to promote tax refusal and refusal to pay rent in government-run housing. Benny Tai Yiu-Ting, one of the movement's organizers, wrote: "Blocking government may be even more powerful than blocking roads. Refusal to pay taxes, delaying rent payments by tenants in public housing estates and filibustering in the Legislative Council, along with other such acts of noncooperation, could make governing more inconvenient. No government can govern effectively if the majority of its people are unwilling to cooperate." Puerto Rico, 2015 Foes of a new 16% value-added tax in Puerto Rico launched consumer and business strikes there, including a "No Consumption Day" on 3 March 2015. Vitebsk, Belarus, 2015 Merchants at the Polatsk marketplace in Vitebsk, Belarus went on strike and refused to pay taxes in March, 2015 to protest government harassment of traders who had not purchased enough official paperwork. Ethiopian-Jewish Israelis, 2015 Police brutality, discrimination, and mistreatment towards Israel's Ethiopian Jewish minority led Shlomo Molla, one of the few Ethiopian-Israelis to have been in the Israeli parliament, to call for tax resistance, refusal to serve in the army, and other forms of civil disobedience. Beni, D.R. Congo, 2015–22 Residents of Beni, Democratic Republic of the Congo, launched a tax strike to protest the government's failure to provide them with adequate security against atrocities committed by the Allied Democratic Forces insurgency. The tax resistance was preceded by a week-long general strike, and later spread to other parts of North Kivu. Tax strikes are a popular method of political action in North and South Kivu. Other such strikes have pressured the government to improve transportation infrastructure among other issues. Githurai market vendors, 2015 Market vendors in Githurai, Kenya withheld taxes from the county government to protest the government's unwillingness or inability to provide basic services to the market. Prino condominiums, 2015 Fifty condominium owners in Prino, Italy, stopped paying the "IMU" municipal property tax to protest the city's neglect of public spaces, including a filthy public square with a broken fountain that's become a rubbish heap, poor upkeep of drainage that leads to flooding, and bad traffic management. Patadar community, 2015 The Patidar community in Gujarat, in pursuit of government-protected minority status, coordinated bank runs and tax resistance in an "economic non-cooperation" movement. Crickhowell, 2015 The town of Crickhowell, in a protest against the use of tax havens by multinational companies, decided to try to use the same tax haven strategies on a small scale. They teamed up with a television show to try to "offshore" the town in the hopes of spurring the government into closing the loopholes that allow such tax avoidance. Russian truckers, 2015–16 A new tax on heavy-weight truckers in Russia, and corruption in the way the tax would be administered, led to a trucking strike that unsettled the Putin regime. Mexican areas, 2015–16 Residents of Uruapan started withholding municipal taxes in 2015, using the money to fund private Neighborhood Watch groups, in exasperation at the inability of law enforcement to protect them from criminals. Resisters also refused to pay certain utility rates. Businesses in Huatulco and Acapulco followed suit in 2016. Eastleigh, 2016 Business owners in Eastleigh, Nairobi stopped paying taxes to Nairobi County in protest against the government's failure to provide basic services. Eastleigh North Ward representative Osman Adow Ibrahim, a member of the County Assembly, wrote: "As your representative, I fully support the decision you have made and have engaged a lawyer to get an injunction through the courts. The law and Constitution of Kenya allows for peaceful protest to get one's rights. I hope we all stand together on this, so that we get the service we need." Indian taxpayers union, 2016 Anjali Damania and Alyque Padamsee started a taxpayers union and launched a tax strike to protest government corruption in India. They were emboldened by a ruling from Justice Arun Chaudhari of the Nagpur bench of Bombay High Court, in which he said To eradicate the cancer of corruption — the "hydra-headed monster," it is now a high time for the citizens to come together to tell their governments that they have had enough. That is the miasma of corruption. If the same continues, taxpayers may resort to refuse to pay taxes by "non-cooperation movement." Among their tactics was to print up "zero rupee" notes, resembling currency but containing anti-corruption messages, that people could hand to government officials who demand bribes. Gay rights tax resistance in Italy Tommaso Cerno, a journalist and gay rights activist in Friuli, Italy, announced, in a letter published in Repubblica, a tax strike for gay rights. Jewelers in India, 2016 Jewelers in India staged an 18-day strike to protest a new excise tax on gold sales. The government agreed to suspend collection of the charge pending the report from a committee that was formed to look into the jewelers' grievances. The jewelers are estimated to have lost some $4.5 billion in sales during the strike. This is the third time the government has suspended the tax in response to protests. Terrorist victims' families in France, 2016 Families of victims of the November 2015 Paris attacks said they would refuse to pay the taxes due from their dead family members, complaining that it was insulting to tax the victims to pay for, among other things, the salaries of the public defenders representing the terrorist suspects. Trieste, 2016 Hundreds of separatists in the Province of Trieste stopped paying taxes to the Italian government in 2016. Gasolinazo resistance in Mexico, 2017 When the government of Mexico partially-privatized the state-run gasoline monopoly, gas prices rose sharply, contrary to the promises of the politicians who implemented the policy. This led to a variety of tax resistance actions from the citizenry, among other actions. In Uruapan, for example, several citizens' groups occupied the Treasury and Revenue Administration departments to prevent tax collection. Ouanaminthe workers, 2017 Workers in the Codevi (Free Trade Zone) in Ouanaminthe, Haiti went on strike in February, 2017, to protest a new 10% tax on their wages. Mass resistance to "Vagrants Tax" in Minsk, 2017 A so-called "Vagrants Tax" in Minsk, Belarus was met by widespread resistance, with fewer than 10% of taxpayers complying with the law. Coffee bootlegging in Greece, 2017 When the government of Greece attached a 20% tax to coffee imports, a group called Cafe Justicia began smuggling fair trade coffee from Guatemala into Greece to help Greeks to avoid the tax. GST rollout in India, 2017 India began to roll out a nationwide goods-and-services tax (GST) in 2017 to replace a patchwork of regional taxes. But not all of the regions revoked their complementary taxes, and some industries that were formerly untaxed or taxed at a low rate were newly taxed or taxed at a higher rate. This led to protests. For example, textile workers in Chandigarh shut their shops to protest the new tax structure, and a thousand movie theaters in Tamil Nadu shut to protest that state's 30% entertainment tax which applied in addition to the new 18–28% goods-and-services tax. Textile workers went further in September, selling their products without GST fees attached, in a "tax denial satyagraha" or civil disobedience campaign. In October, filmmakers in Kollywood halted all new film releases to join the protest by Tamil Nadu theaters. Tax protest against refugee settlement in Italy, 2017 Forty business owners in Italy refused to pay taxes in 2017 to protest the government's plans to house refugees near their businesses. Business strikes in Ethiopia, 2017 Businesses in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, and nearby towns went on strike in July, 2017 to protest tax hikes on small businesses. Residents also began "posting pictures of damaged public infrastructures such as roads, schools, and hospitals on social media to make a point that taxes collected are simply embezzled [rather] than used to improve people's lives." More than five hundred merchants were jailed in Bahir Dar for refusing to pay a tax, and many others closed their shops rather than pay. Republican Party calls for tax refusal in Seattle, 2017 When the Seattle city government enacted a municipal income tax, arguably in violation of Washington state law, the Washington State Republican Party called on citizens to refuse to pay. "This law is unconstitutional, illegal, and against the voter's [sic] will expressed nine (9) times at the ballot box and it deserves nothing less than civil disobedience — that is, refusal to comply, file or pay." Gurugram tax revolt, 2017 The Municipal Corporation of Gurugram was formed in 2008. It made questionable claims to be able to govern and tax various parts of the region. Representatives from 46 villages that the Corporation attempted to tax unanimously voted to refuse to pay property tax to the Corporation in August, 2017, saying that it lacks authority to tax them. Tax strike in Kasai-Oriental, 2017 In protest against the government's refusal to allow democratic elections in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the Kasai-Oriental province chapter of the Union for Democracy and Social Progress, one of the country's largest political parties, declared a tax strike in October, 2017. Taxes and duties contribute to the development and welfare of the general citizenry. This is not the case in the DRC, where taxes and duties go essentially to the enrichment of a clique, to the detriment of the national community which is subject to miseries of all kinds.... So I ask the Congolese people in general, and those of Kasai in particular, not to pay taxes from October 1 until the departure of the current administration. The call to disobedience is for us a means to defeat the power of [Congo president Joseph] Kabila. Lutte pour le changement signed on to the campaign, asking citizens to stop paying taxes, utility bills, fees, royalties, and licenses until Kabila steps down. Toll resistance in Urabá, 2018 Demonstrators in Urabá, Colombia, burned down two newly-installed highway tollbooths in January, 2018. Water-tax resistance in Zaragoza, 2018 Pablo Hijar, city councilor of Zaragoza, Spain, from the Zaragoza en Común Party (a left-wing alliance), tweeted out a photo of himself tearing up his bill for the regional tax ICA, claiming that the tax is a boondoggle designed to force Zaragoza residents to pay for other regions' sewer treatment plants. "#IWon'tPay the #ICA," he tweeted "We want accountability... and rates that are fair (progressive) and transparent (in their purposes)." Early reports indicated that a third of Zaragoza households had joined Hijar in refusing to pay the tax. Hartal in Mogadishu, 2018 Traders in the Bakaara Market in Mogadishu closed their doors in a hartal to protest tax hikes in February, 2018. Nicaragua, 2018 Tax resistance featured as one of the tactics employed in the 2018–2020 Nicaraguan protests. The Nicaraguan Academy of Sciences and Academy of Legal and Political Sciences called for people to stop paying utility bills and taxes. Merchant Irlanda Jerez led a similar tax and utility bill strike in the Mercado Oriental in Managua, before her imprisonment. Student protest leaders in the University Alliance for Democracy and Justice called on Nicaraguans to refuse to pay taxes and to boycott businesses owned by political elites. And the Blue & White National Unity group called for a three-day consumer strike and energy strike, aiming particularly at those consumer goods like fuel, alcoholic beverages, sodas, and tobacco that are most taxed. Ambazonian separatists in Cameroon, 2018 Tax resistance, organized in part via the officially banned media outlet Ambazonia TV, has featured in the Ambazonia independence movement in Cameroon. Gilets jaunes protests in France, 2018–19 In 2018, Emmanuel Macron pursued a petrol tax in France, albeit, the tax stems from an earlier policy under his predecessor, François Hollande. A burgeoning grassroots movement, the Gilets jaunes protests developed throughout France in November, extending even to the overseas territory of Réunion. The movement began with mass demonstrations of hundreds of thousands of people, along with traffic blockades. The blockades then extended to ports, refineries, and oil depots, leading to fuel shortages in some areas. There were also attacks on highway tollbooths. Macron's government held firm until December, attempting to crack down on the movement with measures that Amnesty International characterized as including "rubber bullets, sting-ball grenades and tear gas against largely peaceful protesters who did not threaten public order and... numerous instances of excessive use of force by police." The government then announced it was putting the fuel taxes on hold. Meanwhile, traffic-ticket-generating speed radar outposts throughout France were being destroyed by protesters. This was a form of protest that preceded the gilets jaunes movement, but accelerated during it. Thousands of such attacks were documented in 2018. Some attacks only temporarily disabled the radars (by means such as tape, bags, or spraypaint) but hundreds resulted in their total destruction. Eventually about two-thirds of the radar outposts across the country were attacked, costing the government more than half a billion euros. Newly-repaired radars were being so quickly disabled that the government stopped trying to repair damaged ones. Transport strike in Kenya, 2018 When the government of Kenya added a 16% tax to petroleum products, transporters launched a strike, leading to fuel shortages in Nairobi. "Kenya's energy regulator has revoked the license of the Kenya Independent Petroleum Distributors Association for allegedly leading the fuel boycott," a news report said, "equating their action to economic sabotage." Luján agriculturalists, 2018 In Luján, Argentina, a local tax on farmers rose 1200%. In response, an assembly of farmers voted to stop paying, and the National Network of Independent Producers supported the strike. "Electronic City" residents, 2019– Some residents of the "Electronic City" tech zone in Bangalore, India, have been refusing to pay property taxes to protest the government’s broken promises regarding infrastructure and trash disposal. Guanare merchants, 2019 The Chamber of Commerce in Guanare, Venezuela, declared a merchants' tax strike when the city unilaterally established a new tax without going through legal processes. Pakistan merchants, 2019 Merchants in Pakistan went on strike in July 2019 in a protest against new sales taxes. Delta Amacuro chamber of commerce, 2019 The Delta Amacuro, Venezuela state Chamber of Commerce launched a tax strike to protest what it said were extralegal and "confiscatory" municipal taxes. Barcelona, 2019– A group of towns surrounding Barcelona organized a tax refusal campaign protesting a “Barcelona Metropolitan Area” tax they say benefits city residents at their expense. Tax receipts shrank by about 25% over the course of the multi-year strike. Protest against Alberta fossil fuel polluters, 2020 In January 2020, David Swann, former head of Alberta, Canada's Liberal Party and former provincial legislator, announced he would go on tax strike. He was protesting the fact that economically struggling fossil fuel extraction companies in Alberta were refusing to pay their local taxes, while leaving local governments on the hook for the cleanup of their extraction facilities and sites. "I am not paying my provincial taxes until these companies pay theirs," Swann said. "I urge others to join me. Our government shouldn't have one set of rules for their corporate friends, and another for the rest of us Albertans." Italian restaurateurs and other businesses, 2020–21 Restaurant owners in the Marche region of Italy, suffering under mandated closures due to the 2020 coronavirus pandemic, launched a tax strike in April 2020. "We are going on a tax strike because we can't pay because our businesses are closed forcibly," said strike organizer Lucio Pompili. They were joined towards the end of the year by thousands of businesses in Tuscany, led by the Tuscan branch of Confcommercio (the Italian General Confederation of Enterprises, Professional Activities and Self-Employment), whose president announced: Our companies have no more resources, and we prefer to continue to pay employees and suppliers as a priority over a state that does not understand — indeed tramples on — our reasons for existing. Bars and restaurants in Cesena launched a tax strike soon after and publicized their protest by symbolically opening their establishments and having their staff wait on empty tables. The strike further expanded in early 2021 when the General Confederation of Italian Industry promoted a tax strike among its members under the "Movimento Imprese Ospitalità" banner. Vancouver residents, 2020 Neighbors of a homeless encampment in Vancouver withheld their taxes in an attempt to pressure the government to provide more adequate assistance than was being provided to those camped there. The neighbors signed a Declaration of Tax Resistance in Demand of Community Safety that read in part: "we, the undersigned Strathcona homeowners, declare our intention to withhold property tax payments to the City of Vancouver — by way of deferral, assessment appeal, or other lawful means — until such time as our municipal, provincial, and federal governments act together or individually to meet the following… demands." Extinction Rebellion, 2020–22 The Extinction Rebellion environmentalist direct action group launched a tax resistance campaign it called "Money Rebellion" to pressure governments in the U.K. to adopt more ecologically enlightened policies. A related environmental campaign, aimed at shutting down the Edmonton Incinerator, attracted more than a dozen council tax resisters in North London in late 2021. Myanmar, 2021 In the wake of the 2021 Myanmar coup d'état, the national legislature, in protest, passed a law suspending tax collection and ordered government departments to stop collecting taxes. In addition, individual resisters began refusing to pay taxes and government-monopoly utility bills. A coalition of student unions released a statement asking international companies to withhold taxes from the military junta. The opposition parallel government ("National Unity Government") joined the call for citizens to stop paying electric bills. The junta responded by sending soldiers door to door to threaten to kill resisters who have been refusing to pay government bills. Ituri, 2021 Groups in the Ituri Province of the Democratic Republic of the Congo launched a tax resistance campaign aiming at forcing the resignation of the governor, whom they blame for degraded security in the province. Argentina, 2021 Restaurants in Rosario, Santa Fe, Argentina launched a tax strike, and were soon joined by gymnasiums. The businesses say they cannot afford taxes during Covid pandemic-related restrictions that prevent them from operating at capacity. They were joined by hotels in Mar del Plata. Baltimore, 2021 A group of 37 businesses in the Fell's Point, Baltimore signed on to a letter threatening to stop paying municipal taxes and fees (paying them instead into an escrow account) until the city meets its demands for better security, trash collection, and law-enforcement. Biafra Nations League, 2021 The Biafra Nations League, which is trying to establish a break-away nation more representative of the Igbo people, issued an ultimatum to oil firms in the area, ordering them to stop paying taxes to Cameroon and Nigeria, which currently claim sovereignty over the region. Turkey, utility bills, 2022 In February, 2022 Turkish opposition politician Kemal Kılıçdaroğlu announced his refusal to pay his utility bills until recent 50% price hikes are revoked. Some Alevist cemevis also stopped paying. He later addressed his supporters from his home after his electricity was shut-off for non-payment. Castro District, 2022 The Castro Merchants Association, representing businesses in San Francisco, California’s Castro district protested the city’s ineffective response to mentally-ill and/or addicted people living outdoors on city streets by sending a letter to city officials demanding that the city take more effective action and threatening to “stop paying taxes and stop paying the fees for licenses because the city is not providing the services that are supposed to be guaranteed based on what we’re paying to the city.” Marimanti merchants, 2022 Merchants at the Marimanti, Kenya, market organized a tax strike to protest county government failure to maintain toilet facilities at the market. Climate change resistance, 2023 A group of people from the Netherlands called Belastingstaking voor Klimaat ("Tax Strike for Climate") began refusing to pay a 5% portion of their income taxes to protest government subsidies of fossil fuels and other CO2-generating industries, which they estimate amounts to 5% of the government budget. In addition to this resistance, they are using the official tax adjustment and appeals process to fight for the legality of such resistance. Palestinian resistance in East Jerusalem, 2023 Palestinian residents of East Jerusalem launched a tax strike along with other civil disobedience actions to protest an accelerating campaign of "harassment and aggression" by Israeli police under the Thirty-seventh government of Israel. References External links An International History of War Tax Resistance National War Tax Resistance Coordinating Committee History of War Tax Resistance War Resisters League Tax resistance History of taxation
4849167	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brethren%20of%20Purity	Brethren of Purity	The Brethren of Purity (; also The Brethren of Sincerity) were a secret society of Muslim philosophers in Basra, Iraq, in the 9th or 10th century CE. The structure of the organization and the identities of its members have never been clear. Their esoteric teachings and philosophy are expounded in an epistolary style in the Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity (Rasā'il Ikhwān al-ṣafā'''), a giant compendium of 52 epistles that would greatly influence later encyclopedias. A good deal of Muslim and Western scholarship has been spent on just pinning down the identities of the Brethren and the century in which they were active. Name The Arabic phrase Ikhwān aṣ-Ṣafāʾ (short for, among many possible transcriptions, , meaning "Brethren of Purity, Loyal Friends, People worthy of praise and Sons of Glory") can be translated as either the "Brethren of Purity" or the "Brethren of Sincerity"; various scholars such as Ian Netton prefer "of Purity" because of the group's ascetic impulses towards purity and salvation. A suggestion made by Ignác Goldziher, and later written about by Philip Khuri Hitti in his History of the Arabs, is that the name is taken from a story in Kalilah waDimnah, in which a group of animals, by acting as faithful friends (ikhwān aṣ-ṣafāʾ), escape the snares of the hunter. The story concerns a Barbary dove and its companions who get entangled in the net of a hunter seeking birds. Together, they leave themselves and the ensnaring net to a nearby rat, who is gracious enough to gnaw the birds free of the net; impressed by the rat's altruistic deed, a crow becomes the rat's friend. Soon a tortoise and gazelle also join the company of animals. After some time, the gazelle is trapped by another net; with the aid of the others and the good rat, the gazelle is soon freed, but the tortoise fails to leave swiftly enough and is himself captured by the hunter. In the final turn of events, the gazelle repays the tortoise by serving as a decoy and distracting the hunter while the rat and the others free the tortoise. After this, the animals are designated as the "Ikhwān aṣ-Ṣafāʾ". This story is mentioned as an exemplum when the Brethren speak of mutual aid in one risāla (epistle), a crucial part of their system of ethics that has been summarized thus: Meetings The Brethren regularly met on a fixed schedule. The meetings apparently took place on three evenings of each month: once near the beginning, in which speeches were given, another towards the middle, apparently concerning astronomy and astrology, and the third between the end of the month and the 25th of that month; during the third one, they recited hymns with philosophical content. During their meetings and possibly also during the three feasts they held, on the dates of the sun's entry into the Zodiac signs "Ram, Cancer, and Balance" (which double as the Vernal Equinox, Summer Solstice, and Autumnal Equinox), beyond the usual lectures and discussions, they would engage in some manner of liturgy reminiscent of the Harranians. Ranks Hierarchy was a major theme in their Encyclopedia, and unsurprisingly, the Brethren loosely divided themselves up into four ranks by age; the age guidelines would not have been firm: for example, such an exemplar of the fourth rank as Jesus would have been too young if the age guidelines were absolute and fixed. Compare the similar division of the Encyclopedia into four sections and the Jabirite symbolism of 4. The ranks were: The "Craftsmen" – a craftsman had to be at least 15 years of age; their honorific was the "pious and compassionate" (al-abrār wa 'l-ruhamā). The "Political Leaders" – a political leader had to be at least 30 years of age; their honorific was the "good and excellent" (al-akhyār wa 'l-fudalā) The "Kings" – a king had to be at least 40 years of age; their honorific was the "excellent and noble" (al-fudalā' al-kirām) The "Prophets and Philosophers" – the most aspired-to, the final and highest rank of the Brethren; to become a Prophet or Philosopher a man had to be at least 50 years old; their honorific compared them to historical luminaries such as Jesus, Socrates, or Muhammad who were also classified as Kings; this rank was the "angelic rank" (al-martabat al-malakiyya). Identities There have been a number of theories as to the authors of the Brethren. Though some members of the Ikhwān are known, it is not easy to work out exactly who, or how many, were part of this group of writers. The members referred to themselves as "sleepers in the cave" (rasā'il 4, p. 18); a hidden intellectual presence. In one passage they give as their reason for hiding their secrets from the people to be not a fear of earthly violence but a desire to protect their God-given gifts from the world (rasā'il 4, p. 166). Yet they were well aware that their esoteric teachings might provoke unrest, and the various calamities suffered by the successors of the Prophet may have seemed good reason to remain hidden. Sunni-Sufi connections Among the theories of the origins of the Ikhwān is that they were Sunnis and that their batini teachings were Sufic in nature. The Rasā'il contains hadith narrated by Aisha, which is something Shia scholars would not do. Susanne Diwald asserts that the Rasā'il is Sufi, thus implying a Sunni character. Alessandro Bausani also presented theories of the work being Sunni-Sufi in nature. The Rasā'il contains reference to the Al Khulafa Al-Rashidun, which is associated with Sunni Islam and also contains a passage in it that denounces the Rafidhi, a term used to describe non-Zaydi Shias, including Ismailis. According to Louis Massignon, the Arab-Andalusian scholar Ibn Sab'in has asserted that the Rasā'il has a Sunni-Sufi orientation. According to Palestinian historian Abdul Latif Tibawi, the Rasā'il contains a passage that states that if an ideal Imam dies, then the community can still be governed by consensus (ijma), which is a Sunni concept. According to Tibawi, this idea rejects the Shia concept of continuous leadership based on heredity. Mu'tazilite connections The ontology of the Ikhwan is based on Neo-Platonism, linking ideas to a higher reality than sensory things. In line with the Mu'tazilite, they link human free will with God's justice. As evident from The Case of the Animals versus Man, spiritual entities frequently acknowledged by Muslim beliefs, such as angels, jinn, and spirits, function as figures representing Platonic intellects, showing further resemblance to the Mu'tazilite cosmology. Ismaili Connections Among the Isma'ili groups and missionaries who favored the Encyclopedia, authorship was sometimes ascribed to one or another "Hidden Imam"; this theory is recounted in al-Qifti's biographical compendium of philosophers and doctors, the "Chronicle of the Learned" (Akhbār al-Hukamā or Tabaqāt-al-Hukamā).pg. 25 of Nasr 1964 Some modern scholars have argued for an Ismaili origin to the writings. Ian Richard Netton writes that: "The Ikhwan's concepts of exegesis of both Quran and Islamic tradition were tinged with the esoterism of the Ismailis." According to Yves Marquet, "It seems indisputable that the Epistles represent the state of Ismaili doctrine at the time of their compositions". Bernard Lewis was more cautious, ranking the Epistles among books which, though "closely related to Ismailism" may not actually have been Ismaili, despite their batini inspiration. Ibn Qifti (d.646/1248), reporting in the 7th/13th century in Tarikh-i Hukama (p. 82) that, "Opinions differed about the authors of the Epistles. Some people attributed to an Alid Imam, proffering various names, whereas other put forward as author some early Mutazilite theologians." Among the Syrian Ismailis, the earliest reference of the Epistles and its relation with the Ismailis is given in "Kitab Fusul wa'l Akhbar" by Nurudin bin Ahmad (d. 233/849). Another important work, "al-Usul wa'l-Ahakam" by Abul-Ma'ali Hatim bin Imran bin Zuhra (d. 498/1104), writes that, "These da'is, and other da'is with them, collaborated in composing long Epistles, fifty-two in number, on various branches of learning." It implies the Epistles being the product of the joint efforts of the Ismaili da'is. Among the Yemenite traces, the earliest reference of the Epistles is found in the fragments of "Sirat Ibn Hawshab" by Ja'far ibn Mansur al-Yaman, who writes: "He (Imam Wafi Ahmed) 8th Imam of Ismaili sect went through many a difficulty and fear and the destruction of his family, whose description cannot be lengthier, until he issued (ansa'a) the Epistles and was contacted by a man called Abu Gafir from among his dais. He charged him with the mission as was necessary and asked him to keep his identity concealed." This source not only asserts the connection of the Epistles with the Ismailis, but also indicates that the Imam himself was not the sole author (sahibor mu'allif), but only the issuer or presenter (al-munsi). It suggests that the text of the philosophical deliberations was given a final touching by the Imam, and the approved text was delivered to Abu Gafir to be forwarded possibly to the Ikhwan in Basra secretly. Since the orthodox circles and the ruling power had portrayed a wrong image of Ismailism, the names of the (six) compilers were concealed. Notwithstanding the uncertainties in the source, the prominent members of the secret association seem to have included Abul Hasan al-Tirmizi, Abdullah bin Mubarak, Abdullah bin Hamdan, Abdullah bin Maymun, Sa'id bin Hussain. The other Yemenite source connecting the Epistles with the Ismailis was the writing of the Tayyibi da'i al-mutlaq Ibrahim ibn al-Husayn al-Hamidi (d. 557/1162), who wrote "Kanz ul-Walad." After him, there followed "al-Anwar ul-Latifa" by Muhammad ibn Tahir (d. 584/1188), "Tanbih al-Ghafilin" by Hatim ibn Ibrahim al-Hamidi (d. 596/1199), "Damigh al-Batil wa hatf ul-Munaazil" by Ali ibn Muhammad ibn al-Walid al-Anf (d. 612/1215), "Risalat al-Waheeda" by al-Hussayn inn Ali al-Anf (d. 667/1268) and "Uyun'ul-Akhbar" by Idris Imad al-Din (d. 872/1468) etc. al-Tawhīdī Al-Qifti, however, denigrates this account and instead turns to a comment he discovered, written by Abū Hayyān al-Tawhīdī (d. 1023) in his Kitāb al-Imtā' wa'l-Mu'ānasa (written between 983 and 985), a collection of 37 séances at the court of Ibn Sa'dān, vizier of the Buyid ruler Samsam al-Dawla. Apparently, al-Tawhīdī was close to Zaid ibn Rifa'a, praising his intellect, ability and deep knowledge – indeed, he had dedicated his Kitāb as-Sadiq wa 'l-Sadaqa to Zaid – but he was disappointed that Zaid was not orthodox or consistent in his beliefs, and that he was, as Samuel Miklos Stern puts it, For many years, this was the only account of the authors' identities, but al-Tawhīdī's comments were second-hand evidence and so unsatisfactory; further, the account is incomplete, as Abu Hayyan mentions that there were others besides these 4. This situation lasted until al-Tawhīdī's Kitāb al-Imtā' wa'l-Mu'ānasa was published in 1942. This publication substantially supported al-Qifti's work, although al-Qifti apparently toned down the description and prominence of al-Tawhīdī's charges that the Brethren were Batiniyya, an esoteric Ismaili sect and thus heretics, possibly so as to not tar his friend Zaid with the same brush. Stern derives a further result from the published text of the Kitāb al-Imtā wa 'l-Mu'anasa, pointing out that a story al-Tawhīdī ascribes to a personal meeting with Qadi Abu'l-Hasan 'Alī b. Hārūn az-Zanjāni, the founder of the group, appears in almost identical form in one of the epistles. While neat, Stern's view of things has been challenged by Tibawi, who points out some assumptions and errors Stern has made, such as the relationship between the story in al-Tawhīdī's work and the Epistles; Tibawi points out the possibility that the story was instead taken from a third, independent and prior source. Al-Tawhīdī's testimony has also been described as thus: The last contemporary source comes from the surviving portions of the Kitāb Siwan al-Hikma (c. 950) by Abu Sulaiman al-Mantiqi (al-Tawhīdī's teacher; 912–985), which was a sort of compendium of biographies; al-Mantiqi is primarily interested in the Brethren's literary techniques of using parables and stories, and so he says only this little before proceeding to give some extracts of the Encyclopedia: al-Maqdisī was previously listed in the Basra group of al-Tawhīdī; here Stern and Hamdani differ, with Stern quoting Mantiqi as crediting Maqdisi with 52 epistles, but Hamdani says "By the time of al-Manṭiqī, the Rasā'īl were almost complete (he mentions 51 tracts)." The second near-contemporary record is another comment by Shahrazūrī as recorded in the Tawārikh al-Hukamā or alternatively, the Tawárykh al-Hokamá; specifically, it is from the Nuzhat al-arwah, which is contained in the Tawārikh, which states: Hamdani disputes the general abovegoing identifications, pointing out that accounts differ in multiple details, such as whether Zayd was an author or not, whether there was a principal author, and who was in the group or not. He lays particular stress on quotes from the Encyclopedia dating between 954 and 960 in the anonymous (Pseudo-Majriti) work Ghāyat al-Hakīm; al-Maqdisi and al-Zanjani are known to have been active in 983, He finds it implausible they would have written or edited "so large an encyclopedia at least twenty-five to thirty years earlier, that is, around 343/954 to 348/960, when they would have been very young." He explains the al-Tawhidi narrative as being motivated by contemporary politics and issues of hereticism relating to the Qarmatians, and points out that there is proof that Abu Hayyan has fabricated other messages and information. Aloys Sprenger mentions this in a footnote: The Epistles of the Brethren of Purity The Rasā’il Ikhwān aṣ-Ṣafāʾ (Epistles of the Brethren of Purity) consist of fifty-two treatises in mathematics, natural sciences, psychology (psychical sciences) and theology. The first part, which is on mathematics, groups fourteen epistles that include treatises in arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, geography, and music, along with tracts in elementary logic, inclusive of: the Isagoge, the Categories, De Interpretatione, the Prior Analytics and the Posterior Analytics. The second part, which is on natural sciences, gathers seventeen epistles on matter and form, generation and corruption, metallurgy, meteorology, a study of the essence of nature, the classes of plants and animals, including a fable. The third part, which is on psychology, comprises ten epistles on the psychical and intellective sciences, dealing with the nature of the intellect and the intelligible, the symbolism of temporal cycles, the mystical essence of love, resurrection, causes and effects, definitions and descriptions. The fourth part deals with theology in eleven epistles, investigating the varieties of religious sects, the virtue of the companionship of the Brethren of Purity, the properties of genuine belief, the nature of the Divine Law, the species of politics, and the essence of magic. They define a perfect man in their Rasā'il as "of East Persian derivation, of Arabic faith, of Iraqi, that is Babylonian, in education, Hebrew in astuteness, a disciple of Christ in conduct, as pious as a Syrian monk, a Greek in natural sciences, an Indian in the interpretation of mysteries and, above all a Sufi or a mystic in his whole spiritual outlook". There are debates on using this description and other materials of Rasa'il that could help with determination of the identity, affiliation (with Ismaili, Sufism, ...), and other characteristics of Ikhwān aṣ-Ṣafāʾ. Notes References 1998 edition of The Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy; ed. Edward Craig, "The authorship of the Epistles of the Ikhwan-as-Safa", by Samuel Miklos Stern, published by Islamic Culture of Hyderabad in 1947 "Abū Ḥayyan Al-Tawḥīdī and The Brethren of Purity", Abbas Hamdani. International Journal of Middle East Studies'', 9 (1978), 345–353 El-Bizri, Nader (2014) «Ikhwān al-Ṣafāʾ: An Islamic Philosophical Fraternity », in Houari Touati (ed.), Encyclopedia of Mediterranean Humanism. Further reading Critical editions and English translations of the Epistles of the Brethren of Purity published by Oxford University Press in association with the Institute of Ismaili Studies (2008–) https://global.oup.com/academic/content/series/e/epistles-of-the-brethren-of-purity-epbp/?cc=gb&lang=en& External links (PDF version). http://ismaili.net/histoire/history04/history428.html Article at the Encyclopædia Britannica "Ikhwanus Safa: A Rational and Liberal Approach to Islam" – (by Asghar Ali Engineer) "The Classification of the Sciences according to the Rasa'il Ikhwan al-Safa'" by Godefroid de Callataÿ The Institute of Ismaili Studies article on the Brethren, by Nader El-Bizri The Institute of Ismaili Studies gallery of images of manuscripts of the Rasa’il of the Ikhwan al-Safa’ Article in Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Article in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 10th-century philosophers People from Basra Ismailis Esoteric schools of thought Secret societies 10th-century Islam 9th-century Arabic books
4849234	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia%20of%20the%20Brethren%20of%20Purity	Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity	The Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity (, Rasā'il Ikhwān al-ṣafā') also variously known as the Epistles of the Brethren of Sincerity, Epistles of the Brethren of Purity and Epistles of the Brethren of Purity and Loyal Friends is an Islamic encyclopedia in 52 treatises (rasā'il) written by the mysterious Brethren of Purity of Basra, Iraq sometime in the second half of the 10th century CE (or possibly later, in the 11th century). It had a great influence on later intellectual leading lights of the Muslim world, such as Ibn Arabi, and was transmitted as far abroad within the Muslim world as Al-Andalus. The identity and period of the authors of the Encyclopedia have not been conclusively established, though the work has been mostly linked with the Isma'ilis. Idris Imad al-Din, a prominent 15th-century Isma'ili missionary in Yemen, credited the authorship of the encyclopedia to Ahmad b. 'Abd Allah b. Muhammad b. Ismail b. Ja'far as-Sadiq, the 9th Isma'ili imam who lived in occultation in the era of Abbasids, at the beginning of the Islamic Golden Age. Some suggest that besides Ismailism, the Brethren of Purity also contains elements of Sufism, Mu'tazilism, Nusairism, Rosicrucianism, etc. Some scholars present the work as Sunni-Sufi. The subject of the work is vast and ranges from mathematics, music, astronomy, and natural sciences, to ethics, politics, religion, and magic—all compiled for one, basic purpose, that learning is training for the soul and a preparation for its eventual life once freed from the body. Authorship Authorship of the Encyclopedia is usually ascribed to the mysterious "Brethren of Purity" a group of unknown scholars placed in Basra, Iraq sometime around 10th century CE . While it is generally accepted that it was the group who authored at least the 52 rasa'il, the authorship of the "Summary" (al-Risalat al-Jami'a) is uncertain; it has been ascribed to the later Majriti but this has been disproved by Yves Marquet (see the Risalat al-Jami'a section). Since style of the text is plain, and there are numerous ambiguities, due to language and vocabulary, often of Persian origin. Some philosophers and historians such as Tawhidi, Ibn al-Qifti, Shahrazuri disclosed the names of those allegedly involved in the development of the work: Abu Sulayma Bisti, Muqaddasi, 'Ali ibn Harun, Zanjani, Muahmmad ibn Ahmad Narhruji, 'Awfi. All these people are according to Henry Corbin, Ismailis Other scholars, such as Susanne Diwald and Abdul Latif Tibawi have asserted a Sunni-Sufi nature of the work. Further perplexities abound; the use of pronouns for the authorial "sender" of the rasa'il is not consistent, with the writer occasionally slipping from third person to first-person (for example, in Epistle 44, "The Doctrine of the Sincere Brethren"). This has led some to suggest that the rasa'il were not in fact written co-operatively by a group or consolidated notes from lectures and discussions, but were actually the work of a single person. Of course, if one accepts the longer time spans proposed for the composition of the Encyclopedia, or the simpler possibility that each risala was written by a separate person, sole authorship would be impossible. Contents The subject matter of the Rasa'il is vast and ranges from mathematics, music, logic, astronomy, the physical and natural sciences, as well as exploring the nature of the soul and investigating associated matters in ethics, revelation, and spirituality. Its philosophical outlook was Neoplatonic and it tried to integrate Greek philosophy (and especially the dialectical reasoning and logic of Aristotelianism) with various astrological, Hermetic, Gnostic and Islamic schools of thought. Scholars have seen Ismaili and Sufi influences in the religious content, and Mu'tazilite acceptance of reasoning in the work. Others, however, hold the Brethren to be "free-thinkers" who transcended sectarian divisions and were not bound by the doctrines of any specific creed. Their unabashed eclecticism is fairly unusual in this period of Arabic thought, characterised by fierce theological disputes; they refused to condemn rival schools of thought or religions, instead insisting that they be examined fairly and open-mindedly for what truth they may contain: In total, they cover most of the areas an educated person was expected to understand in that era. The epistles (or "rasa'il") generally increase in abstractness, finally dealing with the Brethren's somewhat pantheistic philosophy, in which each soul is an emanation, a fragment of a universal soul with which it will reunite at death; in turn, the universal soul will reunite with Allah on Doomsday. The epistles are intended to transmit right knowledge, leading to harmony with the universe and happiness. Organization Organizationally, it is divided into 52 epistles. The 52 rasa'il are subdivided into four sections, sometimes called books (indeed, some complete editions of the Encyclopedia are in four volumes); in order, they are: 14 on the Mathematical Sciences, 17 on the Natural Sciences, 10 on the Psychological and Rational Sciences, 11 on Theological Sciences. The division into four sections is no accident; the number four held great importance in Neoplatonic numerology, being the first square number and for being even. Reputedly, Pythagoras held that a man's life was divided into four sections, much like a year was divided into four seasons. The Brethren divided mathematics itself into four sections: arithmetic was Pythagoras and Nicomachus' domain; Ptolemy ruled over astronomy with his Almagest; geometry was associated with Euclid, naturally; and the fourth and last division was that of music. The fours did not cease there- the Brethren observed that four was crucial to a decimal system, as ; numbers themselves were broken down into four orders of magnitude: the ones, tens, hundreds, and thousands; there were four winds from the four directions (north, south, east, west); medicine concerned itself with the four humours, and natural philosophers with the four elements of Empedocles. Another possibility, suggested by Netton is that the veneration for four stems instead from the Brethren's great interest in the Corpus Hermeticum of Hermes Trismegistus (identified with the god Hermes, to whom the number four was sacred); that hermetic tradition's magical lore was the main subject of the 51st rasa'il. Netton mentions that there are suggestions that the 52nd risalah (on talismans and magic) is a later addition to the Encyclopedia, because of intertextual evidence: a number of the rasa'il claim that the total of rasa'il is 51. However, the 52nd risalah itself claims to be number 51 in one area, and number 52 in another, leading to the possibility that the Brethren's attraction for the number 51 (or 17 times 3; there were 17 rasa'il on natural sciences) is responsible for the confusion. Seyyed Hossein Nasr suggests that the origin of the preference for 17 stemmed from the alchemist Jābir ibn Hayyān's numerological symbolism. Risalat al-Jami'a Besides the fifty-odd epistles, there exists what claims to be overarching summary of the work, which is not counted in the 52, called "The Summary" (al-Risalat al-Jami'a) which exists in two versions. It has been claimed to have been the work of Majriti (d. circa 1008), although Netton states Majriti could not have composed it, and that Yves Marquet concludes from a philological analysis of the vocabulary and style in his La Philosophie des Ihwan al-Safa (1975) that it had to have been composed at the same time as the main corpus. Style Like conventional Arabic Islamic works, the Epistles have no lack of time-worn honorifics and quotations from the Qur'an, but the Encyclopedia is also famous for some of the didactic fables it sprinkled throughout the text; a particular one, the "Island of Animals" or the "Debate of Animals" (embedded within the 22nd rasa'il, titled "On How The Animals and their Kinds are Formed"), is one of the most popular animal fables in Islam. The fable concerns how 70 men, nearly shipwrecked, discover an island where animals ruled, and began to settle on it. They oppressed and killed the animals, who unused to such harsh treatment, complained to the King (or Shah) of Djinns. The King arranged a series of debates between the humans and various representatives of the animals, such as the nightingale, the bee, and the jackal. The animals nearly defeat the humans, but an Arabian ends the series by pointing out that there was one way in which humans were superior to animals and so worthy of making animals their servants: they were the only ones Allah had offered the chance of eternal life to. The King was convinced by this argument, and granted his judgement to them, but strongly cautioned them that the same Qur'an that supported them also promised them hellfire should they mistreat their animals. Philosophy More metaphysical were the four ranks (or "spiritual principles"), which apparently were an elaboration of Plotinus' triad of Thought, Soul, and the One, known to the Brethren through The Theology of Aristotle (a version of Plotinus' Enneads in Arabic, modified with changes and paraphrases, and attributed to Aristotle); first, the Creator (al-Bārī) emanated down to Universal Intellect (al-'Aql al-Kullī), then to Universal Soul (al-Nafs), and through Prime Matter (al-Hayūlā al-Ūlā), which emanated still further down through (and creating) the mundane hierarchy. The mundane hierarchy consisted of Nature (al-Tabī'a), the Absolute Body (al-Jism al-Mutlaq), the Sphere (al-Falak), the Four Elements (al-Arkān), and the Beings of this world (al-Muwalladāt) in their three varieties of animals, minerals, and vegetables, for a total hierarchy of nine members. Furthermore, each member increased in subdivisions proportional to how far down in the hierarchy it was, for instance, Sphere, being number seven has the seven planets as its members. Another area in which the Brethren differed was in their conceptions of nature, in which they rejected the emanation of Forms that characterized Platonic philosophy for a quasi-Aristotelian system of substances: The 14th edition (EB-2:187a; 14th Ed., 1930) of the Encyclopædia Britannica described the mingling of Neoplatonism and Aristotelianism this way: Evolution The text in the "Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity" describes biological diversity in a manner similar to the modern day theory of evolution. The contexts of such passages are interpreted differently by scholars. The Brethren view as a proof on pre-Darwinian evolution theory also has been criticized by some scholars. In this document some modern day scholars note that “chain of being described by the Ikhwan possess a temporal aspect which has led certain scholars to view that the authors of the Rasai’l believed in the modern theory of evolution”. According to the Rasa’il “But individuals are in perpetual flow; they are neither definite nor preserved. The reason for the conservation of forms, genus and species in matter is fixity of their celestial cause because their efficient cause is the Universal Soul of the spheres instead of the change and continuous flux of individuals which is due to the variability of their cause”. This statement is supporting the concept that species and individuals are not static, and that when they change it is due to a new purpose given. In the Ikhwan doctrine there are similarities between that and the theory of evolution. Both believe that “the time of existence of terrestrial plants precedes that of animals, minerals precede plants, and organism adapt to their environment”, but asserts that everything exists for a purpose. Muhammad Hamidullah describes the ideas on evolution found in the Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity (The Epistles of Ikhwan al-Safa) as follows: English translations of the Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity were available from 1812, hence this work may have had an influence on Charles Darwin and his inception of Darwinism. However Hamidullah's "Darwin was inspired by the Epistles of the Ihkwan al-Safa" theory sounds unlikely as Charles Darwin comes from an evolutionist family with his well-known physician grandfather, Erasmus Darwin, author of the poem The Origin of Society on evolution, was one of the leading Enlightenment evolutionists. Literature The 48th epistle of the Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity features a fictional Arabic narrative. It is an anecdote of a "prince who strays from his palace during his wedding feast and, drunk, spends the night in a cemetery, confusing a corpse with his bride. The story is used as a gnostic parable of the soul's pre-existence and return from its terrestrial sojourn". Editions and translations Complete editions of the encyclopedia have been printed at least three times: Kitāb Ikhwān al-Ṣafā' (edited by Wilayat Husayn, Bombay 1888) Rasā'il Ikhwān al-Ṣafā' (edited by Khayr al-din al-Zarkali with introductions by Tāha Ḥusayn and Aḥmad Zakī Pasha, in 4 volumes, Cairo 1928) Rasā'il Ikhwān al-Ṣafā' (4 volumes, Beirut: Dār Ṣādir 1957) The Encyclopedia has been widely translated, appearing not merely in its original Arabic, but in German, English, Persian, Turkish, and Hindustani. Although portions of the Encyclopedia were translated into English as early as 1812, with the Rev. T. Thomason's prose English introduction to Shaikh Ahmad b. Muhammed Shurwan's Arabic edition of the "Debate of Animals" published in Calcutta, a complete translation of the Encyclopedia into English does not exist as of 2006, although Friedrich Dieterici (Professor of Arabic in Berlin) translated the first 40 of the epistles into German; presumably, the remainder have since been translated. The "Island of Animals" have been translated several times in differing completion; the fifth risalah, on music, has been translated into English as have the 43rd through the 47th epistles. , the first complete Arabic critical edition and annotated English translation of the Rasa’il Ikhwan al-Safa’, with English commentaries, is being published by Oxford University Press in association with London's Institute of Ismaili Studies. The series' General Editor is Nader El-Bizri. This series began in 2008 with an introductory volume of studies edited by Nader El-Bizri, and continued with the publication of: Epistle 22: The Case of the Animals versus Man Before the King of the Jinn (eds. trans. L. Goodman & R. McGregor) Epistle 5: On Music (ed. trans. O. Wright, 2010) Epistles 10–15: On Logic (ed. trans. C. Baffioni, 2010) Epistle 52a: On Magic, Part I (eds. trans. G. de Callatay & B. Halflants, 2011) Epistles 1–2: Arithmetic and Geometry (ed. trans. N. El-Bizri, 2012) Epistles 15–21: Natural Sciences (ed. trans. C. Baffioni, 2013) Epistle 4: Geography (ed. trans. I Sanchez and J. Montgomery, 2014) Epistle 3: On "Astronomia" (ed. trans. J. F. Ragep and T. Mimura, 2015) Epistles 32–36: Sciences of the Soul and Intellect, Part I (ed. trans. I. Poonawala, G. de Callatay, P. Walker, D. Simonowitz, 2015) Epistles 39–41: Sciences of the Soul and Intellect, Part III (2017) Epistles 43–45: On Companionship and Belief (2017) Epistles 6–8: On Composition and the Arts (Nader El-Bizri, 2018) Epistle 48: The Call to God (Abbas Hamdani and Abdallah Soufan, 2019) Epistles 49–51: On God and the World (Wilferd Madelung, 2019) Epistles 29–31: On Life, Death, and Languages (Eric Ormsby, 2021) Both the editors' approach to the project and the quality of its English translations have been criticized. See also Magic squares Socrates Notes References ; based on Dieterici's outline and translations. ; a partial translation Ikhwan as-Safa and their Rasa'il: A Critical Review of a Century and a Half of Research, by A. L. Tibawi, published in volume 2 of The Islamic Quarterly in 1955 "Notices of some copies of the Arabic work entitled "Rasàyil Ikhwàm al-cafâ"", written by Aloys Sprenger, originally published by the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal (in Calcutta) in 1848 "Abū Ḥayyan Al-Tawḥīdī and The Brethren of Purity", Abbas Hamdani. International Journal of Middle East Studies, 9 (1978), 345-353 Further reading La philosophie des Ihwan al-Safa' ("The philosophy of the Brethren of Purity"), Yves Marquet, 1975. Published in Algiers by the Société Nationale d'Édition et de Diffusion Epistles of the Brethren of Purity. The Ikhwan al-Safa' and their Rasa'il, ed. Nader El-Bizri (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008). External links Article at Encyclopædia Britannica Ikhwān al-Safā’ - (general encyclopedia-style article) The Rasail Ikhwan as-Safa "Ikhwan al-Safa by Omar A. Farrukh" from A History of Muslim Philosophy Review of Yves Marquet's La philosophie des Ihwan al-Safa': de Dieu a l'homme by F. W. Zimmermann "The Classification of the Sciences according to the Rasa'il Ikhwan al-Safa'" by Godefroid de Callataÿ The Institute of Ismaili Studies article on the Brethren, by Nader El-Bizri The Institute of Ismaili Studies gallery of images of manuscripts of the Rasa’il of the Ikhwan al-Safa’ "Beastly Colloquies: Of Plagiarism and Pluralism in Two Medieval Disputations Between Animals and Men" -(by Lourdes María Alvarez; a discussion of the animal fables and later imitators; PDF file) "Pages of Medieval Mideastern History" - (by Eloise Hart; covers various small scholarly groups influential in the Arabic world) "Ikhwanus Safa: A Rational and Liberal Approach to Islam" - (by Asghar Ali Engineer) "Mark Swaney on the History of Magic Squares" -(includes a discussion of magic squares and the Encyclopedia) Arabic-language encyclopedias Reference works in the public domain 10th-century Arabic books Astronomical works of the medieval Islamic world Scientific works of the Abbasid Caliphate Mathematical works of the medieval Islamic world Islamic philosophical texts Philosophical literature of the medieval Islamic world Asian encyclopedias Treatises
4849303	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coins%20of%20the%20Canadian%20dollar	Coins of the Canadian dollar	The coins of Canada are produced by the Royal Canadian Mint and denominated in Canadian dollars ($) and the subunit of dollars, cents (¢). An effigy of the reigning monarch always appears on the obverse of all coins. There are standard images which appear on the reverse, but there are also commemorative and numismatic issues with different images on the reverse. Circulation denominations There are six denominations of Canadian circulation coinage in production: 5¢, 10¢, 25¢, 50¢, $1, and $2. Officially they are each named according to their value (e.g. "10-cent piece"), but in practice only the 50-cent piece is known by that name. The three smallest coins are known by the traditional names "nickel" (5¢), "dime" (10¢), and "quarter" (25¢), and the one-dollar and two-dollar coins are called the "loonie" (for the loon depiction on the reverse) and the "toonie" (a portmanteau of "two" and "loonie") respectively. The production of the Canadian 1-cent piece (known as the "penny") was discontinued in 2012, as inflation had reduced its value significantly below the cost of production. Canadian coins have medallic orientation, like British or euro coins, and unlike U.S. coins, which have coin orientation. The 50¢ piece is far less circulated than other Canadian coins. Between the years 2000 and 2007 the Royal Canadian Mint struck less than 16 million of them; in comparison, during the same period over 2.25 billion quarters were released. This coin is sometimes called a "half-dollar". Other than the $2 coin (for which there is no United States analog), the denominations of Canadian coinage correspond to those of United States coinage. The sizes of the coins other than the 50¢ piece are roughly equal to those of current U.S. coins, though this was not always the case. They have a different metallic composition and most of them are thinner, and thus weigh slightly less, than the analogous U.S. coins. The U.S. penny settled on its current size in 1857, whereas the Canadian penny was much larger () until 1920. Because they are easily mistaken for each other, U.S. and Canadian coins worth 5 cents, 10 cents and 25 cents sometimes circulate in the other country. Due to the usually higher value of the U.S. dollar, it is common in Canada to accept U.S. coins at par or face value. Canadian coins are not commonly accepted in the U.S. but are more often in states that see many Canadian visitors. Their differing physical characteristics prevent them from being accepted interchangeably by most coin-operated machines. There was formerly some correspondence between the size of Canadian coins and British coins of similar value. For example, the large Canadian penny was identical in size and value to the contemporary British half-penny, which was in the Edward VII version, and slightly larger during Victoria's reign. Likewise, the Canadian quarter (23.81 mm diameter) was virtually identical in size and value to the British shilling – worth 12 British pence or about 24 Canadian cents, with a diameter. The Canadian 5¢ coins, until the larger nickel coins of 1922, were 15 mm silver coins quite different from the U.S. "Liberty head" nickels of 1883 to 1913, which were 21.2 mm and copper-nickel alloy, but more like the older U.S. half dimes. Developments in coinage The most significant recent developments in Canadian coinage were the introduction of $1 and $2 coins and the withdrawal of the one cent piece. The $1 coin (the "loonie") was released in 1987. The $1 banknote remained in issue and in circulation alongside the one-dollar coin for the next two years, until it was withdrawn in 1989. The coin was to be the voyageur-design silver (then nickel) dollar coins that had previously been in limited circulation. The dies were lost or stolen in November 1986, requiring a redesign. The new coin is colloquially called the "loonie", for the common loon on its reverse, and the name is frequently applied to the currency unit as well. It is made of nickel plated with aureate bronze. The $2 coin, carrying a polar bear, was introduced in 1996. It is usually called the "toonie" and is bimetallic. The $2 banknote was withdrawn at the same time that the coin was released. Unlike several U.S. attempts to introduce a dollar coin, the new coins were quickly accepted by the public, owing largely to the fact that the Bank of Canada and the government forced the switch by removing the $1 and $2 bills from circulation. Between 1997 and 2001, the $1 loon coin was not issued for general circulation. Due to the high demand for the $2 polar bear coin (mintages between 1997 and 2001 were as high as 29 million in 2000 alone), the $1 coin was only produced for the standard collector sets that were made available on an annual basis, such as the Uncirculated, O Canada, Specimen and Proof sets. On March 29, 2012, the Canadian government announced that the 1¢ coin would be retired. The Royal Canadian Mint stopped producing 1¢ coins in May 2012, and in February 2013 the Bank of Canada stopped distributing them, but the coins remain legal tender. Cash transactions are rounded to the nearest 5¢, while non-cash transactions (using cheques, credit cards, or debit cards) will continue to be rounded to the nearest 1¢. Production Canadian coins are issued by the Royal Canadian Mint and struck at their facilities in Winnipeg. All special wording on commemorative coins appears in both of Canada's languages, English and French. All of the standard wording on the reverse sides of non-commemorative coins is identical in both languages. On the obverse sides, the name and title of the Canadian Monarch appear in an abbreviated-Latin circumscription. Currently, this reads "". The initials stand for ""; the entire phrase means "Elizabeth II, by the Grace of God, Queen". The Vancouver 2010 Winter Olympics commemorative quarters do not have the inscription "", and they read "CANADA ELIZABETH II", along with the date of issue and Ilanaaq, the emblem of the games. History Coins of the Colonies Beginning in 1858, various colonies of British North America started issuing their own coins denominated in cents, featuring the likeness of Queen Victoria on the obverse. These replaced the sterling coins previously in circulation. The Province of Canada was the first to issue decimal coins. They were based on the value of the American dollar, due to an influx of American silver. Denominations issued were 1¢, 5¢, 10¢, and 20¢. The 1¢ coin was issued again in 1859, but it was very unpopular due to its extremely light weight. The coins had to be discounted by around 20% to get them into circulation. Other colonies that issued decimal coinage were New Brunswick and Nova Scotia both starting in 1861, Newfoundland in 1865, and Prince Edward Island in 1871. Many examples can be seen online via the Canadian Currency Museum. Queen Victoria coinage In 1867, the British parliament passed The British North America Act, 1867 (now known as the Constitution Act, 1867), uniting the Province of Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick into a single country. Coins of the three former colonies continued to circulate until 1870, with all being legal tender throughout the country. As other colonies subsequently entered confederation, they dropped their colonial coinage and adopted the national Canadian currency. In 1870, the first national coinage of the Dominion of Canada was issued in denominations of 5¢, 10¢, 25¢, and 50¢. A 1¢ coin was not issued until 1876. The designs were standardized with the head of Queen Victoria on the obverse, value and date with a crowned maple wreath reverse, except for the 1¢ coin, which had on its reverse a maple vine circlet. King Edward VII coinage In 1902, the first coins of King Edward VII's coinage were issued. The 1902 5¢ coin is of interest to collectors, as its design includes the outmoded St. Edward's Crown instead of the Imperial State Crown. These coins were hoarded upon being issued, as the public believed that an error had been made. In 1903, the design of the 5¢ was modified accordingly. In 1907, Heaton's Mint struck its last issue of Canadian coins—the 1907H 1¢, which is quite scarce. In 1908, the Royal Canadian Mint at Ottawa was opened. At that time the Ottawa mint was known as the Royal Mint, Ottawa branch. The name "Royal Canadian Mint" was first used in 1931. The reverse design on the 10¢ coins include several varieties in relation to the leaves. King George V coinage Edward VII died in 1910 and was succeeded by his son, King George V. His effigy appeared on all coins minted in Canada afterwards, as soon as new dies were obtained. The initial issue of George V coinage is known as the "Godless" coinage, because the abbreviation "DEI GRA", (for "DEI GRATIA" or "[king] by the grace of God"), was omitted from King George V's titles. When the public noticed this, there was a huge outcry at this breach of tradition, and the phrase was later restored. All the coins from the 1¢ to 50¢ were issued. The 50¢ is the scarcest of all the coins minted in 1911 with a mintage of 209,972. The Canadian Coin News publication printed an article showing a well-worn 1911 50¢ example that did have the "DEI GRA" abbreviation. This coin has not yet been certified as genuine, having been rejected by ICCS, the popular Canadian grading company. The 1911 pattern dollar coin was produced with the 'DEI GRA' abbreviation on the two known silver examples and the one known example in lead. In 1920, the fineness of the silver coins was changed from .925 fine silver to .800 fine silver, and the size of the cent was reduced. In 1921, the last silver 5¢ coins were struck. These are extremely rare, numbering less than 400. These were replaced in 1922 by a larger nickel coin, copying an earlier change in the United States, and building on the fact that Canada was the world's leading source of nickel ore. There are a few scarce dates, especially the 1925 and the 1926. There are two types of the 1926: the "near 6" type, which has the tail of the 6 lower down and near to the maple leaf, and the rarer "far 6" type. The 1921 50¢ is also an extremely rare coin. It is the rarest of the King George V series. The first Canadian silver $1 coin was issued as a commemorative coin in 1935 to commemorate King George V's Silver Jubilee. The portrait of the King on this coin was the same as that of the coins of several other countries. This coin also bears the famous coureur des bois design, which was designed by Emmanuel Hahn. This coin, and others issued since with this reverse design, have the affectionate nickname of "voyageur dollars". 1936 dot coinage King George V died on January 20, 1936, and was succeeded by King Edward VIII. Because his abdication occurred before production of any Canadian coinage with his likeness could commence, no Canadian coins bear his image. In 1937, there was a pressing demand for 1¢, 10¢, and 25¢ coins, but, as the Royal Canadian Mint was waiting for new tools and matrices to arrive from the Royal Mint, the decision was made to strike coins dated 1936, but a dot would be added in the area near the date to indicate that the coins were struck in 1937. The 1¢ and 10¢ coins with the dot are exceedingly rare; so rare, in fact, that only four or five specimens are known. In 2004, a "Dot cent", as they are sometimes called, sold at auction for $207,000. The one cent coin was sold again in the Canadiana sale for $400,000 while an example of the ten cent piece with the dot sold for $184,000. The 25¢ coin, while not as rare as the one-cent and ten-cent pieces, is still a very difficult coin to find. Gold circulation coins Gold coins for circulation were issued from 1912 to 1914 only (earlier rejected "for fear of committing a breach of the Royal Prerogative"), in $5 and $10 denominations, though sovereigns, to British standards, were issued in small quantities for some years. The minting of gold coins for circulation ceased due to the onset of the First World War, when the government of Canada recovered the majority of circulating gold coins to finance the war. Reissue plans were dropped in 1928. According to the Mint, a large quantity of the 1912–1914 gold coins were stored by the Bank of Canada for over 75 years. In 2012, the Mint offered 30,000 coins from the collection for sale to the public through its retail channels and stated that it would melt and refine the remainder of the 245,000 coins to sell the gold content. King George VI coinage In late 1937, the tools and matrices finally arrived from London, so the issue of the new coins of the reign of King George VI was struck immediately. The coins' current designs date from this period. The coins were as follows: 1¢: A twig with two maple leaves (Designer: George Kruger-Gray) 5¢: A beaver sitting on a rock and log (Designer: George Kruger-Gray) 10¢: The famous Nova Scotian racing schooner Bluenose (Designer: Emmanuel Hahn) 25¢: A caribou's head (Designer: Emmanuel Hahn) 50¢: The Coat-of-Arms of Canada (Designer: George Kruger-Gray) $1: Voyageur (Designer: Emmanuel Hahn) There was also a silver $1 that was issued in 1939 to commemorate the Royal Visit. The obverse has the usual portrait of George VI while the reverse depicts the Canadian Houses of Parliament in Ottawa. This was also designed by Emmanuel Hahn. During World War II, the demand for nickel for the war effort was great enough for the 5¢ coin to be issued in tombac instead. While all Canadian George VI coins remain legal tender, the nickels are the only remaining George VI coinage in any nation that have been neither demonetized nor effectively withdrawn from circulation due to precious metal content (or, in the case of the penny, been withdrawn from circulation). 1947 maple leaf coinage Through 1947 the George VI coins bore the inscription GEORGIVS VI D:G: REX ET IND:IMP: ("Georgius VI, Dei Gratia, Rex et Indiae Imperator", or "George VI, by the grace of God, King and Emperor of India"). As India became independent that year as the Dominion of India and the Dominion of Pakistan, "Emperor of India" needed to be dropped from the coinage. However, there was a demand for coinage. While waiting for the new tools and matrices to arrive from the Royal Mint, the decision was made to strike 1947-dated coinage, but a maple leaf symbol would be added next to the date to indicate that the coins were struck in 1948. The silver $1 exists in two types: "tall 7" and "short 7". The voyageur $1 is also the rarest coin. The 1¢ is the most common coin. The 1¢ exists as two varieties, "blunt 7" and "pointed 7". The blunt 7 is scarcer and thus more valuable. The upper part of the 7 near the maple twig is slightly blunted compared to the normally found pointed variety. The pointed 7 is the same as used on the 1947 regular-issue 1¢. The 50¢ coin also exists with two "7" varieties. While fairly scarce, the curved left (or straight) 7 is much more common than the curved right 7. The regular 1947 50¢ coins also came with left and right curved 7 numerals. These 1947 varieties without the maple leaf are similarly valued except for the curved right 7 in extremely high grade. The 1947 maple leaf 5¢, 10¢, and 25¢ do not have notable varieties and are all fairly common coins. King George VI royal coinage (1948–1952) The new tools and matrices arrived from London, so the issuing of the Maple Leaf coinage ceased as a result. The obverse of the coins is inscribed GEORGIVS VI DEI GRATIA REX (George VI by the Grace of God, King). During the issue of this coinage, a commemorative silver $1 was struck in 1949 to commemorate Newfoundland becoming the tenth province of Canada. The 1948 coins are very scarce, especially the 50¢ and the silver $1. This is due to the slow delivery of the modified tools and matrices from London. In this coinage, there are several notable varieties. The first of these is the 1950 "no lines in 0" 50¢ coin. The most famous variety of this series is the "Arnprior dollar", which has one and a half waterlines near the bow of the canoe instead of the normal three waterlines. This variety is named after the town of Arnprior, Ontario, where this variety was discovered. Queen Elizabeth II coinage Obverse Several series of coins have been issued under the reign of Elizabeth II, including the current series. There have been four different obverse portraits of the Queen used on Canadian coinage, with new portraits introduced in 1953, 1965, 1990 and 2003. The first was used for the 1953 to 1964 coins, which featured an effigy of the Queen designed by Mary Gillick, with a wreath of laurel in the Queen's hair. In 1965, a new obverse was sculpted by Arnold Machin, showing a more mature Queen wearing a tiara. The legend on the obverse was also modified, by shortening the phrase "Dei Gratia" to "D.G." to save space. These two versions of the Queen's portraits were designed by the British Royal Mint, and were similar to those used on British, Australian and New Zealander coinage. The 1990 and 2003 portraits were designed by Canadian artists, the 1990 effigy by Dora dePedery-Hunt and the 2003 effigy by Susanna Blunt, and are unique to Canadian coinage. Other aspects In 1959, the reverse of the 50-cent coin was redesigned. In 1957, the coat of arms of Canada was simplified. The Queen had suggested that the Tudor crown be replaced by the crown of Edward the Confessor. The changes were reflected in the 1959 50-cent coin. The new reverse was modelled and designed by Thomas Shingles, updating the Canadian coat-of-arms. In 1968, the 10-cent coin and higher denominations were debased, their silver alloy being replaced by nickel. The dime of 1969 has two varieties, a large 9 (rare) and small 9 (common). In 1973, an quarter commemorating the Royal Canadian Mounted Police was issued; it also has two varieties: a large bust (rare) and small bust (common). In 1987, the $1 coin, colloquially known as the "loonie", was introduced, replacing the Voyageur dollar with a new design, new colour, and smaller size. This coin also replaced the $1 bill, which was subsequently withdrawn from circulation by the Bank of Canada. In February 1996, the $2 coin, or toonie, was released; it currently has three varieties. The toonie replaced the $2 bill. In 2000, all coins below $1 were changed to steel with copper or nickel plating; in 2012, this was extended to the $1 and $2 coins as well. The 50-cent coin is regularly minted but not in large quantities; it is very rare to come across this coin in circulation, although an unsuccessful attempt was made by the Mint to promote the use of the coin when a special edition was released in 2002 marking the 50th anniversary of Elizabeth II ascending the throne. Coins issued in 2002 do not have the usual mint date, which normally appears on the reverse side. Instead, the 2002 coins have a commemorative double-date on the obverse side: "1952–2002", to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the Queen's reign. Charles III coinage The Royal Canadian Mint has said that circulating coinage featuring Charles III would be released in the fourth quarter of 2023. Other numismatic details Special edition coins Although the Mint has produced many special edition coins in recent years, Canada does have a history of such coins. From 1943 to 1945, the Mint issued the "Victory nickel" to promote the Canadian war effort. In 1951 a circulating commemorative coin, a 5-cent piece for the bicentennial of the discovery of the element nickel, was released. In 1967, all Canadian coins were issued with special reverses to celebrate the Canadian centennial. Six years later, a "Mountie quarter" was issued in 1973 to commemorate the centennial of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police. In recent years, the Mint has issued several series of coins with special reverses. Most of them have been 25¢ coins, particularly in the years 1999–2001. There were also versions of the $2 coin commemorating the founding of Nunavut, and another with a family of polar bears; there have been several variants of the $1 coin, one of which featured the Canadian peacekeepers' monument in Ottawa to commemorate the award of the Nobel Peace Prize. A commemorative Terry Fox $1 coin began circulating on April 4, 2005. On October 21, 2004, the Royal Canadian Mint unveiled a 25¢ poppy coin. This coin features a red poppy (Papaver rhoeas) that is coloured red, embedded in the centre of a maple leaf above a banner reading "Remember – Souvenir". It is the world's first coloured coin. While some countries' mints have produced colourized coins for market to collectors, this is the first colourized coin in general circulation in the world. The Mint states that, with normal wear and tear, the colour should remain for a number of years, although this claim was quickly disproved. The colouration compounds are attached to the metal on a specially prepared 'dimpled' section of the coin and seem to come off easily if deliberately rubbed. The coin will retain its full value even if the red poppy has worn off or been removed; however, it is now expected that fully coloured specimens will become collectible in the future. In an isolated incident in the United States these coins were briefly reported as a possible 'spy tool' by some US Defense Contractors unfamiliar with the odd-seeming coin and raised espionage warnings until the situation was clarified. On May 4, 2005, the Mint unveiled a new "Victory nickel", reminiscent of the original issued during the Second World War. The new coin commemorated the 60th anniversary of the Allied victory in World War II. A mintage of 59,258,000 Victory nickels were produced and treated as regular circulation coins. In 2005, 25¢ and $5 coins commemorating the centennial of two of Canada's provinces were released: the coin for Alberta represents oil exploration in that province; the coin for Saskatchewan depicts a singing meadowlark and a grain elevator. Later the same year, the Mint later issued a Year Of The Veteran coin to honour military veterans, again in the 25¢ denomination. On February 21, 2007, the mint announced that they would be producing a 100-kilogram coin the size of a large pizza with a face value of $1 million. This new coin bears the highest face value in the world, using approximately $2 million of 99.999% pure bullion, and five were produced and sold to investors. Urban legends Several urban legends and other false information have circulated regarding Canadian coinage. The centre can pop out of a toonie. This is in fact true, but only for coins struck in 1996. Many toonies in the first shipment of the coins were defective, and could separate if struck hard or frozen, as the centre piece would shrink more than the outside. This problem was quickly corrected, and the initial wave of "toonie popping" blew over a few months after the coin's introduction. The 50¢ piece is no longer minted and/or has been withdrawn from circulation. The 50¢ coin circulates so little that many people have never personally seen or handled one. Shop proprietors have been known to refuse to accept them as payment because they do not recognize them as Canadian currency. However, the RCM continues to produce the 50¢ coin annually for coin collections such as the Uncirculated, Specimen, and Proof Sets. Although the RCM does produce the coin in small numbers (in 2005, the mintage for the coins was 200,000, and the coins were not produced for circulation in 2003 and 2004); most of them are purchased by coin collectors. The remainder go to banks, though most do not give them out unless the customer specifically requests so. Given enough notice, any bank should be able to obtain them in a significant quantity for their customers. The 50¢ coin is also commonly handed out as regular change at some Canada Post locations. An attempt at widening the circulation of the 50-cent piece was made in 2002 with the release of a specially designed coin marking the Golden Jubilee of Queen Elizabeth II, which was circulated through the Laura Secord Chocolates store chain in Canada. The crown is wrong in the Queen's portrait. When the new coin portrait was first issued in 1990 (see above), a legend surfaced that the artist had simply added the image of a crown to a portrait of the Queen, and that she was never meant to be seen wearing that headgear. This is false; she posed personally for the portrait wearing one of her usual crowns. Effigies 1953 – The coronation of a new monarch meant a new effigy. Due to an issue with the portrait model for the new Queen Elizabeth, two obverse varieties, termed the "no shoulder fold" and the "should fold" obverses were found in circulation during 1953. The portrait model was prepared in England by sculptor Mary Gillick. The relief of this model was too high. This affected the new effigy because the centre portion containing two lines on the shoulder (representing a fold in the Queen's gown) did not strike up well on the coins. This obverse had been termed the "no shoulder strap" variety by numismatists. Later in 1953, Mint authorities decided to correct the defects in the obverse design. Thomas Shingles, chief engraver of the RCM, was summoned to lower the relief of the model. The result was that he had strengthened the shoulder and hair detail. This revised obverse (often called "the shoulder strap" variety due to the resemblance of the lines to a strap) was introduced before the end of the year. This was accepted as the standard obverse. The no shoulder fold obverse was used to produce some of the 1954 cents for the proof-like sets and a small quantity of 1955 cents for circulation. The 1955 no shoulder fold variety is the most desired by collectors. 1965 – Starting in 1965, the effigy of the Queen underwent the first of three changes. This new obverse featured the Queen with more mature facial features. The wearing of a tiara was the other aspect of the new effigy. 1990 – A new obverse debuted with the Queen now wearing a diamond diadem and jewellery. Although the effigy changed in 2003, this portrait with a diadem is still used on all Chinese Lunar New Year coins. 2003 – To commemorate the 50th anniversary of the coronation of the Queen, a new obverse was introduced. The unique feature of this effigy is that the Queen is without headdress. This marked the first time that the effigy of a monarch did not wear headdress since Elizabeth's father, King George VI, a half-century earlier. Mint mark In an effort to build the brand, the Royal Canadian Mint implemented a policy in which all its circulation and collector coins would bear a new mint mark. Unveiled at the Canadian Numismatic Association convention in Niagara Falls, Ontario, in July 2006, the mint mark was a reproduction of the Royal Canadian Mint logo. The first circulation coin to bear the new mint mark was the 10th anniversary $2 coin, illustrated by Tony Bianco. This meant that the "P" mint mark which recognized the plating technology would no longer be used. For collectors, the first collector coin to feature the new mint mark was the Snowbirds coin and stamp set. Records In the Charlton Standard Catalogue of Canadian Coins, the 1911 $1 coin is valued at $1,250,000. There are only 2 known specimens in sterling silver, and one specimen in lead. One of the silver specimens and the lead specimen are located at the Bank of Canada's currency museum, while the other is in a private collection. The rarity stems from the fact the federal government chose not to proceed with producing a "silver dollar" in 1911. The 1911 coin sets were originally planned to include the $1, but the sets came with an empty gap where the $1 coin was supposed to be. Canada didn't issue a $1 circulation coin until 1935, when it issued a circulating dollar commemorating George V's Silver Jubilee. Among numismatists, the 1921 50-cent coin is considered the rarest Canadian circulation coin and is known as The King of Canadian coins. As of 2012, a 1921 50-cent piece in MS-65 condition is valued at $250,000 to $350,000. Despite a mintage of 206,398 coins, there was a very low demand for 50-cent coins in the 1920s. The belief is that most of the 50-cent coins from 1920 and 1921 were melted (amounting to approximately 480,392 coins). The reason for the melting was that new coins were needed for 1929 and if coins from 1920 and 1921 were released into circulation, people would suspect counterfeit coins. According to legend, only 50 of these coins still exist (with only 3 known in mint state), and most of those are from Specimen Sets that were sold to people who visited the RC Mint. Victory nickel (Tombac 1943–1944) (Steel 1944–1945) The 5-cent piece underwent a design change for the first time since 1937 when the beaver was first introduced. The new reverse featured a striking V design. In the interest of promoting the war effort, the famous V sign from Winston Churchill was adopted. Perhaps, the most unusual aspect of this coin was the Morse Code. The meaning was "We Win When We Work Willingly". The edges of the steel versions of the Victory nickel were known to rust. Due to high demands for copper and zinc during the war effort, the use of Tombac was suspended. A new composition of steel with .0127 mm plating of nickel and .0003 mm plating of chromium became the norm. The plating process of these coins meant that strips had to be plated before blanks were punched out. The result was that the edges of the blanks were unplated. Although the RCM returned to nickel after WWII, the Korean war effort resulted in the use of steel again in 1951. Some of the steel coins were later discovered to have only the nickel plating and had a grey rather than the usual "bluish" appearance. Until recently, this variety did not command a premium price from collectors, but the fact that some years are rarer than others has started to generate interest in this variety. References Further reading Coins of Canada by J.A. Haxby and R.C. Willey. External links of the Royal Canadian Mint (producer of Canadian coins)
4850116	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tasmanian%20Government%20Railways	Tasmanian Government Railways	The Tasmanian Government Railways (TGR) was the former operator of the mainline railways in Tasmania, Australia. Formed in 1872, the railway company was managed by the Government of Tasmania, and existed until absorption into the Australian National Railways Commission in 1978. History Precursor Launceston & Western Railway The early railways of Tasmania were constructed by a number of private companies, rather than owned by the Government. Proposals were considered by the Tasmanian Government for the construction of a railway from Hobart to Launceston as early as 1856, when the colony gained responsible government. In June 1857, railway committees were formed in Deloraine, Carrick, Longford, Perth and Westbury, to lobby for the construction of a railway between Launceston and Deloraine. Delegations from these committees were successful in lobbying the Mayor of Launceston to organise a meeting on the issue on 27 August, with discussions around the need for a railway to assist farmers in getting produce to market, given the poor state of roads and the cost of transporting goods. Subsequently a petition was organised to deliver to the Governor. In 1858, a Parliamentary Joint Committee reported in favour of railway construction within the Colony, but nothing was done until 1865 when the Prospectus of the Launceston and Western Railway Company was issued. The first Railway Act was passed later that year which provided for the construction of a railway between Launceston and Deloraine by private enterprise. The Launceston and Western Railway was a Joint Stock Company of £450,000 capital, chiefly borrowed in England, with the interest guaranteed by the Tasmanian Government. The land-holders, whom the line would benefit, entered into an obligation to recoup the State should the returns from the railway fall short of the interest money. The Launceston and Western Railway was formed on 9 May 1867. Surveying of the line begun almost immediately, with pegs being laid as far as Perth by July 1867. The first sod of the line was turned on 15 January 1868 by the Duke of Edinburgh who was on a visit to the Colonies. On 15 July 1868 tenders were opened for the construction of the railway. Shareholders criticised the tenders for being unfair to local firms, preferring those from the other colonies rather than Tasmania. The contracts were awarded to Melbourne-based Overend and Robb, who had worked on railways in Victoria. In August 1868, construction started at Jingler's Valley near Young Town. The undulating country presented few engineering challenges, with the only major works being a bridge over the North Esk in Launceston, cuttings and embankments climbing from St Leonards to Western Junction, a brick viaduct at Perth, and the Longford Railway Bridge. Steam transport began earnestly in June 1869, when the contractors began hauling ballast from a quarry in Invermay. On 19 August 1869, the first "ride-on-rails" excursion took place between Jingler's Valley and Launceston, giving residents their first experiences with train travel. By February 1870, most of the permanent way was complete, except for areas around Westbury and the Longford bridge. New tenders were issued for the construction of station buildings, while further carriages and rolling stock were being fabricated. The date for completion as set out in the contract was 10 March 1870, but an extension was given and construction continued to a point where the opening date could be set for the following September. In July 1870, the first appointments of stationmasters and staff were made, and sidings had been completed at Perth, Longford and Westbury. Stations at Launceston, Longford, Westbury, Deloraine, and other stops were being built at this time, and the final shipment of rails from England meant completion of the line was expected by mid-August. Extensive rains resulted in further delays, with flooding in parts requiring the construction of culverts and extra drainage, and it was not until 10 February 1871 that the line was opened for traffic by the Governor. When the line was opened, a service of three double-headed trains each way per day was operated, but this proved unsatisfactory and later on one locomotive per run was used. During the construction period, the company had experienced some difficulty in raising the necessary finance to meet the cost of construction. It applied to the Government for assistance. The Government appointed two Railway Commissioners to generally supervise all railway construction and advance the Company the finance to complete the building of the line. The construction contractor continued to operate the railway until November 1871, the L&WR then took over. By December 1872, it was agreed that a fifth locomotive was required and an order was placed with Sharp Stewart and Company. Traffic showed an increase after the company took over the working of the line, however difficulties were experienced in continuing operations and the payment of interest on loans. Beginning The Launceston and Western Railway was struggling to pay its creditors, and it became necessary for the Government to step in. Negotiations were commenced with a view of the Government taking over the line, with legislation enacted making the L&WR hand all assets to the Government on 3 August 1873. The Government took over operation of the line from 31 October 1873, and while it was not formally organised as such, the Tasmanian Government Railways were established. The line was initially built in Broad or Irish gauge. Very shortly after the Government takeover in 1873 a decision was made to convert the line to the narrow gauge as used by the newly-created Tasmanian Main Line Railway. In March 1876, the Tasmanian Main Line Railway Company had completed the construction of a gauge line from Hobart to Evandale and entered into negotiation with the Government for the construction of a third rail over the broad gauge tracks of the Launceston and Western Railway between Evandale Junction and Launceston. Approval was given and the TMLR began operating over a dual gauge line into Launceston on 1 November 1876. The Tasmanian Main Line Railway Company (TMLR) later opened their Hobart to Evandale line in 1876, to a . Because of the break-of-gauge, the TMLR laid a third rail upon the L&WR line, and operated dual gauge for the final to Launceston. During the early 1880s, the Tasmanian Government decided upon construction of further narrow gauge lines and commenced with a line from Deloraine to Devonport which opened on 1 September 1885. In 1887, the broad gauge rolling stock of the Launceston and Western Railway consisted of 14 passenger carriages, 4 horse boxes and 84 goods vehicles. A proposal to take up the outer rail was examined and it was decided that greater economy of operation would be achieved. The last broad gauge train ran on 20 August 1888. The Government had during this time continued to take over failed railway companies across the state, and it soon became apparent that the Tasmanian Main Line Railway would suffer financial issues. With the absorption of the Hobart-Evandale line in 1890, the railway network became whole, and thus created an official public railway service in Tasmania. As a result of this takeover, all Tasmanian railways were relaid or newly constructed in gauge. Transport Commission On 1 July 1939, the railway administration was absorbed into the newly created Transport Commission and became its Railway Branch. The Commission was empowered to co-ordinate and improve land transport within the State, and one of its policies was to encourage the use of the railway wherever possible. Consequently to aid the railway, Tasmania's road network was divided into nine road transport zones, with levies instituted against trucks which crossed between zones if they were in competition with the railways. Centenary From 7–14 February 1971, the TGR celebrated its centenary of operations, with special trains scheduled during this time for trips between Launceston and Deloraine with intermediate stops. Special fares were arranged for these trips, with return tickets between the two termini priced at $1.00 (approximately $9.74 in 2012). Trains were arranged with either single, double or triple-headed steam locomotives, depending on the type of stock and number of passengers carried. On 10 February, the official ceremony was held at Launceston Railway Station, with addresses from the Transport Commissioner George Webb and Minister for Transport Leonard Bessell, as well as the unveiling of a commemorative plaque by the then-Premier of Tasmania William Angus Bethune. Richard Green, the Mayor of Launceston, also presented the Guard of the centenary train with "Scrolls of Greetings", which were presented to the Wardens of the Municipalities of Evandale, Longford, Westbury and Deloraine. The Centenary Train also conveyed special mail from the Launceston Post Office, as well as politicians and invited guests. After the Centenary train, further special trains were run through to St Marys on the Fingal Line, south down to Ross on the Main Line, and as far up as Railton on the Western line. Several trains were also timetabled to pick up passengers flown from Melbourne to Western Junction. The centenary celebrations were overall viewed as an astounding success, with most seats booked on each special train. Aside from the use of one Y Class diesel locomotive on a train for "special guests", every train scheduled as part of the centenary used well-maintained steam locomotives that were still in use on Tasmanian main lines. Absorption In 1975, the Federal Whitlam government sought to nationalise and take control of ailing state rail systems in a bid to revitalise them. Tasmania accepted the proposed Australian National Railways Commission on 23 May 1975, and the Railways (Tasmania) Act 1975 was passed. The Commission took control from the Transport Commission on 1 July 1975. As a result of the transfer, the Tasmanian Government ceased claimancy for funds from the Commonwealth Grants Commission, and was relieved of its debt obligations and interest payments incurred for money borrowed from the Commonwealth in construction of the Bell Bay Line in 1971. Operations With around 16 lines across the state, the TGR operated a combination of approximately 275 stations, halts and junctions (as of 1949). Large stations were located at Hobart, Derwent Park, New Norfolk, Parattah, Launceston, Zeehan, Burnie and Devonport. On Hobart's suburban branch spurs, the TGR operated workers trains and freight for the Electrolytic Zinc Company and its zinc works in Lutana, as well as the Cadbury's Chocolate Factory in nearby Claremont. Special trains were also conveyed on Hobart's suburban network, with trains operating to Elwick Racecourse for the Hobart Cup, and to the Royal Hobart Showgrounds for the Royal Hobart Show. The special show trains to the Showgrounds ended in 1978, and were the last TGR passenger trains to be run in Tasmania. In the 1970s, with the increase in car ownership, funding for highways and the loss of goods consignments, the TGR's operations suffered, and passenger services were eventually ceased across the network. Hobart suburban services ended in 1974, with passenger services ending entirely in 1978. TGR introduced in 1954 some containers for bulk goods such as cement, sand, gravel and superphosphate. Network Main Line – Running north/south between Hobart and Launceston. Western Line – Running from Launceston to Wiltshire Junction. Derwent Valley Line – Running from Bridgewater Junction to logging areas in Florentine. Fingal Line – Branching from Conara Junction, south of Launceston, to St Marys on the East Coast. Irishtown-Trowutta Line – A short line from Irishtown Junction (outside Smithton) to rural areas southwards. Bell Bay Line – Opened in the early 1970s, this line connected Launceston to its northern port at Bell Bay. Apsley Line – Branching from Brighton Junction north into rural farmlands. Closed in 1947. Mole Creek Line – Branching from Lemana Junction south from the Western Line into logging areas. Closed 1985. Strahan–Zeehan Railway Line – An isolated line joined to private railways, that linked the Queenstown to Strahan Mount Lyell railway line to the Emu Bay Railway line and as a result to Burnie and the rest of the Tasmanian railway system. . Bellerive–Sorell Line – An isolated and short-lived line that joined the Hobart suburb to the rural communities in the East. Closed in 1926. Hobart Railway Station The largest terminus in the state was built in Hobart in 1871 by the Tasmanian Main Line Company. The station was further expanded in the 20th century, with the station reconstructed and modernised in 1950. After the completion of construction works, the station had four platforms and a large concourse, as well as shopping stalls and food vendors. In the 1960s and early 1970s the railway station saw more than 70 trains a day come and go. With the gradual cessation of passenger services in the latter half of the 1970s and the takeover by Australian National Railways in 1978, the railway station was sold and redeveloped in the 1980s. Sections of track that went into the station were demolished for the extension of the Tasman Highway onto Davey Street and Macquarie Street, and today, the redeveloped site houses the studios of the Australian Broadcasting Corporation and the Baháʼí Faith Centre of Learning, with the only remaining part of the rail terminal the original sandstone TMLR station building from 1871. Tasman Limited The Tasman Limited was the only named train operated by TGR (The West Coaster was operated by the private Emu Bay Railway). Inaugurated in April 1954, the train originally began as an express railcar service; however, later became a first-class luxury passenger service, operated with special articulated coaching stock, buffet service and modern X class diesel locomotives. Seating was reserved, and the service ran from Hobart to Wynyard with connections to Launceston, every day of the week except Sundays. The Tasman, as it was colloquially known, outlasted all other TGR passenger services, and was officially the last regular scheduled government passenger train to operate on the Tasmanian rail network, departing Hobart at 9.20am on Friday 28 July 1978. Tasmanian Railway Institute In the 1930s, the TGR formed the Railway Institute as a social and recreational branch for employees of the TGR and their families. Staffed by railway personnel, the TGR provided facilities to the Institute; with recreation halls and branches founded in Hobart, Launceston, Conara, Devonport and Wynyard. These halls contained offices, libraries, billiards rooms, a kitchen and other sporting and social facilities. The Launceston branch was unique, in that it also held a Commonwealth-recognised indoor small-bore rifle range, and boxing stadium. The Institute was tasked with training and certifying employees who were to be in charge of railway station accounts. The Institute also formed an intrastate sporting events calendar, with teams from each branch participating. More central branches (e.g. Hobart), because of the higher number of members, often fielded two or more teams. As well as providing hall facilities, the Institute purchased several holiday homes located across Tasmania, as a way of providing members and their families with affordable holidays. A two-bedroom home at Scamander and a three-bedroom former station master's house at Claremont were initially acquired. The TGR also provided a six-bedroom house in both Stanley and Devonport, and later a house in Wynyard and South Burnie were also requisitioned. In 1978 when passenger services and the TGR ceased, employee numbers fell and subsequently the houses in Stanley, Wynyard and South Burnie were abandoned. Railway Institute facilities were also sold off, and the halls in Devonport and Wynyard were the last to be sold; with Devonport selling just prior to the sale of AN Tasrail to the private consortium ATN TasRail. Today, the Railway Institute still remains, but is now known as the AN (Railway) Institute of Tasmania Inc.. Several holiday homes also still exist and are in use, with the house in Devonport having been retained from TGR days. Two units in St Helens and two units in Claremont are also available, as well as a three-bedroom house in Launceston which was attained from AN Tasrail after they vacated offices there. These are owned outright by the Institute, after in the 1980s during the time of the Australian National Railways Commission's ownership, a Master of Operating lease was created to prevent future railway administrations from taking away Institute facilities. Due to legal threats from the state government, however; the Institute was made to purchase the outstanding equity in the holiday homes of the TGR, to become completely separate to the railway administration. The Tasmanian membership paid $100,000 and the national administration of the ANR Railway Institute borrowed some more to buy the railway's equity in St Helens, Launceston, Devonport and Hobart. In 1997, the Institute in Tasmania became almost autonomous and became administered by volunteers. The Institute in Tasmania is assisted in administration by the board of AN Institute Inc. and its staff in Port Augusta, South Australia. Rolling stock The Tasmanian Government Railways had a vast range of motive power and rolling stock, including many steam and latterly diesel locomotives and railmotors. Throughout the history of the TGR, the company set a number of milestones in railways, including being the first operator of mainline diesel locomotives in Australia, and being the first in the world to operate a Garratt locomotive. In 1936, the TGR owned 92 locomotives, 13 railcars, 143 carriages, 52 brake vans and 2.048 goods wagons. The passenger rolling stock of the TGR included the 1955–58 series ACS class 'articulated country saloons', 76-seat first class with air suspended reclining seats, tray tables, state-of-the-art lighting and heating, and buffet service with hostesses. To the end in 1978, the TGR still used AAL class first class saloons with leather seats and maple panelling, as well as SP class brake and 2nd class passenger carriages, converted from Sentinel steam railcars. When TGR was abolished in 1978, most rollingstock was transferred onto the register of Australian National Railways (with the exception of all passenger stock other than that kept for departmental use). Locomotives The TGR had a large and varying fleet of both steam (and diesel in 1950) locomotives, and many served a multi-purpose position in the system; hauling freight, passenger, and mixed trains. The company also had a fleet of railcars used for inter-suburban commuter services. Diesel V class X class (introduced 1950, first mainline diesel locomotive in Australia) Y class (introduced 1961) Z class (introduced 1973) Za class (introduced 1973) Railcars TGR DP class (introduced 1939) These railcars were built by Waddingtons and served the Hobart-Parattah regional and suburban services up until 1974. Steam TGR M/MA class (introduced 1952/1957) TGR H class (introduced 1951) TGR F class (introduced 1949) TGR G class (introduced 1944–50) TGR DS class (introduced 1939–44) TGR CCS class (introduced 1924) TGR Q class (introduced 1922) TGR M class (introduced 1912) TGR L class (introduced 1912) TGR CC class (introduced 1912) TGR K class (introduced 1909, first Garratt locomotive in the world) TGR G class(introduced 1896) TGR C class (introduced 1885–1937) Preservation Much of the TGR's former rollingstock and traction has been preserved by enthusiast groups and museums, or have been placed in public parks in Tasmania. The Tasmanian Transport Museum, Don River Railway and Derwent Valley Railway all hold extensive collections of TGR-related ephemera, infrastructure and rollingstock; either operational or non-operational/unrestored. The Queen Victoria Museum and Art Gallery, which is housed in the former TGR locomotive workshops in Inveresk, Tasmania, hold examples of the TGR's industrial operations, as well as a Y class locomotive, wagons, and locomotive nameplates and builder's plates. The Bellarine Railway in Queenscliff, Victoria, also has a number of ex-TGR carriages and locomotives. During the 1980s, the Hotham Valley Tourist Railway (HVR) south of Perth, Western Australia, purchased two V-class diesel-mechanical shunting locomotives and several ex-Tasman Limited SS/SSD passenger carriages. A couple of steam locomotives have been plinthed over the years and used in public parks since their withdrawal, with MA3 placed at the markets in Margate, and H6 placed at a park in Perth. Internationally, a handful of TGR locomotives still remain, with the first Garratt, K1, surviving at the Welsh Highland Railway in Wales; and M2, an M class Pacific steam locomotive, which was moved from a park in Stanley in 1984, now remains at the Tanfield Railway in County Durham, England; however, this locomotive remains derelict and unrestored, and its future is uncertain. See also Rail transport in Australia Rail transport in Tasmania Tasman Limited TasRail Railway accidents in Tasmania References 3 ft 6 in gauge railways in Australia Rail transport in Tasmania History of transport in Tasmania Former government railways of Australia Defunct government-owned companies of Tasmania Australian companies established in 1872 Railway companies established in 1872 Australian companies disestablished in 1978 Railway companies disestablished in 1978
4850159	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CIA%20involvement%20in%20Contra%20cocaine%20trafficking	CIA involvement in Contra cocaine trafficking	A number of writers have alleged that the United States Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) was involved in the Nicaraguan Contras' cocaine trafficking operations during the 1980s Nicaraguan civil war. These claims have led to investigations by the United States government, including hearings and reports by the United States House of Representatives, Senate, Department of Justice, and the CIA's Office of the Inspector General which ultimately concluded the allegations were unsupported. The subject remains controversial. A 1986 investigation by a sub-committee of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee (the Kerry Committee), found that "the Contra drug links included", among other connections, "[...] payments to drug traffickers by the U.S. State Department of funds authorized by the Congress for humanitarian assistance to the Contras, in some cases after the traffickers had been indicted by federal law enforcement agencies on drug charges, in others while traffickers were under active investigation by these same agencies." The charges of CIA involvement in Contra cocaine trafficking were revived in 1996, when a newspaper series by reporter Gary Webb in the San Jose Mercury News claimed that the trafficking had played an important role in the creation of the crack cocaine drug problem in the United States. Webb's series led to three federal investigations, all of which concluded there was no evidence of a conspiracy by CIA officials or its employees to bring drugs into the United States. The Los Angeles Times, The New York Times, and The Washington Post launched their own investigations and rejected Webb's allegations. The agency was aware of trafficking, and (in some cases) dissuaded the DEA and other agencies from investigating the Contra supply networks involved. Early reports of Contra cocaine trafficking In 1984, U.S. officials began receiving reports of Contra cocaine trafficking. Three officials told journalists that they considered these reports "reliable." Former Panamanian deputy health minister Hugo Spadafora, who had fought with the Contra army, outlined charges of cocaine trafficking to a prominent Panamanian official. Spadafora was later found murdered. The charges linked the Contra trafficking to Sebastián González Mendiola, who was charged with cocaine trafficking on November 26, 1984, in Costa Rica. In 1985, another Contra leader "told U.S. authorities that his group was being paid $50,000 by Colombian traffickers for help with a cocaine shipment and that the money would go 'for the cause' of fighting the Nicaraguan government." A 1985 National Intelligence Estimate by the CIA revealed cocaine trafficking links to a top commander working under Contra leader Edén Pastora. Pastora had complained about such charges as early as March 1985, claiming that "two 'political figures' in Washington told him last week that State Department and CIA personnel were spreading the rumor that he is linked to drug trafficking in order to isolate his movement." On December 20, 1985, these and other additional charges were laid out in an Associated Press article after an extensive investigation, which included interviews with "officials from the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA), Customs Service, Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and Costa Rica's Public Security Ministry, as well as rebels and Americans who work with them". Five American Contra supporters who worked with the rebels confirmed the charges, noting that "two Cuban-Americans used armed rebel troops to guard cocaine at clandestine airfields in northern Costa Rica. They identified the Cuban-Americans as members of Brigade 2506, an anti-Castro group that participated in the 1961 Bay of Pigs invasion of Cuba. Several also said they supplied information about the smuggling to U.S. investigators." One of the Americans said "that in one ongoing operation, the cocaine is unloaded from planes at rebel airstrips and taken to an Atlantic coast port where it is concealed on shrimp boats that are later unloaded in the Miami area." On March 16, 1986, the San Francisco Examiner published a report on the "1983 seizure of of cocaine from a Colombian freighter" in San Francisco; it said that a "cocaine ring in the San Francisco Bay area helped finance Nicaragua's Contra rebels." Carlos Cabezas, convicted of conspiracy to traffic cocaine, said that the profits from his crimes "belonged to ... the Contra revolution." He told the Examiner, "I just wanted to get the Communists out of my country." Julio Zavala, also convicted on trafficking charges, said "that he supplied $500,000 to two Costa Rican-based Contra groups and that the majority of it came from cocaine trafficking in the San Francisco Bay area, Miami and New Orleans." FBI probe In April 1986, Associated Press reported on an FBI probe into Contra cocaine trafficking. According to the report, "Twelve American, Nicaraguan and Cuban-American rebel backers interviewed by The Associated Press said they had been questioned over the past several months [about contra cocaine trafficking] by the FBI. In the interviews, some covering several days and being conducted in Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, Colorado and California, several of the Contra backers told AP of firsthand knowledge of cocaine trafficking." On April 17, 1986, the Reagan administration released a three-page report stating that there were some Contra-cocaine connections in 1984 and 1985, and that these connections occurred at a time when the rebels were "particularly hard pressed for financial support" because aid from the United States had been cut off. The report said: "We have evidence of a limited number of incidents in which known drug traffickers have tried to establish connections with Nicaraguan resistance groups" and that the drug activity took place "without the authorization of resistance leaders." Kerry Committee investigation The U.S. Senate Foreign Relations Committee's Subcommittee on Terrorism, Narcotics, and International Operations, chaired at the time by Senator John Kerry, held a series of hearings from 1987 to 1988 on drug cartels and drug money laundering in South and Central America and the Caribbean. The Subcommittee's final report, issued in 1989, said that Contra drug links included: Involvement in narcotics trafficking by individuals associated with the Contra movement. Participation of narcotics traffickers in Contra supply operations through business relationships with Contra organizations. Provision of assistance to the Contras by narcotics traffickers, including cash, weapons, planes, pilots, air supply services and other materials, on a voluntary basis by the traffickers. Payments to drug traffickers by the U.S. State Department of funds authorized by the Congress for humanitarian assistance to the Contras, in some cases after the traffickers had been indicted by federal law enforcement agencies on drug charges, in others while traffickers were under active investigation by these same agencies. According to the report, the U.S. State Department paid over $806,000 to "four companies owned and operated by narcotics traffickers" to carry humanitarian assistance to the Contras. Dark Alliance series From August 18–20, 1996, the San Jose Mercury News published the Dark Alliance series by Gary Webb, which claimed: For the better part of a decade, a San Francisco Bay Area drug ring sold tons of cocaine to the Crips and Bloods street gangs of Los Angeles and funneled millions in drug profits to a Latin American guerrilla army run by the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency. [This drug ring] opened the first pipeline between Colombia's cocaine cartels and the black neighborhoods of Los Angeles [and, as a result,] the cocaine that flooded in helped spark a crack explosion in urban America. To support these claims, the series focused on three men: Ricky Ross, Oscar Danilo Blandón, and Norwin Meneses. According to the series, Ross was a major drug dealer in Los Angeles, and Blandón and Meneses were Nicaraguans who smuggled drugs into the U.S. and supplied dealers like Ross. The series alleged that the three had relationships with the Contras and the CIA, and that law enforcement agencies failed to successfully prosecute them largely due to their Contra and CIA connections. Response African Americans, especially in South Central Los Angeles where the dealers discussed in the series had been active, responded with outrage to the series' charges. California senators Barbara Boxer and Dianne Feinstein also took note and wrote to CIA director John Deutch and Attorney General Janet Reno, asking for investigations into the articles. Maxine Waters, the Representative for California's 35th district, which includes South-Central Los Angeles, was also outraged by the articles and became one of Webb's strongest supporters. Waters urged the CIA, the Department of Justice, and the House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence to investigate. By the end of September, three federal investigations had been announced: an investigation into the CIA allegations conducted by CIA Inspector-General Frederick Hitz, an investigation into the law enforcement allegations by Justice Department Inspector-General Michael Bromwich, and a second investigation into the CIA by the House Intelligence Committee. On October 3, 1996, LA County Sheriff Sherman Block ordered a fourth investigation into Webb's claims that a 1986 raid on Blandón's drug organization by the Los Angeles Sheriff's Department had produced evidence of CIA ties to drug smuggling and that this was later suppressed. Coverage in other papers In early October, 1996, a front-page article in The Washington Post by reporters Roberto Suro and Walter Pincus, argued that "available information" did not support the series's claims, and that "the rise of crack" was "a broad-based phenomenon" driven in numerous places by diverse players. The article also discussed Webb's contacts with Ross's attorney and prosecution complaints of how Ross's defense had used Webb's series. The New York Times published two articles on the series in mid-October, both written by reporter Tim Golden. One described the series' evidence as "thin"; the second, citing interviews with current and former intelligence and law-enforcement officials, questioned the importance of the drug dealers discussed in the series, both in the crack cocaine trade and in supporting the Nicaraguan Contras' fight against the Sandinista government. The Los Angeles Times devoted the most space to the story, developing its own three-part series called The Cocaine Trail. The series ran from October 20–22, 1996, and was researched by a team of 17 reporters. The three articles in the series were written by four reporters: Jesse Katz, Doyle McManus, John Mitchell, and Sam Fulwood. The first article, by Katz, developed a different picture of the origins of the crack trade than Dark Alliance had described, with more gangs and smugglers participating. The second article, by McManus, was the longest of the series, and dealt with the role of the Contras in the drug trade and CIA knowledge of drug activities by the Contras. McManus found Blandón and Meneses's financial contributions to Contra organizations to be significantly less than the "millions" claimed in Webb's series, and no evidence that the CIA had tried to protect them. The third article, by Mitchell and Fulwood, covered the effects of crack on African Americans and how it affected their reaction to some of the rumors that arose after the Dark Alliance series. Mercury News response Surprised by The Washington Post article, Mercury News executive editor Jerome Ceppos wrote to the Post defending the series. The Post ultimately refused to print his letter. Ceppos also asked reporter Pete Carey to write a critique of the series for publication in The Mercury News, and had the controversial website artwork changed. Carey's critique appeared in mid-October and went through several of the Post criticisms of the series, including the importance of Blandón's drug ring in spreading crack, questions about Blandón's testimony in court, and how specific series allegations about CIA involvement had been, giving Webb's responses. When the Los Angeles Times series appeared, Ceppos again wrote to defend the original series. He also defended the series in interviews with all three papers. The extent of the criticism, however, convinced Ceppos that The Mercury News had to acknowledge to its readers that the series had not been subjected to strong criticism. He did this in a column that appeared on November 3, defending the series, but also committing the paper to a review of major criticisms. Ceppos' column drew editorial responses from both The New York Times and The Washington Post. An editorial in the Times, while criticizing the series for making "unsubstantiated charges", conceded that it did find "drug-smuggling and dealing by Nicaraguans with at least tentative connections to the Contras" and called for further investigation. The Post response came from the paper's ombudsman, Geneva Overholser. Overholser was harshly critical of the series, "reported by a seemingly hotheaded fellow willing to have people leap to conclusions his reporting couldn't back up." But while calling the flaws in the series "unforgivably careless journalism," Overholser also criticized the Post's refusal to print Ceppos' letter defending the series and sharply criticized the Post's coverage of the story. Calling the Post's overall focus "misplaced", Overholser expressed regret that the paper had not taken the opportunity to re-examine whether the CIA had overlooked Contra involvement in drug smuggling, "a subject The Post and the public had given short shrift." In contrast, the series received support from Steve Weinberg, a former executive director of Investigative Reporters and Editors. In a long review of the series' claims in The Baltimore Sun, Weinberg said: "I think the critics have been far too harsh. Despite some hyped phrasing, 'Dark Alliance' appears to be praiseworthy investigative reporting." After the series' publication, the Northern California branch of the national Society of Professional Journalists had voted Webb "Journalist of the Year" for 1996. Despite the controversy that soon overtook the series, and the request of one board member to reconsider, the branch's board went ahead with the award in November. End of the series After Ceppos' column, The Mercury News spent the next several months conducting an internal review of the story. The review was conducted primarily by editor Jonathan Krim and reporter Pete Carey, who had written the paper's first published analysis of the series. Carey ultimately decided that there were problems with several parts of the story and wrote a draft article incorporating his findings. The paper also gave Webb permission to visit Central America again to get more evidence supporting the story. By January, Webb filed drafts of four more articles based on his trip, but his editors concluded that the new articles would not help shore up the original series' claims. The editors met with Webb several times in February to discuss the results of the paper's internal review and eventually decided to print neither Carey's draft article nor the articles Webb had filed. Webb was allowed to keep working on the story and made one more trip to Nicaragua in March. At the end of March, however, Ceppos told Webb that he was going to present the internal review findings in a column. After discussions with Webb, the column was published on May 11, 1997. In the column Ceppos continued to defend parts of the article, writing that the series had "solidly documented" that the drug ring described in the series did have connections with the Contras and did sell large quantities of cocaine in inner-city Los Angeles. But, Ceppos wrote, the series "did not meet our standards" in four areas. 1) It presented only one interpretation of conflicting evidence and in one case "did not include information that contradicted a central assertion of the series." 2) The series' estimates of the money involved was presented as fact instead of an estimate. 3) The series oversimplified how the crack epidemic grew. 4) The series "created impressions that were open to misinterpretation" through "imprecise language and graphics." Ceppos noted that Webb did not agree with these conclusions. He concluded: "How did these shortcomings occur? ... I believe that we fell short at every step of our process: in the writing, editing and production of our work. Several people here share that burden ... But ultimately, the responsibility was, and is, mine." Investigation after Dark Alliance Justice Department report The Department of Justice Inspector-General's report was released on July 23, 1998. According to the report's "Epilogue", the report was completed in December 1997 but was not released because the DEA was still attempting to use Danilo Blandón in an investigation of international drug dealers and was concerned that the report would affect the viability of the investigation. When Attorney General Janet Reno determined that a delay was no longer necessary, the report was released unchanged. The report covered actions by Department of Justice employees in the Federal Bureau of Investigation, the DEA, the Immigration and Naturalization Service, and U.S. Attorneys' Offices. It found that "the allegations contained in the original Mercury News articles were exaggerations of the actual facts." After examining the investigations and prosecutions of the main figures in the series, Blandón, Meneses and Ross, it concluded: "Although the investigations suffered from various problems of communication and coordination, their successes and failures were determined by the normal dynamics that affect the success of scores of investigations of high-level drug traffickers ... These factors, rather than anything as spectacular as a systematic effort by the CIA or any other intelligence agency to protect the drug trafficking activities of Contra supporters, determined what occurred in the cases we examined." It also concluded that "the claims that Blandón and Meneses were responsible for introducing crack cocaine into South Central Los Angeles and spreading the crack epidemic throughout the country were unsupported." Although it did find that both men were major drug dealers, "guilty of enriching themselves at the expense of countless drug users", and that they had contributed money to the Contra cause, "we did not find that their activities were responsible for the crack cocaine epidemic in South Central Los Angeles, much less the rise of crack throughout the nation, or that they were a significant source of support for the Contras." The report called several of its findings "troubling." It found that Blandón received permanent resident status "in a wholly improper manner" and that for some time the Department "was not certain whether to prosecute Meneses, or use him as a cooperating witness." Regarding issues raised in the series' shorter sidebar stories, it found that some in the government were "not eager" to have DEA agent Celerino Castillo "openly probe" activities at Ilopango Airport in El Salvador, where covert operations in support of the Contras were undertaken, and that the CIA had indeed intervened in a case involving smuggler Julio Zavala. It concluded, however, that these problems were "a far cry from the type of broad manipulation and corruption of the federal criminal justice system suggested by the original allegations." CIA report The CIA Inspector-General's report was issued in two volumes. The first one, "The California Story", was issued in a classified version on December 17, 1997, and in an unclassified version on January 29, 1998. The second volume, "The Contra Story", was issued in a classified version on April 27, 1998, and in an unclassified version on October 8, 1998. According to the report, the Inspector-General's office (OIG) examined all information the agency had "relating to CIA knowledge of drug trafficking allegations in regard to any person directly or indirectly involved in Contra activities." It also examined "how CIA handled and responded to information regarding allegations of drug trafficking" by people involved in Contra activities or support. The first volume of the report found no evidence that "any past or present employee of CIA, or anyone acting on behalf of CIA, had any direct or indirect dealing" with Ross, Blandón, or Meneses or that any of the other figures mentioned in Dark Alliance were ever employed by or associated with or contacted by the agency. It found nothing to support the claim that "the drug trafficking activities of Blandón and Meneses were motivated by any commitment to support the Contra cause or Contra activities undertaken by CIA." It noted that Blandón and Meneses claimed to have donated money to Contra sympathizers in Los Angeles, but found no information to confirm that it was true or that the agency had heard of it. It found no information to support the claim that the agency interfered with law enforcement actions against Ross, Blandón or Meneses. In the 623rd paragraph, the report described a cable from the CIA's Directorate of Operations dated October 22, 1982, describing a prospective meeting between Contra leaders in Costa Rica for "an exchange in [the United States] of narcotics for arms, which then are shipped to Nicaragua." The two main Contra groups, US arms dealers, and a lieutenant of a drug ring which imported drugs from Latin America to the US west coast were set to attend the Costa Rica meeting. The lieutenant trafficker was also a Contra, and the CIA knew that there was an arms-for-drugs shuttle and did nothing to stop it. The report stated that the CIA had requested the Justice Department return $36,800 to a member of the Meneses drug ring, which had been seized by DEA agents in the in San Francisco. The CIA's Inspector General said the Agency wanted the money returned "to protect an operational equity, i.e., a Contra support group in which it [CIA] had an operational interest." The report also stated that former DEA agent Celerino Castillo alleged that during the 1980s, Ilopango Airport in El Salvador was used by Contras for drug smuggling flights, and "his attempts to investigate Contra drug smuggling were stymied by DEA management, the U.S. Embassy in El Salvador, and the CIA". During a PBS Frontline investigation, DEA field agent Hector Berrellez said, "I believe that elements working for the CIA were involved in bringing drugs into the country." "I know specifically that some of the CIA contract workers, meaning some of the pilots, in fact were bringing drugs into the U.S. and landing some of these drugs in government air bases. And I know so because I was told by some of these pilots that in fact they had done that." Testimony of the CIA Inspector General Six weeks after the declassified and heavily censored first volume of the CIA report was made public, Inspector General Frederick Hitz testified before a House congressional committee. Hitz stated that: Also revealed was a letter between the Attorney General William French Smith and the CIA that omitted narcotics violations among the list of crimes agency officers were required to report. In a follow-up letter later Smith stated "I have been advised that a question arose regarding the need to add all narcotics violations to the list of "non-employee" crimes...". Citing existing federal policy on narcotics enforcement, Smith wrote: "In light of these provisions and in view of the fine cooperation the Drug Enforcement Administration has received from CIA, no formal requirement regarding the reporting of narcotics violations has been included in these procedures." This agreement, which had not previously been revealed, came at a time when there were allegations that the CIA was using drug dealers in its controversial covert operation to bring down the leftist Sandinista government in Nicaragua. In 1986, the agreement was modified to require the CIA to stop paying agents who it believed were involved in the drug trade. House committee report The House Intelligence Committee issued its report in February 2000. According to the report, it used Webb's reporting and writing as "key resources in focusing and refining the investigation." Like the CIA and Justice Department reports, it also found that neither Blandón, Meneses, nor Ross were associated with the CIA. Examining the support that Meneses and Blandón gave to the local Contra organization in San Francisco, the report concluded that it was "not sufficient to finance the organization" and did not consist of 'millions', contrary to the claims of the Dark Alliance series. This support "was not directed by anyone within the Contra movement who had an association with the CIA," and the Committee found "no evidence that the CIA or the Intelligence Community was aware of these individuals' support." It also found no evidence to support Webb's suggestion that several other drug smugglers mentioned in the series were associated with the CIA, or that anyone associated with the CIA or other intelligence agencies was involved in supplying or selling drugs in Los Angeles. See also Allegations of CIA drug trafficking Human rights violations by the CIA War on Drugs Coca Notes References Report of Investigation Concerning Allegations of Connections Between CIA and The Contras in Cocaine Trafficking to the United States The Central Intelligence Agency Office of the Inspector General report on the claims made in the Dark Alliance newspaper series, released in two volumes, volume 1 on January 29, 1998, and volume 2 on October 8, 1998. External links - Release approved on July 29, 2014 1980s in the United States Central Intelligence Agency History of the foreign relations of the United States Investigations and hearings of the United States Congress Iran–Contra affair Cocaine in the United States Nicaraguan Revolution Illegal drug trade in the Americas
4850548	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20lichens%20of%20Maryland	List of lichens of Maryland	The following list of lichens of Maryland is derived from the following sources: (1) lichens listed in the 1977 publication by Skorepa (Allen C. Skorepa), Norden , and Windler. (2) lichens listed in the 1979 publication by Skorepa, Norden, and Windler. (3) lichens listed in the 2002 publication by Biechele as occurring on Maryland's Delmarva Peninsula. (4) lichens in Elmer Worthley's personal herbarium. (5) lichens found in Maryland by Edward Uebel. (6) lichens reported on Maryland's Delmarva Peninsula by Lendemer and Knapp (2007) at six locations: 1. Millington State Wildlife Management Area (1. Millington); 2. Idylwild State Wildlife Management Area (2. Idylwild); 3. Chesapeake State Forest (3. Chesapeake); 4. Sharptown Dunes (4. Sharptown); 5. Hickory Point Cypress Swamp (5. Hickory Pt.); 6. Pocomoke State Forest (6. Pocomoke). List Acarospora fuscata (Schrader) Arnold [Acarosporaceae] Skorepa et al. (1979) – on acidic rock. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Carroll Co., on stone wall. E.C. Uebel Herbarium – Lichens of Soldiers Delight. Acarospora schleicheri (Ach.) A. Massal. [Acarosporaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Lichens of Soldiers Delight. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on acidic rock. Ahtiana aurescens (Tuck.) Thell & Randlane [Parmeliaceae] Syn.: Cetraria aurescens Tuck. Skorepa et al. (1977) – Allegany Co., on branches of pines. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Allocetraria oakesiana (Tuck.) Randlane & Thell [Parmeliaceae] Syn.: Cetraria oakesiana Tuck. Skorepa et al. (1977) – Frederick Co., base of oak. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark, acidic rock. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Garrett Co., along Big Run, on stumps. Amandinea milliaria (Tuck.) P. May & Sheard [Physciaceae] Syn.: Rinodina milliaria Tuck. Skorepa et al. (1977) – Calvert Co., on trunks of deciduous trees. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Biechele (2002) – lower eastern shore of Maryland. Amandinea polyspora (Willey) E. Lay & P. May [Physciaceae] Syn.: Buellia polyspora (Willey) Vainio Skorepa et al. (1977) – Carroll Co., bark of deciduous tree. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. E.C. Uebel Herbarium – Baltimore Co., Ridge Rd., on bark of Norway Maple. Amandinea punctata (Hoffm.) Coppins & Scheid. [Physciaceae] Syn.: Buellia punctata (Hoffm.) Massal. Skorepa et al. (1977) – Worcester Co., on oak twigs. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (2. Idylwild) Anaptychia palmulata (Michaux) Vainio [Physciaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Calvert Co., trunks of deciduous trees. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Biechele (2002) – lower eastern shore of Maryland. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Baltimore Co.; Calvert Co.; Frederick Co. Anisomeridium polypori (Ellis & Everh.) M.E. Barr [Monoblastiaceae] Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (4. Sharptown) Anzia americana Yoshim. & Sharp [Parmeliaceae] Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (6. Pocomoke) Anzia colpodes (Ach.) Stizenb. [Parmeliaceae] Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (6. Pocomoke) Arctoparmelia centrifuga? (L.) Hale [Parmeliaceae] E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Baltimore Co., Owings Mills. Arthonia caesia (Flotow) Körber [Arthoniaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Baltimore Co., trunk of oak. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. E.C. Uebel Herbarium – Baltimore Co., Liberty Reservoir, on bark; Ridge Road, on bark. Lendemer & Knapp (2007) (1. Millington) Arthonia rubella (Fée) Nyl. [Arthoniaceae] Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (5. Hickory Pt.), (6. Pocomoke) Arthopyrenia cinereopruinosa (Schaerer) A. Massal. [Arthopyreniaceae] Syn.: Arthopyrenia pinicola (Hepp) Mass. Skorepa et al. (1977) – Montgomery Co., trunk of elm. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Arthothelium interveniens (Nyl.) Zahlbr. [Arthoniales] Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (6. Pocomoke) Aspicilia caesiocinerea (Nyl. ex Malbr.) Arnold [Hymeneliaceae] Syn.: Lecanora caesiocinerea Nyl. Skorepa et al. (1977) – Allegany Co., on shale outcrop. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on acidic rock. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Lichens of Soldiers Delight; Montgomery Co., Great Falls. E.C. Uebel Herbarium – Baltimore Co., Liberty Reservoir, on acidic rock. Aspicilia cinerea (L.) Körber [Hymeneliaceae] Syn.: Lecanora cinerea (L.) Somm. Skorepa et al. (1977) – Baltimore Co., on rock ledges. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on acidic rock. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Frederick Co., Cunningham Falls. Bacidia laurocerasi (Delise ex Duby) Zahlbr. subsp. laurocerasi [Bacidiaceae] Syn.: Bacidia atrogrisea (Delilse ex Hepp) Körber Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Bacidia polychroa (Th. Fr.) Körber [Bacidiaceae] Syn.: Bacidia fuscorubella (Hoffm.) Bausch. Skorepa et al. (1977) – Baltimore Co., on trunks of deciduous trees. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Bacidia schweinitzii (Fr. ex E. Michener) A. Schneider [Bacidiaceae] Skorepa et al.. (1977) – Montgomery Co., on oak. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Biechele (2002) – lower eastern shore of Maryland. E.G. Worthley Herbarium – Lichens of Soldiers Delight; Anne Arundel Co., Baltimore Co., Wicomico Co. Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (2. Idylwild), (4. Sharptown), (5. Hickory Pt.), (6. Pocomoke) Bacidia trachona (Ach.) Lettau [Bacidiaceae] Skorepa et al. (1979) – on calcareous rock. Bacidina egenula (Nyl.) Vězda [Bacidiaceae] Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (5. Hickory Pt.) Bacidina inundata (Fr.) Vezda [Bacidiaceae] Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Baculifera curtisii (Tuck.) Marbach [Physciaceae] Syn.: Buellia curtisii (Tuck.) Imsh. Skorepa et al.. (1977) – Calvert Co., trunk of deciduous tree. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Bathelium carolinianum (Tuck.) R.C. Harris [Trypetheliaceae] Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (6. Pocomoke) Biatora vernalis (L.) Fr. [Bacidiaceae] Syn.: Lecidea vernalis (L.) Ach. Skorepa et al. (1977) – Frederick Co., on trunks of oaks. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Brigantiaea leucoxantha (Spreng.) R. Sant. & Haffel. [Brigantiaeaceae] Biechele (2002) – lower eastern shore of Maryland. Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (5. Hickory Pt.), (6. Pocomoke) Bryoria furcellata (Fr.) Brodo & D. Hawksw. [Parmeliaceae] Syn.: Alectoria nidulifera Norrl. Skorepa et al. (1977) – Garrett Co., on pine trunks. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark, acid rock. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Wicomico Co. Buellia badia (Fr.) Massal. [Physciaceae] Syn.: Buellia turgescens Tuck. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Baltimore Co., St. Thomas Cemetery. Buellia curtisii (Tuck.) Imshaug [Physciaceae] Lendemer & Knapp (2007) (1. Millington), (3. Chesapeake) Buellia spuria (Schaerer) Anzi [Physciaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Montgomery Co. (collection by Fink) Skorepa et al. (1979) – on acidic rock. E.G. Worthley Herbarium – Lichens of Soldiers Delight. Buellia stigmaea Tuck. [Physciaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Baltimore Co., (collected by Plitt) Skorepa et al. (1979) – on acidic rock. Buellia stillingiana J. Steiner [Physciaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Calvert Co., on trunks of deciduous trees. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Biechele (2002) – lower eastern shore of Maryland. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Worcester Co. Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (4. Sharptown) Buellia vernicoma Tuck. [Physciaceae] Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (6. Pocomoke) Byssoloma leucoblepharum Vainio [Pilocarpaceae] Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (5. Hickory Pt.), (6. Pocomoke) Byssoloma meadii (Tuck.) S. Ekman [Pilocarpaceae] Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (5. Hickory Pt.), (6. Pocomoke) Calicium salicinum Pers. [Caliciaceae] Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (6. Pocomoke) Caloplaca camptidia (Tuck.) Zahlbr. [Teloschistaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Montgomery Co., oak woods. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Caloplaca cerina (Ehrh. ex Hedwig) Th. Fr. [Teloschistaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Garrett Co., on aspen trunks. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Caloplaca citrina (Hoffm.) Th. Fr. [Teloschistaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Baltimore Co., on concrete bridge. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on cement. Biechele (2002) – lower eastern shore of Maryland. E.G. Worthley Herbarium – Lichens of Soldiers Delight; Baltimore Co., on wall of stone and cement. Caloplaca feracissima H. Magn. [Teloschistaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Frederick Co., on concrete. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on cement. E.G. Worthley Herbarium – Lichens of Soldiers Delight. E.C. Uebel Herbarium – Prince George's Co., on hill of concrete. Caloplaca flavorubescens (Hudson) J. R. Laundon [Teloschistaceae] Syn.: Caloplaca aurantiaca (Lightf.) Th. Fr. Skorepa et al. (1977) – Allegany Co., on cement. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on cement. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Baltimore Co., Owings Mills. Caloplaca flavovirescens (Wulfen) Dalla Torre & Sarnth. Skorepa et al. (1977) – Washington Co., on limestone. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on calcareous rock, cement. Caloplaca holocarpa (Hoffm. ex Ach.) M. Wade [Teloschistaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Frederick Co., on timbers. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark, calcareous rock, wood. Caloplaca lobulata (Flörke) de Lesd. [Teloschistaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Cecil Co., on serpentine rock. Skorepa et al. (1979) – acidic rock. E.G. Worthley Herbarium – Lichens of Soldiers Delight; Baltimore Co., on bricks. Caloplaca microphyllina (Tuck.) Hasse [Teloschistaceae] Skorepa et al. (1979) – wood. Caloplaca oxfordensis Fink [Teloschistaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Washington Co., on limestone. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on acidic rock. Caloplaca sideritis (Tuck.) Zahlbr. [Teloschistaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Frederick Co., on cement foundation. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on acidic rock. E.G. Worthley Herbarium – Lichens of Soldiers Delight. Caloplaca subsoluta (Nyl.) Zahlbr. [Teloschistaceae] Syn.: Caloplaca modesta (Zahlbr.) Fink Skorepa et al. (1977) – Montgomery Co. (collected by Fink) Skorepa et al. (1979) – on acidic rock. Candelaria concolor (Dickson) B. Stein [Candelariaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Allegany Co., on tree trunk. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. E.G. Worthley Herbarium – Lichens of Soldiers Delight; Frederick Co.; Carroll Co. E.C. Uebel Herbarium – Baltimore Co.; Prince George's Co., on bark. Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (2. Idylwild) Candelariella reflexa (Nyl.) Lettau [Candelariaceae] Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (3. Chesapeake) Candelariella vitellina (Hoffm.) Müll. Arg. [Candelariaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Baltimore Co., on rock face. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on acidic rock. E.G. Worthley Herbarium – Lichens of Soldiers Delight. Canoparmelia caroliniana (Nyl.) Elix & Hale [Parmeliaceae] Syn.: Parmelia caroliniana Nyl. Skorepa et al. (1977) – Worcester Co., on tree trunks. Biechele (2002) – lower eastern shore of Maryland. Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (2. Idylwild), (4. Sharptown), (6. Pocomoke) Canoparmelia crozalsiana (de Lesd. ex Harm.) Elix & Hale [Parmeliaceae] Syn.: Parmelia crozalsiana B. de Lesd. ex Harm. Skorepa et al. (1977) – Frederick Co., on trunk of oak. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Talbot Co., on Sycamore. Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (2. Idylwild) Canoparmelia texana (Tuck.) Elix & Hale [Parmeliaceae] Syn.: Parmelia texana Tuck. Skorepa et al. (1977) – Frederick Co., on trunk of maple. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (2. Idylwild) Catapyrenium cinereum (Pers.) Körber [Verrucariaceae] Syn.: Dermatocarpon hepaticum (Ach.) Th. Fr. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on soil. E.G. Worthley Herbarium – Lichens of Soldiers Delight. Catillaria chalybeia (Borrer) A. Massal. [Catillariaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Frederick Co., on rocks. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on acidic rock. Cetraria arenaria Kärnefelt [Parmeliaceae] Syn.: Cetraria islandica (L.) Ach. Skorepa et al. (1977) – Garrett Co., on soil. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on soil. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Garrett Co., Carey Run. Cetrelia cetrarioides (Duby) Culb. & C. Culb. [Parmeliaceae] E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Baltimore Co., Owings Mills, on oak. Cetrelia chicitae (W. Culb.) W. Culb. & C. Culb. [Parmeliaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Garrett Co., on conglomerate. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark, acidic rock. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Frederick Co., Mt. Catoctin Park. Cetrelia olivetorum (Nyl.) Culb. & C. Culb. [Parmeliaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Allegany Co., on trunk of deciduous tree. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Chrismofulvea dialyta (Nyl.) Marbach [Physciaceae] Syn.: Buellia dialyta (Nyl.) Tuck. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Chrysothrix candelaris (L.) J. R. Laundon [Chrysotrichaceae] Syn.: Lepraria candelaris (L.) Fr. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Montgomery Co., on rock outcrop. E.C. Uebel Herbarium – Baltimore Co., Hollofield, on rock cliff. Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (5. Hickory Pt.) Chrysothrix flavovirens Tønsberg s. lat. [Chrysotrichaceae] Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (5. Hickory Pt.) Cladonia apodocarpa Robbins [Cladoniaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Frederick Co., on soil. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Lichens of Soldiers Delight; Baltimore Co., Gunpowder Falls; Allegany Co. Cladonia arbuscula (Wallr.) Flotow [Cladoniaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Lichens of Soldiers Delight. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Lichens of Soldiers Delight; Allegany Co., Green Ridge State Forest; Wicomico Co. E.C. Uebel Herbarium – Lichens of Soldiers Delight. Cladonia atlantica A. Evans [Cladoniaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Lichens of Soldiers Delight. Biechele (2002) – lower eastern shore of Maryland. Cladonia beaumontii (Taylor) Vainio [Cladoniaceae] Biechele (2002) – lower eastern shore of Maryland. Cladonia boryi Tuck. [Cladoniaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Lichens of Soldiers Delight. This is probably a misidentification of Cladonia caroliniana. Cladonia caespiticia (Pers.) Flörke [Cladoniaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Worcester Co., on sandy soil. Biechele (2002) – lower eastern shore of Maryland. E.C. Uebel Herbarium – Lichens of Soldiers Delight; Carroll Co., Liberty Reservoir. Cladonia cariosa (Ach.) Sprengel [Cladoniaceae] E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Lichens of Soldiers Delight. Cladonia caroliniana Tuck. [Cladoniaceae] E.C. Uebel Herbarium – Lichens of Soldiers Delight. Cladonia cervicornis subsp. verticillata (Hoffm.) Ahti [Cladoniaceae] Syn.: Cladonia verticillata (Hoffm.) Schaer. Skorepa et al. (1977) – Queen Anne's Co., on soil. Biechele (2002) – lower eastern shore of Maryland. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Worcester Co.; Queen Anne's Co.; Baltimore Co. Cladonia chlorophaea (Flörke ex Sommerf.) Sprengel [Cladoniaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Lichens of Soldiers Delight. Biechele (2002) – lower eastern shore of Maryland. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Lichens of Soldiers Delight; Prince George's Co.; Anne Arundel Co.; Washington Co. Cladonia coniocraea (Flörke) Sprengel [Cladoniaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Garrett Co., on base of pine. Biechele (2002) – lower eastern shore of Maryland. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Baltimore Co.; Calvert Co. E.C. Uebel Herbarium – Lichens of Soldiers Delight; Baltimore Co., Liberty Reservoir. Cladonia cristatella Tuck. [Cladoniaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Lichens of Soldiers Delight. Biechele (2002) – lower eastern shore of Maryland. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Lichens of Soldiers Delight; Prince George's Co.; Garrett Co., Swallow Falls. E.C. Uebel Herbarium – Lichens of Soldiers Delight; Prince George's Co., Greenbelt. Cladonia didyma (Fée) Vainio var. didyma [Cladoniaceae] Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (2. Idylwild) Cladonia fimbriata (L.) Fr. [Cladoniaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Garrett Co., on sandstone boulder. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Garrett Co.; Allegany Co., Green Ridge State Forest. Cladonia floerkeana (Fr.) Flörke [Cladoniaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Harford Co., on rotting wood. Cladonia furcata (Hudson) Schrader [Cladoniaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Harford Co., on moss. Cladonia gracilis (L.) Willd. subsp. gracilis [Cladoniaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Lichens of Soldiers Delight. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Lichens of Soldiers Delight. Cladonia grayi Merr. ex Sandst. [Cladoniaceae] Biechele (2002) – lower eastern shore of Maryland. E.C. Uebel Herbarium – Lichens of Soldiers Delight. Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (2. Idylwild), (3. Chesapeake) Cladonia incrassata Flörke [Cladoniaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Wicomico Co., on sandy soil. Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (2. Idylwild), (6. Pocomoke) Cladonia macilenta Hoffm. [Cladoniaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Harford Co., on rotting wood. E.C. Uebel Herbarium – Carroll Co., Liberty Reservoir; Prince Georges Co., College Park. Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (2. Idylwild) Cladonia macilenta var. bacillaris (Genth) Schaerer [Cladoniaceae] Syn.: Cladonia bacillaris (Ach.) Nyl. Skorepa et al. (1977) – Lichens of Soldiers Delight. Biechele (2002) – lower eastern shore of Maryland. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Prince George's Co. E.C. Uebel Herbarium – Carroll Co., Liberty Reservoir. Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (3. Chesapeake) Cladonia mateocyatha Robbins [Cladoniaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Baltimore Co., on exposed rocks. Cladonia ochrochlora Flörke [Cladoniaceae] Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (1. Millington) Cladonia parasitica (Hoffm.) Hoffm. [Cladoniaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Worcester Co., on pine stump. Biechele (2002) – lower eastern shore of Maryland. Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (2. Idylwild) Cladonia peziziformis (With.) J.R. Laundon [Cladoniaceae] Syn.: Cladonia capitata (Michx.) Spreng. Skorepa et al. (1977) – Kent Co., on embankment. Biechele (2002) – lower eastern shore of Maryland. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Lichens of Soldiers Delight. E.C. Uebel Herbarium – Lichens of Soldiers Delight; Prince George's Co., Greenbelt. Cladonia piedmontensis G. Merr. [Cladoniaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Wicomico Co., on soil. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Baltimore Co.; Wicomico Co. Cladonia pleurota (Flörke) Schaerer [Cladoniaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Lichens of Soldiers Delight. Biechele (2002) – lower eastern shore of Maryland. Cladonia polycarpia G. Merr. [Cladoniaceae] Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (3. Chesapeake) Cladonia polycarpoides Nyl. [Cladoniaceae] Biechele (2002) – lower eastern shore of Maryland. Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (2. Idylwild) Cladonia pyxidata (L.) Hoffm. [Cladoniaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Allegany Co., on bank of stream. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Allegany Co., Green Ridge State Forest; Anne Arundel Co.; Carroll Co.; Washington Co. Cladonia ramulosa (With.) J.R. Laundon [Cladoniaceae] E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Worcester Co., Milburn Landing. Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (2. Idylwild) Cladonia rangiferina (L.) F.H. Wigg. [Cladoniaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Allegany Co., on soil. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Calvert Co.; Wicomico Co. Cladonia rappii A. Evans [Cladoniaceae] Syn.: Cladonia calycantha Del. ex Nyl. Skorepa et al. (1977) – Charles Co., on soil. Biechele (2002) – lower eastern shore of Maryland. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Wicomico Co. Cladonia ravenelii Tuck. [Cladoniaceae] Biechele (2002) – lower eastern shore of Maryland. Cladonia rei Schaerer [Cladoniaceae] Syn.: Cladonia nemoxyna (Ach.) Nyl. Skorepa et al. (1977) – Garrett Co., on rocky soil. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Garrett Co. E.C. Uebel Herbarium – Lichens of Soldiers Delight. Cladonia santensis Tuck. [Cladoniaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Dorchester Co., on soil. Biechele (2002) – lower eastern shore of Maryland. Cladonia squamosa Hoffm. [Cladoniaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Frederick Co., on basalt outcrop. Biechele (2002) – lower eastern shore of Maryland. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Lichens of Soldiers Delight; Washington Co. Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (6. Pocomoke) Cladonia stellaris (Opiz) Pouzar & Vezda [Cladoniaceae] Syn.: Cladonia alpestris (L.) Rabenh. Skorepa et al. (1977) – Garrett Co., on soil. Cladonia strepsilis (Ach.) Grognot [Cladoniaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Prince George's Co., on shoulder of road. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Prince George's Co. Cladonia subcariosa Nyl. [Cladoniaceae] Syns.: Cladonia clavulifera Vain., C. sobolescens Nyl. ex Vain. Skorepa et al. (1977) – Worcester Co., on sandy soil. Skorepa et al. (1977) – Kent Co., on soil. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - St. Mary's Co.; Wicomico Co. E.C. Uebel Herbarium – Lichens of Soldiers Delight; Prince George's Co., Greenbelt. Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (2. Idylwild) Cladonia subtenuis (Abbayes) Mattick [Cladoniaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Lichens of Soldiers Delight. Biechele (2002) – lower eastern shore of Maryland. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Lichens of Soldiers Delight; Allegany Co.; Calvert County; St. Mary's Co. E.C. Uebel Herbarium – Lichens of Soldiers Delight; Prince George's Co. Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (2. Idylwild), (3. Chesapeake), (4. Sharptown) Cladonia turgida Hoffm. [Cladoniaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Wicomico Co., on soil. Cladonia uncialis (L.) F.H. Wigg. [Cladoniaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Lichens of Soldiers Delight. Biechele (2002) – lower eastern shore of Maryland. Coccocarpia palmicola (Sprengel) Arv. & D.J. Galloway [Coccocarpiaceae] Syn.: Coccocarpia cronia (Tuck.) Vain. Skorepa et al. (1977) – Montgomery Co., on rock outcrop. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark, acidic rock. Coenogonium luteum (Dicks.) Kalb & Lücking [Gyalectaceae] Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (6. Pocomoke) Coenogonium pineti (Ach.) Kalb & Lücking [Gyalectaceae] Syn.: Dimerella diluta (Pers.) Trevisan Skorepa et al. (1979) – on wood, other. Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (5. Hickory Pt.) Collema coccophorum Tuck. [Collemataceae] Skorepa et al. (1979) – on acidic rock. Collema conglomeratum Hoffm. [Collemataceae] Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Collema furfuraceum (Arnold) Du Rietz [Collemataceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Allegany Co., on trunks of deciduous trees. Skorepa et al. (1979) – bark, acidic rock. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Allegany Co., Terrapin Run, near base of tree trunk. Collema fuscovirens (With.) J.R. Laundon [Collemataceae] Syn.: Collema tuniforme (Ach.) Ach. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on calcareous rock. Collema leptaleum Tuck. [Collemataceae] Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Collema subflaccidum Degel. [Collemataceae] Skorepa et al. (1979) – acidic rock. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Baltimore Co., Gunpowder River, on bark of Tulip Tree. Collema undulatum Laurer ex Flotow [Collemataceae] Skorepa et al. (1979) – on acidic rock. Cyphelium tigillare (Ach.) Ach. [Caliciaceae] Skorepa et al. (1979) – on wood. Dactylospora inquilina Hafellner [Dactylosporaceae] Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (5. Hickory Pt.) (on Pertusaria paratuberculifera) Dermatocarpon luridum (With.) J.R. Laundon [Verrucariaceae] Syn.: Dermatocarpon fluviatile (G. Web.) Th. Fr. Skorepa et al. (1977) – Baltimore Co., on rocks. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on acidic rock. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Carroll Co., in stream bed; Frederick Co., on boulder in stream. E.C. Uebel Herbarium – Baltimore Co., Hollofield, on moist rock. Dermatocarpon miniatum (L.) W. Mann [Verrucariaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Baltimore Co., on rock ledge. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on acidic rock, calcareous rock. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Montgomery Co., Great Falls Dibaeis baeomyces (L. f.) Rambold & Hertel [Icmadophilaceae] Syn.: Baeomyces roseus Pers. Skorepa et al. (1977) – Harford Co., on rock ledge. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on soil. Biechele (2002) – lower eastern shore of Maryland. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Lichens of Soldiers Delight; Howard Co. Dimelaena oreina (Ach.) Norman [Physciaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Allegany Co., on sandstone outcrop. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on acidic rock. Diploschistes scruposus (Schreber) Norman [Thelotremataceae] Skorepa et al. (1979) – on acidic rock. Dirinaria frostii (Tuck.) Hale & Culb. [Physciaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Allegany Co., on shale outcrops. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on acidic rock. Endocarpon petrolepideum (Nyl.) Nyl. [Verrucariaceae] E.C. Uebel Herbarium – Prince George's Co., Greenbelt, on hill of concrete (identified by Dr. Othmar Breuss, Vienna, Austria, Mar 2005). Endocarpon pusillum Hedwig [Verrucariaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Washington Co., on chert. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on calcareous rock, cement. Ephebe lanata (L.) Vainio [Lichinaceae] Skorepa et al. (1979) – on acidic rock. Fissurina insidiosa Hook. & C. Knight [Graphidaceae] Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (5. Hickory Pt.), (6. Pocomoke) Flavoparmelia baltimorensis (Gyelnik & Fóriss) Hale [Parmeliaceae] Syn.: Parmelia baltimorensis Gyelnik & Fóriss Skorepa et al. (1977) – Baltimore Co., on rock outcrops. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on acidic rock. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Harford Co., Rocks State Park, on acidic rock. E.C. Uebel Herbarium – Baltimore Co., Liberty Reservoir, on boulders. Flavoparmelia caperata (L.) Hale [Parmeliaceae] Syn.: Parmelia caperata (L.) Ach. Skorepa et al. (1977) – Lichens of Soldiers Delight, on rocks. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark, acidic rock. Biechele (2002) – lower eastern shore of Maryland. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Calvert Co.; Frederick Co.; Worcester Co., on bark. E.C. Uebel Herbarium – Prince George's Co., on fallen tree limbs. Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (4. Sharptown) Flavopunctelia flaventior (Stirton) Hale [Parmeliaceae] Syn.: Parmelia flaventior Stirt. Skorepa et al. (1977) – Garrett Co., on oak. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Allegany Co.; Garrett Co., Casselman Bridge State Park. Flavopunctelia soredica (Nyl.) Hale [Parmeliaceae] Syn.: Parmelia ulophyllodes (Vaino) Savicz Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Baltimore Co., Gunpowder State Park. E.C. Uebel Herbarium – Baltimore Co., Ridge Rd., on bark of Norway Maple. Fuscopannaria leucophaea (Vahl) P.M. Jørg. [Pannariaceae] Syn.: Parmeliella microphylla (Sw.) Müll. Arg. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on acidic rock. Fuscopannaria leucosticta (Tuck.) P.M. Jørg. [Pannariaceae] Syn.: Pannaria leucosticta (Tuck.) Tuck. ex Nyl. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Gassicurtia vernicoma (Tuck.) Marbach [Physciaceae] Syn.: Buellia vernicoma (Tuck.) Tuck. Skorepa et al. (1977) – (collected by Plitt) Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Graphis scripta (L.) Ach. [Graphidaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Montgomery Co., on oak. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Baltimore Co., Pretty Boy Reservoir; Wicomico Co. E.C. Uebel Herbarium – Carroll Co., Liberty Reservoir, on tree bark. Hafellia disciformis (Fr.) Marbach & H. Mayrhofer [Physciaceae] Syn.: Buellia disciformis (Fr.) Mudd Skorepa et al. (1977) – Anne Arundel Co. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Hertelidea botryosa (Fr.) Printzen & Kantvilas [Stereocaulaceae] Syn.: Lecidea botryosa (Fr.) Th. Fr. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on wood. Heterodermia albicans (Pers.) Swinscow & Krog [Physciaceae] Syn.: Heterodermia domingensis (Ach.) Trev. Skorepa et al. (1977) – Wicomico Co., on tree trunks. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Heterodermia appalachensis (Kurok.) Culb. [Physciaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Baltimore Co., on trunk of oak. Heterodermia granulifera (Ach.) Culb. [Physciaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Montgomery Co., on trunk of Walnut tree. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Heterodermia hypoleuca (Muhl.) Trevisan [Physciaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Frederick Co, on oak. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Biechele (2002) – lower eastern shore of Maryland. Heterodermia obscurata (Nyl.) Trevisan [Physciaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Charles Co., on trunks of deciduous trees. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark, acidic rock. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Baltimore Co., Gunpowder Falls, on tree trunk. Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (2. Idylwild), (4. Sharptown) Heterodermia speciosa (Wulfen) Trevisan [Physciaceae] Syn.: Heterodermia tremulans (Müll. Arg.) W. Culb. Skorepa et al. (1977) – Washington Co., on trunks of deciduous trees. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark, acidic rock. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Baltimore Co., Pretty Boy Dam. Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (2. Idylwild), (6. Pocomoke) Hymenelia epulotica (Ach.) Lutzoni [Hymeneliaceae] Syn.: Ionaspis epulotica (Ach.) Blomb. & Forssell Skorepa et al. (1979) – on acidic rock. Hyperphyscia adglutinata (Flörke) H. Mayrh. [Physciaceae] Syn.: Physciopsis adglutinata (Flörke) M. Choisy Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Hyperphyscia syncolla (Tuck. ex Nyl.) Kalb [Physciaceae] Syns.: Physcia syncolla Tuck. ex Nyl., Physciopsis syncolla (Tuck. ex Nyl.) Poelt Skorepa et al. (1977) – Wicomico Co., on oak trees. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Biechele (2002) – lower eastern shore of Maryland. Hypocenomyce scalaris (Ach.) M. Choisy [Lecideaceae] Syn.: Lecidea scalaris (Ach. ex Lilj.) Ach. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark, wood. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Lichens of Soldiers Delight, on trunk of pine. Hypogymnia krogiae Ohlsson [Parmeliaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Garrett Co., on conifer bark. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Hypogymnia physodes (L.) Nyl. [Parmeliaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Garrett Co., on tree trunks. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark, acidic rock. E.C. Uebel Herbarium – Baltimore Co., on bark of Norway Maple. Hypotrachyna livida (Taylor) Hale [Parmeliaceae] Syn.: Parmelia livida Taylor Skorepa et al. (1977) – Sommerset Co., on branches of deciduous trees. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Biechele (2002) – lower eastern shore of Maryland. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Wicomico Co.; Worcester Co., Milburn Landing, on branches. Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (2. Idylwild), (4. Sharptown), (6. Pocomoke) Hypotrachyna osseoalba (Vainio) Park & Hale [Parmeliaceae] Syn.: Parmelia formosana Zahlbr. Skorepa et al. (1977) – Dorchester Co., on oak trunk. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (4. Sharptown) Imshaugia aleurites (Ach.) S.F. Meyer [Parmeliaceae] Syn.: Parmeliopsis aleurites (Ach.) Nyl. Skorepa et al. (1977) – Garrett Co., on oak trunk. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark, acidic rock, wood. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Lichens of Soldiers Delight, on Virginia pines. E.C. Uebel Herbarium – Lichens of Soldiers Delight, on trunks of pines. Imshaugia placorodia (Ach.) S.F. Meyer [Parmeliaceae] Syn.: Parmeliopsis placorodia (Ach.) Nyl. Skorepa et al. (1977) – Harford Co., on pine trees. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Lichens of Soldiers Delight, on pine branches. E.C. Uebel Herbarium – Lichens of Soldiers Delight, on branches of Virginia pines. Julella fallaciosa (Arnold) R.C. Harris (Not lichenized.) [Thelenellaceae] E.C. Uebel Herbarium – Baltimore Co., Liberty Reservoir, on bark of Tulip Tree. Lasallia papulosa (Ach.) Llano [Umbilicariaceae] Syn.: Umbilicaria papulosa (Ach.) Nyl. Skorepa et al. (1977) – Baltimore Co., on rocks on hillside. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark, acidic rock. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Frederick Co., Cunningham Falls; Montgomery Co., Great Falls. Lasallia pensylvanica (Hoffm.) Llano [Umbilicariaceae] Syn.: Umbilicaria pensylvanica Hoffm. Skorepa et al. (1977) – Harford Co., on rock outcrops. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on acidic rock. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Washington Co., Wash. Monument State Park, on rocks. Lasallia pustulata (L.) Mérat [Umbilicariaceae] E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Frederick Co., South Mt.; Montgomery Co., Sugarloaf Mt., on boulders. Lecanora albella (Pers.) Ach. var. albella [Lecanoraceae] E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Worcester Co., on bark of Pinus taeda. Lecanora cadubriae (A. Massal.) Hedl. [Lecanoraceae] Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Lecanora caesiorubella Ach. subsp. caesiorubella [Lecanoraceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Harford Co., on trunk of oak. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Lichens of Soldiers Delight; Wicomico Co. Lecanora campestris (Schaerer) Hue [Lecanoraceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Allegany Co., on shale outcrop. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on acidic rock. Lecanora chlarotera Nyl. [Lecanoraceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Calvert Co., on trunks of deciduous trees. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Biechele (2002) – lower eastern shore of Maryland. Lecanora cinereofusca H. Magn. [Lecanoraceae] Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (2. Idylwild), (5. Hickory Pt.), (6. Pocomoke) Lecanora dispersa (Pers.) Sommerf. [Lecanoraceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Washington Co., on stone wall. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on calcareous rock, cement, other. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Baltimore Co.; Washington Co., on rock outcrops. Lecanora expallens Ach. [Lecanoraceae] Syn.: Lecanora conizea (Ach.) Nyl. Skorepa et al. (1977) – St. Mary's Co., on trunks of Black Locust. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark, wood. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Lichens of Soldiers Delight; St. Mary' Co., on trunk of Black Locust. Lecanora hagenii (Ach.) Ach. [Lecanoraceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Frederick Co., on old timbers. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on wood. Lecanora hybocarpa (Tuck.) Brodo [Lecanoraceae] Biechele (2002) – lower eastern shore of Maryland. Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (1. Millington), (4. Sharptown), (5. Hickory Pt.), (6. Pocomoke) Lecanora imshaugii Brodo [Lecanoraceae] Biechele (2002) – lower eastern shore of Maryland. Lecanora minutella Nyl. [Lecanoraceae] Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (2. Idylwild) Lecanora muralis (Schreber) Rabenh. [Lecanoraceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Montgomery Co., on rock ledges. Lecanora muralis var. versicolor (Pers.) Tuck. [Lecanoraceae] Syn.: Lecanora versicolor (Pers.) Ach. Skorepa et al. (1977) – Washington Co., on stone wall. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on acidic rock. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on acidic rock, calcareous rock. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Washington Co., C & 0 canal, on shale. Lecanora polytropa (Hoffm.) Rabenh. [Lecanoraceae] Skorepa et al. (1979) – on acidic rock. Lecanora pulicaris (Pers.) Ach. [Lecanoraceae] Syn.: Lecanora coilocarpa (Ach.) Nyl. Skorepa et al. (1977) – Calvert Co., on deciduous trees. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. E.C. Uebel Herbarium – Baltimore Co., on bark of Norway Maple. Lecanora strobilina (Spreng.) Kieffer [Lecanoraceae] Biechele (2002) – lower eastern shore of Maryland. E.C. Uebel Herbarium – Baltimore Co., on bark of Norway Maple; Prince George's Co., on bark of pines. Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (2. Idylwild) Lecanora subpallens Zahlbr. - [Lecanoraceae] Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (1. Millington), (2. Idylwild), (4. Sharptown) Lecanora thysanophora R.C. Harris [Lecanoraceae] Thomas E. Wilson, III (4 Dec 2006) – IMG_9960.JPG, photographed on tree trunk in woodland on eastern side of Baltimore County, MD. Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (1. Millington), (5. Hickory Pt.) Lecanora xylophila Hue [Lecanoraceae] Syn.: Lecanora laevis Poelt (N.A. records are L. xylophila) Skorepa et al. (1977) – Baltimore Co., on wave-washed timbers. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on wood. Lecidea cyrtidia Tuck. [Lecideaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Washington Co., on rocks. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on acidic rock. Lecidea plebeja Nyl. [Lecideaceae] Syn.: Lecidea myriocarpoides Nyl. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on wood. Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (2. Idylwild) Lecidella stigmatea (Ach.) Hertel & Leuckert [Lecanoraceae] Syn.: Lecidea stigmatea Ach. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on acidic rock. Lepraria caesiella R.C. Harris [Family Not Determined] Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (2. Idylwild), (4. Sharptown) Lepraria aff. incana (L.) Ach. [Family Not Determined] Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (1. Millington), (2. Idylwild) Lepraria lobificans Nyl. [Family Not Determined] Syn.: Lepraria finkii (B. de Lesd.) R.C. Harris E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Baltimore Co., Gunpowder River Area, on Quercus alba. E.C. Uebel Herbarium – Carroll Co., Liberty Reservoir, rock near water. Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (2. Idylwild), (3. Chesapeake) Lepraria membranacea (Dickson) Vainio [Family Not Determined] Syn.: Leproloma membranaceum (Dickson) Vainio E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Frederick Co., Cunningham Falls. Lepraria neglecta (Nyl.) Erichsen [Family Not Determined] Syn.: Lepraria zonata Brodo = L.caesioalba or L. neglecta. Skorepa et al. (1977) – Baltimore Co., on acid rocks. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark, acidic rock. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Frederick Co., Cunningham Falls; Montgomery Co., Great Falls. Leptogium azureum (Sw.) Mont. [Collemataceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Montgomery Co., Plummers Is. (collected by Fink). Skorepa et al. (1979) – on acidic rock. Leptogium cyanescens (Rabenh.) Körber [Collemataceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Worcester Co., on trunks of deciduous trees. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark, acidic rock. Biechele (2002) – lower eastern shore of Maryland. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Baltimore Co., Gunpowder River, on vertical rocks; Frederick Co., Cunningham Falls. Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (5. Hickory Pt.), (6. Pocomoke) Leptogium lichenoides (L.) Zahlbr. [Collemataceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Allegany Co., on bark of deciduous trees. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark, acidic rock. Leptogium phyllocarpum (Pers.) Mont. [Collemataceae] Biechele (2002) – lower eastern shore of Maryland. Leptogium subtile (Schrader) Torss. [Collemataceae] Syn.: Leptogium minutissimum (Flörke) Fr. Skorepa et al. (1977) – Montgomery Co., on rock ledge. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on acidic rock. Lichenoconium erodens M.S. Christ. & D. Hawksw. [Anamorphic Ascomycetes] Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (5. Hickory Pt.) (on Lecanora cinereofusca) Lichenodiplis lecanorae (Vouaux) Dyko & D. Hawksw. [Anamorphic Ascomycetes] E.C. Uebel Herbarium – Baltimore Co., Liberty Reservoir, a specimen of Pertusaria xanthodes U-243, was collected growing on a small dead oak branch. This crustose lichen contained a lichenicolous fungus and a sample of this fungus was sent to the Farlow Herbarium where it was forwarded to Dr. David Hawksworth, who identified it as Lichenodiplis lecanorae. Lobaria pulmonaria (L.) Hoffm. [Lobariaceae] Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Biechele (2002) – lower eastern shore of Maryland. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Frederick Co., Cunningham Falls. Lobaria quercizans Michaux [Lobariaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Garrett Co., on trunk of deciduous tree. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Biechele (2002) – lower eastern shore of Maryland. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Frederick Co., Cunningham Falls. Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (5. Hickory Pt.) Loxospora pustulata (Brodo & Culb.) R.C. Harris [Loxosporaceae] Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (2. Idylwild), (4. Sharptown) Melanelia culbersonii (Hale) Thell [Parmeliaceae] Syn.: Cetraria culbersonii Hale Skorepa et al. (1977) – Allegany Co., on exposed rock. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on acidic rock. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Allegany Co., Dans Rock Overlook. Melanelixia subaurifera (Nyl.) O. Blanco et al. [Parmeliaceae] Syns.: Parmelia subaurifera Nyl., Melanelia subaurifera (Nyl.) Essl. Skorepa et al. (1977) – Allegany Co., on deciduous trees. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. E.C. Uebel Herbarium – Baltimore Co., on bark of Norway Maple. Melanohalea exasperata (De Not.) O. Blanco et al.. [Parmeliaceae] Syns.: Parmelia exasperata De Not., Melanelia exasperata (De Not.) Essl. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Baltimore Co., Owings Mills. Metamelanea melambola (Tuck.) Henssen [Lichinaceae] Syn.Pyrenopsis melambola (Tuck.) Tuck. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on calcareous rock. Micarea erratica (Körber) Hertel, Rambold & Pietschmann [Micareaceae] Syn.: Lecidea erratica Körber Skorepa et al. (1977) – Baltimore Co., on pebbles. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on acidic rock. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Garrett Co., Carey Run, in open field. Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (2. Idylwild) Minutoexcipula mariana V. Atienza* (on Pertusaria) [Family Not Determined] Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (4. Sharptown) Mycobilimbia berengeriana (A. Massal.) Hafellner & V. Wirth [Porpidiaceae] Syn.: Lecidea berengeriana (Massal.) Nyl. Skorepa et al. (1977) – Frederick Co., on oak trunks. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Montgomery Co., Great Falls, on old wood. Myelochroa aurulenta (Tuck.) Elix & Hale [Parmeliaceae] Syns: Parmelia aurulenta Tuck. Skorepa et al. (1977) – Baltimore Co., on rocks. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark, acidic rock. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Baltimore Co., along Gunpowder River, on rock outcrops. E.C. Uebel Herbarium – Baltimore County, Liberty Reservoir; Prince George's Co., on bark. Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (5. Hickory Pt.), (6. Pocomoke) Myelochroa galbina (Ach.) Elix & Hale [Parmeliaceae] Syn.: Parmelia galbina Ach. Skorepa et al. (1977) – Allegany Co., on trunks of deciduous trees. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Allegany Co., along Terrapin Run, on trunks of deciduous trees. E.C. Uebel Herbarium – Lichens of Soldiers Delight. Myelochroa metarevoluta (Asah.) Elix & Hale [Parmeliaceae] Syn.: Parmelia metarevoluta (Asahina) Hale Skorepa et al. (1977) – Montgomery Co., on oak trunk. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Myelochroa obsessa (Ach.) Elix & Hale [Parmeliaceae] Syn.: Parmelia obsessa Ach. Skorepa et al. (1977) – Baltimore Co., on acid rocks. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark, acidic rock. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Baltimore Co., near Little Gunpowder River, on rock ledges. Nadvornikia sorediata R.C. Harris [Thelotremataceae] Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (1. Millington), (5. Hickory Pt.), (6. Pocomoke) Nephroma helveticum Ach. subsp. helveticum [Nephromataceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Montgomery Co., Plummers Is. (collected by Fink). Skorepa et al. (1979) – on acidic rock. Normandina pulchella (Borrer) Nyl. [Verrucariaceae] Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Ochrolechia androgyna (Hoffm.) Arnold [Pertusariaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Anne Arundel Co. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on acidic rock. Ochrolechia cinera Chev. [Pertusariaceae] Biechele (2002) – lower eastern shore of Maryland. Ochrolechia pseudopallescens Brodo [Pertusariaceae] Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (5. Hickory Pt.) Ochrolechia trochophora var. trochophora (Vainio) Oshio [Pertusariaceae] Syn.: Ochrolechia rosella (Müll. Arg.) Vers. Biechele (2002) – lower eastern shore of Maryland. Ochrolechia yasudae Vainio [Pertusariaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Frederick Co. (collected by Plitt). Skorepa et al. (1979) – on acidic rock. Opegrapha varia Pers. [Roccellaceae] Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (6. Pocomoke) Opegrapha viridis Pers. [Roccellaceae] Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (5. Hickory Pt.) Opegrapha vulgata Ach. [Roccellaceae] Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (2. Idylwild), (3. Chesapeake), (4. Sharptown) Pannaria conoplea (Ach.) Bory [Pannariaceae] Syn.: Pannaria pityrea auct. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Pannaria lurida (Mont.) Nyl. [Pannariaceae] Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Biechele (2002) – lower eastern shore of Maryland. Parmelia saxatilis (L.) Ach. [Parmeliaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Frederick Co., in mature oak woods. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark, acidic rock. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Baltimore Co., along Gunpowder River, on bark of Quercus velutina. Parmelia squarrosa Hale [Parmeliaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Garrett Co., on Acer. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (6. Pocomoke) Parmelia sulcata Taylor [Parmeliaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Washington Co., on deciduous trees. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark, acidic rock. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Lichens of Soldiers Delight; Carroll Co., on bark of Fraxinus americana. E.C. Uebel Herbarium – Baltimore Co., on bark of Norway Maple. Parmelinopsis horrescens (Taylor) Elix & Hale [Parmeliaceae] Syn.: Parmelia horrescens Taylor Skorepa et al. (1977) – Calvert Co., on trunks of pines. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Worcester Co., Milburn Landing, on bark of Pinus taeda. Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (2. Idylwild), (4. Sharptown), (6. Pocomoke) Parmelinopsis minarum (Vainio) Elix & Hale [Parmeliaceae] Syn.: Parmelia dissecta Nyl. Skorepa et al. (1977) – Frederick Co., on oak trunk. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark, acidic rock. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Lichens of Soldiers Delight. Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (2. Idylwild), (5. Hickory Pt.) Parmeliopsis ambigua (Wulfen) Nyl. [Parmeliaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Garrett Co., on trunk of deciduous tree. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Worcester Co., Milburn Landing, on bark of Pinus taeda. Parmeliopsis hyperopta (Ach.) Arnold [Parmeliaceae] Syn.: Parmeliopsis diffusa (Weber) Riddle E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Baltimore Co., Owings Mills. Parmeliopsis subambigua Gyelnik [Parmeliaceae] Syn.: Parmeliopsis halei (Tuck.) Hale Skorepa et al. (1977) – Worcester Co., on pine trunks. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (4. Sharptown), (6. Pocomoke) Parmotrema cetratum (Ach.) Hale [Parmeliaceae] Syns.: Parmelia cetrata Ach, Rimelia cetrata (Ach.) Hale & Fletcher Skorepa et al. (1977) – Worcester Co., on trunk of Sweet gum. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Parmotrema chinense (Osbeck) Hale & Ahti [Parmeliaceae] Syn.: Parmotrema perlatum (Huds.) Choisy E.C. Uebel Herbarium – Baltimore Co., on bark of Norway Maple, on oak limb. Parmotrema crinitum (Ach.) M. Choisy [Parmeliaceae] Syn.: Parmelia crinita Ach. Skorepa et al. (1977) – Worcester Co., on trunk of pine. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Baltimore Co., Owings Mills, on trees. Parmotrema dilatatum (Vainio) Hale [Parmeliaceae] Syn.: Parmelia dilatata Vainio Skorepa et al. (1977) – Dorchester Co., on trunks of deciduous trees. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Parmotrema eurysacum (Hue) Hale [Parmeliaceae] Syn.: Parmelia eurysaca Hue Skorepa et al. (1977) – Baltimore Co. (collected by Plitt). Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Parmotrema gardneri (Dodge) Serux. [Parmeliaceae] Biechele (2002) – lower eastern shore of Maryland. Parmotrema hypoleucinum (B. Stein) Hale [Parmeliaceae] Biechele (2002) – lower eastern shore of Maryland. Parmotrema hypoleucinum (J. Steiner) Hale [Parmeliaceae] Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (4. Sharptown), (6. Pocomoke) Parmotrema hypotropum (Nyl.) Hale [Parmeliaceae] Syn.: Parmelia hypotropa Nyl. Skorepa et al. (1977) – Kent Co., on trees. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Biechele (2002) – lower eastern shore of Maryland. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Kent Co., on trees; Somerset Co., on deciduous trees; Wicomico Co.; Worcester Co., on bark of Pinus taeda. E.C. Uebel Herbarium – Baltimore Co.; Prince George's Co., on bark and boulder. Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (1. Millington), (2. Idylwild), (4. Sharptown), (6. Pocomoke) Parmotrema margaritatum (Hue) Hale [Parmeliaceae] Syn.: Parmelia margaritata Hue Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Parmotrema perforatum (Jacq.) A. Massal. [Parmeliaceae] Syn.: Parmelia perforata (Jacq.) Ach. Skorepa et al. (1977) – Charles Co., on deciduous trees. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Biechele (2002) – lower eastern shore of Maryland. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Prince George's Co., on bark of oak; Worcester Co., Milburn Landing. Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (5. Hickory Pt.) Parmotrema reticulatum (Taylor) M. Choisy [Parmeliaceae] Syns.: Parmelia reticulata Taylor, Rimelia reticulata (Taylor) Hale & Fletcher Skorepa et al. (1977) – Charles Co., on deciduous trees. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Biechele (2002) – lower eastern shore of Maryland. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Lichens of Soldiers Delight; Worcester Co., on bark of Taxodium and Acer rubrum. E.C. Uebel Herbarium – Lichens of Soldiers Delight. Parmotrema stuppeum (Taylor) Hale [Parmeliaceae] Syn.: Parmelia stuppea Taylor Skorepa et al. (1977) – Garrett Co., on trunk of oak. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. E.C. Uebel Herbarium – Baltimore Co., on bark of Norway Maple. Parmotrema subisidiosum (Müll. Arg.) Hale Biechele (2002) – lower eastern shore of Maryland. Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (2. Idylwild), (5. Hickory Pt.), (6. Pocomoke) Parmotrema submarginale (Michx.) DePriest & Hale [Parmeliaceae] Syn.: Parmelia michauxiana Zahlbr. Skorepa et al. (1977) – Charles Co., on deciduous trees. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Calvert Co., Battle Creek Cypress Swamp, on bark; Worcester Co., Milburn Landing, on deciduous trees. Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (4. Sharptown), (5. Hickory Pt.), (6. Pocomoke) Parmotrema subtinctorium (Zahlbr.) Hale [Parmeliaceae] Syn.: Parmelia subcrinita Nyl. Skorepa et al. (1977) – Somerset Co., on deciduous trees. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Parmotrema xanthinum (Müll. Arg.) Hale [Parmeliaceae] Syn.: Parmelia xanthina (Müll. Arg.) Vainio Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Biechele (2002) – lower eastern shore of Maryland. Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (6. Pocomoke) Peltigera aphthosa (L.) Willd. [Peltigeraceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – No County, (Thomson, 1940). Peltigera canina (L.) Willd. [Peltigeraceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Garrett Co., with moss on sandstone. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Garrett Co., Casselman Bridge State Park, on sandstone rocks; Wicomico Co., on sandy soil. Peltigera didactyla (With.) J. R. Laundon [Peltigeraceae] Syn.: Peltigera spuria (Ach.) DC. Skorepa et al. (1977) – Washington Co., on rock in seepage area. Peltigera elisabethae Gyelnik [Peltigeraceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Baltimore Co., with moss on wet rocks. Peltigera evansiana Gyelnik [Peltigeraceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Baltimore Co., (collected by Plitt). Peltigera horizontalis (Hudson) Baumg. [Peltigeraceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Baltimore Co., (collected by Merrill 1906). Peltigera neckeri Müll. Arg. [Peltigeraceae] Biechele (2002) – lower eastern shore of Maryland. Peltigera polydactylon (Necker) Hoffm. [Peltigeraceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Garrett Co., on moss covered rocks. Peltigera praetextata (Flörke ex Sommerf.) Zopf [Peltigeraceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Dorchester Co., at base of tree. Biechele (2002) – lower eastern shore of Maryland. Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (3. Chesapeake) Peltigera rufescens (Weiss) Humb. [Peltigeraceae] Biechele (2002) – lower eastern shore of Maryland. Peltula euploca (Ach.) Poelt [Peltulaceae] Skorepa et al. (1979) – on soil. Pertusaria amara (Ach.) Nyl. [Pertusariaceae] Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Pertusaria epixantha R.C. Harris [Pertusariaceae] Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (5. Hickory Pt.) Pertusaria globularis (Ach.) Tuck. [Pertusariaceae] Skorepa et al. (1979) – on other. Pertusaria hypothamnolica Dibben [Pertusariaceae] Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Pertusaria macounii (Lamb) Dibben [Pertusariaceae] Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Pertusaria multipunctoides Dibben [Pertusariaceae] Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Biechele (2002) – lower eastern shore of Maryland. E.C. Uebel Herbarium – Baltimore Co., Liberty Reservoir, on trunk of Carya. Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (5. Hickory Pt.) Pertusaria ophthalmiza (Nyl.) Nyl. [Pertusariaceae] Biechele (2002) – lower eastern shore of Maryland. Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (5. Hickory Pt.) Pertusaria paratuberculifera Dibben [Pertusariaceae] Pertusaria tuberculifera Nyl is misidentification for N.A., most specimens are P. paratuberculifera. Skorepa et al. (1977) – Frederick Co., on oak trunks. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (1. Millington), (2. Idylwild), (5. Hickory Pt.), (6. Pocomoke) Pertusaria plittiana Erichsen [Pertusariaceae] Skorepa et al. (1979) – on acidic rock. Pertusaria propinqua Müll. Arg. [Pertusariaceae] Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (6. Pocomoke) Pertusaria pustulata (Ach.) Duby [Pertusariaceae] Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. E.C. Uebel Herbarium – Prince George's Co., on dead limb of deciduous tree. Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (1. Millington) Pertusaria rubefacta Erichsen [Pertusariaceae] Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Pertusaria subpertusa Brodo [Pertusariaceae] Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (2. Idylwild), (6. Pocomoke) Pertusaria tetrathalamia (Fée) Nyl. [Pertusariaceae] Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Pertusaria texana Müll. Arg. [Pertusariaceae] Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (2. Idylwild) Pertusaria trachythallina Erichsen [Pertusariaceae] Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Pertusaria velata (Turner) Nyl. [Pertusariaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Frederick Co., in oak woods. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (2. Idylwild), (5. Hickory Pt.), (6. Pocomoke) Pertusaria waghornei Hulting [Pertusariaceae] Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Pertusaria xanthodes Müll. Arg. [Pertusariaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Harford Co., on tree bark. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Calvert Co.; Frederick Co.; Washington Co., on bark of Quercus velutina. E.C. Uebel Herbarium – Baltimore Co., Liberty Reservoir, on bark of dead oak branch. Phaeocalicium curtisii (Tuck.) Tibell [Mycocaliciaceae] E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Baltimore Co., on twigs of Rhus glabra. Phaeocalicium polyporaeum (Nyl.) Tibell [Mycocaliciaceae] E.C. Uebel Herbarium – a specimen of Violet Toothed Polypore [Trichaptum biforme (Fries) Ryvarden] was collected with Flavoparmelia caperata (U-65) growing on the bark of a fallen oak tree at Liberty Reservoir in Baltimore County. The T. biforme had a stubble lichen growing on it which was identified by Dr. Steven Selva as Phaeocalicium polyporaeum. Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (2. Idylwild), (4. Sharptown), (6. Pocomoke) Phaeographis inusta (Ach.) Müll. Arg. [Graphidaceae] Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (2. Idylwild), (4. Sharptown) Phaeophyscia adiastola (Essl.) Essl. [Physciaceae] Syns.: Physcia orbicularis (Necker) Poetsch; Phaeophyscia orbicularis (Necker) Moberg Skorepa et al. (1977) – Allegany Co., on oak trunk. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark, acidic rock, other. E.G. Worthley Herbarium – Worcester Co., on bark of Taxodium; Frederick Co., Cunningham Falls; Baltimore Co., Church of the Brethren. Phaeophysica ciliata (Hoffm.) Moberg [Physciaceae] Syn.: Physcia ciliata (Hoffm.) Du Rietz Skorepa et al. (1977) – Caroline Co., on cement bridge. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Phaeophyscia hirsuta (Mereschk.) Essl. [Physciaceae] Syns.: Physcia hirsuta Mereschk., Phaeophyscia cernohorskyi (Nádv.) Essl. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on cement. Phaeophyscia hirtella Essl. [Physciaceae] Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Phaeophyscia hispidula (Ach.) Essl. [Physciaceae] Syn.: Phaeophyscia imbricata Vainio Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Phaeophyscia pusilloides (Zahlbr.) Essl. [Physciaceae] Syn.: Physcia pusilloides Zahlbr. Skorepa et al. (1977) – Frederick Co., on trees. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. E.C. Uebel Herbarium – Lichens of Soldiers Delight; Baltimore Co., on bark of Norway Maple; Phaeophyscia rubropulchra (Degel.) Essl. [Physciaceae] Syn.: Physcia orbicularis f. rubropulchra Degel. Skorepa et al. (1977) – Garrett Co., in upland woods. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark, acidic rock, other. Biechele (2002) – lower eastern shore of Maryland. E.C. Uebel Herbarium – Lichens of Soldiers Delight; Baltimore Co., Liberty Reservoir, on trunk of Tulip tree. Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (1. Millington), (2. Idylwild) Phlyctis ludoviciensis (Müll. Arg.) Lendemer [Phlyctidaceae] Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (5. Hickory Pt.) Physcia adscendens (Fr.) H. Olivier [Physciaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Allegany Co., on deciduous trees. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark, calcareous rock. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Lichens of Soldiers Delight; Baltimore Co., St. Thomas Cemetery, on gravestone. Physcia aipolia (Ehrh. ex Humb.) Fürnr. var. aipolia [Physciaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Worcester Co., on deciduous trees. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Biechele (2002) – lower eastern shore of Maryland. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Lichens of Soldiers Delight; Frederick Co., Cunningham Falls. E.C. Uebel Herbarium – Carroll Co., Liberty Reservoir, on bark; Baltimore Co., on Norway Maple. Physcia americana G. Merr. [Physciaceae] Syn.: Physcia tribacoides Nyl. Skorepa et al. (1977) – Worcester Co., on deciduous trees. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark, acidic rock, calcareous rock. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Baltimore Co., Grace Methodist Church, Gunpowder River, on Tulip Tree; Frederick Co., Cunningham Falls. Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (2. Idylwild), (5. Hickory Pt.) Physcia millegrana Degel. [Physciaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Garrett Co., on oak. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark, acidic rock. Biechele (2002) – lower eastern shore of Maryland. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Calvert Co.; Wicomico Co.; Carroll Co., Falls Realty Company, on cement steps. E.C. Uebel Herbarium – Prince Georges Co., on dead limb; Carroll Co., Liberty Reservoir, on bark. Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (2. Idylwild) Physcia phaea (Tuck.) J.W. Thomson [Physciaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Baltimore Co., (collected by Plitt 1909) Skorepa et al. (1979) – on acidic rock. Physcia pseudospeciosa J.W. Thomson [Physciaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Baltimore Co., on acid rocks. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on acidic rock. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Baltimore Co., near Gunpowder River, on vertical acidic rocks. Physcia pumilior R.C. Harris [Physciaceae] Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (2. Idylwild) Physcia stellaris (L.) Nyl. [Physciaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Baltimore Co., on oak. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Biechele (2002) – lower eastern shore of Maryland. E.C. Uebel Herbarium – Baltimore Co., on bark of Norway Maple; Prince George's Co., on bark. Physcia subtilis Degel. [Physciaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Montgomery Co., on rock ledges. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on acidic rock. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Frederick Co., Cunningham Falls. Physciella chloantha (Ach.) Essl. [Physciaceae] Syn.: Physcia luganensis Mereschk. Skorepa et al. (1977) – Queen Anne's Co., on cement bridge. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark, cement. E.C. Uebel Herbarium – Prince George's Co., along bike path, on concrete; on tree branch. Physconia detersa (Nyl.) Poelt [Physciaceae] Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark, calcareous rock, cement. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Lichens of Soldiers Delight; Baltimore Co., Green Spring Valley, on brick wall; on old cement bridge. Placidium arboreum (Schwein. ex Michener) Lendemer [Verrucariaceae] Syn.: Dermatocarpon tuckermanii (Rav.) Zahlbr.; Placidium tuckermanii (Ravenel ex Mont.) Breuss Skorepa et al. (1977) – Allegany Co., base of White Oak. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Allegany Co., Green Ridge State Forest, on base of White Oak. Placidium lachneum (Ach.) Breuss [Verrucariaceae] E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Lichens of Soldiers Delight. Placynthiella uliginosa (Schrader) Coppins & P. James [Agyriaceae] Syn.: Lecidea uliginosa (Schrad.) Ach. Skorepa et al. (1977) – Dorchester Co., on oak trunk. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Biechele (2002) – lower eastern shore of Maryland. Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (2. Idylwild) Placynthium nigrum (Hudson) Gray [Placynthiaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Garrett Co., on block of cement. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on calcareous rock, cement. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Baltimore Co., St. Thomas Church Cemetery, on rock wall. Platismatia tuckermanii (Oakes) Culb. & C. Culb. [Parmeliaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Garrett Co., on sandstone boulder. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark, acidic rock, wood Polysporina simplex (Davies) Vezda [Acarosporaceae] Syn.: Sarcogyne simplex (Davies) Nyl. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on acidic rock. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Howard Co., on rock outcrop. Porina cestrensis (Tuck. ex Michener) Müll. Arg. [Trichotheliaceae] Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Porina heterospora (Fink ex J. Hedrick) R.C. Harris [Trichotheliaceae] Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (5. Hickory Pt.), (6. Pocomoke) Porpidia albocaerulescens (Wulfen) Hertel & Knoph [Porpidiaceae] Syn.: Lecanora albocaerulescens (Wulf.) Ach. Skorepa et al. (1977) – Lichens of Soldiers Delight. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on acidic rock. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Baltimore Co., near small bridge, on Wissahickon schist; Frederick Co.; Garrett Co., on rocks along Big Run. E.C. Uebel Herbarium – Baltimore Co., Liberty Reservoir, on sandstone boulder. Porpidia crustulata? (Ach.) Hertel & Knoph [Porpidiaceae] E.C. Uebel Herbarium – Lichens of Soldiers Delight. Porpidia macrocarpa (DC.) Hertel & A. J. Schwab [Porpidiaceae] Syn.: Lecidea macrocarpa (DC.) Steud. Skorepa et al. (1977) – Garrett Co., on sandstone. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on acidic rock. Protoblastenia rupestris (Scop.) J. Steiner [Psoraceae] Skorepa et al. (1979) – on calcareous rock, cement. Pseudevernia consocians (Vainio) Hale & Culb. [Parmeliaceae] Syn.: Parmelia furfuracea (L.) Ach. Skorepa et al. (1977) – Garrett Co., on upper branches of Hemlock. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Baltimore Co., Owings Mills. Pseudosagedia cestrensis (Tuck. ex E. Michener) R.C. Harris [Porinaceae] Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (2. Idylwild) Pseudosagedia raphidosperma (Müll. Arg.) R.C. Harris [Porinaceae] Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (4. Sharptown) Psora decipiens (Hedwig) Hoffm. [Psoraceae] Syn.: Lecidea decipiens (Hedwig) Ach. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on soil. Psora russellii (Tuck.) A. Schneider [Psoraceae] Syn.: Lecidea russellii Tuck. Skorepa et al. (1977) – Frederick Co., on conglomerate boulders. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on calcareous rock. Psorotichia schaereri (A. Massal.) Arnold [Lichinaceae] Skorepa et al. (1979) – on cement. Psorula rufonigra (Tuck.) Gotth. Schneider [Psoraceae] Syn.: Lecidea rufonigra (Tuck.) Nyl. Skorepa et al. (1977) – Lichens of Soldiers Delight. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on acidic rock. Punctelia appalachensis (Culb.) Krog [Parmeliaceae] Syn.: Parmelia appalachensis Culb. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Punctelia bolliana (Müll. Arg.) Krog [Parmeliaceae] Syn.: Parmelia bolliana Müll. Arg. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Punctelia borreri (Sm.) Krog [Parmeliaceae] Syn.: Parmelia borreri (Sm.) Turner Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Punctelia missouriensis G. Wilh. & Ladd Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (2. Idylwild) Punctelia perreticulata (Räsänen) G. Wilh. & Ladd [Parmeliacae] Syns.: Punctelia subrudecta (Nyl.) Krog, Parmelia subrudecta Nyl. Skorepa et al. (1977) – Lichens of Soldiers Delight. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark, acidic rock. Biechele (2002) – lower eastern shore of Maryland. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Lichens of Soldiers Delight; Baltimore Co., Owings Mills, on bark. E.C. Uebel Herbarium – Lichens of Soldiers Delight; Baltimore Co., on bark of Norway Maple. Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (4. Sharptown) Punctelia rudecta (Ach.) Krog [Parmeliaceae] Syn.: Parmelia rudecta Ach. Skorepa et al. (1977) – Caroline Co., on trunks of trees. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark, acidic rock. Biechele (2002) – lower eastern shore of Maryland. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Lichens of Soldiers Delight; Baltimore Co., Ivy Mill Road, on bark; Calvert Co.; Wicomico Co.; Carroll Co., on bark of Tulip Tree. E.C. Uebel Herbarium – Prince George's Co., on dead limb; Carroll Co., Liberty Reservoir, on bark. Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (1. Millington), (5. Hickory Pt.), (6. Pocomoke) Pycnothelia papillaria Dufour [Cladoniaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Prince George's Co., along dirt road. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on soil. Biechele (2002) – lower eastern shore of Maryland. E.C. Uebel Herbarium – Lichens of Soldiers Delight. Pyrenula pseudobufonia (Rehm) R.C. Harris [Pyrenulaceae] Syn.: Pyrenula neglecta R.C. Harris Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (2. Idylwild), (5. Hickory Pt.) Pyrenula punctella Trevis. [Pyrenulaceae] Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (5. Hickory Pt.), (6. Pocomoke) Pyrenula subelliptica (Tuck.) R.C. Harris [Pyrenulaceae] Syn.: Pyrenula imperfecta (Ellis & Everh.) R.C. Harris Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Pyrrhospora varians (Ach.) R.C. Harris [Lecanoraceae] Syn.: Lecidea varians Ach. Skorepa et al. (1977) – Worcester Co., on twigs of Myrica. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (2. Idylwild), (5. Hickory Pt.), (6. Pocomoke) Pyxine caesiopruinosa (Tuck.) Imshaug [Physciaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Howard Co., on tree. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Baltimore Co., on bark of Juglans nigra; Carroll Co., on bark of Juglans nigra. Pyxine sorediata (Ach.) Mont. [Physciaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Garrett Co., on oak. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Biechele (2002) – lower eastern shore of Maryland. E.G. Worthley Herbarium – Frederick Co.; Baltimore Co., growing on a sterile crust, Pertusaria? E.C. Uebel Herbarium – Baltimore Co., Liberty Reservoir, on tree root; Ridge Road, on bark Norway Maple. Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (1. Millington), (2. Idylwild), (4. Sharptown) Pyxine subcinerea Stirton [Physciaceae] E.C. Uebel Herbarium – Prince George's Co., on oak bark; Baltimore Co., on maple bark. Ramalina americana? Hale [Ramalinaceae] Biechele (2002) – lower eastern shore of Maryland. Ramalina fastigiata (Pers.) Ach. [Ramalinaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Worcester Co., on branches of deciduous trees. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Ramalina willeyi R. Howe [Ramalinaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Worcester Co., on branches of deciduous trees. Biechele (2002) – lower eastern shore of Maryland. Ramonia microspora Vězda [Gyalectaceae] Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (2. Idylwild) Rhizocarpon concentricum (Davies) Beltr. [Rhizocarpaceae] E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Garrett Co., Swallow Falls State Forest, on sandstone. Rhizocarpon eupetraeum (Nyl.) Arnold [Rhizocarpaceae] Syn.: Rhizocarpon intermedium Degel. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on acidic rock. Rhizocarpon geographicum (L.) DC. [Rhizocarpaceae] Skorepa et al. (1979) – on acidic rock. Rhizocarpon obscuratum (Ach.) A. Massal. [Rhizocarpaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Baltimore Co., on rock outcrop. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on acidic rock. Rhizoplaca chrysoleuca (Sm.) Zopf [Lecanoraceae] Syn.: Lecanora rubina (Vill.) Ach.; Lecanora chrysoleuca (Sm.) Ach. Skorepa et al. (1977) – Montgomery Co., on rock ledges. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on acidic rock. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Frederick Co., Mt. Catoctin Park; Montgomery Co., Great Falls, on rocks. Rimelia subisidiosa (Müll. Arg.) Hale & Fletcher [Parmeliaceae] Syn.: Parmelia subisidiosa (Müll. Arg.) C.W. Dodge Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Rinodina applanata H. Magn. [Physciaceae] Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Rinodina ascociscana Tuck. [Physciaceae] Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Rinodina exigua (Ach.) Gray [Physciaceae] Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Rinodina ochrocea Willey ex Fink [Physciaceae] Skorepa et al. (1979) – on acidic rock. Rinodina oxydata (A. Massal.) A. Massal. [Physciaceae] Skorepa et al. (1979) – on acidic rock. Rinodina papillata H. Magn. [Physciaceae] Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Rinodina subminutaH. Magn. [Physciaceae] Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Sarcogyne clavus (DC.) Kremp. [Acarosporaceae] Skorepa et al. (1979) – on acidic rock. Sarcogyne regularis Körber [Acarosporaceae] Skorepa et al. (1979) – on calcareous rock. E.C. Uebel Herbarium – Prince George's Co., Greenbelt, on hill of concrete. Sarcosagium campestre (Fr.) Poetsch & Schiedem. [Acarosporaceae] Syn.: Biatorella campestris (Fr.) Almq. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on soil. Schismatomma glaucescens (Nyl. ex Willey) R.C. Harris [Roccellaceae] Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (4. Sharptown) Scoliciosporum chlorococcum (Stenh.) Vezda [Lecanoraceae] Syn.: Bacidia chlorococca (Graeve ex Stizenb.) Lett. Skorepa et al. (1977) – Montgomery Co., on oak. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Worcester Co., Milburn Landing. E.C. Uebel Herbarium – Baltimore Co., Liberty Reservoir, on bark of Acer rubrum. Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (2. Idylwild) Scoliciosporum umbrinum (Ach.) Arnold [Lecanoraceae] Syn.: Bacidia umbrina (Ach.) Bausch Skorepa et al. (1977) – Garrett Co., on aspens. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on acid rock. Sphinctrina turbinata (Pers ex Fr.) de Not. [Sphinctrinaceae] E.C. Uebel Herbarium – Carroll Co., Liberty Reservoir, on Aspicilia caesiocinerea. Sticta fuliginosa (Hoffm.) Ach. [Lobariaceae] E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Frederick Co., along Appalachian Trail, on soil. Teloschistes chrysophthalmus (L.) Th. Fr. [Teloschistaceae] Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Tephromela atra (Huds.) Hafellner [Bacidiaceae] Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (6. Pocomoke) Thelidium minutulum Körber [Verrucariaceae] Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (5. Hickory Pt.) Thelotrema monospermum R.C. Harris [Thelotremataceae] Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (6. Pocomoke) Thelotrema subtile Tuck. [Thelotremataceae] Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (5. Hickory Pt.), (6. Pocomoke) Trapelia coarctata (Sm.) M. Choisy [Agyriaceae] Syn.: Lecidea coarctata (Sm.) Nyl. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on acidic rock. Trapeliopsis flexuosa (Fr.) Coppins & P. James [Agyriaceae] Syn.: Lecidea aeruginosa Borrer Skorepa et al. (1977) – Harford Co., on fence post. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on wood. E.C. Uebel Herbarium – Prince George's Co., NE Branch of Anacostia River Bike Trail, on weathered fence rail. Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (2. Idylwild), (3. Chesapeake) Trapeliopsis granulosa (Hoffm.) Lumbsch [Agyriaceae] Syn.: Lecidea granulosa (Hoffm.) Ach. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on soil. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Montgomery Co., Great Falls, on timber. Trypethelium virens Tuck. ex Michener [Trypetheliaceae] Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Calvert Co., on bark. Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (4. Sharptown), (5. Hickory Pt.) Tuckermanella fendleri (Nyl.) Essl. [Parmeliaceae] Syn.: Cetraria fendleri (Nyl.) Tuck.; Tuckermannopsis fendleri (Nyl.) Hale Skorepa et al. (1977) – Lichens of Soldiers Delight. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Biechele (2002) – lower eastern shore of Maryland. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Wicomico Co., Wicomico State Park; on Loblolly Pine; Worcester Co., Milburn Landing, on bark of Loblolly Pines. Tuckermannopsis americana (Sprengel) Hale [Parmeliaceae] Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (4. Sharptown) Tuckermannopsis ciliaris (Ach.) Gyelnik [Parmeliaceae] Syn.: Cetraria ciliaris Ach. Skorepa et al. (1977) – Lichens of Soldiers Delight. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Lichens of Soldiers Delight; Wicomico Co., on bark. Umbilicaria mammulata (Ach.) Tuck. [Umbilicariaceae] Syn.: Gyrophora dillenii (Tuck.) Müll. Skorepa et al. (1977) – Garrett Co., on conglomerate. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark, acidic rock. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Baltimore Co., Loch Raven, on rock outcrop; Frederick Co., South Mt., on boulders; Montgomery Co., Sugarloaf Mt., on boulders. Umbilicaria muehlenbergii (Ach.) Tuck. [Umbilicariaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Allegany Co., on rock outcrop. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on acidic rock. Umbilicaria vellea (L.) Hoffm. [Umbilicariaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – No locality. (collected by Plitt 1912) Skorepa et al. (1979) – on acidic rock. Usnea filipendula Stirton [Parmeliaceae] Syn.: Usnea dasypoga (Ach.) Rohl. Skorepa et al. (1977) – Garrett Co., (collected by Smith). Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Usnea mutabilis Stirton [Parmeliaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Worcester Co., on pines. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Biechele (2002) – lower eastern shore of Maryland. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Worcester Co., Pocomoke State Park, on Taxodium distichum. Usnea pensylvanica Motyka [Parmeliaceae] Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (2. Idylwild), (6. Pocomoke) Usnea strigosa (Ach.) Eaton [Parmeliaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Worcester Co., on deciduous trees. Biechele (2002) – lower eastern shore of Maryland. E.G. Worthley Herbarium – Worcester Co.; Calvert Co, Battle Creek Cypress Swamp; St. Mary's Co.; Wicomico Co. E.C. Uebel Herbarium – Baltimore Co., Ridge Rd., on bark of Norway Maple. Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (6. Pocomoke) Usnea strigosa subsp. rubiginea (Michaux) I. Tav. [Parmeliaceae] Syn.: Usnea rubiginea (Michx.) Massal. Skorepa et al. (1977) – Worcester Co., on deciduous trees. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Usnea subscabrosa Nyl. ex Motyka [Parmeliaceae] Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (2. Idylwild), (4. Sharptown), (5. Hickory Pt.), (6. Pocomoke) Usnea trichodea Ach. [Parmeliaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Worcester Co., on tops of Cypress trees. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark. Biechele (2002) – lower eastern shore of Maryland. Lendemer & Knapp (2007) - (6. Pocomoke) Verrucaria calciseda DC. [Verrucariaceae] Skorepa et al. (1979) – on calcareous rock. Verrucaria fuscella (Turner) Winch [Verrucariaceae] Skorepa et al. (1979) – on calcareous rock. Verrucaria glaucovirens Grummann [Verrucariaceae] Syn.: Verrucaria virens Nyl. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on calcareous rock. Verrucaria muralis Ach. [Verrucariaceae] Skorepa et al. (1979) – on calcareous rock. Verrucaria nigrescens Pers. [Verrucariaceae] Skorepa et al. (1977) – Lichens of Soldiers Delight. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on calcareous rock. Verrucaria pinguicula A. Massal. [Verrucariaceae] Skorepa et al. (1979) – on calcareous rock. Xanthomendoza fallax (Hepp) Søchting, Kärnefelt & S. Kondr. [Teloschistaceae] Syn.: Xanthoria fallax (Hepp) Arn. Skorepa et al. (1977) – Worcester Co., on deciduous trees. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on bark, cement. Biechele (2002) – lower eastern shore of Maryland. Xanthomendoza fulva (Hoffm.) Søchting, Kärnefelt & S. Kondr. [Teloschistaceae] Syn.: Xanthoria fulva (Hoffm.) Poelt & Petutschnig E.C. Uebel Herbarium – Baltimore Co., Ridge Rd., on bark of Norway Maple. Xanthoparmelia angustiphylla (Gyelnik) Hale [Parmeliaceae] Syn.: Parmelia hypopsila Müll. Arg. = Xanthoparmelia hypopsila, but N.A. records are Xanthoparmelia angustiphylla. Skorepa et al. (1977) – Baltimore Co., on rock outcrop. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on acidic rock. Xanthoparmelia conspersa (Ehrh. ex Ach.) Hale [Parmeliaceae] Syn.: Parmelia conspersa (Ach.) Ach. Skorepa et al. (1977) – Garrett Co., on rock outcrop. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on acidic rock. E.G. Worthley Herbarium - Lichens of Soldiers Delight; Baltimore Co., Gunpowder River, on rock outcrops; Frederick Co. Xanthoparmelia cumberlandia (Gyelnik) Hale [Parmeliaceae] Syn.: Parmelia cumberlandia (Gyelnik) Hale Skorepa et al. (1977) – Baltimore Co., on rocks on hillside. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on acidic rock. Xanthoparmelia plittii (Gyelnk) Hale [Parmeliaceae] Syn.: Parmelia plittii Gyelnik Skorepa et al. (1977) – Washington Co., on rock outcrops. Skorepa et al. (1979) – on acidic rock. E.C. Uebel Herbarium – Lichens of Soldiers Delight. Xanthoparmelia subramigera (Gyelnik) Hale [Parmeliaceae] E.C. Uebel Herbarium – Prince George's Co., Berwyn Heights, on roof shingles (identified by Dr. Richard C. Harris). Xanthoparmelia tasmanica (Hook. f. & Taylor) Hale [Parmeliaceae] Syn.: Parmelia tasmanica Hook. f. & Taylor Skorepa et al. (1979) – on acidic rock. Xanthoparmelia viriduloumbrina (Gyelnik) Lendemer [Parmeliaceae] Syn: Parmelia taractica Kremplh. = Xanthoparmelia taractica (Kremp.) Hale – known from Mexico, but misidentifications for our area; specimens in eastern N.A. are X. viriduloumbrina. Skorepa et al. (1977) (Parmelia taractica) – Baltimore Co., on serpentine rocks. Skorepa et al. (1979) (Parmelia taractica) – on acidic rock. E.G. Worthley Herbarium (Parmelia taractica); Allegany Co. (Parmelia taractica), Green Ridge State Forest, on red shale; Carroll Co. (Parmelia taractica), Church of the Brethren, on stone wall. Xanthoria parietina? (L.) Th. Fr. [Teloschistaceae] Biechele (2002) – lower eastern shore of Maryland. References Biechele, Lance T. 2002. The lichen flora of the lower Eastern Shore of the Delmarva Peninsula. Evansia 19 (1): 17–19. Lendemer, J. C., and W. M. Knapp. 2007. Contributions to the lichen flora of Maryland: recent collections from the Delmarva Peninsula. Opuscula Philolichenum 4: 23–40. Skorepa, A. C., A. W. Norden and D. R. Windler. 1977. Studies on the lichens of Maryland. [Annotated checklist]. Castanea 42 (4): 265–279. Skorepa, A. C., A. W. Norden and D. R. Windler. 1979. Substrate ecology of lichens in Maryland. Castanea 44 (3): 129–142. Lists of lichens Lichens
4850812	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary%20Draper%20Ingles	Mary Draper Ingles	Mary Draper Ingles (1732 – February 1815), also known in records as Mary Inglis or Mary English, was an American pioneer and early settler of western Virginia. In the summer of 1755, she and her two young sons were among several captives taken by Shawnee after the Draper's Meadow Massacre during the French and Indian War. They were taken to Lower Shawneetown at the Ohio and Scioto rivers. Ingles escaped with another woman after two and a half months and trekked 500 to 600 miles, crossing numerous rivers, creeks, and the Appalachian Mountains to return home. Two somewhat different accounts of Mary Draper Ingles' capture and escape, one written by her son John Ingles, and the other by Letitia Preston Floyd, an acquaintance, are the main sources from which the story is known. The story became well-known following the 1855 publication of William Henry Foote's account in Sketches of Virginia: Historical and Biographical, based on Mary's son's manuscript. It was further publicized in 1886 with the publication of an embellished version in John P. Hale's Trans-Allegheny pioneers: historical sketches of the first white settlements west of the Alleghenies. Biography Early life Mary Draper Ingles was born in 1732 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania to George and Elenor (Hardin) Draper, who had immigrated to America from County Donegal, Ireland in 1729. Between 1740 and 1744, the Draper family moved to the western frontier of Virginia, settling in Pattonsburg on the James River. According to John P. Hale, in 1744 George Draper went on an exploratory trip into what is now West Virginia, and never returned, although there is evidence that Draper was still alive as late as 1748. By 1746 his family had established Draper's Meadow, a pioneer settlement on the banks of Stroubles Creek near modern-day Blacksburg, Virginia. In 1750, Mary married fellow settler William Ingles (1729-1782). They had two sons prior to Mary's captivity: Thomas Ingles, born in 1751, and George, in 1753. Three daughters and a son were born to them after Mary's return from captivity. Draper's Meadow massacre On 30 July (or 8 July, according to John P. Hale and Letitia Preston Floyd), 1755, during the French and Indian War, a band of about sixteen Shawnee warriors (then allies of the French) raided Draper's Meadow and killed at least four settlers, including Colonel James Patton, Mary's mother and Mary's infant niece, and a neighbor named Caspar Barger. They took five captives, including Mary and her two sons, her sister-in-law Bettie Robertson Draper, and her neighbor Henry Lenard (or Leonard). Mary's husband was nearly killed but fled into the forest. Captivity The Indians took their captives, along with several horses loaded with items taken from the settlers' homes, northwest along the New River, then along the Ohio River. They traveled for a month to Lower Shawneetown, located at the confluence of the Scioto and Ohio rivers. Upon arrival at the town, the prisoners were made to undergo the ritual of running the gauntlet: When their Warriors arrive within half a Mile of their Towns, it is their custom to whip those who have been so unfortunate as to fall into their Hands, all the Remainder of the Way till they get to the Town, and that it was in this Manner our poor unhappy Neighbors from Virginia had been treated by them. According to her son, Mary was not required to do this. Mary was separated from her sons, who were adopted by Shawnee families. According to John P. Hale, Mary's oldest son Thomas was taken to Detroit, her sister-in-law Bettie was taken to what is now Chillicothe, Ohio, and her youngest son George was taken to an unknown location and died soon afterward. One source states that another captive, Mary's neighbor Henry Leonard, later escaped, although no details are given. An article in the New-York Mercury of 16 February 1756, describing Mary's capture and escape, mentions that while in Lower Shawneetown she saw "a considerable Number of English Prisoners, who have been taken Captives from the Frontiers of Virginia." Letitia Preston Floyd and other sources state that, about "three months" after being taken prisoner, Mary gave birth to a daughter, although there is evidence to the contrary. As a prisoner, Mary sewed shirts using cloth traded to the Indians by French traders and, at the insistence of the traders, she was paid in goods for her work. The Mercury newspaper account states that Mary was also assigned "to attend [the Native Americans] as Servant, to dress their Victuals, and stretch the Skins they might procure." In October 1755, about three weeks after reaching Lower Shawneetown, she was taken to the Big Bone salt lick to make salt for the Indians by boiling brine. Escape and journey home While working at Big Bone Lick, in late October 1755, Mary persuaded another captive woman, referred to as the "old Dutch woman" but who may have been German, to escape with her. The next day (probably 19 October) they asked permission of the Native Americans to go into the forest to gather wild grapes, and set off, retracing the route the her captors had followed after Mary was taken captive in July. They wore moccasins and carried only a tomahawk and a knife (both of which were eventually lost), and two blankets. As they were leaving the camp, they met three French traders from Detroit who were harvesting walnuts. Mary traded her old dull tomahawk for a new one. The women went north, following the Ohio River as it curves to the east (see map). Expecting pursuit, they tried to hurry at first. As it turned out, the Shawnee made only a brief search, assuming the two women had been "destroyed by wild beasts." The Shawnee told this account to Mary's son Thomas Ingles, when he met some of them many years later after the Battle of Point Pleasant in 1774. After four or five days the women reached the junction of the Ohio and Scioto rivers, where they could see Lower Shawneetown in the distance, on the opposite riverbank. There they found an abandoned cabin, which contained a supply of corn, and an old horse in the back yard. They took the horse to carry the corn, but he was lost in the river when they tried to take him across what was probably Dutchman's Ripple. They followed the Ohio, Kanawha, and New rivers, crossing the Licking, Big Sandy, and Little Sandy rivers, Twelvepole Creek, the Guyandotte and Coal rivers, Paint Creek, and the Bluestone River. During their journey, they crossed at least 145 creeks and rivers—remarkable as neither woman could swim. On at least one occasion they "tied logs together with a grape-vine [and] made a raft" to cross a major river. They may have traveled as much as 500 to 600 miles, averaging between eleven and twenty-one miles a day. Once the corn ran out, they subsisted on black walnuts, wild grapes, pawpaws, sassafras leaves, blackberries, roots and frogs but, as the weather grew cold, they were forced to eat dead animals they found along the way. On several occasions they saw Indians hunting and each time managed to avoid being seen. On one occasion they were able to obtain deer meat from a kill abandoned by an Indian hunter, having ...got very near an Indian before they saw him, but as he was busy in skinning a Deer, he did not see them, till they hid themselves behind a Log, towards which the Indian’s Dog kept a continual barking, which frightened the Indian as well as the Women, and having dispatch’d the skinning of his Deer, with as much speed as possible, he made off, leaving the Carcase behind him, which afterwards afforded an agreeable Repast to the starving Travellers, and after having satiated their Hunger, took as much of the Meat along as they could carry, and pursued their Journey, making the River their Guide, and feeding on Grapes and Nuts for their Support. By now the temperature had dropped, it was starting to snow, and the two women were weak from starvation. At some point, the old Dutch woman became "very disheartened and discouraged", and tried to kill Mary. (Letitia Preston Floyd's account reports the two women drew lots to decide "which of them was to be eaten by the other.") Mary managed to "keep her in a good humor" by promising "a sum of money" to be paid to her by Mary's father-in-law upon their safe return to Draper's Meadow. Soon after they reached the mouth of the New River, the old Dutch woman made a second attempt on Mary's life, probably about 26 November, but Mary "got loose...and outran her." (The New-York Mercury article states that "the Dutch woman attempted to kill her...in order, as it was supposed, to Eat her; but [Mary] after a fierce struggle, released herself...and fled away.") She hid in the forest and waited until dark, then continued along the riverbank. Finding a canoe, Mary crossed the New River at its junction with the East River near what is now Glen Lyn, Virginia. Mary continued southeast along the riverbank, passing through the present-day location of Pembroke. Four or five days after leaving the old Dutch woman, she reached the home of her friend Adam Harman on or about 1 December 1755, 42 days after leaving Big Bone Lick. Shortly afterward, a search party went back and found the old Dutch woman. Harman took her to the fort at Dunkard's Bottom, where she joined a wagon party traveling to Winchester, Virginia, with the goal of returning to her home in Pennsylvania. Aftermath After recovering from her journey and reuniting with her husband, Mary and her husband resumed farming at Dunkard's Bottom until the following spring. Concerned about continued Shawnee raids on neighboring settlements, they moved to Fort Vause, where a small garrison safeguarded the residents. Mary remained uneasy, however, and persuaded her husband to move again, this time to Robert Ewing's Fort near Montvale in Bedford County, Virginia. On the same day that they left, 25 June 1756, Fort Vause was attacked by French troops and a mixed force of 205 Shawnee, Ottawa and Miami Indians. Mary's brother-in-law John was killed, and her brother-in-law Matthew was captured. Mary very likely provided information about the location, size and layout of Lower Shawneetown to her husband, who then suggested to Lieutenant-Governor Robert Dinwiddie that he organize an assault on the town in retaliation for Shawnee attacks on English settlements. William Ingles participated as a lieutenant in the Sandy Creek Expedition in early 1756, however the expedition was forced to turn back before reaching the town, due to harsh weather and lack of food. The Ingles had four more children: Mary, Susanna (b. 1759), Rhoda (b. 1762), and John (1766-1836). In 1762, William and Mary established the Ingles Ferry across the New River, and the associated Ingles Ferry Hill Tavern and blacksmith shop. She died there in 1815, aged 83. The site of her former log cabin, with a stable and a family cemetery, is protected as part of the Ingles Bottom Archeological Sites. Mary's son George probably died in Indian captivity, but Thomas Ingles, who was 4 when taken captive, was ransomed and returned to Virginia in 1768 at the age of 17; after 13 years with the Shawnee, he had become fully acculturated and spoke only Shawnee. He underwent several years of "rehabilitation" and education under Dr. Thomas Walker at Castle Hill, Virginia. Thomas Ingles later served as a lieutenant under Colonel William Christian in Lord Dunmore's War (1773-1774) against the Shawnee. He married Eleanore Grills in 1775 and settled in Burke's Garden, Virginia. In 1782, his wife and three children were kidnapped by Indians. Thomas came to rescue them and in the ensuing altercation, the two older children were killed. Eleanore was tomahawked but survived. Thomas rescued her and their youngest daughter. In 1761, Mary Ingles' brother John Draper attended a gathering of Cherokee chiefs at which a treaty to end the Anglo-Cherokee War was prepared. He found a man who knew of his wife, Bettie Robertson Draper, who had been taken captive in 1755. At that time, she was living at Chillicothe with the family of a widowed Cherokee chief. She was ransomed, and John took her to New River Valley. On 8 May, 1779, Lord Henry Hamilton, a British prisoner of war, was being escorted under guard to Williamsburg and spent the night at the home of William and Mary Ingles. In his journal, Hamilton noted that the trauma of Mary's captivity and escape still affected her, 24 years later: 8th. In the Evening crossed over in a ferry the new river or great Canhawa, and were kindly and hospitably received at the house of Colonel Ingles-- here we rested for an entire day...Mrs. Ingles had in her early years been carryed off with another young Woman by the Savages, and tho carryed away into the Shawanes country had made her escape with her female friend, & wonderful to relate tho exposed to unspeakable hardships, & having nothing to subsist on but wild fruits, found her way back in safety, from a distance (if I remember right) of 200 miles-- however terror and distress had left so deep an impression on her mind that she appear'd absorbed in a deep melancholy, and left the management of household concerns, & the reception of Strangers to her lovely daughter. Historical accounts of Mary Draper Ingles' journey The only primary source of information about Mary Ingles' capture and escape is an article published in the New York Mercury on 16 February 1756 based on a report from "a Traveller who lately came from New River in Virginia," which contains a few details not found elsewhere. Her escape journey is also referred to briefly in two other Mercury articles, on 26 January and 1 March. An important secondary source is the 1824 written account by Colonel John Ingles, son of Mary Ingles and William Ingles, born in 1766 after Mary's return. His account, The Story of Mary Draper Ingles and Son Thomas Ingles, written when he was 58, is based on stories he had heard from his parents. This is probably the most significant document describing Mary Ingles' capture and escape. Letitia Preston Floyd Another significant secondary source is an 1843 letter by Letitia Preston Floyd (1779-1852, wife of Virginia Governor John Floyd and daughter of Colonel William Preston, himself a survivor of the Draper's Meadow massacre) to her son Benjamin Rush Floyd. Letitia Preston Floyd did not know Mary Draper Ingles personally, although she claimed to have seen her once, in 1811 or 1812 at "a large Baptist Association." She reports information that she learned from other sources, about Ingles' capture and escape. Historian Preston Davie described this letter as "replete with errors...A jumble of inaccurate hearsay and fact...more imaginative than real." Glanville and Mays counter this opinion: "The overall accuracy of Mrs. Floyd’s 'My Dear Rush' letter is surprisingly good...She made minor errors in dates and places. However, it seems to us that Mrs. Floyd did remarkably well for a person aged 63 who was often writing of events about which she learned four or five decades earlier." Differences between the narratives of John Ingles and Letitia Preston Floyd suggest that the Ingles and Preston families had developed distinct oral traditions. They differ on the date of the massacre (July 30 vs July 8, according to Ingles and Floyd, respectively), the number of casualties, the ages of Mary Ingles' children, and several other aspects. John Peter Hale, one of Mary Ingles' great-grandsons, claimed to have interviewed Letitia Preston Floyd, and other people who knew Mary Ingles personally. His 1886 narrative contains numerous details not cited in any previous account. There were some references to Mary Ingles' escape in contemporary reports and letters, which were gathered in later efforts to document people who had been taken captive by Indians. In popular culture The story of Ingles' ordeal has inspired a number of books and films, including: A novel. Follow the River (1995). A television movie adaptation of the novel produced by ABC, starring Sheryl Lee. The Captives (2004), a film based on these events. The Long Way Home, an outdoor historical drama produced each summer from 1971 to 1999, at the Ingles homestead, relating the history of Mary Draper Ingles and her family. The General Assembly identified it as the "official" outdoor drama. While it attracted thousands to the city, the production was finally closed. (Since 2010, other efforts have been made to develop aspects of tourism heritage related to the Ingles history.) Memorialization On October 14, 2019, the Virginia Women’s Monument Commission dedicated seven statues, including one of Mary Draper Ingles. The other six statues are of Anne Burras Laydon, Cockacoeske, Elizabeth Keckly, Laura Copenhaver, Virginia Randolph, and Adele Clark. The monument is sited on Capitol Square grounds in Richmond, Virginia. Radford University, located near Draper's Meadow, has residence halls named Draper Hall and Ingles Hall in honor of Mary Draper Ingles. A statue of Mary Ingles, identical to the one in front of the Boone County Public Library, was unveiled in the Radford Cultural Heritage Park near the Glencoe Museum in October, 2016. A monument dedicated to Mary Draper Ingles is located in West End Cemetery, Radford, Virginia. It was built using stones from the chimney of a home where Ingles lived after her return in 1755. Mary Ingles Elementary School in Tad, West Virginia is named for her. An bronze statue depicting Mary Draper Ingles was installed outside the Boone County Public Library on route 18 in Burlington, Kentucky. Kentucky Route 8 in Campbell, Bracken, and Mason counties is officially named "Mary Ingles Highway." Ingles Ferry was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1969, and the Ingles Bottom Archeological Sites in 1978. The Virginia Tech library holds documents once owned by Mary Draper Ingles. The Mary Draper Ingles Bridge crosses the New River and is located in Summers County, West Virginia. Mary Ingles Cultural Heritage Park, adjacent to the Radford Visitors' Center, includes a bronze statue cast from the same mold as the one at the Boone County Public Library in Burlington, Kentucky. The Mary Ingles Chapter of the National Society Daughters of the American Revolution is located in Fort Thomas, Kentucky. See also William Ingles Thomas Ingles Draper's Meadow massacre James Patton (Virginia colonist) Lower Shawneetown Notes References External links Mary Draper Ingles, History and Culture, National Park Service website. Mary Draper Ingles Trail Blazers website and The Mary Draper Ingles Trail, efforts to recreate the route taken by Mary Ingles. Mary Draper Ingles' Return To Virginia's New River Valley, Blue Ridge Country website "Mary Draper Ingles", Boone County Public Library John Ingles, "The Narrative of Col. John Ingles Relating to Mary Ingles and the Escape from Big Bone Lick," 1824, Transcribed and edited for clarity by James Duvall, 2008, Boone County Public Library, Burlington, KY Scanned pages of the original John Ingles manuscript. "Memoirs of Letitia Preston Floyd, written Feb. 22, 1843 to her son Benjamin Rush Floyd", a primary source differing from John Ingles' account. Mary Ingles and the Escape from Big Bone Lick, A detailed examination of Mary Ingles' story, with illustrations. A map of northern Kentucky in 1796, showing "Bigbone Creek", the site of Mary Ingles' escape, and the Ohio River along which she traveled during the first half of her journey. "The Making of the Mary Draper Ingles Statue," Boone County Public Library, 7 Nov 2017. 1732 births 1755 in the Thirteen Colonies 1815 deaths American people of Irish descent Blacksburg, Virginia Boone County, Kentucky Burials in Virginia Captives of Native Americans American captivity narratives American escapees History of Kentucky History of Virginia History of West Virginia People from Philadelphia People from Radford, Virginia Virginia colonial people People of the French and Indian War
4851886	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nepenthes%20eymae	Nepenthes eymae	Nepenthes eymae is a tropical pitcher plant endemic to Sulawesi in Indonesia, where it grows at elevations of above sea level. It is very closely related to N. maxima, from which it differs in its wine glass-shaped upper pitchers. The specific epithet eymae honours Pierre Joseph Eyma, a Dutch botanist who worked extensively in the Dutch East Indies and who originally discovered the species. Botanical history Nepenthes eymae was discovered in central Sulawesi by Dutch botanist Pierre Joseph Eyma in 1938. Eyma's original material of this species includes the herbarium specimen Eyma 3968, which bears a male inflorescence. Nepenthes eymae was formally described by Shigeo Kurata in a 1984 issue of The Journal of Insectivorous Plant Society. The holotype, designated as Kurata, Atsumi & Komatsu 102a, was collected on the northern spur of Mount Lumut in Central Sulawesi, at an altitude of 1850 m, on November 5, 1983. A series of isotypes (Kurata, Atsumi & Komatsu 103, 104, and 105) was also listed by Kurata. The repository of these four specimens is not indicated in the type description and they have not been located, but if they were deposited in a public institution this is likely to have been the herbarium of the Nippon Dental College (NDC). Despite this, the species name is valid per Article 37 of the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature, and Kurata's description includes an illustration of the holotype on page 44. Kurata published the species with the specific epithet eymai, honouring Pierre Joseph Eyma. Other authors later noted that although Eyma was male, the name is feminine, and so the epithet was emended to eymae. Almost concurrently with Kurata's publication, John Turnbull and Anne Middleton described the same species under the name N. infundibuliformis in the journal Reinwardtia. Kurata's description was published on February 6, whereas Turnbull and Middleton's was printed four days later, on February 10. As such, the name N. eymae holds nomenclatural priority and N. infundibuliformis is considered a heterotypic synonym. A similar situation involved the descriptions of N. glabrata and N. hamata by the same authors. Turnbull and Middleton's description is based on the specimen J.R.Turnbull & A.T.Middleton 83148a, which was collected by the authors on September 20, 1983, from Mount Lumut Kecil in Sulawesi at the coordinates , at an altitude of 1500 m. In their description of the species, Turnbull and Middleton stated that the type material was deposited at Herbarium Bogoriense (BO), the herbarium of the Bogor Botanical Gardens, but Matthew Jebb and Martin Cheek were unable to locate it and wrote that it "appear[s] not to have been deposited at Bogor as stated". In addition to the herbarium specimens of N. eymae mentioned here, a number of others have appeared in the literature. Most authors regard N. eymae as a distinct species and it has been treated as such in all major monographs on the genus, including Matthew Jebb and Martin Cheek's "A skeletal revision of Nepenthes (Nepenthaceae)" (1997) and "Nepenthaceae" (2001), as well as Stewart McPherson's Pitcher Plants of the Old World (2009). Nonetheless, some authors have expressed doubt that it merits distinction from N. maxima at the species level. In Pitcher Plants of the Old World, McPherson wrote that "the specific status of N. eymae seems warranted since the two taxa [N. eymae and N. maxima] appear to occur both together and in isolated, self-sustaining communities". Whatever the status of this taxon, the vast majority of plants cultivated under the name N. eymae do not exhibit the abruptly contracted upper pitchers commonly associated with it. Description Nepenthes eymae is a climbing plant growing to a height of up to 8 m. The stem, which may be branched, is two-ridged and up to 8 mm in diameter. Internodes are up to 6 cm long. Axillary buds, which are found 3–10 mm above the leaf axils in climbing stems, are spike-like and measure up to 10 mm (rarely 20 mm) in length by 1.5 mm in width. Leaves are coriaceous and petiolate. The lamina (leaf blade) is oblong or oblong-elliptic and reaches up to 35 cm in length by 12 cm in width. The laminar apex is rounded or acute to obtuse and is not peltate. The base is obtuse and attenuate, narrowing to form a petiole. The petiole is canaliculate and occasionally winged, the wings being around 4 mm wide. The petiole may be up to 18 cm long in etiolated plants, but is more typically up to 10 cm long. It clasps the stem for around half of its circumference and is abruptly decurrent, sending off a pair of low ridges to the node below. Longitudinal and pinnate veins are inconspicuous. Rosette and lower pitchers are generally ovate throughout, but may also be cylindrical. They are often slightly constricted below the pitcher orifice. Mature lower pitchers are the largest traps produced by the plant, growing to 24 cm in height by 16 cm in width. A pair of wings (≤2 cm wide) is present on the ventral surface of the pitcher cup; the fringe elements are up to 8 mm long. The rear of the pitcher is elongated into a pronounced neck. The waxy zone of the inner surface is reduced. The pitcher mouth is ovate and concave, and has an oblique insertion. The peristome is glossy and more-or-less cylindrical in cross section. It is up to 2 cm wide at the front, becoming expanded at the sides and rear, where it reaches a maximum width of over 5 cm. The outer margin of the peristome may be sinuate, whereas the inner margin is deeply incurved, especially towards the back of the pitcher. The inner portion of the peristome accounts for around 34% of its total cross-sectional surface length. The two lobes of the peristome are typically separated by a gap of several millimetres under the lid. The peristome ribs are well developed, being up to 2 mm high. The pitcher lid or operculum is ovate to triangular, growing to 5 cm in length by 3 cm in width. It has an acuminate apex and a truncate to auriculate base. The lid is noted for commonly exhibiting irregular, highly crenellated margins. Two prominent appendages are often found on the lid's lower surface. The first, a triangular basal crest, is up to 12 mm long. The second, a filiform or triangular apical appendage, is up to 18 mm long. Both the appendages and the lid's midline bear elliptic, bordered glands measuring up to 2 mm by 1 mm. The remainder of the lid's lower surface bears many smaller glands. An unbranched spur up to 10 mm long is inserted near the base of the lid. Upper pitchers are narrowly infundibular in the basal half to three-quarters, rapidly expanding to become broadly infundibular in the upper portion. They may be shortly contracted directly below the orifice. Upper pitchers are significantly smaller than their terrestrial counterparts, reaching only 15 cm in height by 8 cm in width. Characteristically, the hollow pitcher tube continues past the curved basal portion of the trap and for a few centimetres up the tendril. This is also commonly seen in N. flava, N. fusca, N. jamban, N. ovata, and N. vogelii. The wings are often reduced to ridges, although no vestige of the wings may be apparent in some specimens. These ridges typically run parallel in the lower part of the pitcher, becoming divergent above. The pitcher mouth is horizontal and straight. The peristome is flattened, glossy and up to 1.5 cm wide, being of approximately equal width across its span or broader towards the rear. The peristome ribs are highly reduced but conspicuous, being only up to 0.5 mm high and spaced up to 0.5 mm apart. The rear of the pitcher is elongated into an acuminate neck (≤3 cm long) that may be vertical or inclined forwards at a considerable angle relative to the pitcher orifice. The peristome's inner margin lacks teeth, while the outer margin is often sinuate at the base of the neck. The lid is typically hastate and very narrow, measuring up to 8 cm in length, with basal and middle widths of up to 2.5 and 1 cm, respectively. It bears rounded basal lobes and an obtuse to abruptly rounded apex. It is often curled upwards and may be crenellated at the margins. The presence of appendages is variable in upper pitchers: the lid may possess a pair of appendages as in terrestrial pitchers or may lack them completely. Where these appendages are present, the basal one is hook-shaped and up to 8 mm long and the apical one filiform and up to 12 mm long. The glands of the lower lid surface are similar to those found in lower pitchers. The spur is inserted 10 mm below the lid. It may be simple or bifid at its apex, and measures up to 10 mm in length. Developing pitchers have laterally appressed walls and a pronounced bulge at the rear, which holds the spur upright. The spur has a closed bifurcation at this point. Nepenthes eymae has a racemose inflorescence. The male inflorescence measures up to 30 cm in length by 2.5 cm in width (flowers included), of which the peduncle (≤3 mm wide at its base) constitutes up to 11 cm and the rachis up to 20 cm. Flowers are borne singly or in pairs, the two-flowered partial peduncles being located towards the base of the inflorescence. The partial peduncles are ebracteate and number 30–40. They are approximately 4 mm long, being formed from a pair of basally-united pedicels around 10 mm long. Tepals are elliptic and around 4 mm long by 2 mm wide. The androphore is around 4 mm long and bears an anther head measuring 1 mm by 1.5 mm. An indumentum of soft, orange to reddish-brown hairs is often present on all mature vegetative parts, including the stem, lower lid surface, and laminar surfaces. This covering consists of tufted hairs up to 0.05 mm long and simple hairs typically up to 0.8 mm long (those of the tendril, midrib, lid and spur are denser and longer, reaching 2 mm). However, the indumentum is variable and may be reduced to the point of being completely inconspicuous in some populations. The stem and midribs are yellowish green, and the laminae dark green. The tendrils may be yellow to green or tinged red. In terrestrial traps, the pitcher cups may be white, green, yellow, brown, or red, and are often red speckled. Traps bearing a conspicuous indumentum may have a maroon sheen under certain light conditions. The inner surface ranges from yellow or olive green to almost brown, and commonly has darker blotches of red, brown, or purple. The peristome is usually dark, from reddish brown to black throughout in older specimens. It frequently bears stripes ranging from yellow to black. The operculum is green to brown and often mottled with red to black markings on its lower surface. Upper pitcher are predominantly yellow, sometimes bearing red to purple flecks on the inner surface and lid underside. The appearance of the peristome is variable: it may be a solid orange to red (in which case it is often darker towards the inner edge), or it may be narrowly streaked with red, brown, purple, or black. Tepals are red. No infraspecific taxa of N. eymae have been described. Ecology Nepenthes eymae is endemic to the Indonesian island of Sulawesi. It has been recorded from the provinces of Central Sulawesi (including the East Peninsula) and West Sulawesi. Many of the peaks in these regions are poorly known and may support as-yet undiscovered populations of N. eymae. The species has a wide altitudinal distribution of 1000 to at least 2000 m above sea level, typically being found above 1400 m. The species generally grows terrestrially, but may also be epiphytic at higher elevations. It has been recorded from a wide variety of habitats, including heath forest, river banks, exposed sites such as cliff faces and landslides, and disturbed or recovering secondary vegetation (such as previously logged dipterocarp forest). Towards the upper end of its altitudinal range, N. eymae is found among the ridge and summit vegetation of upper montane forest. The species occurs in both shaded and exposed sites, but grows best in the latter. Nepenthes eymae has no confirmed natural hybrids, although introgression may take place where this species is sympatric with N. maxima. The conservation status of N. eymae is listed as Least concern on the IUCN Red List, based on an assessment carried out in 2018. In 2009, Stewart McPherson wrote that the species is "widespread and locally abundant" across its range and that most populations are "remote and not seriously threatened at present". Nepenthes eymae is known to occur in one protected area (Morowali Nature Reserve), although the full extent of its range is unknown. Carnivory Nepenthes eymae produces an extremely thick, mucilaginous pitcher fluid that coats the entire inner surface of the traps in a thin film. This is seen in cultivated plants as well and is most prominent in upper pitchers, which must contend with the action of the wind. These pitchers appear to function at least in part as flypaper traps, with the sticky inner walls trapping small flying insects above the surface of the fluid. The prey then gradually slide down into the base of the pitcher where they are digested. This trapping method was noted by Peter D'Amato in 1993, who observed that, in cultivated plants, lower pitchers were more successful at catching ants than were upper pitchers. A 2011 study that used cultivated material of N. eymae recorded a mean digestive fluid relaxation time of 0.096 seconds (± 0.000) for this species. As for the majority of studied highland Nepenthes (but not lowlanders), this value differed significantly (P < 0.001) from that of distilled water, leading the authors to categorise N. eymae as a viscoelastic species. Similarly viscous pitcher fluid is found in the group of closely allied Sumatran species that includes N. aristolochioides, N. dubia, N. flava, N. inermis, N. jacquelineae, N. jamban, N. talangensis, and N. tenuis. These species all share infundibular pitchers. Related species Nepenthes eymae belongs to the loosely defined "N. maxima complex", which also includes, among other species, N. boschiana, N. chaniana, N. epiphytica, N. faizaliana, N. fusca, N. klossii, N. maxima, N. platychila, N. stenophylla, and N. vogelii. Nepenthes eymae is very closely allied to the extremely polymorphic N. maxima, which is widespread across Sulawesi, New Guinea, and the Maluku Islands. It differs from this species in its wingless, infundibular and relatively small upper pitchers, ovate lower pitchers, and hastate lid. While some forms of N. maxima also produce entirely infundibular aerial traps, these are not usually as abruptly contracted (and therefore wine glass-shaped) as in N. eymae, and may or may not have fringed wings. Where the two species grow side-by-side, introgression may blur these morphological boundaries and make circumscription difficult. Like N. eymae, N. maxima and N. klossii (another closely related species) also commonly have two lid appendages. Nepenthes fusca of Borneo may produce aerial pitchers resembling those of N. eymae, although its lower pitchers are considerably narrower and cylindrical in shape. The lower pitchers of N. eymae could potentially be confused with those of another Bornean endemic, N. veitchii, although otherwise these species have little in common, particularly with respect to the upper pitchers. Notes a.Jan Schlauer's Carnivorous Plant Database lists the specimen number as 83140a and the collection date as September 29, 1983. b.Other published specimens of N. eymae include Lack & Grimes 1786 (includes a climbing stem with an upper pitcher) and Cheek s.n. (includes a lower pitcher). Both of these specimens, along with Eyma 3968, are illustrated in a line drawing by Camilla Speight in Martin Cheek and Matthew Jebb's 2001 monograph, "Nepenthaceae". References Further reading Mansur, M. 2001. Koleksi Nepenthes di Herbarium Bogoriense: prospeknya sebagai tanaman hias. In: Prosiding Seminar Hari Cinta Puspa dan Satwa Nasional. Lembaga Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia, Bogor. pp. 244–253. McPherson, S.R. & A. Robinson 2012. Field Guide to the Pitcher Plants of Sulawesi. Redfern Natural History Productions, Poole. Meimberg, H., A. Wistuba, P. Dittrich & G. Heubl 2001. Molecular phylogeny of Nepenthaceae based on cladistic analysis of plastid trnK intron sequence data. Plant Biology 3(2): 164–175. Meimberg, H. 2002. Molekular-systematische Untersuchungen an den Familien Nepenthaceae und Ancistrocladaceae sowie verwandter Taxa aus der Unterklasse Caryophyllidae s. l.. Ph.D. thesis, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, Munich. Meimberg, H. & G. Heubl 2006. Introduction of a nuclear marker for phylogenetic analysis of Nepenthaceae. Plant Biology 8(6): 831–840. Meimberg, H., S. Thalhammer, A. Brachmann & G. Heubl 2006. Comparative analysis of a translocated copy of the trnK intron in carnivorous family Nepenthaceae. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 39(2): 478–490. Oikawa, T. 1992. Nepenthes eymae Kurata. In: . [The Grief Vanishing.] Parco Co., Japan. p. 63. External links Photographs of N. eymae at the Carnivorous Plant Photofinder Carnivorous plants of Asia eymae Endemic flora of Sulawesi Plants described in 1984
4852013	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accursed%20Mountains	Accursed Mountains	The Accursed Mountains (; , ; both translated as "Cursed Mountains"), also known as the Albanian Alps (), is a mountain range in coastal Southeast Europe adjected to the Adriatic Sea. It is the southernmost subrange of the Dinaric Alps range (Dinarides), extending from northern Albania to southern Kosovo and northeastern Montenegro. Maja Jezercë, standing at , is the highest point of the Accursed Mountains and of all Dinaric Alps, and the fifth highest peak in Albania. The range includes the mountain Zla Kolata, which, at , is the tallest mountain in Montenegro. The range also includes the mountain Gjeravica, which, at , is the second tallest mountain in Kosovo. One of the southernmost glacial masses in Europe was discovered in the Albanian part of the range in 2009. Name The origin of the name "Accursed Mountains" is disputed. According to one local legend, the devil escaped from hell and created the jagged glacial karsts in a single day of mischief. Others say a woman cursed the mountains while she and her children trekked through them on a scorching-hot day and couldn't find any water. A third legend claims Slavic soldiers gave the mountains their name as they struggled to march through them. Both the Albanian () and Serbo-Croatian () names mean "cursed (mountains)". Location and relief The Accursed Mountains, the southernmost part of the Dinaric Alps, stretch more than from Lake Skadar along the Montenegrin–Albanian border in the southwest to Kosovo in the northeast. These points are at 42°45' and 42°15' N in the Mediterranean zone of the western Balkans. The southern boundary of the Accursed Mountains is found at the river Drin and its tributary Valbona. In a broader sense the Accursed Mountains also include the mountain ranges to Mitrovica with the Hajla and Mokna massifs. Some authors, however, see the river Lim as the northern boundary of the Accursed Mountains in geological terms. From Lake Skadar, the mountains stretch northeast along the Cem river then curve slightly to the east in the direction of Gjeravica summit above the western Kosovo (450m) basin. From here, the Accursed Mountains turn northwards over the Bogićevica massif and Čakor pass and continue with another row of mountains. The Accursed Mountains finish in the area of upper Ibar River valley near Mitrovica, just after the Suva Planina () massif that encircles Dukagjin basin from the north and northwest. The Accursed Mountains are ethnographically and sociologically diverse with many tribes living in the region as sheep herders. Names of various Albanian tribes (Hoti, Gruda, Kelmendi, Kastrati, Dukagjini, Shkreli, Shala, Nikaj, Krasniqi, Gashi, Kuci and Rugova) refer to their geographical locations within the range. Geology The Accursed Mountains are a typical Dinaric karst high mountain range with a pronounced steep topography and glacial features. Maximum relief differences of are found in the Valbona, Grbaja and Ropojani and Cem valleys. Overhanging walls and ridges forming pointed peaks are typical of the western and central Accursed Mountains. The eastern mountains are less rugged with lower relief. The valleys show characteristic effects of Pleistocene glaciation. Most of the area was modified by glacial activity with karstic areas in the western parts. The range was formed by the folding resulting from the collision of the African and Eurasian plates. Nowhere in the Balkans have glaciers left so much evidence of erosion. After the Alps, these mountains are the most glaciated in Europe south of the Scandinavian ice sheet. They have very steep limestone slopes with abundant karst features. The Accursed Mountains are a large, rugged, pathless range. It is one of the rare mountain ranges in Europe that has not been explored entirely. In some areas, the Accursed Mountains run almost parallel with the Šar Mountains in North Macedonia, Albania and Kosovo. This tectonic crash produced the unusual zig-zag shape of the range and also their curving from the dominant Dinaric northwestern – southeastern direction toward the northeastern one. In the western and central parts of the range the composition of the mountains is of mainly uniform with Mesozoic limestones and dolomites of the Jurassic and Cretaceous ages. In the eastern Accursed Mountains in addition to the limestone and dolomite series, there are rocks from the late Palaeozoic and Triassic periods, medium-Triassic volcanic rocks and Jurassic metamorphic rocks. The Kalktafel is cut deeply with valleys in a variety of rock blocks of the mountains north of Përroi i Thatë, the Biga e Gimajive south of it, the Jezerca block between Shala and Valbona valley, the massif of the Maja e Hekurave, the plateau of the Maja e Kolats north of Valbona and Shkëlzen northeast of Valbona. The valleys were formed by glaciers which created very steep walls and hollows up to deep. The south wall of the Maja Harapit is high, making it the highest rock face on the Balkan Peninsula. Although some scientific research gives the Accursed Mountains the status of a separate mountain chain, in most other ways this chain is still considered the highest of all Dinaric areas, connected with the Dinaric mountain chain in terms of geology, morphology, and ethnography. Massifs The Accursed Mountains are made up of many large sections or mountain massifs/groups, all of which are connected to one another. These massifs include the Popluks group with a height of , the Shkurt group at , the Radohimës group at , the Zaborës e Krasniçës at , the Bjelic group at , the Karanfili-Brada group at , the Rabës group at , the Ershellit group at , the Kakinjes group at , the Shkëlzen group at , the Bogićevica group at , the Horolac group at , the Kershi Kocaj group at , the Maja e Zezë group at , the Lumbardhit group at , the Kopranik group at , the Strellc group at , the Gjeravica group at , the Junik group at , the Starac-Qokorr group , the Hajla group at , the Stedim-Ahmica group at , the Zleb-Rusulija group at , the Mokna group at and the Suva Planina group at . Canyons and valleys Erosion during glaciation left many telltale features behind. Deep river canyons and flat valleys wind around the ridges of the mountains. The largest canyon is Rugova Canyon. It is situated in Kosovo and is long from the border with Montenegro to Peja and is deep. It has very steep vertical mountain slopes on both sides. Valleys common at lower altitudes are found at the alpine level, creating mountain passes and valley troughs, such as Buni Jezerce in Albania. Buni Jezerce means "Valley of the Lakes" and it contains six small glacial lakes, the biggest being called the Big lake of Buni Jezerce. Canyons in the Accursed Mountains Rugova Canyon Deçani Canyon Gashi Canyon Cemi Canyon Valleys in the Accursed Mountains Vermosh Valley Valbona Valley Thethi Valley Ropojona Valley Gerbja Valley Buni Jezerce Cemi i Nikçit Valley Rivers and lakes The Accursed Mountains contain several notable rivers of the region. Rivers in this range fall roughly into two main categories, those that flow into the Lim and those that enter the White Drin and meet the Black Drin downstream at the Drin confluence. The southern and eastern slopes of the Accursed Mountains fall into the latter category. The Tara and Lim rivers, two major sources of the Dinaric river system, originate on the northern borders of the Accursed Mountains. The Vërmosh originates in the northwest mountainous part in Montenegro, close to the border with Albania. As a tributary of the Drina it drains into the Danube and then into the Black Sea. The Lim flows through the Plav lake. The Ibar, which originates on the slopes of the Hajla, takes a similar route into the Danube via the West Morava in Serbia. In the southern Accursed Mountains, the Drin dominates. It drains most of the ranges with its tributaries and when measured from the source of the White Drin in Radavc to the mouth of the Drin near Lezha, it is long. However, not all of the Drin flows near or parallel to the Accursed Mountains. One Drin tributary is the Valbona, which drains into the Adriatic Sea, and its eastern tributary the Gashi River. To the west of the mountains is the Cem, which drains the northwestern part of the Montenegrin-Albanian border area to the Adriatic. Water levels fluctuate because the karst topography drains the water underground. Some rivers or streams, such as Përroi i Thatë in Albania, dry out completely during the summer droughts. Although the Lumbardhi i Pejës river in Kosovo is short, it is very powerful and carved the Rugova Canyon. There are about 20 small alpine lakes of glacial origin in the Accursed Mountains. Many lakes are in the Bogiçevica border area between Kosovo and Albania and the Buni i Jezercë trough near the Jezerca and Bojs peaks. Some lakes, such as Lake Liqenat in Kosovo and Hrid Lake in Montenegro, are tourist attractions. Hrid Lake is a clear example of a well-preserved glacial relief. In the Pleistocene period this was a collection area for ice that fell down over steps of rock from surrounding peaks, dragging with it heterogeneous material. Precipitation washed away smaller rocks, but larger ones remain on the southwestern and western lake shore. The lake is long, wide and about deep on average. In addition to precipitation, it receives water from sources near its shores. The largest lake is Lake Plav in Montenegro. The lake lies at an altitude of above sea level in the Plav valley, nestled between the Accursed Mountains and the Visitor range. Waterfalls are found in some parts of the range. The White Drin Waterfall in Kosovo reaches a height of . Because it is not far from Peja, it is easily accessible and frequented by many visitors. The Grunas Waterfall in Albania is high and is in the Theth National Park. The Ali Pasha natural springs in Montenegro near Gusinje are the premium attraction for the town. Highest peaks Peaks over Maja Jezercë (; in Albania) Gjeravica (; in Kosovo) Maja Grykat e Hapëta (; in Albania) Peaks over Maja e Radohimës (; in Albania) Maja e Popllukës (; in Albania) Maja Briaset (; in Albania) Maja e Hekurave (; in Albania) Rodi e Kollatës (; in Albania) Maja e Shënikut (; in Albania) Maja Tat (; in Albania) Gusan (; in Albania and Kosovo) Zla Kolata/Kollata e Keqe (; in Albania and Montenegro) Marijaš/Marijash (; in Albania and Montenegro) Dobra Kolata/Kolata e Mirë (; in Albania and Montenegro) Rosni Vrh/Maja e Rosit (; in Montenegro) Žuti kamen/Guri i Kuq (; in Kosovo) Maja Visens (; in Albania) Maja Kokervhake (; in Albania) Rops/Maja e Ropës (; in Kosovo) Peaks over Maja Shkurt (; in Albania) Maja Reshkullit (; in Albania) Maja e Malësores (; in Albania) Karanfili (Veliki Vrh, Kremeni Vrh, Maja Gurt e Zjarmit) (; in Montenegro) Maja e Ragamit (; in Albania) Maja Bojs (; in Albania) Koprivnik/Kopranik (; in Kosovo) Maja Vukoces (; in Albania) Veternik (; in Albania) Shkëlzen (; in Albania) Maja e Thatë (; in Albania) Pasji Peak (; in Kosovo and Montenegro) Maja Bogiçaj (; in Albania and Kosovo) Hajla (; in Kosovo and Montenegro) Peaks under Rusulija () Strellc () Tromeđa () Žljeb () Maja e Kakisë () Liqenat () Rrasa e Zogut () Hajla e Vëranocit () Junik () Maja Stogut (; in Albania) Maja e Elbunit () Deçan Mountain () Maja Harapit () Maja Trojan () Pogled () Maja Dramadol () Beleg () Maja e Ershellit () Maja e Vjelakut () Hajla e Shkrelit () Maja e Madhe () Maja e Grebenit () Lice Mountain () Maja e Veleçikut () Climate The Accursed Mountains are on the whole the wettest area of Europe. In the village of Boga in the valley, precipitation is per year, and otherwise per year is normal. At higher elevations snow is found even in summer, except in very dry years. Glaciation There are at least five active glaciers that probably formed during the late Holocene period, and some inactive glaciers between 1,980 and 2,420 meters high. The trough valleys of Ropojani, Grbaja and Valbona were carved by kilometres of glaciers during the last ice age. Detailed geomorphological mapping was used to reconstruct the positions of former glaciers. The longest glacier of Ropojana had a length of and a surface area of ; others include Valbona glacier at and , Grbaja Glacier at and and Bogićevića Glacier at and. In addition, there are about 20 small lakes of glacial origin as described above, including the Buni Jezercë group of lakes on the northern side of the Jezerca Peak, the Ridsko Lake, the Bukumirsko Lake and the Rikavačko Lake. A recent report from geographers at the University of Manchester details the discovery of four previously unknown glaciers in the Albanian part of the mountain range at 1980–2100 m high, found in the area close to Maja e Jezerces. The glaciers, the largest of which is currently the size of six football pitches, vary in size every year according to the amount of winter snowfall and temperatures during the following summer. Their average total surface area is . Glacier-climate modeling suggests that these glaciers require annual accumulation of between (rainfall equivalent) to balance melting, which would correspond to between of snow. A significant proportion of this accumulation is likely to be sourced from windblown snow and, in particular, avalanching snow. It is estimated that the total accumulation needed to balance melting is potentially up to twice the amount accumulated from direct precipitation. The presence of these glaciers, amongst the southernmost in Europe, at altitudes well below the regional snow line highlights the importance of local controls on glacier development. The geographers think at least eight glaciers were present in neighbouring mountains during the 19th century, correlating with the culmination of the Little Ice Age in the European Alps. Flora The vegetation of the Accursed Mountains is among the richest on the Balkan Peninsula and one of the main central European regions for flora. To date, 1,611 wild plants have been described in the Albanian part alone. 50 flora species are endemic, sub-endemic and endangered plant species. The southern edge of mountains have a sub-Mediterranean character. Various evergreen bushes are found in the deepest valleys of the canyons and sunny slopes, and in the higher valleys deciduous Shibljak shrubs are common. In the mountains over 100 medicinal herbs are found, including species of the genus Primula, Satureja and Sideritis. Because of its altitude and its favored habitat, the range is one of the centers of arcto-alpine relict flora of the Balkan Peninsula. Out of 77 arcto-alpine species of former glacial flora on the Balkan Peninsula, a little over 50 species can be found in the Accursed Mountains. The levels of vegetation in the Accursed Mountains meet the alpine level, from upland valleys through the montane mountain stage on forest-free alpine and subalpine mats and subnivale tundra caused by permafrost in vast heaps of rubble with raw soils. A real snow level is not widely spread, although in the high altitudes snow and fern fields can also keep during the summer on four very small glaciers at high altitudes, the highest one found in the shade of Jezerca. Beech, fir and silicate spruce forests dominate the mountain areas. Rarely, however, the Northern Europe species are found, typically the Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris). The drought-resistant Mediterranean-sized black pine (Pinus nigra) is also common. Aspens (Populus tremula) grow in damp sites alongside mountain maple (Acer pseudoplatanus) and Norway spruce (Picea abies). The Accursed Mountains are one of the southernmost areas where spruce grow in Europe. The "combat zones" of the forest are formed with dense thickets of mountain pine (Pinus mugos). Conifers like the snakeskin pine (Pinus heldreichii) are on carbonate rocks and the Macedonian pine (Pinus peuce) of silicates are typical elements of the endemic Balkan flora. A cushion-sedge and blue grass lawn of (Seslerion juncifoliae) grows in alpine areas and, on shallow limestone soils, Oxytropidion dinaricae, to which the alpine grass krumm grows as in the Alps. Other plants include Alpine aster Aster alpinus, edelweiss Leontopodium alpinum and white mountain avens Dryas octopetala. These plants are atypical alpine plants specially adapted to the short growing season, UV radiation, cold and thin soils. The flora in the rocky areas of the Accursed Mountains are particularly noteworthy, because they are rare rich and endemic species, including the Tertiary relic Amphoricarpos neumayeri. Many species of flora are either endemic or are mainly found in the Accursed Mountains. A plantain plant Plantaginaceae is found in the central Accursed Mountains as a variant of the alpine Wulfenie, but 700 km away it does not grow. Petasites doerfleri is only found on the Jezerca peaks, and the Albanian lily Lilium albanicum and Viola ducagjinica are only found at the top of the Maja Radohimës slope. Also noteworthy is the Viola vilaensis Hayek. Viola chelmea belong to a violet species that occur on the Montenegrin-Albanian border area, especially at the lake Bukumirsko Jezero at 2,100 meters, and are only found on Asia Minor and the Balkans where they can grow due to woody, robust rhizome, cleistogamous flowers, and a lack of foothills. The Accursed Mountains are also the only European area where the Tertiary relic Forsythia europaea grow. Fauna Large mammal species that have long been extinct in other regions are found here, such as the Eurasian brown bear, grey wolf, red fox, European wildcat, roe deer, fallow deer, red deer, wild boar and European otter. The highly endangered Balkan lynx, a subspecies of the Eurasian lynx, is mainly found in the Theth National Park where about roughly 20–50 individuals still roam, though poaching is still a large threat. Chamois are found throughout the high altitudes; about 720 chamois live between the borders of Kosovo and Montenegro. There is speculation that the mouflon roamed the Accursed Mountains until World War I, when it disappeared. Bird species include the golden eagle, snake eagle, honey buzzard, peregrine falcon, capercaillie, rock partridge, scops owl, Eurasian eagle owl and the snow finch. So far 140 species of butterflies have been found, which makes the Accursed Mountains the richest area in Europe for butterflies. The rivers are home to a growing number of marble trout. Among the amphibians are the alpine salamander (southernmost habitat), fire salamander, yellow-bellied toad and fire-bellied toad . The rich herpetofauna include the fence lizard, green lizard, Greek tortoise and snakes such as the true vipers, including the venomous horned viper and adder. The Accursed Mountains have one endemic species of lizard, the Prokletije rock lizard or Dinarolacerta montenegrina, named after the range. Early climbing British climbers Sleeman, Elmalie and Ellwood were the first to reach the summit of Maja Jezercë on 26 July 1929. Years later Austrian mountaineers also scaled the summit. Many explorers and scientists have visited the Accursed Mountains, collecting rocks and samples to display in museums. Before any of these expeditions, the highest peak of the range was believed to be Shkëlzen at high, followed by Maja Radohimës at . By early summer 1929 all the summits were measured by Italian geodetes. National parks There are three national parks in the Accursed Mountains — one each in Montenegro, Kosovo, and Albania. Illegal deforestation is a major problem. To some extent even the national parks are affected. In dry summers forest fires are common. All the large mammals including wolves, chamois, foxes, badgers and wild boar are hunted without regard to national park boundaries. In Albania, the new, enlarged, Alps of Albania National Park was created in 2022, merging the former Theth National Park, Valbona Valley National Park and Gashi River Strict Nature Reserve, totaling a massive coverage area of . Theth National Park was designated in 1966 and covered area of along the Thethi River. The main attraction in the park is the Grunas Waterfall. The Valbona Valley National Park was designated in 1996 and covered , including the Valbona Valley and the Valbona River. The Montenegrin part of the mountain range was declared Prokletije National Park in 2009, comprising an area of . The Bjeshkët e Nemuna National Park on the Kosovar side was established in 2012 with an area of , covering the high alpine areas as well as the Rugova Canyon and important rivers. A part of Maja e Ropës mountain was declared a floral mountain reserve by Yugoslavia in 1955, covering an area of of mainly Macedonian pine, pine and beech. In the same year the Kozhnjar area was declared a fauna reserve in particular to protect the chamois, covering an area of . Kosovo, Albania, and Montenegro are planning to create another tri-state park in the area, that will be called the Balkans Peace Park. Settlement, economy and transport The Accursed Mountains are home to Albanians, Montenegrins, Serbs and Bosniaks, but they are only very sparsely populated. At the edges there are some settlements: the Albanian Koplik and the Montenegrin Tuzi in the west near the Skadar Lake; Plav and Gusinje in of the northern valley of the upper Lim river in Montenegro and Bajram Curri, the main town of the district Tropoja, in the eastern part of the mountain range. Even the somewhat more distant, larger cities of Shkodra, Podgorica, Gjakova and Peja create their sphere of influence and are frequently visited by inhabitants of the highlands for errands, administrative procedures and market sales. In the mountains, villages only have up to a few hundred inhabitants. They are often scattered settlements without a clear core. Among the biggest are Tamara and Selca, both in the valley of the Cem and belonging to the community of the Kelmend. The community of eight villages – including Vermosh – comprises 6,600 inhabitants. Tamara is currently the only place in the central mountains with infrastructure such as a secondary school. Tamara and Vermosh share a maternity hospital. Until the collapse of communism there were such facilities, for example, in the Shala Valley. Many residents of the villages in the interior such as Boga, Theth or Valbona live there only in the summer months, as the villages are cut off for many weeks during winter. In addition to the seasonal migration, the whole mountain area is suffering from a severe "brain drain", as its income from agriculture is low. Many leave to seek work and a little more comfort in the region of Shkodra and Koplik, Tirana or abroad. As the year-round population dwindles as the terrain becomes less accessible, there are few state or local government employees such as teachers. Local income comes from agriculture, semi-illegal forestry and tourism. In a few places like Theth tourism has been revitalized by recreational hiking. With the help of GTZ, 40 private houses (also referred to as guest houses, or han in Albanian) have been transformed into tourist accommodations or B&Bs. In 2010 there were 130 beds available in total – 100 more than in 2007. Additionally, hiking trails have been marked and trails maps and travel guides published. In the period from 2006 to 2009, the number of tourists rose from 300 to around 7,500 per year. Unlike in the rest of Albania, the increase was due to foreign tourists. Lakes such as Plav and Hrid also receive many tourists during the summer months. In many villages there are small hydroelectric power plants that supply the village with electricity. Many villages were already settled by the 15th century, and some valleys have been inhabited since the Stone Age. At the end of communism, however, several thousand people emigrated and depopulated the area. Transport in Albania SH20 road crosses the Accursed Mountains in the Kelmend region of northwestern Albania, stretching from the eastern shore of Lake Scutari at the Han i Hotit border crossing with Montenegro, to the first pass into the valley of Cem. It then leads to the source elevation of the Qafa e Predelecit after Vermosh, followed by another border crossing, ending at Gusinje. the SH20 stretch between Hani Hotit and Tamare has been paved and upgraded to European standards. From west to east, there is only the SH21 road recently paved from Koplik to Boga. The road from Qafa Thores leading to Theth has been recently paved with crash barriers and guard rails added, but is still steep, winding and narrow in places. From Theth, there is a bad track down to the Shala Valley Church and only a walking path along the river leads to Shkodra. SH22 road over the Qafa e Morinës at Bajram Curri after Gjakova has been reconstructed. In the past, the only route for crossing the border between Montenegro and Kosovo was via Rugova Canyon, which was very dangerous and steep. With the construction of the Peja–Rožaje highway the situation has greatly improved. In addition, SH42 road leading to Razem from SH21 has also been recently reconstructed. Historically, a caravan route between Podgorica and Plav crossed the mountains along the Lim and Cem rivers. References Further reading Boenzi Federico, Giovanni Palmentola: "Glacial Features and Snow-Line Trend During the Last Glacial Age in the Southern Apennines (Italy) and on Albanian and Greek Mountains", in: Journal of Geomorphology, 41, 21–29, Berlin 1997. Cook, Steve and Marash Rakaj. "Social Changes in the Albanian Alps During Communism". Middle States Geographer 28, 1995:84–90. Jovan Cvijić : "Ice Age in Prokletije and Surrounding Mountains". The – Glass SKAN, XCI, Belgrade 1913th (Original: Cvijic, J. 1921: Ledeno doba u i Prokletijama okolnim planinama .- Glasnik Srpske Akad Kraljevske XCL, 1913, XCIII.) Jovan Cvijić: Geomorphology I-II, Belgrade 1924/26. Edith Durham : High Albania, London 1909 Helmut Eberhart, Karl Kaser (Editor): Albania – Tribal Life between Tradition and Modernity, Böhlau Verlag, Wien 1995, Rose Wilder Lane: Peaks of Shala, Harper & Brothers: New York, 1923. Milovan Milivojevića, Ljubomir Menkovića and Jelena Calic: "Pleistocene Glacial Relief of the Central Part of Mt Prokletije". In: Quaternary International, v. 190, 1, 1 November 2008, 112–122 Franz Nopcsa : Geography and Geology of Northern Albania, Institutum Regni Hungariae Geologicum, Budapest 1929 Christian Zindel, Barbara House Amman: Hiking North Albania – Thethi and Kelmend, Huber Verlag, Munich 2008, External links Academic Prokletije on BirdLife Peace parks of Prokletije Montenegrin Prokletije Prokletije at summitpost.org GTZ. Successful Cooperation – Sustainable Results: Examples from Europe, Caucasus and Central Asia, Berlin, 2010 News articles (French) Dinaric Mountains mixed forests Mountain ranges of Albania Mountain ranges of Europe Mountain ranges of Kosovo Mountains of Montenegro National parks of Montenegro Two-thousanders of Kosovo Two-thousanders of Montenegro Valbonë Valley National Park
4852131	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language%20attrition	Language attrition	Language attrition is the process of losing a native or first language. This process is generally caused by both isolation from speakers of the first language ("L1") and the acquisition and use of a second language ("L2"), which interferes with the correct production and comprehension of the first. Such interference from a second language is probably experienced to some extent by all bilinguals, but is most evident among speakers for whom a language other than their first has started to play an important, if not dominant, role in everyday life; these speakers are more likely to experience language attrition. It is common among immigrants that travel to countries where languages foreign to them are used. There are several factors which affect the process. Frequent exposure and use of a particular language is often assumed adequate to maintain the native language system intact. However, research has often failed to confirm this prediction. A positive attitude towards the potentially attriting language or its speech community and motivation to retain the language are other factors which may reduce attrition. These factors are too difficult to confirm by research. However, a person's age can well predict the likelihood of attrition; children are demonstrably more likely to lose their first language than adults. These factors are similar to those that affect second-language acquisition and the two processes are sometimes compared. However, the overall impact of these factors is far less than that for second language acquisition. Language attrition results in a decrease of language proficiency. The current consensus is that it manifests itself first and most noticeably in speakers' vocabulary (in their lexical access and their mental lexicon), while grammatical and especially phonological representations appear more stable among speakers who emigrated after puberty. Study The term first language attrition (FLA) refers to the gradual decline in native language proficiency. As speakers use their L2 frequently and become proficient (or even dominant) in it, some aspects of the L1 can deteriorate or become subject to L2 influence. The study of language attrition became a subfield of linguistics with a 1980 conference at the University of Pennsylvania called "Loss of Language Skills". The aim of the conference was to discuss areas of second language attrition and to discuss ideas for possible future research. The conference revealed that attrition is a wide topic, with numerous factors and taking many forms. Decades later, the field of first language attrition gained new momentum with two conferences held in Amsterdam in 2002 and 2005, as well as a series of graduate workshops and panels at international conferences, such as the International Symposium on Bilingualism (2007, 2009), the annual conferences of the European Second Language Association, and the AILA World Congress (2008). The outcomes of some of these meetings were later published in edited volumes. To study the process of language attrition, researchers initially looked at neighboring areas of linguistics to identify which parts of the L1 system attrite first; lacking years of direct experimental data, linguists studied language contact, creolization, L2 acquisition, and aphasia, and applied their findings to language acquisition. One issue that is faced when researching attrition is distinguishing between normal L2 influence on the L1 and actual attrition of the L1. Since all bilinguals experience some degree of cross linguistic influence, where the L2 interferes with the retrieval of the speaker's L1, it is difficult to determine if delays and/or mistakes in the L1 are due to attrition or caused by CLI. Also, simultaneous bilinguals may not have a language that is indistinguishable from that of a native speaker or a language where their knowledge of it is less extensive than a native speaker's; therefore testing for attrition is difficult. Manifestations Lexical attrition The first linguistic system to be affected by first language attrition is the lexicon. The lexical-semantic relationship usually starts to deteriorate first and most quickly, driven by Cross Linguistic Interference (CLI) from the speaker's L2, and it is believed to be exacerbated by continued exposure to, and frequent use of, the L2. Evidence for such interlanguage effects can be seen in a study by Pavlenko (2003, 2004) which shows that there was some semantic extension from the L2, which was English, into the L1 Russian speakers' lexicons. In order to test for lexical attrition, researchers used tests such as picture naming tasks, where they place a picture of an item in front of the participant and ask them to name it, or by measuring lexical diversity in the speaker's spontaneous speech (speech that is unprompted and improvised). In both cases, attriters performed worse than non-attriters. One hypothesis suggests that when a speaker tries to access a lexical item from their L1 they are also competing with the translation equivalents of their L2 and that there is either a problem with activating the L1 due to infrequent use or with the inhibition of the competing L2. Grammatical attrition Grammatical attrition can be defined as "the disintegration of the structure of a first language (L1) in contact situations with a second language (L2)". In a study of bilingual Swedes raised outside of Sweden, who in their late twenties returned to their home country for schooling, there was noted to be attrition of their L1. The participants demonstrated a complete retention of the underlying syntactic structure of their L1. Notably, they exhibited the V2, verb second, word order present in most Germanic languages, except English. This rule requires the tense-marked verb of a main clause to occur in the second position of the sentence, even if that means it comes before the subject (e.g. there is an adverb at the beginning of the sentence). These speakers' ability to form sentences with V2 word order was compared against L2 learners who often overproduce the rigid SVO word order rather than applying the V2 rule. Although the study did not show evidence for attrition of syntax of the person's L1, there was evidence for attrition in the expatriates' morphology, especially in terms of agreement. They found that the bilinguals would choose to use the unmarked morphemes in place of the marked one when having to differentiate between gender and plurality; also they tend to overgeneralize where certain morphemes can be used. For example, they may use the suffix /-a/, which is used to express an indefinite plural, and overextend this morpheme to also represent the indefinite singular. There is little evidence to support the view that there is a complete restructuring of the language systems. That is, even under language attrition the syntax is largely unaffected and any variability observed is thought to be due to interference from another language, rather than attrition. L1 attriters, like L2 learners, may use language differently from native speakers. In particular, they can have variability on certain rules which native speakers apply deterministically. In the context of attrition, however, there is strong evidence that this optionality is not indicative of any underlying representational deficits: the same individuals do not appear to encounter recurring problems with the same kinds of grammatical phenomena in different speech situations or on different tasks. This suggests that problems of L1 attriters are due to momentary conflicts between the two linguistic systems and not indicative of a structural change to underlying linguistic knowledge (that is, to an emerging representational deficit of any kind). This assumption is in line with a range of investigations of L1 attrition which argue that this process may affect interface phenomena (e.g. the distribution of overt and null subjects in pro-drop languages) but will not touch the narrow syntax. Phonological attrition Phonological attrition is a form of language loss that affects the speaker's ability to produce their native language with their native accent. A study of five native speakers of American English who moved to Brazil and learned Portuguese as their L2 demonstrates the possibility that one could lose one's L1 accent in place of an accent that is directly influenced by the L2. It is thought that phonological loss can occur to those who are closer to native-like fluency in the L2, especially in terms of phonological production, and for those who have immersed themselves and built a connection to the culture of the country for the L2. A sociolinguistic approach to this phenomenon is that the acquisition of a native-like L2 accent and the subsequent loss of one's native accent is influenced by the societal norms of the country and the speakers' attempt to adapt in order to feel a part of the culture they are trying to assimilate into. This type of attrition is not to be confused with contact-induced change since that would mean speech production changes due to an increased use of another language and not due to the less frequent use of the L1. Studies and hypotheses Lambert and Moore attempted to define numerous hypotheses regarding the nature of language loss, crossed with various aspects of language. They envisioned a test to be given to American State Department employees that would include four linguistic categories (syntax, morphology, lexicon, and phonology) and three skill areas (reading, listening, and speaking). A translation component would feature on a sub-section of each skill area tested. The test was to include linguistic features that are the most difficult, according to teachers, for students to master. Such a test may confound testing what was not acquired with what was lost. Lambert, in personal communication with Köpke and Schmid, described the results as 'not substantial enough to help much in the development of the new field of language skill attrition'. The use of translation tests to study language loss is inappropriate for a number of reasons: it is questionable what such tests measure; too much variation; the difference between attriters and bilinguals is complex; activating two languages at once may cause interference. Yoshitomi attempted to define a model of language attrition that was related to neurological and psychological aspects of language learning and unlearning. She discussed four possible hypotheses and five key aspects related to acquisition and attrition. The hypotheses are: 1. Reverse order: last learned, first forgotten. Studies by Russell and Hayashi both looked at the Japanese negation system and both found that attrition was the reverse order of acquisition. Yoshitomi and others, including Yukawa, argue that attrition can occur so rapidly, it is impossible to determine the order of loss. 2. Inverse relation: better learned, better retained. Language items that are acquired first also happen to be those that are most reinforced. As a result, hypotheses 1 and 2 capture the main linguistic characteristics of language attrition 3. Critical period: at or around age 9. As a child grows, he becomes less able to master native-like abilities. Furthermore, various linguistic features (for example phonology or syntax) may have different stages or age limits for mastering. Hyltenstam & Abrahamsson argue that after childhood, in general, it becomes more and more difficult to acquire "native-like-ness", but that there is no cut-off point in particular. Furthermore, they discuss a number of cases where a native-like L2 was acquired during adulthood. 4. Affect: motivation and attitude. According to Yoshitomi, the five key aspects related to attrition are neuroplasticity, consolidation, permastore/savings, decreased accessibility, and receptive versus productive abilities. The regression hypothesis The regression hypothesis, first formulated by Roman Jakobson in 1941 and originally formulated on the phonology of only Slavic languages, goes back to the beginnings of psychology and psychoanalysis. It states that which was learned first will be retained last, both in 'normal' processes of forgetting and in pathological conditions such as aphasia or dementia. As a template for language attrition, the regression hypothesis has long seemed an attractive paradigm. However, regression is not in itself a theoretical or explanatory framework. Both order of acquisition and order of attrition need to be put into the larger context of linguistic theory in order to gain explanatory adequacy. Keijzer (2007) conducted a study on the attrition of Dutch in Anglophone Canada. She finds some evidence that later-learned rules, such as diminutive and plural formation, indeed erode before earlier learned grammatical rules. However, there is also considerable interaction between the first and second language and so a straightforward 'regression pattern' cannot be observed. Also, parallels in noun and verb phrase morphology could be present because of the nature of the tests or because of avoidance by the participants. In a follow-up 2010 article, Keijzer suggests that the regression hypothesis may be more applicable to morphology than to syntax. Citing the studies on the regression hypothesis that have been done, Yukawa says that the results have been contradictory. It is possible that attrition is a case-by-case situation depending on a number of variables (age, proficiency,& literacy, the similarities between the L1 and L2, and whether the L1 or the L2 is attriting). The threshold hypothesis states that there may be a level of proficiency that once attained, enables the attriting language to remain stable. Factors Age effect Children are more susceptible to (first) language attrition than adults. Research shows an age effect around the ages of 8 through 13. Before this time period, a first language can attrite under certain circumstances, the most prominent being a sudden decline in exposure to the first language. Various case studies show that children who emigrate before puberty and have little to no exposure to their first language end up losing the first language. In 2009, a study compared two groups of Swedish-speaking groups: native Swedish speakers and Korean international adoptees who were at risk of losing their Korean. Of the Korean adoptees, those who were adopted the earliest essentially lost their Korean and those adopted later still retained some of it, although it was primarily their comprehension of Korean that was spared. A 2007 study looked at Korean adoptees in France and found that they performed on par with native French speakers in French proficiency and Korean. Attrition of a first language does not guarantee an advantage in learning a second language. Attriters are outperformed by native speakers of the second language in proficiency. A 2009 study tested the Swedish proficiency of Swedish speakers who had attrited knowledge of Spanish. These participants did show almost but not quite native-like proficiency when compared to native Swedish speakers, and they did not show an advantage when compared with bilingual Swedish-Spanish speakers. On the other hand, L1 attrition may also occur if the overall effort to maintain the first language is insufficient while exposed to a dominant L2 environment. Another recent investigation, focusing on the development of language in late bilinguals (i.e. adults past puberty), has claimed that maintenance of the mother tongue in an L1 environment requires little to no maintenance for individuals, whereas those in the L2 environment have an additive requirement for the maintenance of the L1 and the development of the L2 (Opitz, 2013). There have been cases in which adults have undergone first language attrition. A 2011 study tested adult monolingual English speakers, adult monolingual Russian speakers and adult bilingual English-Russian speakers on naming various liquid containers (cup, glass, mug, etc.) in both English and Russian. The results showed that the bilinguals had attrited Russian vocabulary because they did not label these liquid containers the same way as the monolingual Russian speakers. When grouped according to Age of Acquisition (AoA) of English, the bilinguals showed an effect of AoA (or perhaps the length of exposure to the L2) in that bilinguals with earlier AoA (mean AoA 3.4 years) exhibited much stronger attrition than bilinguals with later AoA (mean AoA 22.8 years). That is, the individuals with earlier AoA were the more different from monolingual Russian speakers in their labeling and categorization of drinking vessels, than the people with later AoA. However, even the late AoA bilinguals exhibited some degree of attrition in that they labeled the drinking vessels differently from native monolingual Russian-speaking adults. Critical period hypothesis Given that exposure to an L2 at a younger age typically leads to stronger attrition of the L1 than L2 exposure at later ages, there may be a relationship between language attrition and the critical period hypothesis. The critical period for language claims that there is an optimal time period for humans to acquire language, and after this time language acquisition is more difficult (though not impossible). Language attrition also seems to have a time period; before around age 12, a first language is most susceptible to attrition if there is reduced exposure to that language. Research shows that the complete attrition of a language would occur before the critical period ends. All available evidence on the age effect for L1 attrition, therefore, indicates that the development of susceptibility displays a curved, not a linear, function. This suggests that in native language learning there is indeed a Critical Period effect, and that full development of native language capacities necessitates exposure to L1 input for the entire duration of this CP. L2 attrition In Hansen & Reetz-Kurashige (1999), Hansen cites her own research on L2-Hindi and Urdu attrition in young children. As young pre-school children in India and Pakistan, the subjects of her study were often judged to be native speakers of Hindi or Urdu; their mother was far less proficient. On return visits to their home country, the United States, both children appeared to lose all their L2 while the mother noticed no decline in her own L2 abilities. Twenty years later, those same young children as adults comprehend not a word from recordings of their own animated conversations in Hindi-Urdu; the mother still understands much of them. Yamamoto (2001) found a link between age and bilinguality. In fact, a number of factors are at play in bilingual families. In her study, bicultural families that maintained only one language, the minority language, in the household, were able to raise bilingual, bicultural children without fail. Families that adopted the one parent – one language policy were able to raise bilingual children at first but when the children joined the dominant language school system, there was a 50% chance that children would lose their minority language abilities. In families that had more than one child, the older child was most likely to retain two languages, if it was at all possible. Younger siblings in families with more than two other brothers and sisters had little chance of maintaining or ever becoming bilingual. Age of arrival There are few principled and systematic investigations of FLA specifically investigating the impact of AoA. However, converging evidence suggests an age effect on FLA which is much stronger and more clearly delineated than the effects that have been found in SLA research. Two studies that consider prepuberty and postpuberty migrants (Ammerlaan, 1996, AoA 0–29 yrs; Pelc, 2001, AoA 8–32 years) find that AoA is one of the most important predictors of ultimate proficiency, and a number of studies that investigate the impact of age among postpuberty migrants fail to find any effect at all (Köpke, 1999, AoA 14–36 yrs; Schmid, 2002, AoA 12–29 yrs; Schmid, 2007, AoA 17–51 yrs). A range of studies conducted by Montrul on Spanish heritage speakers in the US as well as Spanish-English bilinguals with varying levels of AoA also suggests that the L1 system of early bilinguals may be similar to that of L2 speakers, while later learners pattern with monolinguals in their L1 (e.g. Montrul, 2008; Montrul, 2009). These findings therefore indicate strongly that early (prepuberty) and late (postpuberty) exposure to an L2 environment have a different impact on possible fossilization and/or deterioration of the linguistic system. Frequency of use Frequency of use has been shown to be an important factor in language attrition. Decline in use of a given language leads to gradual loss of that language. In the face of much evidence to the contrary, one study is often cited to suggest that frequency of use does not correlate strongly with language attrition. Their methodology, however, can be called into question, especially concerning the small sample size and the reliance on self reported data. The researchers themselves state that their findings may be inaccurate. The overall evidence suggests that frequency of use is a strong indicator of language attrition. Motivation Motivation could be defined as the willingness and desire to learn a second language, or, in the case of attrition, the incentive to maintain a language. Motivation can be split into four categories, but it is often simply split into two distinct forms: the instrumental and the integrative. Instrumental motivation, in the case of attrition, is the desire to maintain a language in order to complete a specific goal, i.e. maintaining a language to maintain a job. Integrative motivation, however, is motivation that comes from a desire to fit in or maintain one's cultural ties. These inferences can be drawn, as strategies for knowledge maintenance will, by definition, precisely oppose actions that lead to forgetting. There are differences in attrition related to motivation depending on the type at hand. Instrumental motivation is often less potent than integrative motivation, but, given sufficient incentives, it can be equally as powerful. A 1972 study by Gardner and Lambert emphasized the importance of integrative motivation in particular in regards to factors relating to language acquisition, and, by extension, language attrition. See also Extinct language Multilingualism Second language attrition Semi-speaker Prestige language Cultural cringe Decreolization Dialect levelling Linguistic imperialism References Bibliography One Language or Two?: Answers to Questions about Bilingualism in Language-Delayed and Typically Developing Children Akinci, M.-A. (n.d.). Pratiques langagières et représentations subjectives de la vitalité ethnolinguistique des immigrés turcs en France. (retrieved from the Internet 2004/11/08). Ammerlaan, T. (1996). "You get a bit wobbly..." – Exploring bilingual lexical retrieval processes in the context of first language attrition. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Nijmegen: Katholieke Universiteit Nijmegen. Ben-Rafael, M. & Schmid, M. S. (2007). "Language Attrition and Ideology: two groups of immigrants in Israel". In: Köpke, B., Schmid, M. S., Keijzer, M., and Dostert, S., editors, Language Attrition: theoretical perspectives, Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 205–26. Bylund, E. (2008). Age Differences in First Language. Stockholm University PhD dissertation. Bylund, E. (2009). "Maturational constraints and first language attrition". In: Language Learning; 59(3): 687–715. Cook, V. (2005). "The changing L1 in the L2 user's mind". Paper presented at the 2nd International Conference on First Language Attrition, Amsterdam, 18 August 2005. Cook, V. (2003). "The changing L1 in the L2 user's mind". In: Vivian Cook (ed.), Effects of the Second Language on the First (pp. 1–18). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. de Bot, K. & Clyne, M. (1994). "A 16-year longitudinal study of language attrition in Dutch immigrants in Australia". In: Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development; 15 (1), 17–28. de Bot, K., Gommans, P. & Rossing, C. (1991). "L1 loss in an L2 environment: Dutch immigrants in France". In: Seliger, H. W. & Vago, R. M. (eds.), First Language Attrition. (pp. 87–98). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Fujita, M. (2002). Second Language English Attrition of Japanese Bilingual Children. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Temple University, Tokyo, Japan. Gardner, R. C., Lalonde, R. N, & Moorcroft, R. (1987). "Second Language Attrition: the role of motivation and use". Journal of Language and Social Psychology; Vol. 6, No. 1: 29–47. Gleason, J. Berko (1982). "Insights from Child Language Acquisition for Second Language Loss". In: Lambert, R. D. & Freed, B. F. (eds.), The Loss of Language Skills. Rowley, MA: Newbury House. Guardado, Martin (2017). "Heritage Language Development in Interlingual Families". In: P. P. Trifonas & T. Aravossitas (eds.), Handbook of research and practice in heritage language education. New York: Springer. Hansen, L. (2001). "Japanese Attrition in Contexts of Japanese Bilingualism". In: Noguchi, M. G. & Fotos, S. (eds.), Studies in Japanese Bilingualism (Bilingual Education and Bilingualism; 22.) (p. 353 – p. 372). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. (electronic book: ) Hansen, L. & Reetz-Kurashige, A. (1999). "Investigating Second Language Attrition: an introduction". In: Hansen, Lynne (ed.). "Second Language Attrition: evidence from Japanese contexts" (p. 6). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Hayashi, Brenda (1999). "Testing the regression hypotheis: the remains of the Japanese negation system in Micronesia". In: Hansen, Lynne (ed.). Second Language Attrition: evidence from Japanese contexts (p. 154 – p. 168). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Hulsen, M. (2000). Language Loss and Language Processing: three generations of Dutch migrants in New Zealand. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Nijmegen: Katholieke Universiteit Nijmegen. Hyltenstam, K. & Abrahamsson, N. (2003). "Maturational Constraints in SLA". In: Doughty, C. J. & Long, M. H. (eds.), The Handbook of Second Language Acquisition. Malden, MA: Blackwell . Jaspaert, K., Kroon, S., van Hout, R. (1986). "Points of Reference in First-Language Loss Research". In: Weltens, B., de Bot, K. & van Els, T. (eds.) "Language Attrition in Progress: studies on language acquisition" (p. 37 – p. 49). Dordrecht: Foris Publications. Keijzer, M. (2007) "Last in first out? An investigation of the regression hypothesis in Dutch emigrants in Anglophone Canada". Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, PhD dissertation. Köpke, B. 1999. L'attrition de la première langue chez le bilingue tardif: implications pour l'étude psycholinguistique du bilinguisme. Université de Toulouse-Le Mirail PhD dissertation. Köpke, B. 2007. "Language attrition at the crossroads of brain, mind and society". In: Köpke, B., Schmid, M. S., Keijzer, M., & Dostert, S., (eds.), Language Attrition: theoretical perspectives, Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 9-37. Köpke, B. & Schmid, M. S. (2004). "Language attrition: the next phase". In: Schmid, M. S., et al. (eds.), pp. 1–43. Downloadable manuscript version Köpke, B., Schmid, M. S., Keijzer, M. & Dostert, S. (eds.). 2007. Language Attrition: theoretical perspectives. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Lambert, R. D. & Freed, B. F. (eds). (1982). The Loss of Language Skills. Rowley, MA: Newbury House. Lambert, R. D. & Moore, S. J. (1986). "Problem Areas in the Study of Language Attrition". In: Weltens, B., de Bot, K. & van Els, T. (eds.), Language Attrition in Progress, Studies on Language Acquisition (p. 177 – p. 186). Dordrecht, NL: Foris Publications. Montrul, S. 2004. "Convergent outcomes in L2 acquisition and L1 loss". In: Schmid, M. S., Köpke, B., Keijzer, M. & Weilemar, L. (eds.), First Language Attrition: interdisciplinary perspectives on methodological issues (pp. 259–279). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Montrul, S. 2008. Incomplete Acquisition in Bilingualism: re-examining the age factor. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Montrul, S. 2009. "Re-examining the fundamental difference hypothesis". In: Studies in Second Language Acquisition; vol. 31: 225–257. Murtagh, Lelia (2003). Retention and Attrition of Irish as a Second Language: a longitudinal study of general and communicative proficiency in Irish among second level school leavers and the influence of instructional background, language use and attitude/motivation variables. Proefschrift (ter verkrijging van het doctoraat in de Letteren), Rijksuniversiteit Groningen. (retrieved November 24, 2004) Retention and Attrition of Irish as a Second Language (PDF: 5.2 MB) by Lelia Murtagh: PhD thesis, University of Groningen. Obler, L. K. (1993). "Neurolinguistic aspects of second language development and attrition". In: Hyltenstam, K. & Viberg, A. (eds.), Progression & Regression in Language: sociocultural, neuropsychological, & linguistic perspectives (pp. 178 – 195). Stockholm: Centre for Research on Bilingualism; Cambridge University Press. Olshtain, E. & Barzilay, M. (1991). "Lexical retrieval difficulties in adult language attrition". In: Seliger, H. W. & Vago, R. M. (eds.), First Language Attrition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pallier, C. (2007). "Critical periods in language acquisition and language attrition". In: Köpke et al. (eds.) Language Attrition: theoretical perspectives, Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 155–168. Paradis, M. (2007). "L1 attrition features predicted by a neurolinguistic theory of bilingualism". In: Köpke, B., Schmid, M. S., Keijzer, M., and Dostert, S., (eds.), Language Attrition: theoretical perspectives, Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 121–33. Pavlenko, A. (2003). "«I feel clumsy speaking Russian»: L2 influence on L1 in narratives of Russian L2 users of English". In: Cook, V. (ed.), Effects of the Second Language on the First (pp. 32–61). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Pavlenko, A. (2004). "L2 influence and L1 attrition in adult bilingualism". In: Schmid, M. S., Köpke, B., Keijzer, M. & Weilemar, L. (eds), First Language Attrition: interdisciplinary perspectives on methodological issues (pp. 47–59). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Pelc, L. (2001). L1 Lexical, Morphological and Morphosyntactic Attrition in Greek-English Bilinguals. CUNY PhD dissertation. Russell, Robert (1999). "Lexical maintenance and attrition in Japanese as a second language". In: Hansen, Lynne (ed.).Second Language Attrition: evidence from Japanese contexts (p. 114 – p. 141). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Schmid, M. S. (2002). First Language Attrition, Use, and Maintenance: the case of German Jews in Anglophone countries. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Schmid, M. S. (2007). "The role of L1 use for L1 attrition". In: Köpke et al. (eds), Language Attrition: theoretical perspectives, Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins; 135–153. Downloadable manuscript version Schmid, M. S. (2009). "On L1 attrition and the linguistic system". In: EUROSLA Yearbook 9, 212–244. Downloadable manuscript version Schmid, M. S. (2011). Language Attrition. Cambridge University Press. Schmid, M. S., Köpke, B., Keijzer, M. & Weilemar, L. (2004). First Language Attrition: interdisciplinary perspectives on methodological issues. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Schmid, M. S. & Köpke, B. (2007). "Bilingualism and attrition". In: Köpke, B., Schmid, M. S., Keijzer, M., and Dostert, S., (eds.), Language Attrition: theoretical perspectives, Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 1–7. Downloadable manuscript version Schmid, M. S. & Köpke, B. (2008). "L1 attrition and the mental lexicon". In: Pavlenko, A. (ed.) The Bilingual Mental Lexicon: interdisciplinary approaches (pp. 209–238). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Downloadable manuscript version Schmid, M. S. & Dusseldorp, E. (2010). "Quantitative analyses in a multivariate study of language attrition". In: Second Language Research; 26(1). Downloadable manuscript version Seliger, H. W. & Vago, R. M. (1991). "The Study of First Language Attrition: an overview". In: First Language Attrition, Seliger, H. W. & Vago, R. M. (eds.), pp. 3–15. Cambridge University Press. Smith, M. Sharwood (1983). "On explaining language loss". In: Felix, S. & Wode, H. (eds.), Language Development on the Crossroads, pp. 49–69. Tübingen: Gunter Narr. Sorace, A. 2005. "Selective optionality in language development". In: Cornips, L. & Corrigan, K. P., (eds.), Syntax and Variation: reconciling the biological and the social, pp. 55–80 Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Tsimpli, I. (2007). "First language attrition from a minimalist perspective: interface vulnerability and processing effects". In: Köpke et al. (eds.), Language Attrition: theoretical perspectives, Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins; pp. 83–98. Tsimpli, I., Sorace, A., Heycock, C. & Filiaci, F. (2004). "First language attrition and syntactic subjects: a study of Greek and Italian near-native speakers of English". In: International Journal of Bilingualism; 8(3): 257–277. Yamamoto, M. (2001). Language Use in Interlingual Families: a Japanese-English sociolinguistic study. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Yukawa, E. (1998). L1 Japanese Attrition and Regaining: three case studies of two early bilingual children. Tokyo: Kurosio Publishers. External links languageattrition.org Education policy Linguistic rights Sociolinguistics
4852464	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%A9r%C3%A9my%20M%C3%A9nez	Jérémy Ménez	Jérémy Ménez (born 7 May 1987) is a French professional footballer who plays as a forward for Italian Serie B club Bari. Ménez has been described as an ambipedal, technically skilled, pacy playmaker. Ménez began his career spending time with various clubs in the Île-de-France region such as the Centre de Formation de Paris and CSF Brétigny. In 2001, he secured a move to Sochaux and spent four years in the club's youth academy. In March 2004, Ménez became the youngest professional football player in the history of Ligue 1 after signing a professional contract and made his professional debut in the 2004–05 season. With Sochaux, he played European football for the first time after participating in the 2004–05 edition of the UEFA Cup. After two seasons at the club, he joined Monaco. At Monaco, Ménez developed into a playmaking midfielder under the tutelage of Brazilian manager Ricardo Gomes. After two successful seasons in Monaco, he signed for Serie A club Roma on a four-year contract. With Roma, Ménez featured in the UEFA Champions League for the first time and scored 12 goals in over 100 appearances with the club. In July 2011, after three seasons with Roma, Ménez returned to France signing a three-year contract with Paris Saint-Germain. He was then signed by AC Milan on a free transfer in June 2014, signing a three-year contract. Ménez is a former French youth international and has represented his nation at every level for which he was eligible. Prior to playing for the senior team, he played in the under-17 team that won the 2004 UEFA European Under-17 Championship. Ménez made his senior international debut in August 2010 in a friendly match against Norway. He represented his country at the Euro 2012. Club career Early career Ménez was born in Longjumeau, Essonne. As a child, he grew up in Vitry-sur-Seine, not far from his birthplace, and supported hometown club Paris Saint-Germain. Ménez became attracted to football through his father and older brother who were football players themselves. Ménez began his career at local club CA Vitry. After a year at the club, Ménez joined the Centre de Formation de Paris, a youth sporting club designed to cater only to football players under the age of 19. While at C.F.F.P, Ménez developed and honed his technical skills and was placed into the playmaker position by his coaches. After five years at the academy, he departed the club after developing friction with the academy coaches. After leaving CFFP, Ménez joined CSF Brétigny, a local Parisian club that also trained French internationals Patrice Evra and Jimmy Briand. He spent only a year at the club before securing a move to professional club Sochaux in Franche-Comté. Sochaux Upon his arrival at Sochaux, Ménez entered the club's youth academy and began attending the sports department's elite high school, Vignes de Seloncourt, with ambitions of becoming an accountant. While in the club's academy, Ménez was adept both on and off the field earning good grades in school. On 24 March 2004, at the age of 16, he signed his first professional contract with Sochaux, agreeing to a three-year deal until June 2007. Upon signing the contract, he became the youngest professional football player in the history of Ligue 1. Ménez was subsequently promoted to the club's senior team and assigned the number 26 shirt by manager Guy Lacombe. Prior to signing his contract, Ménez drew strong interest from English clubs Arsenal and Manchester United. The latter club's manager at the time, Sir Alex Ferguson, was later accused by Sochaux's former president Jean-Claude Plessis of tapping up Ménez; he accused Ferguson of meeting with the player's parents in Paris and offering them financial favours. Manchester United denied the accusations. Ménez travelled to Manchester and visited the team's facilities and Old Trafford, the club's stadium, before deciding to remain in France. On 7 August 2004, Ménez made his professional debut in the club's opening match of the 2004–05 season against Ajaccio. He started the match and played 57 minutes before being substituted for in a 1–0 win. Despite being so young, Ménez was a regular within the team, often rotating between the bench and starting XI. On 20 November, he scored his first professional goal in a 3–1 victory over Monaco. Two months later, Ménez became the youngest player in league history to score a hat-trick after recording one in the team's 4–0 victory over Bordeaux. He scored the goals in a seven-minute span to assure Sochaux of victory. Ménez was a regular during the team's 2004–05 UEFA Cup campaign, appearing in six matches with the club. Sochaux suffered elimination in the Round of 32 at the hands of Greek club Olympiakos. Following the season, Ménez was nominated for the UNFP Young Player of the Year award but lost out to Nantes midfielder Jérémy Toulalan. For the 2005–06 season, Ménez switched to the number 11 shirt and was given a more prominent role within the team by new manager Dominique Bijotat. He appeared in 31 league matches, fifth-best on the team, and scored three goals. Ménez scored his first goal on 15 October 2005 in a 1–1 draw against Bordeaux. At the beginning of the new year, Ménez scored his final two goals in another 1–1 draw with Nice and a 4–0 victory over Saint-Étienne. Sochaux finished the season in a disappointing 15th position after finishing the four previous seasons in the top ten. This led Ménez to become unsettled and to declare his desire to leave the club. On 8 June 2006, Sochaux chairman Dassier announced that he would consider offers for the player with Ligue 1 clubs Paris Saint-Germain, Bordeaux, Monaco and English club Arsenal reported to be interested. Monaco On 22 June 2006, Sochaux announced on its website that it had reached an agreement with fellow Ligue 1 club Monaco for the transfer of Ménez. He signed a four-year contract, with the transfer fee undisclosed. Ménez was given the number 10 shirt by manager László Bölöni and inserted into his preferred left-winger position. He made his club debut on 19 August in the team's 1–1 draw with Rennes, appearing as a substitute. On 30 September, Ménez scored his first goal for the club in a 2–1 win over Le Mans, netting the game-winner ten minutes from time. Following the firing of Bölöni and the arrival of new manager Ricardo Gomes, Ménez struggled to get consistent playing time and grew frustrated, which led to interest abroad from Manchester United and Liverpool. On 11 November, however, he was re-inserted into the starting line-up and scored the equalising goal in a 2–2 draw with Lorient. Ménez maintained his form into the new year, but struggled for fitness in February due to a groin injury. The injury required surgery and Ménez missed two months of play. He returned to the team in April and scored goals in three-straight matches against Lille, Valenciennes and Marseille. Ménez finished the 2006–07 campaign by scoring the only goal in a win over the champions Lyon. Despite summer interest from English Premier League clubs, Ménez opted to remain at Monaco. In the 2007–08 campaign, he scored his first goal in the team's 3–0 victory over his former club Sochaux. The following week, he netted again, this time in a 3–1 win over Le Mans. On 15 December, Ménez scored a double in a 3–1 victory against Lens. It was his first multi-goal game since his hat-trick three years prior. The following month, Ménez scored both of the team's goal in a 2–0 away win against Metz. On 23 February 2008, he suffered an injury in a league match against Paris-Saint Germain, which led to him leaving the match at half-time. The injury was discovered to be serious and Ménez missed three months before returning for the final two matches of the season, making obligatory substitute appearances. Roma After featuring in Monaco's first three league matches of the season, it was reported on 27 August 2008 that Ménez had signed a four-year contract with Italian club Roma. The transfer fee was priced at €10.5 million with Monaco set to receive another €1.5 million in incentives. Ménez was announced as the replacement for departed wingers Mancini and Ludovic Giuly and selected the number 24 shirt, the former number of club legend Marco Delvecchio. He made his debut for the club on 31 August in the team's Serie A match against Napoli, appearing as a substitute in the 63rd minute. Ménez made his UEFA Champions League debut in the team's group stage match against Bordeaux, playing 51 minutes in a 3–1 victory. On 6 December, he scored his first goal for the club in a 1–0 victory over Chievo. For the majority of the campaign, however, Ménez struggled for consistent playing time, rarely lasting an entire match and often starting on the bench for consecutive matches under Luciano Spalletti. On 24 May 2009, he appeared as a substitute in the 75th minute against AC Milan. After five minutes on the field, Ménez scored a goal to put Roma up 2–1; the capital club went on to win the match 3–2. The following week, he started the match and scored a goal in a 3–2 win over Torino. For the 2009–10 season, Ménez switched to the unusual number 94 shirt. He scored his first goal against Milan on 18 October 2009. On 6 January 2010, he drew the ire of new manager Claudio Ranieri and several teammates, who criticised him for his substitute appearance against Cagliari in which he gave a somewhat lackadaisical effort. Following the criticism, Ménez stated, "I touched the lowest point of my career in that game away to Cagliari," and, "My teammates were right to criticise me." On 11 January, Ménez issued an apology to coach Ranieri and his teammates and brushed off rumours of him issuing a transfer request by declaring himself fully committed to the team. On 30 January, midfielder Simone Perrotta stated that Ménez simply needed a confidence boost. After appearing as a substitute for four consecutive matches after the Cagliari match, Ménez made his first start since December 2009 in a league match against Catania on 21 February. He capped the return by assisting on the game-winning goal scored by Mirko Vučinić. Ménez finished the campaign by starting eight of the final ten league matches as Roma finished the season in second place and qualified for the UEFA Champions League. In the 2010–11 season, Ménez began the season as a starter under Ranieri after his successful end to the previous season. Despite being a starter, however, Ranieri continued to undermine Ménez's durability as he consistently substituted the player out in every match he started. On 3 November, Ménez scored his first goal of the campaign in a 3–2 Champions League victory over Swiss club Basel. A week later, he assisted on a Marco Borriello goal in a 3–2 win over Fiorentina. On 13 November, for the first time in the season, Ménez played an entire match after playing in a 1–1 draw with Juventus. In the team's next league match against Udinese, he scored his first league goal and also assisted on a goal in a 2–0 win. After going scoreless in December, on 22 January 2011, Ménez scored the final goal in a 3–0 win over Cagliari. On 16 February, Ménez scored a goal in Roma's first leg of its Champions League first knockout round tie with Shakhtar Donetsk. Five days later, Ranieri resigned from his position as manager and replaced with Vincenzo Montella. Under Montella, Ménez appeared in the manager's first three matches as a substitute. On 13 March, he made his first start under Montella in a league match against Lazio, but was substitute out after 55 minutes. On 23 March, in an interview with French newspaper L'Equipe, Ménez admitted that he was frustrated with his playing time under Montella. The frustration reached its zenith when, on 21 April, Ménez and Montella got into an altercation during a morning training session after Montella reportedly "spent a quarter of an hour berating the France international" for his lack of commitment. Later that night, following the team's Coppa Italia tie with Inter Milan, while leaving the Stadio Olimpico in his vehicle, Ménez was attacked by stone-throwing "thugs", which resulted in his car windshield being smashed. Paris Saint-Germain On 25 July 2011, Paris Saint-Germain confirmed that the club had signed Ménez to a three-year contract. The transfer fee was €8 million plus possible future incentives. He was presented to the media the same day – alongside fellow new signing and international teammate Blaise Matuidi – and was assigned the number 7 shirt. Ménez made his club debut for the team in its 1–0 defeat to the New York Red Bulls at the Emirates Cup. He made his competitive debut for PSG on 6 August 2011 in the team's opening 1–0 league defeat to Lorient. The following week, he assisted on the team's opening goal, scored by Kevin Gameiro, in a 1–1 draw with Rennes. On 18 August 2011, in PSG's first leg UEFA Europa League playoff round tie against Luxembourger club Differdange, Ménez scored the final goal for the team in a 4–0 away win. He also assisted on a goal in the victory. Three days later, he again assisted Gameiro for a goal in a 2–1 win over Valenciennes, helping PSG earn its first league win of the season. On 28 August, Ménez netted his first league goal for the club away to Toulouse; Paris Saint-Germain won the match 3–1. Under the guidance of coaches Antoine Kombouaré and later Carlo Ancelotti, Ménez enjoyed a strong campaign which saw him deliver seven goals and 12 assists in 33 league appearances for PSG, a career best for him. On 4 December 2011, during a 3–2 home league victory against Auxerre, Ménez scored PSG's 2,000th goal in top-flight football. In the 2012–13 season, Ménez was used less prolifically in Ligue 1 matches. With two goals and two assists in five European appearances, however, he has been one of his club's main actors in their Champions League efforts, developing a strong understanding on the pitch with new star striker Zlatan Ibrahimović, another former Serie A player. AC Milan In June 2014, Italian club AC Milan confirmed that the club had signed Ménez on a three-year contract. On 31 August 2014, Ménez scored a penalty on his debut for Milan against Lazio. He went on to score two goals against Parma helping Milan win the game. His first goal in this game was from a penalty, and the second goal was a beautifully worked backheel finish. On 8 November, Ménez scored a penalty kick and assisted Stephan El Shaarawy's goal as Milan drew Sampdoria 2–2. On 23 November, Ménez scored a beautiful goal as he calmy converted El Shaarawy's cross in the far net in the Derby della Madonnina against Inter. He then scored two goals and was named man of the match in the next game against Udinese. Ménez also continued his impressive form and scored a beautiful goal as he dribbled past 3 defenders and put it in the net as he helped Milan beat Napoli 2–0. Ménez scored two goals and created an assist in the 3–1 defeat of Parma on 1 February. He followed this with a penalty in a 2–2 draw with Hellas Verona on 7 March and a brace in a 3–1 defeat of Cagliari on 21 March, hitting a career high in goals for a single club (15, surpassing his previous best of 14 for PSG). On 4 March 2015, Ménez scored the winning goal after a long solo run against Palermo in a 2–1 victory, Milan's first away win of 2015. Ménez's season, however, ended poorly; on 29 April 2015, he was sent off for a second bookable offensive during the 3–1 defeat against Genoa and was handed a four-match ban for an insulting gesture, also missing the team's last match against Atalanta due to an injury. Ménez ended his first season at Milan as the club's top scorer, with 34 appearances and 16 goals in all competitions. In the subsequent summer, Ménez suffered back problems and underwent surgery in Monaco. On 21 August, he was ruled out for a month as further back complications arose. An infection meant he missed the first 26 games of the 2015–16 season and was kept from playing until his return in a 2–1 league win over Genoa on 14 February 2016. On 1 March, he started a match for the first time since April 2015, playing 76 minutes and scoring twice in a 5–0 Coppa Italia defeat of Alessandria, sending Milan to the final for the first time since 2003. Bordeaux On 1 August 2016, Bordeaux and Milan reached an agreement for the transfer of Ménez. On 3 August, two days after signing for the club, he was involved in a gruesome incident in a pre-season match against Lorient. The injury occurred in the second-half when Lorient midfielder Didier Ndong inadvertently stood on Ménez's head, causing the former French international to lose part of his right ear in the process. Ménez had only come on as a substitute in the 62nd minute but had to be taken off a little more than 15 minutes later when the incident happened. Ndong offered his apologies to Ménez for his part in the accident, stating, "I offer my apologies to Jeremy Ménez and Girondins de Bordeaux. I give him my full support for the coming days and hope to see him very quickly on the pitches of Ligue 1." Antalyaspor On 9 June 2017, he joined the Turkish club Antalyaspor. América On 5 January 2018, it was announced Ménez had joined Mexican side Club América. He made his Liga MX debut on 27 January against Atlas. He appeared as a substitute in the 67th minute for Cecilio Domínguez in América's 1–0 win. The following week, Ménez scored his first goal for América in a 5–1 against Lobos BUAP. On 10 February, he scored from the penalty spot to equalise the score in América's 1–1 draw against Tigres UANL. On 2 May, he scored two penalties against Pumas UNAM in the quarterfinals away match, which América would later win 4–1. On 4 August, during a friendly match against Pachuca, he suffered an anterior cruciate ligament injury ruling him out between 6 and 9 months, leaving him out of the 2019 Torneo Apertura. On 29 August 2019, it was announced that Ménez and Club América ended their contractual relation on a mutual agreement. Paris FC On 27 September 2019, he signed a one-year contract with French club Paris FC. In June 2020, after the end of the season, Ménez left Paris FC and became a free agent. Reggina On 23 June 2020, Ménez signed a three-year contract with newly-promoted Serie B club Reggina. Bari On 19 July 2023, Ménez joined Serie B side Bari, signing a 1-year deal, with an optional year. On his debut on 18 August, he suffered a season-ending anterior cruciate ligament injury in his right knee. International career Youth Ménez has earned caps with all of France's youth teams. He is a member of the group, commonly known as the Génération 1987, that produced current internationals Hatem Ben Arfa, Karim Benzema and Samir Nasri, alongside himself. Ménez made his youth international debut with the under-16 team on 11 December 2002 in a friendly against Greece, playing alongside Nasri and Ben Arfa. In the match, Ménez scored the fifth goal of a 6–1 victory. At the 2003 Aegean Cup in Turkey, he scored goals in three consecutive matches. Ménez scored goals against the Ukraine and Israel and netted his final goal in the third-place match against Belgium. At the Montaigu Tournament, Ménez scored three goals, second-best on the team behind Ben Arfa. He scored a goal in the team's 8–0 win over Gabon in the team's opening group match and, in the following match, scored the opening goal in the team's 3–0 win over Russia. In the team's final group stage match against England, Ménez netted another goal in a 3–1 victory. At a regional tournament in Salerno, Italy, Ménez led the team to the title by scoring a double in the final match against the hosts. He also scored two goals in the group matches against Japan and Finland. Ménez finished the under-16 campaign with 14 appearances and a team-leading 12 goals. With the under-17 team, Ménez, Ben Arfa, and Nasri were joined by Karim Benzema and tasked with the goal of winning the 2004 UEFA European Under-17 Championship on home soil. Ménez made his debut with the team in the opening match of the season against Sweden. In the Tournio de Val-de-Marne, he scored one goal. France were crowned champions without conceding a goal. At the 2004 UEFA European Under-17 Championship, Ménez contributed to the team's winning the competition by scoring two goals, netting one against Turkey in the group stage and a second in the semi-finals against Portugal. In total with the under-17s, he made 17 appearances and scored 6 goals. Due to increased playing time at his parent club Sochaux, Ménez's stint with the under-18 team was uneventful. Ménez did appear with the team at the 2005 Meridian Cup, scoring five goals in four matches as France were crowned champions. The foursome of Ben Arfa, Nasri, Benzema and Ménez returned to international play together for under-19 duty. The four were joined by Issiar Dia, Blaise Matuidi and Serge Gakpé with the objective of winning the 2006 UEFA European Under-19 Championship. In the first round of qualification for the tournament, Ménez went scoreless as France advanced through the round undefeated. In the final round of qualification, he scored a double against Bulgaria in a 4–0 win. Despite finishing the round undefeated, however, France were eliminated after being beaten on points by Scotland. Ménez was absent from the under-21 team during his early eligibility term but made his debut on 25 May 2008 in the team's 2–1 friendly match win over the Netherlands. He went months without a call-up before finally returning to the team ahead of the important two-legged playoff against Germany in qualification for the 2009 UEFA European Under-21 Championship in October 2008. Ménez appeared in both legs as France were defeated 2–1 on aggregate. The 1–0 loss in the second leg eliminated France from the competition and also ended Ménez's under-21 career. Senior On 5 August 2010, Ménez was called up to the senior team for the first time by new manager Laurent Blanc for the team's friendly against Norway on 11 August 2010. He made his international debut in the match starting on the right wing as France were defeated 2–1. On 9 February 2011, Ménez assisted on the only goal, scored by Karim Benzema, in the team's 1–0 win over Brazil at the Stade de France. After appearing regularly in qualifying for UEFA Euro 2012, on 29 May 2012, Ménez was named to the squad to participate in the competition. On 5 June, in the team's final warm-up friendly ahead of the Euro, he scored his first international goal in a 4–0 shutout win over Estonia. At Euro 2012, Ménez made his debut at a senior international competition on 15 June in the team's second group stage match against Ukraine. In the contest, he started and scored France's opening goal in a 2–0 victory. Personal life He has two children: a daughter, Maëlla (born 2012) and a son, Menzo (born 2014). Their mother, Émilie Nef Naf is the winner of the 3rd season of reality TV show Secret Story Career statistics Club International Scores and results list France's goal tally first, score column indicates score after each Ménez goal. Honours Paris Saint-Germain Ligue 1: 2012–13, 2013–14 Coupe de la Ligue: 2013–14 América Liga MX: Apertura 2018 Copa MX: Clausura 2019 Campeón de Campeones: 2019 France U17 UEFA European Under-17 Championship: 2004 References External links 1987 births Living people People from Longjumeau Footballers from Essonne French men's footballers France men's youth international footballers France men's under-21 international footballers France men's international footballers Men's association football forwards Men's association football wingers FC Sochaux-Montbéliard players AS Monaco FC players AS Roma players Paris Saint-Germain F.C. players AC Milan players FC Girondins de Bordeaux players Antalyaspor footballers Club América footballers Paris FC players LFA Reggio Calabria players SSC Bari players Ligue 1 players Serie A players Serie B players Süper Lig players Liga MX players Ligue 2 players UEFA Euro 2012 players French expatriate men's footballers Expatriate men's footballers in Italy Expatriate men's footballers in Mexico Expatriate men's footballers in Monaco Expatriate men's footballers in Turkey French expatriate sportspeople in Italy French expatriate sportspeople in Mexico French expatriate sportspeople in Monaco French expatriate sportspeople in Turkey
4852853	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clan%20MacIntyre	Clan MacIntyre	Clan MacIntyre (McIntyre) ( ) is a Highland Scottish clan. The name MacIntyre (from Scottish Gaelic Mac an t-Saoir), means "son of the carpenter.” It is most commonly said to descend from Maurice Mac Neil a nephew of Somerled, the great 12th century leader of the Scottish Gaels. Through an ingenious strategy, Maurice secured the marriage of Somerled to the daughter of the King of Mann and the Isles, thus greatly increasing Somerled's territories. At an unknown date the clan journeyed from the Hebrides to the Scottish mainland where the chiefs established their home at Glen Noe, in Ardchattan Parish, on the east side of Loch Etive. The earliest recorded clan chiefs do not emerge until the 17th century. According to tradition, they had held the land at Glen Noe for centuries, although subject to a feudal tenure converted to money rent in later years. In 1806, however, the chief was forced to relinquish the tenancy of Glen Noe due to inability to meet the payments. He and his family subsequently emigrated to the United States. MacIntyres participated in military campaigns during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms and the Jacobite rising of 1745–46 but they did not operate as an independent body. Clan members served as hereditary foresters to the Lords of Lorne and as hereditary pipers to the chiefs of Clan Menzies and the MacDonalds of Clanranald. Duncan Ban MacIntyre is regarded as one of the finest Gaelic poets. Origins The name MacIntyre (McIntyre) (), means "son of a carpenter", or "son of a craftsman". Iain Moncreiffe notes that some consider the name to be a trade name, equivalent to the names Wright or MacNair ("son of the heir") and attribute the existence of the surname in various parts of Scotland to the fact that the name signifies descent from various individuals who were wood workers. In 1990, Scotland's heraldic authority, the Lord Lyon King of Arms, recognised MacIntyre of Glenoe as Chief of the Name and Arms of the name MacIntyre. Although several works mention a "Black Book of Glen Noe", now lost, said to have contained the history of Clan MacIntyre, no documented record of the clan's origins has ever been discovered. There are, however, several accounts that purport to identify its founder and explain its name. The most frequently repeated story ties the MacIntyres to Somerled, who lived in the 12th century and who has been described as "one of the greatest warrior kings born to the Gaels of Alba (Scotland)." An ambitious figure almost from the outset, Somerled sought the hand of Ragnhilda, daughter of King Olav the Red, Norse King of Man and the Isles. The story of how, after being initially rebuffed by that island magnate, Somerled would ultimately succeed through the stealth of one of his kinsmen, is recorded in the history of MacDonald of Sleat. According to this account, Somerled agreed to join Olav in an expedition to raid Skye. The night before sailing, however, a ship wright or carpenter known as Maurice Mac Neil (the second name sometimes given as MacNiall or MacArill), by some accounts Somerled's nephew, secretly bored holes in the hull of Olav's ship using tallow and butter to temporarily seal them. On entering the open seas the tallow was washed away by the action of the waves and the king's ship began rapidly taking on water. Olav's urgent appeal for help was spurned by Somerled, until he consented to the previously sought marriage. Maurice then boarded the King's ship and filled the holes with wooden plugs he had previously prepared for the purpose. From that time the descendants of Maurice were called "MacIntyres," "carpenters (or shipwrights) sons".", The sought-after marriage would take place in 1140. One line of Somerled's MacDonald descendants would become known as Kings and Lords of the Isles and over several centuries would contend with the Scottish monarchy for control of a large portion of northwestern Scotland. Another account, involving seafaring, holds that the name arose from the misfortune of a mariner afloat. In this version the clan's founder, sometimes identified as son of one of the Lords of the Isles, cuts off his thumb in order to plug a leak in his sinking vessel. The original home of Clan MacIntyre is likewise the subject of conjecture. There is general agreement that the clan arose in the Hebrides, the islands west of the Scottish mainland. Some accounts, however, identify Skye as the ancestral home, while another tradition holds Islay to have been the locale. The story of how the clan made its way to the mainland and settled along the shore of Loch Etive in the vicinity of Ben Cruachan is again shrouded in myth and magic. It is said that seeking fresh pastures for their cattle they were initially obstructed by a mountain spirit. After testing their perseverance and courage the spirit instructed them to make their new home where the white cow in their herd should first lie down to rest. This site became known as Glen Noe. History Many accounts relate that at some point in the 13th century the MacIntyres became foresters to the Lords of Lorne, a hereditary post in which they continued as the territory subsequently passed from the MacDougalls to the control of the Stewarts and finally to the Campbells. After settling at Glen Noe, the chiefs are said to have held the land for centuries. While presumably owning the property outright originally, it is generally agreed that at some, uncertain date, they acquired a feudal obligation to the Campbells of Breadalbane. Initially, this entailed only a symbolic payment. Tradition identifies this as a snowball supplied at midsummer and a white calf surrendered but then killed and shared by landlord and tenant as a token of mutual esteem. The earliest recorded clan chiefs do not emerge until the 17th century. The earliest chief is Duncan, who married Mary, daughter of Patrick Campbell of Barcaldine. He died in 1695 and is buried at Ardchattan Priory. From this era comes a traditional account that the home of the MacIntyre chief was saved by the clan's ties to the MacDonalds. At the time of the civil war in Scotland the forces of James Graham, 1st Marquess of Montrose, had sacked Inveraray and marched north to the area of Glen Noe. As a tenant of the Campbells, the chief was deemed an opponent of the Royalist faction, which Montrose served. The chief, expecting no mercy, fled. As part of their campaign, the Royalist troops were under orders to destroy all houses in the neighbourhood and began to set fire to the chief's house. The commander of Montrose's men, Sir Alexander MacDonald,extinguished the blaze before it became widespread and sent word to the chief that his property had been spared in recognition of the services the clan's founder had performed in contriving the marriage of Somerled, ancestor of the MacDonalds to Ragnhilda half a millennium earlier., Many MacIntyres subsequently joined MacDonald's army including the chief's piper. The chief, however, was with Campbell of Argyll at the battle of Inverlochy in February 1645 when the Campbells were surprised by Montrose's forces and routed. It is said that the MacIntyre chief at the time of the Jacobite rising of 1745, James (born c. 1727), would have joined the clans rallying to Prince Charles Edward Stuart but was dissuaded from doing so by his wife, who was a Campbell, and his neighbors. His loyalties to the Campbells were further deepened by the fact that his legal studies had been sponsored by the Campbell Earl of Breadalbane. Nonetheless, many MacIntyres were in the clan regiment of Stewart of Appin in the campaign of 1745–46, but they did not serve as an independent body. At some unknown date the symbolic snowball and calf tokens owed to the Campbells were commuted to payment of money rent which increased over the years. In 1806, the chief was forced to relinquish the tenancy of Glen Noe due to inability to meet the payments. The chief and his family emigrated to the United States, where the family continues to reside. Although the identities of the chiefs were always known to interested clan members, the chiefship of the clan was not officially recognized by Scottish authorities until 1991, when the coat of arms of James Wallace MacIntyre of Glenoe was confirmed by the Lord Lyon, King of Arms. The current chief of the clan is Donald Russell MacIntyre of Glenoe. The MacIntyre chiefs hold membership in the Standing Council of Scottish Chiefs. Tartan Pipers, poets and bards The MacIntyres of Rannoch, were hereditary pipers to the chiefs of Clan Menzies and composed some of that clan's music. They supplied hereditary pipers to the MacDonalds of Clanranald, and a noted pibroch commemorating the battle of Sheriffmuir is attributed to one of these MacIntyres. In the 18th century two members of the clan earned considerable regard for their Gaelic poetry. James, the poet-chief, (1727–1799) is best remembered for a biting satire he composed in Gaelic in response to Samuel Johnson, the English encyclopedist, who had made derogatory comments about the Scots in his famous trip to the Hebrides. The poet-chief would find himself eclipsed by one of his own kinsmen, however. Born on 20 March 1724, in Druimliaghart, Glenorchy, Argyllshire, Duncan Ban MacIntyre would become known to his countrymen as "Fair Duncan of the Songs." One historian has described him as "one of the twin peaks of the century's Gaelic verse" and some have even called him the "Burns of the Highlands." His work was described as possessing "an unrivaled originality of conception, with the most mellifluous flow of language." Yet his biographers agree that he was wholly illiterate. His most critically acclaimed work is "The Praise of Ben Dorain," but he is well known for his poetic commentaries on contemporary events. In the Jacobite rising of 1745 which attempted to return the House of Stuart to the throne of Scotland and England, Duncan fought on the Hanoverian side and composed a humorous song after losing his borrowed sword at the battle of Falkirk in January 1746. Following that uprising, however, he composed a best selling poem attacking the portion of the Act of Proscription outlawing the wearing of highland dress and was briefly imprisoned., When the ban against the wearing of the kilt was repealed, he celebrated with another poem, entitled Orain na Briogas or "Song of the Breeches." He was named bard to the Highland Society of London and was so esteemed that in his later years schoolchildren were allowed out of class to see him when he traveled to their community. He died on 6 October 1812. In 1859, a monument to the memory of Duncan Ban MacIntyre (described in contemporary press accounts as "in the druid style of architecture") was erected near Dalmally at the head of Loch Awe. Other MacIntyre families and groups Camus-na-h-erie: In 1955 Alastair MacIntyre of Camus-na-h-erie recorded arms in the Lyon Court as a cadet of the chiefly house of MacIntyre, although with a shield significantly different from that subsequently granted to the clan chief in 1991. This branch of the family claims descent from Patrick, a son of a chief of Glenoe. The family established themselves on the shores of the Inverness-shire Loch Leven at Camus-na-h-erie. John Macintyre of Camus-na-h-erie, 10th of his line, fought on the Jacobite side in the 1745 and was wounded at the battle of Falkirk. It is reported that nine members of MacIntyre of Camus-na-h-erie were taken prisoners in the 1745 rising. In the early 19th century, the family was represented by the Rev. John MacIntyre, D.D. of Kilmonivaig. Badenoch: The MacIntyres of Badenoch are said to have been descended from a bard taken under the protection of the Clan Mackintosh chief at the end of the 15th century. The Badenoch MacIntyres were a constituent group of Clan Chattan, an alliance of clans headed by the Mackintosh chief which fought on the Jacobite side in the risings of 1715 and 1745. Cladich: The little hamlet of Cladich above Loch Awe near the road to Inveraray was a center of weaving and almost all of the inhabitants were MacIntyres. A specialty of the industry were men's hose and garters, which were prized at that time for wearing with the highland costume. Irish MacIntyres The relationship of MacIntyres in Scotland to those in Ireland is not entirely clear. Given the proximity of the two countries and the similarity of their languages, some Scottish MacIntyres undoubtedly settled in Ireland, mainly in Ulster. Dr. Edward MacLysaght, authority on Irish genealogy, does not include MacIntyre as a separate entry in his two works on Irish families. Rather, he lists MacIntyre, along with Carpenter, Freeman, O’Seery, and Searson in his entry on the name "Macateer". He likewise specifies that in Ireland MacIntyres are found chiefly in Ulster, and in County Sligo. It would appear, in Dr. MacLysaght's view, that those MacIntyres who are of native Irish ancestry originally were Macateers who changed their names., It is believed that some Irish MacIntyres descend from native Irish stock whose ancestors were living in the same areas in which Scottish MacIntyres settled and who assumed the Scottish surname, rather than Macateer, as an anglicization of the Irish name Mac an tSoir. Septs Septs are family names associated with a particular clan. In the case of MacIntyre, the surname Wright, when of Scottish origin, is considered an anglicized form of the name. Other family names associated with the clan include Glenoe, MacCoiseam, Tyrie (also Tyree), MacTear, MacTeer, McAntara and McEntire. Clan profile Chief: Donald Russell MacIntyre of Glenoe Chief of the Name and Arms of MacIntyre, Arms: A coat of arms consisting of a shield divided into quarters. In the upper left and lower right quarter, a red eagle, its wings outstretched. The upper right quarter shows a ship with furled sails, while in the lower left quarter a red hand grasps a blue cross. A cow, standing on two hooves, appears on either side of the shield. The shield is surmounted by a silver helmet above which there is a hand grasping a dagger.\|Coat of arms of the chief of Clan MacIntyre. Motto: Per ardua (Through hardship or difficulty). War Cry: "Cruachan" (A mountain, Ben Cruachan, near Loch Awe)., Pipe Music: "We Will Take The Good Old Way" (). Plant Badge: White Heather., Notes Footnotes References Agnew of Lochnaw, Sir Crispin. News From the Lyon Court. The Highlander, Jan/Feb 1991. Adam, Frank. The Clans, Septs, and Regiments of the Scottish Highlands. 8th ed. Revised by Innes of Learney, Sir Thomas. Stirling, Scotland: Johnston and Bacon, 1970. Black, George F. The Surnames of Scotland New York: New York Public Library, 1946. Boswell, James. Journal of a Tour to the Hebrides with Samuel Johnson. 8th ed. Edited by Pottle, Frederick A. and Bennett, Charles H. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1962 (date of Preface). Calder, George (editor and translator). The Gaelic Songs of Duncan MacIntyre. Edinburgh: John Grant, 1912. Cheape, Hugh. Tartan. 2nd ed. Edinburgh: National Museums of Scotland, 1995. de Breffny, Brian. Irish Family Names; Arms, Origins and Locations . Dublin: Gill and MacMillan Ltd., 1982. Douglas, Allan. They Won Fame as Bards and Pipers. Weekly Scotsman, 1 November 1962. Eyre-Todd, George. The Highland Clans of Scotland; Their History and Traditions (Retrieved on 24 April 2009). Vol. II. New York: D. Appleton, 1923. Gordon, Seton. Highland Days. London: Cassell & Company Ltd., 1963. Grant, Neil. Scottish Clans & Tartans. New York: Crescent Books, 1987. Houston R.A. and Knox, W.W.J. (eds.) The New Penguin History of Scotland. London: Penguin Books, 2002. The Iona Club (editor). Collectanea de Rebus Albanicis. Edinburgh: Thomas G. Stevenson, 1847. MacDonald, D. MacDonell. Clan MacIntyre. Scotland's Magazine, November 1973. MacDonald of Castleton, Donald J. Clan Donald. Loanhead, Scotland: MacDonald Publishers, 1978. MacLeod, Angus (editor and translator). The Songs of Duncan Ban MacIntyre. Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd, 1952. MacLysaght, Edward. The Surnames of Ireland. 6th edition, Dublin: Irish Academic Press, 1985, reprint ed., 1999. MacLysaght, Edward. More Irish Families. Dublin: Irish Academic Press, 1996. McDonald, R. Andrew. Kingdom of the Isles. East Linton, Scotland: Tuckwell Press Ltd., 1997. McIan, R.R. and Logan, James. The Clans of the Scottish Highlands. New York: Crescent Books, 1985. Moncreiffe of that Ilk, Sir Iain. The Highland Clans. revised ed. New York: Clarkson N. Potter, Inc, 1982. Stewart, Donald C., and Thompson, J. Charles. Scotland's Forged Tartans. Edinburgh: Paul Harris Publishing, 1980. The Scottish Clans and Their Tartans (Retrieved on 24 April 2009). Edinburgh: W. & A.K. Johnston, 1900(?). Way of Plean, George and Squire, Romilly. Collins Scottish Clan & Family Encyclopedia. Glasgow: HarperCollins Publishers, 1994. Williams Ronald. The Lords of the Isles. Isle of Colonsay, Argyll: House of Lochar, 1997. Further reading Bain, Robert. The Clans and Tartans of Scotland. Glasgow: Fontana/Collins, 1984. Innes of Learney, Sir Thomas. The Tartans of the Clans and Families of Scotland. 7th ed. Edinburgh: W. & A.K. Johnston & G.W. Bacon Ltd., 1964. Innes of Learney, Sir Thomas. The Scottish Tartans. Edinburgh: Johnston & Bacon, 1969. MacIntyre, L.D. Clan MacIntyre; A Journey to the Past. Bethesda, Maryland: The MacIntyres, 1977. (Although having sold nearly a thousand copies and being one of the most complete sources of clan information, as a self-published source it is ineligible for citation under Wikipedia's Self-published Sources policy.) McNie, Alan. Clan MacIntyre. Jedburgh, Scotland: Cascade Publishing Company, 1986 (Your Clan Heritage series). McOwan, Rennie. The MacIntyres. Glasgow: Lang Syne Publishers Ltd., 1997 (small pamphlet). Scarlett, James D. The Tartans of the Scottish Clans. Glasgow: Collins, 1975. External links Clan MacIntyre Association ElectricScotland.com, History of the MacIntyre Clan Clan MacIntyre ScotClans Standing Council of Scottish Chiefs website MacIntyre
4853254	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nepenthes%20talangensis	Nepenthes talangensis	Nepenthes talangensis is a tropical pitcher plant endemic to Sumatra, where it grows in upper montane forest at elevations of 1800–2500 m above sea level. The specific epithet talangensis is derived from the name of Mount Talang, to which it is endemic, and the Latin ending -ensis, meaning "from". Botanical history Early specimens Although only recognised as a distinct species towards the end of the 20th century, N. talangensis was collected as early as 1918 by H. A. B. Bünnemeijer. Bünnemeijer made three collections from Mount Talang during this time. The specimen series Bünnemeijer 5398 was collected on November 2, 1918, at an elevation of 2200 m. It is deposited at both Herbarium Bogoriense (BO), the herbarium of the Bogor Botanical Gardens, and the National Herbarium of the Netherlands (L) in Leiden (formerly Herbarium Lugduno-Batavum, the State Herbarium at Leiden), with all specimens lacking floral material. Bünnemeijer also collected Bünnemeijer 5397 on the same day at an elevation of 2400 m. It is deposited at Herbarium Bogoriense and lacks floral material. Five days later, on November 7, Bünnemeijer 5521 (or Bünnemeijer 2552) was collected from 2500 m on Mount Talang. It is deposited at both Herbarium Bogoriense (male and female floral material) and the National Herbarium of the Netherlands (female floral material; sheet H.L.B. 822.60.920). Bünnemeijer made a fourth collection of N. talangensis from Bukit Gombak on November 16, 1918, at an elevation of 2330 m. This specimen, designated as Bünnemeijer 5748 bis (or Bünnemeijer 6740), is held at Herbarium Bogoriense and lacks floral material. It was collected on the same day as some of the earliest known specimens of N. inermis. Taxonomic confusion and formal description Nepenthes talangensis has been confused with N. bongso on a number of occasions. In his seminal 1928 monograph, "The Nepenthaceae of the Netherlands Indies", B. H. Danser treated specimens of N. bongso, N. ovata, and N. talangensis all under N. bongso. Shigeo Kurata did the same in an article published in a 1973 issue of The Gardens' Bulletin Singapore. Two early colour photographs of N. talangensis were published by Mike Hopkins, Ricky Maulder, and Bruce Salmon, in a 1990 issue of the Carnivorous Plant Newsletter, where the species was again confused with, and identified as, N. bongso. Joachim Nerz conducted field studies of N. talangensis on Mount Talang in 1986 and made three collections of the species: Nerz 2501 consists of a short climbing stem with pitchers and floral material; Nerz 2502 includes leaves and pitchers of the climbing stem and is preserved in alcohol; and Nerz 2503 comprises leaves and pitchers of the rosette. All three specimens were collected on September 6, 1986, from an elevation of 2200 m, and are deposited at the National Herbarium of the Netherlands (L) in Leiden. Nerz's field studies, coupled with observations of N. bongso made by Mr. and Mrs. DeWitte on Mount Singgalang in 1993, showed that the two taxa almost certainly represented distinct species. To confirm this and prepare a formal description, Nerz and Andreas Wistuba examined herbarium specimens of both taxa, including Bünnemeijer 5398, 5521, and 5748 bis, as well as material of N. bongso from Mount Merapi (Korthals s.n., the type specimen) and Mount Singgalang (Beccari 268). This research culminated in the formal description of N. talangensis by Nerz and Wistuba in the December 1994 issue of the Carnivorous Plant Newsletter. The authors designated Nerz 2501 as the holotype. Matthew Jebb and Martin Cheek synonymised N. talangensis with N. bongso in their 1997 monograph, "A skeletal revision of Nepenthes (Nepenthaceae)". The authors retained N. talangensis as a probable synonym of N. bongso in their 2001 revision, "Nepenthaceae", writing: Each mountain peak in C Sumatra appears to support a slight variant of N. bongso, and we have adopted a rather broad definition of the species. Specimens from Mt Talang have been distinguished as N. talangensis, which may well merit recognition on the basis of photographs we have seen. However, we have not yet viewed the type specimens and for the meantime are leaving it as a synonym of N. bongso. Nerz and Wistuba disagreed with this synonymisation. Charles Clarke elevated N. talangensis to a species once again in his 2001 book, Nepenthes of Sumatra and Peninsular Malaysia. The next detailed treatment of N. talangensis appeared in Stewart McPherson's 2009 monograph, Pitcher Plants of the Old World, which retained it as a separate species. Despite the taxonomic confusion that has surrounded N. bongso and N. talangensis, these two species are easily distinguished by their pitchers, which are quite dissimilar. Discovery of tetraploids The discovery of a new population of apparently tetraploid N. talangensis was reported by Kazuhisa Mio in the July 2006 issue of the Journal of Insectivorous Plant Society. Use in research Nepenthes talangensis was used in a 2009 study on the effect of prey capture on photosynthetic efficiency, published in the journal Annals of Botany. The following year, the same authors published a study on the effect of fertilisation on photosynthetic efficiency in prey-deprived N. talangensis. Description Nepenthes talangensis is a climbing plant growing to a height of 3 m. The stem is up to 0.5 cm in diameter and has internodes up to 10 cm long that are cylindrical-angular in cross section. The stem may be branched and is yellowish-green in colour. Leaves are coriaceous and sessile. The lamina (leaf blade) varies in shape and may be linear, lanceolate, or slightly spathulate. It measures up to 16 cm in length by 3 cm in width. The lamina has an acute or obtuse apex and an attenuate base that clasps the stem. Two to three longitudinal veins are present on either side of the midrib. Pinnate veins are irregularly reticulate. Tendrils are up to 30 cm long. The lamina is dark green throughout, whereas the midrib and tendril are yellowish-green like the stem. Rosette and lower pitchers are only produced briefly before the plant starts to climb. They are either entirely ovate or only ovate in the upper half and infundibular below. They often narrow just below the peristome. Terrestrial pitchers grow to 10 cm in height by 6 cm in width. A pair of fringed wings (≤10 mm wide) usually runs down the ventral surface of the trap, bearing filaments up to 8 mm long, although these wings may be absent altogether or only extend for a portion of the trap's length. The pitcher mouth is round and positioned horizontally in the front two-thirds, rising at the rear to form a short neck. The peristome is flattened, strongly incurved, and measures up to 15 mm in width. It bears ribs up to 0.8 mm high and spaced up to 1 mm apart. These ribs terminate in distinct teeth (≤3 mm long) on the inner margin of the peristome. The inner portion of the peristome accounts for around 78% of its total cross-sectional surface length. The peristome forms a short neck at the rear, where the teeth form two parallel rows. The inner surface is wholly glandular; there is no waxy zone. The pitcher lid or operculum is ovate to elliptic and has a cordate base. It measures up to 6 cm in length by 5 cm in width. It bears no appendages on its lower surface. A flattened spur measuring up to 5 mm in length is inserted near the base of the lid. It may or may not be branched. Lower pitchers are typically light yellow to olive green and speckled with red or purple. The inner surface is a light shade of yellow. The peristome is generally yellow or orange in freshly opened traps, later becoming dark red to purple as the pitcher matures. The upper surface of the lid is often yellow with orange to purple blotches, whereas the underside may be completely red, although this is not always the case. Upper pitchers are either narrowly infundibular in the basal half of the pitcher cup and swollen above or infundibular throughout. A constriction is present just below the peristome. Aerial traps reach 12 cm in height by 6 cm in width. In upper pitchers, the wings may be partially developed near the pitcher mouth, or they may be reduced to ribs. The peristome reaches up to 24 mm in width and is similarly incurved to that found in terrestrial traps. Other parts of upper pitchers are similar to their lower counterparts. Upper pitchers exhibit a similar pigmentation to lower pitchers, but are typically lighter. Nepenthes talangensis has a racemose inflorescence up to 14 cm long, of which the peduncle constitutes up to 5 cm and the rachis up to 9 cm. The peduncle has a basal diameter of 2 mm. Flowers are borne solitarily on pedicels (≤10 mm long) with simple bracts. Tepals are elliptic and up to 4 mm long. Female and male inflorescences have a similar structure. A sparse but persistent indumentum of simple, white hairs is present on most parts of the plant. The density of hairs on the pitchers may be so low that they appear glabrous. The laminar margins are lined with red, brown or white hairs measuring up to 3 mm. Nepenthes talangensis varies little across its restricted range and has no infraspecific taxa. Ecology Nepenthes talangensis is thought to be endemic to the area around Mount Talang in the Indonesian province of West Sumatra; it has been recorded from Mount Talang itself and from nearby Bukit Gombak. A population of apparently tetraploid plants is known. Although Nerz and Wistuba wrote in their formal description that N. talangensis is restricted to elevations above 2200 m, the species is now known to have a wider altitudinal distribution of 1800–2500 m. The typical habitat of N. talangensis is mossy upper montane forest, where it is almost exclusively terrestrial, but rarely may also be found as an epiphyte. It may grow in shady conditions under dense tree cover or among open, stunted shrubs where it is exposed to strong or even direct sunlight. At lower elevations of as little as 1800 m, N. talangensis is found in dense mossy forest, where it is sympatric with N. gymnamphora and N. inermis. Nepenthes talangensis is seldom sympatric with N. bongso, despite the latter being common on Mount Talang. This is because the two species occupy distinct ecological niches; N. bongso is typically an epiphyte in lower montane forest, whereas N. talangensis usually grows terrestrially in upper montane forest. Natural hybrids with all three sympatric Nepenthes species have been recorded. The conservation status of N. talangensis is listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List, based on an assessment carried out in 2000. This agrees with an informal assessment made by Charles Clarke in 2001, who also classified the species as Endangered based on the IUCN criteria. Since the species appears to be restricted to a single mountain, it would normally fall under the category of Critically Endangered. Stewart McPherson considered the species "not seriously threatened" in his 2009 monograph, describing extant wild populations as "extensive". A substantial number of plants persist on Mount Talang despite its recent volcanic activity, which has included large eruptions. Due to its status as an active volcano, Mount Talang receives few visitors and is not a major target for development. Carnivory Nepenthes talangensis produces extremely thick, mucilaginous pitcher liquid, which coats the entire inner surfaces of the traps in a thin film. The pitchers of this species appear to function at least in part as flypaper traps, with the sticky inner walls trapping flying insects above the surface of the fluid. Similarly viscous pitcher fluid is also found in seven other closely allied Sumatran species: N. aristolochioides, N. dubia, N. flava, N. inermis, N. jacquelineae, N. jamban, and N. tenuis. Together with N. talangensis, these species all share infundibular pitchers that are wholly glandular or almost so. Related species Despite being confused with N. bongso throughout much of its botanical history, N. talangensis is clearly distinct from this species and can easily be distinguished on the basis of its greatly incurved peristome and smaller laminae with hair-fringed margins. In addition, the lower pitchers of N. bongso have a cylindrical upper portion that is non-glandular, whereas the lower traps of N. talangensis lack this cylindrical section and are wholly glandular. Furthermore, the laminar apex is acute to obtuse in N. talangensis and has a simple tendril insertion; N. bongso has a rounded apex, typically with a sub-apical tendril insertion. The funnel-shaped upper pitchers of N. talangensis may also be reminiscent of species such as N. eymae, N. flava, N. inermis, N. pitopangii, and N. tenuis. However, N. talangensis differs from all of these in its combination of a wide lid without appendages and a greatly incurved peristome bearing conspicuous ribs and teeth. The pitchers of N. talangensis may also resemble those of N. jamban, but are not as broad around the mouth and have a much wider lid. Nepenthes aristolochioides is thought to be the closest relative of N. talangensis and these two species share a very similar lamina structure. However, they are easily separated by their pitchers; those of N. aristolochioides are uniquely dome-shaped and have an almost vertical pitcher opening. In their formal description of N. talangensis, Nerz and Wistuba compared it with N. bongso, N. dubia, and N. tenuis. The authors distinguished it from these species on the basis of the shape of the upper pitchers, the lid, and the length/width ratio of the upper pitchers. The ratio was given as 2.3 for N.talangensis; greater than that of N. tenuis (1.75) and N. dubia (1.9), but much lower than that of N. bongso (3.3). Natural hybrids Three natural hybrids involving N. talangensis have been recorded: with N. bongso, N. gymnamphora, and N. inermis. Nepenthes × pyriformis Nepenthes inermis is known to hybridise with N. talangensis on the upper slopes of Mount Talang, where the two species grow sympatrically. Since N. talangensis was only described as a distinct species in 1994, some of the older literature identifies this hybrid as N. bongso × N. inermis. This natural hybrid is similar to N. dubia, but can be distinguished on the basis of several stable characters. The hybrid has a wider pitcher lid that is never relfexed beyond 90 degrees and the pitcher cup is not appressed in the lower parts as in N. dubia. In addition, the mouth of N. inermis × N. talangensis is raised towards the back as opposed to being horizontal. Nepenthes inermis × N. talangensis has been the subject of taxonomic confusion in the past. In a 1973 article on the Nepenthes of Borneo, Singapore, and Sumatra, Shigeo Kurata incorrectly identified specimens of this hybrid as belonging to N. dubia. In 1997, Matthew Jebb and Martin Cheek published their monograph "A skeletal revision of Nepenthes (Nepenthaceae)", in which they referred to N. dubia plant material from Mount Talang (Kurata s.n. SING). Charles Clarke later identified Kurata s.n. as representing N. inermis × N. talangensis. In 2001, Kurata described this hybrid as a new species, N. pyriformis. Clarke rejected this interpretation in his monograph, Nepenthes of Sumatra and Peninsular Malaysia, published the same year. Clarke found that the type specimen of N. pyriformis, Kurata & Mikil 4230 NDC, matches the appearance of N. inermis × N. talangensis "in most respects". References Further reading Hernawati & P. Akhriadi 2006. A Field Guide to the Nepenthes of Sumatra. PILI-NGO Movement, Bogor. Meimberg, H., A. Wistuba, P. Dittrich & G. Heubl 2001. Molecular phylogeny of Nepenthaceae based on cladistic analysis of plastid trnK intron sequence data. Plant Biology 3(2): 164–175. Meimberg, H. 2002. Ph.D. thesis, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, Munich. Meimberg, H. & G. Heubl 2006. Introduction of a nuclear marker for phylogenetic analysis of Nepenthaceae. Plant Biology 8(6): 831–840. Meimberg, H., S. Thalhammer, A. Brachmann & G. Heubl 2006. Comparative analysis of a translocated copy of the trnK intron in carnivorous family Nepenthaceae. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 39(2): 478–490. Puspitaningtyas, D.M. & H. Wawangningrum 2007. Keanekaragaman Nepenthes di Suaka Alam Sulasih Talang - Sumatera Barat. [Nepenthes diversity in Sulasih Talang Nature Reserve - West Sumatra.] Biodiversitas 8(2): 152–156. Cover External links Photographs of N. talangensis Carnivorous plants of Asia talangensis Endemic flora of Sumatra Plants described in 1994 Endangered plants
4853407	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mudhalvan	Mudhalvan	Mudhalvan () is a 1999 Indian Tamil-language political action film produced by R. Madhesh and S. Shankar, written and directed by Shankar. The film stars Arjun, Manisha Koirala and Raghuvaran while Vadivelu and Manivannan appear in supporting roles. The film featured an award-winning soundtrack composed by A. R. Rahman, cinematography by K. V. Anand and dialogues by Sujatha. The film revolves around an ambitious TV journalist, Pughazhendi, who gets his first interview with the Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu. Pughazh asks harder questions, and the Chief Minister starts trembling and asks him to put his money where his mic is and become his replacement CM for a day. After initially rejecting the offer, Pugazh agrees and does such a great job on his first day, that the actual cabinet collapses and fresh elections are held, where state voters eventually elect him to be their new official Chief Minister. The subsequent unpopularity and jealousy that the old Chief Minister goes through results in him taking revenge on Pugazh, and how he has stopped forms the crux of the story. The film was released on 7 November 1999, as a Diwali release. The film enjoyed positive critical acclaim and emerged as one of the top-grossing Tamil films of 1999. The film ran for over 100 days in theatres and won awards on a regional scale. The film was later remade in Hindi as Nayak: The Real Hero (2001). Also, the film was unofficially remade in Bangladeshi Bengali as Minister (2002) and loosely remade in Indian Bengali as MLA Fatakeshto (2006). Plot N. Pugazhendi alias Pugazh is a news reporter working for QTV in Chennai. One day, a riot occurs between the students and the bus drivers in the city following a communal clash that disrupts normal life. The Chief Minister of the state, Aranganathar, informs the police over wireless not to arrest the protesters as they belong to his community and political party. The conversation is recorded by Pugazh in his video camera. Pugazh meets Thenmozhi and falls for her honesty and bravery. However, her father does not accept the marriage proposal as he wants to get Thenmozhi married only to a government employee. One day, QTV arranges a live interview with Aranganathar, and the anchor in charge left his job and joined another television channel UTV, a rival of QTV. Pugazh is thrilled and excited as he gets the opportunity to interview the CM. During the course of the interview, Pugazh unmasks many events done by Aranganathar and his party against the welfare of the state, for political reasons with the necessary evidence, and he also blames Aranganathar for not taking action while at the riot by evidencing his recorded video taken at the time of the riot. Aranganathar justifies his indifferent stands and challenges Pugazh to accept his post for a day so that he will realise the pressures faced on a daily basis. Pugazh, after a brief trepidation, accepts the challenge provided the constitution permits. Lawmakers confirm that such a provision is possible, and Pugazh is sworn in as the CM for 24 hours. To everyone's surprise, Pugazh does not prefer speaking to the waiting media crew, but he gets into action immediately by collecting a list of irresponsible civil servants and issuing suspension letters immediately. He helps poor people rightfully reclaim houses allotted by the government and requests every Indian citizen to pay all required taxes even if it is for a day, highlighting the effects of avoiding the same. Balakrishnan, an honest official, is the government secretary and helps Pugazh through his one-day mission. Finally, Pugazh digs a case of corruption against the ruling party leading to the arrest of multiple ex-ministers and even Aranganathar. The same night, Aranganar obtains bail through the attorney general, without even going to Jail. Within minutes of release, he takes Pugazh's success as his defeat and a demean to his long-standing political career and sends goons to kill Pugazh, who fights off and escapes with minor injuries. Pugazh visits Poonjlai and is applauded by the villagers for his actions in the Agri department. He spends his day with Thenmozhi in peace. Meanwhile, Aranganathar's image is tarnished before the public, and all of his coalition parties refuse to support him to become CM again, resulting in the dissolution of the legislature, and precipitating a General election. Surveys from multiple media indicate enormous public support for Pugazh to become CM, leading to Aranganathar's anger. He uses his clout to get Pugazh's house partly demolished. Mayakrishnan meanwhile goes to the QTV office to convince Pugazh to come to politics, but Pugazh refuses and states that he is preparing for the TNPSC exam. QTV headquarters is then attacked heavily and Pugazh is nearly beaten to death. The next morning, a huge crowd gathers in front of Pugazh's house, requesting him to contest in the upcoming election. Many political parties also come forward to get his support. However, Pugazh doesn't wish to contest as he wants to lead a normal life. Thenmozhi's father meets him and advises him not to go into politics while accepting his marriage to Thenmozhi, but Mayakrishnan makes Pugazh understand the vast support he has and shows the plight of people and advises him to sacrifice his comfort zone for the sake of achieving heights in the politics and doing good for the people. Finally, Pugazh accepts and contests in the ensuing election. His party wins by the vast majority of votes never seen in the political history of Tamil Nadu and takes all seats in the Legislature. After assuming the office, Pugazh is keen on state development and gets busy with his schedule of doing welfare to the people, while Aranganathar and other politicians unite and plot to avenge their political failure. They hire a hitman to kill Pugazh, but he escapes the attempt with the help of the Z Cadre security guard officials, who kill the hitman. Pughaz's parents are killed in a bomb blast placed in his house. Enraged at learning Aranganathar is behind the death of his parents, Pugazh challenges the latter that the law will not spare him. Aranganathar plans to create havoc in the state and has his men plant bombs across Chennai. Pugazh and Mayakrishnan get to know of this by a tactful inquiry of Chinnasamy, who is Aranganathar's right-hand henchman. The bomb squad diffuses all the bombs except one. Meanwhile, Aranganathar blames Pugazh to be the man behind the entire episode and claims it was a ploy to win public support. Pugazh realises that he will be prevented from performing his duties and invites Aranganathar to his office. As their conversation progresses, Pugazh pulls out a gun and shoots himself without causing any major injuries. He throws the gun to Aranganathar who catches it out of his reflexes. At the same time, the security guards officials rush in upon hearing gunfire and see Aranganathar pointing the gun at Pugazh. The security guards shoot and kill Aranganathar. A dying Aranganathar remembers his old interview with Pugazh, which had changed everything. Mayakrishnan blames the deceased Aranganathar for trying to kill the Chief Minister out of political rivalry. Pugazh feels glad that he can continue his mission without being interrupted, but he also feels guilty for having staged a false incident to kill Aranganathar. He confesses to Mayakrishnan that even he has been forced to play the game of politics. Mayakrishnan supports him by consoling that he played politics only for a good cause and that Aranganathar deserves this. Thenmozhi's father realises the greatness of Pugazhendhi and consents to the marriage. Due to the administration by Pugazh, the city has become a highly developed state with world-class infrastructures and free of violence. Cast Arjun as TV journalist/Chief Minister Pugazhenthi Manisha Koirala as Thenmozhi (Voice over by Durga) Raghuvaran as Chief Minister Aranganathar Laila as Kalakkal Shuba, Pugazhenthi's former boss and colleague news reporter (Voice over by Savitha Reddy) Manivannan as Chief Secretary Maya Krishnan Vadivelu as Palavesham Artist Natanam as R. Narayanan, Pugazhenthi's father Kalairani as Pugazhenthi's mother Vijayakumar as Thenmozhi's father Cochin Haneefa as Chinnasamy, Aranganathar's right-hand henchman Fathima Babu as Maragadham, Aranganathar's wife S. V. Ramadoss as Minister Thirupathisamy, coalition party leader Besant Ravi as slum rogue Alei Scissor Manohar as a bus driver in the student riot Surya as Manohar, Chief of Security for Pugazhenthi Sampath Ram as Sub-Inspector Robo Chandru Kanal Kannan as auto driver (cameo appearance) Omakuchi Narasimhan as Palavesham's uncle (cameo appearance) Ahmed Khan as a dancer in Shakalaka Baby song Sushmita Sen in item number "Shakalaka Baby" Production Development Following the success of Jeans (1998), S. Shankar chose to make a political action film, which would later become Mudhalvan. Casting The lead role was initially written with Rajinikanth in mind, but he was unwilling to star in the film. Vijay was also considered by Shankar for the role, though the actor turned the offer down. Shankar revealed that he even approached Kamal Haasan for the film, but he was doing Hey Ram at that time. Arjun, who had previously collaborated with Shankar in Gentleman (1993), was willing to offer bulk schedule dates for the film and was subsequently signed on. Shankar noted that he was interested in casting Meena in the leading role, but he opted against doing so as the actress was working with Arjun in another film in the same period, Rhythm (2000). Subsequently, Manisha Koirala, who worked with Shankar in Indian, was selected to play Arjun's heroine. Raghuvaran was signed to play the chief antagonist in the film, while Vadivelu and Manivannan were also chosen to play other characters. Despite reports that Shilpa Shetty was added to the cast in February 1999, it was later clarified to be untrue. Laila, who had made her acting debut earlier in the year with Kallazhagar, was signed on to portray the role planned with Shetty instead. Originally, her role was supposed to feature throughout the film, but Shankar shortened her character, owing to her call sheet problems. Renowned muralist Natanam and Kalairani were cast as Arjun's parents. S. Sashikanth, who went on to produce films like Thamizh Padam (2010) and Kaaviya Thalaivan (2014), and K. R. Mathivaanan, who directed Aridhu Aridhu (2010), worked as assistant directors. Filming The film was jointly launched by S. Shankar and his co-director R. Madhesh in October 1998 at an event attended by actors and technicians from the Tamil film industry, with actors Rajinikanth and Kamal Haasan being the special invitees. Production continued for several months, with reports suggesting that the film was delayed due to Manisha Koirala's unavailability though Shankar later stressed the production work demanded such delay. Parts of the film were also shot in Bikaner, Rajasthan while the team also shot extensively in rural Tamil Nadu. The film's cinematographer Anand later noted that the scenes involving crowds shot on Anna Salai, Chennai were among the hardest and most satisfying scenes he had worked on. The song "Shakalaka Baby" was the last song to be shot, with Sushmita Sen selected to feature in a special appearance for the song. Stunt master Peter Hein revealed that he worked as a body double for Arjun in the scene where he had to run nude on the streets. Themes and influences The film dealt with the theme of a television cameraman who is forced to take over the duty of Chief Minister for one day. It also dealt with the concept of opportunities for educated people in politics and demonstrated it is possible to bring change in the country. The film's basic idea was inspired from Nixon-Frost interviews which were broadcast in 1977 and also inspired by Indian actor Sivaji Ganesan being named the honorary mayor of Niagara Falls, New York for one day during his visit to the United States. Soundtrack The soundtrack features six songs composed by A. R. Rahman and lyrics penned by Vairamuthu. The song "Shakalaka Baby" was re-edited by A. R. Rahman and featured on the international musical production Bombay Dreams, which ran in Europe and North America from 2002 to 2005. This version was also released as a single. A Mandarin Chinese remix of the track sung by Singaporean singer Kelly Poon was featured in her album In the Heart Of The World (2007). The release of the soundtrack was held at Sathyam Cinemas, Chennai, on 31 October 1999 with two songs from the film being performed on stage. The special guests for the event were actor Kamal Haasan and actress Sushmita Sen, who performed an item number in the film. The event was well attended by the cast and the crew of the film, with other guests including cinematographer P. C. Sriram, actress Sarika, and actor Suriya. The soundtrack was a success, and the initial day audio sale alone was more than three lakh units. The song "Azhagana Rakshasiye" is based on Rithigowla Raga. Release The film's release prints were long. The film was released on 7 November 1999 while the Telugu dubbed version, Oke Okkadu released on 9 November 1999 which was also a commercial success. Upon release, the film won positive reviews and was successful at the box office. It was later remade in Hindi as Nayak. The film went on to run for over one hundred days in cinemas with an event being held at Kamaraj Hall on 25 February 2000 to mark one hundred days since release. The event, similar to the launch, attracted several people from the film industry with Kamal Haasan, once again, being the chief guest of the event. Reception On 21 November 1999, Ananda Vikatan in its review gave 43 marks and appreciated the film stating that: "One can see Shankar's grandeur in the way he presented a social problem magnificently. Shankar has approached a serious social issue with usual entertainment elements". The Hindu said "Shankar scores again". In regard to the lead performances, Arjun is described as having "acquitted himself with aplomb", while Manisha's performance was criticised with claims that she "lacks the freshness that one always associates her with". The critic also referred to Shankar's direction and Sujatha's dialogues as a "positive", while drawing praise to the videos of the songs describing that "every song and dance sequence seems a magnum opus by itself". The New Indian Express described the film as "absorbing" and praised certain scenes, although it criticised the videos of the songs as a "fiasco". Aurangazeb of Kalki praised the screenplay and certain scenes which make impact but panned the visual effects and felt the film has a documentary feel which is both positive and negative. Awards Filmfare Best Music Director Award – A. R. Rahman Filmfare Award for Best Female Playback Singer – Tamil – Vasundhara Das for "Shakalaka Baby" Filmfare Award for Best Dance Choreographer – South – Chinni Prakash Tamil Nadu State Film Award for Best Villain – Raghuvaran Tamil Nadu State Film Award for Best Music Director – A. R. Rahman Nominated – Tamil Nadu State Film Award for Best Comedian – Vadivelu Nominated – Filmfare Award for Best Actor - Tamil – Arjun Sarja Legacy The scene where a crowd gathers around the protagonist's house to persuade him to contest elections was included by Behindwoods in their list of "Top 20 Mass Scenes". Popular culture Songs from the film's soundtrack inspired a number of Tamil film titles. Rama Narayanan directed a film titled Shakalaka Baby in 2002, while Radha Mohan made Uppu Karuvaadu in 2015. A film titled Lukku Vida Thonalaiyaa, a line from the song "Shakalaka Baby", also began production in 2002 but was not released. The scenes, songs and dialogues from the film has been parodied in Budget Padmanabhan (2000), Kandha Kadamba Kathir Vela (2000), Kanna Unnai Thedukiren (2001), Run (2002), Dubai Seenu (2007), Sivaji (2007), Singakutty (2008), and Kaalaippani (2008). The film has also been spoofed in Star Vijay's Lollu Sabha with the same title with Santhanam as the main character. In 2017 film Kavan, the interview scene was inspired from this film. See also Servant of the People (TV series) (2015–2019), Ukrainian comedy television series with similar concept, starring Volodymyr Zelenskyy. References Bibliography External links 1990s political films 1990s Tamil-language films 1999 action films 1999 films Fictional portrayals of the Tamil Nadu Police Films about corruption in India Films about elections Films about journalists Films about mass media people Films about the mass media in India Films directed by S. Shankar Films scored by A. R. Rahman Films shot in Rajasthan Films shot in Chennai Films shot in Thrissur Films shot in Chalakudy Indian action films Indian political films Journalism adapted into films Political action films Tamil films remade in other languages
4853509	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media%20in%20The%20Simpsons	Media in The Simpsons	Media is a recurring theme of satire on The Simpsons. The show is known for its satire of American popular culture and especially television culture, but has since its inception covered all types of media such as animation, journalism, commercials, comic books, movies, internet, and music. The series centers on a family and their life in a typical American town but the town of Springfield acts as a complete universe. The town features a vast array of media channels—from kids' television programming to local news, which enables the producers to make jokes about themselves and the entertainment industry. Most of The Simpsons media satire focuses on television. This is mainly done through three characters: Krusty the Clown, Sideshow Bob, and until 1998 Troy McClure. The Itchy & Scratchy Show is a show within a show, used as a satire of animation and in some cases The Simpsons itself. Topics include censorship, plagiarism, unoriginal writing, live-action clip shows and documentaries. Kent Brockman, Springfield's principal news presenter illustrates the glibness, amplification, and sensationalism of broadcast journalism. His tabloidization methods include making people look guilty without trial, and invasion of privacy by setting up camp outside people's homes. Background The Simpsons is known for its satire of American popular culture and especially television culture. It uses the standard setup of a situation comedy, or sitcom, as its premise and centers on a family and their life in a typical American town. However, its animated nature gives The Simpsons an unusually large scope. The town of Springfield acts as a complete universe in which characters can explore the issues faced by modern society. The town has a vast array of media channels—from children's television series to local news, which enables the producers to make jokes about themselves and the entertainment industry. On the radio, the citizens of Springfield have fictional radio stations such as KBBL-AM, KBBL-FM, KUDD, WKOMA, KJAZZ, KFSL, and WOMB. Using The Simpsons as an example of Media literacy education, Jonathan Gray discusses the role that television, and specifically television parody, might play in teaching the techniques and rhetoric of television to audiences. Several characters have a role in this satire. Krusty the Clown is a hard-living entertainment veteran, who has his own show: The Krusty the Klown Show, which is aimed towards a children's audience and has many followers, including Bart Simpson. He is sometimes depicted as a jaded, burned out has-been, who has been down and out several times and remains addicted to gambling, cigarettes, alcohol, Percodan, Pepto-Bismol, and Xanax. He instantly becomes depressed as soon as the cameras stop rolling; In his book Planet Simpson: How a Cartoon Masterpiece Documented an Era and Defined a Generation, author Chris Turner describes Krusty as "the wizened veteran, the total pro" who lives the celebrity life but is miserable and needs his celebrity status. Krusty has been described as "the consummate showman who can't bear the possibility of not being on the air and not entertaining people". His television shows are of mixed quality and all of his merchandise is of low quality, to the point of being potentially dangerous. While Krusty represents low culture, Sideshow Bob represents high culture. He began his career as the non-speaking sidekick on Krusty the Clown's television show. Frustrated by his early role as the target of "Krusty's cheap gags", Bob frames Krusty and takes over the show. He changes the content of that show to present readings of classic literature and segments examining the emotional lives of pre-teens. He believes that by exposing the kids to high culture he will improve their lives. Arnold writes that "Bob's own conscience and morality are clearly unaffected by the high culture he represents." He also tries to "manipulate the tastes of the masses" by becoming a criminal mastermind. In the book Leaving Springfield, David L. G. Arnold comments that Bart is a product of a "mass-culture upbringing" and thus is Bob's enemy. Turner writes that Bob is built into a highbrow snob and conservative Republican so that the writers can continually hit him with a rake and bring him down. Troy McClure is a stereotypical Hollywood has-been. He was a star in the early 1970s, but his career went downhill due to rumors of a paraphilia involving fish. In most of his appearances in the show, he hosts short video clips that other characters watch on television or in a public place. He often presents educational videos and infomercials. Turner argues that "the smarmy Hollywood type...has been done to death, but Hartman's version breathed new life into it with each appearance. McClure has become the apotheosis of the stereotype, a gut-achingly funny reinterpretation whose trademark introduction...has become a shorthand way to describe any grossly artificial media figure." In addition to his in-story appearances, McClure appears as host of "The Simpsons 138th Episode Spectacular" and "The Simpsons Spin-Off Showcase". Network notes Back when The Simpsons was developed as a half hour show, co-creator James L. Brooks negotiated an unusual provision in the contract with the Fox network that prevented Fox from interfering with the show's content. He was able to do that, because Fox back then was a minor fledgling network. Former showrunner Bill Oakley considered working on the show to be similar to working in a bubble due to the lack of interference from the Fox network's executives, as is commonplace on other shows. This allowed them to produce any episodes they wanted, as showrunner Josh Weinstein commented: "The great thing about The Simpsons is that we pretty much were able to get away with everything, so there weren't any episodes we really wanted to do that we couldn't do. Even the crazy high-concept ones like 'Two Bad Neighbors' and 'Homer's Enemy' we managed to put on the air because honestly there were no network execs there to stop us." Network notes were parodied at the beginning of the episode "Day of the Jackanapes". Krusty is shown being pestered by network executives who comment on every choice he makes. He announces his departure of The Krusty the Klown Show after the executives give him notes during filming of a sketch. At the end of the episode, Mr. Teeny is uncertain of where he should throw the plastic explosives that Bart wore. When he sees the two executives discussing in a room, he throws it onto them. Instead of dying of the explosion however, the pieces of the executives reconstitute into what Jean describes as a "super-executive". These sequences were inspired by Jean's dissatisfaction with some network executives, who he felt took control over a television series he was working on before he returned to The Simpsons in 1999. "I had just worked on a show on another network [...] we had a show where there were a lot of notes from executives", Jean said of the inspiration for the scenes. In "The Itchy & Scratchy & Poochie Show" The Simpsons writers mocks the notion of network executives forcing ideas onto a show. The interaction between the writers and the network executives in the episode underscore the differences between them. The writers understand the show's inner workings, but the network executives' approach improvements to the show from a business point-of-view. They try to incorporate what they see as a rebellious character into a failing television show with the comment "This is popular with the kids", but the viewers later reject the character. The Fox network itself is often the target of jokes. In "Missionary: Impossible" the episode cuts away from the main story near the end to a telethon, populated by Bender (from Futurama), Thurgood Stubbs (from The PJs), Hank Hill (from King of the Hill), Luke Perry (Dylan in Beverly Hills, 90210), David Duchovny and Gillian Anderson (Mulder and Scully from The X-files), and the owner of the Fox network Rupert Murdoch. The host, Betty White, tells the viewers "So if you don't want to see crude, lowbrow programming disappear from the airwaves ... please call now". In "The Simpsons Spin-Off Showcase," Troy McClure explains that the Fox network had approached the producers of The Simpsons to create "thirty-five new shows to fill a few holes in their programming line-up". He then shows the viewers a weekly programming schedule consisting of only The Simpsons, The X-files, and Melrose Place surrounded by question marks. Matt Groening notes in an interview that The Simpsons is in a unique place, and when former producers/writers move to different networks, they are told that "We would never have The Simpsons on our network". On this issue Robert Sloane concludes in Leaving Springfield that "In sum, the show seems to defy certain industry practices." Television Unoriginal writing The episode "The Simpsons Spin-Off Showcase" was a satire over unoriginal, poor television writing and references and parodies many TV shows. The episode features three spin-off ideas for The Simpsons show, which also functions as a critique of spin-offs in general. Troy McClure introduces the three spin-offs as a host of the episode, something he had previously done in the episode "The Simpsons 138th Episode Spectacular". Creator Matt Groening was uneasy about the idea, feeling that it could be mistranslated as actually poor sitcom writing. He also did not like the idea of breaking the fourth wall and the concept of saying that the Simpsons were just actors in a television show. The three segments were: Chief Wiggum, P.I. is a parody of police-dramas, such as Miami Vice, Magnum, P.I. and Starsky & Hutch. Seymour Skinner emulates Don Johnson from Miami Vice in order to look scruffier. The Love-matic Grampa is a parody of fantasy sitcoms such as Mister Ed, I Dream of Jeannie and Bewitched as well as having similarities to My Mother the Car. The segment demanded a different approach to directing than a usual The Simpsons episode. Director Neil Affleck had to emulate a three-camera setup, as is normally used in sitcoms. The Simpson Family Smile-Time Variety Hour is a parody of the 1960s and 1970s live variety shows. Mainly it is a parody of The Brady Bunch Hour, a short-lived spin-off of the 1970s sitcom The Brady Bunch. The replacement of Lisa in the third segment with another girl reflects the recasting of Jan Brady in the Brady Bunch Hour when Eve Plumb refused to participate. The Simpson family is made to look like The Partridge Family. Also, the segment holds numerous references to Laugh-In, The Sonny & Cher Comedy Hour, and The Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour. Catchphrase-based humor was mocked in the episode "Bart Gets Famous". The writers chose the phrase "I didn't do it" because they wanted a "lousy" phrase "to point out how really crummy things can become really popular". It was also an intentional call back to the first season episode "Krusty Gets Busted" where it was a catchphrase of Krusty the Clown. When people in the episode eventually got tired of the catchphrase "I didn't do it", Lisa tells Bart that now "you can go back to just being you, instead of a one-dimensional character with a silly catchphrase". The episode ends with a self-referential scene in which several characters say their catchphrases, including the Simpsons, Ned Flanders, Nelson Muntz, Mr. Burns and Barney Gumble. The episode "Behind the Laughter" was a parody of the music documentary series Behind the Music, which was popular during the episode's production. It tells the fictional history of the Simpson family and how they got into show business; from their weak beginnings to their exceptional prosperity. A television show, a recording contract, a lot of awards, and countless wealth follow Homer's inadequate video "pilot". It took the writers a long time to conceptualize the show, as they were unsure whether to make Homer a filmmaker or make the characters unaware they were being filmed. The writers had particular fun writing over the top, melodramatic lines "tortured metaphors," many of which were penned by producer David Mirkin. Part of the imitating of Behind the Music was using the "corny, stock interstitial footage to amp up the drama of the situation". In the clip show "The Simpsons 138th Episode Spectacular", the entire setup of Troy McClure presenting the episode is a parody of the practice by live-action series to produce clip shows in general. The parody was done by celebrating a completely random milestone and by making exaggerated use of the conventions of traditional highlight shows, such as a grand introduction and relentlessly showbizzy host. Considered a spoof of television clip shows, the episode is seen drawing attention to prevailing televisual conventions and reminds viewers that The Simpsons itself participates actively in that same cultural legacy. Simone Knox referred to it in her article Reading the Ungraspable Double-Codedness of "The Simpsons" as not simply a clip show, "but a ‘clip show’ that looks at the series with a sense of hyper-self-consciousness about its own textuality". Since "Gump Roast", there have not been any more clip shows. The show now instead produces episodes with three adaptations of existing stories for each act, called "trilogy episodes", rendering a clip show unnecessary. Self reflectivity One of the goals of showrunners Bill Oakley and Josh Weinstein was to create several episodes in each season which would "push the envelope conceptually". The idea for the episode "Homer's Enemy" was first conceived by Oakley who thought that Homer should have an enemy. The thought evolved into the concept of a "real world" co-worker who would either love or hate Homer. The writers chose the latter as they thought it would have funnier results. The result was the character of Grimes, a man who had to work hard all his life with nothing to show for it, and is dismayed and embittered by Homer's success and comfort in spite of his inherent laziness and ignorance. "Homer's Enemy" explores the comic possibilities of a realistic character with a strong work ethic placed alongside Homer in a work environment. In an essay for the book Leaving Springfield, Robert Sloane describes the episode as "an incisive consideration of The Simpsons'''s world. Although The Simpsons is known for its self-reflectivity, the show had never looked at (or critiqued) itself as directly as it does in ["Homer's Enemy"]." In the episode, Homer is portrayed as an everyman and the embodiment of the American spirit; however, in some scenes his negative characteristics and silliness are prominently highlighted. By the close of the episode, Grimes, a hard working and persevering "real American hero," is relegated to the role of antagonist; it is intended that the viewer be pleased that Homer has emerged victorious. The episode "Behind the Laughter" is also largely self-referential. A series of T-shirts are shown sporting a number of Bart Simpson catchphrases: "You bet your sweet bippy, man." "Life begins at conception, man." These are parodies of both officially licensed and bootleg Simpsons-themed T-shirts in the early days of the series, usually revolving around Bart. The famous scene of Homer plummeting off the jagged cliffs after trying to jump Springfield Gorge on Bart's skateboard from the season two episode "Bart the Daredevil" is shown, however, "Behind the Laughter" shows us the "unfunny aftermath" of Homer going through physical rehabilitation and becoming addicted to pain pills. The episode states the series turned to "gimmicky premises and nonsensical plots" as ratings dipped, and uses a clip from the season nine episode "The Principal and the Pauper" to get that point across: a highly controversial episode that many fans and critics panned. "The Itchy & Scratchy & Poochie Show" mainly deals with themes commonly known as "jumping the shark," instances that usually occur when a failing show adds a new character or twist to boost ratings. Before production of season eight began, Fox executives suggested the staff to add a new character to the show, who would live with the Simpsons on a permanent basis. The staff, amused with the idea, decided to write this episode as a commentary on what it was like to work on a television show that had been on the air for several years. Parallel to Poochie being introduced on Itchy & Scratchy, they inserted the one-time character Roy, with no explanation as to who he was, or why he was there, as a reference to the executive's proposal. Usually, this is a technique used in shows that involves children who have grown up. This was the case in "Oliver" in The Brady Bunch or "Luke" on Growing Pains. The episode was intended to be a commentary on what it was like to work on a television show that had been on the air for a long time but was nearing its end. It was intended to show that The Simpsons could still be good after eight seasons, even though it no longer had the "shock value" it did in the early years. The Simpsons would, in a later episode "The Simpsons Spin-Off Showcase," mock the addition of The Great Gazoo into some of the final episodes of The Flintstones by stating that, in future episodes, Homer would meet a green space alien named Ozmodiar that only he can see. Commercialism Television advertisements are also parodied. As an example there is a song and visual sequence in the episode "The Last Temptation of Krust" that was modeled after Ford commercials. The sequence is a parody of a commercial for a sport utility vehicle, and Hank Williams Jr. sings a song about the fictional "Canyonero" accompanied by country guitar music and whip cracks. The song "Canyonero" closely resembles the theme to the 1960s television series Rawhide. The first verse of the song is: "Can you name the car with a four-wheel drive / Smells like a steak and seats thirty-five? / Canyonero! / Canyonero!" Turner wrote positively of the Canyonero spoof piece in Planet Simpson, calling it "a brilliant parody of an SUV ad". In an article in the journal Environmental Politics Steve Vanderheiden commented that the Canyonero reflected an "anti-SUV" stance by The Simpsons. In an article in the San Francisco Chronicle about SUV owners, Vicki Haddock wrote "SUV owners have become something of a punch line, succinctly captured in a "Simpsons" parody touting the apocryphal Canyonero [...]" In his book Watching with The Simpsons: Television, Parody, and Intertextuality, Jonathan Gray analyses a scene from the episode "Girly Edition" in which it is announced that Kidz News has been replaced by the children's cartoon The Mattel and Mars Bar Quick Energy Chocobot Hour (a reference to the Mattel toys and the Mars chocolate bar). He says this mocks "how many children's programs have become little more than the ad to the merchandise". Gray also writes that The Simpsons "illustrates how the ad as genre has itself already invaded many, if not all, genres. Ads and marketing do not limit themselves to the space between programs; rather, they are themselves textual invaders, and part of The Simpsons parodic attack on ads involves revealing their hiding places in other texts." AnimationThe Itchy & Scratchy Show is a show within a show that appears occasionally in episodes of The Simpsons. They typically appear in the form of 15-60 second cartoons that are filled with over-the-top violence, usually initiated by Itchy the mouse against Scratchy the cat; Itchy is almost always the victor. The show is usually a parody of traditional cartoons or takeoffs on famous films, but the plot and content are always violent. The most direct and obvious example is Tom and Jerry, an animated series which was also about a constant battle between a cat and a mouse, with the mouse usually victorious. Itchy and Scratchy cartoons are often added when a show needs expanding or when there is an issue that the writers wish to satirize. In some cases, notably in "The Itchy & Scratchy & Poochie Show", the writers use Itchy & Scratchy as a way to comment on The Simpsons. Several episodes that centered on Itchy and Scratchy dealt with censorship issues. In the episode "Itchy & Scratchy & Marge", Marge successfully forms a protest group that forces network to take Itchy and Scratchy off the air, citing the cartoon violence unsuitable for children. The episode was partially inspired by Terry Rakolta, who protested the Fox network over the show Married... with Children. When Itchy and Scratchy are cancelled, the kids of Springfield resort to playing in a wholesome manner. The montage was a satirical point by saying the opposite of what the writers believed. For the episode, which handles a large issue, the writers tried not to have a point of view and looked at both sides, despite what the writers personally felt. The episode "Itchy & Scratchy Land" was written as a response to new, more stringent censorship laws that had been put in place. As a result, the Fox network tried to stop the writers from including Itchy & Scratchy cartoons in episodes. In response, the writers created this episode, which they decided would be as violent as possible. The network threatened that if the episode was produced, they would cut the Itchy & Scratchy parts out themselves, but relented when showrunner David Mirkin threatened to tell the media. Mirkin further tried to put "as much blood and guts" into the episode "Treehouse of Horror V" as he could. He had received several complaints by the United States Congress about the amount of violence on the show and he did not like their attempt to censor it. The episode was later described as "the most [...] disturbing Halloween show ever" by Mirkin. The episode begins with Marge warning that the episode that is about to air has so much guts and violence that Congress will not let them show it. The three main segments are linked with Groundskeeper Willie being killed in all three of them. The first segment has Homer attempting to kill the rest of the family, the second segment has Homer killing anything and everything in the prehistoric past, and the final segment revolves around Springfield Elementary eating children. To top it off, the Simpsons do a song and dance number, with their insides turned inside out, over the closing credits.The Itchy & Scratchy Show-related episode "The Day the Violence Died" functioned as a vehicle for jokes about animation and plagiarism. In the episode, the owner of the Itchy and Scratchy characters is accused of fraud, when the original authorship of the characters comes into question. When the owner pleads his case in court, he mentions that several animated television series and characters were plagiarized from other series and characters: "Animation is built on plagiarism! If it weren't for someone plagiarizing The Honeymooners, we wouldn't have The Flintstones. If someone hadn't ripped off Sergeant Bilko, there'd be no Top Cat!. Huckleberry Hound, Chief Wiggum, Yogi Bear? Andy Griffith, Edward G. Robinson, Art Carney!" Journalism The character Kent Brockman functions as The Simpsonss main character for news parodies. He was based on Los Angeles anchormen Hal Fishman and Jerry Dunphy, and modeled after anchorman Ted Koppel. Another influence on the character was The Mary Tyler Moore Show's Ted Baxter, played by Ted Knight. His role on The Simpsons is to host the news as the fictional television channel, Channel 6's anchorman. In addition to the news, he also hosts the programs Eye on Springfield and Smartline. Brockman is joined by Scott Christian and Arnie Pye on the Channel 6 news team. Originally, Scott Christian was the anchor and Brockman was the field reporter, but the show shifted focus to Brockman. Arnie Pye is a helicopter-based traffic reporter that sometimes helps with field reports other than traffic. In most of his appearances, Brockman seems more interested in entertaining the viewers than informing them of real news. In "Homer Loves Flanders" Brockman calls the United States Army a "kill-bot factory" in a news broadcast. Mirkin said this was a joke the staff "particularly loved to do" because it pointed out how negative and mean-spirited news broadcasts can be, and how they are seemingly "always trying to scare everybody" by creating panic and depression. Turner said that "in Brockman's journalism, we see some of the modern news media's ugliest biases", of which he says are glibness, amplification, and sensationalism. MSN called Brockman one of the worst TV news anchors. A real-life journalist named Reid, who Gray interviewed for his book, states that the episode "Girly Edition" mirrors well how some journalists actually work. She said the episode shows "the ludicrous nature of, you know, what we do in a lot of things. The kids news with Bart and Lisa: I mean, you see them do really stupid stories about the news, and 'news you can use,' and 'how to get rid of your sheets when you wet them.' I mean, people really do stories like that." Steven Keslowitz writes in his book The World According to the Simpsons that the episode showcases the fact that "the viewing of attractive newscasters and the use of persuasive tones of voice often do have an impact on the minds of many intelligent members of American society." With that said, the episode parodies the relationship between hard and intelligent journalism championed by Lisa and the "Up Close and Personal" style preferred by Bart. Similar to the show's parody of the Fox network, The Simpsons also makes jokes about Fox News. Near the beginning of the episode "The Fool Monty", a Fox News helicopter can be seen, with the slogan "Fox News: Not Racist, But #1 With Racists". Bill O'Reilly, host of the Fox News show The O'Reilly Factor, aired the clip during the show's "Pinheads and Patriots" segment, saying "Continuing to bite the hand that feeds part of it, Fox broadcasting once again allows its cartoon characters to run wild." After the clip aired, he said "Pinheads? I believe so." In response, the producers added a brief scene at the beginning of the opening sequence of the following episode with a helicopter that bears the slogan "Fox News: Unsuitable for Viewers Under 75." According to showrunner Al Jean, the producers of the show were pleased that they had annoyed O'Reilly, and that they had never received a warning from Fox about making jokes about the network. He added, "Both ends of it benefit the ultimate News Corp. agenda,” Jean said. “We’re happy to have a little feud with Bill O’Reilly. That’s a very entertaining thing for us." Other journalistic media are satirized as well. "Homer Badman" is a satire of shows like Hard Copy. David Mirkin, the show runner at the time, felt very strongly about the "tabloidization of the media" and has said that the episode is as current today as it was at the time and things have since gotten worse. Several gags in the episode are based on what real life shows like Hard Copy would do, such as making people look to be guilty without a trial as well as a complete invasion of privacy by setting up camp outside people's homes. The talk show "Ben" reflects the writers' feeling that anyone could host a talk show because all they need is a microphone and an audience. This leads to Homer using public access TV to try to clear his name. The character Birch Barlow, who hosts a conservative radio talk show in Springfield, is a take-off of American talk show host and political commentator Rush Limbaugh. Springfield has its own local newspaper, The Springfield Shopper. The newspaper is often isolated from mainstream media, so the characters do not seem to know of other ones. Dave Shutton is a reporter for The Springfield Shopper. He became less used since the episode "Two Cars in Every Garage and Three Eyes on Every Fish" and has been reduced to cameo appearances and appearances in crowd scenes. Other newspapers are seldom mentioned on the show. In his book Watching with The Simpsons: Television, Parody, and Intertextuality, Jonathan Gray discusses a scene from "Homer Defined" that shows Homer reading a USA Today with the cover story: "America's Favorite Pencil – #2 is #1". Lisa sees this title and criticizes the newspaper as a "flimsy hodge-podge of high-brass factoids and Larry King", to which Homer responds that it is "the only paper in America that's not afraid to tell the truth: that everything is just fine." In the book, Gray says this scene is used by the show's producers to criticize "how often the news is wholly toothless, sacrificing journalism for sales, and leaving us not with important public information, but with America's Favorite Pencil". Internet Four months after the airing of a first episode "Simpsons Roasting on an Open Fire", the newsgroup alt.tv.simpsons was created by Gary D. Duzan during the third week of March 1990. It was created before there was a World Wide Web, which emerged in 1993, so those earliest discussions were held on text-only platforms. According to Turner, the newsgroup was among the most trafficked newsgroups of the early 1990s. The comments of alt.tv.simpsons have been quoted or cited in the writings of mass media commentators. This has led to situations in which relations between writers and viewers have become strained. In 1994, Simpsons creator Matt Groening acknowledged he and the other showrunners have been reading the newsgroup and in frustration said, "Sometimes I feel like knocking their electronic noggins together". Showrunner Bill Oakley used to respond to select Simpsons fans through e-mail in a friendly manner, but by 1996 claimed "[t]here are people who take it seriously to the point of absurdity". The writers sometimes make jokes at the newsgroup's expense. Within the series, the character Comic Book Guy is often used to represent a stereotypical inhabitant of alt.tv.simpsons. The first such instance occurred in the seventh season episode "Radioactive Man", in which Comic Book Guy is logging on to his favorite newsgroup alt.nerd.obsessive. Comic Book Guy's oft-repeated catchphrase, "Worst episode ever", first appeared on alt.tv.simpsons in an episode review and writer David S. Cohen decided to use this fan response to lampoon the passion and the fickleness of the fans. In the chapter "Who Wants Candy" in the book Leaving Springfield, Robert Sloane finds alt.tv.simpsons an example of an "active audience ... who struggle to make their own meaning out of the show". He mentions that in this context, the fans nitpick the show to an extreme and allow no room for error, where the writers believe that nitpicking leads to an under appreciation of the show's qualities. Turner writes in the book Planet Simpson that The Simpsons appeared tailor-made for a newsgroup in the early 1990s because it includes minor details that reward attentive viewing and can be easily scrutinized. The episode "The Itchy & Scratchy & Poochie Show" deals with the viewer backlash and obsession with internal consistency. When the character Comic Book Guy saw that the television show The Itchy & Scratchy Show added a new character, called Poochie, he immediately goes on the internet and writes "Worst episode ever" on a message board; a commentary on how the active audience nit picks the episode. The writers respond by using the voice of Bart: In 2011, the producers let the users of the Internet vote over what direction The Simpsons should take. In the twenty-second season finale "The Ned-Liest Catch", the characters Ned Flanders and Edna Krabappel started dating. The episode ends with Homer and Marge Simpson giving the viewers a link to the official The Simpsons website, TheSimpsons.com, and encouraging them to go on the website and vote over the summer of 2011 on whether Ned and Edna should stay together. Showrunner Al Jean said in an interview that the writers decided it would not be interesting for them to do another episode where a relationship ended, and they thought it would be interesting "to see what people think, [...] the Internet certainly has a lot of opinion on the show, might as well have them have their say." When asked why the writers thought Ned and Edna were the right characters for a cliffhanger like this, Jean said that "In life, unusual things happen. People couple together in ways you would not expect, and he's single and she's single. We thought it would be funny, the fact that they both have these connections to the Simpsons but they never really met or if they have met it was minimal." The result of the poll was revealed in the season 23 premiere "The Falcon and the D'ohman". According to Jean, the poll was "very strong in one direction". He assured in an interview before the result was presented that the poll was authentic and the writers would not undo the viewers' decision, and added that "What our fans have joined together, let no writer tear asunder." "I Am Furious (Yellow)" references the dot-com bubble, a speculative bubble covering roughly 1995–2000. In their article "15 Simpsons Moments That Perfectly Captured Their Eras", The A.V. Club wrote: "By April 2002, the dot-com bubble of the late '90s had been popped for a couple of years, taking with it myriad Internet start-ups. A sobering soul-searching settled in their place, which The Simpsons captured in this episode about Bart creating a popular Internet cartoon called Angry Dad. Touring the laid-back start-up that hosts the cartoons, Lisa asks head honcho Todd Linux about their business model. 'How many shares of stock will it take to end this conversation?' he retorts. Lisa asks for two million, which Linux grabs from a paper-towel dispenser. When Bart and Lisa return later, the company has gone bust, and Linux is stealing copper wire out of the walls." The episode was also partly based on some of The Simpsons staff members' experience with making internet cartoons, such as Queer Duck and Hard Drinkin' Lincoln, both of which were created by former showrunner Mike Reiss. In his article "Best Indicator Ever: The Simpsons Foreclosure", Jonathan Hoenig of SmartMoney wrote that the twentieth season episode "No Loan Again, Naturally", an episode in which the Simpsons are foreclosed from their house, could have indicated that "the worst of the housing crisis" at the time the article was written, was over. Hoenig based this theory on the fact that shortly after "I Am Furious (Yellow)", which satirizes the dot-com bubble, aired, the dotcom stocks "began a massive rebound from bear-market lows". In the episode "The Computer Wore Menace Shoes", Homer buys a computer and creates his own website to spread fake news. He defends his action towards Bart by stating "Real news is great, son, but I'm getting a thousand hits an hour with Grade A bull plop". In his review of The Simpsons: The Complete Twelfth Season, DVD Movie Guide's Colin Jacobson wrote that he enjoyed the episode's take on "Internet idiocy". He wrote, "Some parts of it feel dated, but the web features even more ill-informed opinions today than it did nine years ago, so much of it remains timeless and on target." Films Rainier Wolfcastle is an action hero star and a close parody of actor/bodybuilder/politician Arnold Schwarzenegger. The writers invented Wolfcastle as the action hero McBain for the episode "Oh Brother, Where Art Thou?" and the McBain films were meant to satirize clichés of action movies. In the episode "The Boy Who Knew Too Much", Bart Simpson tells Wolfcastle that his "last movie really sucked" with Chief Wiggum adding "Magic Ticket, my ass, McBain!", alluding to Schwarzenegger's film Last Action Hero, which was panned by critics. Wolfcastle owns a restaurant named Planet Springfield, a parody of Planet Hollywood, which Schwarzenegger co-owned with other celebrities. The episode "Radioactive Man" sees the film version of the comic book series Radioactive Man set up production in Springfield with Wolfcastle starring as the title role. Radioactive Man is a fictional superhero within The Simpsons, who works as a parody of comic books and superheroes in general. The authors of the book I Can't Believe It's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide, Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood, called the episode a "wonderful pastiche" on the Tim Burton Batman films, and several scenes in the episode reference the Batman television series from the 1960s. In the later episode "Homer the Whopper", writers Seth Rogen and Evan Goldberg wanted to show how Hollywood generally ruins superhero films. He said that "the whole joke is that Homer is cast to play a guy who's an everyman and they try to make him into this physically fit guy." Rogen also noted that the plot mirrors the situation he was in while working on the film The Green Hornet, when he had to lose weight and do physical training for his role. Showrunner Al Jean commented that the writers tried not to repeat the comic book film theme from the "Radioactive Man" episode. Instead they decided to parody the fact that almost every comic book has been turned into a film. Jean commented that that scene in the episode in which the studio executives "are trying to think up an idea that hasn't been done really is what they are doing these days [in real life]". In the season eleven episode "E-I-E-I-(Annoyed Grunt)", The Simpsons go to a screening of The Poke of Zorro, which is largely a parody of the Zorro film The Mask of Zorro (1998). Jonathan Gray wrote in Watching with The Simpsons: Television, Parody, and Intertextuality that The Poke of Zorro "ridicules the outlandishness of Hollywood blockbuster fare," especially its "blatant historical inaccuracies" which sees the film feature Zorro, King Arthur, the Three Musketeers, the Scarlet Pimpernel, "the Man in the Iron Mask and ninjas in nineteenth century Mexico". The Buzz Cola advertisement shown before The Poke of Zorro is a parody of the opening Normandy invasion sequence from the film Saving Private Ryan (1998). Gray writes that it "scorns the proclivity of ads to use any gimmick to grab attention, regardless of the ethics: as an indignant Lisa asks incredulously, 'Do they really think cheapening the memory of our veterans will sell soda?'" Music Michael Dunne analyzed the episode "All Singing, All Dancing" in his book American Film Musical Themes and Forms, and gave examples from it while explaining that singing and dancing performances are generally not seen as acceptable in the television medium. He notes that Homer calls singing "fruity" and "the lowest form of communication" during the episode. However, Dunne also notes the fact that Homer himself sings "his objection that musicals are fake and phony". Dunne describes the frame narrative as establishing Marge as "..more favorably disposed toward musicals than the males in her house". Dunne concluded that "musicals come out on top in this episode, but the victory is marginal at best." Of the episode itself, Dunne wrote that "..the parodies contained in the show demonstrate that its creators are familiar enough with various forms of musical performance to echo them and confident enough that their viewers will catch the references." In the episode "The Springfield Connection", Homer and Marge went to an outdoor performance by the Springfield Pops orchestra. The orchestra plays the theme to the Star Wars films, and Homer mistakenly believes that the theme's composer John Williams is dead, complaining: "Laser effects, mirrored balls—John Williams must be rolling around in his grave!". Kurt M. Koenigsberger analyzes Homer's comments in his piece: "Commodity Culture and Its Discontents: Mr. Bennett, Bart Simpson, and the Rhetoric of Modernism" published in the compilation work Leaving Springfield: The Simpsons and the Possibility of Oppositional Culture edited by John Alberti. Koenigsberger comments: "The joke in this opening scene involves a confusion of high and popular artistic production: Marge treats the Springfield Pops as 'culture' and expects that the usually boorish Homer will need to be drawn into the spectacle." However, Koenigsberger notes that Homer actually regards Star Wars'' as a "classic", implying that a "classic" work must have a musical composer that is deceased, and be devoid of light-shows or glitter balls. Koenigsberger uses this example to discuss Homer's application of "a strategy characteristic of literary modernism". References Bibliography Journals See also List of fictional radio stations List of fictional television stations The Simpsons Simpsons Simpsons Simpsons
4854845	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerv%C3%A9lo	Cervélo	Cervélo Cycles is a Canadian manufacturer of racing and track bicycles. Cervélo uses CAD, computational fluid dynamics, and wind tunnel testing at a variety of facilities including the San Diego Air and Space Technology Center, in California, US, to aid its designs. Frame materials include carbon fibre. Cervélo currently makes 5 series of bikes: the C series and R series of road bikes, the latter featuring multi-shaped, "Squoval" frame tubes; the S series of road bikes and P series of triathlon/time trial bikes, both of which feature airfoil shaped down tubes; and the T series of track bikes. In professional competition, cyclists have ridden Cervélo bicycles to victory in all three of road cycling's grand tours: the Tour de France; the Giro d'Italia; and the Vuelta a España. History Gerard Vroomen, one of the two founders of the company, started researching bike dynamics at the Eindhoven University of Technology. He took his knowledge to Canada to continue the research in McGill University. In 1995, Vroomen and Phil White founded Cervélo Cycles. The name Cervélo is a portmanteau of cervello, the Italian word for brain, and vélo, the French word for bike. In May 2011, Vroomen sold his stake in Cervélo to pursue new projects, although he is nominally still involved with the company at the board level. Cervélo is now owned by Pon Holdings, a Dutch company that also owns Gazelle, and Derby Cycle. The company makes or has marketing rights to bicycles from Raleigh, Kalkhoff, Univega, Focus Bikes, Ghost, and Santa Cruz Bicycles. A book titled, To Make Riders Faster, was released in April 2018 telling the story of Gerard Vroomen and Phil White meeting at McGill University and taking their company from a school basement project in Montreal, Canada, to their bikes winning in the Tour de France, the Olympics and Ironman. Professional sport Cervélo's sponsorship of elite athletes has led to widespread recognition of the brand. In 2003, Cervélo became the bike supplier to Team CSC, at the time the 14th team on the world ranking. Aside possibly from LeMond Bicycles and their collaborations with Merlin Metalworks and Calfee Design, Cervélo may have been the smallest and youngest bike company to ever supply a team at this level. Team CSC was crowned the world's #1 pro cycling team aboard Cervélo for three years. The partnership lasted for six years, until the end of 2008. In 2009, Cervélo became the first bike manufacturer in the modern era to have its own cycling team at the highest levels of racing, Cervélo TestTeam. The team had a stated goal of not only competing successfully on the international level, but also encouraging collaboration between the team members, Cervélo, and other product sponsorship partners in order to develop better products. There was also a strong focus on fan interaction and experiences. The team's most renowned riders were 2008 Tour de France winner Carlos Sastre and 2010 World Champion and 2009 TdF Green Jersey winner Thor Hushovd. Heinrich Haussler also took many of the team's headlines, with his impressive performances at Paris–Nice, Milan–San Remo, and his stage win in the 2009 Tour de France (Stage 13, Colmar). In 2010, Emma Pooley and Thor Hushovd won the UCI Women's Timetrial and UCI Men's Road Race respectively. Success was also achieved in a number of ITU Triathlon Races and the Ironman 70.3 and long-distance events. For the 2011 season, Cervélo joined forces with Slipstream sports to form the Garmin–Cervélo team, which also included a women's team. This partnership lasted until the end of the 2014 season. For the 2015, 2016, 2017 and 2018 season, they provided bikes to MTN-Qhubeka that turned into Team Dimension-Data for Qhubeka in 2016. For the 2021 season, Cervélo began a partnership with Team Jumbo–Visma, supplying bicycles that were ridden to victory in the 2021 Vuelta a España, the 2022 and 2023 Tour de France, as well as the 2023 Giro d'Italia, while also adding a gold medal at the 2020 Summer Olympics and a rainbow jersey at the 2022 UCI Road World Championships. International racing success In 2006 Team CSC rider Fabian Cancellara won Paris–Roubaix on a Cervelo Soloist. In 2007 Team CSC rider Stuart O'Grady won Paris–Roubaix on a Cervelo Soloist. On 13 October 2007 triathlete Chrissie Wellington of the UK won the Ford Ironman world championship in Kailua-Kona, HI. Her bike in the 180 km ride was the Cervélo P2C with which she posted the quickest split time [for pro women] of 5:06:15; four minutes faster than her nearest opponent. On 27 July 2008, Carlos Sastre of Spain won the Tour de France on Soloist SLC-SL and R3-SL Cervélo framesets. It was Cervélo's first Tour win. From 2003 to 2008, Cervélo enjoyed the partnership with team CSC/Saxobank with whom they achieved a number of wins on the professional racing circuit. Wins from Fabian Cancellara in the UCI World Timetrial championships, Olympic road and timetrial podium finishes for both Fabian Cancellara and tradeteam teammate Gustav Erik Larsson. In addition to these high-profile victories, Cervélo bikes were also ridden to overall success in the Tour de France team classification and ProTour team classifications. Cervélo are one of the few manufacturers who have produced an aluminium frame that achieved success against carbon fibre road bicycles, with the Soloist. The Cervelo Soloist Team from the 2003–2005 UCI ProTour season was ridden to success by Team CSC in some of the historical cycling races held in Europe, such as the Critérium International and the Paris–Nice stage race. The Soloist Carbon from the 2006–2007 UCI ProTour season was ridden to success in the Giro d'Italia and Paris–Roubaix twice. Cervélo are the only manufacturer to produce an aero-road frame (Soloist) that has won on the cobbled road race classics, with additional wins from the S-series bicycles notably in the 2009 Omloop Het Nieuwsblad and 2010 Tour de France (Stage 3) by Thor Hushovd. In 2011, Garmin–Cervélo rode the updated (BBright bottom bracket and tapered head tube) R3 frame in the cobbled classics, with Johan Van Summeren winning Paris–Roubaix. Today, Cervélo is the world's largest manufacturer of time trial and triathlon bikes, as determined in industry counts including decisive wins for the past fifteen years at the prestigious Kona bike count. The winner of the 2008 Tour de France, Carlos Sastre, did so on a Cervélo. At the Beijing Olympics Cervélo bikes were ridden by over forty Olympic athletes, resulting in three Gold, five Silver and two Bronze medals – a record. In 2011, the Cervélo S3 received numerous awards from cycling publications including being selected as Editors' Pick in VeloNews' Aero Road Bike Test and Best Race Bike in the Bicycling Magazine Editors' Choice Awards. Models Awards, sponsorship and victories Awards 2016 Gran Fondo Design & Innovation Award: Cervélo S5 DA DI2 2018 Red Dot Design Award: Cervélo P5X 220 Triathlon: Bike Brand of the Year VeloNews Gear Awards 2018 \| For the speed demon: Cervélo S5 Sponsorship Team CSC (2003–2008) CSC–Saxo Bank (2008) Cervélo TestTeam (2009–2010) Team Garmin−Cervélo (2011) Team Garmin−Barracuda (2012) Garmin−Sharp (2012–2014) MTN–Qhubeka (2015) Team Dimension Data for Qhubeka (2016–2018) Team Sunweb (2019–2020) Team Jumbo–Visma (2021-current) Significant victories This is an incomplete list, you can help by expanding it... 2003 Tour de France 1st Team CSC, Team classification Stages 10, 13 & 16 Liège–Bastogne–Liège 1st Tyler Hamilton, General classification National road cycling championships 1st Nicki Sørensen, Denmark Men's National Road Race Champion 1st Michael Blaudzun, Denmark Men's National Time Trial Champion 2004 Tour de France Stage 12 Paris–Nice 1st Jörg Jaksche, General classification Critérium International 1st Jens Voigt, General classification Stage 1 Tour Méditerranéen 1st Jörg Jaksche National road cycling championships 1st Michael Blaudzun, Denmark Men's National Road Race Champion 1st Michael Sandstød, Denmark Men's National Time Trial Champion 2005 Giro d'Italia Stages 17 & 18 Vuelta a España Stage 18 Paris–Nice 1st Bobby Julich, General classification 1st Jens Voigt, Points classification 1st Team CSC, Best team Stage Prologue Critérium International 1st Bobby Julich, General classification Tour of Qatar 1st Lars Michaelsen, General classification Tour Méditerranéen 1st Jens Voigt National road cycling championships 1st Lars Bak, Denmark Men's Elite Road Race Champion 1st Michael Blaudzun, Denmark Men's Elite Time Trial Champion 1st Fränk Schleck, Luxembourg Men's Elite Road Race Champion 1st Andy Schleck, Luxembourg Men's Elite Time Trial Champion 2006 Tour de France Stages 13, 15 & 17 Giro d'Italia 1st Ivan Basso, General classification Stages 5, 8, 16 & 20 Vuelta a España Stage 1 UCI Road World Championships 1st Fabian Cancellara, Men's time trial Paris–Roubaix 1st Fabian Cancellara Critérium International 1st Ivan Basso, General classification Tour of Britain 1st Martin Pedersen Deutschland Tour 1st Jens Voigt, Gelbes Trikot (General classification) Stages 2, 6 & 7 National road cycling championships 1st Peter Luttenberger, Austria Men's Elite Time Trial Champion 1st Brian Vandborg, Denmark Men's Elite Time Trial Champion 1st Kurt Asle Arvesen, Norway Men's Elite Time Trial Champion 1st Fabian Cancellara, Switzerland Men's Elite Time Trial Champion 1st David Zabriskie, United States Men's Elite Time Trial Champion 2007 Tour de France Stages Prologue & 3 UCI Road World Championships Giro d'Italia Stage 8 1st Fabian Cancellara, Men's time trial Paris–Roubaix 1st Stuart O'Grady Critérium International 1st Jens Voigt, General classification Deutschland Tour 1st Jens Voigt, Gelbes Trikot (General classification) National road cycling championships 1st Fabian Cancellara, Switzerland Men's Elite Time Trial Champion 2008 Tour de France 1st Carlos Sastre, General classification 1st Carlos Sastre, Mountains classification 1st Andy Schleck, Young rider classification 1st CSC–Saxo Bank, Team classification Stages 11, 17 & 20 Summer Olympic Games 1st Fabian Cancellara, Men's time trial 1st Joan Llaneras, Men's points race 2nd Roger Kluge, Men's points race 2nd Fabian Cancellara, Men's road race 2nd Simon Whitfield, Men's triathlon 2nd (Joan Llaneras & Antonio Tauler), Men's Madison 1st Kristin Armstrong, Women's time trial 3rd Karin Thürig, Women's time trial Tour of Britain 1st Matthew Goss, Points classification 2009 Tour de France 1st Thor Hushovd, Points classification Stages 6 & 13 Giro d'Italia Stages 14, 16, 19 & 21 Tour of Qatar 1st Heinrich Haussler, Points classification 1st Heinrich Haussler, Youth classification 2010 Tour de France Stage 3 UCI Road World Championships 1st Thor Hushovd, Men's road race Tour of Qatar 1st Heinrich Haussler, Points classification 1st Cervélo TestTeam, Team classification 2011 Tour de France 1st Garmin–Cervélo, Team classification Stages 2, 3, 13 & 16 Giro d'Italia Stage 21 Vuelta a España Stage 9 Paris–Roubaix 1st Johan Vansummeren Tour of Qatar 1st Heinrich Haussler, Points classification 1st Garmin–Cervélo, Team classification Tour Down Under 1st Cameron Meyer, General classification 1st Cameron Meyer, Young rider classification Stage 4 2012 Tour de France Stage 12 Giro d'Italia 1st Ryder Hesjedal, General classification 1st Trofeo Super Team (Team points classification), Team Garmin−Barracuda Stage 4 Summer Olympic Games 2nd Lizzie Armitstead, Women's road race Tour of Britain 1st Nathan Haas, General classification Tour of Qatar 1st Ramūnas Navardauskas, Young rider classification National road cycling championships 1st Fabian Wegmann, Germany Men's Elite Road Race Champion 1st Robert Hunter, South Africa Men's Elite Road Race Champion 1st Ramūnas Navardauskas, Lithuania Men's Elite Time Trial Champion 1st David Zabriskie, United States Men's Elite Time Trial Champion 2013 Tour de France Stage 9 Giro d'Italia Stage 11 Volta a Catalunya 1st Dan Martin, General classification 1st Garmin–Sharp, Team classification Stage 4 Liège–Bastogne–Liège 1st Dan Martin 2013 Paris–Nice Stage 3 Critérium du Dauphiné 1st Rohan Dennis, Young rider classification 2014 Tour de France Stage 19 Vuelta a España Stage 14 Critérium du Dauphiné 1st Andrew Talansky, General classification Tour of Britain 1st Dylan van Baarle, General classification 2014 Paris–Nice Stages 4 & 7 Giro di Lombardia 1st Dan Martin National road cycling championships 1st Sebastian Langeveld, Netherlands Men's Elite Road Race Champion 1st Ramūnas Navardauskas, Lithuania Men's Elite Time Trial Champion 1st Steele Von Hoff, Australia National Criterium Champion 2015 Tour de France Stage 14 Vuelta a España Stage 10 Critérium du Dauphiné 1st Daniel Teklehaimanot, Mountains classification Tour of Britain 1st Edvald Boasson Hagen, General classification National road cycling championships 1st Natnael Berhane, Eritrea Men's Elite Road Race Champion 1st Edvald Boasson Hagen, Norway Men's Elite Road Race Champion 1st Jacques Janse van Rensburg, South Africa Men's Elite Road Race Champion 1st Daniel Teklehaimanot, Eritrea Men's Elite Time Trial Champion 1st Edvald Boasson Hagen, Norway Men's Elite Time Trial Champion 2016 Tour de France Stages 1, 3, 6 & 14 Vuelta a España 1st Omar Fraile, Mountains classification Summer Olympic Games 1st (Ed Clancy, Steven Burke, Owain Doull & Bradley Wiggins), Men's team pursuit 1st (Philip Hindes, Jason Kenny & Callum Skinner), Men's team sprint 1st Jason Kenny, Men's keirin 1st Jason Kenny, Men's sprint 2nd Callum Skinner, Men's sprint 2nd Mark Cavendish, Men's omnium 1st (Katie Archibald, Laura Trott, Elinor Barker & Joanna Rowsell Shand), Women's team pursuit 1st Laura Trott, Women's omnium 2nd Becky James, Women's keirin 2nd Becky James, Women's sprint 3rd Katy Marchant, Women's sprint Critérium du Dauphiné 1st Edvald Boasson Hagen, Points classification 1st Daniel Teklehaimanot, Mountains classification Stages 4 & 7 Tour of Britain 1st Steve Cummings, General classification Tour of Qatar 1st Mark Cavendish, General classification Stages 1 & 3 Track Cycling World Championships 1st Bradley Wiggins, Men's madison National road cycling championships 1st Kanstantsin Sivtsov, Belarus Men's Elite Road Race Champion 1st Daniel Teklehaimanot, Eritrea Men's Elite Road Race Champion 1st Edvald Boasson Hagen, Norway Men's Elite Road Race Champion 1st Jaco Venter, South Africa Men's Elite Road Race Champion 1st Kanstantsin Sivtsov, Belarus Men's Elite Time Trial Champion 1st Daniel Teklehaimanot, Eritrea Men's Elite Time Trial Champion 1st Edvald Boasson Hagen, Norway Men's Elite Time Trial Champion 1st Adrien Niyonshuti, Rwanda Men's Elite Time Trial Champion 2017 Tour de France Stage 19 Giro d'Italia Stage 11 National road cycling championships 1st Youcef Reguigui, Algeria Men's Elite Road Race Champion 1st Steve Cummings, Great Britain Men's Elite Road Race Champion 1st Reinardt Janse van Rensburg, South Africa Men's Elite Road Race Champion 1st Steve Cummings, Great Britain Men's Elite Time Trial Champion 1st Mekseb Debesay, Eritrea Men's Elite Time Trial Champion 1st Edvald Boasson Hagen, Norway Men's Elite Time Trial Champion 1st Adrien Niyonshuti, Rwanda Men's Elite Time Trial Champion 2018 Vuelta a España Stages 4 & 9 Tour of Britain 1st Nicholas Dlamini, Mountains classification National road cycling championships 1st Merhawi Kudus, Eritrea Men's Elite Road Race Champion 1st Edvald Boasson Hagen, Norway Men's Elite Time Trial Champion 2019 Giro d'Italia Stage 21 Vuelta a España Stage 8 Deutschland Tour 1st Marc Hirschi, Young rider classification 2020 Tour de France Marc Hirschi, Combativity award Stages 12, 14 & 19 Giro d'Italia Stage 18 National road cycling championships 1st Juliette Labous, France Women's Elite Time Trial Champion Paris–Nice 1st Tiesj Benoot, Points classification 1st Team Sunweb, Team classification Stages 4 & 6 Herald Sun Tour 1st Jai Hindley, General classification 1st Jai Hindley, Mountains classification 1st Team Sunweb, Team classification Stages 1, 2 & 4 La Flèche Wallonne 1st Marc Hirschi Bretagne Classic Ouest–France 1st Michael Matthews 2021 Tour de France Stages 11, 15, 20 & 21 Vuelta a España 1st Primož Roglič, General classification Stages 1, 11, 17 & 21 Summer Olympic Games 1st Primož Roglič, Men's time trial 2nd Tom Dumoulin, Men's time trial 2nd Wout van Aert, Men's road race Paris–Nice 1st Primož Roglič, Points classification Stages 4, 6 & 7 Tour of the Basque Country 1st Primož Roglič, General classification 1st Primož Roglič, Points classification 1st Primož Roglič, Mountains classification 1st Jonas Vingegaard, Young rider classification 1st Team Jumbo–Visma, Team classification Stage 1 Tour of Britain 1st Wout van Aert, General classification Stages 1, 4, 6 & 8 National road cycling championships 1st Wout van Aert, Belgium Men's Elite Road Race Champion 1st Timo Roosen, Netherlands Men's Elite Road Race Champion 1st George Bennett, New Zealand Men's Elite Road Race Champion 1st Tobias Foss, Norway Men's Elite Road Race Champion 1st Tony Martin, Germany Men's Elite Time Trial Champion 1st Tom Dumoulin, Netherlands Men's Elite Time Trial Champion 1st Tobias Foss, Norway Men's Elite Time Trial Champion 2022 Tour de France 1st Jonas Vingegaard, General classification 1st Wout van Aert, Points classification 1st Jonas Vingegaard, Mountains classification 1st Wout van Aert, Combativity award Stages 4, 8, 11, 18 & 20 Vuelta a España Stages 1, 4, 17 & 21 Giro d'Italia 1st Koen Bouwman, Mountains classification Stages 7 & 19 UCI Road World Championships 1st Tobias Foss, Men's time trial National road cycling championships 1st Pascal Eenkhoorn, Netherlands Men's Elite Road Race Champion 1st Tobias Foss, Norway Men's Elite Time Trial Champion 1st Rohan Dennis, Australia Men's Elite Time Trial Champion 1st Riejanne Markus, Netherlands Women's Elite Road Race Champion 2023 Tour de France 1st Jonas Vingegaard, General classification 1st Team Jumbo–Visma, Team classification Stages 16 & 20 Giro d'Italia 1st Primož Roglič, General classification Stage 20 National road cycling championships 1st Dylan van Baarle, Netherlands Men's Elite Road Race Champion 1st Attila Valter, Hungary Men's Elite Road Race Champion 1st Wout van Aert, Belgium Men's Elite Time Trial Champion 1st Jos van Emden, Netherlands Men's Elite Time Trial Champion 1st Attila Valter, Hungary Men's Elite Time Trial Champion 1st Riejanne Markus, Netherlands Women's Elite Time Trial Champion See also Cervélo TestTeam Team Jumbo–Visma References External links Cycle manufacturers of Canada Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1995 Manufacturing companies based in Toronto
4855223	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetsuya%20Kakihara	Tetsuya Kakihara	is a Japanese voice actor and singer. He was affiliated with 81 Produce before he became a freelancer in June 2013. He set up his own agency, Zynchro, in July 2014. Since 2010, Kakihara has been affiliated with Kiramune, a music label by Bandai Visual and Lantis, where he debuted as a singer with his first mini album, Still on Journey. His first single, "String of Pain", released on 6 February 2013, is the ending theme song to the anime Hakkenden: Eight Dogs of the East in which he voiced Shino Inuzuka. He has released two full albums, five mini albums, and six singles. His third single, "咲いちゃいな (Saichaina)", was released on 15 April 2015. Kakihara is well known for voicing roles as young boys with fiery personalities, like Natsu Dragneel from the anime Fairy Tail. He is well-known for voice acting in otome games, such as voicing Shin in the PSP game series Amnesia and K1-B0 from Danganronpa V3: Killing Harmony. Kakihara is also active in BL (boys' love) Drama CDs and anime. Biography Kakihara was fascinated by Japanese entertainment culture and decided to become a voice actor. In 2001, Kakihara went to the Amusement Media Academy (a vocational school for voice actors and artists) to study voice acting. While attending courses, he worked part-time jobs, and improved his Japanese through part-time school. He debuted as a professional voice actor in 2003. He was nominated for the "Best Male Newcomer/Rookie" award for his performance at the first Seiyu Awards in 2007. Filmography Anime 2003 Monkey Typhoon (Announcer) 2004 Doki Doki School Hours (Koro-chan) Nepos Napos (Timo) 2005 Ah! My Goddess (Male Student) Fushigiboshi no Futagohime (Bright) Magical Girl Lyrical Nanoha A's (Lævateinn, Graf Eisen, Landy/Randy(Operator B), Sand Dragon) 2006 Ah! My Goddess: Flights of Fancy (Male Student) Black Lagoon (Rico, Ronnie, Ricardo) Fushigiboshi no Futagohime Gyu! (Bright) Kirarin Revolution (Toriya Kamiyama (ep 2)) Princess Princess (Yutaka Mikoto) 2007 Dragonaut: The Resonance (Kazuki Tachibana) Magical Girl Lyrical Nanoha StrikerS (Lævateinn, Graf Eisen, Strada, Lat Cartos) Minami-ke (Fujioka) Prism Ark (Hyaweh) Romeo x Juliet (Mercutio) Tengen Toppa Gurren Lagann (Simon) Zombie-Loan (Lyca) Claymore (Orphelia's Brother) 2008 Ga-Rei Zero (Masaki Shindou) Kannagi (Meguru Akiba) Kirarin Revolution Stage 3 (Nii-kun) Linebarrels of Iron (Kouichi Hayase) Nabari no Ō (Sōrō Katō) Pokémon: Diamond and Pearl (Reggie) 2009 Bleach (Ggio Vega, Shinji Iijima) Cross Game (Mizuki Asami) Fairy Tail (Natsu Dragneel) Fullmetal Alchemist: Brotherhood (Kain Fuery) Hanasakeru Seishōnen (Toranosuke V Haga) Shangri-La (Medusa) Metal Fight Beyblade (Hyōma) Saint Seiya The Lost Canvas (Pegasus Tenma) 2010 Battle Spirits Brave (Youth Glynnhorn) Hime Chen! Otogi Chikku Idol Lilpri aka. Lilpri (Wish/Chris) Kaichou wa Maid-sama (Gouki Aratake) Nura: Rise of the Yokai Clan (Jiro Shima) 2011 Ao no Exorcist (Amaimon) C (Kou Sennoza) Copihan (Omoto Kumogiri) Digimon Xros Wars: Time Traveling Hunter Boys (Ryōma Mogami) Dog Days (Gaul Galette des Rois) Fairy Tail (Natsu Dragneel, Natsu Dragion) HIGH SCORE (Tokiwazu Jiro) Moshidora (Keiichirō Asano) Nura: Rise of the Yokai Clan: Demon Capital (Jiro Shima) Sengoku Paradise Kiwami (Date Masamune: refer to 'popular culture section') Sket Dance (Masafumi Usui) Toriko (Tom) 2012 Brave10 (Sarutobi Sasuke) Detective Conan (Sumio Tateno (ep 665)) Dog Days’ (Gaul Galette des Rois) K (Colorless King, Adolf K. Weismann) Mobile Suit Gundam AGE (Deen Anon) Ozuma (Sam Coyne) Saint Seiya Omega (Ryūhō) Smile PreCure! (Brian Taylor (ep 36)) 2013 Amnesia (Shin) BlazBlue Alter Memory (Jin Kisaragi, Hakumen) Hakkenden: Tōhō Hakken Ibun (Shino Inuzuka) Kamisama no Inai Nichiyōbi (Kiriko Zubreska) Magi: The Kingdom of Magic (Kouha Ren) Makai Ouji: Devils and Realist (Camio) Minami-ke: Tadaima (Fujioka) Pretty Rhythm: Rainbow Live (Kōji Mihama) Servant x Service (Jōji Tanaka) Yowamushi Pedal (Toudou Jinpachi) A Simple Thinking About Blood Type (Type AB-kun) 2014 Baby Steps (Takuya Miyagawa) Bonjour♪Sweet Love Patisserie (Mitsuki Aoi) Fairy Tail (Natsu Dragneel) The File of Young Kindaichi Returns (Fūma Kamioka (ep 6~9)) Fūun Ishin Dai Shogun (Keiichirō Tokugawa) Garo: The Animation (Pepe) Hōzuki no Reitetsu (Karauri) Log Horizon 2 (Rundelhaus Code) M3: Sono Kuroki Hagane (Minashi Maki) One Piece (Gardoa) Shōnen Hollywood (Ikuma Amaki) Tokyo ESP (Shindō Masaki) Yowamushi Pedal (Toudou Jinpachi) 2015 Baby Steps Season 2 (Takuya Miyagawa) Beautiful Bones: Sakurako's Investigation (Haruto Imai) Dog Days (Gaul Galette des Rois) Himouto! Umaru-chan (Alex Tachibana) Rin-ne (Masato, Boxer(ep25)) Saekano: How to Raise a Boring Girlfriend (Iori Hashima) Show by Rock!! (Yaiba) Sky Wizards Academy (Lloyd Allwin) Yu-Gi-Oh! Arc-V (Dennis Macfield) Magical Girl Lyrical Nanoha Vivid (Landy, Lat Cartos) Minna Atsumare! Falcom Gakuen (Lloyd Bannings) 2016 Puzzle & Dragons Cross (Lance) Fairy Tail Zero (Natsu Dragneel (ep 1, 11, and 12)) Divine Gate (Akane) Ojisan to Marshmallow (Isamu Wakabayashi) Prince of Stride: Alternative (Amatsu Ida) 12-sai: Chicchana Mune no Tokimeki (Ayumu Tsutsumi) B-Project: KodouAmbitious (Momotarou Onzai) Show by Rock!! Short!! (Yaiba) Show by Rock!!♯ (Yaiba) World Trigger (Yuiga Takeru) Tsukiuta. The Animation (You Haduki) Handa-kun (Reo Nikaido) Mobile Suit Gundam Unicorn RE:0096 (Angelo Sauper) Concrete Revolutio: The Last Song (Ganba) Touken Ranbu: Hanamaru (Uguisumaru) Soul Buster (Barin Yi) Nanbaka (Uno) Occultic;Nine (Shun Moritsuka) Servamp (Mikuni Alicein) 2017 Nanbaka 2 (Uno) Yowamushi Pedal: New Generation (Toudou Jinpachi) Kenka Bancho Otome: Girl Beats Boys (Yuta Mirako) Time Bokan 24 (Sōji Okita) Code: Realize − Guardian of Rebirth (Victor Frankenstein) UQ Holder! Magister Negi Magi! 2 (Ikkuu Ameya) Dynamic Chord (Seri Yuisaki) Sengoku Night Blood (Kanetsugu Naoe) Kakuriyo: Bed and Breakfast for Spirits (Hideyoshi) 2018 Doraemon (Hodoho) 100 Sleeping Princes & the Kingdom of Dreams (Marchia) Yowamushi Pedal: Glory Line (Toudou Jinpachi) Puzzle & Dragons (Dragon) Layton Mystery Tanteisha: Katori no Nazotoki File (Frederic Morden) Muhyo & Roji's Bureau of Supernatural Investigation (Yoichi Himukai) Hinomaru Sumo (Takuya Terahara) Fairy Tail (Season 8) (Natsu Dragneel) Million Arthur (also 2019) (Tekken Arthur) 2019 B-Project: Zecchō Emotion (Momotarou Onzai) Namu Amida Butsu!: Rendai Utena (Dainichi Nyorai) Ensemble Stars! (Subaru Akehoshi) Arifureta: From Commonplace to World's Strongest (Kōki Amanogawa) Carole & Tuesday (Aaron) Stand My Heroes: Piece of Truth (Tsukasa Asagiri) Welcome to Demon School! Iruma-kun Season 1 (Andro M. Jazz) 2020 Show by Rock!! Mashumairesh!! (Yaiba (ep 7)) My Next Life as a Villainess: All Routes Lead to Doom! (Keith Claes) Muhyo & Roji's Bureau of Supernatural Investigation Season 2 (Yōichi Himukai) Boruto: Naruto Next Generations (Deepa) Gibiate (Sensui Kanzaki) Mr Love: Queen's Choice (Kira (Kiro)) A3! Season Autumn & Winter (Azuma Yukishiro) Tsukiuta. The Animation 2 (You Haduki) 2021 Hortensia Saga (Leon D. Olivier) I-Chu: Halfway Through the Idol (Mio Yamanobe) Show by Rock!! Stars!! (Yaiba) Log Horizon: Destruction of the Round Table (Rundelhaus Code) Those Snow White Notes (Taketo) My Next Life as a Villainess: All Routes Lead to Doom! X (Keith Claes) Welcome to Demon School! Iruma-kun Season 2 (Andro M. Jazz) 2022 Salaryman's Club (Kōki Takeda) Aharen-san wa Hakarenai (Ishikawa) Love All Play (Yōji Higashiyama) Heroines Run the Show (Megu) Tomodachi Game (Chisato Hashiratani) Cap Kakumei Bottleman DX (Haku Kurenai) Welcome to Demon School! Iruma-kun Season 3 (Andro M. Jazz) 2023 Chillin' in My 30s After Getting Fired from the Demon King's Army (Gashita) My Hero Academia 6 (En) TBA Fairy Tail: 100 Years Quest (Natsu Dragneel) Original net animation (ONA) Xam'd: Lost Memories (2008) (Shiroza) Brotherhood: Final Fantasy XV (2016) (Prompto Argentum) The King of Fighters: Destiny (2017) (Matt) Original video animation (OVA) Angel's Feather (Kyouhei Mitsugi) Black Jack Final – Karte 11 (Matsunojo) Corpse Party Missing Footage (Sakutarō Morishige) Corpse Party Tortured Souls (Sakutarō Morishige) Disgaea 5: Alliance of Vengeance (Zeroken) Fairy Tail OVA (Natsu Dragneel) Finder Series (Akihito Takaba) Minami-ke: Omatase (Fujioka) Mobile Suit Gundam: The Origin (Garma Zabi) Mobile Suit Gundam Unicorn (Angelo Sauper) My-Otome 0~S.ifr~ (Kid) Saint Seiya: The Lost Canvas (Pegasus Tenma) The New Prince of Tennis (Liliadent Krauser) The Prince of Tennis OVA (Liliadent Krauser) Special Million Arthur: Farewell, Beloved Dancho (2019), (Tekken Arthur) Films Naruto Shippuden: The Movie (2007) (Kusuna) Vexille (2007) (Taro) Gurren Lagann The Movie: Childhood's End (2008) (Simon) Kara no Kyōkai: Paradox Paradigm Chapter 5 (2008) (Tomoe Enjō) Gurren Lagann The Movie: The Lights in the Sky are Stars (2009) (Simon) Kowarekake no Orgel (2009) (Keiichirō) Magical Girl Lyrical Nanoha The Movie 1st (2010) (Landy/Randy) Toriko 3D: Kaimaku! Gourmet Adventure!! (2011) (Tom) Fairy Tail the Movie: The Phoenix Priestess (2012) (Natsu Dragneel) Magical Girl Lyrical Nanoha The Movie 2nd A's (2012) (Landy/Randy, Lævateinn, and Graf Eisen) Fairy Tail Movie 2: Dragon Cry (2017) (Natsu Dragneel) Servamp -Alice in the Garden- (2018) (Mikuni Alicein) Saekano the Movie: Finale (2019) (Iori Hashima) My Next Life as a Villainess: All Routes Lead to Doom! The Movie (2023) (Keith Claes) Video games A3! (Azuma Yukishiro) Akane-sasu Sekai de Kimi to Utau (Nagakura Shinpachi) Akiba's Trip Series (PSP) (Yuu Abeno) Akiba's Trip Akiba's Trip Plus Amnesia Series (PSP) (Shin) Amnesia Amnesia Later Amnesia Crowd Atelier Iris: Eternal Mana (Klein Kiesling) Atelier Iris 3: Grand Phantasm (Alvero Kronie/ Bersizel Krone) BlazBlue Series (Jin Kisaragi/Hakumen/Alternate Announcer) BlazBlue: Calamity Trigger BlazBlue: Continuum Shift BlazBlue: Continuum Shift II BlazBlue: Continuum Shift Extend BlazBlue: Chrono Phantasma BlazBlue: Central Fiction BlazBlue: Cross Tag Battle (Jin Kisaragi/ Hakumen) Code: Realize − Guardian of Rebirth (Victor Frankenstein) Code: Realize ~Future Blessings~ Code: Realize ~Bouquet of Rainbows~ Code: Realize ~Wintertide Miracles~ Cookie Run: Kingdom (Lilac Cookie) Corpse Party Series (Sakutarō Morishige) Corpse Party BloodCovered: ...Repeated Fear Corpse Party: Book of Shadows Corpse Party: The Anthology: Sachiko's Game of Love Hysteric Birthday 2U Corpse Party: Blood Drive Danganronpa V3: Killing Harmony (K1-B0) Disgaea 5: Alliance of Vengeance (Zeroken) Dynasty Warriors Series (Zhu Ran) Dynasty Warriors 8: Xtreme Legends Dynasty Warriors 8: Empires Dynasty Warriors 9 Ensemble Stars! (Akehoshi Subaru) "Exorcism of Maria" Series (Klaus (Kurausu Eaharuto)) Exorcism of Maria (PC) Exorcism of Maria: La Campanella (PSP) Fairy Tail Series (Natsu Dragneel) Fairy Tail Story: Dark Guild Battle! (DS) Fairy Tail Original Story: 2 Fairy Tail Portable Guild (PSP) Fairy Tail Portable Guild 2 Fairy Tail Portable Guild 3: Zeref's Awakening Final Fantasy XV (Prompto Argentum) Fushigi Yūgi: Suzaku Ibun (Amiboshi and Suboshi) Garnet Cradle PSP (Sairenji Rihito) Gate of Nightmares (Manatsu) Genshin Impact (Scaramouche / Wanderer) Genso Suikoden Tierkreis NDS (Riu /Liu) Granblue Fantasy Mobile/Browser/PC (Elmott) Hero's Park iOS/Android (Saienji Ryo) Hoshizora no Komikku Gāden NDS (Kasudisu Koichi) Houkago wa Gin no Shirabe PS2/PC (Izumi Yuuto) I-Chu (Mio Yamanobe) Last Ranker PSP (Bayger) Lord of Vermilion Re:2 – Arcade (Jin Kisaragi) Lost Dimension (Agito Yuuki) Love Root Zero: KissKiss☆Labyrinth PS2 (Kuroe Kazuya) Mabinogi (Starlet/Aria: Male) Mahjong Soul (Ein, Usumi Ishihara) Majou Ou (Melvin) Mega Man Star Force 3 (A.C.Eos/Ace) Mega Man Zero 4 (Fenri Lunaedge) Mr Love: Queen's Choice (Kiro / Zhou Qiluo / Kira) Onmyōji (Kisei) Phantasy Star Online 2 (Huey/Hans/Light/Elly/Quna fan/Male Extra Voice 01/Male Extra Voice 20/Male Extra Voice 21/Male Extra Voice 32) Psychedelica of the Black Butterfly PS Vita (Karasuba) Tokimeki Restaurant (Tsuji Kaito) "Renai Bancho" Series (PSP) (The Little Devil Banchou) Renai Bancho: Inochi Meishi, Koiseyo Otome! Love is Power Renai Bancho 2: Midnight Lesson!!! ROOT∞REXX: PlayStation Vita (Aki Hasumi, Akineko) SD Gundam series (Angelo Sauper, Roche Nattono) Seiken Densetsu 4 PS2 (Eldy) Shin Gundam Musou (Angelo Sauper) Shiratsuyu no Kai (Shima Takaomi) Solatorobo: Red the Hunter – NDS (Red Savarin) Stand My Heroes (iOS/Android) (Tsukasa Asagiri) Super Robot Wars series (Kouichi Hayase, Simon, Angelo Sauper) 'Tales of' series (Shing Meteoryte) Tales of Hearts (DS) Tales of the World: Radiant Mythology 3 (PSP) Tales of the Heroes: Twin Brave Tales of Hearts R (PS Vita) Tengen Toppa Gurren Lagann DS (Simon) Trails series (Lloyd Bannings) The Legend of Heroes: Trails from Zero (PSP, PC) The Legend of Heroes: Trails to Azure (PSP, PC) The Legend of Heroes: Trails of Cold Steel II (PS Vita, PC, PS4) The Legend of Heroes: Trails of Cold Steel IV (PS4) The Legend of Heroes: Trails into Reverie (PS4) TSUKINO PARADISE (You Haduki) TSUKINO PARK (You Haduki) TSUKINO WORLD (You Haduki) Tsukitomo。-TSUKIUTA.12 memories- (You Haduki) CR Virtua Fighter (Lion Rafale) Wand of Fortune Series (PSP/PS2) (Lagi El Nagil) Wand of Fortune: Mirai e no Prologue (Prologue to the future) Wand of Fortune 2: Jikuu ni Shizumu Mokujiroku (Revelation sink into the space-time) Wand of Fortune 2 FD 〜君に捧げるエピローグ Warriors Orochi 4 (Zhu Ran) World Flipper (Hopper) Zettai Meikyuu Grimm (Akazukin) Illusion Connect (Ludwig) Drama CDs Anime/Game Amnesia (Shin) BlazBlue Series – Vol. 1 to Vol. 3 (Jin Kisaragi/Hakumen) Dog Days (Gaul Galette des Rois) Iris Zero (Toru Mizushima) Kaichou wa Maid-sama (Ikuto Sarashina) Ranobe Ouji☆Seiya (Kazuma) Rockin' Heaven (Kido) Sengoku Paradise Kiwami Series – Vol. 1 and Vol. 2 (Date Masamune) Tales of Hearts series – Vol. 1 to Vol. 5 (Shing Meteoryte) Trails series (Lloyd Bannings) Otome/Original Amnesia (Shin) Amnesia: ～冥土の国のアムネシア～ Amnesia: Amnesia of the Dead Bad Medicine -Infectious Teachers- (Kashu Remu) Code:Realize ~Sousei no Himegimi~ as Victor Frankenstein Jooubachi no Oubou - Kougou Hen (Rin) Ketsuekigata Danshi/ Choose your favourite Blood Type boy! (Kurosaki Miyabi) as AB Type Koisuru Lesson Series "Ayumu Kunishiro no Happy Lesson" (Ayumu Kunishiro) "Love Root Zero" Series (Kuroe Kazuya) ラブルートゼロ: 失恋と嘘、迷子な僕ら。ラブルートゼロ Do you love me? ラブ√1/2 ラブルートゼロサヨナラと言えない僕らは... ラブルートゼロ Do you wanna kiss me? ラブ√1/3 Perabu! A Cappella Love?! (Chihiro Mitsunaga) "Renai Bancho 2" Sweet Sweet Birthday!!! (The Little Devil Banchou) Samurai Drive (Takahara Ibuki) Shiratsuyu no Kai (Shima Takaomi) Vanquish Brothers (Shingen) "Wand of Fortune" Series (Lagi El Nagil) Wand of Fortune: ～狙われた予告状～ (The Targeted notice letter) Wand of Fortune: ～ちいさなまほうのものがたり～ (The story of a little magic) Wand of Fortune: ～ルルのいない朝～ Wand of Fortune 2: "巡り会えた奇跡" Wand of Fortune 2: "歓迎！ミルス・クレア病院" (Welcome! Mills Clare Hospital) Wand of Fortune 2 FD: "７つの時空でパパといっしょ！" Zoku Fushigi Kobo Shokogun Episode7 as himself/narrator Mr. Love: Dream Date (Kiro) BL Drama CDs Akanai Tobira (あかないとびら) (Masuoka) Dekiru Otoko no sodate kata (デキる男の育て方) Vol. 1 and Vol. 2 (Kazuha) Finder Series (Akihito Takaba) One Wing in the Finder (ファインダーの隻翼) Target in the Finder (ファインダーの標的) from Be-Boygold magazine special Drama CD Animix Anime OVA Hidoku Shinaide'Treat Me Gently' (酷くしないで) (Nemugasa Takashi) Honey Boys Spiral (ハニーボーイズ　スパイラル) (Hiro Nakanishi) Honto Yajuu (ほんと野獣) Vol. 1, 2 and 3 (Aki Gotouda) Houkago wa Dokusen Yoku (放課後は独占欲) (Kouji Yaegashi) Iro Otoko (彩おとこ) (Ai Ishikawa) Iro Otoko ~Kyoudai Hen~ (彩おとこ~兄弟篇~) (Ai Ishikawa) Migawari Ouji no Junai (身代わり王子の純愛) (Hikaru) Omake no Ouji Sama (オマケの王子様) (Rio Takatsuka) Senzoku de Aishite (専属で愛して) (Yuuya Kanoe) Shitsuji Gēmu 'Butler game' (執事★ゲーム) (Rau) Uchi no Tantei Shirimasenka? (ウチの探偵知りませんか?) (Shigure) Tokusatsu Kamen Rider × Kamen Rider × Kamen Rider The Movie: Cho-Den-O Trilogy Episode Red (2010) (Piggies Imagin (Third Son) (Voiced by Kazuya Nakai (Eldest Son), Kousuke Toriumi (Second Son))) Radio Tetsuya Kakihara is active in the following online anime-related radio programs. Brave 10 on the radio @ Hibiki Radio Japan starring (Sarutobi Sasuke) Fairy Tail Web Radio starring (Natsu Dragneel) Dubbing Live-action Admission (Jeremiah Balakian (Nat Wolff)) The Girl in the Spider's Web (Mikael Blomkvist (Sverrir Gudnason)) The Long Way Home (Kim Young-kwang (Yeo Jin-goo)) Looking for Jackie (Zhang Yishan) Love Island (James McCool) Animation Maya the Bee (Sting) Mune: Guardian of the Moon (Glim's Father) Playmobil: The Movie (Del) Thunderbirds Are Go (Gordon Tracy) A Turtle's Tale: Sammy's Adventures (Ray) Discography (as a singer) Kakihara released his debut mini-album, Still on Journey, on 24 November 2010, which is produced by Kiramune Project. His second mini-album, Continuous was released on 15 February 2012, third mini-album, Call Me, was released on 13 March 2013, and fourth mini-album. "ダンディギ・ダン (Dandigi dan)", was released on 30 July 2014. His first single (on the Kiramune label) is called "String of pain", released on 6 February 2013. It is the ending theme song for anime Hakkenden: Eight Dogs of the East in which he also voices the main role of Shino Inuzuka. He also attended the following live music performances: Kiramune Music Festival 2010 (aka. Kira Fes), in which a DVD was released on 25 February 2011. – Track list of Kakihara's Songs (in order of performance): 1. my life my time 2. Electric Monster 3. Endless Journey Kiramune Music Festival 2012, held on 17 & 18 March 2012 in Japan. The DVD was released 24 August 2012. – Track list of Kakihara's Songs (in order of performance)*: 1.adrenaline 2.Good Luck 3.Chaos Breaker 4.Labyrinth 5.Bible of Heart 6.Hikari 7.thank you & smile 8.Continue Kiramune Music Festival 2013, held on 13 & 14 April 2013 in Japan. The DVD release will be 6 November 2013. - Kakihara's Set list: 1.Hands up 2.Cheers!! 3.Call My Name 4.運命の引力 5.String of pain 6. Eternal screaming On 2 and 9 September 2012;– he starred as lead singer in Joint Live 'Versus''', a live music event held by Kiramune. Track listing and event report: On 7 and 8 September 2013;– he held his first solo live concert, called Kiramune Presents Tetsuya Kakihara First Live Generations.Kiramune Music Festival 2014, held on 22 & 23 March 2014 to celebrate Kiramune's 5th Anniversary. The DVD & BD were released on 24/12/2014. – Kakihara's Setlist: 1.GENERATIONS 2.ocean flying 3.ラプソディー 4.Labyrinth 5.Number One 6.Call My NameKiramune Music Festival 2015, held on 9 & 10 May 2015. – Kakihara's Setlist: 1.ダンディギ 2.world in bloom 3.Othello 4.君の声に 5.DEAR MY GIRL 6.咲いちゃいなKiramune Music Festival 2016, held on 4 & 5 June 2016. – Kakihara's Setlist: 1.咲いちゃいな 2.レッスンAtoB 3.僕さ 4.オレンジ 5.Call My Name 6.monogram 7.進ませろ！Kiramune Music Festival 2016: Kakihara's Setlist: 1.リングオブドランカー 2.Othello 3.ドラマ 4.GENERATIONS 5.ダンディギ 6.オレンジ 7.Start of LIFE Singles Mini albums Albums Anime character music CDs/song listing Listing of anime character songs that have been released on CD as singles or as a track on anime character album(s). Song names in double quotes. Amnesia (as Shin) Amnesia Character CD vol 1 "In Your Heart" Amnesia Crowd Character CD vol 1 "Innumerable kisses" Angel's Feather (as Kyohei Mitsugi) "Rock Star" – OVA Opening Theme/Duet songB-Project (as Momotaro Onzai) 永久パラダイス "永久パラダイス" Glory Upper "Glory Upper", "Over the Rainbow" & "永久パラダイス (MooNs Ver.)" Brand New Star "Brand New Star" & "ラブ☆レボリュ" 鼓動＊アンビシャス "鼓動＊アンビシャス" 星と月のセンテンス "夢見るPOWER" B-Project: 鼓動＊アンビシャス Volume 3 "magic JOKER" 無敵＊デンジャラス "無敵＊デンジャラス" & "永久パラダイス (14 Vocal Ver.)" SUMMER MERMAID "SUMMER MERMAID" & "パノラマ" S級パラダイス WHITE "S級パラダイス" & "PRAY FOR..." GO AROUND "GO AROUND" & "Movin' on " 快感エブリデイ "快感エブリデイ" & "After all this time" 絶頂＊エモーション "絶頂＊エモーション" & "光と影の時結ぶ" Brave10 Anime Opening CD (as Sarutobi Sasuke) Corpse Party Character CD: 男性編 "Whisper of the Nightmare '♂Scorpion♂'" (as Sakutarō Morishige) Dynasty Warriors series (as Zhu Ran) "Dynasty Warriors 8 Character Song Album 5: Tales of Bravery" – "Red Passion" Exorcism of Maria Character Album: gran jubilee vol.3 天の揺り篭編 (as Klaus/Kurausu Eaharuto) Fairy Tail Series (as Natsu Dragneel) Character Album Eternal Fellows – Opening Theme Song for "Fairy Tail OVAs"Character Song Collection: Natsu & Gray "Blaze Up" Character Album 2 "キズナだろー!!" – Opening Theme Song for "Fairy Tail PSP game: Zeref's Awaken"Character Album 2 "いつも全開だ" Fairy Tail Soundtrack 4 "Blow Away" – Duet Song with GrayHakkenden: Eight Dogs of the East (as Shino) Character Song Album Vol.1 "Wing in the Darkness" Image Song CD Vol.1 "無敵のBuddy" – special CD is bundled with Anime 'Hakkenden' Blu-ray Vol. 1 First Press editionImage Song CD Vol.6 "純潔" – special CD is bundled with Anime 'Hakkenden' Blu-ray Vol. 6 First Press editionHoshizora no Komikku Gāden Series (as Kasudisu Koichi) Theme Song CD "キラキラ〜Looking for my best Friends" – Opening Theme SongCharacter CD Vol.1 POP Caramel "Starring in the Dream" Character CD Vol.1 POP Caramel "Puzzle" Houkago wa Gin no Shirabe Character CD: 〜琥珀の調べ〜和泉悠斗 (as Izumi Yuuto) "Silver Gray" Love Root Zero (as Kazuya Kuroe) Best Album 君に捧げるコイゴコロ / Character CD: Kazuya Kuroe "約束するよ" Best Album 君に捧げるコイゴコロ "Perfect World" – Opening Theme Song for "Love Root Zero kiss kiss Labyrinth (PS2)"Makai Ouji: Devils and Realist – Anime OP/ED CD (as Camio) "Believe My Dice"、"a shadow’s love song" Minami-ke (as Fujioka) Character Song Album "桜色ラブレター" Minami-ke Tadaima Character Song Album "夏色恋風" Okane ga nai Opening & Ending CD (as Ishii Tetsuo) "愛しい人よ永遠に温もりを伝えて…" – Ending Theme/Duet songPrince of Tennis Character CD (as Liliadent Krauser) "Dead or Alive" Princess Princess Character Song: Sweet Suite vol.2 (as Yutaka Mikoto) Cutie Honey ROOT∞REXX (as Aki Hasumi/Akineko) – PlayStation Vita OP Song: Honey Bunny (Mini Album) Honey Bunny (Track No.1) Dear My Girl (Track No.4) Dear My Girl ~Piano Version~ (Track No.8) Saint Seiya: The Lost Canvas Character Album (as Pegasus Tenma) "Legend of Us" Saint Seiya Omega Song Collection (as Dragon Ryūhō) "明日へ吹く風" Sengoku Paradise Kiwami – Anime Opening CD (as Date Masamune) "リターン乱世独眼竜" – Opening Theme Song in Episodes 1,4,5,8,10 etc ※CD is also bundled with "Sengoku Paradise Kiwami" Vol.2 Anime DVD – as a 'Special CD-DVD Box Set Tengen Toppa Gurren Lagann Character Album (as Simon) "Breakthrough the Dream" – Duet songTsukiuta. (as You Haduki) Genau! Solo Character Album "Genau!"(song title & some lyrics are in German) & "夏とキミにおもてなし（原題:夏の思い出）" El Sol Florecer Solo Character Album "El Sol Florecer"&"真夏のサプライズ！ " DA☆KAI Duet Character Album "DA☆KAI" 淡い花 Duet Character Album "淡い花" Hee!Hee!Foo!Foo! Solo Character Album "Hee!Hee!Foo!Foo!" & "君は華麗なる「Laila」" ONE CHANCE? Unit CD "ONE CHANCE?" TSUKIUTA. THE ANIMATION Theme Song CD "LOLV -Lots of Love-" TSUKIUTA. THE ANIMATION Vol. 4 "sol~Happy!Phew!~" TSUKIUTA. THE ANIMATION Vol. 7 "ツキノウタ。 " Wand of Fortune Character Song Mini Album (as Lagi El Nagil) "Blazing Guy" "ウラハラ協奏曲（ラプソディ）"闇☆炎☆土 – Group SongZettai Meikyu Grimm Character Song Concept CD: Vol.1"野イチゴを摘むあかずきん" (as Akazukin) Anime conventions Otakon 2012 – 27–29 July 2012 (as voice actor guest) at Baltimore Convention Center (Baltimore, Maryland, USA) DVD/live events as an idol artist Ao no Exorcist – Blue Night Fes DVD "Hate Raji Mezase Hanazono ! Zenkoku hen" (はてラジめざせ花園!全国編) DVD "Tetsuya Kakihara & Toshiyuki Morikawa's Brave 10 on the radio DVD" – Vol. 1–5 "Tetsuya Kakihara & Yuki Ono's Tottemo Tanoshin jai mashita! (柿原徹也と小野友樹が、とっても楽しんじゃいました!) DVD" "Kiramune Music Festival 2010 Live" DVD "Kiramune Music Festival 2012 Live" DVD "Kiramune Music Festival 2013 Live" DVD "Kiramune Music Festival 2014 Live" DVD "Kiramune Music Festival 2015 Live" DVD "Love Root Zero – Koigokoro Saku Hana" (ラブルートゼロコイゴコロ咲く花) DVD "Otomate Party 2009" DVD "Otomate Party 2010" DVD "Otomate Party 2012" DVD "Otomate Party 2013" DVD "Otomate Party 2014" DVD "Otomate Party 2015" DVD "Sengoku Paradise Kiwami" Vol.1 DVD – special content – Daisuke Namikawa and Tetsuya Kakihara's Sekigahara Chin Dochu Tengen Toppa Gurren Lagann Movie Zenyasai DVD "Tokimeki Recipe – Spain Ryori no Maki – Tetsuya Kakihara & Takuya Eguchi" DVD Magazines / idol visual booksSeiyu Paradise vol.9 – 2012 – About Kakihara's new album ContinuousPick-up Voice vol. 51 March 2012 issueSeiyu Grand Prix March 2012 issue – About Behind-the-scenes with shooting of CD cover art of Kakihara's Continuous albumSeiyu Animedia March 2012 issueComic Gene March 2012 issue – Brave 10 Anime Interview with Tetsuya KakiharaTV Station 14 March 2012 issue – Ozuma Anime Interview with Tetsuya KakiharaKiramune Music Festival Official Pamphlet – Released: March 2012Kiramune Special Book Kiramune's music label company 3rd year anniversary publication'' Tetsuya Kakihara – Released: April 2012 References External links Official agency profile Kiramune profile – Tetsuya Kakihara Tetsuya Kakihara at GamePlaza-Haruka Voice Acting Database Tetsuya Kakihara at Hitoshi Doi's Seiyuu Database 1982 births Living people Actors from Düsseldorf Anime singers German expatriates in Japan German people of Japanese descent Japanese male pop singers Japanese male video game actors Japanese male voice actors Lantis (company) artists 21st-century Japanese male actors 21st-century Japanese singers 21st-century Japanese male singers 81 Produce voice actors
4855307	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early%20Telugu%20epigraphy	Early Telugu epigraphy	Historians have deciphered writings on the walls of temples describing the names and gotras (family groupings) of some Telugu rulers and the contributions made by them to the temples and towns. Ancient inscriptions Vishnukundina No. 1. (A. R. No. 581 of 1925) On a white marble pillar near the entrance into the temple of Ramalingavami at Velpuru, Sattenpalli Taluk, Guntur District. Undated. This is the only stone inscription of this dynasty so far found and it is damaged and incomplete. Only the name of the family Vishnukundi and that of a ruler Madhava Varma are legible. Western Chalukya Dynasty No. 27. (A. R. No. 596 of 1909.) On the Naga pillar in the temple of Virabhadra outside the village of Gurazala, Palnadu Taluk, same District. S. [10]51. States that a Brahmin named Dara son of Kommana who was the head of Kummunuru village and who claimed to be an incarnation of the serpent king Sesha, put up a Naga-stambha in front of the temple of Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva built by himself and that Betabhupa of the Haihaya family, a dependent of Bhulo Kamalla Deva (Someshvara III) made a gift of four kharis of land to the said temple. Eastern Chalukya Dynasty No. 4. (A. R. No. 431 of 1915) On a nandi slab set up near the temple of Someshvara at Eluru, Narasaraopeta Taluk, Same District. S. 925. Records the grant of land to god Somanathadeva by Paricheda Chikka Bhimaraju. Chola Dynasty No. 64. (A. R. No. 567 of 1925.) On a big white marble pillar set up near the dhvajastambha in the temple of Ramalingesvara, Velpuru, Sattenepalli Taluk, Guntur District. S. 1030 Records the gift of a perpetual lamp by Kota Gokaraju son of Bhima to the temple of Ramesvara of Velupuru. Early Cholas of Renadu No. 607. (A. R. No. 380 of 1904.) On two faces of a broken pillar lying in the courtyard of the temple of Chennakesavasvami at Kalamalla, Kamalapuram Taluk, same District. Undated. Damaged and unintelligible. Mentions Dhananjaya MuttaRasu(Raju) and Renadu.Here in this place these people population is so high Eastern Ganga No. 651. (A. R. No. 99 of 1909.) On a stone lying near Paravastu Rangacharya's house at Vizagapatam. S. 101[3] (h) 17th year of Ananta Varma Deva. Records the gift of “perumbadi” (?) by the "city twelve" of Visakhapattanamu alias Kulottunga-Chodapattanamu to Matamana of Malamandala. The description of the donor is not quite intelligible. No. 675 (A. R. No. 681 of 1926.) On a pillar in the mandapa in front of the central shrine in the temple of Nilakanthesvara, Narayanapuram, Bobbili Taluk, same District. S. 1053. Records gift of a perpetual lamp by Chodaraju Maha Devi (and another ?) to the temple of Nilisvara for the merit of Chodagangadeva. No. 727. (A. R. No. 827 of 1917.) On a stone lying at the entrance into the temple of Tumbesvara, Pratapur, Chatrapur Taluk, Ganjam District. Year missing. Incomplete. Mentions. Ananta Varma Gajapati No. 732. (A. R. No. 802 of 1922.) On the four faces of the Garuda-pillar planted near the dhvajastambha in the temple of Chennakesava, Idupulapadu, same Taluk and District. S. 1422. (Raudri) Records the gift by Pratapa-Radra of the village Idvulapadu to the east of Vinikonda, to Madhava-mantrin of the Bharadvaja-gotra and the Yajnyavalkya-saka. Gives a genealogy of the Gajapatis and of the donor. No. 733. (A. R. No. 375 of 1926.) On a stone built into a gate of the fort at Tangeda, Palnad Taluk, same District. S. 14[3]1 (Sukla) Damaged. Unintelligible; Mentions some Khan. States that Pratapa-Rudradeva Gajapati was ruling. No. 741. (A. R. No. 54 of 1912.) On a pillar in the temple of Kesavasvami at Chodavaram, Viravalli Taluk, Vizagapatam District. Saka year not given (Kalayukti) Records the consecration of the image of Garutmanta by Bondu Mallayya for the prosperity etc. of Bhupatiraju Vallabha Raju-Mahapatra. Kakatiya Dynasty No. 257. (A. R. No. 324 of 1915.) On the Garudastambha in the temple of Venugopalasvami, Uppumaguluru, Narasaraopeta Taluk, same District. S. 1133. Damaged and partly illegible. Refers to the gift of an oil-mill and land made by Balli Chodaraju presumably to some temple. (A. R. No. 138 of 1917.) On a slab lying in front of the temple of Venugopalasvami, Potturu, Guntur Taluk, Guntur District. S. 1168. Incomplete. The portion which describes the actual grant is missing. The portion available refers to what was probably a gift made to a Siva temple by Paricheda Bhimaraja, Tammu Bhimaraju, Devaraju and Ganapa Deva Raju for the merit of their father Komma Raju and mother Surala Devi. Contains the usual Parichedi titles. No. 373. (A. R. No. 283 of 1924.) On a pillar lying in the temple of Chandramaulisvara, Anumanchipalli, Nandigama Taluk, Krishna District. S. 1182. (Raudri) States that a certain Brahmin Chavali Bhaskara consecrated the image of Sagi-Ganapesvara and that king Sagi Manma endowed the temple with land. Describes the Sagi family as of Kshatriya caste (bahujakula) and gives the donor's genealogy. No. 376. (A. R. No. 769 of 1922.) On a stone built into the back wall of the temple of Chennakesavasvami, Nayanipalli, Bapatla Taluk, Guntur District. Year unknown. States that, in the course of his conquest of the South, king Ganapati Deva protected the king of Nelluru have killed his enemies Padihari Bayyana, Tikkana and others, that he vanquished Kulottunga Rajendra Choda of Dravila mandala, that he received presents of elephants from the king of Nelluru, that he saved the Bhringi matha on the Sriparvata and that he consecrated the image of Kumara Ganapesvara-mahadeva after his own name in ... palli. The concluding portion is missing. No. 381. (A. R. No. 142 of 1913.) On a slab brought from Yanamadala and preserved in the Collector's Office, Guntur, same District. S. 11. 3. Incomplete and somewhat damaged. States that a certain Beta Raju founded the temple of Gopalasvami and endowed it with land, that Queen Ganapama gave it an oil-mill and a garden and that certain merchants assigned to it certain customs duties and taxes. Ganapama was probably the wife of the Kota chief. No. 395. (A. R. No. 94 of 1917.) On the huge Nandi pillar lying near the ruined temple in Malkapuram, Guntur Taluk, Guntur District. (Published in the Journal of the Andhra Historical Research Society, Vol. IV, pp. 147–64.) S. 1183. (Durmati) Gives a detailed account of the Kakatiya family and of the foundation and pontifical succession of the Golaki-matha of the Saivas and states that king Ganapatideva promised the village of Mandara in the Velanadu-Kandravati country to his guru Visvesvara Sivacharya and that Ganapati's daughter Rudramadevi made a formal gift of that village along with the village of Velangapundi, that Visvesvara Siva established a new village with the name of Visvesvara-Golaki and peopled it with person of different castes brought from various parts of the country, that he also established the temple of Visvesvara, a Sanskrit college, a matha for Saivas, a choultry for feeding people without distinction of caste and creed, a general land a maternity hospital, besides some other things and that he made grants of land for the maintenance of all these institutions. Gives a detailed description of the administration of the trust and of the village affairs. Incidentally, it mentions a large number of other religious and charitable institutions established by Visvesvara Siva in several other places. Kakatiyas are described as belonging to the Solar race of Kshatriyas. No. 426. (A. R. No. 222 of 1905.) On the north wall of the dark room in the temple of Tripurantakesvara, Tripurantakam, Kurnool District. S. 1192. (Pramoduta). States that Paricheda Vadamani Kota Deva Raju gave 17 cows for a lamp in the temple of Tripurantakadeva. No. 468. (A. R. No. 318 of 1924.) On a pillar lying near a dilapidated mosque among the ruins of the fort at Gudimetta, Nandigama Taluk, Krishna District. S. 1213. States that Dadi Somaya-Sahini and Peddaya-Sahini gave lands to the temple of Visvanatha-Mahadeva who were the officers of Rudraraju. No. 544. (A. R. No. 270 of 1924.) On a pillar set up in the temple of Anjaneyasvami at Konakanchi, same Taluk and District. Undated. States that, while Sagi Potaraja "was ruling the Nathavadi country with Gudimetla as his capital", his kampu Birama's sons Kassevu-Setti and Kurivi-Setti and the latter's wife Surama got the temple of Narendresvara plastered, consecrated the images of Narayana Deva and Brahma Deva and also got the temples of attendant gods plastered, and gave two tanks for the naivedya and Patrapagudamu in these temples. Also states that Kurri-Setti of the Teliki thousand tribe of Bejevada presented two lamps to the temples. Vijayanagara Dynasty Krishna Deva Raya No. 45. (A.R. No. 491 of 1906.) Pulivendla, Pulivendla Taluk, Cuddapah District. On a slab set up at the entrance of the Ranganathasvamin temple. Krishnaraya, AD 1509. This is dated Saka 1431, Sukla, Kartika su. 12, Monday, corresponding to AD 1509, 24 October, which was, however, Wednesday and not Monday. It records a gift of the village Kunddal Kundu to the god Sri Ranga Raju of Pulivindla by Narasayya Deva Maharaju, brother of Basava Raju, son of Tamma Raju, grandson of Valla Bharaya and great-grandson of Bejawada Madhava Varma of Vasishtha-gotra and Surya-vamsa. The gift village is said to be situated in Pulivindalasthala, a subdivision of Mulkinadu in Gandhi Kotasima of Udayagiri Rajya. No. 52. (A.R. No. 18 of 1915.) Srisailam, Nandikotkur Taluk, Kurnool district. On stones built into the floor of the platform in the eastern porch of the Mallikarjuna temple. Krishnaraya, AD 1515. This is dated Saka 1438 (current), Yuva, Sravana su. 15, Wednesday, lunar eclipse, corresponding regularly to 25 July 1515. The record is important for the historical information contained in it. The king, it is stated, started out from Vijayanagara on a campaign of conquest towards the east, conquered at a stretch Udayagiri, Addanki, Vinukonda, Bellamkonda, Nagarjunikonda, Tangedu, Ketavaram and other hill-forts and land-forts and captured Tirumala Kataraya Mahapatra. Having taken Kondavidu, he captured alive Virabhadra Raya, Nara Hari Deva, Rachuri Mallukhanu, Uddandakhanu, Jannala Kasavapatra, Pusapati Rachiraju, Srinatha Raju, Lakshmipati Raju, Paschima Balachandra Mahapatra and others. Later he reinstated the captives in their places, visited Amaresvara at Dharanikota and performed the Tulapurusha ceremony in the presence of the god on the banks of the river Krishnaveni. He had the Ratnadhenu and Sapta Sagara Mahadanas performed by his queens Chinna Devi and Tirumala Devi respectively. Finally he visited Sriparvata, where he had the mandapa built in the car street of the temple. The epigraph refers to the gift of the villages Paramanchala and Atukuru formerly made to the god of the place in the year Srimukha. It also mentions the remission of levies on loads (Kanchi-kavadi), pack-horses, bullocks, asses and head-loads. The details of the date given for the said Srimukha viz., Vaisakha su. 11 and Thursday do not agree for the year. But they work out correctly for the previous year Bhava. Hence assuming the cyclic year to be a mistake for Bhava, the date would correspond to AD 1514, 4 May. No. 57. (A.R. No. 474 of 1919.) Little Kanchipuram, Kanchipuram Taluk, Chingleput District. On the north wall of the rock in the Arulala-perumal temple. Krishnaraya, 1517 AD. This is dated Saka 1438, Dhatri, Pushya ba. 7, Wednesday, corresponding to AD 1517, 14 January. States that the king, having conquered Udayagiri, captured Ravutaraya-mahapatra, and having taken the hill fortresses of Addanki, Vinikonda, Bellamkonda, Tangeda, Ketavaram, etc., captured alive Vira Bhadra Raya, son of Pratapa Rudra Gajapati Raju. Narahari Deva, son of Kumara Hamvira and others, performed Tulapurusha at Amaresvara in Dharanikota, returned to Vijayanagara and started out again on a campaign of conquest towards Kalinga, reached Bejawada, conquered Kondapalli, captured Praha Raju Siras Chandra Mahapatra, Bodajana Mahapatra, Bujilikhanu and others, took at a stretch all the fortresses of Telangana such as Anantagiri, Udrakonda, Urlugonda, Aruvapalli, Jallipalli, Kandikonda, Kappaluvayi, Nalgonda, Kambhammettu, Kanakagiri, Samkkaragiri, etc., installed the jayastambha at Simhadri Potnuru and performed the mahadana there, returned to Rajamahendra and desiring to have the mahadanas performed by his queens Chinna Devi and Tirumala Devi, returned to Vijayanagara and having visited, on the above date, with his queens, god Varada Raju at Vishnu Kanchi, and paid one thousand varahas as kanika, had the punyakoti-vimana of the god gilded with gold and granted the villages Vershara, Tiruppalukadalu, Govindacheri, Nurappandangal and Peluru yielding altogether annually 1,500 varahas, to meet the expenses for the fort nightly pulukkappu service and daily offerings to the god. No. 73. (A.R. No. 353 of 1915.) Kundurru, Narasarowpet Taluk, Guntur district. On a Naga pillar lying in front of a deserted temple. Krishnaraya, AD 1522. This is dated Saka 1445 (current) Chitrabhanu, Vaisakha ba. 3. Monday, corresponding to AD 1522, 13 May (Tuesday). The record is incomplete. It registers the grant of a piece of land in the village of Konudortta in Vinukondasima for offerings to god Purushottama of the village by Maha Mandalesvara Sarvayya Deva Chodaraju, son of Alamandala Yarayya Deva Chodaraju of Kasyapa-gotra. Vinikondasima is said to have been given to the donor as nayankara by Maha Pradhana Saluva Timmarasayya. Sadasiva Raya No. 129. (A.R. No. 690 of 1917.) Kovelakuntla, Koilkuntla Taluk, Kurnool district. On a slab set up in front of the Ankalamma temple. Sadasiva Raya, 1543 AD. This is dated Saka 1465, Sobhakrit, Nija-Sravana ba. 10., corresponding to AD 1543, 25 August (Saturday). It registers the grant of income derived from svamyatas in his nayankara territory of Kovila Kuntlasima for the Cherapu (Sirappu) and Paruventa festivals of the goddess Ahankal Amma by Maha Mandalesvara Nandyala Avubhalesvara Deva Maharaju, son of Singa Raju Deva Maharaju and the grandson of Narasingayya Deva Maharaju of the lunar race. No. 139. (A.R. No. 498 of 1906.) Mopuru, Pulivendla Taluk, Cuddapah District. On a slab set up in front of the central shrine of the Bhairavesvara temple. Sadasiva, AD 1545. This is dated Saka 1466, Krodhin, Magha su. 7, Rathasaptami, Monday, corresponding to AD 1545, 19 January, '50. It records the remission of all taxes like Durga Vartana, Danayani Vartana, bedige, kanika and others in favour of the Vidvan mahajanas of the villages belonging to temples and to agraharas in Ghandikota Sakalisima obtained by the donor, Timmaya Deva Maharaju, son of Narasingaya Deva Maharaju and grandson of Maha Mandalesvara Nandyala Avubhala Deva Maharaju as Nayankara from the king. A similar remission of these taxes in the villages granted to the Bhai Ravesvara temple of Mopura is also recorded with the stipulation that the amount accrued was to be utilised for the daily worship and the rathosvava of the god. No. 167. (A.R. No. 377 of 1926.) Tangeda, Palnadu Taluk, Guntur district. On a slab set up in front of the deserted temple of Sita Rama Svamin in the fort. Sadasiva, AD 1548. This is dated Saka 1470, Kilaka, vaisakha su. 15, Sunday, lunar eclipse corresponding to AD 1548, 22 April. It registers the grant of the village Kachavaram in Tangedasima to the god Lakshmi Narasimha at Tangeda by Deva Chodaraju, son of Mummaya Deva Chodaraju and the grandson of Maha Mandalesvara Apratika Malla Kurucheti Somaya Deva Chodaraju of the solar race and belonging to the Kasyapa-gotra, apastamba-sutra and Yajus-sakha at the command of Rama Raja Vithalaya Deva Maharaju who is said to have conferred the Tangedasima as nayankara the donor. No. 175. (A.R. No. 369 of 1920.) Chitrachedu, Gooty Taluk, Anantapur district. On a slab in the compound of the mosque. Sadasiva, AD 1550. This is dated Saka 1473 (current), Sadharana, Ashadha su. 10 corresponding to AD 1550, 23 June, (Monday). This fragmentary record mentions the pontiff Santa Bhiksha Vritti Ayyavaru and his three spiritual sons, the Narapati, Asvapati and Gajapati kings who seem to have made some gifts to god Mallikarjuna of Srisaila worshipped by them. No. 191. (A.R. No. 584 of 1909.) Macherla, Palnadu Taluk, Guntur District. On a slab set up in the courtyard of the Virabhadresvara temple. Sadasiva, AD 1554. The record is dated in Chronogram 'rasa-saila-veda..’ and the numerals 76, Ananda, Ashadha, su. 15, Friday, lunar eclipse. The word for the numeral 1 is apparently lost. The details of the date correspond to AD 1554, 15 June 1551, if the month was Adhika Ashadha. The inscription which is damaged, records a grant of 14 putti and 10 tumu of land constituting it into a village by name Lingapuram, by Ling Amma, wife of Veligoti Komara Timma Nayaka to the gods Ishta Kamesvara and Viresvara of Macherla situated to the north of Macherla and west of the Chandra Bhaga river, in Nagarjuna-konda-sima which Komara Timma Nayaka is said to have obtained as nayankara from Maha Mandalesvara Rama Raju Thirumalaraju Deva Maharaju. No. 201. (A.R. No. 161 of 1905.) Markapur, Markapur Taluk, Kurnool District. On the east wall, left of entrance, of the antarala-mandapa in the Chenna-kesava-svamin temple. Sadasiva, AD 1555. This is dated Saka 1476, Ananda, Magha su. 7, corresponding to AD 1555, 29 January. It records a gift of the various toll incomes due from the 18 villages, viz., Marakarapuram, Channavaram, Konddapuram, Yachavaram, Rayavaram, Gonguladinna, Tarnumbadu, Surepalli, Vanalapuram, Chanareddipalle, Gangireddipalle, Korevanipalle, Medisettipalle, Gollapalle, Jammuladinna, Tellambadu, Kamalpuram and Kondapalli to god Chennakesava by Maha Mandalesvara Madiraju Narappadeva Maharaju, son of Aubhalayya Deva Maharaju, grandson of Maha Mandalesvara Madiraju Singa Raju Deva Maharaju, of Kasyapa-gotra and Surya-vamsa, and nephew of Maha Mandalesvara Rama Raju Thirumalaraju. The gift villages are said to be situated in Kochcherla Kotasima which was held by the donor as Nayankara from the king. Records in addition that the lanjasunkham (levy on prostitutes) collected during the festivals at Marakapuram was also made over to the temple and that five out of every six dishes of offerings to the deity, were to be made over to the satra (feeding house) for feeding paradesi Brahmanas of the smartha sect, the sixth dish being the share of the sthanikas, the adhikaris and the karanas. No. 205. (A.R. No. 59 of 1915.) Chinna Ahobalam, Sirvel Taluk, Kurnool District. On the west wall of the Narasimha-svamin shrine in the Narasimha-svamin temple. Sadasiva, AD 1555. This is dated Saka 1478 (current), Rakshasa, Sravana ba. 7 corresponding to 9 August 1555,(Friday). The record is damaged and fragmentary. It seems to register a gift (of land) to god Ahobala Narasimha by Ganapatiraju who belonged to the Kasyapa-gotra Apastamba-sutra and Yajus-sakha and was the son of Nandi Raju and the grandson of Maha Mandalesvara Krishna Raju of the solar race. No. 228. (A.R. No. 411 of 1911.) Vontimitta, Sidhavatam Taluk, Cuddapah District. On a slab set up near the eastern gopura of the Kodanda Rama Swamy temple. Sadasiva, AD 1558. This is dated Saka 1480, Kalayukt, and Ashadha su. 12, Monday, corresponding to 27 June 1558. The inscription records a gift of the village Vontimetta with its hamlets in Sidhavatam-sima of Udayagiri Rajya to god Raghu Nayaka of the same village said to have been consecrated by Jambavanta, by Naga Raja Deva Maharaju of Kasyapa-gotra, and Surya-Vamsa and the son-in-law of Rama Raju and Gutti Yara Thirumalaraju Deva Maharaju of Kasyapa-gotra, and Surya-Vamsa and the sons of Sri Ranga Raju and the grandsons of Aravidu Rama Raju of Atreya-gotra and Soma-Vamsa. The gift village was situated in Siddhavatamsima which the donor appears to have held as his nayankara No. 234. (A.R. No. 394 of 1920.) Guntakallu, Gooty Taluk, Anantapur district. On a stone set up in front of the Krishnasvamin temple. Sadasiva, AD 1558. This is dated Saka 14[80], Kalayukti, Kartika su. 12, corresponding to 24 October 1558. It records a gift of land to the mannevaru, melavaru, Naga svaralavaru and uyyala sevavaru for services in the temple of Kesava Perumal in Guntakallu in Guttisima by Maha-Mandalesvara Madiraju Vallabhai. Guttisima is said to have been held by the donor as nayankara from Maha-mandalesvara Rama Raju Tirumalaraju Deva-Maharaju No. 235. (A.R. No. 79 of 1915.) Pedda Ahobalam, Sirvel Taluk, Kurnool District. On a slab set up near the sixteen-pillared mandapa on the way to upper Ahobalam. Sadasiva, AD 1558. This is dated Saka 14[80], Kalayukt, Margasirsha su. 3, corresponding to 13 November 1558, (Sunday). It records the grant of a piece of land and some money by Emberumanar-Jiyyamgaru, the mudrakarta of Vam Sathagopa-Jiyyamgaru and others for conducting certain festivals when god Ahobalesvara was seated in the 16 pillared mandapa constructed by Maha-mandalesvara Kurucheti Timmaraju, son of Vobul Raju and grandson of Baichana Deva Chodaraju of the solar race, when the god was taken (in procession) to Diguva Tirupati and back to the temple (nagaru) No. 240. (A.R. No. 311 of 1922.) Vyapulapalle, Hamlet of Mudivedu, Madanapalle Taluk, Chittoor District. On a rock in the village. Sadasiva, AD 1559. This is dated Saka 1481, Siddharthin, Sravana ba. 12 Friday corresponding to 31 July 1559. The weekday, however, was Monday. It registers a gift of wet and dry lands to god Lakshmi Narasimha at Ramagiridurga by Jillela Vengalayya-Deva-Maharaju, son of Krishnam Raju and grandson of Peda Krishnam Raju of Kasyapa-gotra, Apastamba-sutra and Yajus-sakha. The gift lands are stated to be situated in Vempalapalli in the village of Mudivada in Vailipatisima belonging to Rama-giri-durga of Penugonda Marjavada which the donor is said to have obtained as amara from Rama Raju Tirumalaraju Deva Maharaju. No. 251. (A.R. No. 15 of 1904.) Hampi, Hospet Taluk, Bellary District. On the north wall of the mandapa in front of the deserted shrine to the west of the Vitthalasvamin temple. Sadasiva, 1561 AD. This is dated Saka 1483, Raudri (current), Phalguna, the other details being lost. It registers an agreement (kaulu) granted by Kurucheti Sri Ranga Raju, son of Obulraju of the solar race and Kasyapa-gotra to a person (name lost) for his having level-led and brought under cultivation a specified piece of land stipulating an annual payment of one ghatti varaha by him into the treasury of god Vitthalesvara and a fourth share of the produce to the donor. The details pertaining to the rest of the produce are lost. Refers to a gift of garden land made to (the shrine of) Tirumangai-Alvar on the occasion of Prathama-ekadasi. No. 269. (A.R. No. 166 of 1905.) Markapur, Markapur Taluk, Kurnool District. On a pillar of the garuda-mandapa in the Chennkesavasvamin temple. Sadasiva, 1569 AD. This is dated Saka 1491, Sukla, Ashadha su. 12 corresponding to 25 June 1569 The record is partly built in. It registers a gift of the income out of the akula mantrayam to the god by Chennapa-nayaka, son of Komara Timma-nayaka and grandson of Veligoti Peda Timma Nayaka of Recherla-gotra. The donor is said to have obtained Kochcherla kotasima as nayankara from Maha Mandalesvara Rama Raju Thirumalaraju. Ranga Raya 97 (No. 201 of 1967) Chidipiralla (Kamalapuram Taluk) On a stone near the Anjaneya temple. S. 1501; Bhadhanya, (AD 1578) It records the digging of irrigation canals at Chadupurella as the old ones became out of use, by Mahamandal-eswara Katta Mama Singa Raya Deva Choda Maharaja, who is said to be holding the Nayamkara of Chadupurala n the Ghandikota sima (as a subordinate chief) under his son-in-law Mahamandal-eswara Nandyala Narashim-ayya Deva Maharaja. 131 (No. 2 of 1968) ANnaluru (Proddutur Taluk) On a slab in front of the Chennakesava temple. Araviti(?) It registers the grant of the village Annaluru to the God Allimenu Mamgga Tiruvemggalanatha-Deva by Bukka Raju Tirumalaraju. 169 (No. 227 of 1968) Gurijala (Pulivendala Taluk) On a slab near the temple of Ganesh. Maha Mandalesvara Tirumalaraja. Paridhavi The record refers to a lease deed of some land executed by some Rama Raju of Mahamandela-eswara Tirumalaraju, in favour of probably some cultivators of Gurizala, the levy or tax being at the rate of 2 rukas. Details not clear. Venkatapati Raya 244 Siddhavatam (Siddhavatam Taluk) On the east wall near the entrance of the old fort. Saka 1527; Visvasu The inscriptions refers itself to the reign of Venkatapati Raya and enumerates the achievements of the Matli Chiefs Ellama Raju and his son Ananta Raju. The latter is stated to have built the radiant and extensive stone wall at Siddhavatam which his father had acquired in the battle of Utukuru. In the Telugu portion, which is a stsamalika, it is stated that while Vira Venkata Raya was ruling the empire from Chandragiri-sima, Anata Raju constructed the tank, Ananta Raju-cheruvu at Siddhavatam which his father had acquired at the point of his sword after defeating Konda Raju Tirupati Raju in battle and built a wall around the town so that it might protect the temple of Siddhavatesvara. His is also said to be the author of Kakutstha-vijayamu and of the Kavyas. (Published in Epigraphia Indica xxxxvii. pp. 103–112, by Dr. N. Venkata Ramanayya) Moghul No. 776. (A. R. No. 56 of 1912.) On a pillar in the temple of Kesavasvami at Chodavaram, Viravalli Taluk, Vizagapatam District. S. 1658. (Akshaya) Incomplete. Says that Pusapati Vijaya Rama Raju, son of Sita Rama Raju was ruling the land and mentions the god Kesavasvami and the village Chodavaram. See also Rajus Early Indian epigraphy External links South Indian Inscriptions Telugu language Indian inscriptions
4855524	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berakhah	Berakhah	In Judaism, a berakhah, bracha, , (; pl. , berakhot, ; "benediction," "blessing") is a formula of blessing or thanksgiving, recited in public or private, usually before the performance of a commandment, or the enjoyment of food or fragrance, and in praise on various occasions. The function of a berakhah is to acknowledge God as the source of all blessing. It can be both a declaration of dependence and an expression of gratitude for God and his gifts. Berakhot also have an educational function to transform a variety of everyday actions and occurrences into religious experiences designed to increase awareness of God at all times. For this purpose, the Talmudic sage, Rabbi Meir, declared that it was the duty of every Jew to recite one hundred berakhot every day. The Mishnah of tractate Berakhot, and the gemara in both Talmuds contain detailed rabbinical discussions of berakhot, upon which the laws and practice of reciting blessings are founded. Berakhot typically start with the words "Blessed are You, Lord our God..." One who hears another recite a berakhah answers with amen; but one who is engaged in prayer may at certain points be forbidden from other speech, including responding amen. With few exceptions, one does not respond amen to his or her own berakha, although other prayers—such as the kaddish—include "amen" in their text. Categories of blessings There are three major categories of berakhah: on pleasurable experiences ( birkhot ha'nehenin) such as before eating food or smelling fragrances when performing a commandment (Hebrew: birkhot hamitzvot) such as the lighting of Sabbath candles in praise, gratitude or recognition of God's justice (Hebrew: birkhot ha'shevach v'ha'hodaya) such as upon seeing awe-inspiring natural phenomena, or upon hearing very good or very bad news. Blessings over food are intended to sanctify the physical act of taking nourishment, those recited before performing a commandment serve to prevent the performance of the activity in an unthinking, rote way, and the blessings of praise serve to remind people of the presence of God in all situations. Before enjoyment Judaism teaches that food ultimately belongs to the one great Provider, God, and that to partake of it legitimately one must express gratitude to God by reciting the appropriate blessing beforehand. There are six types of blessings said before eating different foods: and . Additionally, there are 5 blessings said after eating different foods: Birkat Hamazon, Al Hamihya, Al Hagefen, Al Ha’etz and Borei Nefashot. These blessings, however, are only required if a certain predefined amount (Ke'zayit for a solid food, and Revi'it for a liquid) is consumed within a predefined time period (different for solids and liquids). When performing a mitzvah Blessings recited before the observance of a mitzvah (commandment) begin with the formula "Blessed are You, Lord our God, King of the Universe, who has sanctified us through his commandments and commanded us to..." and mention the specific mitzvah about to be performed. The blessing over fulfilling the commandment is sometimes followed by another blessing (for example, when lighting the Chanukkah candles, the additional berakhah "...who performed miracles for our ancestors long ago at this season" is recited). When a mitzvah is performed for the first time in the year, the She'hecheyanu blessing ("...who has kept us alive and preserved us and enabled us to reach this season") is also added. Contrary to the usual pattern of making a blessing before the commandment, the blessing for relieving one's bodily needs and the blessing for ritually rinsing the hands are both recited afterwards. In the former case, it is forbidden to recite any blessing while one feels one's need, and so the blessing is postponed. In the latter case, one may also not recite the blessing beforehand since clean hands are a prerequisite for reciting the blessing. Even if one is certain that one's hands are clean (for example, at the Rabbinically instituted rinsing before breaking bread), one still recites the blessing afterwards to avoid confusion. Also contrary to the usual pattern, blessings are said after certain public readings from the Tanakh as well as before it. Examples include the public reading of the Torah, the readings from the prophets called the Haftarah, and the recitation of Psalms of Praise, and the Psalms of the Hallel. Mitzvot for which a blessing is not recited No blessing is recited for the performance of certain commandments. Some commentators have suggested that the reason is that no blessing is said before fulfilling commandments which do not involve any action (for example, leaving the corner of the field for the poor), or the observance of which is possible only in undesirable circumstances (for example, granting a divorce, or the return of stolen goods). In the case of other commandments (for example, tzedakah "charity"), commentators say it is because there is no fixed amount or limit to the observance of the commandment; however, there is no general agreement regarding the underlying principles. David Abudarham wrote that there is more than one reason why these commandments do not have blessings. Abudarham and Shlomo ibn Aderet suggested a blessing is not recited for tzedakah because the recipient may refuse the gift, and blessings are not recited when it is uncertain whether the mitzvah will be performed. Baruch Epstein suggested that a blessing is not recited on interpersonal mitzvot because the standard blessing text refers to Jews being distinguished from other nations who do not perform the mitzvah; however, non-Jews do perform interpersonal good deeds. Yechiel Yaakov Weinberg suggested that interpersonal mitzvot are done best out of love and care for the recipient, not out of commandment or coercion, so a blessing which refers to the commandment is not recited. Praise on various occasions The main purpose of this category of blessings, often called "blessings of praise," is to help remind people of the Creator at all times. These blessings are said on various occasions, including upon hearing good and bad news; on witnessing awesome natural phenomena such as thunder and lightning, high mountains or the ocean, or a rainbow; upon visiting a place where miracles have been performed in the past, especially in the Land of Israel, and the Birkat ha-Gomel, upon being saved from danger. The blessing Ha-tov ve-ha-metiv ("Blessed is He Who is good and does good") is recited by a person when they hear good news that will also benefit others, such as news that one has received an inheritance or when rain begins to fall after a drought. It is also said upon the drinking of additional wine that is different from that drunk previously at the meal. Structure of blessings Most blessings begin with the words Barukh Attah Adonai ("Blessed are You, Lord"). When the blessing occurs at the beginning of a prayer, the words ("our God, King of the Universe") are added. There are three types of formulas for benedictions: a short blessing (, "short formula") which, after the opening words, is followed by a few words of praise specific to the occasion, for example, the blessing over bread: ("who brings forth bread from the earth"). a long blessing (, "long formula"), in which the opening is followed by a more elaborate text, for example, in the first section of the Birkat Hamazon (Grace after Meals), after which a concluding blessing formula is recited at the end of the prayer, for example, ("Blessed are You, Lord, Who feeds all"). the blessing forms part of a series (, "a blessing that is next to another") and the opening formula is omitted, except in the first benediction of each series, and only the conclusion is phrased in the style of a long blessing. The second section of the Birkat Hamazon, for instance, begins with the words (, "We thank You"), and ends with the blessing ("Blessed are You Lord, for the land and the food"). Safek berakhah In certain cases it is doubtful whether a blessing should be said. For example, when someone doesn't remember whether he has already recited the proper blessing or not. One cannot argue to recite the blessing "just to be sure", because it is forbidden to say a "" (an unnecessary blessing) so as not to transgress the grave prohibition of taking God's name in vain. The ruling in such cases is to say the blessing in a D'Oraita case, and to not say it in a D'Rabbanan case. Reciting amen The most common context in which an amen is required by halakha is after one hears a berakah recited. In fact, it is prohibited to willfully refrain from responding amen when it is indicated. The source of this requirement is the verse in Deuteronomy 32:3: "When I proclaim the name of Hashem, give glory to our God." This mandate refers to the mention of the Tetragrammaton, which was only pronounced at certain specific times within the confines of the Temple in Jerusalem. Whoever heard this special name of God mentioned was obliged to respond with Barukh shem kvod malkhuto l'olam va'ed (, "Blessed be the Name of His glorious kingdom for all eternity"). With the destruction of the Temple in 70 CE, however, pronouncing the Tetragrammaton was prohibited, and was replaced with the pronunciation Adonai. Although this term bears significant holiness (and is in fact one of the seven names of God) and may not be pronounced without purpose, it may be pronounced when appropriate in prayer and blessings. The aforementioned response for the Tetragrammaton, however, is not warranted when one hears Adonai pronounced. The Chazal (Talmudic sages) therefore mandated that one must answer amen at the completion of a blessing outside of the Temple, comparable to the barukh shem that was used in the Holy Temple. However, while "barukh shem is an expression of praise and honour, amen is an affirmation of belief." The Talmud teaches that the word Amen is an acronym for (, "God, trustworthy King.") The word amen itself is etymologically related to the Hebrew word ({{lang}he\|אמונה}}, "faith") asserting that one is affirming the fundamental beliefs of Judaism. Although amen, in Judaism, is most commonly stated as a response to a blessing that incorporates God's name, amen is more generally an affirmation of any declaration. Accordingly, it is customary in some communities to respond amen after each harachaman in Grace after meals and after a . When reciting amen, it is important that the response is not louder than the blessing itself. When trying to encourage others to respond amen, however, one may raise ones voice to stir others to respond in kind. Since answering "amen" indicates approval of the content of the blessing, it is appropriate to answer "amen" to another's blessing even if one could not halachically recite the blessing oneself. For example, when the kohanim recite the blessing, "...Who has sanctified us with the holiness of Aaron, and commanded us to bless His people Israel with love," the congregation responds "amen," even though they are not descendants of Aaron the High Priest. Likewise, a Gentile may respond "amen" to a Jew's blessing, even when the blessing contains the text, "...Who has sanctified us with His commandments, and commanded us to...," since by answering "amen," the Gentile is agreeing that the Jew was sanctified with the commandment about to be performed. So too with blessings on foods and smells; one is not required to likewise partake in order to answer "amen." When one person recites a blessing for another, and the second says "amen", it is considered as if the second person recited the blessing by proxy. In this manner, a person can fulfill their obligation to recite kiddush, or recite a blessing before eating, without saying the actual blessing but rather the one word "amen". Proper articulation when answering amen When responding amen, it must be pronounced in a proper manner, consistent with its significance in halakha. There are a number of ways to respond amen that are discouraged as being either disrespectful or careless. The articulation of the alef (, first letter of amen in Hebrew) and its proper vowelization must be clear. If the kametz vowel is rushed and mispronounced as the vowelization of a shva, the amen is termed an amen , as is synonym for the shva. Another type of amen is one that is recited prior to the completion of the blessing it is being recited to follow; this comes from the Hebrew word (, "snatched"). The impatient rush to respond amen before the blessing has even been completed is prohibited. If insufficient stress is placed on the nun (, the last letter of amen in Hebrew) and the mem (, the middle letter) drowns it out, this is termed an amen ketufa (, "a cut amen"). One must also not recite amen too quickly; one should allocate enough time for the amen as necessary to say ’El melekh ne’eman. Saying an (, "short amen") recited too quickly shows a lack of patience. Situations in which one may not recite amen Although it is not prohibited to say the word amen in vain, the Chazal indicated particular circumstances in which it is improper to answer amen. An ( "orphaned amen") is one such example of an improperly recited amen. There is a dispute among the halachic authorities as to exactly what constitutes an orphaned amen. As amen is recited as an affirmation of what a blessing has just asserted, one who is unaware of which blessing was just recited can certainly not affirm its assertion with true conviction. Therefore, if someone just arrives in a place and hears others reciting amen to an unknown blessing, he or she may not respond amen together with them. The opposing view maintains a much narrower definition of amen . They assert that its application is limited to a situation in which someone is intending to hear another's blessing and respond amen with the intention of fulfilling his or her obligation to recite that blessing. In such a situation, should any member of the listening party miss hearing any of the words of the blessing, it would be equivalent to an omission of the recital of that word (in accordance with the principle of shomea k'oneh), and a response of amen would thus be prohibited, even though the listener knew which blessing was being recited. Another type of is when someone does not respond amen immediately after hearing the conclusion of a blessing, but rather pauses for a few seconds (toch k'dei dibur), thereby causing the amen to lose its connection to the blessing. Responding with such an amen is forbidden. If however some people are still responding amen to a blessing, one may begin to respond amen, even if this time interval has passed. One may not respond amen to a (, "blessing made for nought"). Thus, one should not respond amen to a blessing made by someone who is merely reciting the blessing for educational purposes (i.e. to learn how to recite it). However, one is encouraged to respond amen to children's blessings, even though they are not obligated in the recitation of blessings. Because one cannot attest to one's own blessing any more than he or she already has by reciting it, responding amen to one's own blessing is redundant and one may not do so. If the blessing is being recited on food, one who responds amen to one's own blessing will either cause a hefseik (, "[prohibited] interruption") or likely pronounce an amen , depending on whether one responds immediately or waits until after one swallows some food or drink, respectively. An exception to this rule is a situation in which an individual is reciting a series of blessings; in such a case, some authorities permit the individual to respond amen to the last blessing in order to signal the ending of the series. While there are many examples of series of blessings within the Jewish prayer services, Ashkenazi tradition dictates that amen is not recited at the conclusion of a series of blessings. The one exception to this is in Grace after Meals after the third blessing of Boneh Yerushalayim; in order to signify that the first three blessings are biblically mandated, as opposed to the fourth rabbinically mandated blessing, the Talmud mandates that one recite amen at its closing. When responding amen will constitute a prohibited interruption When responding amen will constitute a (, "[prohibited] interruption"), one should not respond amen. An example of this type of situation would be within the evening kiddush on Jewish holidays, when the blessing of sheheheyanu is added within the kiddush prayer. By listening intently and responding amen to each blessing of the kiddush prayer, all those present can effectively fulfill their obligation to recite kiddush, even though only one person is actually reciting it, via the principle of shomea k'oneh (, "One who hears is the equivalent of one who recites"). While men either recite the blessing in kiddush or dispense their obligation by listening to someone else recite it, women generally recite their during candle lighting. Rabbi Tzvi Pesach Frank notes that anyone who lit candles should refrain from responding amen to the blessing during kiddush because it would effectively be an interruption in their fulfillment of reciting kiddush, as they have already recited their blessing. See also Beracah ("Valley of Blessings") Barakah (Islam; Arabic version) Baruch (given name) Brakha (daily prayer in Mandaeism) References External links Brachos.org - Your Source of Blessing - The Largest Bracha Database Brochos.com - A Reference Database Jewish Encyclopedia: Berakot Berakhah Hebrew words and phrases in Jewish prayers and blessings Religious formulas
4855960	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toyota%20Land%20Cruiser%20Prado	Toyota Land Cruiser Prado	The is a full-size four-wheel drive vehicle in the Land Cruiser range produced by the Japanese automaker Toyota as a "light-duty" variation in the range. The Prado may also be referred to as Land Cruiser LC70, LC90, LC120, LC150 and LC250 depending on the platform. In some markets, it is known simply as the Toyota Prado or the Toyota Land Cruiser. Up until the J150 model, the Prado was not part of the Land Cruiser range in North America; the rebadged Lexus GX occupied the Prado's position in luxury trim. The Prado was then introduced there in 2023 and marketed simply as the "Land Cruiser". The Prado has a ladder frame chassis, two-speed transfer boxes and rear beam axles. The J70 platform has a front beam axle, while the J90, J120, J150 and J250 platforms have front independent suspension. As of 2023, the Prado is available in every Toyota market except in Mexico, South Korea and some Southeast Asian and South American markets (where the Hilux-based Fortuner/SW4 is offered instead). Etymology The name "Prado" means meadow or field in Spanish and Portuguese. Predecessor (J70; 1984) First developed as the light-duty vehicle of the 70 Series in November 1984 and available only in short body layouts with options for soft top or hard top (metal top), names like Land Cruiser II, Land Cruiser, and Bundera were made for these "light duty" Land Cruisers. The Bundera was a short wheelbase—being —with two doors, a plastic top, and barn doors at the rear. There were four options for the engine, the 22R (carbureted) and 22R-E (EFI) petrol engines and the 2L and 2L-T diesel and turbocharged diesel engines. The transmission for the petrol engines is the G52 type while the diesels used the R150 and R151 types. These were the same engines and transmissions used in the 4Runner, in cooperation with Hino. First generation (J70; 1990) In April 1990, a new type, the Prado, was introduced, with a redesigned front grille, front fenders, engine hood, and head lamps. At the same time, names like Land Cruiser and Land Cruiser II were still used in other parts of the world besides Japan. Despite a body-on-frame design making it highly capable off-road, the vehicle was marketed toward on-road use, unlike the RJ70 and RJ73 (2 doors, 22RE EFI), which are popular in off-roading with a decent power-to-weight ratio and are available in Europe, South America, Africa, and Australia. The underpowered RJ77 (4 doors with the 22R carbureted engine) was only available in some Middle Eastern countries. In Japan, it came with electronic fuel injection and a four speed automatic transmission. The 2.4 L turbocharged diesel engine with and high torque unit was installed. The lineup included 2-door and 4-door versions available in SX, LX or EX (4-door only) grades of trim. The front suspension was changed to a "shock absorber through spring" design to improve handling. With the touch of a button you could switch between absorber stages. The 22R petrol engine was upgraded to the 22R-E (electronic fuel injection) engine, the diesel engines were replaced by the 3L engine, and the 2L-T turbocharged diesel engine was replaced by the electronically injected 2L-TE turbocharged diesel engine. In 1993, the 2L-TE turbocharged diesel engine was replaced by the 1KZ-TE turbocharged diesel engine with aluminium cylinder head. The 1KZ-TE was able to reduce and soot. The dashboard was replaced with a new design with minor changes to suspension, brakes and trim details. Second generation (J90; 1996) In May 1996, the J70 series underwent a makeover and emerged as the J90-series Prado, an independent series. The body was lengthened. The design remained medium duty, like the J70. The front suspension was replaced with an independent design, shared with the Tacoma and Hilux Surf, made by Hino. The J90 was made by the Tahara Plant, available as a three-door short wheelbase and five-door long wheelbase version. In Japan, the 3-door series started with an R in the series ranging from RZ, RX, RS to RJ while the 5-door line-up started with T in the series ranging from TZ, TX, TS, to TJ. All models came with front double wishbone and 4 linked suspension as well as full-time 4WD. ABS and a Field Monitor showing an altimeter, a thermometer and pressure were standard in all the models. The field monitor was not available as standard equipment in South Africa. Television display and audio set was optional. Petrol engines included the 3RZ-FE and, new in Prado models, the V6 5VZ-FE. Diesel engines included the 3L engine, the 5L engine and the 1KZ-TE. There was also a luxury version of the J90, called the Challenger. Features of the Challenger are standard leather seats and wood on the dash. By June 1999, minor changes were made. In order to follow new laws, fog-lamps were added to the bumper, except in South Africa. To reduce theft, an engine immobilizer was available. The TX Limited with 8 seats used in the TX base with a roof rail, rear under mirror, wood panel finish, armrest, optitron meter, base cooling as well as rear heater was introduced into this series. In July 2000, Toyota introduced the 1KD-FTV 3.0 turbo-diesel with D-4D technology to replace the 1KZ-TE in Japan. The Prado was assembled by Sofasa in Colombia from 1999 until 2009 without significant changes. There were two versions, a 3-door version with a 2.7 L engine and a 5-door version with a 3.4 L V6 engine and either a 5-speed manual or a 4-speed automatic transmission. Between 2005 and 2009 they offered an optional armoured version of the 5-door Prado. When the Prado was launched in the UK in 1996, it was called the Land Cruiser Colorado and replaced the 4Runner, which had been discontinued from sale. It was called this to distinguish it from the larger Land Cruiser – renamed as the Land Cruiser Amazon – which was already on sale. The Colorado name tag was dropped in 2003, when it was renamed simply as Land Cruiser. In the Republic of Ireland most Land Cruisers were sold as commercial vehicles with the rear side windows and seats removed for tax reasons. Gallery Pre-facelift Facelift Third generation (J120; 2002) Appearing in 2002, the third generation Prado has revised front suspension to improve reliability. Development began in 1997 and design work in 1998, with the proposal originating from Lance Scott of the Toyota ED2 design studio in France in late 1999. Engines include the straight-4 3RZ-FE, V-6 5VZ-FE and straight-4 turbocharged diesel 1KZ-TE. In countries like China, a newly developed engine( 1GR-FE V6) is available. The engine immobilizer became standard equipment in some markets. In August 2004, the 3RZ-FE engine was replaced by the 2TR-FE engine and in July of the same year, the 5VZ-FE engine was replaced by the V6 1GR-FE engine with a 5-speed automatic transmission available in late 2005. In North America, this model is known as the Lexus GX 470 with the V8 2UZ-FE engine. Diesel models have had the 1KZ-TE turbocharged diesel engine with maximum output rating at as well as the 5L-E natural aspirated diesel engine rated at . In November 2006, Toyota introduced the 1KD-FTV turbocharged diesel (D-4D engine to meet Euro IV emission standards. This engine delivers of power and of torque. The upgrade to the D-4D engine was also matched with transmission upgrades to the diesel range, with the 5-speed automatic and 6-speed manual transmissions added in line with the petrol powered range. From August 2007 the Prado received several equipment and safety upgrades. The car has won 3 awards for the best performance from an SUV-type vehicle in Australia and the US. The 120-series Land Cruiser Prado shares the same suspension parts as the Hilux Surf/4Runner and FJ Cruiser from the same years. There is a shorter three-door version of the 120-series, with a 125-code instead of 120. Engines and most features are the same; just the 1KZ-TE was only available in the five-door version. The three-door model features only two seat rows. The fuel tank is limited to 87 L, with no sub-fuel-tank system available. For model year 2007 on Japanese models only, G-BOOK, a subscription telematics service, is offered as an option. The Japanese Prado consisted of 6 trim levels known as RX, RZ, TX, TX Limited, TZ and TZ 'G Selection'. The highest specification model known as TZ 'G Selection' consisted of features like front driver and passenger heated seats, heated exterior mirrors, adjustable air suspension, hill start assist control downhill assist control, central differential lock and sometimes engine auto heating. Fourth generation (J150; 2009) The fourth generation has been available in some markets since October 2009. There are two base variants, five-door and three-door. The five-door variant in the general market is offered in TXL & VXL grades – which are much more option-packed. This generation of Prado features advanced 4WD and an array of electronic gadgets. This generation of the Prado is offered in the US badged as the 2010 model year Lexus GX 460 with luxury trim. Depending on the market, the fourth generation is available with an under-floor mounted or rear door mounted spare wheel. For example, UK vehicles have the spare wheel mounted under the floor, while in Australia and Argentina the spare wheel is mounted on the rear door, leaving space for an auxiliary fuel tank, which is desirable in countries where long journeys in isolated areas may be required. The fuel capacity of the dual tank series four is ( in the main tank, in the auxiliary tank) compared to of the series three. The removable third-row three-seaters of the J120 were replaced by fold-into-floor seats which seat only two people – which is also responsible for a loss of cargo capacity, the reduction in dual fuel capacity and usable height in the cargo compartment. On the higher end Kakadu and three-door ZR models, there are six camera positions enabling viewing to the front and down, to the side both front and rear, and to the rear. The engine remained the same, although the automatic gear change points were altered for maximum fuel economy rather than maximum performance, even in Sports mode. In June 2015, Toyota improved the petrol engine with dual VVT-i, increasing the power output by to and the torque to . The diesel engine was replaced with the smaller 1GD-FTV. Both engines were upgraded to the 6-speed Aisin AC60F automatic transmission. The second facelift was launched in Japan, Europe, Turkey and Australasia on 12 September 2017. Japan In Japan, the 1GR-FE engine and TZ trim was available from 2009 until June 2015. From June 2015 onward, the following engines and trim levels available are: The monthly sales target for Japan is 1,000 units. Australia The fourth generation Prado was released in Australia on 16 November 2009. Five-door models include the GX, GXL, VX and the high-end Kakadu. The Altitude model, introduced in 2012, is priced between the GXL and VX. The Prado Altitude has satellite navigation, two-way moon roof, leather accented trim and 7" Fujitsu-Ten touch-screen/multimedia center. Three-door shorter wheelbase models include the SX and ZR. A facelift went on sale in October 2013, with more standard equipment, new front panels and new headlights. Higher specification models received LED headlights and suspension improvements. The three door Prado was dropped at this time due to poor sales. Unlike in Japan, Toyota Australia retained the 4.0L V6 power unit. All GXL models received a seven-inch sat-nav as standard. In August 2014, a new tailgate without the spare tyre became available as an option for the first time in Australia. , all Prado models are offered with an automatic transmission only. They are also only available with a 2.8L turbo diesel 4 cylinder engine. For 2021 the Prado gets the upgraded diesel engine first seen in the updated Hilux. This means it now has 150 kW/500Nm. Europe In the United Kingdom, the J150 Prado is designated as the Land Cruiser LC3, LC4 and LC5, depending on the equipment levels. In some markets, commercial van variants, based on the short-wheelbase chassis are available. China The 4.0-litre 1GR-FE V6 was standard paired to a five-speed automatic gearbox. On 24 September 2015, the fourth generation mid-life facelift received a new 3.5-litre V6, the 7GR-FKS to replace the previous 4.0-litre V6. While the engine capacity is lower when compared to the 4.0-litre, the power output remains the same at and of torque. It uses less fuel and it is the only country in the world to offer the Prado with 3.5-litre V6 (model GRJ152L) to the consumer alongside the 2.7-litre inline-four petrol (model TRJ152L). Meanwhile, the 2.7-litre engine version (model TRJ152L), introduced in October 2013, got a revised 2TR-FE engine with dual VVT-i, and the four-speed automatic was replaced with the previous six-speed Aisin AC60F; the 3.5-litre V6 version also got the new transmission. Gallery Pre-facelift First facelift Second facelift Fifth generation (J250; 2023) The J250 series Land Cruiser Prado was revealed on 2 August 2023. It will be marketed as the Land Cruiser 250 in Japan and simply the Land Cruiser in North America and some European countries. Some other markets such as Australia and other European countries will retain the Land Cruiser Prado nameplate. The 3-door model is no longer offered for this generation. The design and engineering direction had shifted compared to the previous generation, now focusing on "practicality, durability and dependability" with the basic approach outlined by previous Toyota CEO Akio Toyoda. It results in a retro-inspired, boxy exterior styling inspired by the J60 model from the 1980s. The vehicle is based on the body-on-frame GA-F platform shared with the larger J300 series Land Cruiser. It is claimed to have a 50 per cent increase in frame rigidity, and a 30 per cent increase in overall rigidity. The model is also the first "Light Duty Series" Land Cruiser to use an electric power steering (EPS) system, which promises easier steering wheel handling during off-road conditions, improving maneuverability at low speed, and allows the lane tracing assist system to be implemented. The maximum approach and departure angle is 31.0 degrees and 22.0 degrees respectively, while breakover angle reaches 25 degrees. Ground clearance is rated at . All models are equipped with a full-time four-wheel drive system with a centre locking differential and an electronic two-speed transfer case with high/low range. An electronic locking rear differential is standard, which is able to split power 50/50 to the rear wheels for improved traction control on rough terrain. Markets Japan The Land Cruiser Prado is renamed to the Land Cruiser 250 for this generation in Japan. It will be sold alongside the J300 series Land Cruiser and heavy-duty J70 series Land Cruiser that will go on sale in late 2023 after years of absence. North America In North America, the J250 series Land Cruiser replaces the J200 series Land Cruiser (which was discontinued in 2021, but replaced in other markets by the J300 Land Cruiser) as the model carrying the Land Cruiser nameplate in North America. Unlike the previous J200 model, the J250 model will be physically smaller and feature a more boxy and utilitarian design, with a lower starting price compared to the J200. While the J200 was a full-size three-row SUV, the J250 model is a mid-size two-row SUV. The range includes three trim levels consisting of the base Land Cruiser 1958, mid-level Land Cruiser model, and the Land Cruiser First Edition limited to 5,000 units during the first year of production. The 1958 has round headlights, extended unpainted plastic body panels, and cloth seats. The Land Cruiser has rectangular headlights and painted body panels, heated and ventilated front seats, an available console cool box, a 2,400-watt inverter, colour-selectable fog lights by RIGID, wider tyres, and a locking rear differential and stabilizer disconnect mechanism. The First Edition adds a roof rack, rock rails and a front skid plate, while keeping the 1958's round headlights. The only engine option available is a hybrid powertrain (marketed as "i-Force Max"), featuring a turbocharged 2.4-litre T24A-FTS four-cylinder petrol engine. Towing capacity is rated at . Europe In most European markets, the J250 series Land Cruiser is marketed simply as the Land Cruiser. In European countries where the Land Cruiser 300 is available, the J250 series Land Cruiser adopts the Prado moniker. It is powered by a 2.8-litre four-cylinder turbo-diesel engine carried over from the previous generation. Australia The Australian market J250 series Land Cruiser will continue to be marketed as the Land Cruiser Prado, with local introduction scheduled in mid-2024. Powertrain Five powertrain types were announced, including one petrol hybrid and one diesel mild hybrid marketed by Toyota as a "48V system". All engines are exclusively four-cylinder. Sales References External links (Australia) Prado Cars introduced in 1984 1990s cars 2000s cars 2010s cars 2020s cars Full-size sport utility vehicles All-wheel-drive vehicles Hybrid sport utility vehicles Partial zero-emissions vehicles Retro-style automobiles
4856356	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cizre	Cizre	Cizre (; , or Madinat al-Jazira, , , Cizîra Botan, or Cizîre, ,) is a city in the Cizre District of Şırnak Province in Turkey. It is located on the river Tigris by the Syria–Turkey border and close to the Iraq–Turkey border. Cizre is in the historical region of Upper Mesopotamia and the cultural region of Turkish Kurdistan. The city had a population of 130,916 in 2021. Cizre was founded as Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar in the 9th century by al-Hasan ibn Umar, Emir of Mosul, on a manmade island in the Tigris. The city benefited from its situation as a river crossing and port in addition to its position at the end of an old Roman road which connected it to the Mediterranean Sea, and thus became an important commercial and strategic centre in Upper Mesopotamia. By the 12th century, it had adopted an intellectual and religious role, and sizeable Christian and Jewish communities are attested. Cizre suffered in the 15th century from multiple sackings and ultimately came under the control of the Ottoman Empire after 1515. Under Ottoman control, Cizre stagnated and was left as a small district centre dominated by ruins by the end of the 19th century. The city's decline continued, exacerbated by the state-orchestrated destruction of its Christian population in the Armenian and Assyrian genocides in 1915, and exodus of its Jewish population to Israel in 1951. It began to recover in the second half of the 20th century through urban redevelopment, and its population saw a massive increase as a place of refuge from 1984 onwards as many fled the Kurdish–Turkish conflict. At the close of the 20th century and beginning of the 21st century, Cizre has emerged as a battleground between Kurdish militants and the Turkish state, which inflicted significant devastation on the city to retain control. Etymology The various names for the city of Cizre descend from the original Arabic name Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar, which is derived from 'jazira' (island), "ibn" (son of), and the name Umar, thus Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar translates to 'island of Umar'. The city's alternative Arabic name Madinat al-Jazira is composed of "madinat" ('city') and 'al-Jazira' (the island), and therefore translates to 'the island city'. Cizre was known in Syriac as Gāzartā d'Beṯ Zabdaï (island of Zabdicene), from 'gazarta' (island) and 'Beṯ Zabdaï' (Zabdicene). History Classical and early medieval period Cizre is identified as the location of , a river crossing depicted on the , a Roman 4th/5th century map. The river crossing lay at the end of a Roman road that connected it with Nisibis, and was part of the region of Zabdicene. It was previously assumed by most scholars that Bezabde was located at the same site of what would later become Cizre, but is now agreed to be at Eski Hendek, northwest of Cizre. Cizre was originally known as Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar, and was founded by and named after al-Hasan ibn Umar ibn al-Khattab al-Taghlibi (died c. 865), Emir of Mosul, in the early 9th century, as recorded by Yaqut al-Hamawi in Mu'jam al-Buldan. The city was constructed in a bend in the river Tigris, and al-Hasan ibn Umar built a canal across the bend, placing the city on an island in the river, hence the city's name. Eventually, the original course of the river disappeared due to sedimentation and shifted to the canal, leaving the city on the west bank of the Tigris. Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar was situated to take advantage of trade routes from the direction of Amid to the northwest, Nisibin to the west, and Iran to the northeast. The city also functioned as a river port, and goods were transported by raft down the Tigris to Mosul and further south. Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar supplanted the neighbouring city of Bezabde as its inhabitants gradually left for the new city, and was likely abandoned in the early 10th century. Medieval Islamic scholars recorded competing theories of the founder of the city as al-Harawi noted in Ziyarat that it was believed that Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar was the second city founded by Nuh (Noah) after the Great Flood. This belief rests on the identification of nearby Mount Judi as the (place of descent) of Noah's Ark. The shahanshah Ardashir I of Iran (180–242) was also considered a potential founder. In Wafayāt al-Aʿyān, Ibn Khallikan reported that Yusuf ibn Umar al-Thaqafi (d. 744) was considered by some to be responsible for the city's foundation, whilst he argued that Abd al-Aziz ibn Umar was the founder and namesake of Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar. The city was fortified in the 10th century at the latest. In the 10th century, Ibn Hawqal in Surat al-Ard described Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar as an entrepôt engaged in trade with the Byzantine Empire, Armenia, and the districts of Mayyafariqin, Arzen, and Mosul. Abu Taghlib, Hamdanid Emir of Mosul, allied himself with the Buyid Emir Izz al-Dawla Bakhtiyar of Iraq in his civil war against his cousin Emir 'Adud al-Dawla of Fars in 977 on the condition that Bakhtiyar hand over Abu Taghlib's younger brother Hamdan, who had conspired against him. Although Abu Taghlib had secured his reign by executing his rival brother Hamdan, the alliance quickly backfired following Adud al-Dawla's victory over Abu Taghlib and Bakhtiyar at Samarra in the spring of 978 as he then annexed Hamdanid territory in upper Mesopotamia, and thus Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar came under Buyid rule, forcing Abu Taghlib to go into exile. Buyid control of Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar was cut short by the civil war that followed the death of Adud al-Dawla in 983 as it allowed the Kurdish chief Badh to seize Buyid territory in upper Mesopotamia in the following year, and he was acknowledged as its ruler by the claimant Emir Samsam al-Dawla. Bādh attempted to conquer Mosul in 990, and the Hamdanid brothers Abu Abdallah Husayn and Abu Tahir Ibrahim were sent by the Buyid Emir Baha al-Dawla to repel the threat. The Uqaylid clan agreed to aid the brothers against Bādh in return for the cities of Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar, Balad, and Nisibin, and Bādh was subsequently defeated and killed. The leader of the Uqaylids, Abu'l-Dhawwad Muhammad ibn al-Musayyab, secured control of the cities, and acknowledged Emir Baha al-Dawla as his sovereign. On Muhammad's death in 996, his brother and successor as emir, al-Muqallad, asserted his independence, expelling the Buyid presence in the emirate, and thus ending Buyid suzerainty. High medieval period Turkmen nomads arrived in the vicinity of Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar in the summer of 1042, and carried out raids in Diyar Bakr and upper Mesopotamia. The Marwanid emirate became a vassal of the Seljuk Sultan Tughril in 1056. In the summer of 1083, the former Marwanid vizier Fakhr al-Dawla ibn Jahir persuaded the Seljuk Sultan Malikshah to send him with an army against the Marwanid emirate, and eventually Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar, the last remaining stronghold, was captured in 1085. Although the Marwanid emirate was severely reduced, its final emir, Nasir al-Dawla Mansur, was permitted to continue to rule solely Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar under the Seljuk Sultanate from 1085 onwards. The mamluk Jikirmish seized Mansur and usurped the emirate of Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar on Mansur's death in January 1096. In late 1096, Jikirmish set out to relieve Kerbogha's siege of Mosul following a request for aid from the Uqaylid emir Ali ibn Sharaf al-Dawla of Mosul, but was defeated by Kerbogha's brother Altuntash, and submitted to him as a vassal. Jikirmish was forced to aid in the ultimately successful siege against his former ally, and thus came under the suzerainty of Kerbogha as Emir of Mosul. Kerbogha died in 1102, and Sultan Barkiyaruq appointed Jikirmish as his replacement as emir. Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar was thereafter directly ruled over by a string of Seljuk emirs of Mosul until the appointment of Zengi. Emir Aqsunqur al-Bursuqi of Mosul was murdered by Assassins in 1126, and was succeeded by his son Mas'ud. He died after several months, and his younger brother became emir with the mamluk Jawali serving as atabeg (regent). Jawali sent envoys to Sultan Mahmud II to receive official recognition for al-Bursuqi's son as emir of Mosul, but the envoys bribed the vizier Anu Shurwan to recommend Imad al-Din Zengi be appointed as emir of Mosul instead. The sultan appointed Zengi as emir in the autumn of 1127, but he had to secure the emirate by force as forces loyal to al-Bursuqi's son resisted Zengi, and retained control of Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar. After taking Mosul, Zengi marched north and besieged Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar; in an attack, he ferried soldiers across the river whilst others swam to the city, and eventually the city surrendered. Later, an Artuqid coalition of Da'ud of Hisn Kayfa, Timurtash of Mardin, and Ilaldi of Amid threatened Zengi's realm in 1130 whilst he campaigned in the vicinity of Aleppo in Syria, forcing him to return and defeat them at Dara. After the battle, Da'ud marched on Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar and pillaged its surroundings, thus Zengi advanced to counter him, and Da'ud withdrew to the mountains. The dozdar (governor of the citadel) of Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar, Thiqat al-Din Hasan, was reported to have sexually harassed soldiers' wives whilst their husbands were on campaign, and thus Zengi sent his hajib (chamberlain) al-Yaghsiyani to handle the situation. To avoid a rebellion, al-Yaghsiyani told Hasan he was promoted to dozdar of Aleppo, so he arranged to leave the city, but was arrested, castrated, and crucified by al-Yaghsiyani upon leaving the citadel. The Jewish scholar Abraham ibn Ezra visited the city in November 1142. On Zengi's death in 1146, his eldest son Sayf al-Din Ghazi I received the emirate of Mosul, including Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar, and Izz al-Dīn Abū Bakr al-Dubaysī was appointed as the city's governor. The city was transferred to Qutb al-Din Mawdud on his seizure of the emirate of Mosul after his elder brother Sayf al-Din's death in November 1149. The Grand Mosque of Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar was constructed in 1155. After Qutb al-Din's death in September 1170, Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar was inherited by his son and successor Sayf al-Din Ghazi II as emir of Mosul. Michael the Syrian recorded that a Syriac Orthodox monastery was confiscated and the city's bishop Basilius was imprisoned in 1173. Upon the death of Sayf al-Din Ghazi in 1180, Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar was granted as an iqta' to his son Mu'izz al-Din Sanjar Shah within the emirate of Mosul, however, in late 1183, Sanjar Shah recognised Saladin as his suzerain, thus becoming a vassal of the Ayyubid Sultanate of Egypt, and effectively forming an autonomous principality. Sanjar Shah continued to mint coins in his own name, and copper dirhams were minted at Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar in 1203/1204. Sanjar Shah ruled until his murder by his son Ghazi in 1208, and was succeeded by his son Mu'izz al-Din Mahmud. Mahmud successfully maintained Zengid control over Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar with the marriage of his son Al-Malik al-Mas'ud Shahanshah to the daughter of Badr al-Din Lu'lu', who had overthrown the Zengids at Mosul, and usurped power for himself in 1233. The Grand Mosque of Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar was renovated during Mahmud's reign. In the early 13th century, the city's fort and madrasa are attested by Ibn al-Athir in Al-Tārīkh al-bāhir fī al-Dawlah al-Atābakīyah bi-al-Mawṣil, and its mosque by Ibn Khallikan in Wafayāt al-Aʿyān. According to the Arab scholar Izz al-Din ibn Shaddad, the Mongol Empire demanded 100,000 dinars in tribute from the ruler of Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar in 1251. The end of the Zengid dynasty was heralded by the death of Mahmud in 1251, as Badr al-Din Lu'lu' had Mahmud's successor Al-Malik al-Mas'ud Shahanshah killed soon after, and assumed control of Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar. Late medieval period Badr al-Din Lu'lu' acknowledged Mongol suzerainty to secure his realm as early as 1252, and minted coins in the name of Great Khan Möngke Khan in 1255 at the latest. He is also known to have had a mosque built at Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar. Badr al-Din became subject to the Mongol Ilkhanate on Hulagu Khan's assumption of the title Ilkhan (subject khan) in 1256. Badr al-Din Lu'lu' died in July/August 1259, and his realm was divided between his sons, and Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar was bequeathed to his son al-Malik Al-Mujahid Sayf al-Din Ishaq. The sons of Badr al-Din Lu'lu' chafed under Mongol rule and soon all had rebelled and travelled to Egypt seeking military assistance as al-Muzaffar Ala al-Din Ali left Sinjar in 1260, al-Salih Rukn al-Din Ismail left Mosul in June 1261, and finally Ishaq fled Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar for Egypt shortly afterwards. Prior to his flight, Ishaq extorted 700 dinars from the city's Christians, and news of his impending escape pushed the populace to riot against his decision to leave the city to the wrath of the Mongols. In Ishaq's absence, 'Izz ad-Din 'Aibag, Emir of Amadiya, seized the city, and an attack by Abd Allah, Emir of Mayyafariqin, was repelled. Baibars, Sultan of Egypt, refused to provide an army to the sons of Badr al-Din against the Mongols, but they were permitted to accompany Caliph Al-Mustansir on his campaign to reconquer Baghdad from the Mongols. The three brothers marched with the caliph's campaign until they split at Al-Rahba, and travelled to Sinjar, where Ali and Ishaq briefly remained whilst Ismail continued onwards to Mosul. However, the two brothers abandoned Sinjar and Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar to the Mongols, and returned to Egypt upon learning of the caliph's death and defeat in November. Mosul was sacked and Ismail was killed by a Mongol army, after a siege from November to July/August 1262. After the sack of Mosul, the Mongol army led by Samdaghu besieged Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar until the summer of 1263; the siege was lifted and the city spared when the Church of the East bishop Henan Isho claimed to have knowledge of chrysopoeia, and offered to render his services. Jemal ad-Din Gulbag was appointed to govern Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar, but he was later executed for conspiring with the city's former ruler Ishaq, and was replaced by Henan Isho, who was also executed in 1268, following accusations of impropriety. In the second half of the 13th century, Mongol gold, silver, and copper coins were minted at Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar, and production there increased after Khan Ghazan's (r. 1295–1304) reforms. It was later attested that the vizier Rashid-al-Din Hamadani had planned to construct a canal from the Tigris by the city. Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar was visited by the Moroccan scholar Ibn Battuta in 1327, and he noted the city's mosque, bazaar, and three gates. In 1326/1327, the city was granted as a fief to a Turkman chief, and Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar remained under his control until the disintegration of the Ilkhanate in 1335, soon after which it was seized by the Bohtan clan in 1336/1337 with the aid of al-Ashraf, Ayyubid Emir of Hisn Kayfa. In the 1330s, Hamdallah Mustawfi in Nuzhat Al Qulub reported that Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar had an annual revenue of 170,200 dinars. The emirate of Hisn Kayfa had aimed to control Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar through the Bohtan clan in providing military assistance to its capture and the marriage of a daughter to Izz ed-Din, Emir of Bohtan, but this was unsuccessful as the Bohtan emirate developed the city and consolidated their rule, and eventually the emir of Hisn Kayfa attempted to take Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar by force in 1384/1385, but was repelled. The emirate of Bohtan submitted to the Timurid Empire in 1400, after Timur sacked Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar in retribution for the emir having seized one of his baggage convoys. As punishment for the emir's refusal to participate in Timur's campaign in Iraq, the city was sacked by Timur's son Miran Shah. Early modern period Uzun Hasan usurped leadership of the Aq Qoyunlu from his elder brother Jahangir in a coup at Amid in 1452, and set about expanding his realm by seizing Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar in 1456, whilst the emir of Bohtan withdrew into the mountains. Rebellion and civil war followed the death of Uzun Hasan in 1478, and the emir of Bohtan retook Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar from the Aq Qoyunlu in 1495/1496. Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar came under Safavid suzerainty in the first decade of the 16th century, but after the Ottoman victory at the battle of Chaldiran over Shah Ismail I in 1514, Sultan Selim I sent Idris Bitlisi to the city and he successfully convinced the emir of Bohtan to submit to the Ottoman Empire. The emirate of Bohtan was incorporated into the empire as a hükûmet (autonomous territory), and was assigned to the eyalet (province) of Diyarbekir upon its formation in 1515. Sayyid Ahmad ruled in 1535. Christian families from Erbil found refuge and settled in Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar in 1566. In the mid-17th century, Evliya Çelebi visited Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar en route from Mosul to Hisn Kayfa, and noted the city possessed four muftis and a naqib al-ashraf, and its qadis (judges) received a daily salary of 300 akçes. In the late 17th century, Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar is mentioned by Jean-Baptiste Tavernier in Les Six Voyages de J. B. Tavernier as a location on the route to Tabriz. Late modern period The Egyptian invasion of Syria in 1831-1832 allowed Mohammed Pasha Mir Kôr, Emir of Soran, to expand his realm, and he seized Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar in 1833. The Ottoman response to Mir Kôr was delayed by the war with Egypt until 1836, in which year Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar was retaken by an army led by Reşid Mehmed Pasha. Reşid deposed Saif al-Din Shir, Emir of Bohtan and mütesellim of Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar, and he was replaced by Bedir Khan Beg. In 1838, an Ottoman army was sent to Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar during the campaign to suppress the rebellion of Abdul Agha and Khan Mahmud in the vicinity of Lake Van. The German adviser Helmuth von Moltke the Elder accompanied the Ottoman army and reported back to the Ottoman government from Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar in June 1838. Bedir Khan reportedly established a munitions and arms factory at the city. In 1842, as part of the centralisation policies of the Tanzimat reforms, the kaza (district) of Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar was attached to the eyalet of Mosul, whilst the kaza of Bohtan, which constituted the remainder of the emirate, remained within the eyalet of Diyarbekir, thus administratively dividing the emirate, and provoking Bedir Khan. The administrative reform aimed to increase Ottoman state revenue, but left the previously loyal emir disgruntled with the Ottoman state. Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar was visited by the American missionary Asahel Grant on 13 June 1843. Bedir Khan's 1843 and 1846 massacres in Hakkari led the British and French governments to demand his removal from power, and he was subsequently summoned to Constantinople, but Bedir Khan refused, and an Ottoman army was sent against him. The emir defeated the Ottoman army, and he declared the independence of the Emirate of Bohtan. Bedir Khan's success was brief as a large Ottoman army led by Osman Pasha, with Omar Pasha and Sabri Pasha, marched against him, and his relative Yezdanşêr defected and allowed for the Ottoman occupation of Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar. The Ottoman government unsuccessfully encouraged Bedir Khan to surrender, and the vali (governor) of Diyarbekir wrote to the Naqshbandi sheikhs İbrahim, Salih, and Azrail at Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar to mediate in June 1847. Although Bedir Khan retook Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar, the emir was forced to withdraw and surrendered on 29 July. As a consequence of Bedir Khan's rebellion, the emirate of Bohtan was dissolved and Yezdanşêr succeeded him as mütesellim of Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar. Also, the eyalet of Kurdistan was formed on 5 December 1847, and included the kazas of Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar and Bohtan. Yezdanşêr met with Lieutenant Colonel (later General) Fenwick Williams at Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar in 1849 whilst he participated as the British representative in a commission to settle the Ottoman-Iranian border. Yezdanşêr was soon replaced by the kaymakam Mustafa Pasha, sent away to Constantinople in March 1849, and forbidden from returning to Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar. In 1852, the iane-i umumiye (temporary tax) was introduced, and the kaza of Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar was expected to provide 23,140 piastres. During the Crimean War, in 1854, Yezdanşêr was ordered to recruit soldiers for the war, and 900 Kurds were recruited from Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar and Bohtan. Yezdanşêr claimed to be maltreated by local officials and revolted in November, with Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar under his control. He offered to surrender in January 1855 on the condition that he received the kazas of Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar and Bohtan, but this was rejected. An Ottoman army consisting of a regiment of infantry, a regiment of cavalry, and a battery of six guns was ordered to march on Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar in February. In March, Yezdanşêr accepted terms offered by General Williams, the British military commissioner with the Ottoman Anatolian army, and surrendered. In 1867, the eyalet of Kurdistan was dissolved and replaced by the Diyarbekir Vilayet, and Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar became the seat of a kaza in the sanjak of Mardin. The kaza was subdivided into nine nahiyes, and possessed 210 villages. Osman, son of Bedir Khan, seized Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar in 1878 after his escape from captivity at Constantinople using demobilised Kurdish veterans of the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–78, and proclaimed himself as emir. The rebellion endured for eight months until it was quelled by an Ottoman army led by Shevket Bey. The city was visited by the German scholar Eduard Sachau in 1880. In the late 19th century, the French geographer Vital Cuinet recorded in La Turquie d'Asie the city's five caravanserais, one-hundred and six shops, ten cafés, and a vaulted bazaar. At the inception of the Hamidiye cavalry corps in 1891, Mustafa, agha (chief) of the local Miran clan, enrolled and was made a commander with the rank of paşa, hereafter known as Mustafa Paşa. Throughout the 1890s, Mustafa Paşa exploited his position to seize goods from merchants and plunder Christian villages in the district. In 1892, Mustafa Paşa converted a mosque at Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar into a barracks for his soldiers. The appointment of Mehmed Enis Paşa as vali of Diyarbekir on 4 October 1895 was quickly followed by massacres of Christians throughout the province, and in mid-November an Ottoman army repelled an attempt by Mustafa Paşa to enter the city and slaughter its Christian inhabitants. Mustafa Paşa subsequently complained to Enis Paşa, and the officer in charge of the regiment was summoned to Diyarbekir. Later, the British and French vice-consuls at Diyarbekir, Cecil Marsham Hallward and Gustave Meyrier, respectively, suspected that Enis Paşa was responsible for the massacres in the province. In 1897, the British diplomat Telford Waugh reported that Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar was used as a place of exile by the Ottoman Empire as he noted the presence of Albanians deported there, and that the city's governor Faris, agha of the Şammar clan, had been exiled there after his fall from grace. Early 20th century Mustafa Paşa feuded with agha Muhammad Aghayê Sor, and in 1900 the kaymakam of Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar intervened to aid the Tayan clan, Mustafa Paşa's allies, against Aghayê Sor. Several months later, Mustafa Paşa had twenty villages in the district loyal to his rival destroyed, and Aghayê Sor wrote to the Brigadier General Bahaeddin Paşa seeking protection. Bahaeddin Paşa travelled to Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar to conduct an inquiry, but was imprisoned there for five days by Mustafa Paşa, and the two rivals continued to attack each other's territories until Mustafa Paşa was assassinated on Aghayê Sor's orders in 1902. Within the kaza of Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar, in 1909, there were 1500 households, 1000 of which possessed over 50 dönüms. As late as 1910, the Miran clan annually migrated from their winter pastures in the plain of Mosul to Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar in the spring to trade and pay taxes, and then across the Tigris to summer grazing grounds at the source of the river Botan. The British scholar Gertrude Bell visited the city in May 1910. In 1915, amidst the ongoing genocide of Armenians and Assyrians perpetrated by the Ottoman government and local Kurds, Aziz Feyzi and Zülfü Bey carried out preparations to destroy the Christian population of Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar on orders from Mehmed Reshid, vali of Diyarbekir. From 29 April to 12 May, the officials toured the district and incited the Kurds against the Christians; Halil Sâmi, kaymakam of Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar since 31 March 1913, was replaced by Kemal Bey on 2 May 1915 due to his refusal to support the plans for genocide. At this time, two redif (reserve) battalions were stationed in the city. Julius Behnam, Syriac Orthodox Archbishop of Gazarta, fled to Azakh upon hearing of the commencement of massacres in the province in July. Christians in rural areas of the district were massacred over several days from 8 August onwards, and several Jacobite and 15 Chaldean Catholic villages were destroyed. On the night of 28 August, Flavianus Michael Malke, Syriac Catholic Bishop of Gazarta, and Philippe-Jacques Abraham, Chaldean Catholic Bishop of Gazarta, were killed. On 29 August, Aziz Feyzi, Ahmed Hilmi, Mufti of Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar, and Ömer, agha of the Reman clan, coordinated the arrest, torture, and execution of all Armenian men and a number of Assyrians in Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar. The men's bodies were dumped in the Tigris, and, two days later, the children were abducted into Muslim households, and most women were raped and killed, and their bodies were also thrown into the river. Walter Holstein, German vice-consul at Mosul, reported the massacre to the German embassy at Constantinople on 9 September, and the German ambassador Ernst II, Prince of Hohenlohe-Langenburg informed the German Foreign Office on 11 September that the massacre had resulted in the death of 4750 Armenians (2500 Gregorians, 1250 Catholics, and 1000 Protestants) and 350 Assyrians (250 Chaldeans and 100 Jacobites). After the massacre, eleven churches and three chapels were confiscated. 200 Armenians from Erzurum were exterminated near Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar by General Halil Kut on 22 September. Kemal Bey continued in the office of kaymakam until 3 November 1915. In the aftermath of Ottoman defeat in the First World War, Ali İhsan Sâbis, commander of the Ottoman Sixth Army, was reported to have recruited and armed Kurds at Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar in February 1919 in an effort to prevent British occupation. After the murder of Captain Alfred Christopher Pearson, assistant political officer at Zakho, by Kurds on 4 April 1919, the occupation of Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar was considered to ensure the security of British Iraq, but ultimately dismissed. Ahmed Hilmi, Mufti of Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar, was ordered to be arrested in May 1919 for his role in the massacre in 1915 as part of the Turkish courts-martial of 1919–1920, but he evaded arrest as he was under the protection of local Kurdish clans. Appeals from Kurds to the British government to create an independent Kurdish state spurred the appointment of Nihat Anılmış as commander at Cizre in June 1920 with instructions from the Prime Minister of Turkey Mustafa Kemal to establish local government and secure control of local Kurds by inciting them to engage in armed clashes against British and French forces, thus preventing good relations. Local Kurdish notables complained to the Grand National Assembly of Turkey of alleged illegal activity by Nihat Anılmış, and although it was decided no action was to be taken in July 1922, he was transferred away from Cizre in early September. Amidst the partition of the Ottoman Empire, Cizre was allocated to become part of 'the specifically French zone of interests' as per the Treaty of Sèvres of 10 August 1920. However, Turkey concentrated a significant number of forces at Cizre in January 1923 to bolster the Turkish position at the Lausanne Conference of 1922–23, and the city itself was retained by Turkey, but part of the district was transferred to Syria and Iraq. In response to Kurdish revolts in the 1920s, the Turkish government aimed to Turkify the population of eastern Turkey, but Christians were deemed unsuitable, and thus attempted to eradicate those who had survived the genocide. In this effort, 257 Syriac Orthodox men from Azakh and neighbouring villages were imprisoned by the government at Cizre in 1926, where they were beaten and denied food. Late 20th century and contemporary period Cizre received electricity and running water in the mid-1950s. In the 1960s, the infrastructure of the city was developed as a new bridge, municipal buildings, and new roads were constructed and streets were widened, and amenities such as a public park named after Atatürk and a cinema were built. Roughly 60 people were detained and tortured for 20 days by Turkish police after the killing of two Turkish policemen in Cizre on 13 January 1989. The economy of Cizre was severely disrupted by the eruption of the Gulf War as trade with Iraq was embargoed and the border was closed, resulting in the closure of 90% of shops in the city. Kurdish militants clashed with Turkish security forces in Cizre on 18 June 1991, and five Turkish soldiers and one militant were killed, according to official reports, however Amnesty International reported the death of one civilian also. On 21 March 1992, a pro-PKK demonstration to celebrate Nowruz in contravention of a state ban was dispersed by Turkish soldiers, and led to violence as Kurdish militants retaliated, resulting in the death of 26-30 people. Properties in Cizre were damaged by Turkish soldiers in two shootouts against PKK militants in August and September 1993, and three militants were killed. Riots erupted in Cizre in October 2014 in response to the Turkish government's decision to prohibit Kurds from travelling to Syria to participate in the Syrian Civil War. It is claimed that 17 Kurds from Cizre fought and died in the Siege of Kobanî. The YDG-H, the militant youth wing of the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK), subsequently erected blockades, ditches, and armed checkpoints, and carried out patrols in several neighbourhoods to block the movement of Turkish police. A military operation was launched by the Turkish Armed Forces to reestablish control over the city on 4 September 2015, and a curfew was imposed. An estimated 70 YDG-H militants responded with rocket-propelled and grenade attacks on Turkish soldiers. In the operation, the Turkish Ministry of the Interior claimed 32 PKK militants and 1 civilian had been killed, whereas the HDP argued 21 civilians were killed. On 10 September, a group of 30 HDP MPs led by leader Selahattin Demirtaş were denied entry to the city by the police. The curfew was briefly relaxed on 11 September, but was reimposed after two days. On 14 December 2015, Turkish military operations resumed in Cizre, and the curfew was renewed. The military operation continued until 11 February, but the curfew was maintained until 2 March. During the clashes between 24 July 2015 and 30 June 2016 at Cizre, the Turkish Armed Forces claimed 674 PKK militants were killed or captured, and 24 military and police officers were killed. The Union of Chambers of Turkish Engineers and Architects reported that four neighbourhoods were completely destroyed, with 1200 buildings severely damaged and approximately 10,000 buildings damaged, and c. 110,000 people fled the district. The Turkish government announced plans in April 2016 to rebuild damaged 2700 houses in a project estimated to cost 4 billion Turkish lira. The Turkish physician Dr Şebnem Korur Fincanci was arrested and imprisoned on charges of involvement in the propaganda of terrorism by the Turkish government on 20 June 2016 as a consequence of her report on conditions in Cizre after the end of the curfew in March 2016; she was later acquitted in July 2019. On 26 August 2016, 11 policemen were killed and 78 people were injured by a car bomb at a police checkpoint planted by the PKK, and the nearby riot police headquarters was severely damaged. The Turkish government banned journalists and independent observers from entering the city to report on the attack. Ecclesiastical history East Syriac At the city's foundation in the early 9th century, it was included in the diocese of Qardu, a suffragan of the Archdiocese of Nisibis in the Church of the East. In c. 900, the diocese of Bezabde was moved and renamed to Gazarta (Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar in Syriac), and partially assumed the territory of the diocese of Qardu, which was also moved and renamed to its new seat Tamanon, having previously been based at Penek. Tamanon declined and at some point after the mention of its last bishop in 1265, its diocese was subsumed into the diocese of Gazarta. Eliya was archbishop of Gazarta and Amid in 1504. Gazarta was a prominent centre of manuscript production, and most surviving east Syriac manuscripts from the late 16th century were copied there. The Catholic Church of Mosul, later known as the Chaldean Catholic Church, split from the Church of the East in the schism of 1552, and its inaugural patriarch Shimun VIII Yohannan Sulaqa appointed Abdisho as archbishop of Gazarta in 1553. Shemon VII Ishoyahb, Patriarch of the Church of the East, appointed Joseph as archbishop of Gazarta in response in 1554. Abdisho succeeded Sulaqa as patriarch on his death in 1555. Gabriel was archbishop of Gazarta in 1586. There was an archbishop of Gazarta named John in 1594. Joseph was archbishop of Gazarta in 1610. A certain Joseph, archbishop of Gazarta, is mentioned in a manuscript in 1618 with the patriarch Eliya IX. An archbishop of Gazarta named Joseph is also mentioned in a manuscript in 1657. Joseph, archbishop of Gazarta, resided at the village of Shah in 1822. An archbishop named Joseph had two suffragan bishops, and served until his death in 1846. In 1850, the Church of the East diocese of Gazarta had 23 villages, 23 churches, 16 priests, and 220 families, whereas the Chaldean diocese of Gazarta had 7 villages, 6 churches, 5 priests, and 179 families. The Chaldean Catholic Church expanded considerably in the second half of the 19th century, and consequently its diocese of Gazarta grew to 20 villages, 15 priests, and 7,000 adherents in 1867. The Chaldean diocese decreased to 5200 adherents, with 17 churches and 14 priests, in 1896, but recovered by 1913 to 6400 adherents in 17 villages, with 11 churches and 17 priests. West Syriac Syriac Orthodox The Syriac Orthodox diocese of Gazarta was established in 864, and supplanted the diocese of Bezabde. It is first mentioned under the authority of the maphrian in the tenure of Dionysius I Moses (). There were 19 villages in the Syriac Orthodox diocese of Azakh and Gazarta in 1915. The following is a list of incumbents of the see: Iwanis (1040) Basil (1173) John Wahb (1265–1280), ordained by maphrian Gregory bar Hebraeus. Dioscorus Gabriel of Bartella (1284–1300), ordained by maphrian Gregory bar Hebraeus. 'Abd Allah of Bartella (1326) Iyawannis of Basibrina (1329–1335) Iyawannis Barsoum (1415–1457) Dioscorus Simon of Ayn Ward (1483–1501) Dioscorus George (1677–1684), ordained by maphrian Baselios Yeldo. Dioscorus Shukr Allah (1687–1691), ordained by maphrian Basil Isaac. Dioscorus Saliba (1691–1698), ordained by Patriarch Ignatius George II at the church of the Virgin Mary at Aleppo. Dioscorus Murad (1698–1716), ordained by maphrian Basil Isaac. Dioscorus Aho (1718–?), ordained by Patriarch Ignatius Isaac II. Dioscorus Shukr Allah (1743/1745–c. 1785), ordained by Patriarch Ignatius Shukrallah II. Athanasius Stephan (d. 1869) Julius Behnam of Aqrah (1871–1927), ordained by Patriarch Ignatius Peter IV at the church of Umm al-Zunnar at Homs. In 1916, he was represented by Iyawannis Shakir, archbishop of Mosul, at the synod held at the monastery of Saint Ananias to elect a new patriarch. Syriac Catholic The Syriac Catholic diocese of Gazarta was established in 1863, and endured until its suppression in 1957. The following is a list of incumbents of the see: Flavianus Pietro Matah (1863 – death 1874) Giacomo Matteo Ahmndahño (1888.10.10 – death 1908) Blessed Flavianus Michael Malke (1912.09.14 – 1915.08.29) Government Mayors Seyyit Haşim Haşimi was RP mayor of Cizre in 1989–1994. Haşimi was detained by police in the summer of 1993 on suspicion of aiding the PKK; Saki Işıkçı was deputy mayor at this time. On 29 October 2019, Mehmet Zırığ, HDP co-mayor of Cizre, who was elected in the 2019 Turkish local elections with 77% of the vote, was removed from office by the Governor of Şırnak amidst an investigation into charges of "praising the crime and the criminal", "propagandising for a terrorist organisation", and "being a member of a terrorist organisation", and kaymakam (district governor) Davut Sinanoğlu was appointed as acting mayor. Berivan Kutlu, HDP co-mayor of Cizre, was detained by police on 12–19 March 2020. Demography Population In 1891 Vital Cuinet estimated the population of Cizre to be 10,000: half Muslim (including more than 2,000 Kurds) and half Christian: 4,750 Armenians (2,500 Armenian Apostolic Christians, 1,250 Catholics, 1,000 Protestants), 250 Catholic Chaldeans and 100 Syriac Orthodox. Until 1915, Cizre had a diverse population of Christian Armenians and Assyrians, who constituted half of the city's population, Jews, and Muslim Kurds. The genocide of Armenians and Assyrians reduced the city's population significantly, and it declined further with the departure of the Jews in 1950–1951. The population began to recover in the second half of the 20th century, and later increased dramatically from 1984 onwards due to the Kurdish–Turkish conflict as thousands of people fled to Cizre to escape pressure from both the Turkish armed forces and PKK militants. Religion Christian population According to the census carried out by the Armenian Patriarchate of Constantinople, 4281 Armenians inhabited the kaza of Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar in 1913, with only one functioning church: 2716 Armenians lived in Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar itself and eleven nearby villages, and 1565 Armenians were nomadic. 60 Chaldean Catholic families inhabited the city in 1850, and were served by one church and one priest. There were 300 Chaldeans in 1865, 240 Chaldeans in 1880, 320 Chaldeans in 1888, 350 Chaldeans in 1890, and 600 Chaldeans, with 2 priests and 2 churches, in 1913. A report submitted to the Paris Peace Conference by the Syriac Orthodox bishop Severios Barsoum in July 1919 testified that 7510 Syriac Orthodox Christians in 994 families and 8 clergymen had been killed in the kaza of Jazirat Ibn ʿUmar during the genocide. 26 Syriac Orthodox villages and 13 churches had been affected. In total, 35 Assyrian villages in the vicinity of Cizre were destroyed in the genocide. A separate memorandum was submitted on behalf of Shimun XX Paulos, Patriarch of the Church of the East, in which it was requested that the city become part of an independent Assyrian state. After the genocide, in 1918, it was reported Kurds made up the majority of the city, with approximately 500 Chaldeans. There were 960 Assyrians at Cizre in total in 1918. Jewish population The Jewish community of Cizre is attested by Benjamin of Tudela in the mid-12th century, and he noted the city was inhabited by 4000 Jews led by rabbis named Muvhar, Joseph, and Hiyya. J. J. Benjamin remarked on the presence of 20 Jewish families in Cizre during his visit in 1848. Jews of Cizre spoke Judaeo-Aramaic and Kurdish. There were 10 Jewish households in Cizre when visited by Rabbi Yehiel Fischel in 1859, and were described as very poor. 126 Jews inhabited Cizre in 1891, as recorded by the Ottoman census. The community had grown to 150 people by 1906, and the synagogue was renovated in 1913. In 1914, 234 Jews inhabited Cizre. The Jewish community of Cizre emigrated to Israel in 1950–1951. The Israeli politician Mickey Levy is a notable descendant of the Jews of Cizre. Kurdish population The town is presently populated by Kurds of the Aluwa, Amara, Elîkan, Kiçan and Meman tribes. Culture As the capital of the Bohtan emirate, Cizre served as an important Kurdish cultural centre, and music, poetry, and science flourished under the protection of the emirs. Education Cizre formerly played a significant role in the dissemination of Islamic education in Upper Mesopotamia. In the 11th century, a madrasa was constructed by the Seljuk vizier Nizam al-Mulk. In the following century, there were four Shafi‘i madrasas, and two Sufi khanqahs outside the city walls. The two Sufi khanqahs were noted by Izz al-Din ibn Shaddad in the 13th century, and he also recorded the names of the four Shafi‘i madrasas as Ibn el-Bezri Madrasa, Zahiruddin Kaymaz al-Atabegi Madrasa, Radaviyye Madrasa and Kadi Cemaleddin Abdürrahim Madrasa. Until 1915, French Dominican priests operated a Chaldean Catholic school and Syriac Catholic school in the city, as well as other schools of those denominations in the vicinity. Monuments Religious In the 12th century, there was a (hospital), 19 mosques, 14 (baths), and 30 (fountains). This increased to two , two grand mosques, 80 mosques, and 14 when recorded by Ibn Shaddad in the next century. Cizre became a place of pilgrimage in the 15th century due to its association with Nuh (Noah), and it attracted notable figures, such as the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror and potentially also his sons. The Mosque of the Prophet Noah in Cizre purports to contain his tomb. The tomb of the Kurdish poet Ali Hariri (1425–), who died at Cizre, is considered sacred and visited by pilgrims. The Syriac Orthodox church of Mar Behnam was renovated by Gregorius Jacob, archbishop of Gargar, in 1704. Gregorius Thomas, archbishop of Jerusalem, was buried at the church of Mar Behnam in 1748 behind the right wing of the altar; his grave and an inscription in Garshuni was still extant when visited by Aphrem Barsoum in 1910. A number of archbishops of Gazarta were also buried here, including Dioscorus Gabriel of Bartella (d. 7 September 1300), Dioscorus Shukr Allah (d. c. 1785), and Athanasius Stephan (d. 1869). Secular The citadel of Cizre (, 'multicoloured palace') was constructed by the emirate of Bohtan, and is prominently presented as the residence of Zin in the tale of Mem and Zin. After the emirate's dissolution in 1847, the citadel was periodically used as a barracks by Turkish soldiers, and was closed to the public. It remained in military use, and was used by Turkish border guards from 1995 onwards, until 2010. Excavations by archaeologists from Mardin Museum began in May 2013, and continued until December 2014. Sport Cizre Serhat Sports Club () was founded in 1972, and later renamed to Cizrespor. Geography Cizre is located at the easternmost point of the Tur Abdin in the Melabas Hills (, "the clothed mountain"), which is roughly coterminous with the region of Zabdicene. Climate Cizre has a mediterranean climate (Csa in the Köppen climate classification) with wet, mild, rarely snowy winters and dry, extremely hot summers. Cizre has a mean temperature of 6.9 °C in the coldest month and a mean temperature of in the hottest month. The highest temperature ever recorded in Cizre was , on 20 July 2021, which is the highest temperature ever recorded in Turkey. Notable people Ismail al-Jazari (1136–1206), scholar Majd ad-Dīn Ibn Athir (1149–1210), historian Ali ibn al-Athir (1160–1233), historian Abdisho IV Maron (r. 1555–1570), Chaldean Catholic Patriarch of Babylon Melayê Cizîrî (1570–1640), Kurdish poet Bedir Khan Beg (1803–1868), Emir of Bohtan Şerafettin Elçi (1938–2012), Kurdish politician Tahir Elçi (1966–2015), Kurdish lawyer Halil Savda (b. 1974), Kurdish conscientious objector Leyla İmret (b. 1987), Kurdish politician References Notes Citations Bibliography Primary sources Secondary sources Places of the Assyrian genocide Assyrian communities in Turkey Syria–Turkey border crossings Populated places in Şırnak Province Cizre District Populated places on the Tigris River Tomb of Noah Kurdish settlements in Şırnak Province Populated places established in the 9th century 9th-century establishments in the Abbasid Caliphate Tur Abdin Jews and Judaism in Kurdistan District municipalities in Turkey Jewish communities in Turkey
4856477	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haussmann%27s%20renovation%20of%20Paris	Haussmann's renovation of Paris	Haussmann's renovation of Paris was a vast public works programme commissioned by Emperor Napoleon III and directed by his prefect of Seine, Georges-Eugène Haussmann, between 1853 and 1870. It included the demolition of medieval neighbourhoods that were deemed overcrowded and unhealthy by officials at the time; the building of wide avenues; new parks and squares; the annexation of the suburbs surrounding Paris; and the construction of new sewers, fountains and aqueducts. Haussmann's work was met with fierce opposition, and he was finally dismissed by Napoleon III in 1870; but work on his projects continued until 1927. The street plan and distinctive appearance of the centre of Paris today are largely the result of Haussmann's renovation. Background Overcrowding, disease, crime and unrest in the centre of the old Paris In the middle of the 19th century, the centre of Paris was viewed as overcrowded, dark, dangerous, and unhealthy. In 1845, the French social reformer Victor Considerant wrote: "Paris is an immense workshop of putrefaction, where misery, pestilence and sickness work in concert, where sunlight and air rarely penetrate. Paris is a terrible place where plants shrivel and perish, and where, of seven small infants, four die during the course of the year." The street plan on the Île de la Cité and in the neighbourhood called the "quartier des Arcis", between the Louvre and the "Hôtel de Ville" (City Hall), had changed little since the Middle Ages. The population density in these neighbourhoods was extremely high, compared with the rest of Paris; in the neighbourhood of Champs-Élysées, population density was estimated at 5,380 per square kilometre (22 per acre); in the neighbourhoods of Arcis and Saint-Avoye, located in the present Third Arrondissement, there was one inhabitant for every three square metres (32 sq ft). In 1840, a doctor described one building in the Île de la Cité where a single 5-square-metre room (54 sq ft) on the fourth floor was occupied by twenty-three people, both adults and children. In these conditions, disease spread very quickly. Cholera epidemics ravaged the city in 1832 and 1848. In the epidemic of 1848, five percent of the inhabitants of these two neighbourhoods died. Traffic circulation was another major problem. The widest streets in these two neighborhoods were only five metres (16 feet) wide; the narrowest were one or two meters (3–7 feet) wide. Wagons, carriages and carts could barely move through the streets. The centre of the city was also a cradle of discontent and revolution; between 1830 and 1848, seven armed uprisings and revolts had broken out in the centre of Paris, particularly along the Faubourg Saint-Antoine, around the Hôtel de Ville, and around Montagne Sainte-Geneviève on the left bank. The residents of these neighbourhoods had taken up pavement stones and blocked the narrow streets with barricades, which had to be dislodged by the army. Earlier attempts to modernize the city The urban problems of Paris had been recognized in the 18th century; Voltaire complained about the markets "established in narrow streets, showing off their filthiness, spreading infection and causing continuing disorders." He wrote that the façade of the Louvre was admirable, "but it was hidden behind buildings worthy of the Goths and Vandals." He protested that the government "invested in futilities rather than investing in public works." In 1739 he wrote to the young Frederick the Great: "I saw the fireworks which they fired off with such management; would rather they started to have a Hôtel de Ville, beautiful squares, magnificent and convenient markets, beautiful fountains, before having fireworks." The 18th century architectural theorist and historian Quatremere de Quincy had proposed establishing or widening public squares in each of the neighbourhoods, expanding and developing the squares in front the Cathedral of Nôtre Dame and the church of Saint Gervais, and building a wide street to connect the Louvre with the Hôtel de Ville, the new city hall. Pierre-Louis Moreau-Desproux, the architect in chief of Paris, suggested paving and developing the embankments of the Seine, building monumental squares, clearing the space around landmarks, and cutting new streets. In 1794, during the French Revolution, a Commission of Artists drafted an ambitious plan to build wide avenues, including a street in a straight line from the Place de la Nation to the Louvre, where the Avenue Victoria is today, and squares with avenues radiating in different directions, largely making use of land confiscated from the church during the Revolution, but all of these projects remained on paper. Napoleon Bonaparte also had ambitious plans for rebuilding the city. He began work on a canal to bring fresh water to the city and began work on the Rue de Rivoli, beginning at the Place de la Concorde, but was able to extend it only to the Louvre before his downfall. "If only the heavens had given me twenty more years of rule and a little leisure," he wrote while in exile on Saint Helena, "one would vainly search today for the old Paris; nothing would remain of it but vestiges." The medieval core and plan of Paris changed little during the restoration of the monarchy through the reign of King Louis-Philippe (1830–1848). It was the Paris of the narrow and winding streets and foul sewers described in the novels of Balzac and Victor Hugo. In 1833, the new prefect of the Seine under Louis-Philippe, Claude-Philibert Barthelot, comte de Rambuteau, made modest improvements to the sanitation and circulation of the city. He constructed new sewers, though they still emptied directly into the Seine, and a better water supply system. He constructed 180 kilometres of sidewalks, a new street, rue Lobau; a new bridge over the Seine, the Pont Louis-Philippe; and cleared an open space around the Hôtel de Ville. He built a new street the length of the Île de la Cité and three additional streets across it: rue d'Arcole, rue de la Cité and rue Constantine. To access the central market at Les Halles, he built a wide new street (today's rue Rambuteau) and began work on the Boulevard Malesherbes. On the Left Bank, he built a new street, rue Soufflot, which cleared space around the Panthéon, and began work on the rue des Écoles, between the École Polytechnique and the Collège de France. Rambuteau wanted to do more, but his budget and powers were limited. He did not have the power to easily expropriate property to build new streets, and the first law which required minimum health standards for Paris residential buildings was not passed until April 1850, under Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte, then president of the French Second Republic. Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte comes to power, and the rebuilding of Paris begins (1848–1852) King Louis-Philippe was overthrown in the February Revolution of 1848. On 10 December 1848, Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte, the nephew of Napoléon Bonaparte, won the first direct presidential elections ever held in France with an overwhelming 74.2 percent of the votes cast. He was elected largely because of his famous name, but also because of his promise to try to end poverty and improve the lives of ordinary people. Though he had been born in Paris, he had lived very little in the city; from the age of seven, he had lived in exile in Switzerland, England, and the United States, and for six years in prison in France for attempting to overthrow King Louis-Philippe. He had been especially impressed by London, with its wide streets, squares and large public parks. In 1852 he gave a public speech declaring: "Paris is the heart of France. Let us apply our efforts to embellishing this great city. Let us open new streets, make the working class quarters, which lack air and light, more healthy, and let the beneficial sunlight reach everywhere within our walls". As soon as he was President, he supported the building of the first subsidized housing project for workers in Paris, the Cité-Napoléon, on the rue Rochechouart. He proposed the completion of the rue de Rivoli from the Louvre to the Hôtel de Ville, completing the project begun by his uncle Napoléon Bonaparte, and he began a project which would transform the Bois de Boulogne (Boulogne Forest) into a large new public park, modelled after Hyde Park in London but much larger, on the west side of the city. He wanted both these projects to be completed before the end of his term in 1852, but became frustrated by the slow progress made by his prefect of the Seine, Jean-Jacques Berger. The prefect was unable to move the work forward on the rue de Rivoli quickly enough, and the original design for the Bois de Boulogne turned out to be a disaster; the architect, Jacques Ignace Hittorff, who had designed the Place de la Concorde for Louis-Philippe, followed Louis-Napoléon's instructions to imitate Hyde Park and designed two lakes connected by a stream for the new park, but forgot to take into account the difference of elevation between the two lakes. If they had been built, the one lake would have immediately emptied itself into the other. At the end of 1851, shortly before Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte's term expired, neither the rue de Rivoli nor the park had progressed very far. He wanted to run for re-election in 1852, but was blocked by the new Constitution, which limited him to one term. A majority of members of parliament voted to change the Constitution, but not the two-thirds majority required. Prevented from running again, Napoléon, with the help of the army, staged a coup d'état on 2 December 1851 and seized power. His opponents were arrested or exiled. The following year, on 2 December 1852, he declared himself Emperor, adopting the throne name Napoléon III. Haussmann's renovation Haussmann begins work – the Croisée de Paris (1853–59) Napoléon III dismissed Berger as the Prefect of the Seine and sought a more effective manager. His minister of the interior, Victor de Persigny, interviewed several candidates, and selected Georges-Eugène Haussmann, a native of Alsace and Prefect of the Gironde, who impressed Persigny with his energy, audacity, and ability to overcome or get around problems and obstacles. He became Prefect of the Seine on 22 June 1853, and on 29 June, the Emperor showed him the map of Paris and instructed Haussmann to aérer, unifier, et embellir Paris: to give it air and open space, to connect and unify the different parts of the city into one whole, and to make it more beautiful. Haussmann went to work immediately on the first phase of the renovation desired by Napoléon III: completing the grande croisée de Paris, a great cross in the centre of Paris that would permit easier communication from east to west along the rue de Rivoli and rue Saint-Antoine, and north-south communication along two new Boulevards, Strasbourg and Sébastopol. The grand cross had been proposed by the National Convention during the Revolution, and begun by Napoléon I; Napoléon III was determined to complete it. Completion of the rue de Rivoli was given an even higher priority, because the Emperor wanted it finished before the opening of the Paris Universal Exposition of 1855, only two years away, and he wanted the project to include a new hotel, the Grand Hôtel du Louvre, the first large luxury hotel in the city, to house the Imperial guests at the Exposition. Under the Emperor, Haussmann had greater power than any of his predecessors. In February 1851, the French Senate had simplified the laws on expropriation, giving him the authority to expropriate all the land on either side of a new street; and he did not have to report to the Parliament, only to the Emperor. The French parliament, controlled by Napoléon III, provided fifty million francs, but this was not nearly enough. Napoléon III appealed to the Péreire brothers, Émile and Isaac, two bankers who had created a new investment bank, Crédit Mobilier. The Péreire brothers organised a new company which raised 24 million francs to finance the construction of the street, in exchange for the rights to develop real estate along the route. This became a model for the building of all of Haussmann's future boulevards. To meet the deadline, three thousand workers laboured on the new boulevard twenty-four hours a day. The rue de Rivoli was completed, and the new hotel opened in March 1855, in time to welcome guests to the Exposition. The junction was made between the rue de Rivoli and rue Saint-Antoine; in the process, Haussmann restyled the Place du Carrousel, opened up a new square, Place Saint-Germain l'Auxerrois facing the colonnade of the Louvre, and reorganized the space between the Hôtel de Ville and the place du Châtelet. Between the Hôtel de Ville and the Bastille square, he widened the rue Saint-Antoine; he was careful to save the historic Hôtel de Sully and Hôtel de Mayenne, but many other buildings, both medieval and modern, were knocked down to make room for the wider street, and several ancient, dark and narrow streets, rue de l'Arche-Marion, rue du Chevalier-le-Guet and rue des Mauvaises-Paroles, disappeared from the map. In 1855, work began on the north-south axis, beginning with Boulevard de Strasbourg and Boulevard Sébastopol, which cut through the center of some of the most crowded neighborhoods in Paris, where the cholera epidemic had been the worst, between the rue Saint-Martin and rue Saint-Denis. "It was the gutting of old Paris," Haussmann wrote with satisfaction in his Memoires: of the neighborhood of riots, and of barricades, from one end to the other." The Boulevard Sébastopol ended at the new Place du Châtelet; a new bridge, the Pont-au-Change, was constructed across the Seine, and crossed the island on a newly built street. On the left bank, the north-south axis was continued by the Boulevard Saint-Michel, which was cut in a straight line from the Seine to the Observatory, and then, as the rue d'Enfer, extended all the way to the rue d'Orléans. The north-south axis was completed in 1859. The two axes crossed at the Place du Châtelet, making it the center of Haussmann's Paris. Haussmann widened the square, moved the Fontaine du Palmier, built by Napoléon I, to the center and built two new theaters, facing each other across the square; the Cirque Impérial (now the Théâtre du Châtelet) and the Théâtre Lyrique (now Théâtre de la Ville). The second phase – a network of new boulevards (1859–1867) In the first phase of his renovation Haussmann constructed of new boulevards, at a net cost of 278 million francs. The official parliamentary report of 1859 found that it had "brought air, light and healthiness and procured easier circulation in a labyrinth that was constantly blocked and impenetrable, where streets were winding, narrow, and dark." It had employed thousands of workers, and most Parisians were pleased by the results. His second phase, approved by the Emperor and parliament in 1858 and begun in 1859, was much more ambitious. He intended to build a network of wide boulevards to connect the interior of Paris with the ring of grand boulevards built by Louis XVIII during the restoration, and to the new railroad stations which Napoleon III considered the real gates of the city. He planned to construct of new avenues and streets, at a cost of 180 million francs. Haussmann's plan called for the following: On the right bank: The construction of a large new square, (the modern ). This involved demolishing the famous theater street known as "", made famous in the film ; and the construction of three new major streets: the (the modern ); the and . Boulevard Voltaire became one of the longest streets in the city, and became the central axis of the eastern neighborhoods of the city. It would end at the (the modern ). The extension of to connect it with the new railway station, the . The construction of , to connect the to the new neighborhood. The construction of this street obliterated one of the most sordid and dangerous neighborhoods in the city, called , where Paris policemen rarely ventured at night. A new square, , in front of the railway station. The station was served by two new boulevards, and . In addition, the was extended and two other streets, (the modern ) and , were built in this neighborhood. was redesigned and replanted, and part of the old park made into a residential quarter. The and , under a new name, , was extended to . The , around the , was completely redesigned. A star of new avenues radiated from the ; (now ); ; (now ); (now avenues Mac-Mahon and Niel); (now ); and a wider (now ), forming with Champs-Elysées and other existing avenues a star of 12 avenues. was built as far as the new , a huge new park being constructed on the east edge of the city. The hill of was leveled, and a new square created at the . Three new boulevards were built in this neighborhood: (the present avenue George V); (the present ), which connected the , and . In addition, four new streets were built in that neighborhood: , , and . On the left bank: Two new boulevards, and , were constructed, beginning from the . The was extended as far as the . A new street, , was constructed, to open up . A new street, (today's ) was built up to the intersection . The streets around the on were extensively changed. A new street, , was created, and part of was expanded. Another new street, , was created on the east, while another new street, , on the south. , built by , was entirely rebuilt. On the : The island became an enormous construction site, which completely destroyed most of the old streets and neighborhoods. Two new government buildings, the Tribunal de Commerce and the , were built, occupying a large part of the island. Two new streets were also built, the and the . Two bridges, the and the were completely rebuilt, along with the embankments near them. The and were extensively modified. At the same time, Haussmann preserved and restored the jewels of the island; the square in front of the Cathedral of Notre Dame was widened, the spire of the Cathedral, pulled down during the Revolution, was restored, whilst and the ancient were saved and restored. The grand projects of the second phase were mostly welcomed, but also caused criticism. Haussmann was especially criticized for his taking large parts of the to make room for the present-day , and for its connection with the . The Medici Fountain had to be moved further into the park, and was reconstructed with the addition of statuary and a long basin of water. Haussmann was also criticized for the growing cost of his projects; the estimated cost for the of new avenues had been 180 million francs, but grew to 410 million francs; property owners whose buildings had been expropriated won a legal case entitling them to larger payments, and many property owners found ingenious ways to increase the value of their expropriated properties by inventing non-existent shops and businesses, and charging the city for lost revenue. Haussmann found creative ways to raise more money for the grand projects while circumventing the Legislative Assembly, whose approval was otherwise needed for direct borrowing increases. The City of Paris began paying its contractors on the new works projects with vouchers instead of money; the vouchers were then purchased from the contractors by the city's lenders, mainly the mortgage bank Crédit Foncier. In this way Haussmann indirectly raised 463 million francs by 1867; 86% of this debt was owned by Crédit Foncier. This debt conveniently did not have to be included on the city's balance sheets. Another method was the creation of a fund, the Caisse des Travaux de Paris, decreed by Napoléon III on 14 November 1858. Ostensibly it was intended to give the city greater freedom in executing the grand projects. Revenue from the sale of materials salvaged from the demolitions and the sale of lots left over from the expropriations went into this fund, amounting to some 365 million francs between 1859 and 1869. The fund expended much more than it took in, some 1.2 billion francs towards the grand projects during the ten years it existed. To offset some of the deficit, which the City of Paris was responsible for, Haussmann issued 100 million francs in securities from the fund guaranteed by the city. He only needed the approval of the city council to raise this new sum, and, like the voucher scheme, the securities were not included in the city's official debt obligations. Paris doubles in size – the annexation of 1860 On 1 January 1860 Napoleon III officially annexed the suburbs of Paris out to the ring of fortifications around the city. The annexation included eleven communes; Auteuil, Batignolles-Monceau, Montmartre, La Chapelle, Passy, La Villette, Belleville, Charonne, Bercy, Grenelle and Vaugirard, along with pieces of other outlying towns. The residents of these suburbs were not entirely happy to be annexed; they did not want to pay the higher taxes, and wanted to keep their independence, but they had no choice; Napoleon III was Emperor, and he could arrange boundaries as he wished. Haussmann was keen to expand the boundaries as well, since the enlarged tax base would provide vital funding for the public works then underway. Numerous factories and workshops had been established in the suburbs, some to specifically avoid paying the Octroi, a tax on goods and materials paid at entry points into Paris. With the annexation, these facilities now had to pay tax on the raw materials and fuel they used. This was a deliberate way of discouraging the development of heavy industry in the environs of Paris, which neither Haussmann nor the city council wished to take root. With the annexation Paris was enlarged from twelve to twenty arrondissements, the number today. The annexation more than doubled the area of the city from 3,300 hectares to 7,100 hectares, and the population of Paris instantly grew by 400,000 to 1,600,000 people. The annexation made it necessary for Haussmann to enlarge his plans, and to construct new boulevards to connect the new arrondissements with the center. In order to connect Auteuil and Passy to the center of Paris, he built rues Michel-Ange, Molitor and Mirabeau. To connect the plain of Monceau, he built avenues Villers, Wagram, and boulevard Malesherbes. To reach the northern arrondissements he extended boulevard Magenta with boulevard d'Ornano as far as the Porte de la Chapelle, and in the east extended the rue des Pyrénées. The third phase and mounting criticism (1869–70) The third phase of renovations was proposed in 1867 and approved in 1869, but it faced much more opposition than the earlier phases. Napoleon III had decided to liberalize his empire in 1860, and to give a greater voice to the parliament and to the opposition. The Emperor had always been less popular in Paris than in the rest of the country, and the republican opposition in parliament focused its attacks on Haussmann. Haussmann ignored the attacks and went ahead with the third phase, which planned the construction of twenty-eight kilometers (17 miles) of new boulevards at an estimated cost of 280 million francs. The third phase included these projects on the right bank: The renovation of the Jardins des Champs-Élysées. Finishing the place du Château d'Eau (now Place de la Republique), creating a new avenue des Amandiers and extending avenue Parmentier. Finishing the place du Trône (now Place de la Nation) and opening three new boulevards: avenue Philippe-Auguste, avenue Taillebourg, and avenue de Bouvines. Extending the rue Caulaincourt and preparing a future Pont Caulaincourt. Building a new rue de Châteaudon and clearing the space around the church of Notre-Dame de Lorette, making room for connection between the Gare Saint-Lazare, the Gare du Nord and Gare de l'Est. Finishing the place in front of the Gare du Nord. Rue Maubeuge was extended from Montmartre to the boulevard de la Chapelle, and rue La Fayette was extended to the porte de Pantin. The Place de l'Opéra had been created during the first and second phases; the opera itself was to be built in the third phase. Extending Boulevard Haussmann from the Place Saint-Augustin to rue Taitbout, connecting the new quarter of the Opera with that of Etoile. Creating the Place du Trocadéro, the starting point of two new avenues, the modern President-Wilson and Henri-Martin. Creating the Place Victor Hugo, the starting point of avenues Malakoff and Bugeaud and rues Boissière and Copernic. Finishing the Rond-Point of the Champs-Élysées, with the construction of avenue d'Antin (now Franklin Roosevelt) and rue La Boétie. On the left bank: Building the Boulevard Saint-Germain from the Pont de la Concorde to rue du Bac; building rue des Saints-Pères and rue de Rennes. Extending the rue de la Glacière and enlarging place Monge. Haussmann did not have time to finish the third phase, as he soon came under intense attack from the opponents of Napoleon III. The downfall of Haussmann (1870) and the completion of his work (1927) In 1867, one of the leaders of the parliamentary opposition to Napoleon, Jules Ferry, ridiculed the accounting practices of Haussmann as Les Comptes fantastiques d'Haussmann ("The fantastic (bank) accounts of Haussmann"), a play-on-words based on the "Les Contes d'Hoffman" Offenbach operetta popular at the time. In the autumn of 1867, the voucher program was ruled as official debt by the Court of Accounts, rather than as the "deferred payments" which Haussmann argued they were. This made the voucher scheme illegal, since the City of Paris had not obtained the permission of the Legislative Assembly before borrowing. The City was forced to enter into renegotiations with the Crédit Foncier to convert the vouchers into regular debt. Two separate agreements were made with the Crédit Foncier; the city agreed to repay 465 million francs in total over 40 years and 39 years respectively. The debates in the Legislative Assembly surrounding the authorization of these new agreements lasted 11 sessions, with critics attacking Haussmann's borrowing, his questionable funding mechanisms, and the City of Paris's governing structure. The result was a new law, passed on April 18, 1868, which gave the Legislative Assembly oversight of the city's finances. In the parliamentary elections of May 1869, the government candidates won 4.43 million votes, while the opposition republicans won 3.35 million votes. In Paris, the republican candidates won 234,000 votes to 77,000 for the Bonapartist candidates, and took eight of the nine seats of Paris deputies. At the same time Napoleon III was increasingly ill, suffering from gallstones which were to cause his death in 1873, and preoccupied by the political crisis that would lead to the Franco-Prussian War. In December 1869 Napoleon III named an opposition leader and fierce critic of Haussmann, Emile Ollivier, as his new prime minister. Napoleon gave in to the opposition demands in January 1870 and asked Haussmann to resign. Haussmann refused to resign, and the Emperor reluctantly dismissed him on 5 January 1870. Eight months later, during the Franco-Prussian War, Napoleon III was captured by the Germans, and the Empire was overthrown. In his memoirs, written many years later, Haussmann had this comment on his dismissal: "In the eyes of the Parisians, who like routine in things but are changeable when it comes to people, I committed two great wrongs: Over the course of seventeen years, I disturbed their daily habits by turning Paris upside down, and they had to look at the same face of the Prefect in the Hôtel de Ville. These were two unforgivable complaints." Haussmann's successor as prefect of the Seine appointed Jean-Charles Adolphe Alphand, the head of Haussmann's department of parks and plantations, as the director of works of Paris. Alphand respected the basic concepts of his plan. Despite their intense criticism of Napoleon III and Haussmann during the Second Empire, the leaders of the new Third Republic continued and finished his renovation projects. 1875: completion of the Paris Opéra 1877: completion of the boulevard Saint-Germain 1877: completion of the avenue de l'Opéra 1879: completion of the boulevard Henri IV 1889: completion of the avenue de la République 1907: completion of the boulevard Raspail 1927: completion of the boulevard Haussmann Green space – parks and gardens Prior to Haussmann, Paris had only four public parks: the Jardin des Tuileries, the Jardin du Luxembourg, and the Palais Royal, all in the center of the city, and the Parc Monceau, the former property of the family of King Louis Philippe, in addition to the Jardin des Plantes, the city's botanical garden and oldest park. Napoleon III had already begun construction of the Bois de Boulogne, and wanted to build more new parks and gardens for the recreation and relaxation of the Parisians, particularly those in the new neighborhoods of the expanding city. Napoleon III's new parks were inspired by his memories of the parks in London, especially Hyde Park, where he had strolled and promenaded in a carriage while in exile; but he wanted to build on a much larger scale. Working with Haussmann, Jean-Charles Adolphe Alphand, the engineer who headed the new Service of Promenades and Plantations, whom Haussmann brought with him from Bordeaux, and his new chief gardener, Jean-Pierre Barillet-Deschamps, also from Bordeaux, laid out a plan for four major parks at the cardinal points of the compass around the city. Thousands of workers and gardeners began to dig lakes, build cascades, plant lawns, flowerbeds and trees. construct chalets and grottoes. Haussmann and Alphand created the Bois de Boulogne (1852–1858) to the west of Paris: the Bois de Vincennes (1860–1865) to the east; the Parc des Buttes-Chaumont (1865–1867) to the north, and Parc Montsouris (1865–1878) to the south. In addition to building the four large parks, Haussmann and Alphand redesigned and replanted the city's older parks, including Parc Monceau, and the Jardin du Luxembourg. Altogether, in seventeen years, they planted six hundred thousand trees and added two thousand hectares of parks and green space to Paris. Never before had a city built so many parks and gardens in such a short time. Under Louis Philippe, a single public square had been created, at the tip of the Ile-de-la-Cité. Haussmann wrote in his memoirs that Napoleon III instructed him: "do not miss an opportunity to build, in all the arrondissements of Paris, the greatest possible number of squares, in order to offer the Parisians, as they have done in London, places for relaxation and recreation for all the families and all the children, rich and poor." In response Haussmann created twenty-four new squares; seventeen in the older part of the city, eleven in the new arrondissements, adding of green space. Alphand termed these small parks "green and flowering salons." Haussmann's goal was to have one park in each of the eighty neighborhoods of Paris, so that no one was more than ten minutes' walk from such a park. The parks and squares were an immediate success with all classes of Parisians. The architecture of Haussmann's Paris Napoleon III and Haussmann commissioned a wide variety of architecture, some of it traditional, some of it very innovative, like the glass and iron pavilions of Les Halles; and some of it, such as the Opéra Garnier, commissioned by Napoleon III, designed by Charles Garnier but not finished until 1875, is difficult to classify, coming to be known as Second Empire style. Many of the buildings were designed by the city architect, Gabriel Davioud, who designed everything from city halls and theaters to park benches and kiosks. His architectural projects included: The construction of two new railroad stations, the Gare du Nord and the Gare de l'Est; and the rebuilding of the Gare de Lyon. Six new mairies, or town halls, for the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 7th and 12th arrondissements, and the enlargement of the other mairies. The reconstruction of Les Halles, the central market, replacing the old market buildings with large glass and iron pavilions, designed by Victor Baltard. In addition, Haussmann built a new market in the neighborhood of the Temple, the Marché Saint-Honoré; the Marché de l'Europe in the 8th arrondissement; the Marché Saint-Quentin in the 10th arrondissement; the Marché de Belleville in the 20th; the Marché des Batignolles in the 17th; the Marché Saint-Didier and Marché d'Auteuil in the 16th; the Marché de Necker in the 15th; the Marché de Montrouge in the 14th; the Marché de Place d'Italie in the 13th; the Marché Saint-Maur-Popincourt in the 11th. The Paris Opera (now Palais Garnier), begun under Napoleon III and finished in 1875; and five new theaters; the Châtelet and Théâtre Lyrique on the Place du Châtelet; the Gaîté, Vaudeville and Panorama. Five lycées were renovated, and in each of the eighty neighborhoods Haussmann established one municipal school for boys and one for girls, in addition to the large network of schools run by the Catholic church. The reconstruction and enlargement of the city's oldest hospital, the Hôtel-Dieu de Paris on the Île-de-la-Cité. The completion of the last wing of the Louvre, and the opening up of the Place du Carousel and the Place du Palais-Royal by the demolition of several old streets. The building of the first railroad bridge across the Seine; originally called the Pont Napoleon III, now called simply the Pont National. Since 1801, under Napoleon I, the French government was responsible for the building and maintenance of churches. Haussmann built, renovated or purchased nineteen churches. New churches included the Saint-Augustin, the Eglise Saint-Vincent de Paul, the Eglise de la Trinité. He bought six churches which had been purchased by private individuals during the French Revolution. Haussmann built or renovated five temples and built two new synagogues, on rue des Tournelles and rue de la Victoire. Besides building churches, theaters and other public buildings, Haussmann paid attention to the details of the architecture along the street; his city architect, Gabriel Davioud, designed garden fences, kiosks, shelters for visitors to the parks, public toilets, and dozens of other small but important structures. The Haussmann building The most famous and recognizable feature of Haussmann's renovation of Paris are the Haussmann apartment buildings which line the boulevards of Paris. Street blocks were designed as homogeneous architectural wholes. He treated buildings not as independent structures, but as pieces of a unified urban landscape. In 18th-century Paris, buildings were usually narrow (often only six meters wide [20 feet]); deep (sometimes forty meters; 130 feet) and tall—as many as five or six stories. The ground floor usually contained a shop, and the shopkeeper lived in the rooms above the shop. The upper floors were occupied by families; the top floor, under the roof, was originally a storage place, but under the pressure of the growing population, was usually turned into a low-cost residence. In the early 19th century, before Haussmann, the height of buildings was strictly limited to 22.41 meters (73 ft 6 in), or four floors above the ground floor. The city also began to see a demographic shift; wealthier families began moving to the western neighborhoods, partly because there was more space, and partly because the prevailing winds carried the smoke from the new factories in Paris toward the east. In Haussmann's Paris, the streets became much wider, growing from an average of twelve meters (39 ft) wide to twenty-four meters (79 ft), and in the new arrondissements, often to eighteen meters (59 ft) wide. The interiors of the buildings were left to the owners of the buildings, but the façades were strictly regulated, to ensure that they were the same height, color, material, and general design, and were harmonious when all seen together. The reconstruction of the rue de Rivoli was the model for the rest of the Paris boulevards. The new apartment buildings followed the same general plan: ground floor and basement with thick, load-bearing walls, fronts usually parallel to the street. This was often occupied by shops or offices. mezzanine or entresol intermediate level, with low ceilings; often also used by shops or offices. second, piano nobile floor with a balcony. This floor, in the days before elevators were common, was the most desirable floor, and had the largest and best apartments. third and fourth floors in the same style but with less elaborate stonework around the windows, sometimes lacking balconies. fifth floor with a single, continuous, undecorated balcony. mansard roof, angled at 45°, with garret rooms and dormer windows. Originally this floor was to be occupied by lower-income tenants, but with time and with higher rents it came to be occupied almost exclusively by the concierges and servants of the people in the apartments below. The Haussmann façade was organized around horizontal lines that often continued from one building to the next: balconies and cornices were perfectly aligned without any noticeable alcoves or projections, at the risk of the uniformity of certain quarters. The rue de Rivoli served as a model for the entire network of new Parisian boulevards. For the building façades, the technological progress of stone sawing and (steam) transportation allowed the use of massive stone blocks instead of simple stone facing. The street-side result was a "monumental" effect that exempted buildings from a dependence on decoration; sculpture and other elaborate stonework would not become widespread until the end of the century. Before Haussmann, most buildings in Paris were made of brick or wood and covered with plaster. Haussmann required that the buildings along the new boulevards be either built or faced with cut stone, usually the local cream-colored Lutetian limestone, which gave more harmony to the appearance of the boulevards. He also required, using a decree from 1852, that the façades of all buildings be regularly maintained, repainted, or cleaned, at least every ten years. under the threat of a fine of one hundred francs. Underneath the streets of Haussmann's Paris – the renovation of the city's infrastructure While he was rebuilding the boulevards of Paris, Haussmann simultaneously rebuilt the dense labyrinth of pipes, sewers and tunnels under the streets which provided Parisians with basic services. Haussmann wrote in his mémoires: "The underground galleries are an organ of the great city, functioning like an organ of the human body, without seeing the light of day; clean and fresh water, light and heat circulate like the various fluids whose movement and maintenance serves the life of the body; the secretions are taken away mysteriously and don't disturb the good functioning of the city and without spoiling its beautiful exterior." Haussmann began with the water supply. Before Haussmann, drinking water in Paris was either lifted by steam engines from the Seine, or brought by a canal, started by Napoleon I, from the River Ourcq, a tributary of the River Marne. The quantity of water was insufficient for the fast-growing city, and, since the sewers also emptied into the Seine near the intakes for drinking water, it was also notoriously unhealthy. In March 1855 Haussmann appointed Eugène Belgrand, a graduate of the École Polytechnique, to the post of Director of Water and Sewers of Paris. Belgrand first addressed the city's fresh water needs, constructing a system of aqueducts that nearly doubled the amount of water available per person per day and quadrupled the number of homes with running water. These aqueducts discharged their water in reservoirs situated within the city. Inside the city limits and opposite Parc Montsouris, Belgrand built the largest water reservoir in the world to hold the water from the River Vanne. At the same time Belgrand began rebuilding the water distribution and sewer system under the streets. In 1852 Paris had of sewers, which could carry only liquid waste. Containers of solid waste were picked up each night by people called vidangeurs, who carried it to waste dumps on the outskirts of the city. The tunnels he designed were intended to be clean, easily accessible, and substantially larger than the previous Parisian underground. Under his guidance, Paris's sewer system expanded fourfold between 1852 and 1869. Haussmann and Belgrand built new sewer tunnels under each sidewalk of the new boulevards. The sewers were designed to be large enough to evacuate rain water immediately; the large amount of water used to wash the city streets; waste water from both industries and individual households; and water that collected in basements when the level of the Seine was high. Before Haussmann, the sewer tunnels (featured in Victor Hugo's Les Miserables) were cramped and narrow, just high and 75 to 80 centimeters (2 ft 6 in) wide. The new tunnels were 2.3 meters (7 ft 6 in) high and 1.3 meters (4 ft 3 in) wide, large enough for men to work standing up. These flowed into larger tunnels that carried the waste water to even larger collector tunnels, which were high and wide. A channel down the center of the tunnel carried away the waste water, with sidewalks on either side for the égoutiers, or sewer workers. Specially designed wagons and boats moved on rails up and down the channels, cleaning them. Belgrand proudly invited tourists to visit his sewers and ride in the boats under the streets of the city. The underground labyrinth built by Haussmann also provided gas for heat and for lights to illuminate Paris. At the beginning of the Second Empire, gas was provided by six different private companies. Haussmann forced them to consolidate into a single company, the Compagnie parisienne d'éclairage et de chauffage par le gaz, with rights to provide gas to Parisians for fifty years. Consumption of gas tripled between 1855 and 1859. In 1850 there were only 9000 gaslights in Paris; by 1867, the Paris Opera and four other major theaters alone had fifteen thousand gas lights. Almost all the new residential buildings of Paris had gaslights in the courtyards and stairways; the monuments and public buildings of Paris, the arcades of the Rue de Rivoli, and the squares, boulevards and streets were illuminated at night by gaslights. For the first time, Paris was the City of Light. Critics of Haussmann's Paris Contemporaneous Haussmann's renovation of Paris had many critics during his own time. Some were simply tired of the continuous construction. The French historian Léon Halévy wrote in 1867, "the work of Monsieur Haussmann is incomparable. Everyone agrees. Paris is a marvel, and M. Haussmann has done in fifteen years what a century could not have done. But that's enough for the moment. There will be a 20th century. Let's leave something for them to do." Others regretted that he had destroyed a historic part of the city. The brothers Goncourt condemned the avenues that cut at right angles through the center of the old city, where "one could no longer feel in the world of Balzac." Jules Ferry, the most vocal critic of Haussmann in the French parliament, wrote: "We weep with our eyes full of tears for the old Paris, the Paris of Voltaire, of Desmoulins, the Paris of 1830 and 1848, when we see the grand and intolerable new buildings, the costly confusion, the triumphant vulgarity, the awful materialism, that we are going to pass on to our descendants." Later era The 20th century historian of Paris René Héron de Villefosse shared: "in less than twenty years, Paris lost its ancestral appearance, its character which passed from generation to generation... the picturesque and charming ambiance which our fathers had passed onto us was demolished, often without good reason." Héron de Villefosse denounced Haussmann's central market, Les Halles, as "a hideous eruption" of cast iron. Describing Haussmann's renovation of the Île de la Cité, he wrote: "the old ship of Paris was torpedoed by Baron Haussmann and sunk during his reign. It was perhaps the greatest crime of the megalomaniac prefect and also his biggest mistake...His work caused more damage than a hundred bombings. It was in part necessary, and one should give him credit for his self-confidence, but he was certainly lacking culture and good taste...In the United States, it would be wonderful, but in our capital, which he covered with barriers, scaffolds, gravel, and dust for twenty years, he committed crimes, errors, and showed bad taste." The Paris historian, Patrice de Moncan, in general an admirer of Haussmann's work, faulted Haussmann for not preserving more of the historic streets on the Île de la Cité, and for clearing a large open space in front of the Cathedral of Notre Dame, while hiding another major historical monument, Sainte-Chapelle, out of sight within the walls of the Palais de Justice, He also criticized Haussmann for reducing the Jardin du Luxembourg from thirty to twenty-six hectares in order to build the rues Medici, Guynemer and Auguste-Comte; for giving away a half of Parc Monceau to the Pereire brothers for building lots, in order to reduce costs; and for destroying several historic residences along the route of the Boulevard Saint-Germain, because of his unwavering determination to have straight streets. The debate about the military purposes of Haussmann's boulevards Some of Haussmann's critics said that the real purpose of Haussmann's boulevards was to make it easier for the army to manoeuver and suppress armed uprisings; Paris had experienced six such uprisings between 1830 and 1848, all in the narrow, crowded streets in the center and east of Paris and on the left bank around the Panthéon. These critics argued that a small number of large, open intersections allowed easy control by a small force. In addition, buildings set back from the center of the street could not be used so easily as fortifications. Emile Zola repeated that argument in his early novel, La Curée; "Paris sliced by strokes of a saber: the veins opened, nourishing one hundred thousand earth movers and stone masons; criss-crossed by admirable strategic routes, placing forts in the heart of the old neighborhoods. Some real-estate owners demanded large, straight avenues to help troops manoeuvre. The argument that the boulevards were designed for troop movements was repeated by 20th century critics, including the French historian, René Hérron de Villefosse, who wrote, "the larger part of the piercing of avenues had for its reason the desire to avoid popular insurrections and barricades. They were strategic from their conception." This argument was also popularized by the American architectural critic, Lewis Mumford. Haussmann himself did not deny the military value of the wider streets. In his memoires, he wrote that his new boulevard Sebastopol resulted in the "gutting of old Paris, of the quarter of riots and barricades." He admitted he sometimes used this argument with the Parliament to justify the high cost of his projects, arguing that they were for national defense and should be paid for, at least partially, by the state. He wrote: "But, as for me, I who was the promoter of these additions made to the original project, I declare that I never thought in the least, in adding them, of their greater or lesser strategic value." The Paris urban historian Patrice de Moncan wrote: "To see the works created by Haussmann and Napoleon III only from the perspective of their strategic value is very reductive. The Emperor was a convinced follower of Saint-Simon. His desire to make Paris, the economic capital of France, a more open, more healthy city, not only for the upper classes but also for the workers, cannot be denied, and should be recognised as the primary motivation." There was only one armed uprising in Paris after Haussmann, the Paris Commune from March through May 1871, and the boulevards played no important role. The Communards seized power easily, because the French Army was absent, defeated and captured by the Prussians. The Communards took advantage of the boulevards to build a few large forts of paving stones with wide fields of fire at strategic points, such as the meeting point of the Rue de Rivoli and Place de la Concorde. But when the newly organized army arrived at the end of May, it avoided the main boulevards, advanced slowly and methodically to avoid casualties, worked its way around the barricades, and took them from behind. The Communards were defeated in one week not because of Haussmann's boulevards, but because they were outnumbered by five to one, they had fewer weapons and fewer people trained to use them, they had no hope of getting support from outside Paris, they had no plan for the defense of the city; they had very few experienced officers; there was no single commander; and each neighborhood was left to defend itself. As Paris historian Patrice de Moncan observed, most of Haussmann's projects had little or no strategic or military value; the purpose of building new sewers, aqueducts, parks, hospitals, schools, city halls, theaters, churches, markets and other public buildings was, as Haussmann stated, to employ thousands of workers, and to make the city more healthy, less congested, and more beautiful. Social disruption Haussmann was also blamed for the social disruption caused by his gigantic building projects. Thousands of families and businesses had to relocate when their buildings were demolished for the construction of the new boulevards. Haussmann was also blamed for the dramatic increase in rents, which increased by three hundred percent during the Second Empire, while wages, except for those of construction workers, remained flat, and blamed for the enormous amount of speculation in the real estate market. He was also blamed for reducing the amount of housing available for low income families, forcing low-income Parisians to move from the center to the outer neighborhoods of the city, where rents were lower. Statistics showed that the population of the first and sixth arrondissements, where some of the most densely populated neighborhoods were located, dropped, while the population of the new 17th and 20th arrondissements, on the edges of the city, grew rapidly. Haussmann's defenders noted that he built far more buildings than he tore down: he demolished 19,730 buildings, containing 120,000 lodgings or apartments, while building 34,000 new buildings, with 215,300 new apartments and lodgings. French historian Michel Cremona wrote that, even with the increase in population, from 949,000 Parisians in 1850 to 1,130,500 in 1856, to two million in 1870, including those in the newly annexed eight arrondissements around the city, the number of housing units grew faster than the population. Recent studies have also shown that the proportion of Paris housing occupied by low-income Parisians did not decrease under Haussmann, and that the poor were not driven out of Paris by Haussmann's renovation. In 1865 a survey by the prefecture of Paris showed that 780,000 Parisians, or 42 percent of the population, did not pay taxes due to their low income. Another 330,000 Parisians or 17 percent, paid less than 250 francs a month rent. Thirty-two percent of the Paris housing was occupied by middle-class families, paying rent between 250 and 1500 francs. Fifty thousand Parisians were classified as rich, with rents over 1500 francs a month, and occupied just three percent of the residences. Other critics blamed Haussmann for the division of Paris into rich and poor neighborhoods, with the poor concentrated in the east and the middle class and wealthy in the west. Haussmann's defenders noted that this shift in population had been underway since the 1830s, long before Haussmann, as more prosperous Parisians moved to the western neighborhoods, where there was more open space, and where residents benefited from the prevailing winds, which carried the smoke from Paris's new industries toward the east. His defenders also noted that Napoleon III and Haussmann made a special point to build an equal number of new boulevards, new sewers, water supplies, hospitals, schools, squares, parks and gardens in the working class eastern arrondissements as they did in the western neighborhoods. A form of vertical stratification did take place in the Paris population due to Haussmann's renovations. Prior to Haussmann, Paris buildings usually had wealthier people on the second floor (the "etage noble"), while middle class and lower-income tenants occupied the top floors. Under Haussmann, with the increase in rents and greater demand for housing, low-income people were unable to afford the rents for the upper floors; the top floors were increasingly occupied by concierges and the servants of those in the floors below. Lower-income tenants were forced to the outer neighborhoods, where rents were lower. Legacy The Baron Haussmann's transformations to Paris improved the quality of life in the capital. Disease epidemics (save tuberculosis) ceased, traffic circulation improved and new buildings were better-built and more functional than their predecessors. The Second Empire renovations left such a mark on Paris' urban history that all subsequent trends and influences were forced to refer to, adapt to, or reject, or to reuse some of its elements. By intervening only once in Paris's ancient districts, pockets of insalubrity remained which explain the resurgence of both hygienic ideals and radicalness of some planners of the 20th century. The end of "pure Haussmannism" can be traced to urban legislation of 1882 and 1884 that ended the uniformity of the classical street, by permitting staggered façades and the first creativity for roof-level architecture; the latter would develop greatly after restrictions were further liberalized by a 1902 law. All the same, this period was merely "post-Haussmann", rejecting only the austerity of the Napoleon-era architecture, without questioning the urban planning itself. A century after Napoleon III's reign, new housing needs and the rise of a new voluntarist Fifth Republic began a new era of Parisian urbanism. The new era rejected Haussmannian ideas as a whole to embrace those represented by architects such as Le Corbusier in abandoning unbroken street-side façades, limitations of building size and dimension, and even closing the street itself to automobiles with the creation of separated, car-free spaces between the buildings for pedestrians. This new model was quickly brought into question by the 1970s, a period featuring a reemphasis of the Haussmann heritage: a new promotion of the multifunctional street was accompanied by limitations of the building model and, in certain quarters, by an attempt to rediscover the architectural homogeneity of the Second Empire street-block. Certain Parisian suburban towns, for example Issy-les-Moulineaux and Puteaux, have built new quarters that even by their name "Quartier Haussmannien", claim the Haussmannian heritage. The Belgian capital Brussels also followed suit at the end of the same century and conducted an extensive (but smaller scale compared to Paris) demolition and renovation, carving out new central boulevards that were straight lined and flanked by Haussmann style row of apartments. See also Demographics of Paris Hobrecht-Plan, a similar urban planning approach in Berlin conducted by James Hobrecht, created in 1853 References Attribution Portions of this article have been translated from its equivalent in the French language Wikipedia. Notes and citations Bibliography Carmona, Michel, and Patrick Camiller. Haussmann: His Life and Times and the Making of Modern Paris (2002) Centre des monuments nationaux. Le guide du patrimoine en France (Éditions du patrimoine, 2002), de Moncan, Patrice. Le Paris d'Haussmann (Les Éditions du Mécène, 2012), de Moncan, Patrice. Les jardins du Baron Haussmann (Les Éditions du Mécène, 2007), Jarrassé, Dominique. Grammaire des jardins Parisiens (Parigramme, 2007), Jones, Colin. Paris: Biography of a City (2004) Kirkland, Stephane. Paris Reborn: Napoléon III, Baron Haussmann, and the Quest to Build a Modern City (St. Martin's Press, 2013), () Maneglier, Hervé. Paris Impérial. La vie quotidienne sous le Second Empire (2009), Armand Colin, Paris () Milza, Pierre. Napoleon III (Perrin, 2006), Pinkney, David H. Napoleon III and the Rebuilding of Paris (Princeton University Press, 1958) Weeks, Willet. The Man Who Made Paris: The Illustrated Biography of Georges-Eugène Haussmann (2000) Further reading Hopkins, Richard S. Planning the Greenspaces of Nineteenth-Century Paris (LSU Press, 2015). Paccoud, Antoine. "Planning law, power, and practice: Haussmann in Paris (1853–1870)". Planning Perspectives 31.3 (2016): 341–61. Pinkney, David H. "Napoleon III's Transformation of Paris: The Origins and Development of the Idea", Journal of Modern History (1955) 27#2 pp. 125–34. . Pinkney, David H. "Money and Politics in the Rebuilding of Paris, 1860–1870", Journal of Economic History (1957) 17#1 pp. 45–61. . Richardson, Joanna. "Emperor of Paris Baron Haussmann 1809–1891", History Today (1975), 25#12 pp. 843–49. Saalman, Howard. Haussmann: Paris Transformed (G. Braziller, 1971). Soppelsa, Peter S. The Fragility of Modernity: Infrastructure and Everyday Life in Paris, 1870–1914 (ProQuest, 2009). Walker, Nathaniel Robert. "Lost in the City of Light: Dystopia and Utopia in the Wake of Haussmann's Paris". Utopian Studies 25.1 (2014): 23–51. . . External links 1853 establishments in France 1870 disestablishments in France 1850s in Paris 1860s in Paris 1870s in Paris History of Paris Urban planning in France City plans Napoleon III
4856500	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universit%C3%A0%20Cattolica%20del%20Sacro%20Cuore	Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore	Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore (English: Catholic University of the Sacred Heart, colloquially the Catholic University of Milan), known as UCSC or UNICATT or simply Cattolica, is an Italian private research university founded in 1921. Its main campus is located in Milan, Italy, with satellite campuses in Brescia, Piacenza, Cremona and Rome. The university is organized into 12 faculties and 7 postgraduate schools. Cattolica provides undergraduate courses (Bachelor's degree, which corresponds to Italian Laurea Triennale), graduate courses (Master's degree, which corresponds to Laurea Magistrale, and specializing master) and PhD programs (Dottorati di ricerca). In addition to these, the university runs several double degree programs with other institutions throughout the world. Degrees are offered both in Italian and in English. Agostino Gemelli University Polyclinic serves as the teaching hospital for the medical school of the Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore and owes its name to the university founder, the Franciscan friar, physician and psychologist Agostino Gemelli. History The project The embryonic project of a Catholic university began around 1870, guided by representatives of various Catholic cultural currents. In September 1918, when the First world war was ending, Giuseppe Toniolo, before dying, recommended to Father Agostino Gemelli and his staff to found the university, saying: "I will not see the end of the war, but you, when it is finished, do it, found the Università Cattolica". The foundation and the establishment of faculties In 1919 Father Agostino Gemelli, Ludovico Necchi, Francesco Olgiati, Armida Barelli, and Ernesto Lombardo founded the Istituto Giuseppe Toniolo di Studi Superiori. On 24 June, 1920, the institute was legally recognized with a decree signed by the Minister of Education, Benedetto Croce; at the same time, Pope Benedict XV officially recognized the university's ecclesiastical status. On 7 December 1921, the Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore was officially inaugurated with a special Mass celebrated by Father Gemelli in the presence of Achille Ratti the Cardinal and Archbishop of Milan, who three months later was elected Pope Pius XI. The first campus was in Palazzo del Canonica, at via Sant'Agnese 2. In October 1930 it was moved to the ancient St. Ambrose Monastery, where the main campus remains today. In 1921, 68 students enrolled in the university's 2 available programs, philosophy and social sciences. As of 2016, 14 programs were offered to 30,263 students distributed over the Milan, Brescia, Cremona, Piacenza and Rome campuses. In 1924, following recognition from the Italian state allowing the awarding of legally-recognized degrees the Humanities and Law Programs were inaugurated. The charter of the Università Cattolica was approved by Royal Decree on 2 October 1924, and published on October 31 on the Gazzetta Ufficiale. In 1923 the Istituto Superiore di Magistero was opened and in 1936 became an independent program, later evolving to become, in 1996, the School of Education Sciences. In 1926 the economics and politics departments became independent from the School of Law and, in 1931, the autonomous Faculty of Political, Economic and Social Sciences was born, awarding also the university's business degrees until 1947. In 1936 the School of Political Science became independent. The work and efforts of the Università Cattolica continued throughout the post-war period with new campuses and programs opening. The School of Economics officially opened in 1947 with both day and night classes. On 30 October, in the presence of Italian President Luigi Einaudi, the first stone of the Piacenza campus was laid, with the official opening of the School of Agricultural Sciences taking place in November 1952. On 4 August 1958, the official decree for the opening of a Medical School in Rome, which had been advocated by Father Gemelli, was approved. Enormous difficulties had made this long and complicated, and it was not until the end of the 1950s that the Biological Institutes and the Agostino Gemelli University Polyclinic were built in Rome. Construction began in 1959; in 1961 Pope John XXIII opened the Medical School, with the first medical doctors graduating in 1967. The school now offers both medical and dentistry programs. In 1956 the Brescia campus of UCSC was inaugurated with the opening of the School of Teaching and Education. In 1971, at the initiative of important figures in the mathematical field, the School of Mathematics, Physics, and Natural Sciences was opened. During the 1990s other schools were opened in Milan: the School of Banking, Finance, and Insurance Sciences (1990); the School of Foreign Languages and Literature (today the College of Linguistics) and Foreign Literature (1991); and the School of Psychology (1999). In 1997 in Piacenza the School of Economics, once part of the Milan curriculum, opened independently, and the School of Law in 1995. In 2000 thirteen Cultural Centres were opened across Italy. In these Centers, through advanced satellite technology, distance-learning courses were activated in collaboration with the major university campuses. During the 2001–2002 academic year the new School of Sociology, the fourteenth college of the Università Cattolica, was opened in Milan. In 2012 two new schools were established: the school of Political and Social Science in Milan (from the union of the existing Faculty of Political Science and Sociology) and the School of Economics and Law in Piacenza-Cremona (from the union of the Faculty of Economics and Law Piacenza-Cremona). World War II During World War II, Ezio Franceschini, who supported the Resistance, organized meetings of the Freedom Volunteer Corps (coordination structure of the partisans) in the university. Towards the end of the war, in 1944, the professor of medieval Latin letters hid, in the basement of Cattolica, a box containing documents and books on the Resistance and FRAMA group founded by Ezio Franceschini. The SS rummaged everywhere in UCSC to find those cards but, buried among the bones of fifty skeletons dead from an epidemic of plague in the sixteenth century, they remained there and emerged only after the war. The Cattolica was partially destroyed by bombing on 15–16 August 1943, including several classrooms, an administration building, the office building, a cloister by Bramante, an ancient staircase, the hall of honour, and some colleges. The reconstruction work began immediately, moved by the words of Agostino Gemelli "rise again more beautiful and bigger than before". Protests of 1968 After the university increased tuition fees on 15 November 1968, protests began at UCSC, Milan, and spread throughout Italy. Students who occupied the university were expelled by the rector Ezio Franceschini with the help of the police led by Commissioner Luigi Calabresi. Three days later 30,000 students marched through Milan to the archbishop's residence and the protest spread to every major university in the country. On 21 March, the Cattolica was reoccupied by the police, after being evacuated and closed indefinitely. A few days later, on 25 March, there was the so-called "battle of Largo Gemelli", where thousands of students tried to reopen the university but were strongly repelled by police. The leader of the protest was Mario Capanna, a student of philosophy at the Università Cattolica. The Italian cabinet of 2011 In November 2011 the Prime Minister Mario Monti appointed three professors as ministers. The rector Lorenzo Ornaghi was appointed minister for heritage and cultural activities; Renato Balduzzi, professor of constitutional law, was appointed minister of health; and Dino Piero Giarda, professor of public economics at the faculty of economics, became minister for relations with Parliament. After the appointment of Professor Lorenzo Ornaghi as a minister, all the powers and functions belonging to the office of rector were entrusted to the vicar vice-chancellor, Prof. Franco Anelli, for the term of Ornaghi's office. Rector The Magnifico Rettore is the most senior post in this institution, elected every 4 years by the board of directors. The role of the Rector is to represent the university and to convene and chair the board of directors, the management committee, the academic senate, and the board of the Agostino Gemelli University Polyclinic. Organization Schools The UCSC offers a wide range of degrees in 12 faculties. Faculty of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Sciences, Piacenza-Cremona (1951) ‒ Piacenza-Cremona Faculty of Arts and Philosophy (1924) ‒ Milan, Brescia Faculty of Banking, Finance and Insurance Sciences (1990) ‒ Milan Faculty of Economics (founded in 1947) ‒ Milan, Rome Faculty of Economics and Law (2000) ‒ Piacenza-Cremona Faculty of Educational Sciences (1936) ‒ Milan, Brescia, Piacenza Faculty of Law (1924) ‒ Milan Faculty of Linguistic Sciences and Foreign Literatures (1991) ‒ Milan, Brescia Faculty of Mathematics, Physics and Natural Sciences (1968) ‒ Brescia Faculty of Medicine and Surgery (1958) ‒ Rome Faculty of Political and Social Sciences (1931) ‒ Milan, Brescia Faculty of Psychology (1999) ‒ Milan, Brescia Postgraduate Schools Postgraduate Schools (Alte Scuole) are centers of excellence in research and teaching. ALMED - Postgraduate School of Media Communications and Performing Arts (established in 2002) ‒ Milan ALTIS - Postgraduate School Business & Society (2005) ‒ Milan ASA - Postgraduate School of Environmental Studies (2008) ‒ Brescia ASAG - Postgraduate School of Psychology Agostino Gemelli (2001) ‒ Milan ASERI - Postgraduate School of Economics and International Relations (1995) ‒ Milan ALTEMS - Postgraduate School of Health Economics and Management (2009) ‒ Rome SMEA - Postgraduate School of Agricultural and Food Economics (1984) ‒ Cremona Campuses Milan campus Cattolica has campuses in six Italian cities, with its seat in the historic Cistercian monastery near the Basilica of Sant'Ambrogio in the heart of Milan. Originally a monastery built by Benedictine monks in the 8th century, the UCSC Milan campus expanded under the care of Cistercian friars in the 15th century and from military and social developments both during the Napoleonic era and World War II. The restructuring of the Benedictine monastery by Giovanni Muzio in collaboration with the engineer Pier Fausto Barelli began in 1929 and finished twenty years later. The campus, nestled within the original city walls of Milan, features a facade by Giovanni Muzio, the Chapel of the Sacred Heart, the atrium of the zodiac, and the Great Hall (Aula Magna). The main section of Gemelli consists of the following buildings: monumental with cloister by Bramante, offices, Gregorianum, Antonianum, Via Lanzone 18, Ambrosianum, Franciscanum, and Domenicanum. Most of the buildings, colleges, and campus facilities are located in St. Ambrose district, within the city centre of Milan. The seat in Via Necchi 5/9 was the historic seat of the Augustinianum College, containing, in addition to classrooms and offices, the economic institutes, the department of economics and the department of linguistics, library, science, economics, mathematics and statistics, catering services for staff and students, and the Domus restaurant. The seat in Via Carducci 28/30 is located in the Palazzo Gonzaga and was built by Arpesani in a Lombard style incorporating the existing cloister of St. Jerome. Here is the main office and the office of international relations. The historical site of St. Agnese Catholic is on route 2, consisting of the Palazzo del Canonica. ALMED is located in this building. Satellite campuses The Cattolica is based in Piacenza at the Palace Ghisalberti. The construction of the headquarters of Piacenza, which would house the Faculty of Agriculture, started in 1953 at the bidding of Agostino Gemelli. The headquarters of Piacenza has a sports centre of 8,000 m2 called San Martino. The students of UCSC of Piacenza and Cremona participate, under the ASUB student association (Associazione Sportiva University Piacenza), in football, volleyball, basketball, capoeira, and table tennis. The headquarters of Cremona was inaugurated November 19, 1984, by the academic activities of the SMEA. The UCSC 37-hectare medical campus is situated in Rome. In 1934 Pope Pius XI granted Istituto Giuseppe Toniolo di Studi Superiori the property of Monte Mario to construct the buildings of the future Faculty of Medicine, followed by a speech by Pope Pius XII to start the execution phase of the project. In 1958, the Higher Council of Education approved the teaching and scientific project and on June 18 of that year with the decree of the President of the Republic, work began on the biological institutes, with classes beginning in November 1961. In 1961 construction began on Agostino Gemelli University Polyclinic, completed in 1964. The Rome campus has 2 faculties, 34 institutes, 18 research centres, and over 7,000 students (5,000 undergraduate and 2,000 graduate). The Catholic University of Brescia has four facilities distributed in the historic centre of the city. The historic headquarters is located at Via Trieste 17, in the Palazzo Martinengo Cesaresco dell'Aquilone. These were added to the sixteenth-century complex of the Good Shepherd located in Via dei Musei 41, which accommodates classrooms and laboratories for the Faculty of Mathematical, Physical and Natural Sciences. Other venues are located in Contrada Santa Croce 17, Via Aleardo Aleardi 12, and Via San Martino della Battaglia 11, for a total of approximately 23,464 square meters. Some projects in 2007 included the extension of the university with a new headquarters in the northern district of Brescia, for a total of about 20,000 m2 of additional space. This includes 25 new classrooms, 16 laboratories, a library, a canteen, study halls, ample spaces for socialization and sports activities as well as offices for administrative and teaching staff. The new complex should be available by the end of 2018 and will host the Faculty of Mathematics and Physics as well as other graduate courses. On 19 March 1995 Pope John Paul II laid the foundation stone of the Center for High Technology Research and Education in Biomedical Sciences in Campobasso, which was inaugurated on September 16, 2002. The foundation later was renamed John Paul II Foundation for Research and Treatment. By 2010 the site had more than 700 students enrolled in the bachelor programs for the health professions. Academics The programs of the university are accredited by various departments of the Italian Ministry of Education, Universities and Research. Research Research activities of the university included nearly 3,000 research projects underway in 2009 and 4,668 publications and 4 atheneum centres. The research is divided into 22 departments, 54 institutes, and 70 research centres. The 22 departments (if these are added to 16 which refer to the medical care area) are aimed to promote and coordinate the activities of institutional research and contribute to the organization of doctoral research (PhD). The atheneum centres were established in 2007 and have structures for the conception, development, and implementation of research projects and training on social issues. The specific fields of focus for the atheneum centres are bioethics, the family, social teaching, and international solidarity. Admissions All schools have a limited number of seats and most of the schools require an admission test to enrol. The admission test of the School of Medicine "Agostino Gemelli" is one of the most selective of the university. This test consists of a written test and/or an oral exam. In the admission test in 2017, which took place in Rome and Milan, there were 8907 candidates for 300 seats. Libraries The UCSC Library System works with numerous national and international bodies: IFLA - International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions, AIB; Associazione Italiana Biblioteche, AIDA; Associazione Italiana per la Documentazione Avanzata, NDLTD; Networked Digital Library of Theses and Dissertations, LIBER; Ligue des Bibliothèques Européennes de Recherche, LOCKSS; Lots of Copies Keep Stuff Safe, CLOCKSS; Controlled Lots of Copies Keep Stuff Safe, NEREUS e INNOVATIVE. Rankings & Internationalization The Cattolica, according to a study of the International Student Barometer, a survey of a sample of 65 universities in Europe, is the second in Europe and fourth position at the international level among the most recommended universities by foreign students. According to QS World University Rankings 2018, Cattolica is ranked 481 overall. Globally by subject, as of 2017, Cattolica is among top 100 in law and legal studies, top 150 in economics and econometrics, top 180 in agriculture and forestry, top 200 in accounting and finance, top 250 in business and management, etc. In addition, the university is ranked between 81 and 90 in graduate employability. UCSC is a part of a series of international networks including: LLP – Erasmus Network, UCSC International Bilateral Agreements, ISEP Network, International Network of Universities (INU), Fédération des Universités Catholiques Européenes (FUCE), Fédération Internationale des Universités Catholiques (FIUC), and International Partnership of Business Schools (IPBS). Programs of international mobility that UCSC has with other universities include: UCSC dual degree (London school of economics, Thomas Jefferson University, Boston University, Cass Business School, Paris-Sorbonne University, Fordham University, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Dublin City University, Higher School of Economics), UCSC Exchange Programs (University of Geneva, Waseda University, Maastricht University, Pontifical Catholic University of Chile), Premier Scholars Program (UCLA, University of Chicago), LaTE (University College London, Columbia University), Focused Programs Abroad (Stanford University, Boston University), UCSC International Thesis Scholarship. The university offers internships abroad in cooperation with such institutions as The Intern Group and the Emerald Cultural Institute. EDUCatt EDUCatt is the foundation for the right to study at Cattolica University. The foundation focuses on students receiving financial aid and counselling, accommodation, catering, health care, psychological counselling, study trips and cultural activities. EDUCatt deals with the creation of books useful for the study, commissioned by the teachers, taking care of the editing, layout and graphics, to quality control and implementation, also depending on the demands and the type of publication. Media The publishing house of UCSC is Vita e pensiero, founded in 1918. The owner is the Istituto Giuseppe Toniolo di Studi Superiori. The following are the publications and magazines of the UCSC. Vita e pensiero, founded in 1914 by Agostino Gemelli, has been the official magazine of the Cattolica since its inception. Presenza is the UCSC in-house organ, examining topical issues and the latest news of the university. The magazine is divided into two main parts. the first covering services and current affairs, and the second devoted to news from the headquarters of Cattolica (Milan, Brescia, Piacenza-Cremona and Rome). The magazine is distributed free to faculty, students, graduates, and opinion makers at the national level. Comunicare is a bimonthly magazine, founded in 1990, for the School of Medicine and Surgery of Rome and the Policlinico Agostino Gemelli. Youcatt, the web TV of the UCSC (Brescia), debuted in September 2009 and is in charge of the university hosted events, foreign experiences of students, and topical issues. It also carries "Books in brief". In 2011 Youcatt won the award Teletopi for the best Italian web TV. In UCSC there are some student media like Radio Catt and TV Catt, which were founded in 2012. Student life Residential colleges Inside the UCSC campus there are some colleges: Augustinianum College (Milan), Marianum College (Milan), Ludovicianum College (Milan), Paolo VI College (Milan), Sant'Isidoro College (Piacenza), Ker Maria College (Rome), San Damiano College (Rome), Nuovo Joanneum College (Rome), San Luca - Armida Barelli College (Rome). A short distance from the university there are other colleges located in urban areas: Orsoline (Milan), San Francesco (Milan), Stimmatine (Milan), Sacro Cuore Buonarroti (Milan), Franciscanum (Brescia), Sacro Cuore (Brescia), San Giorgio (Brescia), Villa Pace (Brescia), Morigi De Cesaris College (Piacenza), Orsoline (Piacenza), Capitanio (Rome), Renzi (Rome), Romitello (Rome), Sacra Famiglia (Rome). Ex-alumni of the colleges of the Cattolica have formed associations: Agostini Semper (Augustinianum College) and Associazione Mea (Marianum College). Code of ethics On November 1, 2011, the code of ethics was introduced. This document contains the values that characterize the Cattolica and the rules of conduct. Each student must sign the code before enrolling. The code is based on principles such as integrity, honesty, legality, solidarity, subsidiarity, hospitality, dialogue, excellence, dignity, the promotion of merit, and individual skills, as well as the prevention and rejection of any unjust discrimination, violence, abuse and improper treatment. The code is formulated to implement the Treaty of Lisbon. Student associations There are many student associations over the five campuses. They organize cultural activities and publish several magazines that are distributed free of charge within the university. Associations are also active both dealing with intramural matters and outlooking to social issues. IT services I-Catt is the student home page which contains information about suspended classes, exam schedules, and teachers' notices. Cattolica uses Blackboard Inc. as the e-learning platform on which professors post teaching materials. The telecommunication stations UCPoint & InfoPoint, located on all campuses, perform clerical duties and provide information related to teaching and services. In each location computer labs and wireless connections are available. Sports The university's sports and activities of the degree course in "Physical Education and Sports" are held in the UCSC sports center "Rino Fenaroli" of Milan. As of 2011, the teams had won the Milan Collegiate Championships four of the previous five seasons. The university hosted the IFIUS 2009 World Interuniversity Games in October 2009. Traditions In the Milan campus the garden of St. Catherine of Alexandria is open only to female students. For this reason it is nicknamed "The Virgins' Garden". During May, the so-called party of the Cattolica Collegiate have a tradition of throwing buckets of water at the freshmen. This rite of passage that has been repeated for several decades is called "nicchiato". Another common tradition of UCSC colleges are the "processes" evenings, which help students let down their defenses and get to better know one another. Alumni Cattolica Ludovico Necchi Association The Alumni Cattolica Ludovico Necchi Association was founded in Milan in 1930 and includes all the graduates in the various professional fields of the UCSC. Every year the Association awards the Agostino Gemelli award, which consists of a medal and a diploma, to the best student of each school. Faculty and alumni Cattolica has produced alumni distinguished in their respective fields. Among the best-known people who have attended Università Cattolica are Italian political leaders Oscar Luigi Scalfaro, Ciriaco De Mita, Amintore Fanfani, Giovanni Maria Flick, Romano Prodi, Lorenzo Ornaghi; Italy's first woman cabinet minister, Tina Anselmi; former Governor General of Canada and former Secretary-General of La Francophonie, Michaëlle Jean; banker Angelo Caloia; ENI founder Enrico Mattei; fashion designer Nicola Trussardi; post-Keynesian economist Luigi Pasinetti; religious leaders Paolo Sardi and Angelo Scola; singer Roberto Vecchioni; gymnast Igor Cassina and among its young alumni the internet entrepreneur Augusto Marietti. Among its most famous faculty members are banker Giovanni Bazoli, archaeologist Valerio Massimo Manfredi, Communion and Liberation founder Luigi Giussani, international relations scholar Michael Cox, economist Massimo Beber, and theorist of international relations and United States foreign policy John Ikenberry. In fiction and popular culture In the Manzoni classroom, an advertisement for Pocket Coffee was filmed and broadcast on national networks for several years. The mystery of Cattolica is the name of the famous unsolved murder of Simonetta Ferrero, which happened on July 24, 1971, at the Cattolica University of Milan. On April 28, 1999, the third episode of the second series of the television program Blue was devoted to the mystery, by Carlo Lucarelli. See also List of Italian universities List of modern universities in Europe (1801–1945) Agostino Gemelli Cloisters of Sant'Ambrogio References Further reading AA.VV., "Francesco Olgiati nel centenario della nascita" in Vita e Pensiero, Milano 1986. AA.VV., "L'Università Cattolica a 75 anni dalla fondazione. Riflessioni sul passato e prospettive per il futuro" in Vita e Pensiero, Milano 1998. AA.VV., "Per una storia dell'Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore. Settantacinque anni di vita nella Chiesa e nella società italiana" in Vita e Pensiero, Milano 1997. AA.VV., Uomini e fatti dell'Università Cattolica, Antenore, Padova 1984. AA.VV., "Vita e Pensiero 1914-1964", Vita e Pensiero, Milano 1966. G. Ambrosio, "L'avventura entusiasmante dell'università Cattolica" in Vita e Pensiero, Milano 2006. A. Barelli, La sorella maggiore racconta, Edizioni OR, Milano 1948. P. Bondioli, "L'Università Cattolica in Italia dalle origini al 1929" in Vita e Pensiero, Milano 1929. T. Cesana, Fra Agostino Gemelli. Dalla nascita alla professione religiosa (1878-1904), Edizioni Biblioteca Francescana 1978. A. Caloja, Francesco Vito, Rusconi, Milano 1998. G. Cosmacini, Gemelli. Il Machiavelli di Dio, Rizzoli, Milano 1985. G. Dalla Torre, "La grande meta. L'Università Cattolica nei voti e nell'opera dei cattolici italiani" in Vita e Pensiero, Milano 1945. C. Leonardi, F. Franceschini (1906-1938): scritti, documenti, comunicazioni, testimonianze, Ed. Dehoniane, Bologna 1986. L. Mangoni, "L'Università Cattolica. Una risposta della cultura cattolica alla laicizzazione dell'insegnamento superiore" in AA.VV., Storia d'Italia, Annali, IX, a cura di G. Chittolini, G. Miccoli, Einaudi, Torino 1986. A. Oberti, Giuseppe Lazzati. Testimone libero e impareggiabile maestro, AVE, Roma 1999. A. Oberti, Giuseppe Lazzati. Tappe e tracce di una vita, AVE, Roma 2000. F. Olgiati, Vico Necchi. "Un maestro di fede e di vita" in Vita e Pensiero, Milano 1952. F. Olgiati, L'Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, I, Vita e Pensiero, Milano 1955. E. Preto (a cura di), "Bibliografia di Padre Agostino Gemelli" in Vita e Pensiero, Milano 1981. E. Preziosi (a cura di) Largo Gemelli, 1. "Studenti, docenti e amici raccontano l'Università Cattolica" in Vita e Pensiero, Milano 2003 E. Severino, Il mio scontro con la chiesa, Milano, Rizzoli, 2001. M. Sticco, Padre Gemelli. Appunti per la biografia di un uomo difficile, Edizioni OR, Milano 1974. W. Willinghton, A. Grasso, Italian Students 2008.2009, Dreams Creek, Milano e New York 2009. External links Cattolica Alumni Universities and colleges established in 1921 1921 establishments in Italy
4856749	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barry%20Railway%20Company	Barry Railway Company	The Barry Railway Company was a railway and docks company in South Wales, first incorporated as the Barry Dock and Railway Company in 1884. It arose out of frustration among Rhondda coal owners at congestion and high charges at Cardiff Docks as well the monopoly held by the Taff Vale Railway in transporting coal from the Rhondda. In addition, the Taff Vale did not have the required capacity for the mineral traffic using the route, leading to lengthy delays in getting to Cardiff. The Barry Railway opened its main line from Trehafod in the Rhondda to Barry in 1889 and its first dock was opened in the same year, with modern loading equipment. It was immediately successful and principally carried coal, the tonnage increased year on year, so that by 1910 it had overtaken Cardiff as the largest export point of South Wales coal and in 1913, a world record of shipment of of coal were exported. Later it built costly branches to connect to the Rhymney and Brecon & Merthyr Railways. Although chiefly a mineral railway, it ran a suburban passenger service from Barry to Cardiff. After 1918 the South Wales coal industry declined and the Barry Railway suffered accordingly. After the grouping of the railways in 1922 the Great Western Railway sought rationalisation, and the main line of the Barry Railway, which duplicated the ex-Taff Vale main line between Treforest and Trehafod, was 'run down', the passenger service via Tonteg Junction to Trehafod and Porth being terminated between Tonteg Junction and Hafod Junction in 1930 but freight traffic continued until June 1951, the line from Tonteg Junction via the Graig tunnel and station having been singled in its twilight years. Thus from June 1951, all traffic from the south ran to Pontypridd and beyond via the Tonteg Junction-Treforest Junction section from Barry or Llantrisant. Track was thus lifted later between Tonteg Junction and Trehafod (Hafod Junction). The line from Barry to Cogan, near Penarth, is in use at the present day carrying a busy passenger service to Cardiff and valleys. Congestion at Cardiff In the early years of the nineteenth century, it was becoming increasingly pressing to find an efficient and cheap method of bringing coal and iron from the heads of the South Wales Valleys to the ports and wharves of the Bristol Channel. The construction of the Glamorganshire Canal, and further east the Monmouthshire Canal responded to the need, but it was the Taff Vale Railway that brought railway technology (as opposed to plateways) to the fore. The Taff Vale Railway working with the Cardiff Docks, and later the Rhymney Railway, also to Cardiff Docks, proved immensely successful. However, volumes of traffic, most especially coal for export, increased hugely as more collieries, and more efficient methods of winning coal, were operative. Cardiff Docks were seen as a near-monopoly, and as such were thought to be unresponsive to customers' wishes. Coal ships intending to load at Cardiff were often obliged to stand off for days waiting for a berth, and loaded coal trains heading for the docks frequently were obliged to wait in loops and on goods lines on the approach, waiting for clearance to enter. In fact extensions to the docks took place, and in 1865 a new harbour at Penarth was opened together with a new access railway from what is now Radyr. First attempts In fact in 1865 a Barry Railway was incorporated by Act of Parliament. It was to make a branch railway from Peterston on the broad-gauge South Wales Railway to Barry, with powers to lay a third rail for mixed-gauge operation on the SWR main line between Llantrisant and Newport. In 1867 an Act was obtained to make a harbour at Barry. Both of these proposals foundered, chiefly because the Taff Vale Railway practically monopolised the transport of coal from the Taff and Rhondda Valleys to Cardiff, and was hostile to diversion of that traffic from its new harbour at Penarth. In addition, the financial crisis following the failure of the banking firm of Overend Gurney and Company meant that for a while finance was impossible to get. The Barry Dock and Railway Dissatisfaction with the available railway and dock facilities was however unabated, and there was a considerable desire for an alternative to break the monopoly. In 1882 promoters allied to the Taff Vale Railway and the Bute Trustees (who controlled the Cardiff Docks) proposed new docks at Roath, east of the city, and a new approach railway from the Taff Vale line. It was made public that mineral haulage rates would be increased by one penny per ton to pay for this line, both on traffic to Roath and to the existing Bute Docks. This deepened the hostility and further inflamed the feelings of the coal owners. David Davies had been active as a railway contractor, and in later life a politician and industrialist, and with other like-minded business people, he formed a group intent on building an alternative dock and railway system, and a bill was prepared and submitted for the 1883 session of Parliament. In fact the strength of opposition from the Taff Vale Railway, the Bute Trustees, and other established companies was such that the bill failed in that session. It was resubmitted in the 1884 session, and this time it was passed, and the Barry Dock and Railway Company Act gained the Royal Assent on 14 August 1884. The promoters' costs for the two bills had been about £70,000, a huge sum at that time. Authorised share capital was £1,050,000, to build from Barry northward to a junction with the Taff Vale Railway at Trehafod, in the Rhondda; there was to be a south-to-west junction with the GWR main line (former South Wales Railway main line) at Peterston and an east to north connection nearby, and a spur to join the Taff Vale main line at Treforest. The dock was to be in extent, the largest enclosed dock area in the country; in fact the area between Barry Island and the mainland was to be made non-tidal, an area extending to . Taff Vale counter-attack The Taff Vale Railway, and to some extent the Rhymney Railway, felt keenly the effect of the Barry developments. They did not control the Cardiff Docks and were largely subject to the wishes of the owner, the Bute Trustees, who could set rates and choose whether to install plant independently of the railway companies. Conversely the integrated nature of the Barry Dock and Railway's plans would give it considerable commercial advantage. The Taff Vale set about obtaining Parliamentary authorisation in 1885 to acquire the Bute Docks, but this was refused by the Lords Committee when the Taff Vale would not agree to running powers requested by the Barry Railway northward from the Trehafod and Treforest connections. The Taff Vale also supported a nominally independent Cardiff, Penarth and Barry Junction Railway which would be a spoiler to the Barry company's development plans at Barry itself, but this was refused, the Barry being granted a corresponding railway from Barry to a junction at Cogan with the Taff Vale's Penarth lines, by Act of 31 July 1885. The Taff Vale was granted a circuitous coastal route from Penarth to Cadoxton. Although this was a victory for the Barry company, it left open the possibility that the Taff Vale Railway would bring Rhondda coal to Barry via Cardiff and this coastal line, rather than hand it over to the Barry Railway at Trehafod. In 1888 the Barry once again applied to Parliament for running powers north of Trehafod; this was refused but a complex non-discrimination requirement was imposed, giving some protection. First openings On 20 December 1888 the line between Barry Dock and Cogan was opened to traffic, although this was only a light local passenger service. On the same day the Taff Vale opened its coastal service of passenger trains (only, at first) from Cardiff to Cadoxton which was extended back to Barry station from 8 February 1889. The Barry Railway main line required more effort in construction, but on 22 November 1888 an inspection trip had traversed the full length of the main line. From 13 May 1889 the line from Barry to the junctions with the GWR at Peterston were opened to goods and mineral traffic; the Cogan line started to carry such trains on the same day. The dock too, was beginning to be ready, and water was admitted to it on 29 June 1889, followed by a formal and ceremonial opening on 18 July 1889. On that day the main line railway from Trehafod and Treforest was also opened to mineral trains. Commercial success The inauguration was an instant success, and considerable volumes of coal and other merchandise were passed over the railway and through the dock system. Much of this was abstracted from the Taff Vale Railway, which lost volume and income, and the Bute Trustees too suffered. They reduced their rates in an effort to remain competitive, and this started a rate war. Railway mineral rates were heavily regulated, and the non-discrimination requirements in the Barry's authorising legislation became very important. The Taff Vale nevertheless attempted a series of legal challenges, which mostly failed to gain support. Change of company name The company had been incorporated under the name of Barry Dock and Railway Company. It transpired that the precedence of the word "dock" placed the shares in a different category that was disadvantageous, and it was decided to change the company name to The Barry Railway Company. This was approved in Act of Parliament of 5 August 1891. Extending the network At an early date the Barry directors were considering a further extension to their network, to capture traffic in the Rhymney Valley. A proposal reached the 1888 session of Parliament to build from near St Fagans to Llanishen on the Rhymney Railway, but was turned down in the Lords Committee. A second attempt was made in 1889 for an independent line from near Cogan to Cardiff, and also a junction with the Rhymney Railway north of Caerphilly. This too was withdrawn by the Barry Railway, but significant concessions were obtained. These were that the Taff Vale Railway would agree running powers (except for passenger trains) between Cogan and Walnut Tree Junction over the Penarth and Radyr lines. At Walnut Tree the Rhymney Railway had a junction with the Taff Vale Railway, in fact giving access to the Rhymney's original main line there. Moreover, running powers would be granted for all classes of train from Cogan to Penarth Curve South Junction, where connection was made with the Great Western Railway main line. From this point the GWR had its Riverside Branch, opened in 1884, running down the east side of the River Taff into an important industrial area; both the Barry and the Taff Vale were given running powers over this line, which was to be made suitable by the GWR for passenger operation. This was duly done, and the Barry Railway was able to operate a passenger service between Barry and Cardiff Riverside GWR station, close to the GWR main station (now Cardiff Central) from 14 August 1893. The Taff Vale had already conceded through ticketing, as its former practice of insisting on rebooking of passengers at Cogan was demonstrably unreasonable and had attracted public criticism. The Barry therefore had a viable residential passenger operation. The passenger service was extended down the bank of the River Taff to Cardiff Clarence Road from 2 April 1894, with seventeen trains each way on weekdays. Extensions at Barry It was apparent from the outset that Barry Docks would need to be enlarged, and already in 1893 an Act for a No. 2 Dock, of , was obtained. The massive trade at the Docks placed on the company the obligations of a Dock Authority, and since 1889 the company had been responsible for pilotage and the control of alcohol and other public order issues within the docks, as well as the more obvious conservancy issues. The 1893 Act also paved the way for an extension railway to Barry Island, as Barry was increasingly becoming a seaside leisure destination. At first this was to be a gauge tramway on reserved tracks, horse or steam powered, but not electrically powered. The tramway concept was abandoned in the following year, when a conventional railway branch was substituted. At long, it was quickly built, and opened on 3 August 1896. Extensions at the north end The Barry Company made further attempts to get access to the Rhymney Railway network in the years 1893 – 1895, but these were refused. In addition, running powers west of Trehafod on the Taff Vale Rhondda lines were sought and refused, but during the 1894 session it was suggested that the Barry Railway be allowed to operate passenger trains over the Taff Vale from Porth to Barry. Seeing this as a small concession to make, the Taff Vale agreed and from 16 March 1896 the Barry Railway operated such a service. Of course its own main line had not previously operated passenger trains, so new stations were required; in most cases these were made with platform loops to avoid conflict with the heavy mineral trains service. In the from Cadoxton, the first stations were at Wenvoe, Creigiau, Efail Isaf, Treforest and Pontypridd. The Pontypridd station became known as Pontypridd (Graig) from 1924. Barry was not a prime travel destination for the residents of the Taff and Rhondda except on holiday days, and the Barry Railway went about providing a train service to Cardiff, over the GWR main line from St.Fagans. Such a service was not covered by the Taff Vale's running power concession, so the trains only ran southwards from the Barry station (Graig) at Pontypridd. It started operating on 7 June 1897. There was growing congestion between Cogan Junction and Penarth Curve South Junction, which was carrying all the Taff Vale traffic to Penarth Docks as well as The Taff Vale's own passenger traffic and the Barry traffic to Cardiff. The Taff Vale agreed to quadruple the line to ease the matter. Vale of Glamorgan Coal owners in the Llynvi, Garw and Ogmore Valleys were agitating for better access to dock facilities in the 1880s. They were using Porthcawl, which had very limited shipping capacity. They promoted a railway from Coity Junction, just north of Bridgend, to Barry along a route near the coast, joining the Barry Railway west of the Barry Dock. The result was the Vale of Glamorgan Railway Act of 26 August 1889. Nominally independent, it was supported in Parliament by the Barry Railway, and when constructed it was equipped and operated by the Barry Railway. The company was unable to raise the necessary subscriptions, and the Barry Railway was obliged to guarantee a 4% return to VoGR shareholders, authorised by Act of 1893. This effectively put the VoGR under the control of the Barry Railway. The line opened on 1 December 1897. A viaduct experienced subsidence and the line was closed again between Barry and Rhoose on 10 January 1898. A temporary diversion line was laid round the viaduct and it opened on 25 April 1898 enabling reopening of the through route. The viaduct was secured and the original route reopened on 8 January 1900 for goods, and 9 April 1900 for passenger trains. A new line from Swansea to London Dissatisfaction with the Great Western Railway continued to be a factor. The Severn Tunnel had been opened in 1886, but the GWR route to London was still via Bristol and Bath. A South Wales Direct Line had been proposed for some years, but the GWR was reluctant to build it. Promoters, chiefly coal owners and those associated with the Vale of Glamorgan Railway and the Barry Railway, put together a scheme for a London and South Wales Railway in November 1895. At in length, it was to run from Cogan via Cardiff and skirting Newport on the north side, crossing the River Severn at Beachley by a new bridge, then via Thornbury, Malmesbury and Lechlade, to make a junction with the Metropolitan Railway near Great Missenden. Junctions would be made with every railway intersected, except the Great Western; the scheme was costed at £5,688,252. At the same time, the Vale of Glamorgan Railway promoted a Bill for a new line westward from Ewenny via Porthcawl and Port Talbot to join the Rhondda and Swansea Bay Railway at Aberavon. Barrie says, "Beyond all reasonable doubt, the real object of the London & South Wales promoters was to force the Great Western Railway to carry out its South Wales Direct Line, and to make certain concessions to the South Wales coal trade. In this they succeeded, and the London & South Wales scheme was withdrawn in 1896." The Great Western Railway agreed to build its own South Wales Direct Line, from Wootton Bassett to Patchway via Badminton, and it was opened by the GWR in 1903. Barry Pier and pleasure steamers In an interview in 1906, the General Manager of the Barry Railway said, A passenger pontoon was constructed within the breakwaters, at which passenger steamers land or take in passengers. The pontoon is served by railway lines made from Barry through Barry Island, and it is now possible for passengers from Cardiff, and the districts containing the teeming population of South Wales, to travel by train to the pontoon, and embark for the various watering-places and towns in the Bristol Channel. The Barry Island branch was extended to Barry Pier. The extension was authorised in 1896, and it opened on 27 June 1899. The line descended to Barry Pier through a tunnel at 1 in 80. The Pier station never had an ordinary train service, but was limited to trains connecting with pleasure steamers, generally in the summer. The steamer service was provided by the firm of P & A Campbell from July 1899. They were the principal steamer operator on the Bristol Channel at the time, but the commercial relationship between them and the Barry Railway was strained. In 1904 the Barry Railway acquired statutory powers—the Barry Railway (Steam Vessels) Act of 15 August 1904—to operate its own steamer fleet, but these powers were considerably restricted, limiting the routes that might be operated. In 1905 the Barry Railway started its own steamer operation with two newly constructed vessels, Gwalia and Devonia and an 1899 steamer Westonia. In 1907 the paddle steamer Barry was added. 191,000 passengers made steamer journeys via Barry in that year. The operation was carried out for some time by a subsidiary company, the Barry & Bristol Channel Steamship Company trading as The Red Funnel Line. In the following years the Barry Railway made commercial arrangements with the owners of the piers at Burnham-on-Sea, Weston-super-Mare, Minehead and Ilfracombe. In the summer of 1906 the Barry Railway ran the Ilfracombe Boat Express, which operated from Cardiff Riverside and non-stop from Cardiff General GWR station to Barry. Notwithstanding the considerable volume of passengers carried, the steamer operation proved of doubtful profitability, and by August 1910 the four vessels had all been disposed of. PS Gwalia was sold to the Furness Railway on 7 May 1910, and five days later the other three steamers were sold to Bristol Channel Passenger Boats Ltd. The Barry Railway had spent £104,470 to acquire the four vessels, and they sold them at a loss of £36,000. Bristol Channel Passenger Boats struggled to make the business pay and after two seasons, sold out to P & A Campbell. Dock facilities The Barry Docks were constructed on a lavish scale with the most modern equipment, designed to enable rapid loading and discharge of vessels. Hydraulic power was provided for the operation of cranes and other plant, and the lock gates, and electric lighting was installed, as 24-hour working was in force. After 1898, the Barry Docks consisted of a basin and two docks of respectively. In 1901 the Company stated that there were 21 high-level and 9 low-level coal hoists with a further 8 movable (using traversers) two of which were placed on No. 1 dock. Nos. 1 to 11 on No. 1 dock and 22 to 31 on No. 2 dock, were served by high-level rail tiers and short viaducts and with generally two lines for the laden wagons to a single line weighbridge and two lines from the single line empties weighbridge returns. Low-level hoists on No. 1 dock were numbered 12, then 13 to 18 on the Mole and thence 19 on the Barry Island side of No. 1 dock. Following 1915, the Barry Railway Company established low-level fixed hoists Nos. 32, 33, 34 and Nos. 4 and 5 movable, on the Barry Island side of No. 1 dock. Two earlier low-level hoists, Nos. 20 and 21 were fed from Graving Dock Junction and Caisson sidings area. In 1893 these were numbered 2 and 3 but were removed prior to 1927 and one early map shows No. 18 on the Mole, renumbered 20, 18 being substituted for one on the Barry Island side of No. 1 dock quay where three low-level hoists, Nos. 1, 2 and 3 movable (with traversers) existed either side of No. 19. Most of the 1st-generation high-level coal hoists on both docks were replaced by Armstrong–Whitworth structures capable of more rapid discharge of coal wagons. There had been three high-level movable hoists at the north end of No. 2 dock and close to Nos. 30 and 31 hoists and on one docks plan, these too were referenced "No. 3 Movable" and "No. 4 Movable." Besides other dedicated plots, that area had been used by the US Army towards the end of World War II. Not one of the hoists has been left for heredity and only pictorial records of their format survive. The Barry Railway General Manager, Edward Lake, told the Railway Magazine: Other provisions for dealing with merchandise traffic have not been lost sight of. Along the south side of dock No. 2 has been erected a commodious transit shed with cellarage and ground and upper floors, and bonded stores, of 500 ft. long and 156 ft. wide. In connection therewith, cranes and other appliances have been provided to enable traffic to be received into the sheds either from ships or trucks or to be loaded from the warehouse into trucks or vessels with the utmost despatch. Close to this building a huge flour mill has erected by Messrs. Joseph Rank, Ltd. Every provision has been made thereat fur dealing with an extensive trade in the most complete manner, and no doubt this will add considerably to 'the future prosperity of the Barry Railway. A modern dock like Barry would not be complete without a cold store. and one has been constructed adjacent to the dock quays, in which frozen meat and other goods requiring cold storage are stored, and the arrangements are such that the Traffic may be discharged direct from the ship’s hold into trucks and despatched to the consuming centres or stored in the cold store with the least possible despatch and exposure. At present the store is capable of accommodating 80,000 carcasses of sheep and other goods, and is capable of being largely extended. Connecting to the Rhymney Railway The Barry Railway had been able to access the Rhymney Railway since 1891, using the running powers on the Taff Vale Railway from Cogan to Taffs Well. As volumes of traffic increased, crossing the busy Taff Vale main line at Walnut Tree Junction became increasingly difficult and subject to delays. If the Barry Railway could make a more direct connection, it could also connect with the Sirhowy Valley line of the London and North Western Railway, and a huge new route would be opened up, enabling a general merchandise traffic between Cardiff and the West Midlands and North West of England as well as bringing down the mineral resources of the upper valleys. The Barry Railway deposited proposals for the 1896 Parliamentary session to build a new line from Tynycaeau Junction (near St Fagans) to join the Rhymney Railway near Caerphilly (at Penrhos Junction), and to get running powers on that railway's system north from the new junction. The Taff Bargoed line, joint between the Rhymney and the Great Western Railway, led to the important mineral centre of Dowlais, and running powers were sought on that line too. The Act was passed on 7 August 1896 for the line, in length, but the running powers were refused. Descending from Penrhos Junction, the existing Rhymney Railway line to Walnut Tree Junction dropped down into the valley by a long and steep gradient at 1 in 48 but the Barry Railway's new line, parallel in this area, remained at a higher level and crossed the railways, river and canal in the Nantgarw gap by the Walnut Tree viaduct of . The engineering complexity of the route was such that it was not until 1 August 1901 that it opened, for goods and mineral traffic only. It had cost £270,000. Cadoxton improvements The mineral operation on the Barry Railway was of course focused on the sidings at Barry and Cadoxton, where considerable sorting activities took place and dock storage was necessary waiting for specific ships to become available for loading. About of sidings were at the location, and access to the sidings by arriving trains resulted in serious congestion. In 1898-1899 a burrowing junction was constructed at Cadoxton from the sidings and goods lines on the north side of the line to No. 1 dock. R. A. Cooke's GWR track layout diagrams show the new docks access lines as "ready by 1898". The facility comprised two pairs of tracks descending at 1 in 121 from Cadoxton Low Level Junction to Graving dock Junction, one pair feeding No. 2 dock and the other No. 1 dock and goods yard, all at quay level, although there was a double-line junction to access No. 1 dock from the No. 2 dock lines near Graving Dock Junction. The section between the two block posts (Cadoxton Low level Jct and Graving Dock Jct) had always been controlled permissively (i.e. more than one train could be permitted to enter the section at a time). The 'burrowing' was provided by two reverse curve alignments with the 'bores' separated by a dividing wall with refuge manways, besides those provided in the main support walls. Although generally referred to as the "Graving Dock Tunnels", technically the facility was in fact a long skew rail underbridge over which some 14 sidings passed between Cadoxton Low Level Junction and Barry Docks signal box. The structure was radically altered to provide the new Barry docks area southerly town bypass road and now named Ffordd y Mileniwm, one half of the 'bore' being backfilled and the other, capped by a skew road overbridge which now provides a direct road link from Cadoxton to Barry Island. Just one freight railtrack survives here and links the Barry-Cardiff main line with No. 2 dock. On to the Brecon and Merthyr Railway Frustrated by the refusal of running powers on the Rhymney network, the Barry Railway now decided to extend the new line further north-east to join the Brecon and Merthyr Railway, crossing the Rhymney Valley to do so. The Barry Railway got an Act in 1898 permitting the extension to cross the Senghenydd branch of the Rhymney Railway and then cross the Rhymney Valley itself, joining the Brecon and Merthyr line near Duffryn Isaf; the new line was in length and included even more prodigious engineering challenges, in particular the Llanbradach or Pwll-y-Pant viaduct. This alone cost about half of the £500,000 expense of building the line. The viaduct was long with eleven spans above the valley floor. The Brecon and Merthyr Railway received financial help to enable it to double-track parts of its system. The new route opened for goods and mineral traffic only on 2 January 1905. (Passenger excursion trains to Barry did run over the line.) In fact the Brecon and Merthyr Railway did not extend to Dowlais; by a compromise arrangement when the line from Bargoed to Dowlais was authorised, the line was divided lengthways, and the Rhymney Railway owned the northern to Dowlais; for that reason Barry Railway running powers over the B&MR were not enough to get to Dowlais. Between 1904 and 1907 the Barry Railway planned an extension railway to by-pass the Rhymney Railway section, and to reach Newport over the B&M Railway, and this was authorised by Act of 28 August 1907. However, there were considerable limitations, particularly on rate competition, and the Barry Railway saw that this expensive line would not be profitable, and it delayed construction, hoping to negotiate better terms with its competitors. The delay continued right up until 1914, when the outbreak of World War I prevented the realisation of major new schemes. Financial results From the outset the Barry Railway had been remarkably successful in financial terms. Volumes of traffic carried, numbers of ships berthed at Barry, quantity of coal exported, all resulted in superlatives. Shareholders had become accustomed to excellent dividends and these were consistently distributed, although there were periods when the expense of new works, and of the Parliamentary costs associated with them, diverted profit away from shareholders, leading to dissatisfaction. Nevertheless, the dividend was 10% in 1890, and every year from 1894 to 1897 and in 1912, and was never less than 9.5% in any subsequent year. Passenger services Although the mineral traffic was massively dominant, the Barry Railway ran a respectable passenger operation. Between Barry and Cardiff, the Company ran 33 trains each way every weekday. Barry to Porth was less intensive, typically six return trips and about the same frequency on the Barry to Bridgend section. In 1898 there were ten trains daily between Cardiff Riverside and Pontypridd of which four were non-stop. Railcars were briefly used on the service from 1905. The service on the route declined in later years, in favour of the Taff Vale route which gave better connectivity. Many railway companies adopted railmotors, or "motor cars" as they were described, in the early 1900s. These were single coaches with a small steam engine integrated. They were generally used with very basic stopping places with minimal facilities, and the aim was to enable the cheap establishment of passenger calls at locations where demand was low. The motor car stopping places were very short platforms, and suitable only because a single entrance and exit door in the vehicle could be controlled by the guard. The Great Western Railway and the Taff Vale Railway made great use of the system, and in 1905 the Barry Railway experimented with it also, opening new stops at St-y-Nyll near the village of St. Brides-super-Ely, a short distance north of Tynycaeau Junctions, and Tonteg, between Efail Isaf and Pontypridd. The Barry Railway purchased two steam rail motors from the North British Locomotive Co; they were very similar to contemporary GWR railmotors. It ran the motor cars between Pontypridd and Cardiff via Tynycaeau Junction and St.Fagans. The service started on 1 May 1905, with the steam railmotors intermingled with conventional trains. It appears that the Tonteg platform was indeed very short, so that conventional trains were not allowed to stop, but St-y-Nyll seems to have been long enough for ordinary trains to use it. The railmotors had great difficulty in surmounting the climb from St.Fagans to Tynycaeau Junction. Moreover, there were complaints about timekeeping, longer journey times and inadequate accommodation. Richard Evans, the general manager, reported four weeks later on the inadequacies of the motor cars and stated that he was discontinuing the service on the line from 1 June 1905, reinstating the former timetable. Tonteg Platform was closed from that date, but ordinary trains called at St-y-Nyll as a request stop. Passengers for St-y-Nyll were to travel in the carriage next to the rear guard's van. The two steam railmotors were redeployed on the Vale of Glamorgan line and also as reliefs between conventional trains on the line to Barry Island. Stabled at a special shed at Barry motive power depôt out of use most of the time, they were later de-engined and converted to gangwayed coaches with corridor connection and locally referred to as the 'vestibule train'. (Other records show that they were withdrawn in 1913). However St-y-Nyll Platform was closed from 20 November 1905. Working to Rogerstone During World War I the exceptional coal traffic placed heavy demands on all the railways of South Wales. To assist with a difficult motive power situation, Barry Railway locomotives started working through to Rogerstone Yard, on the Newport Western Valley line, via Ebbw Junction; the practice was continued until the Grouping. From 1922 World War I considerably altered the Barry Railway's commercial position. As well as the human and material demands of the war, the world trade in coal had changed as oil firing of ships became commonplace. Moreover, it was obvious that the Government intended a restructuring of the railways. This emerged in the Railways Act 1921, which was to establish four new large railway companies, the "groups", and most of the railways of Great Britain would be compulsorily restructured into them, in a process known as the "grouping". There would be a new Great Western Railway; the old GWR was naturally the largest constituent of it, but the Barry Railway too was a constituent company, the fifth largest in capitalisation, larger only than the Rhymney Railway. The change was effective from 1 January 1922; £100 of Barry Railway ordinary stock was converted into £220 of Great Western Railway 5% stock. The Barry Railway's resources were summarised at the time. Capital issued was £4.82 million, Net income in 1921 was £359,137 on gross income of £1,733,000. The dividend on ordinary stock in 1921 was 10%. The aggregate route length was . The company had 148 locomotives, 178 passenger carriages and 2,136 freight wagons; there were 2,136 employees. The Great Western Railway had owned small dock systems but now found itself the owner of one of the two largest dock groups in the country. At first the GWR was uncertain of the possibility of a positive future for this sector, but using the skill and experience of the existing managers of the dock systems it achieved commercial success. The new Great Western Railway was able to make some simplifying changes. Most of the pits and other terminal locations were on the older railways, with the Barry Railway providing an alternative route. The GWR started to arrange for locomotives to work through from the pits to Barry without engine change at Trehafod; this was particularly efficient with the new GWR 2-8-0T classes, and Trehafod engine shed was closed in 1926. Powers were taken by Act of 4 August 1926 to abandon the connecting line between Penrhos Junction and Duffryn Isaf (Barry Junction) on the B&M route, as traffic could be handled on the Rhymney line. In 1929 a major remodelling was undertaken at Barry Island, with the addition of two platforms to accommodate summer excursion traffic and part-singling of the double-track Barry Island tunnel to Barry Pier. This was commissioned on 5 May 1929. In 1929 the Government passed the Development (Loan Guarantees and Grants) Act, which enabled cash grants to be paid to the railway companies to fund improvements beneficial to the public and which might relieve unemployment. The GWR used the arrangement to improve the facilities at Barry Dock. It was encouraging the adoption of 20-ton mineral wagons at the time and the opportunity was taken to adapt the equipment at Barry accordingly. Sixteen new coaling hoists were constructed at Barry. These were massive structures: about of concrete were employed at each hoist foundation. Track and structure improvements were necessary and wagon turntables had to be enlarged for the new wagons. Near Treforest, the Barry line and the former Llantrisant and Taff Vale Junction line ran close beside one another as they both diverged from the Taff Vale main line southwards. In 1930 a major redesign of the layout took place; the Barry route through Pontypridd to Trehafod was downgraded, and a new junction was created at Treforest, climbing to Tonteg where the Llantrisant and the Barry routes diverged. This was implemented on 10 July 1930, when the Barry passenger station (Graig) at Pontypridd was closed. The up line from Tonteg to Pwllgwaun, about two thirds of the way to Trehafod, and which included the Graig tunnel, was closed as a running line and used as a wagon storage siding from 1943. In the period 11 October 1943 to 7 September 1944 a total of 119 American locomotives were stored on this section in connection with the preparations for the Normandy landings and their aftermath. The line was closed entirely as a through route in June 1951. Demolition of Pen-yr-Heol and Pwll-y-Pant viaducts In 1937 the Pen-yr-Heol viaduct of the Barry Railway was demolished; it had crossed the Sengenydd branch of the original Rhymney Railway. The main girders were long, deep, and weighed some 35 tons each. The demolition process was to tip them off the tops of the piers, to fall into the valley fifty feet below. They were cut up there and the scrap was transported away. Next the larger Pwll-y-Pant viaduct, built in 1904, was demolished in 1937. It consisted of 11 piers, sixteen spans, eleven of and five approach arches. The main girders weighed about 90 tons each, and the total weight of steel in the structure was about 3,150 tons. The method of demolition adopted was to burn off first as much of the steel decking as possible, allowing the material to fall to the ground below; the girders were then tilted outwards by jacks on top of the brick piers until they overbalanced and fell to the ground. They were then cut up where they lay. Demolition of the 11 piers was accomplished in 1938, explosives being used to fell them and they lay in unsightly heaps until well after the 1950s. Under British Railways From nationalisation in 1948, the Barry Railway network was under state ownership, in British Railways. In 1962 the British Transport Docks Board was established and took over all the major docks installations within the British Transport Commission. Local passenger services between Barry and Pontypridd and between Cardiff and Pontypridd via St.Fagans were withdrawn on 10 September 1962. The link at Drope Junction to Peterston was closed on 1 March 1963, and the Tynycaeau link to St.Fagans closed on 30 March 1963, followed on 17 June 1963 by closure of the main line between Cadoxton and Tonteg Junction. The Vale of Glamorgan line was closed to local passenger trains on 15 June 1964, and the Bridgend avoiding line between Cowbridge Road Junction and Coity Junction was closed on the same day. However, due consideration to reopening the line to passengers was given and after a 41-year gap, it was reopened as from 10 June 2005 with new station platforms constructed for Llantwit Major and Rhoose, Rhoose being also labelled 'Rhoose Cardiff International Airport'. With the new 2016 Transport for Wales (TfW) body being established, new stations may be reintroduced for other Vale of Glamorgan villages in conjunction with the proposed Metro system. There was a "dolomite siding" at Walnut Tree and access to it was retained from Penrhos Junction over the viaduct until 14 December 1967. The Barry Island to Barry Pier section was probably not used after October 1971 but it was officially closed on 5 July 1976. The present day The Barry Dock continues (2017) in use under Associated British Ports. The fine office building which was the Barry Docks & Railway Co. headquarters is still extant. It is an impressive building in brick with Portland stone dressings, a massive pediment, a domed clock tower and classical decoration. It is the only surviving example of Barry Railway infrastructure and is listed Grade II*. Following the disastrous signal box fire at Tynycaeau Junction on 30 March 1963, the Treforest Junction–Tynycaeau–Cadoxton South Junction and Penrhos Junction–Tynycaeau Junction–Cadoxton South Junction traffic ceased and the lines were lifted by 1965 but part of the Penrhos Junction-Walnut Tree West section of the Penrhos Branch survived until 1968. Those parts of the former Barry Railway network in use as at 2021, comprise the line between Cogan and Barry Island, which has a busy suburban passenger service and some freight traffic, and the Vale of Glamorgan Branch (Barry–Bridgend) for freight and passengers. The line forms an essential link when diversions between Cardiff and Bridgend main line via St.Fagans are in force. Topography Main line Hafod Junction; with Taff Vale Railway; opened July 1889; closed June 1951 Pontypridd; opened 16 March 1896; renamed Pontypridd Graig 1924; closed 7 July 1930; Pwllgwaun Tunnel; 1,323 yards or 1,373 yards; Treforest; opened 1 April 1898; renamed Treforest High Level 1 July 1924; closed 5 May 1930; ; opened July 1905; closed November 1905; ; opened 16 March 1896; closed 10 September 1962; ; opened 16 March 1896; closed 10 September 1962; ; opened July 1905; closed November 1905; Tynycaeau Junctions; Drope Junction; Wenvoe Tunnel; 1,867 yards; ; opened 16 March 1896; closed 10 September 1962; ; opened 20 December 1888; still open; Barry Dock[s]; opened 20 December 1888; still open; ; opened 8 February 1889; still open; ; opened 3 August 1896; still open; Barry Pier Tunnel; 280 yards ; opened 27 June 1899; last train 11 October 1971 connecting with MV Balmoral. Station used only occasionally afterwards for enthusiasts special DMU trains. Station officially closed in 1976. Track lifted in that year. Cardiff branch Cogan Junction; ; opened 20 December 1888; still open; Cogan Tunnel; 220 yards ; opened 24 November 1986; still open; ; opened 20 December 1888; relocated 30 September 1985; still open; Biglis Junction; Cadoxton; above. Brecon and Merthyr Railway connection Duffryn Isaf; formerly Barry Junction; Pwll-y-Pant Viaduct; ; (informally known as Llanbradach Viaduct) Energlyn North Junction; Pen-yr-Heol Viaduct; ; Penrhos Lower Junction; Walnut Tree Viaduct; ; Tynycaeau Junctions; above. Vale of Glamorgan Railway Barry Junction; Barry Sidings; Porthkerry Tunnel No. 1; 543 yards Porthkerry Viaduct; 375 yards Porthkerry Tunnel No. 2; 73 yards Rhoose; opened 1 December 1897; closed 15 June 1964; reopened as on 12 June 2005 on the same site; still open; Aberthaw; opened 1 December 1897; renamed Aberthaw High Level 1 July 1924; closed 15 June 1964; ; opened 1 December 1897; closed 15 June 1964; ; opened 1 December 1897; closed 15 June 1964; reopened 12 June 2005 on same site; still open; ; opened 1 May 1915; closed 15 June 1964; ; opened 1 December 1897; closed 23 October 1961; Tunnels The Wenvoe tunnel is one of the longest railway tunnels in South Wales. Traffic ceased through the tunnel on 31 March 1963 due to a fire at Tynycaeau Junction signal box. Locomotives Being quite a small concern, the Barry Railway used private locomotive works to supply its motive power, particularly Sharp Stewart and Company and in common with many similar railways in South Wales, preferred locos with six- or eight-coupled (i.e. driving) wheels. Its complement of locomotives totalled 148 by 1914; on the Grouping, all were renumbered in to the Great Western Railway number series. Not a single Barry locomotive was scrapped during the company's lifetime. In September 1947, under nationalisation, only 84 engines were noted as located at Barry, just a few of the original Barry Railway GW rebuilds still being operational. Barry motive power depot was coded 88C under British Railways. Only four locomotives were fitted with steam heating apparatus for passenger coaches; these were in connection with the Ports-to-ports service run in conjunction with the GWR, Great Central and North Eastern Railway to Newcastle upon Tyne. Rolling stock Coaching stock was painted in an overall Dark Lake (a dark red colour) with 'straw' lining. The carriage lettering was in gold shaded to the right and below in red, and to the lower left in dark grey, to imitate the reflection of the paint work on an embossed letter. There are very few of these coaches left, and none are in service. Coach No. 163 is (2017) undergoing restoration at Hampton Loade railway station on the Severn Valley Railway. Wagons were painted in red oxide, generally identified by high letters BR in white. Wagon numbers were shown on the lower left of the vehicles, while load and tare details were on the lower right. Storage of British Railways steam locomotives The modernisation scheme adopted by British Railways in the 1960s resulted in the withdrawal of a considerable number of steam locomotives in a short space of time. Many of these were acquired by Woodham Brothers, who laid them aside in the dock sidings at Barry. Due to scrap metal price fluctuations they did not immediately dismantle them, and in fact they remained there for many years. The location became famous as a last repository of the engines. In some cases the locomotives were later acquired by preservation societies and restored to operation. Associated British Ports When the main line railways of Great Britain were nationalised in 1948, in most cases the railway-owned docks transferred into British Railways too. In 1962, the British Transport Docks Board was formed as a government-owned body to manage various ports formerly owned by the rail industry, including Barry. The Transport Act 1981 was passed with the intention of transferring ownership to the private sector, and in 1983 the organisation became a public limited company known as Associated British Ports. ABP still owns and operates the docks infrastructure today (2017). Steamers owned by the Barry Railway Surviving rolling stock A selection of original Barry Railway coaches survive today. Coach No. 15 is undergoing restoration at the Severn Valley Railway. No. 45 is in storage with the National Museum of Wales. No. 71 resides in Blakemere. No. 97, No. 211 and an unidentified full third coach, all survive as private residences. Another unidentified full third coach, originally thought belonging to the Taff Vale Railway also exists in a private location. Only two Barry Railway wagons, two iron mink goods vans, are known to still exist today. No. 1151 resides at the Kent and East Sussex Railway. No. 1388 is at the Gloucestershire Warwickshire Railway. Notes References External links Barry Railway Penrhos Branch Barry Railway Company on Cardiffrail Barry Railway Penrhos gallery Barry Railway Trehafod gallery Barry Railway route to Trehafod Creigiau and Efail Isaf Stations gallery Report on accident on the Barry Railway 4 August 1920 British Pathé news film: Demolition of Viaduct at Llanbradach Railway companies established in 1884 Great Western Railway constituents Economy of the Vale of Glamorgan
4856850	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reservation%20in%20India	Reservation in India	Reservation is a system of affirmative action in India that provides historically disadvantaged groups representation in education, employment, government schemes, scholarships and politics. Based on provisions in the Indian Constitution, it allows the Union Government and the States and Territories of India to set reserved quotas or seats, at particular percentage in Education Admissions, Employments, Political Bodies, Promotions, etc, for "socially and educationally backward citizens." History Before independence Quota systems favouring certain castes and other communities existed before independence in several areas of British India. Demands for various forms of positive discrimination had been made, for example, in 1882 and 1891. Chatrapati Shahu, the Maharaja of the princely state of Kolhapur, introduced reservation in favor of non-Brahmin and backward classes, much of which came into effect in 1902. He provided free education to everyone and opened several hostels to make it easier for them to receive it. He also tried to ensure that people thus educated were suitably employed, and he appealed both for a class-free India and the abolition of untouchability. His 1902 measures created 50 percent reservation for backward communities. In 1918, at the behest of several non-Brahmin organizations criticizing Brahmin domination of administration, the Mysore Raja Nalvadi Krishnaraja Wadiyar created a committee to implement reservations for non-Brahmins in government jobs and education over the opposition of his Diwan M. Viswesvaraya, who resigned in protest. On 16 September 1921, the first Justice Party government passed the first Communal Government Order (G. O. # 613), thereby becoming the first elected body in the Indian legislative history to legislate reservations, which have since become standard across the country. The British Raj introduced elements of reservation in the Government of India Act of 1909 and there were many other measures put in place prior to independence. A significant one emerged from the Round Table Conference of June 1932, when the Prime Minister of Britain, Ramsay MacDonald, proposed the Communal Award, according to which separate representation was to be provided for Muslims, Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo-Indians, and Europeans. The depressed classes, roughly corresponding to the STs and SCs, were assigned a number of seats to be filled by election from constituencies in which only they could vote, although they could also vote in other seats. The proposal was controversial: Mahatma Gandhi fasted in protest against it but many among the depressed classes, including B. R. Ambedkar, had to favor it. After negotiations, Gandhi reached an agreement with Ambedkar to have a single Hindu electorate, with Dalits having seats reserved within it. Electorates for other religions, such as Islam and Sikhism, remained separate. This became known as the Poona Pact. After independence After the independence of India in 1947 there were some major initiatives in favor of the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (SCs and STs) and after the 1980s in favour of OBCs (Other Backward Castes) and in 2019 for poor in the general category. The country's affirmative action program was launched in 1950 and is the oldest such programme in the world. A common form of caste discrimination in India was the practice of untouchability. SCs were the primary targets of the practice, which was outlawed by the new Constitution of India. In 1954, the Ministry of Education suggested that 20 percent of places should be reserved for the SCs and STs in educational institutions with a provision to relax minimum qualifying marks for admission by 5 percent wherever required. In 1982, it was specified that 15 percent and 7.5 percent of vacancies in public sector and government-aided educational institutes should be reserved for the SC and ST candidates, respectively. A significant change began in 1979 when the Mandal Commission or the Socially and Educationally Backward Classes (SEBC) Commission was established to assess the situation of the socially and educationally backward classes. The commission did not have exact population figures for the OBCs and so used data from the 1931 census, thus estimating the group's population at 52 per cent. In 1980, the commission's report recommended that a reserved quota for OBCs of 27 per cent should apply in respect of services and public sector bodies operated by the Union Government. It called for a similar change to admissions to institutes of higher education, except where states already had more generous requirements. It was not until the 1990s that the recommendations were implemented in Union Government jobs. In 2019 the government announces the 10% reservation in educational institutions and government jobs for economically weaker section of the general category. The Constitution of India states in article 15(4): "Nothing in [article 15] or in clause (2) of article 29 shall prevent the State from making any special provision for the advancement of any socially, and educationally backward classes of citizens of or for the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes." Article 46 of the Constitution states that "The State shall promote with special care the educational and economic interests of the weaker sections of the people, and, in particular, of the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes, and shall protect them from social injustice and all forms of exploitation." The Supreme Court of India ruled in 1992 that reservations could not exceed 50 percent, anything above which it judged would violate equal access as guaranteed by the Constitution. It thus put a cap on reservations. However, the recent amendment of the constitution exceeds 50% and also there are state laws that exceed this 50 percent limit and these are under litigation in the Supreme Court. For example, in the State of Tamil Nadu, the caste-based reservation stands at 69 percent and applies to about 87 percent of the population. On 7 November 2022, Supreme Court of India by a 3:2 verdict in Janhit Abhiyan vs Union Of India Writ Petition (Civil) No(S). 55 OF 2019, upheld the validity of the 103rd constitutional amendment carried out to provide legal sanction carve out 10% reservation for the economically weaker sections from unreserved classes for admission in educational institutions and government jobs and held that the 50% cap on quota is not inviolable and affirmative action on economic basis may go a long way in eradicating caste-based reservation. This constitutional amendment pushed the total reservation to 59.50% in central institutions. Reservation schemes In employment Government and public sector will hire job seekers based on reservation percentage from two different categories 1: reservation category (SC, ST, OBC, EWC and other minorities) 2: Open category (General, SC, ST, OBC, EWC and other minorities). While hiring, major priority is given to reservation category including 33% reservation for Women, priority in hiring is given by Other Minorities women, ST women, SC women, ST Men, SC Men, OBC women, OBC Men, EWS Women, EWS Men and then after Open category Will be considered. Government and public sector hiring based on Merit in open category and one more anomaly here i.e., Priority in hiring will be given by: Other Minorities women, ST women, SC women, ST Men, SC Men, OBC women, OBC Men, EWC Women, EWC Men and then General if they are equally eligibility (for example having same marks or Rank). The landmark initiative of Special Recruitment for Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe in Government jobs was started in Kerala in 1972 by Vella Eacharan. The 1993 Supreme Court ruling in the Indra Sawhney & Others v. Union of India case said that reservations in job promotions are "unconstitutional" or not in accordance with the political constitution but allowed its continuation for five years. In 1995, the 77th amendment to the Constitution was made to amend Article 16 before the five-year period expired to continue with reservations for SC/STs in promotions. It was further modified through the 85th amendment to give the benefit of consequential seniority to SC/ST candidates promoted by reservation. The 81st amendment was made to the Constitution to permit the government to treat the backlog of reserved vacancies as a separate and distinct group, to which the ceiling of 50 per cent did not apply. The 82nd amendment inserted a provision in Article 335 to enable states to give concessions to SC/ST candidates in promotion. The validity of all the above four amendments was challenged in the Supreme Court through various petitions clubbed together in M. Nagaraj & Others Vs. Union of India & Others, mainly on the ground that these altered the Basic Structure of the Constitution. In 2006, the Supreme Court upheld the amendments but stipulated that the concerned state will have to show, in each case, the existence of "compelling reasons" - which include "backwardness", "inadequacy of representation" and overall "administrative efficiency - before making provisions for reservation. The court further held that these provisions are merely enabling provisions. If a state government wishes to make provisions for reservation to SC/STs in the promotion, the state has to collect quantifiable data showing backwardness of the class and inadequacy of representation of that class. In 2007, the Government of Uttar Pradesh introduced reservation in job promotions. However, citing the Supreme Court decision, the policy was ruled to be unconstitutional by the Allahabad High Court in 2011. The decision was challenged in the Supreme Court, which upheld it in 2012 by rejecting the government's argument because it failed to furnish sufficient valid data to justify the move to promote employees on a caste basis. In education Universities allot seats based on reservation percentage from two different categories are 1: reservation category (SC, ST, OBC, EWC and other minorities) 2:Open category (General, SC, ST, OBC, EWS and other minorities). In allotment, Major priority given to reservation category including 33% reservation for Women, priority in allotting is given by Other Minorities women, ST women, SC women, ST Men, SC Men, OBC women, OBC Men, EWC Women, EWC Men and then after Open category Will be considered. Government Universities will allot based on priority by: Other Minorities women, ST women, SC women, ST Men, SC Men, OBC women, OBC Men, EWC Women, EWC Men & then General and reservation percentage under consideration for entrance exams fees, for cut off marks, for allotment of seats and also applicable to other government schemes. In India student aids are available for—SCs, STs, BCs, OBCs, women, Muslims, and other minorities. Only about 0.7% of student aids in India is based on merit. States In central-government funded higher education institutions, 22.5% of available seats are reserved for Scheduled Caste (SC) and Scheduled Tribe (ST) students (7.5% for STs, 15% for SCs). This reservation percentage has been raised to 49.5% by including an additional 27% reservation for OBCs. This ratio is followed even in Parliament and all elections where a few constituencies are earmarked for those from certain communities (which will next rotate in 2026 per the Delimitation Commission). Some states and UTs have reservations for females which varies from 5% to 33.33%. The exact percentages vary from state to state: In Tamil Nadu, OBC reservation is divided into 26.5% Backward Caste, 3.5 Backward Caste (M) and 20% Most Backward Caste and 10.5% sub quota for vanniyars, introduced by AIADMK in 2020,7% for DNT . The 7.5% for Vanniyars was quashed void by Madras High Court. The SC quota has 3% sub-quota for Arunthatiyars, introduced by DMK in 2009. In Maharashtra in addition to the reservation for SC/ST/OBC, there is 2% for SBCs, 3% for Nomadic Tribes – NT-A (Vimukta jati), 2.5% for NT-B, 3.5% for NT-C (Dhangar), and 2% for NT-D (Vanjari). In Northeast India, e.g. in Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Nagaland and Mizoram, reservation for ST in State Govt. jobs is 80% with only 20% unreserved. In the Central Universities of NEHU (Shillong) and Rajiv Gandhi University, 60% of seats are reserved for ST students. In West Bengal, the OBC community is divided into OBC A & B. In West Bengal there is no reservation on religious basis but some economically and educationally backward Muslim castes (basis surnames pertaining to different profession e.g. cobbler, weaver etc.) have been included along with their Hindu counterparts in the OBC list namely OBC A and OBC B, in both lists caste from both communities are there. But in higher educational institutes, till now there is no reservation for the OBC community but there is reservation in regard to admission in primary, secondary and higher secondary studies. Gender The Women's Reservation Bill was passed by the Rajya Sabha on 9 March 2010 by a majority vote of 186 members in favor and 1 against. As of March 2013, the Lok Sabha has not voted on the bill. Critics say gender cannot be held as a basis for reservation alone other factors should also be considered e.g. economic, social conditions of woman candidates especially when applying reservation for educated women. The criticism points that the policy benefits women that have access to political capital through family circles and are faced with the burden of a huge learning curve. Again, women are divided among caste and class lines with this dichotomy playing an important role in deciding how the presence of women in the lowest tier of governance impact the problems faced by the women of the constituency In Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh, 32% of posts are reserved for females in all government departments and services, such as police, health, education and general administration. From 2015 onwards Kerala has implemented a 55% reservation for all posts of its local self governing bodies. On 21 July 2021, Karnataka became the first state in the country to provide one percent reservation for the transgender community in all government services. The government submitted a report to the High Court in this regard, informing that a notification had already been issued after amending the Karnataka Civil Service. The job could be given to males or females, from the same category, in case of the non-availability of transgender candidates. Religion Constitution of India debars reservation based on religion in India. The Tamil Nadu government has allotted 3.5% of seats each to Muslims and Christians, thereby altering the OBC reservation to 23% from 30% (since it excludes persons belonging to Other Backward Castes who are either Muslims or Christians). The Government of Andhra Pradesh introduced a law enabling 4 percent reservations for Muslims in 2004. This law was upheld by the Supreme Court in an interim order in 2010 but it constituted a Constitution bench to look further into the issue. The referral was to examine the constitutional validity of quotas based on religion. Kerala Public Service Commission has a quota of 12% for Muslims. Religious minority (Muslim or Christian) educational institutes also have 50% reservation for Muslim or Christian religions. The Central government has listed a number of Muslim communities as backward Muslims, making them eligible for reservation. Criticism, controversies and protests The Union Government on 22 December 2011 announced the establishment of a sub-quota of 4.5% for religious minorities within the existing 27% reservation for Other Backward Classes. The reasoning given was that Muslim communities that have been granted OBC status are unable to compete with Hindu OBC communities. It was alleged that the decision was announced as the Election Commission announced Assembly elections in five states on 24 December 2011. The government would not have been able to announce this due to the model code of conduct. On 12 January 2012, the Election Commission stayed implementation of this decision for violation of the model code of conduct. Later, Justice Sachar, head of the Sachar Committee that was commissioned to prepare a report on the latest social, economic and educational condition of the Muslim community of India, criticised the government decision, saying "Such promises will not help the backward section of minorities. It is like befooling them. These people are making tall claims just to win elections". He suggested that instead of promising to give reservations, the government should focus on basic issues of improving administration and governance. On 28 May 2012, the Andhra Pradesh High Court quashed the sub-quota. The court said that the sub-quota has been carved out only on religious lines and not on any other intelligible basis. The court criticized the decision: "In fact, we must express our anguish at the rather casual manner in which the entire issue has been taken up by the central government.". Mandal Commission protests of 1990 Mandal commission protests of 1990 were against reservation in government jobs based on caste in India. 2006 Indian anti-reservation protests The 2006 Indian anti-reservation protests were a series of protests that took place in India in 2006 in opposition to the decision of the Union Government of India, led by the Indian National Congress-headed multiparty coalition United Progressive Alliance, to implement reservations for the Other Backward Classes (OBCs) in central and private institutes of higher education. This move led to massive protests, particularly from students and doctors belonging to the forward castes, who claimed that the government's proposal was discriminatory, discarded meritocracy and was driven by vote-bank politics. Agitations demanding more reservation In 2008 and 2010, the Gujjar community in Rajasthan demanded reclassification from OBC to ST (Scheduled Tribes) for increased reservation benefits. They began violently protesting on the streets of Rajasthan and blocked several rail lines. Police firing on Gujjars began a tit-for-tat cycle of violence between Police and Gujjars. The violence ended with 37 people dead. Their move was opposed by the Meenas, the main ST community in Rajasthan. In 2019, the agitation restarted as Gujjars demanded 5% reservation, and began blocking trains to this effect. Jats have been demanding OBC status since the 1990s. In 2016, they began an agitation to get this status. To this effect they began protesting by blockading roads and lines, but later the protests turned violent. Riots spread to Delhi and western Uttar Pradesh, and even Rajasthan. The epicentre of the violence was in Rothak, and almost ₹34000 crores ($4.8 billion) worth of property was damaged and 30 were killed. Bowing to the pressure, the Haryana government created a special category for Jats and other upper castes called BC, and appointed 10% reservation, but the measure was blocked in court. Beginning in 2015, the Patidar community (better known as Patel) began agitating for OBC status in Gujarat. This movement consisted of massive demonstrations across the state, led by Hardik Patel. Later many of these protests turned violent, resulting in curfews across the state and crores worth of damage. Talks with the government broke down, and the violence restarted. After the Jat agitation began in 2016, the Patidars flared up again and led a march through Gujarat, but protests in several cities turned violent and the Rapid Action Force was sent in. In January 2016, the Garp community in Andhra Pradesh began leading protests to be classified in Backward Classes. The agitation became violent when in Tuni, Garp protestors set trains on fire. In 2019, the Telugu Desam Party which had just been made opposition, tabled a bill to have a 5% sub-quota for Garps out of EWS reservation. Marathas, the dominant caste of Maharashtra, have been agitating for OBC status since the 1990s. In 2016, after the rape and murder of a 15-year old Maratha girl in Kopardi, the Maratha community organized massive protests throughout Maharashtra. Their demands included death for the accused as well as reservations for the Maratha community which makes up 16% of the state's population. Some road blocks turned violent in 2017 and 2018, but overall the protests were peaceful. Their demand was met when the Maharashtra government instituted a special SEBC (Socially and Educationally Backward Classes) category for them with 16% reservation. The Supreme Court of India later however, declared the SEBC reservation for Marathas as unconstitutional. Economic status The Union Government tabled the Constitution (One Hundred And Twenty-Fourth Amendment) Bill, 2019 which provided 10% additional quota for the economically weaker sections amongst the erstwhile unreserved category students. The definition of 'economically weaker sections' will be defined by the State from time to time. The constitutional amendment has laid down that they will be restricted to people with household income less than 8 Lakh per annum and those who own agricultural land below five acres. Business Today has commented that these criteria cover almost 100 percent of the population. Several petitions have been filed before the Supreme Court of India challenging the legality of this amendment. Exclusions There are no exclusions for SC/ST people. For OBC's people the following categories are not entitled to take advantage of the reservation system: Children of officials in high office as per the Constitution. Children of civil servants in high positions. Children of armed forces officers of high rank. Children of professionals and those engaged in trade and industry. Children of property owners. Children of people with annual income exceeding 8,00,000 (regarded as the "creamy layer"). Institutions of Excellence, research institutions, Institutions of National and Strategic Importance such as Centre for Development of Advanced Computing, Homi Bhabha National Institute and its ten constituent units, the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (Mumbai), the North Eastern Indira Gandhi Regional Institute of Health and Medical Sciences (Shillong), Physical Research Laboratory (Ahmedabad), the Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (Thiruvananthapuram) and the Indian Institute of Remote Sensing (Dehradun) do not have reservations for higher education. However Institutes of National Importance such as Indian Institutes of Management (IIMs),Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs), National Institutes of Technology (NIT) and Indian Institute of Information Technology (IIIT) have provision of reservation in admission process for undergraduate and graduate programs. On 27 October 2015, the Supreme Court directed the state and the Central governments to end the regional quota and to ensure that super-specialty medical courses are kept "unreserved, open and free" from any domicile status after the court had allowed petitions files by some MBBS doctors. The above table is valid as of January 31, 2023. Creamy layer The term creamy layer was first coined in 1974 in the State of Kerala vs N. M. Thomas case when Justice VR Krishna Iyer said that the "benefits of the reservation shall be snatched away by the top creamy layer of the backward class, thus leaving the weakest among the weak and leaving the fortunate layers to consume the whole cake". The 1992 Indra Sawhney & Others v. Union of India judgement laid down the limits of the state's powers: it upheld the ceiling of 50.21 percent quotas, emphasised the concept of "social backwardness", and prescribed 11 indicators to ascertain backwardness. The judgement also established the concept of qualitative exclusion, such as "creamy layer". The creamy layer applies only to OBCs. The creamy layer criteria were introduced at Rs 1 lakh in 1993 and revised to Rs 2.5 lakh in 2004, ₹4.5 lakh in 2008 and ₹6 lakh in 2013, but now the ceiling has been raised to ₹8 lakh (in September 2017). In October 2015, the National Commission for Backward Classes (NCBC) proposed that a person belonging to OBC with an annual family income of up to ₹15 lakh should be considered as minimum ceiling for OBC. The NCBC also recommended sub-division of OBCs into "backward", "more backward" and "extremely backward" groups and to divide the 27 per cent quota amongst them in proportion to their population, to ensure that stronger OBCs do not corner the quota benefits. Reservation in states Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh state percentage of reservation is around 50%. Including the overall 1/3 reservation for women, 66.66% of seats are reserved in Andhra Pradesh in Education and Government jobs. Scheduled Castes – 15% Scheduled Tribes – 6% Backward Classes (A, B, C, D) – 27% Physically Handicapped (Blind, Deaf & Dumb and OPH) – 3% (1% each) Ex-servicemen (APMS only) – 1% (0.5% in general category) Women – 33.33% (in all categories, means 16.66% in general category) Andhra Pradesh BC quota has sub-quotas for castes, classified in A, B, C and D. Addition of disabled, ex-serviceman, women in general category 16.66% makes total reservation percentage 66.66%. Arunachal Pradesh Arunachal Pradesh has 80% reservation for Scheduled Tribes. Assam Scheduled Castes – 7% Scheduled Tribes – 15% Other Backward Classes – 27% Economically Weaker Sections – 10% Assam provides sub quotas for several other communities such as Morans, Mataks and Tea Tribes in medical colleges under the OBC category. In November 2020, Assam's cabinet extended this reservation to Koch-Rajbongshis, Ahoms and Chutias. These six communities are demanding Scheduled Tribe status. In January 2019, Assam approved EWS reservation. Bihar Scheduled Castes – 15% Scheduled Tribes – 1% Other Backward Classes – 34% Economically Weaker Sections – 10% First implemented in 1970 by Karpoori Thakur, Bihar has a sub-quota within OBC quota of 18% for Extremely Backward Castes (EBCs) and 3% for Backward Caste women in government jobs and educational institutes. EWS reservation was implemented in 2019. Chhattisgarh Scheduled Castes – 12% ( now 16%) Scheduled Tribes – 32% ( now 20%) Other Backward Classes – 14% Economically Weaker Sections – no provision Chhattisgarh: Ordinance on OBC quota hike to 27% has lapsed, says high court. Delhi Scheduled Castes - 15% Scheduled Tribes - 7% Other Backward Classes - 27% Since Delhi is a Union territory and subject to the Central government, government jobs in Delhi are designated Central Government jobs. In a 2018 Supreme Court decision, it was decided that since Delhi is the capital and no one is an "outsider" there reservations in the territory should follow the all-India pattern. Furthermore, these reserved jobs are open from reserved communities from outside Delhi. Goa Scheduled Castes – 2% Scheduled Tribes – 12% Other Backward Classes – 27% Economically Weaker Sections – 10% Physically handicapped - 3% Ex-servicemen - 2% Sportspersons - 3% In 2014, the quota for OBC reservation was raised from 19.5% to 27%. In June 2019, Goa implemented EWS reservation in jobs and education. Gujarat Scheduled Castes – 7% Scheduled Tribes – 15% Other Backward Classes – 27% Economically Weaker Sections – 10% Gujarat also implemented a 33% reservation for general category women in government jobs. The government also banned reserved category applicants from competing for general category seats, but this was revoked in 2020. Similarly the women reservation was made cutting across all categories in 2020. Gujarat was one of the first states to implement EWS reservation, which applies to general category candidates with less than ₹8 lakhs income, not including other assets like land. Haryana Scheduled Castes – 20% Other Backward Classes – 23% Economically Weaker Sections – 10% Ex-servicemen – 5% Sportspersons – 3% Physically handicapped – 3% In Haryana OBCs are divided into A, B, C categories, each with 11%, 6% and 6% reservation respectively. Reservations in promotions are different, although still based on population. In 2021, Haryana passed a law mandating 75% reservation in private-sector jobs with incomes less than ₹25,000 for local candidates. Himachal Pradesh Scheduled Castes – 25% Scheduled Tribes – 4% Other Backward Classes – 20% Economically Weaker Sections – 10% In the Scheduled Areas which have a very high percentage of STs, such as Kinnaur and Lahaul and Spiti districts, percentage of ST reserved seats in government jobs are much higher. Jharkhand Scheduled Castes – 10% Scheduled Tribes – 26% Other Backward Classes – 14% Economically Weaker Sections – 10% BC are currently classified as being in Annexure 1 and Annexure 2. Maharashtra Scheduled Castes (SC) (13%) Scheduled Tribes (ST) (7%) Other Backward Classes (OBC) (19%) Special Backward Classes (SBC) (2%) Nomadic Tribes – A (Vimukta jati) (3%) Nomadic Tribes – B (2.5%) Nomadic Tribes – C (Dhangar) (3.5%) Nomadic Tribes – D (Vanjari) (2%) Economically Weaker Sections (EWS) – 10% Maharashtra has 62% reservation in educational institutions and government jobs. Uttarakhand Scheduled Castes – 19% Scheduled Tribes – 4% Other Backward Classes – 14% Economically Weaker Sections – 10% Uttarakhand has 47% reservation in educational institutions and government jobs. In addition to vertical reservation, the state gives 30% horizontal reservation to women, 5% to the ex-servicemen (ES), 4% to persons with disability (PWD), 2% to the dependants of freedom fighters (DFF), and 5% to the orphans residing in the state-run orphanages. See also Nari Shakti Vandan Adhiniyam Backwardism Affirmative action Caste: The Origins of Our Discontents Court cases related to reservation in India Forward caste Racial quota Reserved political positions in India Caste politics Reservation policy in Tamil Nadu Jat reservation agitation Reverse discrimination in India Notes References https://m.thewire.in/article/government/jharkhand-raises-reservations-for-sc-st-obc-ews-groups-to-77 Further reading Shourie, Arun (2012). Falling over backwards: An essay on reservations and judicial populism. New Delhi: HarperCollins Publishers. External links National Commission for Backward Classes National Commission for Scheduled Castes National Commission for Scheduled Tribes Ministry of Social Justice & Empowerment Law of India Politics of India
4857289	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valery%20Legasov	Valery Legasov	Valery Alekseyevich Legasov (; 1 September 1936 – 27 April 1988) was a Soviet inorganic chemist and a member of the Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union. He is primarily known for his efforts to contain the 1986 Chernobyl disaster. Legasov also presented the findings of an investigation to the International Atomic Energy Agency at the United Nations Office at Vienna, detailing the actions and circumstances that led to the explosion of Reactor No. 4 at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant. Early life Valery Alekseyevich Legasov was born on September 1, 1936, in Tula, Russian SFSR, into a family of civil workers. He attended secondary school in Kursk. In 1949–1954, he attended School No. 56 in Moscow and graduated with a gold medal. While he was a shy student, he excelled in both academic work and social activities being elected secretary of his school's Komsomol committee. During 1953, he proposed reforms to the Komsomol committee to address what he perceived as indifference and passivity of its members. These ideas were quickly quashed by the authorities. His headmaster observed that Legasov "is a grown up man, a future statesman, a talented organizer. He can be a philosopher, а historian, an engineer..." The school now bears his name, and his bronze bust stands at the entrance. For two years he worked as a released secretary of the Central Committee of the Komsomol, he was elected to the bureau of the Soviet District Committee of the Komsomol and to the Moscow City Committee of the Komsomol. In 1961, he graduated from the Faculty of Physicochemical Engineering at the Mendeleev Moscow Institute of Chemistry and Technology, where he learned how nuclear fuel is processed, handled and disposed of. Personal life Legasov married Margarita Mikhailovna and had two children, Inga Legasova and Aleksey Valeryevich Legasov. He also had two grandchildren, Misha and Valerik. In his personal life, he composed poetry and encouraged its publication. He often visited the theater with his wife, having a love of reading Russian and foreign literature, particularly the works of Yuri Bondarev. He frequently made excursions with his wife and children by car and saw many parts of the country. When on trips to other regions, sometimes as part of his scientific duties, he often visited the nearby cultural, artistic and religious sites. Legasov was not religious but very interested in religious history and heritage. Since December 1978, the Legasov family kept a high-bred pet chow-chow. Career For around two years, Legasov worked as an engineer at the Siberian Chemical Combine in the city of Tomsk-7, as a shift supervisor. He took this role in order to gain practical experience that would be the basis for later research. At Tomsk Polytechnic University, he started researching gaseous uranium hexachloride in a gaseous fission reactor. However, news of progress made by Neil Bartlett in Canada caused Legasov to switch his interest to noble gas chemistry. In 1962, he joined the graduate school in the Department of Molecular Physics of the Kurchatov Institute of Atomic Energy, first as a junior then senior researcher, and finally as head of the laboratory. In 1967, he defended his thesis at the Kurchatov Institute, under the supervisor Isaak Kikoin, on the synthesis of compounds of noble gases and the study of their properties. He received the degree of Candidate in 1967 and his doctorate in chemistry in 1972. At some stage, Legasov experienced face injuries and minor scarring as a result of chemical experimentation. In 1976, Legasov was elected a corresponding member of the Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union. From 1978 to 1983, he was a professor at the Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology. In 1981, he became a full member of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, in the Department of Physical Chemistry and Technology of Inorganic Materials. He was a member of the Science and Technology Council of the Ministry of Medium Machine Building. From 1983 until his death, he worked as chair of the department of Radiochemistry and Chemical Technology at the Faculty of Chemistry at Moscow State University. In 1983, he became the first deputy director for scientific work of the Kurchatov Institute of Atomic Energy. His colleague Yu. A. Ustynyuk said of Legasov: "His main quality, which set him sharply apart from all the great organizing scientists I knew, was his exceptional dedication to the cause. Work was the man, almost the only meaning of his life." Legasov researched hydrogen energy as a byproduct of nuclear energy, nuclear energy strategy, energy generation safety and synthesis of unusual compounds, which he regarded as a neglected niche within the institute's activities. Under his leadership, a scientific school was created in the newest section of inorganic chemistry – chemistry of noble gases. Working on reactor design was taboo for a chemist in the institute but he focused instead on related technologies, as well as assisted with the management of the institute. Along with colleagues like Viktor Alekseyevich Sidorenko, Legasov became concerned about the quality of equipment, poor construction, the lack of training of operators and the lack of training simulators. From 1984 to 1985, Legasov with other specialists had reviewed the state of chemistry research in the country and found it to be in a critical state. Under his leadership, a series of drastic reforms of the organization and funding of scientific institutions were drafted. The proposals triggered a significant backlash from the existing scientific leadership. While Legasov attempted to include all the top scientists in the new organization, many objected to Legasov being given a top leadership position, considering him an upstart. Malicious rumors began to be circulated such as the accusation of being an alcoholic, over-ambitious or to blame for the Chernobyl disaster. In the public sphere, he still kept to the official position that nuclear power was safe. In January 1986, Legasov co-authored a propaganda piece in Soviet Life magazine claiming there had been no nuclear accidents that had seriously threatened personnel or risked contamination, which ignored multiple serious nuclear incidents in the Soviet Union. Even before the Chernobyl disaster, Legasov was known to stress the need for new security and safety methods to prevent large catastrophes. He had been involved in work on industrial safety with the State Committee for Science and Technology, in which he had explored the risks involved in energy generation. Legasov was particularly concerned with complex systems reliant on a single operator without adequate safety systems. Legasov had the opportunity to visit nuclear power plants in the West, such as the Soviet designed Loviisa Nuclear Power Plant in Finland, and was shocked at the higher safety standards, better equipment, a containment structure and superior construction. Chernobyl disaster Reactor 4 of Chernobyl nuclear plant exploded on 26 April 1986 at 1:23:45 a.m, releasing a massive amount of radiation and contaminating a large area. By that time, Legasov was the first deputy director of the Kurchatov Institute of Atomic Energy. Although not a reactor specialist, he became a key member of the government commission formed to investigate the causes of the disaster and to plan the mitigation of its consequences. Legasov was told he was assigned to a government commission that was looking into the accident. At Vnukovo airport, Legasov met Boris Shcherbina, the head of the government commission dealing with the accident response. When the team reached Pripyat, Legasov was put in charge of containing the radiation. Viktor Alekseyevich Sidorenko called for immediate evacuation of Pripyat, which Legasov supported, as the situation was expected to deteriorate in the town, and this decision was approved by Shcherbina. To make direct measurements of the reactor, Legasov was driven in an armored personnel carrier to the site which established the reactor had shut down. Despite lacking information about the state of the reactor, Legasov proposed and managed the effort to extinguish the reactor fire which would otherwise release a massive amount of radiation, although the team was in continual discussions with other scientists by telephone. One Kurchatov scientist warned him that the helicopter drops might not be effective but Legasov replied that they had to be seen to do something. Legasov admired the leadership of Boris Shcherbina, particularly for his ability to grasp what the specialists were telling him and his decision making. Nikolay Antoshkin, an air force general involved in the liquidation remembers: "I met Valery Alekseyevich as soon as he arrived. From that moment on, a working friendship, which then grew into a deeper friendship, was formed with him and with other comrades. I liked him from the very beginning. I was filled with trust and respect for him... Valery Alekseyevich himself flew over the reactor by helicopter 5-6 times a day. Scientists, smart, literate, and when it was necessary to go forward, they found themselves without means of protection... He was a man of courage, understanding everything, but at the same time defenseless." At one point, Antoshkin scolded Legasov for taking too many personal risks when he was key to the operation. On the second or third day, Legasov suggested organizing an information group to collect and disseminate accurate information to the press, but this did not occur, and he later observed that the press often interviewed the most famous person present rather than the most knowledgeable, introducing many inaccuracies and omissions in reporting. Legasov received many telegrams from around the world containing advice ranging from benevolent to provocative. On 2 May, he and other commission members reported to visiting high-ranking officials that this was no ordinary industrial accident but would require a significant containment effort, as well as a review of the future of the other reactors. This resulted in huge resources being allocated to Chernobyl. Most of the first government commission were replaced by new staff due to radiation exposure. When the first government commission group returned to Moscow, Legasov was asked to stay by Scherbina but was replaced by his scientific rival Evgeny Velikhov in the formal hierarchy. The team began to be concerned with small areas of reactor activity, as well as the integrity of the concrete pad. Velikhov in particular was concerned that the reactor remains could melt deep into the ground, as shown in the US film The China Syndrome. Water in the lower barboteur was drained but Legasov was convinced that an explosion was not possible, in contrast to what some scientists and politicians feared. He also considered the possibility of ground water contamination to be extremely low, but precautionary work was initiated to cool the reactor using an underground system. Legasov considered these containment steps to be excessive but understandable, while also provided the infrastructure for the eventual construction of a shelter sarcophagus over the reactor. He opposed a plan to extend the underground cooling system outside the reactor 4 building, as well as other projects he considered to be redundant. Legasov was impressed by the operation of the KGB in the area but considered the Civil Defence group to be in shambles. He was also concerned at the lack of safety literature distributed to the population. Legasov thought people worked together efficiently and this put them in good spirits. On 5 May, Legasov was summoned to meet with the Politburo in Moscow, including Mikhail Gorbachev, to report on progress. Legasov and Anatoly Alexandrov described the meltdown scenarios, and Legasov agreed with the plan to tunnel under the reactor to provide cooling. After the meeting, Scherbina told him that he could work from Moscow but was quickly ordered back to Chernobyl. Legasov reassured Gorbachev by phone that the scale of contamination was understood and the reactor was not a continuing threat to other countries. Legasov developed a plan to extinguish the reactor fire using nitrogen gas pumped throughout the plant's pipe network but the pipes were too badly damaged to be effective. Around 9–10 May, Gorbachev requested a chronology of events and the cause of the accident in preparation for an interview, which Legasov provided in writing with a few edits from other investigators. After 10 May, the situation had somewhat stabilized and Legasov was able to spend less time at the accident site but still frequently visited. Upon returning from Chernobyl for the second time on 12 May, he was a changed man, suffering from severe grief and radiation sickness. Spending four months in and around Chernobyl, he received a high dose of radiation. He was assigned to compile a report for the International Atomic Energy Agency about the causes and aftermath of the accident. Some in the Ministry of Medium Machine Building (Sredmash) opposed his appointment, fearing Legasov would be difficult to control, since the nuclear establishment wanted to divert blame to others if possible. Legasov attended a turbulent meeting with the Politburo, on 3 July in which the causes of the accident and flaws in the RBMK reactor were discussed. In attendance was the former plant director Viktor Bryukhanov, RBMK designer Anatoly Alexandrov and Efim Slavsky of Sredmash. Bryukhanov was accused of mismanagement and that operator error was the primary cause of the accident, while design flaws were also a factor. Mikhail Gorbachev was furious and accused the nuclear designers of covering up dangerous problems with the Soviet nuclear industry for decades. Legasov only spoke up to admit that scientists had failed in their duty and that he had been warning about the safety problems of the RBMK reactor for years but nothing had been done. With the first draft of Legasov's report received by the Central Committee, some were shocked and one minister forwarded it to the KGB with the recommendation that the authors be prosecuted. To find fault with the reactor design would directly implicate senior members of the Soviet government. In August 1986, he presented the report of the Soviet delegation at the special meeting of International Atomic Energy Agency in Vienna. His report was noted for its great detail and relative openness in discussing the extent and consequences of the tragedy, disclosed to Western media some defects in the RBMK reactor design such as the positive void coefficient, as well as problems with operator training. Some details were censored by the Central Committee, including the full extent of the design flaws, the institutional and cultural problems that led to the accident, the full extent of the fallout, as well as the ineffective efforts in dropping liquid nitrogen into the reactor. The report ran to 388 pages and was presented by Legasov to the conference in a 5-hour presentation, which many in the audience found disturbing. Legasov noted that the operators were able to disable the reactor safety systems and stated that improvements to existing RBMK reactors were underway. The conference was a public relations triumph for the Soviets as it reassured Western governments and scientists that the disaster was being contained and that the Soviets could competently manage nuclear power in the future. After Vienna As a result of this work in Vienna, "[he] became very popular, in Europe he was named the person of the year, he entered the top ten scientists in the world. This caused serious jealousy among his colleagues." In public, Legasov supported the official story that operator error caused the accident. In private he campaigned for reactor safety and institutional reorganization. Perhaps in response to this, Legasov received criticism of his leadership and his handling of the containment of the Chernobyl reactor and was ostracized by some of his fellow scientists. Resistance came from the old guard who resisted change and among younger reformers who regarded Legasov as a relic of the previous Era of Stagnation. One senior scientist wrote "Legasov was a clear representative of that scientific mafia whose political leanings instead of scientific leadership led to the Chernobyl accident." In spring 1987, a vote was held by the Kurchatov Institute to their Scientific-Technical Council with Legasov standing at the insistence of his mentor Anatoly Alexandrov. The institute members denied Legasov the position which was perhaps surprising given his seniority and public visibility. He was very disappointed that he was the only member of his Chernobyl team that did not receive the award "hero of socialist labor". His treatment may have been that his independence, his habit of violating the chain of command and his lack of deference to the scientific establishment had irked senior members of the scientific community. Even after Chernobyl, he remained a proponent of nuclear power generation. Legasov's health had worsened and he often made visits to Moscow Hospital 6 for long term effects of radiation exposure. Around June 1987, he attempted suicide but was saved by his colleagues. Legasov recorded his memoir The Legasov Testament using audio tapes where he described his involvement with the Chernobyl liquidation. He had a lengthy stay in hospital during the fall of 1987, including experiencing acute appendicitis, during which he attempted suicide. During his stay, journalist Ales Adamovich interviewed Legasov and he expressed concerns that a similar nuclear accident could still occur. Legasov had an article on industrial safety entitled "From Today to Tomorrow" published in Pravda on 5 October 1987 but it received little interest. He gave interviews to Novy Mir and Yunost in which he changed his public stance and expressed his concern that cultural failings and Soviet science losing its way had led inevitably to nuclear disaster. After a colleague said his leadership was still needed, he said "No, you don't understand. I know that it can be difficult; you need to endure, wait it out. And here is a completely different situation – everything inside me is burned..." and on another occasion "I'm now, like the mythical Midas, only he turned everything he took into gold, and as for me – everything turns into air, even worse, into a vacuum. Whatever I touch - everything is ruined: no one needs anything! And there is still so much to do!" Legasov continued his attempts to introduce reforms in academic chemistry by establishing an interdepartmental council to try to overcome stagnation in the field. This plan was rejected on 26 April 1988, the day before his death. Ustynyuk was called to Legasov's office and found him to be "extremely agitated and low-spirited" following the decision. He felt that the leadership would be split between the council and the Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union, saying "This will lead to disaster. I must resign." That afternoon, he briefly visited his daughter. Ustynyuk called Legasov at 22:30 on the same day saying he might still prevail with support from other top scientists that had not been consulted on the decision. Death On 27 April 1988, the day after the second anniversary of the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant accident and one day before he was due to release the outcomes of the investigation into the causes of the disaster, Legasov hanged himself in the stairwell of his Moscow apartment (though some sources say inside his apartment, others in his office). He was buried at the Novodevichy Cemetery in Moscow. Legasov was 51 years old. By the time of his death, Legasov had been exposed to 150 rem (1.5 Sv) of radiation, which was far above safe levels. There are several theories concerning Legasov's motivations and state of mind. David R. Marples has suggested the adversity of the Chernobyl disaster on his psychological state was the factor leading to his decision to take his own life and that Legasov had become bitterly disillusioned with the failure of the authorities to confront the design flaws. Legasov's daughter commented "It was not an emotional breakdown, it was a deliberate, thoroughly considered act." Ustynyuk emphasized the role of the harassment of Legasov by other scientific leaders in their resistance to organizational reform. Boris Shcherbina said of him: "Valery was too great, I loved him more than all the people I knew, he gave all of himself to work, to Chernobyl. He burnt out." Journalists Vladimir Gubarev and Yuriy Shcherbak claim that his suicide was a conscious attempt to draw attention to the lack of nuclear safety in the Soviet Union. Aftermath As a national hero at the time of his death, Legasov's suicide caused shockwaves in the Soviet nuclear industry. Extracts from his tapes were published in Pravda in May 1988. Some in the scientific community were still displeased by Legasov and his legacy. A former colleague of Legasov said "There is no need to idealize Legasov ... He is no better or worse than any manager of this rank, and he followed the accepted rules of the game, moving up the career and scientific ladder... he took on too much, especially in recent years. A chemist, he dared to define the topics of physics laboratories and departments. At the same time, he was not always right, he ordered what to do and how to do it. Who would like that? So they voted him down at the elections to the Academic Council. Physicists make up the majority. And you, chemists, are now making him almost a great martyr... And in Chernobyl he screwed up enough - the shelter of the fourth unit turned out to be far from optimal." Legasov's defenders counter this saying "His courage was not forgiven, because it clearly indicated the cowardice and ordinariness of others." While the initial Soviet investigation put almost all the blame on the operators, later findings by the IAEA found that the reactor design and how the operators were informed of safety information was more significant. However, the operators were found to have deviated from operational procedures, changing test protocols on the fly, as well as having made "ill judged" actions, making human factors a major contributing factor. On 20 September 1996, Russian president Boris Yeltsin posthumously conferred on Legasov the honorary title of Hero of the Russian Federation, the country's highest honorary title, for the "courage and heroism" shown in his investigation of the disaster. His wife Margarita wrote a considerable number of articles and books to preserve his legacy. In 2016, a bust and a commemorative plaque were installed on the wall of Valery Legasov's home in Tula. In media Legasov is portrayed by Ade Edmondson in the BBC docudrama Surviving Disaster (2006), by Adam Curtis in his documentary series Pandora's Box (1992), and by Jared Harris in the Sky/HBO miniseries Chernobyl (2019). See also Chernobyl liquidators Effects of the Chernobyl disaster List of Chernobyl-related articles Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents References 1936 births 1988 deaths 1988 suicides 20th-century Russian chemists People from Tula, Russia Chernobyl liquidators Communist Party of the Soviet Union members D. Mendeleev University of Chemical Technology of Russia alumni Full Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences Academic staff of the Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology Academic staff of Moscow State University People associated with the Chernobyl disaster Heroes of the Russian Federation Recipients of the Lenin Prize Recipients of the Order of Lenin Recipients of the Order of the October Revolution Recipients of the Order of the Red Banner of Labour Recipients of the USSR State Prize Russian chemists Soviet chemists Suicides by hanging in the Soviet Union Suicides in Moscow Burials at Novodevichy Cemetery
4857343	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behaalotecha	Behaalotecha	Behaalotecha, Behaalotcha, Beha'alotecha, Beha'alotcha, Beha'alothekha, or Behaaloscha (—Hebrew for "when you step up," the 11th word, and the first distinctive word, in the parashah) is the 36th weekly Torah portion (, parashah) in the annual Jewish cycle of Torah reading and the third in the Book of Numbers. The parashah tells of the Menorah in the Tabernacle, the consecration of the Levites, the Second Passover, how pillars of cloud and fire led the Israelites, the silver trumpets, how the Israelites set out on their journeys, the complaints of the Israelites, and how Miriam and Aaron questioned Moses. The parashah comprises Numbers 8:1–12:16. It is made up of 7,055 Hebrew letters, 1,840 Hebrew words, 136 verses, and 240 lines in a Torah Scroll (, Sefer Torah). Jews generally read it in late May or in June. As the parashah sets out some of the laws of Passover, Jews also read part of the parashah, Numbers 9:1–14, as the initial Torah reading for the last intermediate day (, Chol HaMoed) of Passover. Readings In traditional Sabbath Torah reading, the parashah is divided into seven readings, or , aliyot. First reading—Numbers 8:1–14 In the first reading, God told Moses to tell Aaron to mount the seven lamps so as to give light to the front of the Menorah in the Tabernacle, and Aaron did so. God told Moses to cleanse the Levites by sprinkling on them water of purification, and making them shave their whole bodies and wash their clothes. Moses was to assemble the Israelites around the Levites and cause the Israelites to lay their hands upon the Levites. Aaron was to designate the Levites as a wave offering from the Israelites. The Levites were then to lay their hands in turn upon the heads of two bulls, one as a sin offering and the other as a burnt offering, to make expiation for the Levites. Second reading—Numbers 8:15–26 In the second reading, the Levites were qualified for the service of the Tent of Meeting, in place of the firstborn of the Israelites. God told Moses that Levites aged 25 to 50 were to work in the service of the Tent of Meeting, but after age 50 they were to retire and could stand guard but not perform labor. Third reading—Numbers 9:1–14 In the third reading, at the beginning of the second year following the Exodus from Egypt, God told Moses to have the Israelites celebrate Passover at its set time. But some men were unclean because they had had contact with a corpse and could not offer the Passover sacrifice on the set day. They asked Moses and Aaron how they could participate in Passover, and Moses told them to stand by while he listened for God's instructions. God told Moses that whenever Israelites were defiled by a corpse or on a long journey on Passover, they were to offer the Passover offering on the 14th day of the second month—a month after Passover—otherwise in strict accord with the law of the Passover sacrifice. But if a man who was clean and not on a journey refrained from offering the Passover sacrifice, he was to be cut off from his kin. Fourth reading—Numbers 9:15–10:10 In the fourth reading, starting the day that the Tabernacle was set up, a cloud covered the Tabernacle by day, and a fire rested on it by night. Whenever the cloud lifted from the Tent, the Israelites would follow it until the cloud settled, and there the Israelites would make camp and stay as long as the cloud lingered. God told Moses to have two silver trumpets made to summon the community and to set it in motion. Upon long blasts of the two horns, the whole community was to assemble before the entrance of the Tent of Meeting. Upon the blast of one, the chieftains were to assemble. Short blasts directed the divisions encamped on the east to move forward, and a second set of short blasts directed those on the south to move forward. As well, short blasts were to be sounded when the Israelites were at war against an aggressor who attacked them, and the trumpets were to be sounded on joyous occasions, Festivals, new moons, burnt offerings, and sacrifices of well-being. Fifth reading—Numbers 10:11–34 In the fifth reading, in the second month of the second year, the cloud lifted from the Tabernacle and the Israelites set out on their journeys from the wilderness of Sinai to the wilderness of Paran. Moses asked Hobab son of Reuel the Midianite to come with the Israelites, promising to be generous with him, but he replied that he would return to his native land. Moses pressed him again, noting that he could serve as the Israelites' guide. They marched three days distance from Mount Sinai, with the Ark of the Covenant in front of them, and God's cloud above them by day. Sixth reading—Numbers 10:35–11:29 The sixth reading records two prayers of Moses: when the Ark was to set out, Moses would say: "Advance, O Lord! May Your enemies be scattered, and may Your foes flee before You!" and when it halted, he would say: "Return, O Lord, You who are Israel's myriads of thousands!" In a scroll, these two verses are buttressed by inverted/backward 's. The people took to complaining bitterly before God, and at Taberah God ravaged the outskirts of the camp with fire until Moses prayed, and then the fire died down. The riffraff in their midst (, asafsuf—compare the "mixed multitude," , erev rav of Exodus 12:38) felt a gluttonous craving and the Israelites complained, "If only we had meat to eat! Moses in turn complained to God, "Why have You ... laid the burden of all this people upon me? God told Moses to gather 70 elders, so that God could come down and put some of the spirit that rested on Moses upon them, so that they might share the burden of the people. And God told Moses to tell the people to purify themselves, for the next day they would eat meat. But Moses questioned how enough flocks, herds, or fish could be found to feed 600,000. God answered: "Is there a limit to the Lord's power?" Moses gathered the 70 elders, and God came down in a cloud, spoke to Moses, and drew upon the spirit that was on Moses and put it upon the elders. When the spirit rested upon them, they spoke in ecstasy, but did not continue. Eldad and Medad had remained in camp, yet the spirit rested upon them, and they spoke in ecstasy in the camp. When a youth reported to Moses that Eldad and Medad were acting the prophet in the camp, Joshua called on Moses to restrain them. But Moses told Joshua: "Would that all the Lord's people were prophets, that the Lord put His spirit upon them!" Seventh reading—Numbers 11:30–12:16 In the seventh reading, a wind from God then swept quail from the sea and strewed them all around the camp at a place called Kibroth Hattaavah (Graves of Craving), and the people gathered quail for two days. While the meat was still between their teeth, God struck the people with a plague. Miriam and Aaron spoke against Moses, saying: "He married a Cushite woman!" and "Has the Lord spoken only through Moses? Has He not spoken through us as well?" God heard and called Moses, Aaron, and Miriam to come to the Tent of Meeting. God came down in cloud and called out to Aaron and Miriam: "When a prophet of the Lord arises among you, I make Myself known to him in a vision, I speak with him in a dream. Not so with My servant Moses; he is trusted throughout My household. With him I speak mouth to mouth, plainly and not in riddles, and he beholds the likeness of the Lord. How then did you not shrink from speaking against My servant Moses!" As the cloud withdrew, Miriam was stricken with snow-white scales. Moses cried out to God, "O God, pray heal her!" But God said to Moses, "If her father spat in her face, would she not bear her shame for seven days? Let her be shut out of camp for seven days." And the people waited until she rejoined the camp. Readings according to the triennial cycle Jews who read the Torah according to the triennial cycle of Torah reading read the parashah according to the following schedule: In inner-Biblical interpretation The parashah has parallels or is discussed in these Biblical sources: Numbers chapter 8 This is the pattern of instruction and construction of the Tabernacle and its furnishings: Numbers 8:13–19 refers to duties of the Levites. Deuteronomy 33:10 reports that Levites taught the law. Deuteronomy 17:9–10 reports that they served as judges. And Deuteronomy 10:8 reports that they blessed God's name. 1 Chronicles 23:3–5 reports that of 38,000 Levite men age 30 and up, 24,000 were in charge of the work of the Temple in Jerusalem, 6,000 were officers and magistrates, 4,000 were gatekeepers, and 4,000 praised God with instruments and song. 1 Chronicles 15:16 reports that King David installed Levites as singers with musical instruments, harps, lyres, and cymbals, and 1 Chronicles 16:4 reports that David appointed Levites to minister before the Ark, to invoke, to praise, and to extol God. And 2 Chronicles 5:12 reports at the inauguration of Solomon's Temple, Levites sang dressed in fine linen, holding cymbals, harps, and lyres, to the east of the altar, and with them 120 priests blew trumpets. 2 Chronicles 20:19 reports that Levites of the sons of Kehath and of the sons of Korah extolled God in song. Eleven psalms identify themselves as of the Korahites. Numbers chapter 9 Passover Numbers 9:1–14 refers to the Festival of Passover. In the Hebrew Bible, Passover is called: "Passover" (, Pesach); "The Feast of Unleavened Bread" (, Chag haMatzot); and "A holy convocation" or "a solemn assembly" (, mikrah kodesh). Some explain the double nomenclature of "Passover" and "Feast of Unleavened Bread" as referring to two separate feasts that the Israelites combined sometime between the Exodus and when the Biblical text became settled. Exodus 34:18–20 and Deuteronomy 15:19–16:8 indicate that the dedication of the firstborn also became associated with the festival. Some believe that the "Feast of Unleavened Bread" was an agricultural festival at which the Israelites celebrated the beginning of the grain harvest. Moses may have had this festival in mind when in Exodus 5:1 and 10:9 he petitioned Pharaoh to let the Israelites go to celebrate a feast in the wilderness. "Passover," on the other hand, was associated with a thanksgiving sacrifice of a lamb, also called "the Passover," "the Passover lamb," or "the Passover offering." Exodus 12:5–6, Leviticus 23:5, and Numbers 9:3 and 5, and 28:16 direct "Passover" to take place on the evening of the fourteenth of , Aviv (, Nisan in the Hebrew calendar after the Babylonian captivity). Joshua 5:10, Ezekiel 45:21, Ezra 6:19, and 2 Chronicles 35:1 confirm that practice. Exodus 12:18–19, 23:15, and 34:18, Leviticus 23:6, and Ezekiel 45:21 direct the "Feast of Unleavened Bread" to take place over seven days and Leviticus 23:6 and Ezekiel 45:21 direct that it begin on the fifteenth of the month. Some believe that the propinquity of the dates of the two Festivals led to their confusion and merger. Exodus 12:23 and 27 link the word "Passover" (, Pesach) to God's act to "pass over" (, pasach) the Israelites' houses in the plague of the firstborn. In the Torah, the consolidated Passover and Feast of Unleavened Bread thus commemorate the Israelites' liberation from Egypt. The Hebrew Bible frequently notes the Israelites' observance of Passover at turning points in their history. Numbers 9:1–5 reports God's direction to the Israelites to observe Passover in the wilderness of Sinai on the anniversary of their liberation from Egypt. Joshua 5:10–11 reports that upon entering the Promised Land, the Israelites kept the Passover on the plains of Jericho and ate unleavened cakes and parched corn, produce of the land, the next day. 2 Kings 23:21–23 reports that King Josiah commanded the Israelites to keep the Passover in Jerusalem as part of Josiah's reforms, but also notes that the Israelites had not kept such a Passover from the days of the Biblical judges nor in all the days of the kings of Israel or the kings of Judah, calling into question the observance of even Kings David and Solomon. The more reverent 2 Chronicles 8:12–13, however, reports that Solomon offered sacrifices on the Festivals, including the Feast of Unleavened Bread. And 2 Chronicles 30:1–27 reports King Hezekiah's observance of a second Passover anew, as sufficient numbers of neither the priests nor the people were prepared to do so before then. And Ezra 6:19–22 reports that the Israelites returned from the Babylonian captivity observed Passover, ate the Passover lamb, and kept the Feast of Unleavened Bread seven days with joy. Numbers chapter 10 In Numbers 10:9, the Israelites were instructed to blow upon their trumpets to be "remembered before the Lord" and delivered from their enemies. Remembrance is a prominent biblical topic: God remembered Noah to deliver him from the flood in Genesis 8:1; God promised to remember God's covenant not to destroy the Earth again by flood in Genesis 9:15–16; God remembered Abraham to deliver Lot from the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah in Genesis 19:29; God remembered Rachel to deliver her from childlessness in Genesis 30:22; God remembered God's covenant with Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob to deliver the Israelites from Egyptian bondage in Exodus 2:24 and 6:5–6; Moses called on God to remember God's covenant with Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob to deliver the Israelites from God's wrath after the incident of the Golden Calf in Exodus 32:13 and Deuteronomy 9:27; God promised to remember God's covenant with Jacob, Isaac, and Abraham to deliver the Israelites and the Land of Israel in Leviticus 26:42–45; Samson called on God to deliver him from the Philistines in Judges 16:28; Hannah prayed for God to remember her and deliver her from childlessness in 1 Samuel 1:11 and God remembered Hannah's prayer to deliver her from childlessness in 1 Samuel 1:19; Hezekiah called on God to remember Hezekiah's faithfulness to deliver him from sickness in 2 Kings 20:3 and Isaiah 38:3; Jeremiah called on God to remember God's covenant with the Israelites to not condemn them in Jeremiah 14:21; Jeremiah called on God to remember him and think of him, and avenge him of his persecutors in Jeremiah 15:15; God promised to remember God's covenant with the Israelites and establish an everlasting covenant in Ezekiel 16:60; God remembers the cry of the humble in Zion to avenge them in Psalm 9:13; David called upon God to remember God's compassion and mercy in Psalm 25:6; Asaph called on God to remember God's congregation to deliver them from their enemies in Psalm 74:2; God remembered that the Israelites were only human in Psalm 78:39; Ethan the Ezrahite called on God to remember how short Ethan's life was in Psalm 89:48; God remembers that humans are but dust in Psalm 103:14; God remembers God's covenant with Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob in Psalm 105:8–10; God remembers God's word to Abraham to deliver the Israelites to the Land of Israel in Psalm 105:42–44; the Psalmist calls on God to remember him to favor God's people, to think of him at God's salvation, that he might behold the prosperity of God's people in Psalm 106:4–5; God remembered God's covenant and repented according to God's mercy to deliver the Israelites in the wake of their rebellion and iniquity in Psalm 106:4–5; the Psalmist calls on God to remember God's word to God's servant to give him hope in Psalm 119:49; God remembered us in our low estate to deliver us from our adversaries in Psalm 136:23–24; Job called on God to remember him to deliver him from God's wrath in Job 14:13; Nehemiah prayed to God to remember God's promise to Moses to deliver the Israelites from exile in Nehemiah 1:8; and Nehemiah prayed to God to remember him to deliver him for good in Nehemiah 13:14–31. The Wilderness of Paran, mentioned in Numbers 10:12, was the limit of the territory attacked by Chedorlaomer and his alliance during the time of Abraham, and it was the place where Abraham's second wife Hagar and their first-born son Ishmael were sent into exile from Abraham's dwelling in Beersheba. Numbers chapter 12 God's reference to Moses as "my servant" (, avdi) in Numbers 12:7 and 12:8 echoes God's application of the same term to Abraham. And later, God used the term to refer to Caleb, Moses, David, Isaiah, Eliakim, son of Hilkiah, Israel, Nebuchadnezzar, Zerubbabel, the Branch, and Job. The Hebrew Bible reports skin disease (, tzara'at) and a person affected by skin disease (, metzora) at several places, often (and sometimes incorrectly) translated as "leprosy" and "a leper." In Exodus 4:6, to help Moses to convince others that God had sent him, God instructed Moses to put his hand into his bosom, and when he took it out, his hand was "leprous (, m'tzora'at), as white as snow." In Leviticus 13–14, the Torah sets out regulations for skin disease (, tzara'at) and a person affected by skin disease (, metzora). In Numbers 12:10, after Miriam spoke against Moses, God's cloud removed from the Tent of Meeting and "Miriam was leprous (, m'tzora'at), as white as snow." In Deuteronomy 24:8–9, Moses warned the Israelites in the case of skin disease (, tzara'at) diligently to observe all that the priests would teach them, remembering what God did to Miriam. In 2 Kings 5:1–19, part of the haftarah for parashah Tazria, the prophet Elisha cures Naaman, the commander of the army of the king of Aram, who was a "leper" (, metzora). In 2 Kings 7:3–20, part of the haftarah for parashah Metzora, the story is told of four "leprous men" (, m'tzora'im) at the gate during the Arameans' siege of Samaria. And in 2 Chronicles 26:19, after King Uzziah tried to burn incense in the Temple in Jerusalem, "leprosy (, tzara'at) broke forth on his forehead." In classical rabbinic interpretation The parashah is discussed in these rabbinic sources from the era of the Mishnah and the Talmud: Numbers chapter 8 Rabbi Levi taught that God gave the section of the lights of the Menorah, Numbers 8:1–4, on the day that the Israelites set up the Tabernacle. Rabbi Rabbi Joḥanan said in the name of Rabbi Bana'ah that the Torah was transmitted in separate scrolls, as Psalm 40:8 says, "Then said I, 'Lo I am come, in the roll of the book it is written of me.'" Rabbi Shimon ben Lakish (Resh Lakish), however, said that the Torah was transmitted in its entirety, as Deuteronomy 31:26, "Take this book of the law." The Gemara reported that Rabbi Joḥanan interpreted Deuteronomy 31:26, "Take this book of the law," to refer to the time after the Torah had been joined from its several parts. And the Gemara suggested that Resh Lakish interpreted Psalm 40:8, "in a roll of the book written of me," to indicate that the whole Torah is called a "roll," as Zechariah 5:2 says, "And he said to me, 'What do you see?' And I answered, 'I see a flying roll.'" Or perhaps, the Gemara suggested, it is called "roll" for the reason given by Rabbi Levi, who said that God gave eight sections of the Torah, which Moses then wrote on separate rolls, on the day on which the Tabernacle was set up. They were: the section of the priests in Leviticus 21, the section of the Levites in Numbers 8:5–26 (as the Levites were required for the service of song on that day), the section of the unclean (who would be required to keep the Passover in the second month) in Numbers 9:1–14, the section of the sending of the unclean out of the camp (which also had to take place before the Tabernacle was set up) in Numbers 5:1–4, the section of Leviticus 16:1–34 (dealing with Yom Kippur, which Leviticus 16:1 states was transmitted immediately after the death of Aaron's two sons), the section dealing with the drinking of wine by priests in Leviticus 10:8–11, the section of the lights of the Menorah in Numbers 8:1–4, and the section of the red heifer in Numbers 19 (which came into force as soon as the Tabernacle was set up). A Midrash taught that God instructed in Numbers 8:2, "the seven lamps shall give light toward the center of the Menorah," so that the evil inclination should not mislead one to believe that God needed the light. Rabbi Simeon reported that when he went to Rome, he saw the Menorah there, and all the lamps faced the middle lamp. Rava also read Numbers 8:2 to say that the seven lamps gave light toward the center of the Menorah, and deduced from this that the middle in a series may be favored. Rava taught that if the first Torah reader on a weekday reads four verses of the obligatory ten verses read on weekdays, that reader is to be commended; if the second (middle) reader reads four verses, that reader is to be commended; and if the third (last) reader reads four verses, that reader is to be commended. In support of the proposition that one should commend the middle reader if that reader reads four verses, Rava taught that Numbers 8:2 says that the lights were made to face the western lamp—the middle lamp of the Menorah—and the western lamp faced the Divine Presence; and Rabbi Joḥanan taught that this shows that the middle one is specially prized. The Sifre taught that Numbers 8:3 reports, "And Aaron did so," to tell of Aaron's virtue, for he did exactly what Moses told him to do. The Mishnah taught that there was a stone in front of the Menorah with three steps on which the priest stood to trim the lights. The priest left the oil jar on the second step. Reading Numbers 8:3 to say, "he set up the lamps," the Sifre taught that Aaron made these steps. A Baraita interpreted the expression "beaten work of gold" in Numbers 8:4 to require that if the craftsmen made the Menorah out of gold, then they had to beat it out of one single piece of gold. The Gemara then reasoned that Numbers 8:4 used the expression "beaten work" a second time to differentiate the requirements for crafting the Menorah from the requirements for crafting the trumpets in Numbers 10:2, which used the expression "beaten work" only once. The Gemara concluded that the verse required the craftsmen to beat the Menorah from a single piece of metal, but not so the trumpets. A Midrash deduced from the use of the word "this" in Numbers 8:4 that the work of the Menorah was one of four things that God had to show Moses with God's finger because Moses was puzzled by them. Similarly, Rabbi Hiyya bar Abba said in the name of Rabbi Joḥanan that the angel Gabriel girded himself with a worker's apron and showed Moses the work of the Menorah, for Numbers 8:4 says, "And this was the work of the Menorah." (The word "this" implying that something was held up to illustrate the instructions given.) A Midrash explained why the consecration of the Levites in Numbers 8:5–26 followed soon after the presentation of the twelve tribes' offerings in Numbers 7:10–88 The Midrash noted that while the twelve tribes presented offerings at the dedication of the altar, the tribe of Levi did not offer anything. The Levites thus complained that they had been held back from bringing an offering for the dedication of the altar. The Midrash compared this to the case of a king who held a feast and invited various craftsmen, but did not invite a friend of whom the king was quite fond. The friend was distressed, thinking that perhaps the king harbored some grievance against him. But when the feast was over, the king called the friend and told him that while the king had made a feast for all the citizens of the province, the king would make a special feast with the friend alone, because of his friendship. So it was with God, who accepted the offerings of the twelve tribes in Numbers 7:5, and then turned to the tribe of Levi, addressing Aaron in Numbers 8:2 and directing the consecration of the Levites in Numbers 8:6–19. A Midrash taught that the words of Psalm 11:5, "The Lord tries the righteous; but the wicked and him who loves violence His soul hates," bear on God's instruction in Numbers 8:6, "Take the Levites." The Midrash taught that the words of Psalm 11:5, "The Lord tries the righteous," imply that God never raises a person to high rank before first testing and trying that person. If the person stands the trial, God raises the person to high rank. The Midrash found this to have been the case with Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and Joseph, and so also with the tribe of Levi. The Midrash taught that the Levites devoted their lives to the sanctification of God's Name. When the Israelites were in Egypt, the Israelites rejected the Torah and circumcision, as implied by Ezekiel's rebuke of them in Ezekiel 20:5, "Thus says the Lord God: 'In the day when I chose Israel, and lifted up my hand to the seed of the house of Jacob, and made Myself known to them in the land of Egypt'"; and afterwards, Ezekiel 20:8 says, "They rebelled against Me, and would not hearken to Me . . . then I said I would pour out My fury upon them." So God brought darkness upon the Egyptians for three days, and during that time God slew all the wicked Israelites, as Ezekiel 20:38 reports, "I will purge out from among you the rebels, and them that transgress against Me." The Levites, however, were all righteous and practiced the Torah; as Deuteronomy 33:9 says, "For they have observed Your word, and keep Your covenant." The Midrash taught that "covenant" referred to circumcision, as Genesis 17:10 says, "This is My covenant . . . every male among you shall be circumcised." And the Midrash taught that when the Israelites made the Golden Calf, the Levites did not participate, as Exodus 32:26 says: "Then Moses stood in the gate of the camp . . . and all the sons of Levi gathered themselves together to him." When Moses told them in Exodus 32:27, "Put every man his sword upon his thigh," they did so and respected no persons. Moses accordingly blessed them in Deuteronomy 33:9, saying, "Who said of his father, and of his mother: 'I have not seen him.'" When God thus saw that the Levites were all righteous, and that they stood the test, as Deuteronomy 33:8 says, "Whom You did prove at Massah," God decided, as reported in Numbers 8:14, "The Levites shall be mine." Reading the command of Numbers 8:7 that, when first appointed to office, the Levites had to cut their hair, the Gemara taught that there were three who were required to cut their hair, and whose hair cutting was a religious duty: nazirites (as stated in Numbers 6:18), those afflicted with skin disease (, metzora, as stated in Leviticus 14:9), and the Levites. Citing the Mishnah, the Gemara taught that if any of them cut their hair without a razor, or left behind two hairs, their act was invalid. Rabbi Jose the Galilean cited the use of "second" in Numbers 8:8 to rule that bulls brought for sacrifices had to be no more than two years old. But the Sages ruled that bulls could be as many as three years old, and Rabbi Meir ruled that even those that are four or five years old were valid, but old animals were not brought out of respect. Reading Numbers 8:14, "And the Levites shall be Mine," a Midrash taught that wherever Scripture says "to Me" or "Mine," it refers to something that shall never cease either in this world or in the World to Come. The Mishnah deduced from Numbers 8:16 that before Moses set up the Tabernacle, the firstborn performed sacrifices, but after Moses set up the Tabernacle, priests performed the sacrifices. Rabbi Judan considered God's five mentions of "Israel" in Numbers 8:19 to demonstrate how much God loves Israel. The Jerusalem Talmud reported that Rabbi Tanḥuma in the name of Rabbi Lazar deduced from Numbers 8:19 that the Levites' singing made atonement for the Israelites. A Baraita taught that the priests did the sacrificial service, the Levites sang on the platform while the priests offered the sacrifices, and the Israelites served as emissaries of the entire people when they attended the sacrifices. And another Baraita reported that Rabbi Simeon ben Eleazar taught that priests, Levites, Israelites, and song were all essential for an offering. Rabbi Avin said in the name of Rabbi Eleazar that 2 Chronicles 29:28 provided support for this when it says, "And all the congregation prostrated themselves," these being the Israelites; "and the singers sang," these being the Levites; "and the trumpeters sounded," these being the priests; and the conclusion of the verse, "all this continued until the burnt-offering was finished," demonstrated that all were essential to complete the offering. Rabbi Tanḥuma said in the name of Rabbi Lazar that one may learn this from Numbers 8:19: "And I have given the Levites," these being the Levites; "to do the service of the children of Israel in the tent of meeting," these being the priests; "and to make atonement for the children of Israel," this being brought about by the singing; "through the children of Israel coming near to the sanctuary," these being the Israelites. A Midrash noted that Numbers 8:24 says, "from 25 years old and upward they shall go in to perform the service in the work of the tent of meeting," while Numbers 4:3, 23, 30, 35, 39, 43, and 47 say that Levites "30 years old and upward" did service in the tent of meeting. The Midrash deduced that the difference teaches that all those five years, from the age of 25 to the age of 30, Levites served apprenticeships, and from that time onward they were allowed to draw near to do service. The Midrash concluded that a Levite could not enter the Temple courtyard to do service unless he had served an apprenticeship of five years. And the Midrash inferred from this that students who see no sign of success in their studies within a period of five years will never see any. Rabbi Jose said that students had to see success within three years, basing his position on the words "that they should be nourished three years" in Daniel 1:5. The Mishnah taught that a disability that did not disqualify priests disqualified Levites, and a disability that did not disqualify Levites disqualified priests. The Gemara explained that our Rabbis taught that Leviticus 21:17 disqualified priests by reason of a bodily blemish, and not by reason of age; and Levites were disqualified by age, for they were qualified for service only from the age of 30 to 50, and not by bodily blemish. It follows, therefore, that the disability that does not disqualify priests disqualifies Levites, and the disability that does not disqualify Levites disqualifies priests. The Gemara taught that we know this from a Baraita in which our Rabbis noted that Numbers 8:24 says: "This is that which pertains to the Levites." From Numbers 8:25, "And from the age of 50 years they shall return from the service of the work," we know that Levites were disqualified by age. One might have argued that they were disqualified by bodily blemish too; thus, if priests who were not disqualified by age were nevertheless disqualified by bodily blemish, Levites who were disqualified by age should surely have been disqualified by bodily blemish. Numbers 8:24 therefore says: "This is that which pertains to the Levites," to instruct that "this," that is, age, only disqualifies Levites, but nothing else disqualifies them. One might also have argued that priests were disqualified by age too; thus, if Levites who were not disqualified by bodily blemish were nevertheless disqualified by age, priests who were disqualified by bodily blemish should surely have been disqualified by age. Numbers 8:24 therefore says: "Which pertains to the Levites," and not "to the priests." One might further have supposed that the rule that Levites were disqualified by age obtained even at Shiloh and at the Temple at Jerusalem, where the Levites sang in the choir and guarded the doors of the Temple. Numbers 4:47 therefore says: "To do the work of service and the work of bearing burdens," to instruct that God ordained this rule disqualifying Levites by age only when the work was that of bearing burdens upon the shoulder, the service of the Tabernacle in the wilderness, and not at the Temple at Jerusalem. Similarly, the Sifre taught that years invalidated in the case of Levites but not in the case of the priesthood. For prior to the entry into the Land of Israel, the Levites were valid from the age of 30 to the age of 50, while the priests were valid from puberty until the end of their lives. But once they came into the Land, the Levites were invalidated only by losing their voice. Elsewhere, the Sifre read Numbers 8:25–26, "and shall serve no more; but shall minister with their brethren in the tent of meeting, to keep the charge, but they shall do no manner of service," to teach that the Levite went back to the work of closing the doors and carrying out the tasks assigned to the sons of Gershom. Numbers chapter 9 The Gemara noted that the events beginning in Numbers 9:1, set "in the first month of the second year," occurred before the events at the beginning of the book of Numbers, which Numbers 1:1 reports began in "the second month, in the second year." Rav Menasia bar Tahlifa said in Rav's name that this proved that there is no chronological order in the Torah. The Sifre concluded that Numbers 9:1–5 records the disgrace of the Israelites, as Numbers 9:1–5 reports the only Passover that the Israelites observed in the wilderness. Rav Naḥman bar Isaac noted that both Numbers 1:1 and 9:1 begin, "And the Lord spoke to Moses in the wilderness of Sinai," and deduced that just as Numbers 1:1 happened (in the words of that verse) "on the first day of the second month," so too Numbers 9:1 happened at the beginning of the month. And as Numbers 9:1 addressed the Passover offering, which the Israelites were to bring on the 14th of the month, the Gemara concluded that one should expound the laws of a holiday two weeks before the holiday. Chapter 9 of Tractate Pesachim in the Mishnah and Babylonian Talmud and chapter 8 of Tractate Pesachim (Pisha) in the Tosefta interpreted the laws of the second Passover in Numbers 9:1–14. And Tractate Pesachim in the Mishnah, Tosefta, Jerusalem Talmud, and Babylonian Talmud interpreted the laws of Passover generally in Exodus 12:3–27, 43–49; 13:6–10; 23:15; 34:25; Leviticus 23:4–8; Numbers 9:1–14; 28:16–25; and Deuteronomy 16:1–8. Interpreting Numbers 9:9–10, the Mishnah taught that anyone who was "unclean by reason [of contact] with a dead body or on a distant journey" and did not observe the first Passover was obliged to observe the second Passover. Furthermore, the Mishnah taught that if anyone unintentionally erred or was prevented from observing and thus did not observe the first Passover, then that person was obliged to observe the second Passover. The Mishnah asked why then Numbers 9:10 specified that people "unclean by reason of [contact with] a dead body or on a distant journey" observed the second Passover. The Mishnah answered that it was to teach that those "unclean by reason of [contact with] a dead body or on a distant journey" were exempt from being cut off from their kin, while those who deliberately failed to observe the Passover were liable to being cut off from their kin. Interpreting Numbers 9:10, Rabbi Akiva taught that "a distant journey" was one from Modi'in and beyond, and the same distance in any direction from Jerusalem. But Rabbi Eliezer said that a journey was distant anytime one left the threshold of the Temple Court. And Rabbi Yose replied that it is for that reason that there is a dot over the letter hei () in the word "distant" (, rechokah) in Numbers 9:10 in a Torah scroll, so as to teach that it was not really distant, but when one had departed from the threshold of the Temple Court, one was regarded as being on "a distant journey." The Mishnah noted differences between the first Passover in Exodus 12:3–27, 43–49; 13:6–10; 23:15; 34:25; Leviticus 23:4–8; Numbers 9:1–14; 28:16–25; and Deuteronomy 16:1–8 and the second Passover in Numbers 9:9–13. The Mishnah taught that the prohibitions of Exodus 12:19 that "seven days shall there be no leaven found in your houses" and of Exodus 13:7 that "no leaven shall be seen in all your territory" applied to the first Passover; while at the second Passover, one could have both leavened and unleavened bread in one's house. And the Mishnah taught that for the first Passover, one was required to recite the Hallel (Psalms 113–118) when the Passover lamb was eaten; while the second Passover did not require the reciting of Hallel when the Passover lamb was eaten. But both the first and second Passovers required the reciting of Hallel when the Passover lambs were offered, and both Passover lambs were eaten roasted with unleavened bread and bitter herbs. And both the first and second Passovers took precedence over the Sabbath. Tractate Beitza in the Mishnah, Tosefta, Jerusalem Talmud, and Babylonian Talmud interpreted the laws common to all of the Festivals in Exodus 12:3–27, 43–49; 13:6–10; 23:16; 34:18–23; Leviticus 16; 23:4–43; Numbers 9:1–14; 28:16–30:1; and Deuteronomy 16:1–17; 31:10–13. Rabbi Jose the Galilean taught that the "certain men who were unclean by the dead body of a man, so that they could not keep the Passover on that day" in Numbers 9:6 were those who bore Joseph's coffin, as implied in Genesis 50:25 and Exodus 13:19. The Gemara cited their doing so to support the law that one who is engaged on one religious duty is free from any other. Rabbi Akiva said that they were Mishael and Elzaphan who were occupied with the remains of Nadab and Abihu (as reported in Leviticus 10:1–5). Rabbi Isaac argued, however, that if they were those who bore the coffin of Joseph or if they were Mishael and Elzaphan, they would have had time to cleanse themselves before Passover. Rather, Rabbi Isaac identified the men as some who were occupied with the obligation to bury an abandoned corpse (met mitzvah). The Mishnah counted the sin of failing to observe the Passover enumerated in Numbers 9:13 as one of 36 sins punishable by the penalty of being cut off from the Israelite people. Abaye deduced from the words "And on the day that the tabernacle was reared up" in Numbers 9:15 that the Israelites erected the Tabernacle only during the daytime, not at night, and thus that the building of the Temple could not take place at night. The Sifre asked how one could reconcile the report of Numbers 9:23 that "at the commandment of the Lord they journeyed" with the report of Numbers 10:35 that whenever they traveled, "Moses said: 'Rise up, O Lord.'" The Sifre compared the matter to the case of a king who told his servant to arrange things so that the king could hand over an inheritance to his son. Alternatively, the Sifre compared the matter to the case of a king who went along with his ally. As the king was setting out, he said that he would not set out until his ally came. Numbers chapter 10 It was taught in a Baraita that Rabbi Josiah taught that the expression "make for yourself" (, aseih lecha) in Numbers 10:2 was a command for Moses to take from his own funds, in contrast to the expression "they shall take for you" (, v'yikhu eileicha) in Exodus 27:20, which was a command for Moses to take from communal funds. When Samuel had a bad dream, he used to quote Zechariah 10:2, "The dreams speak falsely." When he had a good dream, he used to question whether dreams speak falsely, seeing as in Numbers 10:2, God says, "I speak with him in a dream?" Rava pointed out the potential contradiction between Numbers 10:2 and Zechariah 10:2. The Gemara resolved the contradiction, teaching that Numbers 10:2, "I speak with him in a dream?" refers to dreams that come through an angel, whereas Zechariah 10:2, "The dreams speak falsely," refers to dreams that come through a demon. The Gemara taught that a dream is a sixtieth part of prophecy. Rabbi Hanan taught that even if the Master of Dreams (an angel, in a dream that truly foretells the future) tells a person that on the next day the person will die, the person should not desist from prayer, for as Ecclesiastes 5:6 says, "For in the multitude of dreams are vanities and also many words, but fear God." (Although a dream may seem reliably to predict the future, it will not necessarily come true; one must place one's trust in God.) Rabbi Samuel bar Naḥmani said in the name of Rabbi Jonathan that a person is shown in a dream only what is suggested by the person's own thoughts (while awake), as Daniel 2:29 says, "As for you, Oh King, your thoughts came into your mind upon your bed," and Daniel 2:30 says, "That you may know the thoughts of the heart." Rabbi Hama bar Haninah and Rabbi Josiah disagreed about what configuration the Israelites traveled in when they traveled in the Wilderness. Based on Numbers 2:17, "as they encamp, so shall they set forward," one said that they traveled in the shape of a box. Based on Numbers 10:25, "the camp of the children of Dan, which was the rearward of all the camps," the other said that they traveled in the shape of a beam—in a row. Refuting the other's argument, the one who said that they traveled in the shape of a beam read Numbers 2:17, "as they encamp, so shall they set forward," to teach that just as the configuration of their camp was according to God's Word, so the configuration of their journey was by God's Word. While the one who said that they traveled in the shape of a box read Numbers 10:25, "the camp of the children of Dan, which was the rearward of all the camps," to teach that Dan was more populous than the other camps, and would thus travel in the rear, and if anyone would lose any item, the camp of Dan would return it. The Sifre deduced from the words "And the cloud of the Lord was over them by day" in Numbers 10:34 that God's cloud hovered over the people with disabilities and illnesses—including those afflicted with emissions and skins diseases that removed them from the camp proper—protecting those with special needs. The Sages taught that inverted nuns ( ] ) bracket the verses Numbers 10:35–36, about how the Ark would move, to teach that the verses are not in their proper place. But Rabbi said that the nuns do not appear there on that account, but because Numbers 10:35–36 constitute a separate book. It thus follows according to Rabbi that there are seven books of the Torah, and this accords with the interpretation that Rabbi Samuel bar Naḥmani made in the name of Rabbi Jonathan of Proverbs 9:1, when it says, "She [Wisdom] has hewn out her seven pillars," referring to seven Books of the Law. Rabban Simeon ben Gamaliel, however, taught that Numbers 10:35–36 were written where they are to provide a break between two accounts of Israel's transgressions. The first account appears in Numbers 10:33, "they set forward from the mount of the Lord three days' journey," which Rabbi Hama ben Hanina said meant that the Israelites turned away from following the Lord within three short days, and the second account appears in Numbers 11:1, which reports the Israelites' murmurings. Rav Ashi taught that Numbers 10:35–36 more properly belong in Numbers 2, which reports how the Tabernacle would move. Rabbi Tarfon used the expression "ten thousands" in Numbers 10:36 to interpret the path of God's revelation. Rabbi Tarfon taught that God came from Mount Sinai (or others say Mount Seir) and was revealed to the children of Esau, as Deuteronomy 33:2 says, "The Lord came from Sinai, and rose from Seir to them," and "Seir" means the children of Esau, as Genesis 36:8 says, "And Esau dwelt in Mount Seir." God asked them whether they would accept the Torah, and they asked what was written in it. God answered that it included (in Exodus 20:13 and Deuteronomy 5:17), "You shall do no murder." The children of Esau replied that they were unable to abandon the blessing with which Isaac blessed Esau in Genesis 27:40, "By your sword shall you live." From there, God turned and was revealed to the children of Ishmael, as Deuteronomy 33:2 says, "He shined forth from Mount Paran," and "Paran" means the children of Ishmael, as Genesis 21:21 says of Ishmael, "And he dwelt in the wilderness of Paran." God asked them whether they would accept the Torah, and they asked what was written in it. God answered that it included (in Exodus 20:13 and Deuteronomy 5:17), "You shall not steal." The children of Ishamel replied that they were unable to abandon their fathers' custom, as Joseph said in Genesis 40:15 (referring to the Ishamelites' transaction reported in Genesis 37:28), "For indeed I was stolen away out of the land of the Hebrews." From there, God sent messengers to all the nations of the world asking them whether they would accept the Torah, and they asked what was written in it. God answered that it included (in Exodus 20:3 and Deuteronomy 5:7), "You shall have no other gods before me." They replied that they had no delight in the Torah, therefore let God give it to God's people, as Psalm 29:11 says, "The Lord will give strength [identified with the Torah] to His people; the Lord will bless His people with peace." From there, God returned and was revealed to the children of Israel, as Deuteronomy 33:2 says, "And he came from the ten thousands of holy ones," and the expression "ten thousands" means the children of Israel, as Numbers 10:36 says, "And when it rested, he said, ‘Return, O Lord, to the ten thousands of the thousands of Israel.’" With God were thousands of chariots and 20,000 angels, and God’s right hand held the Torah, as Deuteronomy 33:2 says, "At his right hand was a fiery law to them." Numbers chapter 11 Rav and Samuel debated how to interpret the report of Numbers 11:5 that the Israelites complained: "We remember the fish, which we ate in Egypt for free." One read "fish" literally, while the other read "fish" to mean the illicit intercourse that they were "free" to have when they were in Egypt, before the commandments of Sinai. Rabbi Ammi and Rabbi Assi disputed the meaning of the report of Numbers 11:5 that the Israelites remembered the cucumbers, melons, leeks, onions, and garlic of Egypt. One said that manna had the taste of every kind of food except these five; while the other said that manna had both the taste and the substance of all foods except these, for which manna had only the taste without the substance. The Gemara asked how one could reconcile Numbers 11:9, which reported that manna fell "upon the camp," with Numbers 11:8, which reported that "people went about and gathered it," implying that they had to leave the camp to get it. The Gemara concluded that the manna fell at different places for different classes of people: For the righteous, it fell in front of their homes; for average folk, it fell just outside the camp, and they went out and gathered; and for the wicked, it fell at some distance, and they had to go about to gather it. The Gemara asked how one could reconcile Exodus 16:4, which reported that manna fell as "bread from heaven"; with Numbers 11:8, which reported that people "made cakes of it," implying that it required baking; with Numbers 11:8, which reported that people "ground it in mills," implying that it required grinding. The Gemara concluded that the manna fell in different forms for different classes of people: For the righteous, it fell as bread; for average folk, it fell as cakes that required baking; and for the wicked, it fell as kernels that required grinding. Rav Judah said in the name of Rav (or others say Rabbi Hama ben Hanina) that the words "ground it in mortars" in Numbers 11:8 taught that with the manna came down women's cosmetics, which were also ground in mortars. Rabbi Hama interpreted the words "seethed it in pots" in Numbers 11:8 to teach that with the manna came down the ingredients or seasonings for a cooked dish. Rabbi Abbahu interpreted the words "the taste of it was as the taste of a cake (leshad) baked with oil" in Numbers 11:8 to teach that just as infants find many flavors in the milk of their mother's breast (shad), so the Israelites found many tastes in the manna. The Gemara asked how one could reconcile Numbers 11:8, which reported that "the taste of it was as the taste of a cake baked with oil," with Exodus 16:31, which reported that "the taste of it was like wafers made with honey." Rabbi Jose ben Hanina said that the manna tasted differently for different classes of people: It tasted like honey for infants, bread for youths, and oil for the aged. Rabbi Eleazar, on the authority of Rabbi Simlai, noted that Deuteronomy 1:16 says, "And I charged your judges at that time," while Deuteronomy 1:18 similarly says, "I charged you [the Israelites] at that time." Rabbi Eleazar deduced that Deuteronomy 1:18 meant to warn the Congregation to revere their judges, and Deuteronomy 1:16 meant to warn the judges to be patient with the Congregation. Rabbi Hanan (or some say Rabbi Shabatai) said that this meant that judges must be as patient as Moses, who Numbers 11:12 reports acted "as the nursing father carries the sucking child." A Midrash asked why in Numbers 11:16, God directed Moses to gather 70 elders of Israel, when Exodus 24:9 reported that there already were 70 elders of Israel. The Midrash deduced that when in Numbers 11:1, the people murmured, speaking evil, and God sent fire to devour part of the camp, all those earlier 70 elders had been burned up. The Midrash continued that the earlier 70 elders were consumed like Nadab and Abihu, because they too acted frivolously when (as reported in Exodus 24:11) they beheld God and inappropriately ate and drank. The Midrash taught that Nadab, Abihu, and the 70 elders deserved to die then, but because God so loved giving the Torah, God did not wish to disturb that time. A Midrash read Numbers 11:16, "Gather to Me 70 men," to indicate God's assessment of the elder's worthiness. The Midrash compared God's words in Numbers 11:16 to the case of a rich man who had a vineyard. Whenever he saw that the wine was good, he would direct his men to bring the wine into his house, but when he saw that the wine had turned to vinegar, he would tell his men to take the wine into their houses. Similarly, when God saw the elders and how worthy they were, God called them God's own, as God says in Numbers 11:16, "Gather to Me 70 men," but when God saw the spies and how they would later sin in slandering the land, God ascribed them to Moses, saying in Numbers 13:2, "Send you men." Rabbi Hama ben Hanina taught that our ancestors were never without a scholars' council. Abraham was an elder and a member of the scholars' council, as Genesis 24:1 says, "And Abraham was an elder (, zaken) well stricken in age." Eliezer, Abraham's servant, was an elder and a member of the scholars' council, as Genesis 24:2 says, "And Abraham said to his servant, the elder of his house, who ruled over all he had," which Rabbi Eleazar explained to mean that he ruled over—and thus knew and had control of—the Torah of his master. Isaac was an elder and a member of the scholars' council, as Genesis 27:1 says: "And it came to pass when Isaac was an elder (, zaken)." Jacob was an elder and a member of the scholars' council, as Genesis 48:10 says, "Now the eyes of Israel were dim with age (, zoken)." In Egypt they had the scholars' council, as Exodus 3:16 says, "Go and gather the elders of Israel together." And in the Wilderness, they had the scholars' council, as in Numbers 11:16, God directed Moses to "Gather . . . 70 men of the elders of Israel." The Mishnah deduced from Numbers 11:16 that the Great Sanhedrin consisted of 71 members, because God instructed Moses to gather 70 elders of Israel, and Moses at their head made 71. Rabbi Judah said that it consisted only of 70. Rav Aha bar Jacob argued for an interpretation of the words "that they may stand there with you" with regard to the 70 judges in Numbers 11:16. Rav Aha bar Jacob argued that the words "with you" implied that the judges needed to be "like you"—that is, like Moses—in unblemished genealogical background. But the Gemara did not accept that argument. In Proverbs 8:15, Wisdom (which the Rabbis equated with the Torah) says, "By me kings reign, and princes decree justice." A Midrash taught that Proverbs 8:15 thus reports what actually happened to Joshua, for as Numbers 27:18 reports, it was not the sons of Moses who succeeded their father, but Joshua. And the Midrash taught that Proverbs 27:18, "And he who waits on his master shall be honored," also alludes to Joshua, for Joshua ministered to Moses day and night, as reported by Exodus 33:11, which says, "Joshua departed not out of the Tent," and Numbers 11:28, which says, "Joshua . . . said: ‘My lord Moses, shut them in.’" Consequently, God honored Joshua by saying of Joshua in Numbers 27:21: "He shall stand before Eleazar the priest, who shall inquire for him by the judgment of the Urim." And because Joshua served his master Moses, Joshua attained the privilege of receiving the Holy Spirit, as Joshua 1:1 reports, "Now it came to pass after the death of Moses . . . that the Lord spoke to Joshua, the minister of Moses." The Midrash taught that there was no need for Joshua 1:1 to state, "the minister of Moses," so the purpose of the statement "the minister of Moses" was to explain that Joshua was awarded the privilege of prophecy because he was the minister of Moses. The Gemara asked how one could reconcile Numbers 11:20, which reported God's promise that the Israelites would eat meat "a whole month," with Numbers 11:33, which reported that "while the flesh was still between their teeth, before it was chewed, . . . the Lord smote the people." The Gemara concluded that God's punishment came at different speeds for different classes of people: Average people died immediately; while the wicked suffered over a month before they died. Reading God's criticism of Moses in Numbers 20:12, "Because you did not believe in me," a Midrash asked whether Moses had not previously said worse when in Numbers 11:22, he showed a greater lack of faith and questioned God's powers asking: "If flocks and herds be slain for them, will they suffice them? Or if all the fish of the sea be gathered together for them, will they suffice them?" The Midrash explained by relating the case of a king who had a friend who displayed arrogance towards the king privately, using harsh words. The king did not, however, lose his temper with his friend. Later, the friend displayed his arrogance in the presence of the king's legions, and the king sentenced his friend to death. So also God told Moses that the first offense that Moses committed (in Numbers 11:22) was a private matter between Moses and God. But now that Moses had committed a second offense against God in public, it was impossible for God to overlook it, and God had to react, as Numbers 20:12 reports, "To sanctify Me in the eyes of the children of Israel." The Gemara explained how Moses selected the members of the Sanhedrin in Numbers 11:24. The Rabbis taught in a Baraita that when (in Numbers 11:16) God told Moses to gather 70 elders of Israel, Moses worried that if he chose six from each of the 12 tribes, there would be 72 elders, two more than God requested. If he chose five elders from each tribe, there would be 60 elders, ten short of the number God requested. If Moses chose six out of some tribes and five out of others, he would sow jealousy among the tribes. To solve this problem, Moses selected six prospective elders out of each tribe. Then he brought 72 lots, on 70 of which he wrote the word "elder" and two of which he left blank. He then mixed up all the lots, put them in an urn, and asked the 72 prospective elders to draw lots. To each prospective elder who drew a lot marked "elder," Moses said that Heaven had consecrated him. To those two prospective elders who drew a blank, Moses said that Heaven had rejected them, what could Moses do? According to this Baraita, some say the report in Numbers 11:26 that Eldad and Medad remained in the camp meant that their lots—marked "elder"—remained in the urn, as Eldad and Medad were afraid to draw their lots. Other prospective elders drew the two blank lots, so Eldad and Medad were thus selected elders. Rabbi Simeon expounded a different view on the report in Numbers 11:26 that Eldad and Medad remained in the camp. When God ordered Moses in Numbers 11:16 to gather 70 of the elders of Israel, Eldad and Medad protested that they were not worthy of that dignity. In reward for their humility, God added yet more greatness to their greatness; so while the other elders' prophesying ceased, Eldad's and Medad's prophesying continued. Rabbi Simeon taught that Eldad and Medad prophesied that Moses would die and Joshua would bring Israel into the Land of Israel. Abba Hanin taught in the name of Rabbi Eliezer that Eldad and Medad prophesied concerning the matter of the quails in Numbers 11, calling on the quail to arise. Rav Naḥman read Ezekiel 38:17 to teach that they prophesied concerning Gog and Magog. The Gemara found support for Rabbi Simeon's assertion that while the other elders' prophesying ceased, Eldad's and Medad's prophesying continued in the use by Numbers 11:25 of the past tense, "and they prophesied," to describe the other elders, whereas Numbers 11:27 uses the present tense with regard to Eldad and Medad. The Gemara taught that if Eldad and Medad prophesied that Moses would die, then that explains why Joshua in Numbers 11:28 requested Moses to forbid them. The Gemara reasoned that if Eldad and Medad prophesied about the quail or Gog and Magog, then Joshua asked Moses to forbid them because their behavior did not appear seemly, like a student who issues legal rulings in the presence of his teacher. The Gemara further reasoned that according to those who said that Eldad and Medad prophesied about the quail or Gog and Magog, Moses' response in Numbers 11:28, "Would that all the Lord's people were prophets," made sense. But if Eldad and Medad prophesied that Moses would die, the Gemara wondered why Moses expressed pleasure with that in Numbers 11:28. The Gemara explained that Moses must not have heard their entire prophecy. And the Gemara interpreted Joshua's request in Numbers 11:28 for Moses to "forbid them" to mean that Moses should give Eldad and Medad public burdens that would cause them to cease their prophesying. A Midrash taught that Eldad and Medad thought that they were not worthy to be among the 70 elders, and in reward for their humility, God gave them several rewards more than the elders: (1) Whereas the elders prophesied only for the next day, Eldad and Medad prophesied what would happen for 40 years. (2) Whereas the elders did not enter the Land, Eldad and Medad did. (3) Whereas the Torah does not tell the names of the elders, it does tell the names of Eldad and Medad. (4) Whereas the prophecy of the elders ended, as it came from Moses, the prophecy of Eldad and Medad came from God. A Midrash read "the young man" (, hana’ar) in Numbers 11:27 to be Gershom the son of Moses, as the text says "the young man," implying that he was known, and no young man would have been better known than the firstborn son of Moses. Numbers chapter 12 The Sifre explained about what Miriam and Aaron spoke to Moses in Numbers 12:1. Miriam found out that Moses had ceased to have marital relations with his wife Zipporah when Miriam observed that Zipporah was not making herself up with women's ornaments. Miriam asked Zipporah why she was not making herself up like other women, and Zipporah answered that Moses did not pay any attention to such things. Thus, Miriam realized that Moses has ceased having marital relations with Zipporah and told Aaron, and both Miriam and Aaron spoke against Moses. Rabbi Nathan taught that Miriam was standing alongside Zipporah when (as recounted in Numbers 11:27) the youth ran and told Moses that Eldad and Medad were prophesying in the camp. When Zipporah heard the report, she lamented for the wives of Eldad and Medad because the men had become prophets, and the wives would thus lose their husbands’ attention. On that basis, Miriam realized the situation and told Aaron, and both of them spoke against Moses. The Gemara cited Numbers 12:3 for the proposition that prophets had to be humble. In Deuteronomy 18:15, Moses foretold that "A prophet will the Lord your God raise up for you . . . like me," and Rabbi Joḥanan thus taught that prophets would have to be, like Moses, strong, wealthy, wise, and humble. Strong, for Exodus 40:19 says of Moses, "he spread the tent over the tabernacle," and a Master taught that Moses himself spread it, and Exodus 26:16 reports, "Ten cubits shall be the length of a board." Similarly, the strength of Moses can be derived from Deuteronomy 9:17, in which Moses reports, "And I took the two tablets, and cast them out of my two hands, and broke them," and it was taught that the tablets were six handbreadths in length, six in breadth, and three in thickness. Wealthy, as Exodus 34:1 reports God's instruction to Moses, "Carve yourself two tablets of stone," and the Rabbis interpreted the verse to teach that the chips would belong to Moses. Wise, for Rav and Samuel both said that 50 gates of understanding were created in the world, and all but one were given to Moses, for Psalm 8:6 said of Moses, "You have made him a little lower than God." Humble, for Numbers 12:3 reports, "Now the man Moses was very humble." A Midrash asked why Moses had to account to the Israelites, seeing as God trusted Moses so implicitly that God said in Numbers 12:7, "My servant Moses is not so; he is trusted in all My house." The Midrash explained that Moses overheard certain Israelites scoffing behind his back, for Exodus 33:8 says, "And they (the Israelites) looked after Moses." The Midrash asked what the people would say about Moses. Rabbi Joḥanan taught that the people blessed his mother, for she never saw him, as he was always speaking with God and always wholly given over to his service. But Rabbi Hama said that they used to remark how fat and prosperous Moses looked. When Moses heard this, he vowed to give an account of everything. And this is why Exodus 38:21 says, "These are the accounts of the Tabernacle." Reading Exodus 38:21, "as they were rendered according to the commandment of Moses," the Midrash taught that the Israelites did everything that they did by the command of Moses. And reading the continuation of Exodus 38:21, "through the service of the Levites, by the hand of Ithamar, the son of Aaron the priest," the Midrash taught that everything that Moses made was done through others. Even though everything was done with witnesses, as soon as the construction of the Tabernacle was completed, Moses wasted no time to promise the people the complete details of all the expenditures involved. Moses then began to expound in Exodus 38:21, "These are the accounts of the Tabernacle," saying how much he had expended on the Tabernacle. While engaged in this calculation, Moses completely forgot about 1,775 shekalim of silver that he had used for hooks for the pillars, and he became uneasy thinking to himself that the Israelites would find grounds to say that Moses took them for himself. So God opened the eyes of Moses to realize that the silver had been converted into hooks for the pillars. When the Israelites saw that the account now completely tallied, they were completely satisfied with the integrity of the work on the Tabernacle. And thus Exodus 38:21 says, "These are the accounts of the Tabernacle," to report that the accounts balanced. Rabbi Samuel bar Naḥmani said in the name of Rabbi Jonathan that Moses beheld the likeness of God in Numbers 12:8 in compensation for a pious thing that Moses did. A Baraita taught in the name of Rabbi Joshua ben Korhah that God told Moses that when God wanted to be seen at the burning bush, Moses did not want to see God's face; Moses hid his face in Exodus 3:6, for he was afraid to look upon God. And then in Exodus 33:18, when Moses wanted to see God, God did not want to be seen; in Exodus 33:20, God said, "You cannot see My face." But Rabbi Samuel bar Naḥmani said in the name of Rabbi Jonathan that in compensation for three pious acts that Moses did at the burning bush, he was privileged to obtain three rewards. In reward for hiding his face in Exodus 3:6, his face shone in Exodus 34:29. In reward for his fear of God in Exodus 3:6, the Israelites were afraid to come near him in Exodus 34:30. In reward for his reticence "to look upon God," he beheld the likeness of God in Numbers 12:8. The Gemara reported that some taught that in Numbers 12:8, God approved of the decision of Moses to abstain from marital relations so as to remain pure for his communication with God. A Baraita taught that Moses did three things of his own understanding, and God approved: (1) He added one day of abstinence of his own understanding; (2) he separated himself from his wife (entirely, after the Revelation); and (3) he broke the Tables (on which God had written the Ten Commandments). The Gemara explained that to reach his decision to separate himself from his wife, Moses applied an a fortiori (kal va-chomer) argument to himself. Moses noted that even though the Shechinah spoke with the Israelites on only one definite, appointed time (at Mount Sinai), God nonetheless instructed in Exodus 19:10, "Be ready against the third day: come not near a woman." Moses reasoned that if he heard from the Shechinah at all times and not only at one appointed time, how much more so should he abstain from marital contact. And the Gemara taught that we know that God approved, because in Deuteronomy 5:27, God instructed Moses (after the Revelation at Sinai), "Go say to them, 'Return to your tents'" (thus giving the Israelites permission to resume marital relations) and immediately thereafter in Deuteronomy 5:28, God told Moses, "But as for you, stand here by me" (excluding him from the permission to return). And the Gemara taught that some cite as proof of God's approval God's statement in Numbers 12:8, "with him [Moses] will I speak mouth to mouth" (as God thus distinguished the level of communication God had with Moses, after Miriam and Aaron had raised the marriage of Moses and then questioned the distinctiveness of the prophecy of Moses). It was taught in a Baraita that four types of people are accounted as though they were dead: a poor person, a person affected by skin disease (, metzora), a blind person, and one who is childless. A poor person is accounted as dead, for Exodus 4:19 says, "for all the men are dead who sought your life" (and the Gemara interpreted this to mean that they had been stricken with poverty). A person affected by skin disease (, metzora) is accounted as dead, for Numbers 12:10–12 says, "And Aaron looked upon Miriam, and behold, she was leprous (, metzora'at). And Aaron said to Moses . . . let her not be as one dead." The blind are accounted as dead, for Lamentations 3:6 says, "He has set me in dark places, as they that be dead of old." And one who is childless is accounted as dead, for in Genesis 30:1, Rachel said, "Give me children, or else I am dead." Rabbi Ishmael cited Numbers 12:14 as one of ten a fortiori (kal va-chomer) recorded in the Hebrew Bible: (1) In Genesis 44:8, Joseph's brothers told Joseph, "Behold, the money that we found in our sacks' mouths we brought back to you," and they thus reasoned, "how then should we steal?" (2) In Exodus 6:12, Moses told God, "Behold, the children of Israel have not hearkened to me," and reasoned that surely all the more, "How then shall Pharaoh hear me?" (3) In Deuteronomy 31:27, Moses said to the Israelites, "Behold, while I am yet alive with you this day, you have been rebellious against the Lord," and reasoned that it would follow, "And how much more after my death?" (4) In Numbers 12:14, "the Lord said to Moses: 'If her (Miriam's) father had but spit in her face,'" surely it would stand to reason, "'Should she not hide in shame seven days?'" (5) In Jeremiah 12:5, the prophet asked, "If you have run with the footmen, and they have wearied you," is it not logical to conclude, "Then how can you contend with horses?" (6) In 1 Samuel 23:3, David's men said to him, "Behold, we are afraid here in Judah," and thus surely it stands to reason, "How much more then if we go to Keilah?" (7) Also in Jeremiah 12:5, the prophet asked, "And if in a land of Peace where you are secure" you are overcome, is it not logical to ask, "How will you do in the thickets of the Jordan?" (8) Proverbs 11:31 reasoned, "Behold, the righteous shall be requited in the earth," and does it not follow, "How much more the wicked and the sinner?" (9) In Esther 9:12, "The king said to Esther the queen: 'The Jews have slain and destroyed 500 men in Shushan the castle,'" and it thus stands to reason, "'What then have they done in the rest of the king's provinces?'" (10) In Ezekiel 15:5, God came to the prophet saying, "Behold, when it was whole, it was usable for no work," and thus surely it is logical to argue, "How much less, when the fire has devoured it, and it is singed?" The Mishnah cited Numbers 12:15 for the proposition that Providence treats a person measure for measure as that person treats others. And so because, as Exodus 2:4 relates, Miriam waited for the baby Moses in the Nile, so the Israelites waited seven days for Miriam in the wilderness in Numbers 12:15. In medieval Jewish interpretation The parashah is discussed in these medieval Jewish sources: Numbers chapter 8 Reading Numbers 8:2, "the seven lamps shall give light in front of the Menorah," Rashbam differed with the Midrash (see "In classical rabbinic interpretation" above) and taught that Aaron would tilt the seven lamps so as to cast light upon the table. Reading the report of Numbers 8:4, "according to the pattern that the Lord had shown Moses, so He made the Menorah," Naḥmanides reported a Midrash interpreting the word "He" to refer to God, indicating that God made the Menorah without human intervention. Rashi read the instruction of Numbers 8:7, "sprinkle the water of purification upon them," to refer to the water mixture made with the ashes of the red cow described in Numbers 19. Rashi taught that they had to undergo this sprinkling to purify those of them who had become ritually impure because of contact with the dead. And Rashi reported an interpretation by Rabbi Moses HaDarshan (the preacher) that since the Levites were submitted in atonement for the firstborn who had practiced idolatry when they worshipped the Golden Calf (in Exodus 32), and Psalm 106:28 calls idol worship "sacrifices to the dead," and in Numbers 12:12 Moses called one afflicted with skin disease (, tzara'at) "as one dead," and Leviticus 14:8 required those afflicted with skin disease to shave, therefore God required the Levites too to shave. Reading the instruction of Numbers 8:7 with regard to the Levites, "and let them cause a razor to pass over all their flesh," Ibn Ezra taught that they did not shave the corners of their beards (so as not to violate Leviticus 21:5). Rashi explained that in Numbers 8:8, God required the people to bring a young bull as an offering, because Numbers 15:22–26 required such an offering to make atonement when the community had committed idolatry (and they were atoning for the sin of the Golden Calf). And Rashi explained that in Numbers 8:9–10, God instructed the Israelites to stand and rest their hands on the Levites because the Israelites were also submitting the Levites as their atonement offering. Numbers 8:13–19 refers to duties of the Levites. Maimonides and the siddur report that the Levites would recite the Psalm for the Day in the Temple. Numbers chapter 9 Baḥya ibn Paquda noted that Numbers 9:18, "by the word of God," and Numbers 11:1, "in the ears of God" imply that God has physical form and body parts. And Numbers 11:1, "and God heard," implies that God moves and takes bodily actions like human beings. Baḥya explained that necessity brought people to anthropomorphize God and describe God in terms of human attributes so that human listeners could grasp God in their minds. After doing so, people can learn that such description was only metaphorical, and that the truth is too fine, too sublime, too exalted, and too remote from the ability and powers of human minds to grasp. Baḥya advised wise thinkers to endeavor to remove the husk of the terms and their corporeality and ascend in their minds step by step to reach the true intended meaning according to the power and ability of their minds to grasp. Numbers chapter 11 Reading the report of Numbers 11:4 that "the mixed multitude (, hasafsuf) that was among them fell a lusting," Ibn Gabirol confessed poetically that one's poor mortal life, unclean thoughts, craving trinkets and baubles, was like a body with a corrupted heart plagued by a "mixed multitude." In modern interpretation The parashah is discussed in these modern sources: Numbers chapter 9 Bernard Bamberger noted that Numbers 9:6–8 is one of four episodes in the Torah (along with Leviticus 24:12 and Numbers 15:32–34 and 27:1–5) in which Moses had to make a special inquiry of God before he could give a legal decision. Bamberger reported that the inability of Moses to handle these cases on his own troubled the Rabbis because they relied upon a worldview in which the entire Torah was revealed at Sinai with no need for subsequent revelations. Numbers chapter 11 Reading the account of Eldad and Medad in Numbers 11:26–29, Gunther Plaut wrote that Moses pointedly rejected a narrow interpretation of prophetic privilege and shared his authority as leader. Jacob Milgrom wrote that God did not restrict God's gifts to particular individuals or classes, and the lesson inspired the prophet Joel to predict in Joel 3:1, "After that, I will pour out My spirit on all flesh; Your sons and daughters shall prophesy . . . ." Dennis Olson wrote that the episode illustrated the need to allow for the possibility that persons outside the institutional leadership of God's people may have genuine words and insights from God. Robert Alter wrote that Moses hyperbolically expressed the sense that holding on to a monopoly of power (equated with access to God's spirit) was not what impelled him, and pointed rather to an ideal of radical spiritual egalitarianism whereby God granted access to the spirit to anyone God chose. Terence Fretheim wrote that Moses shared the charisma of God's spirit and wished that all God's people could receive it. And Nili Fox suggested that the story may reflect an ancient debate about whether there could be only one legitimate prophet at a time, as perhaps implied by Deuteronomy 18:15–18, or if there could be many prophets in a single era. Numbers chapter 12 Masha Turner suggested that one can read the account of Miriam and Moses's wife sympathetically as a case in which God sides with one maligned woman—Moses’ wife—against a more powerful one—Miriam. Commandments According to both Maimonides and Sefer ha-Chinuch, there are 3 positive and 2 negative commandments in the parashah: To slaughter the second Passover lamb To eat the second Passover lamb in accordance with the Passover rituals Not to leave the second Passover meat over until morning Not to break any bones from the second Passover offering To sound alarm in times of catastrophe In the liturgy Some Jews read "at 50 years old one offers counsel," reflecting the retirement age for Levites in Numbers 8:25, as they study Pirkei Avot chapter 6 on a Sabbath between Passover and Rosh Hashanah. The laws of the Passover offering in Numbers 9:2 provide an application of the second of the Thirteen Rules for interpreting the Torah in the Baraita of Rabbi Ishmael that many Jews read as part of the readings before the Pesukei dezimra prayer service. The second rule provides that similar words in different contexts invite the reader to find a connection between the two topics. The words "in its proper time" (, bemoado) in Numbers 28:2 indicate that the priests needed to bring the daily offering "in its proper time," even on a Sabbath. Applying the second rule, the same words in Numbers 9:2 mean that the priests needed to bring the Passover offering "in its proper time," even on a Sabbath. The Passover Haggadah, in the korech section of the Seder, quotes the words "they shall eat it with unleavened bread and bitter herbs" from Numbers 9:11 to support Hillel's practice of combining matzah and maror together in a sandwich. Jews sing the words "at the commandment of the Lord by the hand of Moses" (, al pi Adonai b'yad Moshe) from Numbers 9:23 while looking at the raised Torah during the lifting of the Torah (Hagbahah) after the Torah reading. Based on the command of Numbers 10:10 to remember the Festivals, on the new month (Rosh Chodesh) and intermediate days (Chol HaMoed) of Passover and Sukkot, Jews add a paragraph to the weekday afternoon (Minchah) Amidah prayer just before the prayer of thanksgiving (Modim). Jews chant the description of how the Israelites carried the Ark of the Covenant in Numbers 10:35 (, kumah Adonai, v'yafutzu oyvecha, v'yanusu m'sanecha, mipanecha) during the Torah service when the Ark containing the Torah is opened. And Jews chant the description of how the Israelites set the Ark of the Covenant down in Numbers 10:36 (, uv'nuchoh yomar: shuvah Adonai, riv'vot alfei Yisrael) during the Torah service when the Torah is returned to the Ark. The characterization of Moses as God's "trusted servant" in Numbers 12:7 finds reflection shortly after the beginning of the Kedushah section in the Sabbath morning (Shacharit) Amidah prayer. In the Yigdal hymn, the eighth verse, "God gave His people a Torah of truth, by means of His prophet, the most trusted of His household," reflects Numbers 12:7–8. The 16th-century Safed Rabbi Eliezer Azikri quoted the words of the prayer of Moses "Please God" (, El nah) in Numbers 12:13 in his kabbalistic poem Yedid Nefesh ("Soul's Beloved"), which in turn many congregations chant just before the Kabbalat Shabbat prayer service. The prayer of Moses for Miriam's health in Numbers 12:13, "Heal her now, O God, I beseech You" (, El, nah r'fah nah lah)—just five simple words in Hebrew—demonstrates that it is not the length of a prayer that matters. Haftarah The haftarah for the parashah is Zechariah 2:14–4:7. Connection to the parashah Both the parashah and the haftarah discuss the Menorah. Text of Zechariah shortly after that of the haftarah explains that the lights of the Menorah symbolize God's eyes, keeping watch on the earth. And in the haftarah, God's angel explains the message of Zechariah's vision of the Menorah: "Not by might, nor by power, but by My spirit, says the Lord of hosts." Both the parashah and the haftarah also discuss the purification of priests and their clothes, the parashah in the purification of the Levites and the haftarah in the purification of the High Priest Joshua. Notes Further reading The parashah has parallels or is discussed in these sources: Biblical Exodus 12:3–27, 43–49 (Passover); 13:6–10 (Passover); 25:31–37 (Menorah); 34:25 (Passover); 40:24–25 (Menorah). Leviticus 23:4–8 (Passover); 24:10–16 (inquiry of God on the law). Numbers 15:32–36 (inquiry of God on the law); 27:1–11 (inquiry of God on the law); 28:16-25 (Passover). Deuteronomy 9:22 (Kibroth-hattaavah); 16:1–8 (Passover). Psalms 22:23 (congregation); 25:14 (hearing God's counsel); 26:6 (cleansing); 35:18 (congregation); 40:10–11 (congregation); 48:15 (God as guide); 68:2–3 (let God arise, enemies be scattered); 73:24 (God as guide); 76:9 (God's voice); 78:14, 26, 30 (cloud; wind from God; food still in their mouths); 80:2 (God as guide; enthroned on cherubim); 81:4 (blowing the horn); 85:9 (hearing what God says); 88:4–7 (like one dead); 94:9 (God hears); 105:26 (Moses, God's servant); 106:4, 42 (remember for salvation; enemies who oppressed); 107:7 (God as guide); 122:1 (going to God's house); 132:8 (arise, God). Early nonrabbinic The War Scroll . Dead Sea scroll 1QM 10:1–8a. Land of Israel, 1st century BCE. In, e.g., Géza Vermes. The Complete Dead Sea Scrolls in English, pages 161, 173. New York: Penguin Press, 1997. Philo. Allegorical Interpretation 1: 24:76; 2: 17:66; 3: 33:103, 59:169, 72:204; On the Birth of Abel and the Sacrifices Offered by Him and by His Brother Cain 18:66; 22:77; 26:86; That the Worse Is Wont To Attack the Better 19:63; On the Giants 6:24; On Drunkenness 10:39; On the Prayers and Curses Uttered by Noah When He Became Sober 4:19; On the Migration of Abraham 28:155; Who Is the Heir of Divine Things? 5:20; 15:80; 52:262; On the Change of Names 39:232; On Dreams, That They Are God-Sent 2:7:49; On the Life of Moses 2:42:230; The Special Laws 4:24:128–30; Questions and Answers on Genesis 1:91. Alexandria, Egypt, early 1st century CE. In, e.g., The Works of Philo: Complete and Unabridged, New Updated Edition. Translated by Charles Duke Yonge, pages 33, 45, 62, 69, 73, 102, 104–05, 119, 153, 210, 229, 268, 277, 282, 299, 361, 391, 511, 629, 810. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 1993. Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews book 3, chapter 12:5–13:1. Circa 93–94. In, e.g., The Works of Josephus: Complete and Unabridged, New Updated Edition. Translated by William Whiston, pages 98–99. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 1987. John 19:36 ("Not one of his bones will be broken") 90–100 CE. Classical rabbinic Mishnah: Pesachim 1:1–10:9; Beitzah 1:1–5:7; Sotah 1:7–9; Sanhedrin 1:6; Zevachim 14:4; Keritot 1:1; Tamid 3:9; Negaim 14:4; Parah 1:2. Land of Israel, circa 200 CE. In, e.g., The Mishnah: A New Translation. Translated by Jacob Neusner, pages 229–51, 449, 584, 731, 836, 867, 1010, 1013. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988. Tosefta: Bikkurim 1:2; Pisha (Pesachim) 1:1–10:13; Shekalim 3:26; Yom Tov (Beitzah) 1:1–4:11; Sotah 4:2–4; 6:7–8; 7:18; Keritot 1:1; Parah 1:1–3; Yadayim 2:10. Land of Israel, circa 300 CE. In, e.g., The Tosefta: Translated from the Hebrew, with a New Introduction. Translated by Jacob Neusner, volume 1, pages 345, 471–522, 538, 585–604, 845, 857–58, 865; volume 2, pages 1551, 1745–46, 1907. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 2002. Sifre to Numbers 59:1–106:3. Land of Israel, circa 250–350 CE. In, e.g., Sifré to Numbers: An American Translation and Explanation. Translated by Jacob Neusner, volume 2, pages 1–132. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1986. Sifri Zutta Beha'alotekha. Land of Israel, late 4th century CE. In, e.g., Sifré Zutta to Numbers. Translated by Jacob Neusner, pages 65–133. Lanham, Maryland: University Press of America, 2009. Jerusalem Talmud: Berakhot 45a; Bikkurim 4b, 11b; Eruvin 35b; Pesachim 1a–86a; Yoma 7a, 41b; Sukkah 31a; Beitzah 1a–49b; Rosh Hashanah 1b, 2b, 20b, 22a; Taanit 20b, 22b, 27a; Megillah 14a, 17b, 29a; Moed Katan 11b, 17a; Chagigah 21b; Nazir 20b, 41b, 49a–b; Sotah 8a; Kiddushin 22a; Sanhedrin 10a–b, 22b, 63b; Shevuot 13b, 23b; Horayot 4b, 15a. Tiberias, Land of Israel, circa 400 CE. In, e.g., Talmud Yerushalmi. Edited by Chaim Malinowitz, Yisroel Simcha Schorr, and Mordechai Marcus, volumes 1, 12, 17–19, 21–28, 34–36, 40, 44–46, 49. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 2005–2019. And in, e.g., The Jerusalem Talmud: A Translation and Commentary. Edited by Jacob Neusner and translated by Jacob Neusner, Tzvee Zahavy, B. Barry Levy, and Edward Goldman. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 2009. Genesis Rabbah 1:1, 11; 7:2; 31:8; 45:5; 48:10, 16; 49:2; 60:13; 64:8; 65:18; 66:7; 71:6; 92:7; 96 (NV); 97 (NV); 96; 97:3; 99:5–6; 100:7. Land of Israel, 5th century. In, e.g., Midrash Rabbah: Genesis. Translated by Harry Freedman and Maurice Simon, volume 1, pages 1, 11, 50, 242, 382–83, 411–12, 416, 420; volume 2, pages 536, 578, 593–94, 605, 657, 853, 895, 898, 922, 940, 977–78, 993. London: Soncino Press, 1939. Mekhilta of Rabbi Simeon 5:2; 12:3; 16:2; 20:5; 22:2–23:1; 29:1; 37:1–2; 40:1–2; 43:1; 44:2; 47:2. Land of Israel, 5th century. In, e.g., Mekhilta de-Rabbi Shimon bar Yohai. Translated by W. David Nelson, pages 14, 41, 55, 85, 98, 100, 102, 131, 159, 162, 170–72, 182, 186, 209. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2006. Leviticus Rabbah 1:4, 14; 2:2, 4; 7:3; 9:1; 10:2; 11:3; 15:8; 16:1, 5; 17:3; 18:4; 20:10; 31:2. Land of Israel, 5th century. In, e.g., Midrash Rabbah: Leviticus. Translated by Harry Freedman and Maurice Simon, volume 4, pages 8, 17, 21, 22–24, 93, 107, 123, 137, 196, 201, 207, 217, 232, 261, 396. London: Soncino Press, 1939. Babylonian Talmud: Berakhot 7a, 32a, 34a, 54b, 55b, 63b; Shabbat 31b, 87a, 115b–16a, 130a; Eruvin 2a, 40a; Pesachim 6b, 28b, 36a, 59a, 64a, 66a–67a, 69a–b, 77a, 79a, 80a, 85a, 90a–b, 91b, 92b–96b, 115a, 120a; Yoma 3b, 7a, 28b, 51a, 66a, 75a–76a; Sukkah 25a–b, 47b, 53a–54a, 55a; Beitzah 2a–40b; Rosh Hashanah 3a, 5a, 18a, 26b–27a, 32a, 34a; Taanit 7a, 29a, 30b; Megillah 5a, 21b, 31a; Moed Katan 5a, 15b, 16a–b; Chagigah 5b, 18b, 25b; Yevamot 63b, 103b; Ketubot 57b; Nedarim 38a, 64b; Nazir 5a, 15b, 40a, 63a; Sotah 9b, 33b; Gittin 60a–b; Kiddushin 32b, 37b, 76b; Bava Kamma 25a, 83a; Bava Metzia 86b; Bava Batra 91a, 111a, 121b; Sanhedrin 2a, 3b, 8a, 17a, 36b, 47a, 110a; Makkot 10a, 13b, 14b, 17a, 21a; Shevuot 15b, 16b; Avodah Zarah 5a, 24b; Horayot 4b, 5b; Zevachim 9b, 10b, 22b, 55a, 69b, 79a, 89b, 101b, 106b; Menachot 28a–b, 29a, 65b, 83b, 95a, 98b; Chullin 7b, 17a, 24a, 27b, 29a, 30a, 105a, 129b; Bekhorot 4b, 33a; Arakhin 10a, 11a–b, 15b; Keritot 2a, 7b. Sasanian Empire, 6th century. In, e.g., Talmud Bavli. Edited by Yisroel Simcha Schorr, Chaim Malinowitz, and Mordechai Marcus, 72 volumes. Brooklyn: Mesorah Pubs., 2006. Medieval Pirkei De-Rabbi Eliezer, chapters 19, 41, 53. Early 9th century. In, e.g., Pirke de Rabbi Eliezer. Translated and annotated by Gerald Friedlander, pages 141, 320, 429–30, 433–36. London, 1916. Reprinted New York: Hermon Press, 1970. Deuteronomy Rabbah 1:10–11; 2:2–3; 3:15; 6:11–13; 9:2; 11:10. Land of Israel, 9th century. In, e.g., Midrash Rabbah: Deuteronomy. Translated by Harry Freedman and Maurice Simon, volume 7, pages 10–11, 31–32, 86, 127, 129–30, 158, 181, 187. London: Soncino Press, 1939. Saadia Gaon. The Book of Beliefs and Opinions, 2:10–11; 3:8–9; 5:3, 7; 9:8. Baghdad, 933. Translated by Samuel Rosenblatt, pages 116, 119, 127, 165, 170, 214, 230, 349. New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1948. Rashi. Commentary. Numbers 8–12. Troyes, France, late 11th century. In, e.g., Rashi. The Torah: With Rashi's Commentary Translated, Annotated, and Elucidated. Translated and annotated by Yisrael Isser Zvi Herczeg, volume 4, pages 87–145. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1997. Solomon ibn Gabirol. A Crown for the King, chapter 33, line 421. Spain, 11th century. Translated by David R. Slavitt, pages 56–57. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998. ("mixed multitude" (asafsuf)). Rashbam. Commentary on the Torah. Troyes, early 12th century. In, e.g., Rashbam’s Commentary on Leviticus and Numbers: An Annotated Translation. Edited and translated by Martin I. Lockshin, pages 181–204. Providence: Brown Judaic Studies, 2001. Judah Halevi. Kuzari. 2:26; 4:3, 11; 5:27. Toledo, Spain, 1130–1140. In, e.g., Jehuda Halevi. Kuzari: An Argument for the Faith of Israel. Introduction by Henry Slonimsky, pages 102, 200–01, 212, 217, 295. New York: Schocken, 1964. Numbers Rabbah 15:1–25. 12th century. In, e.g., Midrash Rabbah: Numbers. Translated by Judah J. Slotki. London: Soncino Press, 1939. Abraham ibn Ezra. Commentary on the Torah. Mid-12th century. In, e.g., Ibn Ezra's Commentary on the Pentateuch: Numbers (Ba-Midbar). Translated and annotated by H. Norman Strickman and Arthur M. Silver, pages 56–100. New York: Menorah Publishing Company, 1999. Maimonides. Mishneh Torah: Hilchot Kli Hamikdash (The Laws of Temple Utensils), chapter 3, ¶ 7. Egypt. Circa 1170–1180. In, e.g., Mishneh Torah: Sefer Ha’Avodah: The Book of (Temple) Service. Translated by Eliyahu Touger. New York: Moznaim Publishing, 2007. Maimonides. The Guide for the Perplexed, part 1, chapters 3–4, 10, 24, 30, 40, 45, 47, 54; part 2, chapters 24, 30, 36, 41, 45; part 3, chapters 2, 32, 36, 50. Cairo, Egypt, 1190. In, e.g., Moses Maimonides. The Guide for the Perplexed. Translated by Michael Friedländer, pages 3, 17–18, 23, 34, 39, 55, 58, 63, 75, 198, 214, 225, 234–35, 242, 245, 254, 324, 331, 383. New York: Dover Publications, 1956. Hezekiah ben Manoah. Hizkuni. France, circa 1240. In, e.g., Chizkiyahu ben Manoach. Chizkuni: Torah Commentary. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 880–914. Jerusalem: Ktav Publishers, 2013. Naḥmanides. Commentary on the Torah. Jerusalem, circa 1270. In, e.g., Ramban (Nachmanides): Commentary on the Torah: Numbers. Translated by Charles B. Chavel, volume 4, pages 68–117. New York: Shilo Publishing House, 1975. Zohar, part 1, pages 6b, 76a, 148a, 171a, 176b, 183a, 243a, 249b; part 2, pages 21a, 54a, 62b, 82b, 86b, 130a, 196b, 203b, 205b, 224b, 241a; part 3, pages 118b, 127a–b, 146b, 148b–56b, 198b; Raya Mehemna 42b. Spain, late 13th century. In, e.g., The Zohar. Translated by Harry Sperling and Maurice Simon. 5 volumes. London: Soncino Press, 1934. Jacob ben Asher (Baal Ha-Turim). Rimze Ba'al ha-Turim. Early 14th century. In, e.g., Baal Haturim Chumash: Bamidbar/Numbers. Translated by Eliyahu Touger, edited and annotated by Avie Gold, volume 4, pages 1443–505. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 2003. Jacob ben Asher. Perush Al ha-Torah. Early 14th century. In, e.g., Yaakov ben Asher. Tur on the Torah. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume3 pages 1045–78. Jerusalem: Lambda Publishers, 2005. Isaac ben Moses Arama. Akedat Yizhak (The Binding of Isaac). Late 15th century. In, e.g., Yitzchak Arama. Akeydat Yitzchak: Commentary of Rabbi Yitzchak Arama on the Torah. Translated and condensed by Eliyahu Munk, volume 2, pages 699–713. New York, Lambda Publishers, 2001. Modern Isaac Abravanel. Commentary on the Torah. Italy, between 1492 and 1509. In, e.g., Abarbanel: Selected Commentaries on the Torah: Volume 4: Bamidbar/Numbers. Translated and annotated by Israel Lazar, pages 72–115. Brooklyn: CreateSpace, 2015. Obadiah ben Jacob Sforno. Commentary on the Torah. Venice, 1567. In, e.g., Sforno: Commentary on the Torah. Translation and explanatory notes by Raphael Pelcovitz, pages 682–707. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1997. Moshe Alshich. Commentary on the Torah. Safed, circa 1593. In, e.g., Moshe Alshich. Midrash of Rabbi Moshe Alshich on the Torah. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 814–41. New York, Lambda Publishers, 2000. Avraham Yehoshua Heschel. Commentaries on the Torah. Cracow, Poland, mid-17th century. Compiled as Chanukat HaTorah. Edited by Chanoch Henoch Erzohn. Piotrkow, Poland, 1900. In Avraham Yehoshua Heschel. Chanukas HaTorah: Mystical Insights of Rav Avraham Yehoshua Heschel on Chumash. Translated by Avraham Peretz Friedman, pages 247–54. Southfield, Michigan: Targum Press/Feldheim Publishers, 2004. Thomas Hobbes. Leviathan, 3:34, 36, 40, 42. England, 1651. Reprint edited by C. B. Macpherson, pages 432, 460, 462, 464, 505, 595. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Classics, 1982. Shabbethai Bass. Sifsei Chachamim. Amsterdam, 1680. In, e.g., Sefer Bamidbar: From the Five Books of the Torah: Chumash: Targum Okelos: Rashi: Sifsei Chachamim: Yalkut: Haftaros, translated by Avrohom Y. Davis, pages 130–206. Lakewood Township, New Jersey: Metsudah Publications, 2013. Chaim ibn Attar. Ohr ha-Chaim. Venice, 1742. In Chayim ben Attar. Or Hachayim: Commentary on the Torah. Translated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 4, pages 1383–442. Brooklyn: Lambda Publishers, 1999. Hirschel Levin. "Sermon on Be-Ha'aloteka." London, 1757 or 1758. In Marc Saperstein. Jewish Preaching, 1200–1800: An Anthology, pages 347–58. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989. Samuel David Luzzatto (Shadal). Commentary on the Torah. Padua, 1871. In, e.g., Samuel David Luzzatto. Torah Commentary. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 1029–42. New York: Lambda Publishers, 2012. Yehudah Aryeh Leib Alter. Sefat Emet. Góra Kalwaria (Ger), Poland, before 1906. Excerpted in The Language of Truth: The Torah Commentary of Sefat Emet. Translated and interpreted by Arthur Green, pages 229–34. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1998. Reprinted 2012. Louis Ginzberg. Legends of the Jews, volume 3, pages 455–97. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1911. Hermann Cohen. Religion of Reason: Out of the Sources of Judaism. Translated with an introduction by Simon Kaplan; introductory essays by Leo Strauss, pages 77, 87, 266, 347, 425. New York: Ungar, 1972. Reprinted Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1995. Originally published as Religion der Vernunft aus den Quellen des Judentums. Leipzig: Gustav Fock, 1919. Alexander Alan Steinbach. Sabbath Queen: Fifty-four Bible Talks to the Young Based on Each Portion of the Pentateuch, pages 113–16. New York: Behrman's Jewish Book House, 1936. Julius H. Greenstone. Numbers: With Commentary: The Holy Scriptures, pages 79–127. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1939. Reprinted by Literary Licensing, 2011. Saul Lieberman. "Critical Marks in the Hebrew Bible—The Inverted Nuns." In Hellenism in Jewish Palestine: Studies in the Literary Transmission Beliefs and Manners of Palestine in the I Century B.C.E.–IV Century C.E., page 38. New York: The Jewish Theological Seminary of America, 1950. Abraham Joshua Heschel. The Sabbath. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1951. Reprinted 2005. Carol L. Meyers. The Tabernacle Menorah. Missoula, Montana: Scholars Press, 1976. Peter C. Craigie. The Problem of War in the Old Testament, page 36. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1978. Philip J. Budd. Word Biblical Commentary: Volume 5: Numbers, pages 85–139. Waco, Texas: Word Books, 1984. Joel Roth. "On the Ordination of Women as Rabbis." New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 1984. HM 7.4.1984b. In Responsa: 1980–1990: The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement. Edited by David J. Fine, pages 736, 741–42, 764, 773 note 38, 786 note 133. New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2005. (women's observance of commandments and role as witnesses). Pinchas H. Peli. Torah Today: A Renewed Encounter with Scripture, pages 165–68. Washington, D.C.: B'nai B'rith Books, 1987. Phyllis Trible. "Bringing Miriam Out of the Shadows." Bible Review, volume 5, number 1 (February 1989). Elliot N. Dorff. "A Jewish Approach to End-Stage Medical Care." New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 1990. YD 339:1.1990b. In Responsa: 1980–1990: The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement. Edited by David J. Fine, pages 519, 535, 567 note 23. New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2005. (the prayer of Moses in Numbers 11:15 and the endurance of pain). Jacob Milgrom. The JPS Torah Commentary: Numbers: The Traditional Hebrew Text with the New JPS Translation, pages 59–99, 367–87. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1990. Baruch A. Levine. Numbers 1–20, volume 4, pages 267–343. New York: Anchor Bible, 1993. Mary Douglas. In the Wilderness: The Doctrine of Defilement in the Book of Numbers, pages 58–59, 80, 84, 86, 103, 107, 109–12, 120–21, 123–26, 135–38, 141, 143, 145, 147, 167, 175, 186, 188–90, 192, 195–98, 200–01, 209–10. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993. Reprinted 2004. Bernhard W. Anderson. "Miriam's Challenge: Why was Miriam severely punished for challenging Moses' authority while Aaron got off scot-free? There is no way to avoid the fact that the story presupposes a patriarchal society." Bible Review, volume 10, number 3 (June 1994). Judith S. Antonelli. "Remember Miriam." In In the Image of God: A Feminist Commentary on the Torah, pages 348–51. Northvale, New Jersey: Jason Aronson, 1995. Elliot N. Dorff. "Family Violence." New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 1995. HM 424.1995. In Responsa: 1991–2000: The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement. Edited by Kassel Abelson and David J. Fine, pages 773, 806. New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2002. (laws of slander). Phyllis Trible. "Eve and Miriam: From the Margins to the Center." In Feminist Approaches to the Bible: Symposium at the Smithsonian Institution September 24, 1994. Biblical Archaeology Society, 1995. Ellen Frankel. The Five Books of Miriam: A Woman’s Commentary on the Torah, pages 207–14. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1996. W. Gunther Plaut. The Haftarah Commentary, pages 347–56. New York: UAHC Press, 1996. Robert Goodman. "Shabbat" and "Pesach." In Teaching Jewish Holidays: History, Values, and Activities, pages 1–19, 153–72. Denver: A.R.E. Publishing, 1997. Sorel Goldberg Loeb and Barbara Binder Kadden. Teaching Torah: A Treasury of Insights and Activities, pages 242–47. Denver: A.R.E. Publishing, 1997. Hershel Shanks. "Insight: Does the Bible refer to God as feminine?" Bible Review, volume 14, number 2 (April 1998). Susan Freeman. Teaching Jewish Virtues: Sacred Sources and Arts Activities, pages 8–25. Springfield, New Jersey: A.R.E. Publishing, 1999. (Numbers 12:3). Elie Wiesel. "Supporting Roles: Eldad and Medad." Bible Review, volume 15, number 2 (April 1999). Robert R. Stieglitz. "The Lowdown on the Riffraff: Do these obscure figures preserve a memory of a historical Exodus?" Bible Review, volume 15, number 4 (August 1999). J. Daniel Hays. "Moses: The private man behind the public leader." Bible Review, volume 16, number 4 (August 2000): pages 16–26, 60–63. Dennis T. Olson. "Numbers." In The HarperCollins Bible Commentary. Edited by James L. Mays, pages 171–74. New York: HarperCollins Publishers, revised edition, 2000. Ruth H. Sohn. "The Silencing of Miriam." In The Women's Torah Commentary: New Insights from Women Rabbis on the 54 Weekly Torah Portions. Edited by Elyse Goldstein, pages 270–78. Woodstock, Vermont: Jewish Lights Publishing, 2000. Elie Kaplan Spitz. "Mamzerut." New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2000. EH 4.2000a. In Responsa: 1991–2000: The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement. Edited by Kassel Abelson and David J. Fine, 558, 578. New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2002. (Miriam's speaking ill and leprosy). Lainie Blum Cogan and Judy Weiss. Teaching Haftarah: Background, Insights, and Strategies, pages 587–97. Denver: A.R.E. Publishing, 2002. Michael Fishbane. The JPS Bible Commentary: Haftarot, pages 222–29. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2002. Robert Alter. The Five Books of Moses: A Translation with Commentary, pages 721–44. New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 2004. Nili S. Fox. "Numbers." In The Jewish Study Bible. Edited by Adele Berlin and Marc Zvi Brettler, pages 301–09. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004. Margot Stein. "Haftarat Behalotecha: Zechariah 2:14–4:7." In The Women's Haftarah Commentary: New Insights from Women Rabbis on the 54 Weekly Haftarah Portions, the 5 Megillot & Special Shabbatot. Edited by Elyse Goldstein, pages 171–74. Woodstock, Vermont: Jewish Lights Publishing, 2004. Marek Halter. Zipporah, Wife of Moses. New York: Crown, 2005. Professors on the Parashah: Studies on the Weekly Torah Reading Edited by Leib Moscovitz, pages 243–48. Jerusalem: Urim Publications, 2005. W. Gunther Plaut. The Torah: A Modern Commentary: Revised Edition. Revised edition edited by David E.S. Stern, pages 950–76. New York: Union for Reform Judaism, 2006. Suzanne A. Brody. "Mocking Birds." In Dancing in the White Spaces: The Yearly Torah Cycle and More Poems, page 95. Shelbyville, Kentucky: Wasteland Press, 2007. James L. Kugel. How To Read the Bible: A Guide to Scripture, Then and Now, pages 109, 159, 328–30, 407, 438, 441, 533. New York: Free Press, 2007. The Torah: A Women's Commentary. Edited by Tamara Cohn Eskenazi and Andrea L. Weiss, pages 843–68. New York: URJ Press, 2008. Simeon Chavel. "The Second Passover, Pilgrimage, and the Centralized Cult." Harvard Theological Review, volume 102, number 1 (January 2009): pages 1–24. R. Dennis Cole. "Numbers." In Zondervan Illustrated Bible Backgrounds Commentary. Edited by John H. Walton, volume 1, pages 351–58. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan, 2009. Steve Gutow. "Setting the Stage for Pluralistic Judaism: Parashat Beha’alotecha (Numbers 8:1–12:16)." In Torah Queeries: Weekly Commentaries on the Hebrew Bible. Edited by Gregg Drinkwater, Joshua Lesser, and David Shneer; foreword by Judith Plaskow, pages 197–98. New York: New York University Press, 2009. Reuven Hammer. Entering Torah: Prefaces to the Weekly Torah Portion, pages 207–11. New York: Gefen Publishing House, 2009. Terence E. Fretheim. "Numbers." In The New Oxford Annotated Bible: New Revised Standard Version with the Apocrypha: An Ecumenical Study Bible. Edited by Michael D. Coogan, Marc Z. Brettler, Carol A. Newsom, and Pheme Perkins, pages 201–08. New York: Oxford University Press, Revised 4th Edition 2010. The Commentators' Bible: Numbers: The JPS Miqra'ot Gedolot. Edited, translated, and annotated by Michael Carasik, pages 55–89. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2011. Calum Carmichael. "Joseph and Moses as Sources of Discord." In The Book of Numbers: A Critique of Genesis, pages 54–67. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2012. Shmuel Herzfeld. "Father’s Day." In Fifty-Four Pick Up: Fifteen-Minute Inspirational Torah Lessons, pages 204–08. Jerusalem: Gefen Publishing House, 2012. Daniel S. Nevins. "The Use of Electrical and Electronic Devices on Shabbat." New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2012. Shlomo Riskin. Torah Lights: Bemidbar: Trials and Tribulations in Times of Transition, pages 59–87. New Milford, Connecticut: Maggid Books, 2012. Shai Cherry. "Second Chance Seder: Our sages acknowledge and validate the alienation and disaffection we sometimes feel." The Jerusalem Report, volume 24, number 4 (May 22, 2013): page 45. Janson C. Condren. “Is the Account of the Organization of the Camp Devoid of Organization? A Proposal for the Literary Structure of Numbers 1.1–10.10.” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, volume 37, number 4 (June 2013): pages 423–52. Amanda Terkel. "Glenn Grothman, Wisconsin GOP Senator, Fights for a Seven-Day Workweek." The Huffington Post. (January 3, 2014, updated January 23, 2014). (Congressional candidate said, "Right now in Wisconsin, you're not supposed to work seven days in a row, which is a little ridiculous because all sorts of people want to work seven days a week.") Jonathan Sacks. Lessons in Leadership: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible, pages 193–97. New Milford, Connecticut: Maggid Books, 2015. Avivah Gottlieb Zornberg. Bewilderments: Reflections on the Book of Numbers, pages 63–118. New York: Schocken Books, 2015. Jonathan Sacks. Essays on Ethics: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible, pages 227–31. New Milford, Connecticut: Maggid Books, 2016. Shai Held. The Heart of Torah, Volume 2: Essays on the Weekly Torah Portion: Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy, pages 114–23. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2017. Steven Levy and Sarah Levy. The JPS Rashi Discussion Torah Commentary, pages 120–22. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2017. Pekka Pitkänen. “Ancient Israelite Population Economy: Ger, Toshav, Nakhri and Karat as Settler Colonial Categories.” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, volume 42, number 2 (December 2017): pages 139–53. Jonathan Sacks. Numbers: The Wilderness Years: Covenant & Conversation: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible, pages 107–44. New Milford, Connecticut: Maggid Books, 2017. Michael Shelomo Bar-Ron. “A Notice About Manna and Uprooted Oppression at Serabit el-Khadim (Improved).” (2020). External links Texts Masoretic text and 1917 JPS translation Hear the parashah chanted Hear the parashah read in Hebrew Listen to Behaalotecha on Spotify Commentaries Academy for Jewish Religion, California Academy for Jewish Religion, New York Aish.com American Jewish University—Ziegler School of Rabbinic Studies Chabad.org Hadar Jewish Theological Seminary MyJewishLearning.com Orthodox Union Pardes from Jerusalem Reconstructing Judaism Union for Reform Judaism United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism Yeshiva University Weekly Torah readings in Sivan Weekly Torah readings from Numbers
4857523	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klamelisaurus	Klamelisaurus	Klamelisaurus (meaning "Kelameili Mountains lizard") is a genus of herbivorous sauropod dinosaur from the Middle Jurassic Shishugou Formation of China. The type species is Klamelisaurus gobiensis, which was named by Zhao Xijin in 1993, based on a partial skeleton discovered in 1982 near the abandoned town of Jiangjunmiao. Zhao described Klamelisaurus as the only member of a new subfamily, Klamelisaurinae, among the now-defunct primitive sauropod order Bothrosauropodoidea. Since Zhao's description, Klamelisaurus received limited attention from researchers until Andrew Moore and colleagues redescribed it in 2020. A relatively large sauropod measuring approximately long, with half of the length being its neck, Klamelisaurus can be distinguished from its relatives by characteristics of the and . Phylogenetic analyses have suggested that Klamelisaurus belonged to the Mamenchisauridae, a group of Middle to Late Jurassic and primarily Chinese sauropods, although its close relatives also include a mamenchisaurid from Thailand. While paleontologist Gregory S. Paul suggested that Bellusaurus, known only from juvenile specimens, was a juvenile Klamelisaurus, this proposal has been rejected based on anatomical evidence, and the fact that Bellusaurus was geologically younger. Discovery and naming Between 1981 and 1985, a field crew from the Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology (IVPP) conducted excavations in the Junggar Basin of the Xinjiang Autonomous Region of China, as part of a research project titled "Evolution of the Junggar Basin and the Formation of Petroleum". The work was conducted in cooperation with the Chinese Academy of Sciences and the Xinjiang Office of Petroleum. In 1982, these excavations uncovered the skeleton of a sauropod dinosaur north of the now-abandoned town of Jiangjunmiao, located in the eastern Junggar Basin. The skeleton was excavated and collected in 1984 by the IVPP field team. The specimen, which was catalogued under the specimen number IVPP V9492, consists of teeth, most of the vertebral column (save for the first seven (neck vertebrae) and the end of the tail), , the right shoulder girdle and arm (, , , , , and ), and the right hip girdle and leg (, , , , , and ). At the time of its discovery, the specimen was already weathered. After it was transported to Beijing, with preparation and restoration work beginning in 1985, it deteriorated further due to fluctuations in temperature and humidity. Nearly all of the bones underwent reconstruction and painting, and many of them were encased in a metal armature for display. The referral of the fragmentary teeth to the specimen was unexplained, and they can no longer be located along with two ribs, two of the wrist, a of the ankle, and some bones of the tail. They also located several (from the underside of the tail), the bottom end of the left femur, and parts of the left hand that were not mentioned by Zhao. In 1993, Xijing Zhao described IVPP V9492 as the type specimen of a new genus and species, Klamelisaurus gobiensis. Due to the condition of the specimen, he only conducted a "simple description". The generic name Klamelisaurus refers to the Kelameili Mountains to the north of Jiangjunmiao, of which "Klameli" is a variant spelling. The specific name gobiensis refers to the Gobi Desert, in which Jiangjunmiao is located. Following Zhao's description, IVPP V9492 received limited attention in the literature until it was redescribed by Andrew Moore and colleagues in 2020. They noted that the specimen's reconstruction had been altered since Zhao's description, namely by the addition of a frontward-projecting process on the 15th and the removal of a fabricated connection to the (vertebral body). Description Klamelisaurus was described as a "relatively large" sauropod by Zhao in 1993. In 2016, American paleontologist Gregory S. Paul estimated its length at in length and in weight, albeit based on the hypothesis that Klamelisaurus represented the adult form of Bellusaurus. In 2020, Moore and colleagues listed a number of characteristics (following a 2013 study by Michael Taylor and Mathew Wedel) which identified the type specimen as an adult: the lack of unfused sutures in the vertebral centra; the fusion of the (hip vertebrae), the fusion of the cervical ribs to their corresponding centra; and the fusion of the scapula and coracoid in the shoulder. Vertebrae Zhao stated that the type specimen of Klamelisaurus preserved nine cervicals (neck vertebrae), out of an estimated total of sixteen with a total length of . Moore and colleagues concurred with the number of cervicals, but they noted that the tenth preserved vertebra shows characteristics of both cervicals and (back vertebrae). They estimated a total of fifteen to seventeen cervicals, based on other sauropods with similar patterns of vertebral variation, and indicated that Klamelisaurus had a shorter neck than Omeisaurus tianfuensis, Mamenchisaurus hochuanensis, and M. sinocanadorum. Zhao's original diagnosis or list of distinguishing characteristics (which have been reassessed as being widespread among sauropods) noted that the cervicals were (with centra convex in front and concave behind); had centra 1.5 to 2 times the length of the dorsal centra; and had tall , which were bifid (two-pronged) at the back of the neck. Moore and colleagues noted two unique features (autapomorphies) in the cervicals. First, the spinoprezygapophyseal (SPRLs), ridges of bone extending forward from the neural spines, bore irregular, plate-like extensions. Second, below the SPRLs and in front of depressions called the spinodiapophyseal (SDFs), the sides of the centra bore a set of deep (openings). Although these foramina were present only on the right side of the centra, Moore and colleagues considered them to be unique due to their consistency and the presence of similar structures in other sauropods. A number of sauropods possess laminae or struts that cross the SDFs in their cervical vertebrae, linking the projecting from the back of the vertebrae to the extending from the front of the vertebrae. These include Euhelopus (where it is a distinguishing characteristic) and Nigersaurus; this structure has been named the "epipophyseal-prezygapophyseal lamina" (EPRL). Moore and colleagues considered two structures in Klamelisaurus to potentially correspond to the EPRL: extensions of the epipophyses that invade the SDFs from the rear, and isolated struts in the middle of the SDFs. Similar structures in Uberabatitan had previously been considered as evidence of a "segmented EPRL". However, for Klamelisaurus, Moore and colleagues interpreted the former to be an attachment for the intercristal muscles of the neck, based on the surface texture and comparisons with ostriches, while they considered the latter to be a pneumatic structure created by . Thus, they argued that previous literature had conflated distinct and diverse muscular and pneumatic structures as components of the EPRL. Moore and colleagues identified twelve dorsals and six sacrals in the type specimen of Klamelisaurus. (Zhao previously identified the first sacral of Moore and colleagues as the last dorsal, giving thirteen dorsals and five sacrals.) Although sacral vertebrae are usually identified by contact with the ilium, these bones are not in association in the type specimen. Instead, Moore and colleagues noted a bridge of bone connecting the and (processes on the side of the vertebra), which was either fused to the lost sacral rib (as in other sauropods) or was not associated with a rib at all. Zhao's diagnosis noted that the dorsals were opisthocoelous; the dorsals had shallow (neurovascular openings) and simple lamination (ridging); the dorsal neural spines were low, with the first few being bifid and the last few having expanded tips; the sacral centra were fused such that their boundaries were not visible; and the first four sacral neural spines were fused. Moore and colleagues identified two unique features in the dorsals. First, the sides of some of the dorsals bore sets of three posterior centroparapophyseal laminae (PCPLs). Second, the spinodiapophyseal laminae (SPDLs) on the sides of the neural spines were bifurcated in the middle and rear dorsals, but unlike Bellusaurus the two prongs did not reach the SPRLs or the SPOLs (spinopostzygapophyseal laminae, the rear counterparts of the SPRLs). Parts of nineteen (tail vertebrae) were found by Moore and colleagues: parts of the first four caudals (labelled as caudals 1–4), five more neural spines from the front of the tail (labelled as caudals 6 and 8–11), and eleven centra from the middle of the tail (labelled as caudals 18–27 and 33). Zhao originally counted two complete caudals, ten neural spines from the front, and ten middle centra, based on which he estimated that sixty were originally present with a total length of . Zhao's list of characteristics indicated that the first few caudals were (with centra concave in front and convex behind), with the rest being (with centra concave on both ends); and the caudal neural spines were claviform (thicker at the tip) and slanted extremely to the rear. Characteristics of the caudals that differentiate Klamelisaurus from Tienshanosaurus include the procoelous front caudals, and the front edge of the tip of the neural spines being slanted to the point of reaching behind the rear edge of the processes known as . Limbs and limb girdles In terms of limb proportions, Zhao indicated that the forelimb of Klamelisaurus was three-quarters the length of the hindlimb, and the ulna and tibia were respectively two-thirds the lengths of the humerus and femur. He considered these proportions to be distinguishing characteristics of Klamelisaurus. According to Zhao, Klamelisaurus had a thin, elongated scapula and a slender, small coracoid (the former being 4.3 to 4.5 times the length of the latter), but Moore and colleagues did not consider his measurements of the scapula to be reliable as most of the bone was covered by plaster and paint. The , located at the outer bottom end of the scapula, was broader than in Cetiosaurus, Shunosaurus, and many early-diverging sauropodomorphs, and the top edge of the acromion was straight, not concave like Tienshanosaurus. Zhao observed that the top of the humerus was thick, and slightly curved. Unlike Bellusaurus and many neosauropods, the head of the humerus did not have an overhanging sub-circular process. Moore and colleagues noted a unique characteristic of the humerus: the front surface of the top inner end bore a depression, which was bordered by an S-shaped shelf ending in a rounded bump. Zhao n that the ulna was longer than the relatively straight radius, and he suggested that the degree of expansion of the upper ulna was unique; Moore and colleagues instead found that it was comparable to many other sauropods. Also unlike Bellusaurus, the anteromedial process at the top of the ulna had a convex (not flat) surface that sloped below the . The bottom of the front of the radius bore a depression, which Haestasaurus also had, but was otherwise uncommon among sauropods. Zhao's diagnosis for the hips and legs of Klamelisaurus included a robust ilium with an indistinct "laminar ridge" and a forward-projecting (attachment to the pubis); a slender ischium; a robust, thin, flat, and weakly curved pubis (however, this bone appears to be reconstructed); a thick and flat femur with an indistinct head and a (the attachment for the muscle) located near the top of the bone; and a tibia shorter than the fibula (however, these bones are either incomplete or heavily reconstructed). Moore and colleagues noted that the anterolateral and anteromedial processes at the top of the tibia formed an acute angle in Klamelisaurus, unlike Bellusaurus where they formed an angle of 80°. They also identified a distinguishing characteristic in the first of the (possibly right) foot: there was a flange-like ridge overhanging the inner edge of the shaft. This bone was shorter than the large and recurved claw of the third toe on the right foot. Both of these foot bones, among others, were described by Zhao as hand bones. Classification Early classifications In his 1993 description, Zhao placed Klamelisaurus as the only genus in a new subfamily, Klamelisaurinae, for which he also provided a diagnosis. (A number of Zhao's distinguishing characteristics listed above pertain to Klamelisaurinae instead of Klamelisaurus directly.) He considered it to be "early to middle stage sauropod" with "transitional characters". As for the higher-level taxonomy of Klamelisaurus, the sauropod classification used by Zhao was an antiquated scheme attributed by Zhao to a 1958 publication by C. C. Young (although in 1983 he had attributed it to a 1961 publication by Oskar Kuhn): the Sauropoda was divided into the primitive Bothrosauropodoidea (misspelt as "Bothrosauropodea" by Zhao) and the derived ("advanced") Homalosauropodoidea (misspelt as "Homolosauropodoidea" and "Homolosauropodea" by Zhao), which could be distinguished based on dental and vertebral characteristics. He assigned Klamelisaurus to the former. Within the "early stage" Bothrosauropodoidea, Zhao considered Klamelisaurus to be part of the Brachiosauridae, which by his definition included the modern Brachiosauridae alongside Cetiosauridae (as "Cetiosaurinae"), Camarasaurinae, and Euhelopodidae (as "Euhelopodinae"). Among these groups, he considered Klamelisaurus to be closest to Camarasaurinae due to the cervicals being longer than the dorsals; the bifid cervical and dorsal neural spines; the "well-developed" pleurocoels; the relatively short forelimb; and the fibula-femur length ratio. However, he noted that the combination of more than twelve cervicals, thirteen dorsals, five sacrals with four fused, and other characteristics in Klamelisaurus was distinct from these other groups, warranting the creation of a new subfamily. Subsequent literature has not used Zhao's taxonomy for Klamelisaurus. In the 2004 second edition of The Dinosauria, Paul Upchurch, Paul Barrett, and Peter Dodson considered Klamelisaurus to be a sauropod of uncertain phylogenetic relationships (incertae sedis), and suggested that it can be distinguished by fusion of the last three cervical neural spines. (However, in 2020, Moore and colleagues noted that it did not possess this trait.) Based on the broad, spatula-like teeth (considered by Moore and colleagues to be of questionable affiliation), the estimated presence of sixteen cervicals, the presence of five sacrals, and the forked chevrons, Upchurch and colleagues noted a resemblance between Klamelisaurus and Omeisaurus. Thus, they suggested that it could be a non-neosauropod eusauropod. Redescription In their 2020 redescription of Klamelisaurus, Moore and colleagues provided the first phylogenetic analysis of its relationships. They added Klamelisaurus to two different datasets: one used by José Carballido and colleagues in their 2015 description of Padillasaurus, and one used by Bernardo Gonzàlez Riga and colleagues in their 2018 redescription of Mendozasaurus. To both, they added various members of the Mamenchisauridae — a group that many Middle-to-Late Jurassic Chinese sauropods have been assigned to. Since previous analyses failed to find Mamenchisaurus and Omeisaurus species as unified (monophyletic) groups, their analysis focused on resolving the relationships of individual specimens rather than genera. They conducted three variants of each analysis: a parsimony-based analysis, an implied-weights analysis to optimize for homologous (i.e., derived from a shared ancestor) features, and a Bayesian (likelihood-based) analysis to account for the age of each specimen. All of their analyses recovered Klamelisaurus as part of a group of Middle-to-Late Jurassic sauropods that also included Mamenchisaurus, Chuanjiesaurus, Analong (as a referred specimen of Chuanjiesaurus), Wamweracaudia, Qijianglong, a specimen from Thailand (the Phu Kradung taxon), and a specimen from Xinjiang (the Shishugou cervicodorsal vertebrae). They termed these the "core Mamenchisaurus-like taxa". The parsimony-based and implied-weights analyses for the Carballido dataset found Klamelisaurus close to the Phu Kradung and Shishugou specimens, as well as M. youngi; the Bayesian analysis found M. constructus and M. hochuanensis closer than the latter two. The parsimony-based analysis for the Gonzàlez Riga dataset found Klamelisaurus close to M. youngi, M. hochuanensis, and Qijianglong; and the implied-weights and Bayesian analyses found it close to the Phu Kradung and Shishugou specimens, with the latter also including Chuanjiesaurus, M. constructus, and Euhelopus. Nearly all of their analyses found the "core Mamenchisaurus-like taxa" to be closely related to Euhelopus, Daxiatitan, and Dongbeititan, traditionally considered part of the more derived Macronaria. They recovered this wider group — which they termed the Euhelopodidae — outside of the Neosauropoda; the implied-weights analysis on the Carballido dataset placed it as an early-diverging macronarian lineage, also including Bellusaurus, while the implied-weights analysis on the Gonzàlez Riga dataset found Euhelopus among macronarians as a somphospondyl (in which case they called the group Mamenchisauridae). For all analyses, the support (or "likelihood") values for groupings within the Euhelopodidae were low. They considered the results of the implied-weights and Bayesian analyses of the Gonzàlez Riga dataset to be most favorable; still, the results of the two analyses differed profoundly. Thus, they highlighted a need for further redescriptions and revisions of these sauropods (particularly Mamenchisaurus and Omeisaurus) as well as the development of more distinguishing characteristics. Below, two phylogenetic trees show the internal relationships of Euhelopodidae/Mamenchisauridae in the two analyses Moore and colleagues deemed most favorable, the implied-weights and Bayesian analyses of the Gonzàlez Riga dataset. Topology A: Implied-weights analysis, Gonzàlez Riga dataset Topology B: Time-calibrated Bayesian analysis, Gonzàlez Riga dataset Suggested synonymy with Bellusaurus In The Princeton Field Guide to Dinosaurs, a popular book with two editions published in 2010 and 2016, Paul has suggested that Klamelisaurus may have been be the adult form of Bellusaurus (known only from juvenile specimens). In 2018, Moore and colleagues redescribed Bellusaurus and provided several arguments to refute this notion. First, they noted that the two were not actually contemporaries; the holotype of Klamelisaurus originates from slightly older strata (rock layers). They also listed twenty-four characteristics in the vertebrae, coracoid, and humerus that differentiated the two genera. In their 2020 redescription of Klamelisaurus, they added four characteristics to this list, and also noted that Bellusaurus did not possess any of the unique features of Klamelisaurus. Most of the characteristics on their list pertain to differences in pneumatic features in the vertebrae of Klamelisaurus and Bellusaurus that are not readily explainable by differences in age. In sauropods, vertebral air spaces typically become more extensive and invade more of the vertebrae with age. Bellusaurus possessed procamerate to weakly camerate air spaces (i.e., its air spaces were deep, leaving only a thin layer of bone at the midline, and were barely enclosed by bone) in its cervicals. Meanwhile, based on comparisons with its relatives, Moore and colleagues inferred that Klamelisaurus likely had camerate air spaces (i.e., enclosed by bone) in its cervicals. Based on the cervicals alone, they could not contradict the hypothesis that juvenile Bellusaurus could have grown into an adult with camellate air spaces in the cervicals, as is the case with Barosaurus. However, they noted that Bellusaurus possessed several pneumatic features in the dorsal neural spines and that Klamelisaurus lacked, which runs contrary to the expected pattern for euhelopodids and mamenchisaurids. Specifically, in the dorsals of Bellusaurus, the PCDLs (posterior centrodiapophyseal laminae) below the diapophyses bifurcated at the bottom; the CPOLs (centropostzygapophyseal laminae) at the rear of the centra had a sharp-edged branch situated in a relatively deep depression; and the diapophyses bore rimmed trough-like depressions. Considering their temporal and anatomical differences, Moore and colleagues thus considered Klamelisaurus and Bellusaurus to be readily distinguishable. However, they also noted two characteristics on their list which may have varied with age: the bifurcated neural spines, and the presence of wing-shaped processes that projected further outwards than the postzygapophyses on the rear dorsals. Palaeoenvironment The holotype of Klamelisaurus originated from a rock layer that was described as being "gray-brown, purple-red sandy mudstone" by Zhao in 1993. This layer was situated at the top of what Zhao called the "Wucaiwan Formation", but a lack of differences in rock layers has led it to become subsumed into the Shishugou Formation as the "lower beds" or the Wucaiwan Member. Using stratigraphic correlation, this rock layer was found to lie below a tuff from the Shishugou Formation at the Wucaiwan locality, which has been dated radiometrically to 162.2 ± 0.2 Ma, or the Oxfordian age of the Jurassic period. Based on this, Moore and colleagues considered Klamelisaurus to have originated from the late Callovian age. During the Callovian, the climate of the Shishugou Formation is considered to have been mesic (moderately and seasonally wet), with the environment at Wucaiwan having been an alluvial plain or marsh. Juliane Hinz and colleagues in 2010 reconstructed a petrified forest preserved in overlying Oxfordian rocks, located north of Jiangjunmiao. It would have consisted of Araucaria trees, with the undergrowth being occupied by Coniopteris tree ferns, Anglopteris and Osmunda ferns, Equisetites horsetails, and Elatocladus shrubs. Three theropod dinosaurs have been discovered near Jiangjunmiao: Monolophosaurus, considered to have been no younger than the late Callovian and thus closest temporally to Klamelisaurus; Aorun, from layers in the "middle beds" that have been re-dated from the Callovian to the Oxfordian; and Sinraptor, from the Oxfordian "upper beds". The crocodylomorphs Sunosuchus and Junggarsuchus are known from other localities in the "lower beds". Meanwhile, the sauropods Bellusaurus, Mamenchisaurus sinocanadorum, and Tienshanosaurus are known from the "upper beds", above the level of the tuff at 162.2 Ma, and thus were not contemporaries of Klamelisaurus. Asides from these sauropods, Aorun, and Sinraptor, the Oxfordian portion of the Shishugou Formation preserves a diverse dinosaur fauna that also includes the theropods Haplocheirus, Shishugounykus, Zuolong, Guanlong, and Limusaurus; the ornithopod Gongbusaurus; the stegosaur Jiangjunosaurus; and the marginocephalians Yinlong and Hualianceratops. References Sauropods Middle Jurassic dinosaurs of Asia Jurassic China Biota of Xinjiang Paleontology in Xinjiang Taxa named by Zhao Xijin
4857646	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1968%2024%20Hours%20of%20Le%20Mans	1968 24 Hours of Le Mans	The 1968 24 Hours of Le Mans was the 36th Grand Prix of Endurance, and took place on 28 and 29 September 1968 on the Circuit de la Sarthe, in Le Mans, France. Originally scheduled for the weekend of 15 and 16 June, the race had to be delayed until September due to protests, strikes, and civil unrest in France during the spring of 1968. The rescheduled race increased the chances of the Group 6 Prototypes against the Group 4 Sports cars, as the new Prototype cars had matured during the season. It also increased the amount of darkness that drivers would be racing in compared to June, by about three hours: a total of 11 hours. Its new date made it the tenth and final round of the 1968 World Sportscar Championship of a tense and close championship between Ford and Porsche. The winners were Pedro Rodriguez and Lucien Bianchi, in the J.W. Automotive Gulf-Oil Ford GT40. Despite Porsche finishing second and third, the victory was enough to give Ford the manufacturer's title. There were also two major accidents during the race ending the racing careers of Willy Mairesse and Mauro Bianchi (Lucien's younger brother), who both suffered severe burns in the crashes. Regulations Straight after the 1967 race, the CSI (Commission Sportive Internationale - the FIA’s regulatory body) convened to discuss ways to limit the increasingly dangerous speeds in Sports car racing, mindful of what led to the 1955 disaster. It was decided to impose a 3-litre (120-litre fuel tank) on Group 6 Prototypes and a 5-litre limit (160-litre fuel tank) on Group 4 Sports. There remained no engine limit on the Group 3 GTs. It effectively banned the big-block Fords and Chaparral, as well as the big Ferraris and the new Mirage and Lola-Aston Martin and marked the end of an era. The theory was that manufacturers would turn to the use of 3-litre Formula One engines to save development costs. However, it was the immediate implementation in the next year that caused much unrest with the companies. The CSI cited ‘safety concerns’ justifying the rapid action. Enzo Ferrari cancelled his Prototype program. He was not alone in believing a 5-litre Sports car would outperform a 3-litre Prototype, and that only the big manufacturers would be able to make the minimum 50 big-engined cars to get Group 4 homologation. Because the race was rescheduled and the longer period of darkness, the Automobile Club de l'Ouest (ACO) permitted one battery change. With high speed being such a talking point, Ford volunteered to sponsor a major road realignment on the main straight, installing a chicane just before the pitlane. The changes added at least 10 seconds to a lap, as well as causing greater wear on tyres and brakes. Although the track had been widened and safety features of the track improved in the aftermath of the 1955 disaster, this was the first significant layout-change to the circuit since 1932. Diverting the racing away from the pits also significantly increased the safety of the pit-crews. Finally, in line with the global racing trend, commercial advertising was now allowed on cars. Entries Although devoid of the big team entries from Ford and Ferrari there were still 94 applications for this year's race, and 58 cars arrived to qualify for the 54 starting places. Into that space the biggest entries were from Porsche and Alpine with 13 and 11 cars respectively. The new regulations did have a positive impact on redressing the imbalance of the Prototypes to the other two categories With the withdrawal of the Ford factory teams, J.W. Automotive had bought the rights to racing the GT40 and took over the Ford Advanced Vehicles facility at Slough. Backed by Gulf Oil and its distinctive light blue and orange livery. One of the previous year's Mirages was reverted to a GT40 while two new cars were built, this time all running a 5-litre V8, generating 415 bhp. The Gulf GT40s received some of the improvements of the Mirage, and a significant effort was made to reduce the weight of car using high-tech materials. A large part of the body was made of a very thin polyester sheet reinforced with carbon fibre. The cars were very competitive having already won four races. Wyer's two best drivers however weren't present: Jacky Ickx and Brian Redman, winners at Brands Hatch and Spa, had both broken limbs from Formula 1 accidents (at Mont Tremblant and Spa respectively) Former Ferrari-stalwart Pedro Rodriguez, and Alfa Romeo team-driver Lucien Bianchi were brought in for the race. Paul Hawkins / David Hobbs (race winners at Monza) had their regular car while Brian Muir / Jackie Oliver had the new chassis. There were also regular GT40 privateer entries, from Claude Dubois (with drivers Willy Mairesse/”Beurlys”), and Mike Salmon, having recovered from the burns he got in his Ford the previous year. Ferrari was true to his word and boycotted Le Mans, which also left several of his customer teams stranded, like the Equipe Nationale Belge and British Maranello Concessionaires. Ferrari hopes therefore fell back onto the four-year old 275 LM in Group 4. The North American Racing Team (NART) entered three different Ferraris: 1965 race-winner Masten Gregory re-joining his winning 275 LM car, a 275 GTB in the GT category and a Dino 206 S in the 2-litre Prototype class. Similarly, Scuderia Filipinetti had several options and also settled on running a 275 LM and a 275 GTB. The Swiss team also ran a pair of the latest 7-litre Corvette Stingrays in the GT division. There were two British privateer Ferraris. David Piper had done a major rebuild of his car, replacing most of its aluminium body with a polyester/fiberglass shell to reduce weight. A number of manufacturers stepped up to fill the leading prototype positions vacated by Ford and Ferrari: Porsche's ongoing development program wound up a notch with the new Porsche 908 fitted with a new 3-litre flat-8 producing 330 bhp and over 310 km/h (190 mph), the first time Porsche competed in the largest engine class of the regulations. Still quite unreliable, Porsche had to rely on their 907s to give them race victories early in the year, but the 908 came good at the Nürburgring race. Due to their low profile, the cars used small, but very bright quartz-iodine headlights, but this necessitated two alternators in each car rather than dynamos. With 5 wins to Ford's 4, Porsche had a narrow lead in the Championship coming into this final round, looking for its first overall FIA Championship. So four 908s were prepared for the works team, in langheck (longtail) form for the long fast straights. Their top pair were Jo Siffert (4 wins) and Hans Herrmann (2 wins). Rising sports-car start Vic Elford (the other race winner) was with Gerhard Mitter, Porsche regulars Rolf Stommelen and Jochen Neerpasch had the third while the Americans Joe Buzzetta/Scooter Patrick the fourth. The company also supported three privateers running the reliable 907 'langheck': Spaniard Alex Soler-Roig, Frenchman Philippe Farjon and the new Swiss team Squadra Tartaruga of Rico Steinemann. The new Matra 3-litre V12 had its race debut simultaneously in May at the Monaco F1 GP and the Spa 1000 km. Capable of a powerful 380 bhp, the company was initially not going to run at Le Mans, however the deferred date allowed for more testing and a single MS630 longtail was prepared for team drivers Henri Pescarolo and Johnny Servoz-Gavin. French hopes for outright victory mainly rested on Alpine. A proven record in the smaller classes encouraged Jean Rédélé to move up to the main category. But the new Gordini-prepared Renault 3-litre V8 only produced 310 bhp for the new A220 design. After racing earlier in the year, the car now had a rear spoiler to try to correct a dangerous aerodynamic fault: at the Nürburgring the Alpine of Henri Grandsire had got airborne and done a 360˚ loop. Jacques Cheinisse retired from racing to manage the racing team, and a big effort put eleven cars on the grid, second only to Porsche. The works team ran three A220s for Grandsire and Gérard Larrousse, Jean Guichet/Jean-Pierre Jabouille and Alpine engineer André de Cortanze/Jean Vinatier. Regular customer team Ecurie Savin-Calberson also entered one for Mauro Bianchi and Patrick Depailler and they also put an A210 in the 2-litre category. Alpine also ran the A210 in the 1300cc and 1150cc Prototype classes, including a debut for 30-race Le Mans veteran Bob Wollek. Finally, two of the homologated A110 were run in the GT category by French privateers. British entries were limited. The Lola T70 now had a 5-litre Chevrolet engine in the Sports category. John Woolfe commissioned Chevron to build a new car. The B12 was a one-off design with a fibreglass body and carrying a modified version of the 3-litre Formula 1 Repco V8 engine developing 330 bhp. Austin-Healey, as well as their regular Le Mans Sprite entry, developed a new 2-litre prototype with the Coventry Climax FWM V8 engine that put out 240 bhp. It was run by Healey's regular drivers Clive Baker and Andrew Hedges. In line with the ACO's commitment to technological development, there were two turbine-powered Howmet TXs entered in the prototype class, following on from the Rover-BRM last run in 1965. Ray Heppenstall designed a car on a Group 7 Can-Am chassis, with an aluminium shell from Howmet Castings. The Continental turbine was from a helicopter and rated as an equivalent to 3-litres with 325 bhp. It was very light but thirsty on its paraffin fuel. After a 3rd place at Watkins Glen it had shown reliability. Heppenstall drove one with race-veteran Dick Thompson while Bob Tullius/Hugh Dibley had the other. For two years Autodelta, the racing division of Alfa Romeo, had had a difficult time developing a new sports prototype. Both Jean Rolland and Leo Cella had been killed in testing accidents. The Tipo 33/2 was the new evolution and its 2-litre V8 engine put out 260 bhp. Autodelta had four cars entered including works drivers Nino Vaccarella/Giancarlo Baghetti and ‘Nanni’ Galli/Ignazio Giunti. It also supported two cars entered by the Belgian VDS customer team. Practice This year, for an unknown reason, the April test weekend coincided with the British round of the International Championship. Jacky Ickx set the benchmark for JWA, with a 3:35.4 lap, then promptly left for Brands Hatch to win the endurance race. It was also the first appearance of the new Porsche 908, in the hands of Rolf Stommelen. It was found to need major aerodynamic refinement, but Stommelen eventually got a time of 3:44.1. On race-week, Jo Siffert matched Ickx's test time exactly with his Porsche 908 to take pole position. The next day Stommelen and Elford claimed the next places, ahead of Rodriguez's Ford and Servoz-Gavin's Matra. The best Alpine was Bianchi's 3:43.2 in 8th, Vaccarella got his Alfa in 14th while the Howmet clocked 20th with 3:56.0. The best Ferrari was Müller's down in 27th (4:01.8). The Belgian Ford lost its oil through a faulty connection but was able to get a replacement engine from the JWA team. During the April test many drivers had complained about the layout of the new chicane, being too tight. By September it had been redesigned to greater satisfaction. Race Start This year the start time was moved forward to 3pm for the spectators’ sake due to the earlier onset of darkness. The honorary starter was Fiat boss Gianni Agnelli . Race-day was showery and most of the cars started on wet tyres with a heavy shower just ten minutes before the start. Siffert, among a few others, started on pole with slicks however. In his rush to get away, Willy Mairesse did not shut his door properly. At the end of the Mulsanne Straight at a speed of over 150 mph (241 km/h), it flew open. Trying to close it he lost control and the Ford careered off the track into the trees. Mairesse suffered broken bones and head injuries which left him in a coma for two weeks and ended his racing career. At the end of the first lap, Porsches were in the top four places, with Stommelen in the lead. Siffert took the lead on the fourth lap (already lapping tailenders), with the Fords running in 5-6-7. Johnny Servoz-Gavin bought the Matra in with a malfunctioning windscreen-wiper. The rain had stopped and the track was drying. Soon Hawkins and Rodríguez were in, with their wet-weather tyres ruined. Then on lap 12, the lap it was due in, the third Ford went off when Muir planted it in the sand at the Mulsanne corner. After three hours of digging he burned the clutch out in his departure. By the end of two hours Siffert had lapped the field. Teammate Elford was second, with the two Gulf-Fords, Buzzetta's 908 and the Alpines of Guichet and Bianchi next. Eighth was the leading 2-litre car, Giunti's Alfa with the Matra and Piper's Ferrari filling out the top-10. Porsche then also started having problems as Stommelen and Elford both had electrical issues delaying them. Worse though was when the leading car's clutch broke just before 7pm, stranding Siffert out on the track unable to get back to the pits for repairs. Night This left the two Gulf Fords of Rodriguez/Bianchi and Hawkins/Hobbs swapping the lead going into the night. Then at 9pm Hobbs came into the pits also with a faulty clutch and they lost nearly 2 hours repairing it. Although they got going again, the engine soon expired spectacularly at the end of the Mulsanne Straight, just after midnight. During the night the Guichet/Jabouille Alpine had pitted from 6th but lost three-quarters an hour getting a new starter motor fitted. Approaching 9pm, with the Fords and Porsches now all back on the same lap, the order was changing as often as the pitstops took place. The four Alfas had a stranglehold on the Index of Performance. Soon after, Henri Grandsire had another accident in the Alpine, when it got airborne over the hump at the end of the Mulsanne straight. Again, he was fortunate to be able to walk away uninjured. Then the Mitter/Elford Porsche snapped its alternator belt. When the officials found that the team had changed the alternator they were disqualified (much to the chagrin of team manager Huschke von Hanstein) as that was a part not permitted to be replaced during the course of a race. Just before 11pm another alternator problem took out the Buzzetta/Patrick team car too (from 4th) and Porsche's hopes of outright victory were gone. Yet JWA could not be complacent, as they were also down to one competitive Ford with two-thirds of the race still to run. Early in the second hour the second Howmet turbine had been in the pits for three hours fixing its rear suspension. Consequently, at 11pm it was disqualified for having not covered sufficient distance. The leading Howmet was also hobbled, running at 70% power, due to faulty fuel-control. Around midnight Dick Thompson hit oil at the Indianapolis corner, lost control and rolled the car. The Howmets never raced again. The rain returned about 2.30am, got heavier and stayed for the rest of the night. Servoz-Gavin bought the Matra in with the windscreen-wiper faulty again. The Matra crew could not access the motor and were considering retiring until Henri Pescarolo angrily jumped in and took off in the rain, still with the faulty wiper. At the 3am halfway point, the Ford (177 laps) had a comfortable 4-lap lead over the surprising next pair: the new Matra was scrapping with the 2-litre Alfa Romeo of Giunti/Galli. Meanwhile, Stommelen's delayed Porsche 908 was back on song and closing in fourth (170 laps). Fifth, on the same lap, was the Swiss Porsche 907 of Squadra Tartaruga with the Bianchi/Depailler Alpine (169 laps - back after falling to 15th to fix their exhaust) leading the Alfas of Facetti/Dini and Casoni/Biscaldi. The Cortanze/Vinatier Alpine had moved up to 9th ahead of the three Ferrari 275s of David Piper, NART and Scuderia Filipinetti. There were still 30 cars classified as runners. The first two Alfas still led the Index of Performance, narrowly ahead of the Andruet/Nicolas Alpine and the Swiss Porsche. Soon after 5am Sylvain Garant aquaplaned and lost control of the big Corvette at the end of the pit straight in the rain. It slammed into the track-walls on both the left and right sides, strewing metal, wood and earth across the track. The injured Garant was taken to hospital. At 4.30am, the 3rd-place Alfa Romeo was delayed in the pits which gave Matra the chance to also pit, losing 3 laps and finally fix the wiper-motor. Just before dawn the Guichet/Jabouille Alpine, that had been fighting back from the back of the field after its delay had almost made it back into the top-10 when an alternator failure stopped their charge. Morning Dawn at 6.30am was gloomy and very wet, however the rain did eventually cease. The Ford now had a 7-lap lead over the Alfa Romeo and Matra, both on the same lap, delighting the French spectators. The Andruet/Nicolas Alpine had also now taken over the Index lead Soon after 11am, with less than four hours left in the race, the most serious accident of the race occurred. Mauro Bianchi, running 6th, had recently left the pits when he crashed heavily approaching the Esses. The full fuel tank exploded in a fireball setting alight the car and the bordering straw bales. Bianchi was lucky to survive, although he had severe burns to his face and arms. Another casualty was the Matra which got a puncture going through the debris. Servoz-Gavin got back to the pits, losing a place. Then with only 3 hours to go there was a sudden change at the top. The Alfa Romeo came into the pits with suspension failure losing 30 minutes, and 4 laps, getting it repaired. Then more dramatically at 12.30, the pursuing Matra got another puncture. In getting it back to the pits the disintegrating tyre damaged the battery, causing an electrical fire and putting it out of the race. The Swiss Porsche that had been running so reliably inherited second. Finish and post-race In the end it was a comfortable 5-lap victory to the GT40 of Rodríguez and Bianchi. For Pedro Rodríguez, it was only his second finish after 11 attempts. For Lucien Bianchi it was his 13th Le Mans. In an excellent run for the new Squadra Tartaruga team, Steinemann and Spoerry came in second just a lap ahead of the Stommelen/Neerpasch works car. The repaired Alfa Romeo of Giunti/Galli was fourth, leading a formation finish of their Autodelta teammates coming in 4-5-6, the three of them separated by seventeen laps. Seventh was the green Ferrari of English privateer David Piper, delayed by overheating issues but surprisingly was the only Ferrari finisher this year. Eighth was the remaining 3-litre Alpine, driven by co-designer André de Cortanze and Jean Vinatier. It headed home three of the smaller Alpines, two of which (the Thérier/Tramont 1.3-litre A210 and the Andruet/Nicolas 1-litre works cars) won the two lucrative Index prizes. The leading GT car was the Belgian Porsche of Jean-Pierre Gaban, giving the 911 the first of many overall GT wins for the model. The final classified car, and the only British entry to finish, was the Austin-Healey Sprite in 15th. The Matra board was very satisfied with its new car's promising performance and therefore decided to expand its racing programme. Rico Steinemann, second-place winner and a former racing journalist went on, later in the year, to succeed Huschke von Hanstein as Porsche's Racing Manager. 1968 would be a terrible year for racing accidents. As well as the career-ending injuries to Willy Mairesse and Mauro Bianchi at this race, a number of other Le Mans veterans were killed or seriously injured over the racing season. These included Ludovico Scarfiotti (Rossfeld hillclimb), Jo Schlesser (French Grand Prix), Brian Redman (injured at Belgian Grand Prix), Mike Spence (Indianapolis), Chris Irwin (Nürburgring) and the great Jim Clark at Hockenheim. Circuit safety would become a greater and greater priority at Le Mans and in motor-racing in the next few years. Official results Finishers Results taken from Quentin Spurring's book, officially licensed by the ACO Class Winners are in Bold text. 'Note *: Not Classified because Insufficient distance covered. Did Not Finish Did Not Start Class Winners Note: setting a new Distance Record. Index of Thermal Efficiency Note: Only the top ten positions are included in this set of standings. Index of Performance Taken from Moity's book. Note: Only the top ten positions are included in this set of standings. A score of 1.00 means meeting the minimum distance for the car, and a higher score is exceeding the nominal target distance. Statistics Taken from Quentin Spurring's book, officially licensed by the ACO Fastest Lap in practice – J. Siffert, #31 Porsche 908 LH – 3:35.4secs; Fastest Lap – R. Stommelen, #33 Porsche 908 LH– 3:38.1secs; Winning Distance – Winner's Average Speed – Attendance – 300 000 International Championship for Makes Standings As calculated after Le Mans, Round 10 of 10 Citations References Armstrong, Douglas – English editor (1968) Automobile Year #16 1968-69 Lausanne: Edita S.A. Clarke, R.M. - editor (1997) Le Mans 'The Ford and Matra Years 1966-1974' Cobham, Surrey: Brooklands Books Clausager, Anders (1982) Le Mans London: Arthur Barker Ltd Laban, Brian (2001) Le Mans 24 Hours London: Virgin Books Moity, Christian (1974) The Le Mans 24 Hour Race 1949-1973 Radnor, Pennsylvania: Chilton Book Co Parker, Paul (2016) Sports Car Racing In Camera Vol 2 1960-69 Wincanton: Behemoth Pumblishing Spurring, Quentin (2010) Le Mans 1960-69 Yeovil, Somerset: Haynes Publishing External links Racing Sports Cars – Le Mans 24 Hours 1968 entries, results, technical detail. Retrieved 24 April 2018 Le Mans History – Le Mans History, hour-by-hour (incl. pictures, YouTube links). Retrieved 24 April 2018 World Sports Racing Prototypes – results, reserve entries & chassis numbers. Retrieved 24 April 2018 Team Dan – results & reserve entries, explaining driver listings. Retrieved 24 April 2018 Unique Cars & Parts – results & reserve entries. Retrieved 24 April 2018 24 Hours of Le Mans races Le Mans 1968 in French motorsport
4857987	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanover%E2%80%93W%C3%BCrzburg%20high-speed%20railway	Hanover–Würzburg high-speed railway	The Hanover–Würzburg high-speed railway is a double-track, electrified high-speed railway between Hanover and Würzburg in Germany, in length. The line, built between 1973 and 1991, was the longest contiguous new project constructed by Deutsche Bundesbahn. The total costs were almost DM 11.9 billion<ref name="bt-12-8476">{{cite journal\|publisher=Deutscher Bundestag \|url= https://dip21.bundestag.de/dip21/btd/12/084/1208476.pdf \|title=Antwort der Bundesregierung auf eine kleine Anfrage des Abgeordneten Dr. Klaus-Dieter Feige und der Gruppe BÜNDNIS 90/DIE GRÜNEN: Wirtschaftlichkeit der "ICE-Neubaustrecken" – Drucksache 12/8381.\|journal=printed matter\|issue=12/8476 \|date=12 September 1994\|access-date=19 August 2023\|language=de}}</ref> (around €6.1 billion; 1980/90s prices). The line is part of the core network of the Trans-European Transport Networks. It is scheduled to be used by around 110 long-distance trains daily at up to 280 km/h during the day and by an average of 26 freight trains at night with a total of 37,460 gross tons, running at up to 160 km/h. In 2020, the number of passengers on the line was estimated to be 15.5 million. To date, it is the longest new line for high-speed traffic in Germany. Route Before the line was built, long-distance trains ran between Hanover and Würzburg via Alfeld, Kreiensen and Northeim to Göttingen (Hanoverian Southern Railway), continuing via Eichenberg, Eschwege West, Bebra, Bad Hersfeld, Fulda and Gemünden am Main to Würzburg (old North–South railway). The upper edge of the rail is at heights between 50 m above sea level and 386 m above sea level. The new line is 35 kilometres shorter than the pre-existing lines between Hanover and Würzburg. It runs parallel to existing routes over a length of 51 kilometres. At the time of the division of Germany, 70 percent of the line ran through the border zone. Autobahn 7 also runs through all the major stops along the line. The federal highway 27 is also largely parallel, although this does not run through Hanover and Kassel. Hanover–Göttingen section The 327.4 kilometre-long new line begins at kilometre 0.0 in Hannover Hauptbahnhof. Running in a southerly direction, it follows the existing north-south line in Hanover's urban area via the Hannover Messe/Laatzen station, which is also served by long-distance trains (primarily during trade fairs), at km 8 towards Rethen. The two high-speed tracks run between Hanover Bismarckstraße and the junction in the middle with the tracks of the old line. The high-speed line leaves the parallel section at a great-separated crossing and swings away from the old line in a south-westerly direction. It then crosses eleven bridges between Rethen and Barnten with a total length of 1.1 kilometres and runs on embankments up to eight metres high with a total length of 6.9 kilometres through the flood plains of the Leine and the Innerste. The Hildesheim loop, a single-track connecting curve, which is used by trains to and from the Hanover–Berlin high-speed railway via Wolfsburg, Braunschweig and Hildesheim, branches off at Sorsum (km 29). With the entry into the Escherberg tunnel and two subsequent tunnels, the line leaves the North German Plain and passes through the Hildesheim Forest. Between Sibbesse and Bad Gandersheim, the line follows the course of a valley without major engineering structures, before after another six tunnels and five viaducts it reached the Leinegraben and the high-speed line at Edesheim swings back to run parallel with the north-south line. There, at km 77, it is possible to switch to and from the old line in both directions. Northeim is bypassed to the west, at Nörten-Hardenberg station at km 90 it is also possible to change tracks with the old line. Göttingen station is reached at kilometre 99. Göttingen–Kassel section In the section between the stations of Göttingen and , the line follows a fairly straight line. Almost 21 kilometres of the 44-kilometre section runs in tunnels, including the 10,525-metre-long Münden Tunnel (km 121), the second longest tunnel in Germany. In the vicinity of the Fulda Viaduct in Kragenhof (km 133), the high-speed line begins to run generally parallel with the north-south line, which it will follow for nine kilometres to the southern outskirts of Kassel. The line passes the western edge of the Kassel marshalling yard and reaches Kassel-Wilhelmshöhe station at route kilometre 144. The station, which was newly built as part of the high-speed line, bypasses the Kassel Hauptbahnhof terminus. In the Kassel area, the line runs for around 15 kilometres next to existing lines. The highest costs per kilometre were incurred during the construction phase for the sparsely populated but topographically very complex section between Göttingen and the state border north of Kassel. In this section, the high-speed line runs past towns and villages at a distance of about 700 to 1000 metres, and a large part of the line is in tunnels anyway, in which the up to 400-metre-high elevations between Göttingen and Kassel are crossed. Exceptions are the Grone and Groß Ellershausen districts of Göttingen, for which noise barriers had to be built. Kassel–Fulda section The line then runs on the 89.96 km-long section between Kassel-Wilhelmshöhe station and Fulda station, of which 47.79 kilometres run in 25 tunnels. The route roughly follows the course of the Fulda, which is crossed three times. In the Bebra and Bad Hersfeld area, the line runs well to the west of the Fulda, some of it close to the A 7. Since the Fulda valley is too winding and narrowly built-up for a high-speed line and the side valleys largely run perpendicular to it, numerous structures are required on this section. Around two-thirds of the approximately 80-kilometre-long new section runs over 18 viaducts. The outstanding structures include the Fulda Viaduct at Solms (km 206), the longest bridge on the line at around 1600 metres, and the Rombach Viaduct (km 218), the second highest railway bridge in Germany at around 95 metres. After the 7,345 metre-long Dietershan tunnel, Fulda station (km 234) is reached. Apart from the Fulda and Kassel junction areas, the new line runs almost entirely in uninhabited terrain in this section. The distance from settlements is usually at least 400 metres. Fulda–Würzburg section South of Fulda station, the new line follows the Frankfurt–Göttingen railway for around four kilometres to Bronnzell, where the Frankfurt–Göttingen railway stops running parallel and turns in a south-westerly direction towards Frankfurt am Main. From this line, the Flieden–Gemünden railway branches off at Flieden to Gemünden and Würzburg. A series of shorter tunnels is followed by the 10,779 metre-long Landrücken Tunnel (km 251), the longest tunnel in Germany. At the north portal of the tunnel, the new line reaches 386 m above sea level its highest point. After the line descends to the Main Viaduct in Gemünden, it ascends further south. At the Burgsinn depot (km 283) there is the option of connecting from the Flieden–Gemünden railway, which runs to Gemünden and from there via the Würzburg–Aschaffenburg railway to Würzburg, onto the new line directly to Würzburg and vice versa. The Nantenbach Curve coming from the Würzburg–Aschaffenburg railway merges into the high-speed line in Rohrbach operations station (km 302). After the Main Viaduct at Veitshöchheim (km 321), the line runs through two more tunnels, turns to the left in the last one and merges via a ramp into Würzburg Hauptbahnhof (km 327) at a grade separated junction. History The general route between Hanover and the Main valley resulted from the wish to eliminate existing bottlenecks on the heavily used north-south route. In 1970, an average of 142 trains per working day and direction ran on the section between Fulda and Flieden (1967: 123). With an average load of 150 to 159 trains between Hanover and Flieden, 43 percent of all regular freight trains were delayed by more than 30 minutes at the end of the section. In June 1973, 367 trains ran between Northeim and Nörten-Hardenberg (near Göttingen) on weekdays, with only 288 being able to operate smoothly. At the end of the 1970s, 160 trains per day ran between Hanover and Würzburg, according to the then Deutsche Bundesbahn, 40 more than "technically and economically justifiable". The section between Gemünden am Main and Würzburg was particularly badly affected. With up to 380 trains per day, an operating performance that had not previously been thought possible was achieved. Despite modern signalling systems, operational quality restrictions (particularly in terms of punctuality) were unavoidable. A forecast made in the early 1980s for 1990 estimated that 249 trains per day would run in each direction between Hanover and Göttingen and 250 between Fulda and Flieden. The first preliminary drafts of a new line for the development program for the Deutsche Bundesbahn network were developed between 1968 and 1970. On 4 August 1969, the head office of Deutsche Bundesbahn issued a first planning order for a new line that would run from Nordstemmen (south of Hanover) via Fulda to Würzburg. With the approval of the DB network development program in 1970, the executive board (Vorstand) and board of directors of the then national railway made it possible to commission planning for new and upgraded lines. The line between Hanover and Gemünden am Main was one of the most urgent projects. In 1971, a contract for the planning of the line was issued. The line was to run parallel with the existing line between Hanover and Nordstemmen for around 30 kilometres, then leave the Leine valley, head southwest over the Vogler (around 260 metres high) into the Holzminden area, then follow the Weser to the east and cross it at Würgassen (a district of Beverungen). Hümme (near Hofgeismar) would be bypassed to the east at about kilometre 100 before reaching a through station at Kassel-Wilhelmshöhe at about kilometer 135. North of Kassel, the line would be linked to the planned Dortmund–Kassel supplementary line. The line would pass over the Knüll mountains at a height of 420 metres with links to the existing line west of Fulda. Overcoming the Hessian ridge was planned as the third major climb on the line, in order to then reach Gemünden at an altitude of 150 meters via the Sinn valley. The selected route, which would have been suitable for passenger and freight traffic, emerged as the most favourable solution from the requirement to connect both Kassel and the line to Frankfurt south of Fulda. The 275-kilometer route was intended to reduce the length of the rail link between Hanover and Gemünden by around 60 kilometres. The travel time in long-distance passenger transport would fall from around 160 minutes to 90 minutes. Construction was scheduled to begin in 1973 and be completed in 1980. Earlier completion of individual sections was considered. It was estimated to cost DM 4.2 billion (around €2.1 billion). The routing of the supplementary line, which was intended for both passenger trains and freight trains weighing up to 1,000 t, was at a design speed of 300 km/h, although lower maximum speeds would also be selected if necessary due to particularly high expenditures on short sections. The planned minimum radii were 7,000 metres (5,000 metres in exceptional cases) with a cant of up to 75 millimetres. The gradients should not exceed the 1.25% specified in the railway regulations (Eisenbahn-Bau- und Betriebsordnung—EBO), although technical advances (automatic couplings, electric traction, etc.) should also allow gradients that exceed this, up to 2.5%. The loading gauge would initially be 4.40 metres wide and 5.40 metres high (without pantograph and overhead line) in order to meet the diverse requirements of rail freight transport. Due to a lack of experience with trains traveling at speeds of more than 200 km/h, a track spacing of 5.00 metres, in tunnels an increased spacing of 6.00 metres was considered as well as two separate single-track tunnels. The distance between the depots was set at around 20 kilometres and the establishment of transfer points was examined. Gemünden station was to be upgraded as part of the line. Between Gemünden and Würzburg, the existing line, which was largely passable at 160 km/h, was to be used. A new line to Würzburg was not planned at the time, despite the planned supplementary line between Aschaffenburg and Würzburg. The line would have been 40 kilometres shorter than the existing lines between Hanover and Gemünden. In 1971, a planning order for preliminary planning was given to the transport management centre (Zentrale Transportleitung, ZTP) and the federal railway divisions involved (Hanover, Kassel, Frankfurt and Nuremberg) for a line that was to supplement the existing north-south line in terms of quantity and quality. Kassel would also be connected. Considerations to upgrading the existing north-south route between Hanover and Göttingen to four tracks proved to be unfeasible. The line was in mid-1971 along with the Cologne–Groß-Gerau supplementary line one of two routes that have undergone in-depth route planning. Since the necessary topographical maps on a scale of 1:5,000 were largely missing, they were produced using aerial photography. In the course of the corridor investigations commissioned on 15 June 1971, the costs of projects for different modes of transport in three selected corridors were compared with the benefits up to December 1974 for the first time. In the corridor between Hanover and Gemünden (with a continuation to Würzburg), the two supplementary routes, Hanover–Würzburg and Aschaffenburg–Würzburg were compared to the development of the proposed Autobahn 100 (a northern extension of the . In 1973, project officers were appointed to the divisions. Links to the existing north-south route in Kassel and Fulda were already planned in the planning contract; the order made no further specifications. A new line between Hanover and the Würzburg area via Kassel was included as a project in the 1973 Federal Transport Plan (Bundesverkehrswegeplan). In December 1974, the Federal Minister of Transport instructed Deutsche Bundesbahn to build the line between Hanover and Würzburg. The ZTP Mainz developed a large-scale rough route, which largely adapted to the topographical conditions and would keep as large a distance as possible to settlement areas. When planning the route, the focus was on accelerating and increasing the capacity of the growing freight traffic. In particular, freight trains would be enabled to jump overnight from the northern German ports to the industrial centres in southern Germany. Passenger trains on the Intercity network were to run on the line at speeds of up to 200 km/h, alternating with other passenger and freight trains. The early design parameters for the route, initially referred to as the "high-speed railway", emerged from the high-performance high-speed railway study (HSB). These provided for a top speed of 300 km/h with a minimum curve radius of 7000 metres. In addition to a maximum longitudinal gradient specified in the EBO of 1.25%, a maximum of 1.8% was considered for short sections (initial considerations assumed 2.5%). In early considerations, the loading gauge would be particularly large compared to the existing network. Wagons that were 4.30 metres wide with roofs 5.60 metres above the top of the rails would be able to transport trucks in closed railway wagons in piggyback traffic to relieve the roads of heavy traffic at high speeds. A three-track line was also considered to be able to handle reliable traffic on two tracks during construction work and other operational disruptions. The first traffic volume forecasts in 1971 and 1972 initially suggested an at least partially three-track line. The oil crisis of 1973 and a recession in 1974/1975 led to more cautious forecasts in the mid-1970s, which allowed a double-track line throughout. Economic considerations also led to a reduction in the initial speed to 250 km/h. If a purely passenger line had been realised, about 20 percent of the construction costs would have been saved, according to DB. The distance between the tracks would have been 5.40 meters for this loading gauge, the usable tunnel cross-sectional area above the top edge of the rails should be 103 square metres. In 1975, these plans were discarded after investigations had shown that the additional costs of around ten percent for a clearance gauge were not offset by sufficiently large additional yields from piggyback transport. Instead, the expanded standard clearance profile was used as a basis for further planning of the route now known as the "new construction line". As network planning progressed, the planned Hanover–Gemünden and Aschaffenburg–Würzburg routes were combined to form the new Hanover–Würzburg route in the same year. The main reason for the extension to Würzburg was capacity considerations—between Gemünden and Würzburg, the existing two-track line accommodated traffic to and from Fulda as well as traffic to and from Frankfurt am Main. On 13 July 1977, the board of directors of Deutsche Bundesbahn decided to build the new line between Hanover and Würzburg. The route was included in the Coordinated Investment Program for Federal Transport Routes in 1977. The commissioning of the first two new high-speed lines in Germany was initially planned for 1985. As a result of the unexpectedly long planning process, it was postponed until 1993 in the early 1980s. In May 1982, the newly created Federal Railway Board (Bundesbahnvorstand) decided in July 1982 to continue building the lines and bring the commissioning forward to 1991. On 28 May 1984, the board of directors of Deutsche Bundesbahn approved the high-speed railway project, which envisaged using the line for high-speed traffic at speeds of up to 250 km/h as soon as it went into operation. The necessary changes to the route planning were minor, mainly because the Re 250 overhead line had already been tested and was intended for installation. Option selection Due to its position as an urban area and transport node, the city of Kassel was a fixed point of the route. The specific route was finally developed in a multi-stage process. In the section between Hanover and Kassel, for example, numerous options were examined in a corridor about 50 kilometres wide. With the new line, Kassel was to be connected to the intercity network for the first time. In the autumn of 1971, a route from Hanover via the Weser Uplands from Holzminden/Höxter and Kassel to Gemünden, designated Option I, was considered. In the course of the spatial planning procedure initiated in 1972 for the Hanover–Elze section (near Hildesheim), the supreme state planning authority of the state of Lower Saxony asked the Deutsche Bundesbahn in 1972 not only to consider a route via Holzminden, but also a route through the zone border area via Northeim and Göttingen. A match with the state planning goals was only established for the section between Hanover and Rethen. Option II, which was then developed, separated from Option I at Elze and ran west of the Leine valley via Nörten-Hardenberg to Göttingen and from there via Dransfeld to Kassel. When construction work began in 1973 on the first section between Hanover Hauptbahnhof and Rethen (12 kilometres), further discussions arose. A large number of potential routes resulted in a solution known as Option III, which corresponds to the current route and runs via Bad Gandersheim and Northeim to Göttingen and from there in a south-easterly direction via Hannoversch Münden to Kassel. The decisive factor for this option was the wish to build the line from Rethen to Göttingen by the shortest possible route and to connect Hildesheim as well if possible. In a business comparison between options I and III, option I was preferred. The additional traffic volume of a connection to Göttingen (II/III) could not compensate for the estimated additional investment of DM 500 million for the route, which is 20 kilometres longer than option I. The state of Lower Saxony and the Göttingen Interessengemeinschaft Trasse ("Trasse Interest Group") countered with their own studies and expert opinions on economic arguments for the connection of Göttingen. The Lower Saxony state government emphasised in a state planning statement of 1975 that from a state political point of view only one route via Göttingen was justifiable. Taking into account new planning parameters (250 km/h instead of 300 km/h speed, standard instead of large structural gauge), the economic difference was finally reduced to DM 300 million. In 1976, the discussion was concluded with the approval of the Federal Minister of Transport for the route via Göttingen. A study commissioned by the state of Lower Saxony had compared the options via Göttingen and Holzminden and found that the Göttingen option had consistently higher benefits. In October 1974, Deutsche Bundesbahn decided to route the line via Gemünden am Main to Würzburg. In the Fulda area, a western bypass of the city was originally planned, which was to be connected to the new line by means of links to the existing line at Maberzell and Kerzell. This option had already been discarded in the mid-1970s in favour of several variants of a route via Fulda station. In 1978 it was decided to run the new line parallel to the existing line via Fulda station for a length of 13 kilometres. The discussion about connecting Fulda to the line took a total of about seven years. At the end of 1976, it was accepted that the new line in the Kassel area would be linked with the existing network at Fuldatal-Ihringshausen. This established the route between Hanover and Kassel. In Kassel, after long discussions, the decision was made around 1980 to route the line via a new Kassel-Wilhelmshöhe station. A route below the city with an underground through station under the existing Kassel Hauptbahnhof (main station), a terminal station, was rejected, as were two other options. In a memorandum on the new Hanover–Würzburg line in 1983, BUND of Hesse proposed an alternative concept. The Main-Weser Railway would be upgraded and the new Kassel–Fulda section would not be built. Planning The first section between Hanover and Rethen (12 kilometers) was approved on 16 July 1973 by the Federal Minister of Transport (under Section 14, Paragraph 3c of the Federal Railways Act). The approved costs amounted to DM 226 million (1973 prices). This section was considered undisputed between DB, the federal government and the state of Lower Saxony, while the extension to the south was controversial. In June 1978, Federal Cabinet decided to continue the new line. The Federal Transport Minister then approved the construction of the Rethen–Kassel and Burgsinn–Würzburg sections on 21 July 1978. Approval for the Kassel–Burgsinn section followed on 26 August 1980. The approved costs amounted to DM 4,750 million (1975 price levels) for Rethen–Kassel and a total of DM 5,060 million (1979 prices) for Kassel–Burgsinn and Burgsinn–Würzburg. The line was divided into nine sections for the spatial planning process. From 1972, a total of 13 (another source: 11) spatial planning procedures were carried out. In most cases, sections were selected that could also be used independently for operational purposes. After the route between Hanover and Kassel was fixed at the end of 1976, the spatial planning procedure was initiated in several parts of this section in 1977. In 1977, the regional planning procedure for the Edesheim–Göttingen section was completed, and in April 1979, state planning approval for the Göttingen–state border section (north of Kassel) was issued. In January 1980, the 64 kilometre Rethen–Edesheim section followed. The last large-scale regional planning procedure for the 36 kilometre section between Gemünden and Würzburg ended after five and a half years on 20 May 1981 with a positive state planning assessment. The spatial planning procedures took between one and six years to complete. After completion of the regional planning procedure, the planning approval procedure began. The route was divided into 88 planning approval sections. For this purpose, preliminary draft plans on a scale of 1:5000 were first drawn up, which were finally specified for the approval planning on a scale of 1:1000. In May 1981, 75 of the 314 kilometers of route between Rethen and Würzburg were approved, in late summer 1982 113 kilometers. Particular difficulties arose from the construction of new railway power lines. In order to limit the effects of the new line on many farms that had to be crossed, countless land consolidations were necessary. In the absence of applicable federal law, noise protection along the route was based on agreements with the federal states concerned. On 26 August 1980, 90 percent of the route was determined in the course of regional planning and the Federal Ministry of Transport gave approval for the last section of the new line between Kassel-Wilhelmshöhe and Burgsinn (near Würzburg). Towards the end of 1980, the first construction work on the southern section was put out to tender. While the first of 15 new planning approval sections in the northern section was determined in 1984, the last planning approval decision for the southern section was issued for the area of the Main Viaduct at Veitshöchheim on 12 December 1984. In 1985, 267 kilometres were approved. In October 1986, construction rights were finally granted for the entire route. Construction of the line was controlled from the construction centre founded in April 1976, which reported directly to the board of directors of Deutsche Bundesbahn. Three project groups for the construction of the 327-kilometer new line based in Hanover, Frankfurt am Main and Nuremberg were assigned to the centre in October 1978. The middle section, coordinated from Frankfurt, comprised 111 kilometres, 28 tunnels (49 kilometres) and 22 larger viaducts and stretched from the Hessian-Lower Saxony state border on the east bank of the Fulda near Ihringshausen and ended five kilometres south of Fulda. The southern section, including 24 kilometres in Hesse, belonged to Project Group South (Nuremberg). Countless discussions were held in the course of public relations work. By 1977, 25 citizens' groups had formed against the new line. In 1979, more than 40 such groups were counted. In the section between Kassel and Fulda alone, a total of 24 citizens' initiatives had been formed against the line by 1981. The spatial planning procedure had already been significantly delayed by the commitment of the groups. In negotiations with those affected, tunnels were extended, among other things, and municipal construction measures were financed from DB funds. Objections from residents led to significant cost increases within a few years. In the mid-1970s, for example, every fourth kilometre was still planned to be in a tunnel, but the proportion that was eventually realised was more than a third. The route length planned in 1979, at 327 kilometres, corresponded to that which was later realised. In the 1980s, resistance largely subsided. As late as 1983, the working group of rapid-transit rail opponents and the environmental association tried to prevent the construction of the section between Kassel and Fulda. The district of Hersfeld-Rotenburg petitioned the state administrative court for a connection between Bebra and the new line, for which the Rettet den Bahnhof Bebra ("Save Bebra station") citizens' initiative campaigned. A total of 10,700 objections were raised against the route and administrative disputes were filed in 360 cases. The construction phase was preceded by an extensive exploration program. In the 111 kilometre central section alone, 1,200 bore holes with a total length of 45 kilometres were drilled and 200 excavations were carried out. In the 1980 Federal Transport Routes Plan, the line was one of three new railway construction projects, stage I, which were to be completed by 1990. Investments of DM 2.3 billion were part of Stage II of the transport route plan, which was to be implemented after 1990. The planned costs in 1980 were DM 10.49 billion (1980 prices). The planned capacity was estimated in 1984 to be 120 trains per day and direction. Design parameters The new line was designed for mixed traffic of fast long-distance passenger and freight trains. This made comparatively large curve radii and comparatively small gradients necessary. As a rule, the largest permitted curve radius is 7000 metres, the minimum radius permitted in special cases is 5100 metres. These values resulted from the initially planned design speed (250 km/h) and the initially planned minimum speed of freight trains (80 km/h). The standard superelevation is 65 millimetres, the maximum superelevation—to limit excessive wear—90 millimetres (according to other sources 80 millimetres). The maximum cant deficiency is 60 millimetres. The maximum gradient of 1.25 percent resulted from the requirement to be able to start up again after a stop on such gradients, even with heavy freight trains. As late as the mid-1970s, plans were still in place to initially only allow speeds of up to 200 km/h on the route in a first stage of development and to leave open a later upgrade for up to 300 km/h. The design speed ultimately adopted was 300 km/h with a cant deficiency of 130 millimetres at 250 km/h. The maximum speed of the ICEs was initially limited to 250 km/h. The line was originally designed for the mixed traffic of 80 km/h fast goods trains and 250 km/h fast passenger trains. This resulted in the minimum radius of 5100 m with a cant of 65 mm with a cant deficiency of 80 mm for passenger trains and a cant excess of 50 mm for freight trains. During the high-speed transport project, the calculation speed for freight trains was increased to 120 km/h. The larger minimum radius that was desirable for this speed could not be implemented due to the progress of construction, so the superelevation was increased to 90 mm instead. These generous routing parameters made a particularly large number of engineering structures necessary. 121 kilometres of the 327-kilometer route run through 61 tunnels and 30 kilometres over 294 bridges (including 43 viaducts). The highest bridge at 95 metres is the Rombach viaduct near Schlitz, the longest at 1628 meters is the Fulda viaduct at Solms. The Landrücken Tunnel (10,779 metres) and the Münden Tunnel (10,525 meters) are the longest tunnels in Germany. Almost a quarter of the 456 kilometres of tunnels in the Deutsche Bahn network is on the line. Around 83 kilometres run in cuttings and 77 kilometres on embankments. Only 17 kilometres (5%) are at ground level. The line occupies an area of . In 1981, the planned total length of tunnels was 110 kilometres; embankments, 81 kilometres; cuttings, 99 kilometres; and bridges, 41 kilometres. For the planned mixed operation of passenger and freight trains and for maintenance, crossovers were set up at intervals of five to seven kilometres and a total of eleven depots at intervals of around 20 kilometres. The track centre distance of 4.70 metres resulted from the requirement to be able to transport extra-wide shipments in freight traffic. About 4.20 metres would have been sufficient for pure passenger transport operations. Construction On 10 August 1973, the construction of a first, twelve-kilometre section of the Hanover–Gemünden supplementary line began with the symbolic first ramming blow by Federal Transport Minister Lauritz Lauritzen near Laatzen. According to Lauritzen, this was the first start of construction of such a long-distance line since 15 May 1876, when construction began on the Hanover–Bebra–Frankfurt line. A construction period of five years was expected for the entire line (as of 1977). The opening was to take place in 1985. Instead of the originally planned 160 kilometres, only 12 kilometres were completed in 1979 due to numerous delays. After planning approval was given for about 20 kilometres of the new line in the southern section (Fulda–Würzburg) in the second half of the year and a positive conclusion to the pending Gemünden–Würzburg spatial planning process, the first construction contracts were tendered and awarded. The first structure in the southern section was the Sinn Viaduct at Schaippach with construction starting in October 1980, the large-scale construction work was officially initiated on 22 May 1981 with the opening of the one-off mountain tunnel near Gemünden. The Sinnberg Tunnel was opened on 25 February 1981 as the first tunnel on the line. In the middle section, construction work began on the Nordendweg crossing in Kassel on September 29 of the same year (the official start of construction in the Hessian section took place in November 1981 with the laying of the foundation stone for this crossing by Minister-President Holger Börner). Due to objections conveyed in citizens' initiatives and lawsuits, extensive construction work in the northern section between Hanover and Göttingen did not begin until March 1983. With the start of the boring of the Münden and Mühlenkopf tunnels on 37 October 1983, construction work on the section between Kassel and Göttingen was officially initiated. On 31 May 1983, with the construction of the Steinberg-Bornhecke tunnel, a total of twelve tunnels of the first two new lines were under construction. In the same year, tunnel construction work began in the middle section. The first mast of the new railway power lines was erected in February 1983 near Nörten-Hardenberg. By the end of 1983, DM 2.32 billion (around €1.14 billion) had been spent on the new line. In October 1984, construction work was underway on almost three quarters of the line. After 184 days of construction, the Einmalberg tunnel near Gemünden am Main was the first tunnel to be broken through on 4 February 1982. The shell of the longest German railway tunnel, the Landrücken Tunnel, was completed in 1986. Seven workers had died during the tunnel construction work by the autumn of 1984. During the mid-1980s, only isolated construction work was going on in the northern section,< by January 1986 tenders for all construction work on the southern section had been awarded and 45 kilometres of infrastructure had been completed. On 4 November 1987, track construction began northbound from Fulda, initially to the Langenschwarz overtaking loop, 19 kilometres away. In 1988 the last three tunnels of the line were cut through with the Helleberg, Münden and Rengershäusen tunnels. By the end of the year, half of the tracks between Fulda and Kassel had been laid, and the Kragenhof, Wälsebach and Mülmisch viaducts were completed during the year. On 3 October 1989, the gap between Hanover and Göttingen was closed. On October 6, the Münden Tunnel was the last of the 61 tunnels to be broken through. On 2 November 1989, the last rail was installed on the Göttingen–Kassel section (in the Münden tunnel), and by mid-November 1989 all tracks in the Kassel–Fulda section were in place. This was followed by remaining work, for example the installation of overhead line and load testing of bridges. The southern feeder line from Fürth to Würzburg was upgraded from two to three tracks in the section from Würzburg to Rottendorf by the summer of 1984 due to the expected increase in traffic over a length of eight kilometres. With the topping-out ceremony for the canopy at Kassel-Wilhelmshöhe station on 18 January 1990, the infrastructure of the entire line was completed. The area required was in the middle section alone, of which were permanently used by the railway, the rest temporarily. While were used purely for the railway line, were used for replanting. In addition, in this section, of excess mass that could not be used for embankments was dumped in about 30 landfills, occupying another . Commissionings Hanover–Rethen (1979) As early as May 12, 1979, after six years of construction, the section between Hanover Bismarckstraße station and Rethen was put into operation. In this section, of rails, 111 switches, 22 railway bridges and two flyover structures were built. In addition, nine level crossings were removed and the new Laatzen station and a new signal box were built in Rethen. The total cost of this first section, for which of concrete and 8,900 tons of steel had been used, was DM 233 million (about €119 million in 1979 prices). Burgsinn–Hohe Wart (1986) The overhead line between the Hohe Wart transfer point and the Burgsinn depot was energised on 24 July 1986. Locomotive 103 003 ran on the section between July 15 and August 8 at speeds of up to . From August 1986, a diverse test program was run with a wide variety of rolling stock in order to gain further knowledge about railway operations at high speeds, which ultimately was used for ICE 1 series trains. On 3 September, high-speed runs with the ICE predecessor train Intercity Experimental began, which had to be cancelled on the same day after a powered end car derailed in the Burgsinn depot (due to an incorrect points setting). The train returned to the line on 10 September with only one powered end car for high speed runs of up to . On 17 November 1986, a presentation run for journalists took place at —even higher speeds could not be achieved on the short section. The countless tests that were run on the section included investigations into the contact between overhead line and pantograph, the superstructure and noise emissions. One focus of the numerous journeys with a wide variety of rolling stock was measurements of the aerodynamic loads when trains meet and the testing of various measures to improve the pressure on rolling stock. The novel eddy current brake was also subjected to a series of tests lasting several weeks in March 1987 on the section of track. From 8 April 1987, the test program temporarily switched to the (slightly longer) first section of the Mannheim–Stuttgart high-speed line. Test runs returned when scheduled operations began there on 30 May 1987. Before the start of regular operations, the Intercity Experimental set a new world record for rail vehicles of on 1 May 1988 as part of the ICE world record run. Fulda–Würzburg and Edesheim–Nörten-Hardenberg (1988) The overhead line between Fulda station and Würzburg station was energised on 18 January 1988. The Fulda–Würzburg ( of new line) and Edesheim–Nörten-Hardenberg (near Göttingen, ) sections were officially put into operation at the timetable change on 29 May 1988. On 27 May 1988, the Würzburg–Fulda section was opened with four sets of rolling stock running parallel between Burgsinn and Mittelsinn. While the Intercity Experimental and an IC set (hauled by locomotive 120 102) ran on the new line, a historic TEE train (601 014) and the steam locomotive 50 622 ran on the parallel Flieden–Gemünden railway on this section. Federal Transport Minister Jürgen Warnke had previously officially opened the line to traffic at Fulda station. In Fulda and Würzburg, the commissioning of the DM 3.2 billion (around €1.6 billion) section was celebrated with station celebrations on 28 and 29 May 1988. Numerous shuttle trips between Würzburg and Fulda on ICE-V sets and an IC set were also offered. As the first regular passenger train on the southern section, IC 686 Herrenchiemsee left Würzburg Hauptbahnhof at 9:17 a.m. on 29 May towards Fulda. The journey time between Fulda and Würzburg for IC services was reduced from 63 to 39 minutes when it went into operation, and the line length was reduced by . In the first year of operation, IC/EC trains ran at regular intervals over the line during the day, supplemented by a pair of D and FD trains. Around 50 freight trains used the line at night. The introduction of the new line into Fulda station was still under construction; trains for the new line initially ran on the existing tracks and changed outside the station to the tracks of the high-speed line. Initially, the maximum speed of the long-distance trains, which could reach speeds of up to , was limited to within the tunnel. Studies had shown that higher running speeds required pressurised vehicles, which were not yet available in sufficient numbers at the time. The downpipe toilets, which were still common on the railways at the time—including in IC cars—were open to the outside and would be replaced by closed systems, since the pressure wave could otherwise reverse the flushing process, which only worked with gravity. In 1988 and 1989, a total of 160 Intercity cars of the former Deutsche Bundesbahn were built pressure-resistant in order to be able to run on the line without restriction. On 16 February 1989, the maximum speed allowed for IC trains in the tunnel was increased to (without taking travel times into account), although there were still not enough pressurised cars available. In the first year of operation in the Fulda–Würzburg section, crosswinds on the high viaducts also proved to be critical. After storm warnings from the Offenbach weather office, freight trains were diverted over the old line for a total of 13 nights between May and August 1988. Shortly thereafter, wind measuring devices were installed on the two particularly high viaducts over the Sinn and the Fliede. Thanks to the locally precise measurements, freight trains were now able to use the lines without restrictions up to wind force 10, and beyond that at a maximum speed of . Only freight trains with empty containers and flat wagons were diverted as a result of wind force ten. In addition, the first months of operation were overshadowed by a high level of damage (30 to 40 percent of the rolling stock used) in the 103, 120 and Bpmz classes. Due to problems with the emergency brake override, additional IC teams were also stationed in Fulda and Würzburg, which reinforced the train crew on the affected trains. In 1989, multi-stage test subjects were examined between Fulda and Würzburg, from which pressure comfort criteria for Deutsche Bahn were derived, which in turn found their way into a relevant set of rules by the International Union of Railways (UIC). Before the southern section went into operation, 760 train drivers had acquired route knowledge, including 60 Intercity train drivers and around 700 freight train drivers. For the first time, some of the six instructional trips that were common at the time in each direction were (on a trial basis) replaced by a video recording. Göttingen–Nörten-Hardenberg (1990) The section between Göttingen and Nörten-Hardenberg () was put into operation on 18 May 1990. Since the Linienzugbeeinflussung (LZB) train control system was not yet available, the maximum speed was until the whole line was commissioned, without any significant gain in travel time. Freight trains have been running on the new section since the end of April 1990. As late as mid-1986, it was planned to put the section between Nörten-Hardenberg and Kassel into operation in 1990. At the end of 1979, the Bundesbahn still expected to be able to open the section between Edesheim and Göttingen in 1985. Full Commissioning (1991) With the start of scheduled ICE traffic on 2 June 1991, the full length of the line was put into operation; at the same time, the second new line between Mannheim and Stuttgart went into full operation. The journey time for the Intercity trains between Hanover and Würzburg was two hours and 17 minutes in the final phase and around two hours for the ICE. During the previous high-speed runs, measuring vehicles ran on the line, starting at and increasing by each time. The acceptance speed of (permissible maximum speed of plus ten percent reserve) had to be achieved on at least five trips for approval. The acceptance runs were completed by 1 January 1991. This was followed by training trips for the staff. Before the first two new lines went into service, 1,000-2,000 drivers undertook route familiarisation journeys and were familiarised with the technical features (e.g. cab signalling, emergency brake override). The new line played a role in two television commercials of then Deutsche Bundesbahn as part of the Unternehmen Zukunft ("company future") campaign, which particularly emphasised the ecological advantages of the new lines. Effects With the commissioning of the high-speed line, the travel time between Hamburg and Munich in long-distance rail passenger transport fell from initially 7:35 hours (1984) or 7:06 hours (1986, with timetable optimisation) to 6:39 hours (1988, after commissioning Würzburg–Fulda) or around 6:00 hours (1991, full commissioning). After the commissioning of the Nuremberg–Ingolstadt high-speed railway, the travel time was just over 5:30 hours. Between Kassel and Göttingen, the route length was reduced by around , and the previously necessary long detour via Eichenberg was no longer necessary. The new line permanently took up of land, which is an average of 2.9 ha per km (4.4 acres per mile) of line. Cost The total cost of the project was DM 11,874 million (projected billing total as of mid-1994, calculated by adding the actual expenditure over the financial years). Tunnels and bridges account for about half of the total cost of the line. The costs rose steadily during the course of construction. In 1977, DM 8.05 billion (around €4.11 billion) was estimated, in the spring of 1982 the total had risen to DM 10.5 billion (around €5.4 billion). In June 1982, costs of DM 11.7 billion (about €6.0 billion) was estimated at 1981 prices. DM 11.80 billion was expected in 1983 (at 1983 prices). At the beginning of October 1984 (2 January 1984 prices) a total cost of DM 11.1 billion was estimated. The main reason given for exceeding the originally planned costs in 1994 was increased construction costs (70 percent increase between 1972 and 1991). A reassessment of the economic and business benefits on behalf of the Federal Ministry of Transport resulted in a benefit–cost ratio of 4.1 and a revenue–cost ratio of 3.1 for the line in mid-1983. At the end of 1984, Deutsche Bundesbahn announced cost reductions and acceleration of construction for the first two new lines. Completion would have taken place in 1991, and the total cost of DM 14.7 billion would be DM 850 million lower than originally planned (1 January 1984 prices). The authority justified this development, among other things, with cost-saving tunnel construction methods, more accurate estimates during the realisation of the projects and the competitive situation in the construction industry. Completion was planned at this time for 1993 (for the Fulda–Würzburg section: 1989). DM 11.126 billion was allotted to the new line from Hanover to Würzburg. These costs were also assumed in mid-1985. In 1986, the costs were estimated at DM 10.995 billion. Further development In November 1988, a new Talgo set reached a speed of on the line. After commissioning, in 1991 and 1992, the tunnels were equipped with radio technology for C-Netz, VHF radio and the Eurosignal pager system. The tunnel radio system was operational until 31 December 2000. The line was upgraded around 2005/2006 for public GSM mobile communications. Numerous newly erected transmitting stations—including tunnel radio systems—ensure constant reception in carriages for mobile phones. In 1993, an overhead line that could be used at speeds of up to was erected on a test section between Hanover and Göttingen to test the possibility of further increases in speed on the new lines. The Nantenbach Curve (connecting curve from Würzburg towards Frankfurt am Main) was completed in 1994. On 4 May 1998, a Eurotrain set reached a speed of near Orxhausen. In 1994 a Talgo unit pulled by the Intercity Experimental reached a speed of between Hanover and Göttingen. The track's substructure proved to be too hard during operation, which meant the ballast wore out faster than expected. A renovation with sleeper anchours planned for 2019 could not wait. From 23 April to 8 May 2016, the section between Hanover and Kassel was closed for cleaning and partial replacement of the ballast. A total of 130,000 tons of new gravel was to be placed. At the beginning of May 2016, Deutsche Bahn put out to tender the planning of comprehensive track renewal between and Jühnde. About of track and 75 sets of points were to be renewed and six sets of points were to be dismantled. At the end of December 2015, the Federal Railway Authority had already granted planning approval for the dismantling of the Giften and Sudheim transfer points and a total of six sets of points in the depots. Fiber-optic sensors were tested on the Fulda–Würzburg section (as of 2016). The general overhaul began in 2019 with the renewal of tracks, points and technology. For the first section between Hanover and Göttingen, there was a complete closure of the track between 11 June and 14 December 2019. In October 2019, the section was reopened for heavy traffic between 5 p.m. and 7 a.m. The diversion took place via the Hanoverian Southern Railway along the Leine Valley, which resulted in a travel time extension of 30 to 45 minutes and train cancellations. The overhaul of the section from Göttingen to Kassel followed between 24 April and 16 July 2021. During the closure, trains were diverted via Hameln–Altenbeken–Warburg (without a stop in Göttingen), Eichenberg–Hann Münden or Eichenberg–Bebra (without a stop in Kassel). The estimated cost was €114 million. The section between Fulda and Würzburg was renovated from 22 June to 10 December 2022. The section between the Rohrbach depot and Würzburg was put back into operation in advance and gradually on 17 October 2022. The remaining Kassel–Fulda section will be renovated from April 17 to 9 December 2023, with and 70 sets of points being renewed on an section. The refurbishment should be completed by the end of 2023. In November 2022, Deutsche Bahn applied for a first partial renewal of Rauheberg Tunnel, which is to be carried out in 2023 and 2024. This requires an expected 82-day total closure in the section between Jühnde and Kattenbühl. World record runs As part of the ICE world record run on 1 May 1988, the Intercity Experimental test train set a world speed record for rail vehicles. It reached a speed of in the Würzburg–Fulda section, north of the Einmalberg tunnel (route kilometre 287.956). The track and train were specially prepared for the record run. The world record lasted just over a year and a half before it was surpassed on 5 December 1989 by the French TGV Atlantique with 482.4 km/h. As early as 17 November 1986, the Intercity Experimental set a new speed record for three-phase vehicles in Mühlberg tunnel at . With a speed of , the EuroSprinter 64 P locomotive 127 001-6 set a new world record for three-phase locomotives on 6 August 1993 between Würzburg and Fulda. Accidents On 3 September 1986, the day of its first trip on the line , the ICE predecessor train, the Intercity Experimental derailed in Burgsinn depot when the powered end car 410 001 crossed a set of points at the junction to the existing line. On 29 June 1991, two freight trains collided in a tunnel near Jühnde. After a disruption, one of the engine drivers switched off the LZB train equipment and ran past a stop signal. In the first half of 1999, three accidents occurred within a short period of time due to Italian sliding wall wagons, in which the Mengershausen, Ersrode and Gehrenrode sets of points were destroyed, with the first two not being rebuilt. On 2 March 1999, a wagon of a freight train derailed in Leinebusch tunnel and caught fire. Fighting the fire with the rescue train was unsatisfactory. On 28 April 1999, four wagons of a freight train derailed when entering Schalkenberg tunnel due to a wagon overheating. On 13 May 1999, an Italian freight wagon, which was the last wagon in the ICG 50710 from Kornwestheim to Bremen, derailed at kilometre 58. Over an section, the concrete sleepers were smashed and signalling equipment damaged. The damage was in the millions, the opposite track remained closed until the following day and the accident-affected track was closed until 23 May 1999. After a class 245 sliding wall wagon was the cause of an accident for the third time in a row, the Federal Railway Authority prohibited the operation of these wagons at more than 60 km/h. On 26 April 2008, at 9:05 p.m., ICE 885 came to a standstill in Landrücken Tunnel, damaged, after colliding with sheep entering the tunnel. Ten of the twelve cars and both power cars of the 14-car train derailed. 19 passengers were injured, four of them moderately. This was the first derailment of an ICE in normal operation in a tunnel. The section between Fulda and Burgsinn depot remained closed for several weeks. Long-distance traffic was diverted via the old North–South railway in this section, with travel time extended by around 30 minutes. Outlook The preferred option of the Hanau–Würzburg/Fulda–Erfurt high-speed railway is to be linked to the high-speed line at Mittelkalbach. The preferred solution, option IV, named in June 2018 is to be included in the spatial planning process. This would allow the high-speed Fulda–Frankfurt passenger service between Fulda and the Kalbach tunnel to use the high-speed line. The first expert draft published in October 2018 provided for a travel time of exactly 120 minutes for the proposed German clock-face timetable between the stations in Hanover and Würzburg. With a basic service of five and a half trains per hour in each direction, the section from Fulda to the planned Kalbach junction on the new Gelnhausen–Kalbach line would be the most heavily used section of the line in the future. The second expert draft submitted in 2019 provided for six trains per hour in each direction south of Fulda to Kalbach; one and a half of them continue towards Munich. In the third expert draft submitted in 2020, six and a half trains per hour in each direction were planned between Fulda and Kalbach and one and a half between Kalbach and Würzburg, which means that the busiest and least frequented sections of the entire HSR connect directly to each other. As part of the draft, modified sets of points are planned in the Fulda Bronnzell yard section. Expenditure of €22 million at 2015 prices are planned for this. As part of the third expert draft, it is now also planned to run the connection from the high-speed line towards Blankenheim (bei Bebra) at instead of the previously planned . Operations The new line is scheduled to be used by long-distance passenger and freight trains. It is primarily available for long-distance passenger trains between 5:30 a.m. and 11:00 p.m. The rest of the time, freight trains have priority in operations. Passenger trains then have to use the longer and slower old line. While the number of pairs of passenger trains on the Göttingen–Fulda section rose steadily from 38 (1992) to 63 (2007), the number of pairs of freight trains fell from 35 (1992) to 22 (2005) and 18 (2007). The load on the existing route developed in the opposite direction: the number of pairs of freight trains rose from 66 (1992) to 104 (2007), while the number of pairs of passenger trains fell from 45 to 35 in the same period. In 2007, 53 ICE and IC trains and 33 fast freight trains (, some ) ran in the busiest section, between Göttingen and Kassel, per working day and direction. 77 slow freight trains () and 19 regional trains ran on the old line between Göttingen and Eichenberg. In August 1994, around 100 passenger and 70 freight trains used the line every day. In 1995, the Kassel–Göttingen section was used by an average of 100 passenger trains and 65 freight trains daily. The 1980 Federal Transport Routes Plan provided for 88 passenger and 152 freight trains in 1990. The profitability calculation of the project was based on 240 trains per day, about half each for passenger and freight trains. In addition, network-wide effects were applied. In 1994, reasons given for the actually lower capacity utilisation included the incomplete upgrade of the rest of the network (on which the forecast is based) and the "unsatisfactory development" of rail freight traffic. Passenger services The new line is scheduled to be used by ICE and IC trains for passenger traffic. In the 2023 timetable year, the following ICE lines ran on the line at regular intervals (mostly every two hours): from via Hanover–––Frankfurt to Basel/Zurich () or Stuttgart () from Hamburg-Altona or Bremen via Hanover–Göttingen–Kassel-Wilhelmshöhe––Würzburg to Munich () from Berlin via Wolfsburg–Brunswick–Hildesheim–Göttingen–Kassel-Wilhelmshöhe–Fulda–Hanau–Frankfurt to Basel () or Frankfurt () Hamburg–Hanover–Kassel-Wilhelmshöhe–Giessen–Frankfurt–Darmstadt–Karlsruhe () Cologne–Frankfurt–Würzburg–Nuremberg–Ingolstadt–Munich () Cologne–Frankfurt–Würzburg–Nuremberg–Passau–Vienna () The overlapping of several lines creates at least one hourly service between the intermediate stations of the new line, in the section between Fulda and Hanover at least two pairs of trains run per hour, between Kassel and Göttingen three. In addition, some trains run as or , some on weekends, some as repeaters. The two daily ICE Sprinter train pairs between Frankfurt am Main and Berlin and the ICE Sprinter from Hamburg via Hanover to Frankfurt also use the route. Some Intercity trains also run over the line. In the 1990s, some Interregio lines also ran over the line. Regional traffic only takes place on short sections between the stations and nearby links to the older lines, for example between Ihringshausen and Kassel-Wilhelmshöhe. With three scheduled ICE train pairs per hour in each direction, the section between the Hildesheim loop near Hanover and Fulda is the busiest section of the new line. With one pair of trains running every hour, the approximately long new line section between Fulda and the Nantenbach Curve near Gemünden is the section of the line that is least utilised by scheduled passenger traffic. In passenger traffic, a slight decrease in the number of trains is expected in the southern section of the line by 2030 (as of 2018). Freight transport The line is designed for freight trains weighing up to 2500 t, which require two locomotives. A train load of around 1350 t is possible with one locomotive. During the night hours (11 p.m. to 5 a.m.) the new line is used for freight traffic. No dangerous goods trains and no trains with open, loaded car transport wagons are allowed to operate on most of the line. Freight trains carrying passenger carriages are not allowed to run on part of the line. In the 1993/1994 timetable, around 20 freight trains ran on the Fulda–Kassel section in each direction between 1 a.m. and 5 a.m. on weekdays. In 2009, 62 freight trains ran daily between 10 p.m. and 6 a.m. on the new line; no freight trains ran between 6 a.m. and 10 p.m. In the Göttingen–Kassel section, the peak load of freight trains in 2003 was at midnight (eight southbound trains) and northbound at 1 a.m. (five northbound trains). When passenger and freight trains meet in tunnels, for example due to freight trains being diverted via the new line, the maximum speed of all trains in the affected section is reduced to (as of 2001). The standard speed of freight trains on the line is . This speed can be reached by freight trains running under LZB with conventional brakes. Before the opening of the new line, a number of freight cars with a maximum speed of 160 km/h were purchased for the line from the end of 1990. As part of the high-speed freight transport project, freight trains running at speeds of 160 km/h on the Hamburg–Munich and Bremen–Stuttgart lines ran on the line from 1991 to 1995. Pulled by class 120 locomotives, these InterCargoExpress trains ran overnight between northern and southern Germany. The service was discontinued in 1995 for economic reasons and resumed in 2000 with the Parcel InterCity'' service. Around 2001, a series of 120 km/h fast freight trains used the line at night at six-minute intervals. While around 20 trains per day and direction operated in the southern section of the line between Mottgers and Würzburg in 2018, the forecast in the Federal Transport Routes Plan 2030 expects up to 74. Investigations into using the ICE-G for fast freight trains have not been put into practice. Line speeds Large sections of the new line are approved for a top speed of . In tunnels, the maximum speed is generally limited to . The transit speeds at Fulda, Kassel-Wilhelmshöhe and Göttingen stations are between and . At the time of commissioning, the maximum line speed was , with a permitted exceeding of up to 280 km/h in the event of delays. In 1998, the maximum speed according to the timetable for trains running on this line was reduced to a continuous 250 km/h. Trains that are sensitive to side winds, including the ICE 2 multiple units with a leading (pushed) control car and locomotives with relatively light end cars (ICE 3 and ICE T) are only allowed to travel at in some sections of the line. The maximum permissible speed in the city of Hanover is . The LZB train control that is active from kilometre 16 (as of October 2006) only allows higher speeds from this point. At the southern end of the new line, the maximum speed is reduced from 250 to 220 km/h on the Veitshöchheim Main Viaduct, followed by a reduction to 160 km/h in the subsequent Roßberg tunnel. The ramp at Würzburg station can also be operated at this speed. The entrance to Würzburg station is up to , the exit in the direction of Hanover is up to 100 km/h. Deviating from the maximum speed of 250 km/h permitted in § 40 No. 2 S. 1 of the EBO, the Federal Ministry of Transport (according to § 3 Para. 1 No. 1 EBO) allowed a maximum line speed for ICE 1 multiple units by a determination of 24 March 1995 of 280 km/h, combined with special safety requirements. On 27 December 1996, this and other exemptions were replaced by a general, vehicle-independent regulation. This provided for a reduction in the permissible speed in the tunnel to 250 km/h insofar as a technical system could not prevent passenger and freight trains from crossing. At the end of the 1980s, containers used in Combined transport proved to be critical for encounters between passenger and freight trains in tunnels, which made it necessary to reduce the pressure load when trains met passenger trains and thus required a reduction in the speed of the ICE sets. When the timetable changed on 13 December 2009, the permissible speed for ICE 1 and ICE 2 trains between the Krieberg and Eichenberg tunnels (Hannover–Göttingen section) was increased to 280 km/h. A continuous increase in speed to 280 km/h in the tunnels of the new line was being investigated. The necessary safe separation of passenger and freight trains was to be implemented by making changes to the existing signalling technology. As part of the "Fulda–Burgsinn Mixed traffic" project, a three-week pilot operation starting on 23 November 2009 was tested in the 44-kilometer section, under which it is possible to have freight trains run during the day. Software was intended to prevent passenger and freight trains from meeting in tunnels. For this purpose, two tunnel areas with three or five tunnels, separated by the Mottgers overtaking loop, were formed. A reliable distinction between the types of trains is ensured by measuring the wheelbases at 24 points using wheel sensors, which determine the wheelbases with an accuracy of . The system would also be used on other new lines in the future. It should be further optimised and used in the future if required. In a further development stage, among other things, impermissible traffic signals are to be prevented and the responsible traffic controllers at the Burgsinn depot and the Frankfurt am Main operations centre are to be relieved. A secure signalling solution was sought according to DB information from 2018. Implementation was not foreseen. If the system were to be implemented, up to 20 additional routes could be added in each direction between Fulda and Burgsinn during daylight hours. A similar system has been in use on the Nuremberg–Erfurt high-speed railway since around 2018. Since around 2020, there have been considerations to increase the line speed to increase punctuality. With test runs by DB Systemtechnik in December 2022 with a class 403 multiple unit between Würzburg and Fulda, multi-year studies began to increase the maximum speed to in regular operation. See also High-speed rail in Germany References Sources High-speed railway lines in Germany Railway lines in Lower Saxony Railway lines in Hesse Railway lines in Bavaria Transport in Hanover Buildings and structures in Göttingen (district) Würzburg 15 kV AC railway electrification
4858717	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W%C3%BCrzburg%20Hauptbahnhof	Würzburg Hauptbahnhof	Würzburg Hauptbahnhof is a railway station for the city of Würzburg in the German state of Bavaria. It was opened in 1864 to the north of the inner city as a replacement for the former Ludwigsbahnhof (Ludwig's station) in the city centre, the capacity of which had been exhausted by the dramatic increase of rail traffic. Even today, Würzburg station is one of the major stations in Bavaria, since it lies at the intersection of several heavily used rail corridors. In particular, the routes in the north–south direction from Hamburg and Bremen to Munich as well as in west–east direction from the Rhine-Ruhr and Rhine-Main to Nuremberg and Vienna. Apart from Aschaffenburg Hauptbahnhof, Würzburg is the only station in Lower Franconia to be served by Intercity-Express services. With its combination of rail, tram and bus services, the station is the main hub for public transport in the city and the district of Würzburg. History The city of Würzburg was the capital of the Grand Duchy of Würzburg under Ferdinand III until 1814. It was then part of the territories in Franconia that were granted to the Kingdom of Bavaria by the Congress of Vienna in compensation for the loss of the Tyrol and that part of Palatinate that was east of the Rhine to Baden. Because of its remoteness within Bavaria, Würzburg was not connected by the Ludwig South-North Railway, which crossed the entire kingdom. At the urging of the Bavarian parliament, the city was connected to the railway network by the second state railway, the Ludwig Western Railway only a few years later. Construction work began in 1852 and the -long third stage from Schweinfurt to Würzburg (now part of the Bamberg–Rottendorf railway) of the -long line was opened on 1 June 1854. In the fourth and final stage, the line was opened to the Bavarian border in Kahl am Main via Gemünden am Main and Aschaffenburg on 1 October 1854 (now part of the Main–Spessart railway). The first station of 1852: the Ludwig station The first Würzburg station was named the Ludwigsbahnhof (Ludwig station) after King Ludwig I. At the request of the Ministry of War, the station was built inside the city walls, despite the higher land acquisition costs, at the exact location of the Mainfranken Theater today. This however meant, due to the already dense development, that it was possible to build only a terminal station. The area available for the station was about long and between wide and next to the station building and the train shed there was also a roundhouse and a carriage shed. It also included a workshop for the maintenance of rail vehicles and a freight warehouse. A second building was added, which was connected by tracks that had to be built on embankments that were up to five metres high due to the unevenness of the ground and as a result the building was higher than the surrounding streets. It was designed in the Renaissance Revival style by the royal architect Gottfried von Neureuther, who designed many station buildings of the Royal Bavarian State Railways and described the Würzburg station as one of the most difficult buildings on the Ludwig Western Railway. The station building was a two-storey building, the front of which faced west to Theaterstraße, where a forecourt was designed as a formal entrance to the city. The slightly elevated ground floor, as a result of the high position of the tracks, was clad with limestone and sandstone and included, among other things, waiting rooms and a restaurant. A -long and -wide platform area adjoined the station building to the east. Under the -high roof there were a track for passenger and freight trains and two bypass tracks. Large problems were experienced with the introduction of the tracks to the station area, as only two tracks ran through the city walls; these branched immediately after crossing the moat towards Schweinfurt and Gemünden. Sets of points had to be inserted on the bridge over the moat so that trains could be separated so that freight trains could run to the northern part of the station and passenger trains run to the southern part of the station. This limited the increase in capacity significantly, particularly for freight traffic. Relocation of the station In subsequent years the railways grew steadily. Although a lack of resources prevented rapid economic growth, as a result of the construction of new tracks, Würzburg became a railway junction. First, in 1861 construction started on a nearly -long link between Würzburg and Ansbach station, where it connected with a line that had been built in 1859 by the town of Ansbach to connect with the Ludwig South-North Railway in Gunzenhausen. This line (which is now part of the Treuchtlingen–Würzburg railway) was completed in 1864, giving Würzburg a shorter connection to the major cities of Augsburg and Munich. Just a year later, a direct link was opened between Rottendorf and Fürth (now part of the Nuremberg–Würzburg railway), creating a much shorter than the line via Bamberg and relegating the Ludwig Western Railway to a minor role. At the same time the common section with the old route to Bamberg between Würzburg and Rottendorf was duplicated. In 1866, the Baden Odenwald Railway (Odenwaldbahn) was completed. It was last railway opened to Würzburg until the late 20th century. It was built mainly at the request of Bavaria, to connect the then Bavarian Rhenish Palatinate to its own railway network and ran from Würzburg via Osterburken and Mosbach to Heidelberg. The new station outside the inner city The terminus could no longer absorb the traffic of the additional lines. An extension of the facilities that were tight from the start was not possible due to the density of buildings in the inner city. To provide greater capacity for passenger services, it was planned initially to shift freight and shunting to a separate location. Against the backdrop of the ever-growing rail traffic and given the operational benefits of a through station, the decision was taken in 1862 to build a new station to the north of the city beneath the Schalksberg (hill) and near the famous Würzburger Stein vineyard. At this time the area was only sparsely populated and there was enough space available for a large station yard and a through station. The construction of the station was accompanied by an extensive reorganisation of the road network. The mainly narrow and winding streets of the town centre were greatly improved by the widening of existing streets and the building of the central Schönbornstraße. The newly created Kaiserstraße connected the outlying station complex and the town. A new district was then established in the immediate vicinity of the station and in place of the former city wall a ring of parks in the English style was created. Julius-Maximilian's University and imposing Gründerzeit villas were built between the station and the banks of the Main river. In addition, a separate district for railway employees was built to the northeast of the station. The architect Friedrich Bürklein was commissioned for the construction of the station building. He had been responsible for the construction of München Hauptbahnhof and the stations in Augsburg, Bamberg, Nördlingen, Nuremberg and Bad Kissingen. Construction started in 1863 and it was completed in 1869. The station building was an imposing building, which consisted of a two-story central hall, which was bounded by two raised side wings. On the ground floor the entire front of the central hall was composed of arcade-like archways, which gave access to the inside of the station. There were, in addition to a salon for the king, the usual facilities of a station at the time, such as waiting rooms for four classes, two restaurants, ticketing and baggage counter and several administrative offices. The rooms on the upper floor were used as apartments for the staff. The platforms were one level above the street level as they were built on an embankment. Therefore, in the middle of the entrance building, there was a staircase to the concourse supported by 14 marble columns. The railway tracks were built over a very large area. Sidings, locomotive and carriage maintenance shops and warehouses were built to the north of the platform area. To the east there were the facilities of the Grand Duchy of Baden State Railway, which operated the Odenwald Railway towards Heidelberg, as it ran through Bavaria for only about . Destruction during World War II and reconstruction Until shortly before the end of the Second World War people still living in Würzburg had the illusion that the city would be spared an air raid because no significant industry was located in the city and it had three hospitals. However, Würzburg had great importance for rail transport, the logistical backbone of German armaments. On 23 February 1945, during an air strike of the United States Army Air Force, which was actually directed at Bayreuth, a large part of the station area was destroyed or severely degraded by about 200 bombs. Although the only threat from Würzburg for the Allies had been eliminated and another attack seemed unlikely, starting on the evening of 16 March 1945 in England, about 230 four-engined Avro Lancaster bombers of the Royal Air Force flew to Würzburg. In this destruction, considered one of the most devastating in the war, about 5,000 people lost their lives. In addition, 90 percent of the buildings in the inner city were damaged, which made Würzburg one of the most devastated cities of World War II. The city, which had often been called the "pearl of the baroque", was reduced to a pile of rubble within 19 minutes. Following the destruction on 23 February of the station built by Friedrich Bürklein, the station building of the Ludwig station was now also destroyed; since the closing of railway operations it had been used as a school. The ruins of the Ludwig station were completely removed up to the early 1960s and today's Mainfranken Theater Würzburg was built in its place. Shortly after the war work began on the reconstruction of the railway facilities. Since the station had been almost completely destroyed, the then Deutsche Bundesbahn and the responsible architect, Bundesbahn inspector Hans Kern decided against a reconstruction of the building and to build a new building. It was built in the unadorned style of 1950s modernism. The wide front was completely glazed and concrete pillars supported the slightly overhanging roof. Construction of the entrance hall began in 1952 and it was opened on 2 October 1954 at the conclusion of the electrification of the Fürth–Würzburg line. After further stages of construction, the building was completed in 1961. Inside there was a large entrance hall, which among other things housed a ticket office and various shops. The northern side of the hall was adorned by an attached stone mosaic of the Eichstätt artist Alois Wünsche-Mitterecker that had a cross-sectional image of a class 44 steam locomotive at its original size. As repeated vibrations caused by departing trains broke part of the wall panelling, the mosaic was removed in 1958 and installed in the Nuremberg Transport Museum. The division of Germany and recent development since the 1980s Würzburg Hauptbahnhof has a central location in Germany and was always a major hub for rail transport, but after the division of Germany its importance increased again. While rail traffic between the north and the southeast of the country had previously been distributed over several routes, now the lines through the Thuringian Forest, the Franconian Forest and the Vogtland were truncated. All the trains that had to be operated along the Inner German border, including the routes to Munich via Würzburg and Nuremberg caused a considerable increase in the workload for Würzburg. In the timetable of 1979/80, 300 passenger, 250 freight trains and 100 other trains operated through Würzburg station on weekdays. About 60 passenger and 50 freight trains were shunted at the station. The high utilisation of the access routes led to the construction of two new lines for high-speed traffic (Mannheim–Stuttgart and Hanover–Würzburg) in order to clear the old lines of express trains. During the 1991 timetable, the first Intercity-Express sets served Würzburg, still under the "Intercity" name. In May 1992, Würzburg became an ICE stop with the establishment of the Hamburg–Würzburg–Munich ICE service. The station today Infrastructure Entrance building Since the construction of the new station building, it has been changed only slightly since its completion so that the basic structure of the original design is still preserved almost completely. In place of the wall paintings that have been removed there are now billboards. The former ticket office was converted into a travel center that was modified in the 1990s to fit the new corporate design of Deutsche Bahn. In addition, the entrance building now housed a baggage room, a "ServicePoint", a food shop, a book shop and a small kiosk for tobacco products and magazines. In the summer of 2006, two new sales pavilions were established for this purpose and an older bakery was removed and the ServicePoint had to be moved to the side of the hall. At the eastern end there was an office of the Bahnhofsmission charity, which provides assistance to travellers and the homeless; until the beginning of 2008, this has since been housed in the west wing of the building. Before the start of the platform underpass there is a toilet facility, which has been leased to a private operator since 2006. There have been repeated complaints in recent years regarding its cleanliness and hygiene to Deutsche Bahn, which notes, however, that a comprehensive renovation of the facility will be undertaken during the modernisation of the whole building. The restaurant Bürgerstuben was housed in the western part of the building until June 2007. Its operation was terminated in October 2006 by the operator, SSP Deutschland, the successor to Deutsche Bahn's own catering operation Mitropa, in preparation for the planned station modernisation as part of the "arcades project" (Arcaden-Projekt, see below). Since Deutsche Bahn reversed the termination of the operation of the restaurant after the collapse of the arcades project, the reconstructed restaurant has been staffed by a new operator. On the top floor in the western part of the building there is a conference centre and in the eastern part there are business premises. In mid-2007, work started on the establishment of a DB Lounge for first-class travellers and bahn.comfort (BahnCard) customers, which was forecast for completion in 2011. As part of the economic stimulus package, Deutsche Bahn is renovating the station building with energy-related measures. Platforms and railway tracks The station still has extensive trackage used by both passenger and freight trains. The southern two tracks (201 and 202) are only for freight. The platform next to the station building is used for parking inter-city and has no rail services. On the remaining five island platforms the following passenger services are carried out: platform B: tracks 2 and 3 (local traffic), length: 435 m platform C: tracks 4 and 5 (long-distance and local traffic), length: 473/444 m platform D: tracks 6 and 7 (long-distance and local traffic), length: 417/365 m platform E: tracks 8 and 9 (local traffic), length: 300 m platform F: tracks 10 and 11 (local traffic), length: 323/329 m All platforms are high, which is one of the two standard heights used in Germany. Step-free entry is still not possible to any one of trains running, as Deutsche Bahn has no long-distance trains with entrance heights of and the regional trains used here are mostly of older construction and can only be entered by taking several steps at the entrances. The DB subsidiary Westfrankenbahn on its service to Bad Mergentheim partly uses new class 642 diesel multiple units, which are also not barrier-free despite their low floors, as their entrances are high, so that passengers have to step down. The length of three of the five platforms (B, C and D) make them suitable for long-distance services and they are divided into five platform sections. Platforms C and D are over long and almost their whole length is required for full-length Intercity-Express (ICE) trains. At the end of 2006, the previously common split-flap platform displays were replaced on the platforms and in the underpass with modern screens using LCD technology. The platforms can be reached through a tunnel located at street level. Like the platforms, it is not designed for the current passenger traffic. The platforms are not accessible for the disabled, although the long-distance platforms and platform F have baggage conveyor belts. But at present there are no escalators, lifts or ramps. With the start of ICE services in the early 1990s, an additional platform (F) was built because the "home" platform was converted into parking for ICE sets at the same time. In 1959, a DrS interlocking was put into operation. The system, which cost 4.7 million Deutschmarks (DM), replaced five old signal boxes and saved 28 positions. In 1969, the system was supplemented by a shunting interlocking system (SPDRs 600 technology). This DM 1.2 million system saved eight positions. In the 1970s, Würzburg station was upgraded for the introduction of the Hanover–Würzburg new line. The tracks were redesigned so that trains on the new line could reach all platform tracks. To increase the number of simultaneous incoming and outgoing trains, the new line was placed between the two tracks of the Würzburg–Aschaffenburg line. At the same time it would be possible, with fully occupied platform tracks, for long freight trains take to pass through the rebuilt station. For these and other requirements, a step-by-step schedule was established for the upgrade of the station. To meet the increasing performance requirements for the construction of the new line and the third track to Rottendorf, the west end of the station was completely rebuilt and the east end was partially rebuilt. In 1984, a new signal box was into operation. From 1989 until 1999, the station entrances were extensively remodelled. The performance of the node was improved by the installation of slimmer sets of points and improvements to the signalling systems. The track upgrade supported an increase in speeds from at the east end and from at the west end. The exit for the high speed line can be operated at . Moreover, the traffic flows were designed so that trains would run at the entrance and exit largely without crossing paths and freight operations are concentrated on the south side of the station. These measures have substantially increased the capacity of the tracks and operations can now be handled with less noise. The travel time savings for long-distance operations is about two minutes and in conjunction with improvements to the Nuremberg–Würzburg line about seven minutes. The cost of the upgrade amounted to about DM 115 million (about €60 million). As early as 1988 to 1991, the upgrade on the eastern end had raised speeds from . Station forecourt The station forecourt extends from the entrance building to the Röntgenring and Haugerring on the inside of the ring of parks on the site of the former walls. It is bounded to the east and west by two lines of pavilions harbouring various shops. The St Kilian fountain stands on a pedestal in the middle of the forecourt, which was inaugurated in July 1895 by Prince Regent Luitpold and is the only existing remnant of the former station. The St Kilian fountain was a gift from the Prince Regent to Würzburg; after this the Franconia fountains were built in front of the Residence in honour of Luitpold. A bronze statue of St. Kilian stood over the basin of the fountain from 1895 to 1943. This was removed in 1943 to melt down for the production of armaments. The statue was bought back from a Hamburg scrap yard and restored on 8 July 1949. The fountain made out of Carrara marble was last sandblasted in the 1970s. Since then, the substance has deteriorated and become porous. Since it was unsafe, it had to be propped up for several years. A renovation could not be carried out until April 2007. The fountain was dismantled over a few days and removed in pieces to the nearby Frankenhalle. It was restored and then rebuilt on the station forecourt. Where possible, the old parts were reused but new parts were also used based on the original model. The cost of the renovation of the 100-year-old structure is estimated at €1 million, which was borne by the city and the state of Bavaria. It was re-inaugurated on 24 July 2009. The Franconian apostle St Kilian crowns the fountain and faces the city. Fishing and wine growing are shown in the relief. The terminal loop of the tram track runs around the St Kilian fountain, which has two tram stops. Services Lines Several major rail corridors cross at Würzburg Hauptbahnhof. All lines are electrified and duplicated and the highly trafficked Würzburg–Rottendorf section has three tracks. The high-speed line from Fulda is scheduled for operations for the most part. Its continuation to Nuremberg can partially be operated at speeds of up to . The other routes, which mainly handle regional traffic, operate at speeds of . The following is a summary of timetable routes (KBS) that begin or end here: KBS 351 to Fulda–Kassel–Hanover (Hanover–Würzburg high-speed railway) KBS 780 to Heilbronn–Stuttgart (Franconia Railway) KBS 800 to Aschaffenburg (Main–Spessart railway) KBS 805 to Nuremberg (Nuremberg–Würzburg railway) KBS 810 to Schweinfurt–Bamberg (via Nuremberg–Würzburg railway and Bamberg–Rottendorf railway) KBS 900 to Nuremberg/Ansbach–Ingolstadt/Augsburg–Munich KBS 920 to Ansbach–Treuchtlingen (Treuchtlingen–Würzburg railway) Long-distance lines Würzburg Hauptbahnhof is connected by the following services to the rail network (as of the 2018 timetable): Due to its convenient location, long-distance trains have run from all over Germany and neighbouring countries to Würzburg station since the early days of rail travel. Therefore, it was also served on several routes of the Trans Europ Express (TEE) network, which was established in 1957. With a single domestic route and two routes to Vienna and Klagenfurt, the only non-German cities to be served directly were in nearby Austria. TEA 21/22: Rheinpfeil, Dortmund–Frankfurt–Würzburg–(Nuremberg)–Munich (1965–1971) TEA 90/91: Blauer Enzian, Hamburg–Würzburg–Munich–Klagenfurt (1965–1979) TEA 26/27: Prinz Eugen, Bremen–Nuremberg–Würzburg–Vienna (1971–1978) After Deutsche Bundesbahn gradually introduced its increasingly popular Intercity network with two-class trains from 1968, the first class only TEE services were phased out. On 27 May 1988, the Fulda–Würzburg section was the first major section of the Hanover–Würzburg high-speed line to be put into operation. The official ceremonial opening of operations by the InterCityExperimental was held at Würzburg station at 12:58. The opening of the section was celebrated with a festival at the station on 28 and 29 May, with many shuttles services running to Fulda. The first scheduled passenger service on the new line, IC 686 (Herrenchiemsee) left Würzburg station on 29 May at 9:17. The first scheduled service arriving regularly on the high-speed line was IC 581 (Veit Stoß) at 10:42. With the start of the summer 1991 timetable, Intercity–Express trains were put into operation as Deutsche Bundesbahn's highest train class, running on the Hamburg–Munich line via Hanover, Frankfurt (Main), Mannheim and Stuttgart, although not through Würzburg. After delivery of further ICE sets from 31 March 1992, a second connection was established between Hamburg and Munich, which ran south of Fulda on a more easterly route through the northern Bavarian cities of Würzburg and Nuremberg. With the delivery of the ICE 2, which allowed trains to be coupled and uncoupled, half a train ran every two hours to Bremen from 1997. By 1992 traffic on the north–south line through Würzburg was almost completely converted to ICE connections, while the east–west line was for a long time still operated by Intercity services. After the opening of the Cologne–Frankfurt high-speed line in 2002, the existing Intercity services from the Ruhr to Nuremberg or Munich were mostly replaced by two hourly ICE services. Since their delivery, ICE 3 sets capable of operations are used. After the integration of the Nuremberg–Ingolstadt high-speed railway in the nationwide long-distance network in December 2006, this route was received an hourly service and more coupled trains operated to various locations. At the timetable change in December 2007, the Intercity/EuroCity service from Dortmund to Vienna was converted to ICE T tilting trains, so now Würzburg is served by four of the five Deutsche Bahn ICE train classes. Since December 2006, services to Würzburg Hauptbahnhof have been generally scheduled to run through the station at 30 minutes past the hour, to maximise connectivity between long-distance and regional services. Since the beginning of the 2007 timetable ICE line 41 has served Würzburg station hourly. Regional transport routes Würzburg Hauptbahnhof is connected by the following services to the rail network: All Regional-Express services (except the Mainfranken-Thüringen-Express) and the Regionalbahn services to Treuchtlingen reach Würzburg station just before the half-hour and leave it a few minutes after the half-hour. Thus there are connections between them and with two regular long-distance services. Connections with trams and buses Würzburg station is also a central transfer station for trams and buses. In the station forecourt are the Würzburg tram stops of Hauptbahnhof West and Hauptbahnhof Ost (east). This division of departure platforms for trams to the inner city (west) and Grombühl (east) was established in 1996 as a "temporary" measure during the construction of a new station, which has not yet commenced. Immediately west of the station forecourt is the bus station where the majority of urban and regional bus routes start. Future development In 2004, the city of Würzburg published plans for the post office area to the west of the station building by the Essen company Management für Immobilien AG (mfi), which would involve building a shopping centre with an area of 20,000 square metres, including a wedding hall. The so-called Würzburg Arcaden (Wurzburg arcades) would extend to the current bus station, where the Quellenbach parking station would be built. The ambitious schedule provided for a completion of the project by the end of 2006. A citizens' initiative warned against drastic changes to the ring of parks on the former wall, which would have been affected, and demanded a referendum. Before that was carried out, however, the project was abandoned in October 2004 because of differences with the managers of the venue. After the project had failed at the first attempt, mfi brought a revised version to the table in July 2005. This did not include the originally planned development of the bus station, instead, the arcades would be built on the west wing of the main station and a connection to the station building would be created. The profits from the sale of the west wing were intended to be invest in the modernisation of the station building by Deutsche Bahn. Mfi pledged to finance the redevelopment of the station forecourt, the relocation of the bus station on the eastern side of the station and the greening of its current location. Far-reaching changes were also planned in the layout of roads and tram tracks, so that sections of the Haugerring and Röntgenring (the streets on the south side of the ring of parks) would have been widened to five lanes and the tramline to Grombühl would have been relocated from the Haugerring to Haugerglacisstraße (on the north side of the ring of parks next to the station). On 14 December 2005, the council agreed by a narrow margin to the construction of Würzburg Arcaden and so paved the way for the €250 million project. Finally, in mid-2006, an architectural competition for the redevelopment of the station environment was started, which selected the Stuttgart office of Auer+Weber+Assoziierte and the Hamburg landscape architects, WES & Partner. The citizens' initiative Ringpark-in-Gefahr ("Ring Park in danger") succeeded in having a referendum called, which took place on 3 December 2006. The proponents of the initiative warned of, despite the planned restoration of the bus station area to the ring park, impending gridlock and the desolation of the inner city after the opening of the proposed shopping centre. With a turnout of over 40 percent, the Wurzburg citizens decided by about 51 to 49 percent, to support the joint project of mfi, Deutsche Bahn and the city—a majority of 985 in favour. Many people complained after the vote that the voting slip was confusing and difficult to understand and more than 12 percent of all votes cast were invalid. 2007: further development after the breakdown of Würzburg Arcaden After the referendum was put the federal parliamentarian, Walter Kolbow, who, like the state parliamentarian Rainer Boutter (both SPD), had criticized the coupling of the station redevelopment and the arcade project before the vote, called for the redevelopment to be carried out in several stages. At his initiative, a four-hour summit meeting was held on 12 March 2007 between the then Mayor of Würzburg, Pia Beckmann and the CEO of DB Station&Service, Wolf-Dieter Siebert. Federal and state grants of up to 80 percent of the cost of the renovation of the platforms and their access had already been largely secured, and it was suggested at the meeting that €8 million for the renovation of the entrance building in 2011/2012 was on the way. Deutsche Bahn would provide €3 million and the city of Würzburg would be able to put together €5 million. To keep the city's contribution to a minimum, Mayor Pia Beckmann had brought a "stripped down" version to the discussion, which did not require the development of the second floor. Despite their initial opposition, Deutsche Bahn finally accepted this proposal and also waived the requirement that the City fund €5 million of the cost. Furthermore, the city is planning extensive changes in the station environment. This will mean that the station forecourt will have a uniform design and more attractive pavilion shops will be built. In addition, the conversion of the current location of the bus station into parkland and the installation of the bus station on the eastern side of the station is planned. Land there that is currently still owned by subsidiaries of Deutsche Bahn is required in return for the city's participation in the rebuilding of station. In particular, as the Würzburg tramway is crowded even after the reorganisation of the tram service, the construction of a central tram stop in front of the entrance building is required. These projects are to be taken forward after the completion of the renovation of the station. Remediation for the 2018 state garden show According to Deutsche Bahn, the station is to be rehabilitated for the State Garden Show 2018 from March 2010. The redevelopment of the eastern part of the station building is currently (as of February 2013) expected to be completed in the spring of 2013. The first floor offices are also to be renewed. In addition, the station underpass will be built, including the installation of lifts to the platforms. Likewise, a completely new toilet facility will be built. The barrier-free upgrade of the station will cost €32 million. See also 2016 Würzburg train attack References Sources External links Railway stations in Bavaria Hauptbahnhof Railway stations in Germany opened in 1854 Hanover–Würzburg high-speed railway
4858948	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kassel-Wilhelmsh%C3%B6he%20station	Kassel-Wilhelmshöhe station	Kassel-Wilhelmshöhe is a railway station in the city of Kassel, in the German state of Hesse. It is the city's most important railway station, as it is connected to the Hanover-Würzburg high-speed rail line, with InterCityExpress services calling at the station. History Kassel-Wilhelmshöhe station was opened as Wahlershausen station with the last section of the Frederick William Northern Railway on 29 December 1849. Whether a station was required at this point on the line was initially controversial. Trains running between Kassel and Gerstungen stopped here as did services running on the Main-Weser Railway a little later. The station was immediately adjacent to the Wilhelmshöher Allee crossing, ensuring good road connections. The underpass originally planned under the Allee was, however, replaced by a level crossing for cost reasons. The station served not only the village of Wahlershausen, but also Schloss Wilhelmshöhe, which was two kilometres away. The station building's southern avant-corps therefore included a Fürstenzimmer ("prince's room"), a "waiting room for the nation's leaders." Julius Eugen Ruhl produced a series of designs for the station building. These had very different dimensions. A smaller version was finally built, with a two-storey brick building decorated with terracotta with five opening on each side, avant-corps and a spire, which emphasised the central axis, in the Italianate Renaissance Revival style. On the ground floor there were the waiting rooms and offices and on the first floor there were two residences for officials. The building was remodelled several times over the years and lost much of its decoration. It was finally demolished immediately before the construction of the new Kassel-Wilhelmshöhe long-distance station. Structural changes in the 19th Century As of 1877, a steam tram ran in Wilhelmshöher Allee, originally crossing the railway at a level crossing next to Wahlershausen station. This was presumably deemed to interfere with operations so that in 1878/79 the railway was lowered by about six metres and a bridge was built over it carrying Wilhelmshöher Allee. The lowering of the tracks meant that the platforms and the adjacent station had to be lowered. A retaining wall was built next to the station building and a staircase was built for passengers to pass to and from trains. In addition, a pedestrian bridge was built to the platforms. The Kassel–Waldkappel railway (also known as the Losse Valley Railway) was opened in 1879 with its own platform on the east side of Wilhelmshöhe station (today's platform 9/10). In 1899 a third track was built for the main line. In 1902, the narrow-gauge Hercules Railway (Herkulesbahn) was opened. It carried lignite and basalt mined in the Habichtswald to Wilhelmshöhe station, where it was transferred to the state railway. Wilhelmshöhe was also an important freight depot. In 1904, the Kassel–Naumburg railway opened; this is now operated as a museum railway. Transport connections A steam tram service was opened from Königsplatz to Kassel-Wilhelmshöhe in 1877. The line was connected to the tram line to Mulang in 1900. The Hercules Railway ran to and from the Kassel-Wilhelmshöhe station from 1902. It was served by three tram lines from 1911; a fourth tram line connected later. Events A few days after the Battle of Sedan on 5 September 1870, the captive Emperor Napoleon III was brought in a Belgian saloon car from Cologne over the Deutz–Gießen railway to Wilhelmshöhe station and then taken to the castle, which was assigned to him as a residence. There, Empress Eugenie visited him incognito from 30 October to 1 November 1870, also arriving at Wilhelmshöhe station. On departure she travelled to Hanover. Emperor Napoleon III. on his departure travelled on 19 March 1871 via Wilhelmshöhe station to exile in England. In 1907, Emperor Wilhelm II received his uncle, King Edward VII of the United Kingdom, at the station before a crowd of 70,000 spectators for a one-day state visit. That same year, the station was also used by King Chulalongkorn of Thailand for his visit to the Emperor. On 14 November 1918, Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg came to Wilhelmshöhe station. He resided at the castle hotel and there organised the demobilisation of the German Army after the end of the First World War. He departed from the station on 12 February 1919. The last time the station was the focus of a state reception was on 21 May 1970, when Chancellor Willy Brandt received the Prime Minister of the German Democratic Republic, Willi Stoph, on a one-day visit. The political discussions were also held at the castle hotel. The guests arrived on a GDR government train. Structural changes in the 20th century In the 1930s, the passage under the Wilhelmshöher Allee bridge had become too narrow for the needs of the railway, which needed more tracks. But the roadway itself was too narrow for the needs of the increasing motor vehicle traffic. Therefore, in 1938 a new bridge was built, while rail and tram traffic continued, only motor vehicles were diverted. This at first resolved the traffic problems. Deutsche Reichsbahn and the Municipality of Kassel developed plans to remodel Wilhelmshöhe station as the main station of Kassel from 1942 to 1944. The concept was not dissimilar to the project that was implemented 40 years later, but the Second World War prevented its execution. During World War II, the station and its entrance buildings were severely damaged, but the road bridge that crosses it remained largely unscathed. However, it collapsed in 1946, when a freight train with tank cars loaded with gasoline had a hot box fire while standing there. The heat was so great that the bridge's steel beams lost their strength and the structure collapsed. The station building, which had been severely damaged in the war was rebuilt in simplified forms and received a storage area built as an extension in the style of the 1950s. Long-distance station Options discussions The planning status report of the Hanover–Würzburg high-speed railway in September 1971 provided for a station at Wilhelmshöhe. The planning status report of the preliminary route (Vortrassierung) of 1972/1973 foresaw a 6.4 kilometre-long tunnel running under Kassel. The tunnel would have run between Vellmar-Obervellmar and Kassel-Wehlheiden. Extensions to the north (Hanover) both via a direct route (via Holzminden) and via Göttingen were discussed. These two possible routes converged in Vellmar-Obervellmar (at kilometer 125 for the Holzminden option or at kilometer 144.3 for the Göttingen option). The route would have briefly run east parallel to the existing line from the southern tunnel portal and the lines would have been connected there. As part of the planning of the new line, four options for the route through Kassel were examined from 1972: (option II is not explained in the specified source) option I foresaw a route via Kassel-Wilhelmshöhe station; option III provided for a line running continuously to the east of the city centre of Kassel, with a new station in Kassel-Bettenhausen; option IV would have followed part of options I from the south to Kassel-Wilhelmshöhe station and would then have run east to Kassel Hauptbahnhof. Trains would have left the urban area to the north-west after reversing in the station; option IVg provided for a north–south axis through Kassel, that would run underground below the city with an underground station at Kassel Hauptbahnhof. With the large-scale profile of the new line that had originally been planned, an extraordinarily complex set of lines was considered in the different options. It was estimated that the 18 km long comparison section in Kassel would cost 1.6 to 2.5 billion Deutsche Marks (1975 prices). Planning the location The regional planning process for the Hessian section of the new line was initiated in a letter of 7 February 1974 and later interrupted. It was resumed in a letter dated 21 November 1975, but the district of Kassel—including the urban area of Kassel—was not included initially.<ref name="rpk-1975-11-21">{{cite book \|publisher=Kassel region \|title=Ausbauprogramm der Deutschen Bundesbahn (DB), Neubaustrecke Hannover–Würzburg (letter, file no. P 6 - 93 c 08 - 05 a') \|date= 21 November 1975 \| pages= 7 f \|language=de}}</ref> In 1977, the city of Kassel pressed strongly for the construction of an underground line through a station under the existing Kassel terminal station–including a tunnel under the city of Kassel. A new station building at the Wilhelmshöhe site and variants with different above ground and underground access lines were investigated. Deutsche Bundesbahn favoured the Wilhelmshöhe location with an above ground approach, the so-called "western route" (Westtrasse). Both options were examined in the regional planning process, which was conducted from 1978 to 1980. Flanked by numerous reports and counter reports they were discussed amid public controversy. The underground option was—in the opinion of Deutsche Bundesbahn—much more complex, more expensive and would impose greater burdens on the population. Discussions at first focused on complex problems of urban development, but gradually shifted to noise abatement issues. On 29 March 1979, Deutsche Bundesbahn opened an exhibition on the construction project in Kassel. The "groundbreaking" ceremony for the Hessian section was held on 13 November 1981. Ultimately, the city of Kassel agreed to the station at Wilhelmshöhe after studies had shown that this site would not adversely affected the future development of the city. High cost and long construction time led to proposals for an underground through station under the main station to be discarded in favour of the peripheral station at Wilhelmshöhe. The new station was initially designed purely as a long-distance station, which would only be used by trains running on the new line. The connection to the existing Kassel Hauptbahnhof would be carried out by shuttle trains. In the course of further planning between 1979 and 1986 it became clear that the existing Kassel Hauptbahnhof would lose its function as central rail hub to the new Wilhelmshöhe station and the Kassel Hauptbahnhof would tend to be used mainly by traffic to and from that area. Architectural competition and planning of the entrance building The design of the station comes an architectural competition in 1981. This was the first competition to design a station organised by Deutsche Bundesbahn in around 30 years. The architectural competition was won in 1982 (according to another source: 1981) by the Berlin architect Andreas Brandt (Brandt & Böttcher bureau), Giovanni Signorini and Yadegar Asisi, who were also charged with its planning and execution. The architects' design contract was revoked in 1985 after the city determined that the transport connections were inadequate. During this phase, referred to as the preliminary project, the design of the building was repeatedly changed. The Dietrich, Waning, Guggenberger bureau was also contracted to design the ramp halls and the parking deck and the Schuck architectural bureau was included for the design of equipment. On 10 September 1984, the planning decision for the area of the station was adopted (zoning section 12.5 of the new line). This decree—coinciding with that on the adjacent section 12.4—concluded the planning approval process for the 111 km long central section of the new line. Deutsche Bundesbahn arranged for the immediate implementation of the zoning section. At the beginning of March 1985, the city and Deutsche Bundesbahn agreed on the design of the station and its transport links. Particularly controversial was the desire of Deutsche Bundesbahn for the development of long ramps to the platforms so that cars could reach the tracks. During the planning phase, the client was finally convinced of the necessity of stairs to connect to the platforms as well. The station would be fully accessible as a result of the ramp concept. Construction The construction of the new station under traffic required elaborate equipment at the site as it had to be rebuilt as construction progressed. The topping out ceremony of the station canopy, which marked the completion of the structural work on the entire new line, took place on 18 January 1990. The construction costs amounted to around 300 million marks (about €153 million). The construction costs of the new line in the Kassel node were estimated at DM 60 million per kilometre. Costs on the line between Kassel and Fulda were DM 32 million per kilometre. Design Kassel-Wilhelmshöhe station is a through station with four platforms and two through tracks in a cutting. It is divided into two halves for the operation of trains. The two platforms of the west side are served by long-distance trains and the two platforms on the east side by regional trains. Two through tracks were created for the freight trains. The very wide platforms and the upper deck supported by two-sided fish-belly rows of columns make the middle of the platforms dark and drafty, leading to the station being given the nickname of the "palace of a thousand winds" (Palast der tausend Winde). The platforms are served primarily by a 220-metre-long two-storey entrance building built over the northern approach tracks. From there the ramps and stairs lead down to the platforms. In the southern part of the platforms additional stairs and lifts connect to the platforms. This second access is aimed primarily at users of the car park, which has 300 spaces on two levels. The station forecourt in front of the entrance building is an extension of Wilhelmshöher Allee. It is covered by a -long and -wide canopy. This rests on 59 irregularly arranged columns, -high over the forecourt and also projects on the axis of Wilhelmshöher Allee. This serves as the tram and bus stop. Opening The station was inaugurated between 29 May and 1 June 1991 as part of a comprehensive, four-day program. On the afternoon of 29 May 1991, Jürgen Kastner, president of the Bundesbahndirektion (railway division) of Frankfurt, symbolically handed the key of an Intercity-Express (ICE) train that was on display to Kassel mayor Wolfram Bremeier. Numerous personnel, including several hundred police officers, secured the event. On 30 May promotional ICE services were offered to Fulda and back at special prices. The grand opening of the new station stood in the shadow of the symbolic start of operations on the high-speed rail services in Germany on the same day (29 May). ICE services commenced on the high-speed line between Hanover and Würzburg over its full length. The fact that the ICE opening ceremony would take place in Kassel, had already been scheduled at the end of the 1980s. Five ICE trains ran to the new station from Bonn, Hamburg, Mainz, Stuttgart and Munich and reached it at the same time. German President Richard von Weizsäcker symbolically switched the exit signal to green at 12:00 noon and declared high-speed traffic in the Federal Republic of Germany open. The train driver for the first scheduled ICE service (from Hamburg on 2 June at 5:33 AM), Harry Pfaffe, was symbolically handed the key for the train. Other opening speeches were given by Federal Transport Minister Günther Krause, Deutsche Bundesbahn executive board chairman Heinz Dürr and Hesse Prime Minister Hans Eichel. 2,500 invited guests from politics and industry celebrated in the station, from which the public had been excluded. The five special trains left the station after three hours. Since the station toilets were not initially operable, long lines formed in front of two toilets in the station car park. Operational usage All northbound and southbound InterCityExpress services call at the station, with the exception of ICE Sprinter'' trains. An ICE connection also exists on the line to Erfurt and Altenbeken / Dortmund. Regional services are offered to Frankfurt Hbf, Hagen, Erfurt, Bad Hersfeld, Korbach and Kassel Hauptbahnhof where regional trains depart for Göttingen and Halle among others. The station is also served by two lines of the RegioTram system, the light rail system of Kassel. These two lines terminate at Treysa or Melsungen respectively. Long distance * to Köln Messe/Deutz tracks 11/12; five minutes longer to Hauptbahnhof Local services The station is also served by trams and RegioTram Kassel. Notes References External links Railway stations in North Hesse Buildings and structures in Kassel Hanover–Würzburg high-speed railway Railway stations in Germany opened in 1849 Railway stations in Germany opened in 1991
4858986	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moomin%20%281969%20TV%20series%29	Moomin (1969 TV series)	is a Japanese anime television series produced by Zuiyo Enterprise and animated by Tokyo Movie until episode 26 and by Mushi Production after episode 27. The series is loosely based on the Moomin books by the Finnish author Tove Jansson and was broadcast on Fuji Television from 1969 to 1970. A sequel series entitled Shin Muumin () was later released in 1972. Jansson never approved of the series or its successor, due to their dramatic changes with the plots, overall atmosphere, and character personalities. Because of this, the series was never translated into any languages or released outside Japan except Taiwan and some others like United Kingdom. Also, the series has never been released in principle since 1990 including in Japan, when a new anime television series Moomin was released with the full involvement of Jansson herself. The anime series is also the second entry in what is now known as World Masterpiece Theater (Calpis Comic Theater at the time). Zuiyo Enterprise, would split in 1975 into Nippon Animation Company, Ltd. (which employed some of the Zuiyo's production staff and continued with the World Masterpiece Theater franchise) and Zuiyo Company, Ltd. Summary The anime series is notably different from the later anime television series Moomin, released in the early 1990s, which was translated into many languages,released in dozens of countries, and relies more on the original Moomin books and comic strips. While the series itself was well-liked by the Japanese public as an adventurous and comedic series for boys, it was dramatically different in areas like the adaptation and overall atmosphere. For example, Moomintroll was portrayed more as an ordinary boy; while still friendly like in the books, he is somewhat ill-tempered, occasionally fighting or behaving slyly. This, along with elements such as Snork being a driver, common use of firearms, one scene in an early episode featuring characters getting drunk together at a bar, infuriated Jansson. After Tokyo Movie's contract was cancelled, With Mushi Production taking over, the designs were changed accordingly and the series had many more faithful episodes, which included the source's stories and points of mystery, horror, comedy and tragedy. Despite this, Jansson's consent was still not obtained and the program was ended after well over 60 episodes. Since 1990, Moomin Characters, Ltd, which manages the Moomin copyrights, has not released this series to the public in principle. Episode 1 of this series is featured on the Moomin Characters, Ltd, official website. But this video was displayed using a link, and the original URL is illegally uploaded to YouTube without the permission of Tokyo Movie and related parties. Production In the 1960s, sports dramas and slapstick comedies were the mainstream of Japanese TV animation at that time. Therefore, Calpis Co., Ltd., the sponsor of the animated program in Fuji TV, wanted to offer a family-oriented animation that was distinctly different from those fields. At that time, "Moomin," which had just been imported from abroad as children's literature, caught their attention. And so the project was launched. A short time later, the proposal was sent to Tove Jansson. Jansson's response was positive, so Shigeto Takahashi, a producer at Zuiyo Enterprise who was in charge of the project, decided to meet directly with Jansson to proceed with negotiations. Jansson suggested the following conditions for the production of the animation. No money, no machines, and no television. Development and pre-production Tokyo Movie, now TMS Entertainment, was chosen to produce the animation. The director was chosen to be Masaaki Osumi, who has the unique background of having come from a puppet theater company. Osumi, who knows Moomin well, initially thought the content was too static to be suitable for animation, but accepted the position. The company hired Yasuo Otsuka as the animation director. He was considered to be one of Japan's foremost animators, and he was an important mentor to Hayao Miyazaki. He thought the cuteness of movement and the roundness of his drawings as important, and never used straight lines to draw characters such as the Moomins. The initial meetings were confusing. Takahashi, who respected Jansson's opinions and aimed for a plot that was faithful to the original work, was at odds with the advertising agency, which aimed for a plot that did not respect Jansson's original work on the grounds that "the style as it is will not be popular in Japan". When Osumi attended a meeting invited by the advertising agency, he felt that the meeting was amazingly stupy, because comments such as "Let's run a bullet train in the Moomin Valley". He thought about quitting the job, but, he was fascinated by the animation shown by Mr. Otsuka just before leaving company, and he broke off that thought. Osumi later said of the participants in this meeting, "Perhaps, but they had not even read the original work and were only thinking about the character business.". Later, the bullet train idea was rejected due to opposition from Osumi and others. In making the animation, Osumi decided to base it on Moomin comic strips rather than the Jansson novels. The strips had a freer plot than the novels, and he thought that "the style of the comic would work as an animation. Therefore, Osumi claims that he did not create a plot that was different than the comic strip. In the casting process, Kyōko Kishida, who was regarded as a great actor with a strong acting background, was chosen to play Moomin. This was due to the fact that she once contributed a story about reading a Moomin novel in an essay she had written for a newspaper. Subsequently, the casting of other main characters was done according to Kisida's abilities, and stage actors and other actors with greater theatrical skills than the popular voice actors of the time were employed. Hisashi Inoue, a distinguished novelist and dramatist, participated as a screenwriter. At first, there were some complaints from the advertising agency that the story was too self-control. However, once the animation was actually broadcast, the response was more favorable than expected, and especially since the sponsor, Calpis, liked it very much, and the strong complaints receded, as if pushed by them. Thus was created "Moomin," a children's animation mixing fantasy by Jansson and Japanese culture. Change of production company When the broadcast began, Tokyo Movie and Zuiyo Enterprise asked Jansson to watch episode 7. This was to get her endorsement. But, she gave the episode a low rating and submitted a letter to the staff with a series of complaints and requests. Tokyo Movie ended production after episode 26 and exited the project because of this letter from Jansson. But this reason was ostensible. The Moomin project was initially intended to be a low-budget production, but the animators and staff on site insisted on producing high-quality work, and as a result, the budget was far exceeded, and negotiations with the advertising agency for an increase in the budget were not agreed upon. Also, Due to its popularity with viewers, the number of broadcasts was suddenly increased from the planned number, but Tokyo movie could not cope with this. For this reason, Tokyo movie's upper management wanted to withdraw from the project and used Jansson's claims as an excuse to Zuiyo Enterprise, the sponsors, and the Fuji TV, who were willing to continue the program. With the departure of Tokyo Movie from the project, Osumi and other key staff and animators were also dropped from the production. The animators on site were summoned by the president and informed of the sudden termination. They were disappointed, but also relieved. Yutaka Fujioka, who was in charge of the site and wanted the project to continue, was on a business trip that day and was angry when he heard the news of the termination the next day. However, the CEO had already made that decision, and it was too late. They were soon transferred to the Lupin the 3rd Part I: The Classic Adventures project. Mushi Production became the animation production company from episode 27. Episode 27 was greatly innovated and changed in response to Jansson's request, with the character design being adapted to drawings by Jansson and the plot of the story being changed as well. Unfortunately, however, after the program ended, the TV station was inundated with many complaints. The children wrote such comments as, "The characters' faces suddenly changed and became scary," and "Why did the atmosphere of the story change and it became boring? ". Also, The sponsor, Calpis, which had been satisfied with the Tokyo movie, expressed its dissatisfaction. This evaluation led to a meeting with Jansson, and as a result, a few elements, such as character design, were returned to a status similar to Tokyomovie, provided that it would be broadcast only in Japan. The program was ended after well over 60 episodes. Reception Critical response Tove Jansson had difficulty viewing all of its animations due to historical issues. So, having watched only the episode 7, which had just been completed at the time, she explained the following. Jansson also included the following other requests in her letter. Automobiles should not be used. I think the interior of the house where Moomin lives should also be changed. The rooms are too large and too empty. So, at first glance, it looks like an office. Moominmamma always carries a handbag. Moominpappa usually carries a walking stick. Non-non wears a ring on her left ankle. She also does not wear a ribbon on her head. Her hair should not be too thick. One thing to note in particular is that the Moomin family does not have mouths. I understand that in the case of animation, a mouth is necessary, but please think about and use as small a mouth as possible to indicate who is speaking now. However, Jansson did not dismiss all of the work, praising the colors used in the background as "The effects of colors such as water and sky are well done. Also, She stated in 1971, "At first, they told that I was angry that the Japanese Moomins were different, and in a way this is true. I have not yet had a good look at them in Japan, As far as the films sent to me, the Japanese Moomins are aggressive. besides, the Japanese Moomins have problems with cars and money, but my Moomin Valley has no such problems. but, I began to think it would be nice to have a Moomin with a Japanese flavor.". In 2008, Masaaki Osumi said to one of Jansson's reviews by stating. Producer Shigeto Takahashi gave the series a low rating, saying he was disappointed that it could not faithfully reproduce the original worldview by Tove Jansson, but praised Kisida and the rest of the cast for their excellent performances. Incidentally, Kisida's performance in this series was so well received that she continued to play the Moomins in the Japanese dubbed version of the stop-motion Moomin TV series produced in Poland in 1977. Cast and characters The description will focus on elements that differ from Jansson's original narrative. Main characters In the Tokyo Movie season, the body is gray and the ears are round and fat, giving the animal a hippopotamus-like appearance; in the Mushi Production season, the body is light blue, the ears are slightly pointed, and the body is slimmer, closer to Jansson's design. Although his age is not revealed in the work, he was defined as a boy of about 10 years old in documents of the time, making him a life-size character like a child, the main target audience of this animation. Basically, she has a gentle personality that can get along with anyone. He is not good at lying or deceiving people. The season of Tokyo Movie emphasized the laid-back nature. His body is gray, almost black. He always wears a silk hat and often blows a pipe or carries a walking stick. Compared to original, he is a kind father who rarely goes on wandering trips and lives in good company with Moomin and Moominmamma. When asked which writers he admired, he once mentioned Jansson's name. He also narrates the next episode's preview, which ends with the mysterious words "". Note that Hitoshi Takagi, who provided the voice, was best known for providing the voice Totoro in "My Neighbor Totoro". Her body color is the same as Moominpappa's, and like original, she wears a striped apron composed of red and white stripes. She values her handbag so much that if she loses it, she gets so upset she can't do her chores. She is not as generous in everything as in the original story, but she is a kind, good wife and wise mother who supports her family. She had won a beauty contest held in the Moomin Valley, which is how she met Moominpappa. In the original, it is called "Snork Maiden". Her body is green. She has pink hair and wears a golden anklet on her left leg, and in the Tokyo Movie season she wears a yellow ribbon. She lives with her brother Snoke, who, like Snoke, first appeared in Episode 6. Moomin's friend. She is usually withdrawn, but has a firm character that says what is important. She respects her brother Snoke, but is often taken aback by his selfishness. Snoke himself is devoted to his sister and considers her very important. The name was derived from the director Osumi's wife's nickname, "". During the production of the pilot film, some people said that children who saw the program would have a hard time calling her casually if she did not have a name, so the name was hastily chosen. But, Jansson said the name "reminds me of the word 'NO' and has a negative ring to it.". Jansson did not like the name. His body is green, almost gray. He always wears a golden wig, because he used the illustration of Snoke wearing a wig in "Finn Family Moomintroll" as a reference for his character design. He first appeared in Episode 6. After graduating from the Royal Academy of Learning in another town, he returned to his hometown in the Moomin Valley. At first, he bragged to those around him about his educational background and the prestigious Snork family, and looked down on inhabitants of the Moomin Valley. He also tried to bring cars, money, trains, and other conveniences (which elements that Jansson did not want in the Moomin Valley) to the Moomin Valley because they were "uncultured" and "unscientific", but he failed at every attempt, and often appeared as a rival or villain to the Moomins. Later, this personality gradually faded into the background, but the prideful aspects remained and were emphasized. From the middle, he became a funny and lovable comedy relief who, while retaining his troublemaker side, spoke more politely than necessary and tried to act classy, but also showed a screwed-up and goofy side. Despite this personality, he is well educated and holds 3 degrees from Academy. His hobbies include painting, playing the violin, and scientific experiments. When he is in a good mood, he sometimes improvises a song and hums it. He is considered the character with the most differences between the original and this animation. This is largely due to the ad-libbing of Hirokawa, who provided the voice, and he became a prominent character, appearing more often than in the original work. Hirokawa later said, "When I played Snoke, it was a time when I wanted to show what I had. As I tried to expand his personality by changing the endings of words, etc., this was gradually reflected in the script. Later, as I received more requests to perform in this style in other films, I was able to make this my signature. Played Snoke was a turning point in my career.". At first, the characterization was not set in stone. At one time he appeared as a friend of the Moomins, and at another time he was leading a demonstration to remove Snufkin, who was suspected of arson, from the Moomin Valley. Eventually, halfway through the series, he settled on a good-natured but timid character, a friend of Moomin's. She is the Mymble's daughter's younger sister. While retaining the cheeky side of the original, the aggressive or cynical aspect is gone, replaced by the image of the headstrong, mischievous girl seen in Japanese anime of the time. The color of the clothes is yellow. At first, she looked similar to the original, but gradually changed, becoming a girl of about 10 years old with a slightly higher isometric height. Later in the episode, a slight Tsundere personality was added, and there were times when she seemed to be in love with Moomin. Little Mye's older sister. She has green hair and pure white skin. Her clothes are a white dress. Although not as sensitive as the original, she is sensitive to fashion and makeup, and looks in the mirror several times a day. She once said to Snoke, "If only he didn't have a difficult personality, he would be perfect.", a remark that hinted at love. she is very protective of Little My. When she went missing, she was so shocked that he fell asleep. She has a bad drinking habit and can't stop laughing when she gets drunk. A traveler who came to the Moomin Valley in episode 4. Since then, he has been living in a tent by the river in the Moomin Valley. During the winter, they travel to the south. He is a key figure in the Moomin Valley. In the beginning, he was more like Moomin's older brother with a bit of mischievousness, but in the middle of the show, his character became quieter and more mature, in line with Nishimoto's voice. Also, the smoking portrayal in the original was debated as to whether he was an adult or a child, which defined him as an adult in this series. He has a unique philosophy. He loves solitude and freedom, and is a mute person. However, Moomin is fascinated by him, and he sometimes casually teaches Moomin "Philosophy for Living" with his short words. There are also cultured depictions, such as a telling of a passage from Paul Verlaine's poem "Chanson d'automne". Unlike Jansson's original, his favorite instrument is the guitar, not the harmonica. This is often cited as one of the features and popularity of this animation. He often plays an original song called "". Holding a guitar was the idea of director Osumi. He thought a guitar would suit Snufkin better than a harmonica, given Snufkin's image as "Lonely Man Who Came Down the Mountain," and the change was intentional. He is considered the character with the most female fans in the anime. Supporting characters An old man living alone on the outskirts of the Moomin Valley. His body is purple, tall, and she wears a skirt-like dress. He knows a lot about plants, animals and old stories and his hobby is stamp collecting. Since the second half of the episode, he has been living and studying birds and plants. In the original story, he is an eccentric old man who is only interested in his own research and hobbies, but in this animation, he is transformed into a kind old man who knows things and seems to have a certain status as an elder, participating in important meetings in the Moomin Valley. He is the longest resident of the Moomin Valley. He is a philosopher and is always thinking about the waste in the world. He lives in a hammock in a tree on the edge of the Moomin Valley, and has many philosophy books in the cave of his villa. He is a bigot, and his favorite saying is "Nonsense, it's useless! ". He often gets into arguments with the inhabitants of the Moomin Valley because of his habit of repeating this phrase without paying attention to the atmosphere around him. He is the only policeman in the police station in the Moomin Valley. Whenever an incident occurs in the Moomin Valley, he rushes to the scene. An original character in this anime, he is based on the appearance of an officer who was the police chief's subordinate in the original comic book. They live in Lonely Mountain and the forest and are always hungry. In the original comics, he is a villain who commits theft and fraud, but in this anime, he is treated as something strange living in the forest. Episodes Home media In 1989, The series saw VHS and Laser Disc releases in Japan. This is the only home media. LD Vol.1-7 (episode 1-26) VHS "The volume of love" (episode 37, 49) "The volume of dream" (episode 34, 64) References External links 1969 anime television series debuts 1970 Japanese television series endings Fuji TV original programming Moomin television series Television shows based on children's books TMS Entertainment World Masterpiece Theater series
4859504	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FC%20Podillya%20Khmelnytskyi	FC Podillya Khmelnytskyi	FC Podillya Khmelnytskyi is a professional Ukrainian football team that is based in Khmelnytskyi, Khmelnytskyi Oblast, Ukraine. The club competes in the Ukrainian Second League. History Soviet era Established in the Soviet Union as part of the Dynamo sports society in 1926 as Dynamo Proskurov (Proskuriv), the club participated mostly in championships of the city and its region. In 1940 and 1941, it represented the region in the republican competitions among the sports societies of Ukraine. During World War II, the Soviet sports competitions were suspended and the club was disbanded. After the World War II, Podillya once again started out as a subsection of the Soviet Dynamo athletic franchise in 1948, under the name of Dynamo, of course. In 1951, it entered all Ukrainian republican football competitions. In 1960, the club obtained the status of "team of master" and entered the Soviet Class B competitions. That year is considered to be the year of establishment. In 1978, the team was renamed after the historical Ukrainian region of Podillya (Podoliya in Russian) where it played its home games. Ukraine After Ukraine gained independence in 1991, Podillya was placed in the Ukrainian First League in the very first season. Podillya finished the year in fourth place out of fourteen teams under the management of Hrynevych. It was renamed as Nord-Am Ltd.- Podillya in the 1993 season after its sponsor, Nord-Am Ltd (stands for Northern America). During that season, Podillya hired Yuriy Avanesov as its manager. Until club's relegation in 1998 to the Druha Liha, the team was placing inconsistently in the middle of the tournament table. As a result of the relegation, Avanesov was fired and replaced by Kvartsyaniy. He managed the team until September 1997. The team finished the first half of the next season in second place after the return of Avanesov. The year that he returned the team finished first in the Druha Liha and was promoted to the Persha Liha again. They started the 1998–99 season in the Persha Liha however they finished in 16th out of 20 and were relegated again. They started the 1999–2000 season in Druha Liha A and finished in 2nd place, one stop away from promotion. The 2000–01 season was another year in the Ukrainian Second League where they finished in 6th place in Druha Liha B. The 2001–02 season was another shortcoming season for Podillya when they finished in 3rd with 27 wins, but still one spot away from promotion. Podillya finished the 2002–03 season in 3rd place in Druha Liha A. The 2003–04 season was another 2nd-place finish in Druha Liha A, but still one spot away from promotion. Merger with Krasyliv Podillya started the 2004–05 season in the Ukrainian First League after finishing second the year before. Despite not being in position for promotion, Podillya merged with the FC Obolon Kyiv farm team FC Krasyliv-Obolon under a new name of FC Podillya Khmelnytskyi. The Krasyliv's team existed since 2000 and soon after being promoted in 2002 to the Ukrainian First League merged with FC Obolon Kyiv. In 2004, after the merger FC Krasyliv with FC Podillya Khmelnytskyi, the club was renamed as AFC Podillya Khmelnytskyi. The newly formed club kept Podillya's name and became independent from Obolon. They play at Podillya Stadium which has 10,000 seats. Players lived in Krasyliv. 2007 crisis, revival of Podillia and transformation of it into Dynamo In 2006–2007, a scandal arose between the club's owner, Petro Arsenyuk, and the mayor of Khmelnytskyi, Serhiy Melnyk, following mayoral elections. In 2007, the professional club playing in the Ukrainian First League moved their home games to Krasyliv. At the same time, due to the efforts of Stanislav Ostrovskyi and the Khmelnytskyi city authorities in face of Serhiy Melnyk (mayor of Khmelnytskyi), another club, FC Podillya Khmelnytskyi, entered national amateur competition, the 2007 Ukrainian Football Amateur League, as well as Khmelnytskyi Oblast football competitions. Following the first stage of national amateur competitions, the newly formed communal club applied for a place in the Second League. Meanwhile, the Podillya club playing in Krasyliv was relegated and was therefore expected to play in the 2007–08 Ukrainian Second League. In the end, the Khmelnytskyi Podillya prevailed, while the Krasyliv Podillya withdrew. The new club, under manager Bohdan Blavatskyi, finished third in the 2007–08 Ukrainian Second League season. The following season the club with new manager did not perform well. During the winter break of the 2008–09 Ukrainian Second League season, the Khmelnytskyi Oblast government withdrew from sponsoring of the team by dissolving the club and the club's senior team was further sponsored by the Khmelnytskyi regional Dynamo sports society which organized FC Dynamo Khmelnytskyi that took over the football team. The club's succession was approved early in March 2009 by the Professional Football League of Ukraine. Parallelly to Dynamo at regional competitions continued to participate Podillia. In 2007, 2008, 2010 and 2011, "Podillya" took part in the Khmelnytskyi Oblast football championships. In 2013 in the Khmelnytskyi Oblast championship it played under name "Podillya-Olimp". At the end of 2013 during the ongoing 2013–14 Ukrainian Second League season, the Dynamo administration announced in official letter to the Professional Football League of Ukraine that FC Dynamo Khmelnytskyi which was established in 2007 has ceased to exist. Latest reorganization and restart In 2014 ,Podillya entered national competitions among amateurs. Hetman Khmelnytskyi In 2015, a phantom club FC Hetman Khemlnytskyi took part in 2015 Ukrainian Amateur Cup. Since 2016 The club will be competing in the 2016–17 Ukrainian Second League. In 2020, the president of Podillya, Yevhen Beiderman, ran for the post of the PFL president. In July 2022, Club announced that it will not be able to participate in the new season of the Ukrainian First League. Team names 1926–1975: Dynamo (under auspices of the Dynamo regional society, see Dynamo (Ukraine)) 1975–1978: Khvylya (under auspices of the Trade Union regional society) 1978–1993: Podoliya (under auspices of the Avanhard regional society, see Avanhard (sports society)) 1993–1994: Nord-Am – Podillya 1994–2004: Podillya (city team) 2004–2007: AFC Podillya (merger with FC Krasyliv, owned by Arsenyuk-Shtefanik) 2007–2009: Podillya-Khmelnytskyi (communal enterprise) 2009–2013: Dynamo Khmelnytskyi (under auspices of the Dynamo regional society, see Dynamo (Ukraine)) 2013: Podillya-Olimp 2014 onwards: Podillya (city team) Stadium Podillya Khmelnytskyi play at the Sport Complex Podillya (the venue at the complex is named Podillya Stadium; ; Sportyvnyĭ kompleks "Podillya"), a sports facility in Khmelnytskyi. The stadium has a capacity of 10,500 people, however the club's website lists the capacity at only 6,800. Podillya Stadium opened in 1960. FC Temp Shepetivka won the 1991 Football Cup of the Ukrainian SSR at the stadium. The stadium also hosts rugby matches, including a 2015 European Nations Cup international match. Renovation Reconstruction of the stadium started in 2012 and stopped and started until a grant worth ₴4 million was given in 2015 to complete the works. The football team had to move out of the stadium during reconstruction works but eventually returned before the stadium had been finished. The renovations to the stadium added a six-lane running track so the stadium can host athletic events. The sports complex also contains an electrical substation. Honors Soviet Second League Runners-up (1): 1966 Ukrainian Second League Winners (2): 1997–98 (Group A), 2020–21 (Group A) Runners-up (3): 1999–00 (Group A), 2003–04 (Group A) Khmelnytskyi Oblast Football Championship Winners (2): 1953, 2010 Players Out on loan League and cup history Soviet Union (Ukrainian SSR) {\|class="wikitable" \|-bgcolor="#efefef" ! Season ! Div. ! Pos. ! Pl. ! W ! D ! L ! GS ! GA ! P ! !colspan=2\|Soviet Cup !Notes \|- \|align=center colspan=14\|Dinamo / Dynamo \|- \|align=center rowspan=2\|1960 \|align=center\|2nd \|align=center\|17 \|align=center\|32 \|align=center\|3 \|align=center\|8 \|align=center\|21 \|align=center\|18 \|align=center\|64 \|align=center\|14 \|align=center rowspan=2\| \|align=center rowspan=2\| \|align=center rowspan=2\| \|align=center\|Relegation play-off \|- \|align=center\|2nd \|align=center\| \|align=center\|2 \|align=center\|1 \|align=center\|0 \|align=center\|1 \|align=center\|5 \|align=center\|4 \|align=center\|2 \|align=center\|Won over FC Avanhard Kamianets-Podilskyi \|- \|align=center rowspan=3\|1961 \|align=center\|2nd \|align=center\|8 \|align=center\|34 \|align=center\|13 \|align=center\|7 \|align=center\|14 \|align=center\|47 \|align=center\|45 \|align=center\|33 \|align=center rowspan=3\| \|align=center rowspan=3\| \|align=center rowspan=3\| \|align=center\|15th place play-off \|- \|align=center\|2nd \|align=center\|16 \|align=center\|2 \|align=center\|0 \|align=center\|1 \|align=center\|1 \|align=center\|3 \|align=center\|5 \|align=center\|1 \|align=center\|Lost to SKF Sevastopol \|- \|align=center\|2nd \|align=center\| \|align=center\|2 \|align=center\|1 \|align=center\|0 \|align=center\|1 \|align=center\|3 \|align=center\|1 \|align=center\|2 \|align=center\|Won over FC Avanhard Kamianets-Podilskyi \|- \|align=center rowspan=3\|1962 \|align=center\|2nd \|align=center\|9 \|align=center\|24 \|align=center\|6 \|align=center\|10 \|align=center\|8 \|align=center\|31 \|align=center\|36 \|align=center\|22 \|align=center rowspan=3\| \|align=center rowspan=3\| \|align=center rowspan=3\| \|align=center\|18-28th places play-off \|- \|align=center\|2nd \|align=center\|19 \|align=center\|10 \|align=center\|6 \|align=center\|2 \|align=center\|2 \|align=center\|16 \|align=center\|11 \|align=center\|14 \|align=center\|Relegated \|- \|align=center\|2nd \|align=center\| \|align=center\|2 \|align=center\|2 \|align=center\|0 \|align=center\|0 \|align=center\|7 \|align=center\|1 \|align=center\|4 \|align=center\|Won over FC Avanhard Kamianets-Podilskyi \|- \|align=center rowspan=2\|1963 \|align=center\|3rd \|align=center\|9 \|align=center\|38 \|align=center\|14 \|align=center\|9 \|align=center\|15 \|align=center\|41 \|align=center\|47 \|align=center\|37 \|align=center rowspan=2\| \|align=center rowspan=2\| \|align=center rowspan=2\| \|align=center\|17th place play-off \|- \|align=center\|3rd \|align=center\|17 \|align=center\|2 \|align=center\|1 \|align=center\|0 \|align=center\|1 \|align=center\|5 \|align=center\|2 \|align=center\|2 \|align=center\|Won over FC Kolhospnyk Poltava \|- \|align=center rowspan=2\|1964 \|align=center\|3rd \|align=center\|7 \|align=center\|30 \|align=center\|12 \|align=center\|8 \|align=center\|10 \|align=center\|35 \|align=center\|22 \|align=center\|32 \|align=center rowspan=2\| \|align=center rowspan=2\| \|align=center rowspan=2\| \|align=center\|13–18th places play-off \|- \|align=center\|3rd \|align=center\|13 \|align=center\|10 \|align=center\|5 \|align=center\|2 \|align=center\|3 \|align=center\|14 \|align=center\|10 \|align=center\|12 \|align=center\| \|- \|align=center rowspan=2\|1965 \|align=center\|3rd \|align=center\|4 \|align=center\|30 \|align=center\|14 \|align=center\|9 \|align=center\|7 \|align=center\|40 \|align=center\|26 \|align=center\|37 \|align=center rowspan=2\| \|align=center rowspan=2\| \|align=center rowspan=2\| \|align=center\|7–12th places play-off \|- \|align=center\|3rd \|align=center\|10 \|align=center\|10 \|align=center\|3 \|align=center\|2 \|align=center\|5 \|align=center\|13 \|align=center\|15 \|align=center\|8 \|align=center\| \|- \|align=center rowspan=2\|1966 \|align=center\|3rd \|align=center\|1 \|align=center\|38 \|align=center\|24 \|align=center\|6 \|align=center\|8 \|align=center\|62 \|align=center\|26 \|align=center\|54 \|align=center rowspan=2\| \|align=center rowspan=2\| \|align=center rowspan=2\| \|align=center\|1st place play-off \|- \|align=center\|3rd \|align=center\|2 \|align=center\|2 \|align=center\|0 \|align=center\|2 \|align=center\|0 \|align=center\|1 \|align=center\|1 \|align=center\|2 \|align=center\|Lost to FC Avanhard Zhovti Vody \|- \|align=center\|1967 \|align=center\|3rd \|align=center\|9 \|align=center\|40 \|align=center\|13 \|align=center\|17 \|align=center\|10 \|align=center\|40 \|align=center\|31 \|align=center\|43 \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|- \|align=center rowspan=2\|1968 \|align=center\|3rd \|align=center\|3 \|align=center\|42 \|align=center\|21 \|align=center\|12 \|align=center\|9 \|align=center\|59 \|align=center\|19 \|align=center\|54 \|align=center rowspan=2\| \|align=center rowspan=2\| \|align=center rowspan=2\| \|align=center\|Qualified for finals \|- \|align=center\|3rd \|align=center\|5 \|align=center\|7 \|align=center\|3 \|align=center\|1 \|align=center\|3 \|align=center\|8 \|align=center\|7 \|align=center\|7 \|align=center\|Promoted \|- \|align=center\|1969 \|align=center\|2nd \|align=center\|21 \|align=center\|42 \|align=center\|9 \|align=center\|16 \|align=center\|17 \|align=center\|32 \|align=center\|47 \|align=center\|34 \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\|Relegated \|- \|align=center\|1970 \|align=center\|3rd \|align=center\|4 \|align=center\|40 \|align=center\|19 \|align=center\|13 \|align=center\|8 \|align=center\|49 \|align=center\|24 \|align=center\|51 \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\|Promoted \|- \|align=center\|1971 \|align=center\|3rd \|align=center\|18 \|align=center\|50 \|align=center\|15 \|align=center\|16 \|align=center\|19 \|align=center\|35 \|align=center\|45 \|align=center\|46 \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|- \|align=center\|1972 \|align=center\|3rd \|align=center\|6 \|align=center\|46 \|align=center\|18 \|align=center\|18 \|align=center\|10 \|align=center\|56 \|align=center\|39 \|align=center\|54 \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|- \|align=center\|1973 \|align=center\|3rd \|align=center\|9 \|align=center\|44 \|align=center\|18 \|align=center\|5-10 \|align=center\|11 \|align=center\|57 \|align=center\|45 \|align=center\|41 \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\|Draws were earned by penalty shootout \|- \|align=center\|1974 \|align=center\|3rd \|align=center\|14 \|align=center\|38 \|align=center\|11 \|align=center\|14 \|align=center\|13 \|align=center\|32 \|align=center\|38 \|align=center\|36 \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|- \|align=center colspan=14\|Khvylya \|- \|align=center\|1975 \|align=center\|3rd \|align=center\|7 \|align=center\|32 \|align=center\|11 \|align=center\|12 \|align=center\|9 \|align=center\|32 \|align=center\|25 \|align=center\|34 \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|- \|align=center\|1976 \|align=center\|3rd \|align=center\|10 \|align=center\|38 \|align=center\|14 \|align=center\|8 \|align=center\|16 \|align=center\|34 \|align=center\|34 \|align=center\|36 \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|- \|align=center\|1977 \|align=center\|3rd \|align=center\|16 \|align=center\|44 \|align=center\|10 \|align=center\|15 \|align=center\|19 \|align=center\|33 \|align=center\|50 \|align=center\|35 \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|- \|align=center colspan=14\|Podolia / Podillia \|- \|align=center\|1978 \|align=center\|3rd \|align=center\|19 \|align=center\|44 \|align=center\|12 \|align=center\|9 \|align=center\|23 \|align=center\|28 \|align=center\|56 \|align=center\|33 \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|- \|align=center\|1979 \|align=center\|3rd \|align=center\|13 \|align=center\|46 \|align=center\|17 \|align=center\|8 \|align=center\|21 \|align=center\|44 \|align=center\|57 \|align=center\|42 \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|- \|align=center\|1980 \|align=center\|3rd \|align=center\|16 \|align=center\|44 \|align=center\|13 \|align=center\|9 \|align=center\|22 \|align=center\|32 \|align=center\|64 \|align=center\|35 \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|- \|align=center\|1981 \|align=center\|3rd \|align=center\|14 \|align=center\|44 \|align=center\|15 \|align=center\|9 \|align=center\|20 \|align=center\|45 \|align=center\|64 \|align=center\|39 \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|- \|align=center\|1982 \|align=center\|3rd \|align=center\|20 \|align=center\|46 \|align=center\|12 \|align=center\|12 \|align=center\|22 \|align=center\|37 \|align=center\|62 \|align=center\|36 \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|- \|align=center\|1983 \|align=center\|3rd \|align=center\|15 \|align=center\|50 \|align=center\|18 \|align=center\|10 \|align=center\|22 \|align=center\|56 \|align=center\|67 \|align=center\|46 \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|- \|align=center\|1984 \|align=center\|3rd \|align=center\|19 \|align=center\|38 \|align=center\|13 \|align=center\|6 \|align=center\|19 \|align=center\|52 \|align=center\|57 \|align=center\|32 \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\|two stages \|- \|align=center\|1985 \|align=center\|3rd \|align=center\|22 \|align=center\|40 \|align=center\|14 \|align=center\|9 \|align=center\|17 \|align=center\|35 \|align=center\|42 \|align=center\|37 \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\|two stages \|- \|align=center\|1986 \|align=center\|3rd \|align=center\|8 \|align=center\|40 \|align=center\|16 \|align=center\|11 \|align=center\|13 \|align=center\|64 \|align=center\|50 \|align=center\|43 \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\|two stages \|- \|align=center\|1987 \|align=center\|3rd \|align=center\|7 \|align=center\|52 \|align=center\|23 \|align=center\|17 \|align=center\|12 \|align=center\|67 \|align=center\|49 \|align=center\|63 \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|- \|align=center\|1988 \|align=center\|3rd \|align=center\|5 \|align=center\|50 \|align=center\|23 \|align=center\|13 \|align=center\|14 \|align=center\|71 \|align=center\|51 \|align=center\|59 \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|- \|align=center\|1989 \|align=center\|3rd \|align=center\|11 \|align=center\|52 \|align=center\|24 \|align=center\|7 \|align=center\|21 \|align=center\|64 \|align=center\|57 \|align=center\|55 \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\|Relegated to the lower 2nd League \|- \|align=center\|1990 \|align=center\|3rd (lower) \|align=center\|14 \|align=center\|36 \|align=center\|10 \|align=center\|10 \|align=center\|16 \|align=center\|37 \|align=center\|46 \|align=center\|30 \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|- \|align=center\|1991 \|align=center\|3rd (lower) \|align=center\|14 \|align=center\|50 \|align=center\|18 \|align=center\|13 \|align=center\|19 \|align=center\|54 \|align=center\|55 \|align=center\|49 \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\|transitioned to the Ukrainian First League \|} Ukraine {\|class="wikitable" \|-bgcolor="#efefef" ! Season ! Div. ! Pos. ! Pl. ! W ! D ! L ! GS ! GA ! P !Domestic Cup !colspan=2\|Europe !Notes \|- \|align=center colspan=14\|Podillia \|-bgcolor=LightCyan \|align=center\|1992 \|align=center\|2nd "A" \|align=center\|4 \|align=center\|26 \|align=center\|10 \|align=center\|10 \|align=center\|6 \|align=center\|29 \|align=center\|21 \|align=center\|30 \| align="center" \| finals \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|-bgcolor=LightCyan \|align=center\|1992–93 \|align=center\|2nd \|align=center\|8 \|align=center\|42 \|align=center\|15 \|align=center\|16 \|align=center\|11 \|align=center\|45 \|align=center\|39 \|align=center\|46 \| align="center" \| finals \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\|as Nord-AM-Podillya \|-bgcolor=LightCyan \|align=center\|1993–94 \|align=center\|2nd \|align=center\|11 \|align=center\|38 \|align=center\|13 \|align=center\|9 \|align=center\|16 \|align=center\|45 \|align=center\|47 \|align=center\|35 \| align="center" \| finals \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\|as Nord-AM-Podillya \|-bgcolor=LightCyan \|align=center\|1994–95 \|align=center\|2nd \|align=center\|6 \|align=center\|42 \|align=center\|20 \|align=center\|11 \|align=center\|11 \|align=center\|48 \|align=center\|30 \|align=center\|71 \| align="center" \| finals \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|-bgcolor=LightCyan \|align=center\|1995–96 \|align=center\|2nd \|align=center\|12 \|align=center\|42 \|align=center\|18 \|align=center\|8 \|align=center\|16 \|align=center\|55 \|align=center\|42 \|align=center\|62 \| align="center" \| finals \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|-bgcolor=LightCyan \|align=center\|1996–97 \|align=center\|2nd \|align=center\|22 \|align=center\|46 \|align=center\|11 \|align=center\|13 \|align=center\|22 \|align=center\|40 \|align=center\|66 \|align=center\|46 \| align="center" \| finals Second stage \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center bgcolor=red\|Relegated \|-bgcolor=PowderBlue \|align=center\|1997–98 \|align=center\|3rd "A" \|align=center bgcolor=gold\|1 \|align=center\|34 \|align=center\|25 \|align=center\|3 \|align=center\|6 \|align=center\|69 \|align=center\|20 \|align=center\|78 \| align="center" \| finals \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center bgcolor=green\|Promoted \|-bgcolor=LightCyan \|align=center\|1998–99 \|align=center\|2nd \|align=center\|16 \|align=center\|38 \|align=center\|13 \|align=center\|12 \|align=center\|13 \|align=center\|39 \|align=center\|42 \|align=center\|51 \| align="center" \| finals \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center bgcolor=red\|Relegated \|-bgcolor=PowderBlue \|align=center\|1999-00 \|align=center\|3rd "A" \|align=center bgcolor=silver\|2 \|align=center\|30 \|align=center\|21 \|align=center\|5 \|align=center\|4 \|align=center\|67 \|align=center\|27 \|align=center\|68 \|align=center\| final Second League Cup \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|-bgcolor=PowderBlue \|align=center\|2000–01 \|align=center\|3rd "B" \|align=center\|6 \|align=center\|28 \|align=center\|15 \|align=center\|2 \|align=center\|11 \|align=center\|37 \|align=center\|28 \|align=center\|47 \|align=center\|Did not enter \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|-bgcolor=PowderBlue \|align=center\|2001–02 \|align=center\|3rd "A" \|align=center\|9 \|align=center\|36 \|align=center\|14 \|align=center\|11 \|align=center\|11 \|align=center\|38 \|align=center\|31 \|align=center\|53 \| align="center" \| finals \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|-bgcolor=PowderBlue \|align=center\|2002–03 \|align=center\|3rd "A" \|align=center bgcolor=tan\|3 \|align=center\|36 \|align=center\|27 \|align=center\|2 \|align=center\|7 \|align=center\|79 \|align=center\|31 \|align=center\|83 \|align=center\|1st Round \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|-bgcolor=PowderBlue \|align=center\|2003–04 \|align=center\|3rd "A" \|align=center bgcolor=silver\|2 \|align=center\|30 \|align=center\|17 \|align=center\|8 \|align=center\|5 \|align=center\|47 \|align=center\|20 \|align=center\|59 \| align="center" \| finals \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center bgcolor=pink\|merged with FC Krasyliv \|- \|align=center\|2004–06 \|align=center colspan=13\|Club competes in the Oblast League. \|-bgcolor=SteelBlue \|align=center\|2007 \|align=center\|4th \|align=center bgcolor=silver\|2 \|align=center\|8 \|align=center\|5 \|align=center\|1 \|align=center\|2 \|align=center\|21 \|align=center\|6 \|align=center\|16 \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| obtained professional status \|-bgcolor=PowderBlue \|align=center\|2007–08 \|align=center\|3rd \|align=center bgcolor=tan\|3 \|align=center\|30 \|align=center\|17 \|align=center\|7 \|align=center\|6 \|align=center\|47 \|align=center\|28 \|align=center\|58 \| align="center" \| finals \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|-bgcolor=PowderBlue \|align=center\|2008–09 \|align=center\|3rd \|align=center\|8 \|align=center\|32 \|align=center\|14 \|align=center\|5 \|align=center\|13 \|align=center\|32 \|align=center\|38 \|align=center\|47 \| align="center" \| finals \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\|in winter break replaced with FC Dynamo Khmelnytskyi \|- \|align=center\|2010–16 \|align=center colspan=13\|Club competes in the Oblast League. \|-bgcolor=SteelBlue \|align=center\|2014 \|align=center\|4th \|align=center\|5 \|align=center\|8 \|align=center\|0 \|align=center\|2 \|align=center\|6 \|align=center\|4 \|align=center\|18 \|align=center\|2 \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|-bgcolor=SteelBlue \|align=center\|2016 \|align=center\|4th \|align=center\|4 \|align=center\|6 \|align=center\|1 \|align=center\|1 \|align=center\|4 \|align=center\|4 \|align=center\|15 \|align=center\|4 \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\|obtained professional status \|-bgcolor=PowderBlue \|align=center\|2016–17 \|align=center\|3rd \|align=center\|14/17 \|align=center\|32 \|align=center\|7 \|align=center\|4 \|align=center\|21 \|align=center\|29 \|align=center\|68 \|align=center\|25 \| align="center" \| finals \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|-bgcolor=PowderBlue \|align=center\|2017–18 \|align=center\|3rd "A" \|align=center\|9/10 \|align=center\|27 \|align=center\|6 \|align=center\|4 \|align=center\|17 \|align=center\|20 \|align=center\|44 \|align=center\|22 \| align="center" \| finals \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|-bgcolor=PowderBlue \|align=center\|2018–19 \|align=center\|3rd "A" \|align=center\|9/10 \|align=center\|27 \|align=center\|6 \|align=center\|7 \|align=center\|14 \|align=center\|20 \|align=center\|34 \|align=center\|25 \| align="center" \| finals \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|-bgcolor=PowderBlue \| align="center" \|2019–20 \| align="center" \|3rd "A" \| align="center" \|6/11 \| align="center" \|20 \| align="center" \|8 \| align="center" \|5 \| align="center" \|7 \| align="center" \|23 \| align="center" \|25 \| align="center" \|29 \| align="center" \| finals \| align="center" \| \| align="center" \| \| align="center" \| \|} Dynamo 2009 {\|class="wikitable" \|-bgcolor="#efefef" ! Season ! Div. ! Pos. ! Pl. ! W ! D ! L ! GS ! GA ! P !Domestic Cup !colspan=2\|Europe !Notes \|- \|align=center\|Before 2008 \|align=center colspan=13\| refer to Podillya Khmelnytskyi \|- \|align=center\|2008–09 \|align=center rowspan=5\|3rd "A" \|align=center\|8 \|align=center\|32 \|align=center\|14 \|align=center\|5 \|align=center\|13 \|align=center\|32 \|align=center\|38 \|align=center\|47 \|align=center\|1/32 finals \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|- \|align=center\|2009–10 \|align=center\|5 \|align=center\|20 \|align=center\|10 \|align=center\|3 \|align=center\|7 \|align=center\|28 \|align=center\|16 \|align=center\|33 \|align=center\|1/64 finals \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|- \|align=center\|2010–11 \|align=center\|9 \|align=center\|22 \|align=center\|7 \|align=center\|4 \|align=center\|11 \|align=center\|19 \|align=center\|29 \|align=center\|22 \|align=center\|1/32 finals \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\|−3 \|- \|align=center\|2011–12 \|align=center\|10 \|align=center\|26 \|align=center\|6 \|align=center\|4 \|align=center\|16 \|align=center\|23 \|align=center\|50 \|align=center\|22 \|align=center\|1/64 finals \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|- \|align=center rowspan="2"\|2012–13 \|align=center\|10 \|align=center\|20 \|align=center\|4 \|align=center\|5 \|align=center\|11 \|align=center\|12 \|align=center\|22 \|align=center\|17 \|align=center rowspan=2\|1/32 finals \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|- \|align=center\|3rd "3" \|align=center\|4 \|align=center\|6 \|align=center\|0 \|align=center\|1 \|align=center\|5 \|align=center\|1 \|align=center\|13 \|align=center\|1 \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center\|Relegation groups \|- \|align=center\|2013–14 \|align=center\|3rd \|align=center\|19 \|align=center\|36 \|align=center\|3 \|align=center\|2 \|align=center\|31 \|align=center\|18 \|align=center\|52 \|align=center\|11 \|align=center\|1/32 finals \|align=center\| \|align=center\| \|align=center bgcolor=red\|Withdrew \|} Managers Andriy Biba (1983) Viktor Matviyenko (1993) Myron Markevych (1995) Vitaliy Kvartsyanyi (1997–99) Bohdan Blavatskiy (2007–08) Yaroslav Bobylyak (2008) See also FC Dynamo Khmelnytskyi (2009) Notes References External links Official team website The 2021 club presentation (Свято футболу: Поділля у Першій лізі!). The Club's channel at YouTube. 24 July 2021 Бейдерман: «Як і говорив – дійду до Лозанни!» . football.km.ua. 5 February 2020. Association football clubs established in 1960 1960 establishments in Ukraine Sport in Khmelnytskyi, Ukraine Football clubs in Khmelnytskyi Oblast Ukrainian First League clubs
4859546	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadith%20studies	Hadith studies	Hadith studies ( ʻilm al-ḥadīth "science of hadith", also science of hadith, or science of hadith criticism or hadith criticism) consists of several religious scholarly disciplines used by Muslim scholars in the study and evaluation of the Islamic hadith—i.e. the record of the words, actions, and the silent approval of the Islamic prophet, Muhammad. Determining authenticity of hadith is enormously important in Islam because along with the Quran, the Sunnah of the Islamic prophet—his words, actions, and the silent approval—are considered the explanation of the divine revelation (wahy), and the record of them (i.e. hadith) provides the basis of Islamic law (Sharia). In addition, while the number of verses pertaining to law in the Quran is relatively few, hadith give direction on everything from details of religious obligations (such as Ghusl or Wudu, ablutions for salat prayer), to the correct forms of salutations, and the importance of benevolence to slaves. Thus the "great bulk" of the rules of Islamic law are derived from hadith, rather than the Quran. There are three primary ways to determine the authenticity (sihha) of a hadith: by attempting to determine whether there are "other identical reports from other transmitters"; determining the reliability of the transmitters of the report; and "the continuity of the chain of transmission" of the hadith. Traditional hadith studies has been praised by some as "unrivaled, the ultimate in historical criticism", and heavily criticized for failing to filter out a massive amount of hadith "which cannot possibly be authentic". Definition It has been described by one hadith specialist, Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti (d. 911 A.H/ 1505 C.E), as the science of the principles by which the conditions of both the sanad, the chain of narration, and the matn, the text of the hadith, are known. This science is concerned with the sanad and the matn with its objective being distinguishing the sahih, authentic, from other than it. Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani said the preferred definition is: knowledge of the principles by which the condition of the narrator and the narrated are determined. Types Some of the disciplines in the science of hadith, according to scholar İsmail Lütfi Çakan, include: the "study of the circumstances surrounding the genesis of each hadith", i.e. the reasons for why the hadith was uttered; the study of the gharib al-hadith, whose works provide "a kind of hadith glossary" of uncommon words found in hadith; the study of ilel al-hadith, which examines deficiencies in the text and/or the chain of a hadith; study of al-hadith al-muhtelif, which attempts to reconcile the contradictions of hadith; the study of naskh or nasikh and mansukh in hadith, which also attempts to reconcile contradictions in hadiths, but by determining which of the contradicting hadith abrogates the other; study of sharh al-hadith, which are commentary on hadith that attempt "to explain the intentions (of) Prophet Muhammad (in uttering it)"; study of ʿilm jarḥ wa taʿdīl (wounding and rectifying), which attempts to verify the reliability of transmitters of hadith, their deficiencies and virtues; study of transmitters of hadith, ʿilm al-rijāl (science of men) which provides biographies of the narrators and the different categories they fall under. History After the death of Muhammad, his sayings were transmitted orally. According to Islamic tradition, Umar ibn al-Khattab, the second caliph, started the process of collecting all the hadiths together into one unified volume, but gave up the endeavor "for fear the Quran would be neglected by the Muslims" (according to Muhammad Zubayr Siddiqi). The Umayyad caliph, Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz (aka Umar II, who reigned from 717-720 CE) also started an effort to collect all the hadiths. Teaching and collecting hadiths was part of a plan of his to renew the moral fiber of the Muslim community. He supported teachers of fiqh, sent educators to Bedouin tribes, ordered weekly hadith lectures in the Hejaz, and sent out scholars of hadith to Egypt and North Africa, (according to Muhammad Zubayr Siddiqi). Umar also ordered the great scholar of Madinah, Abu Bakr ibn Hazm to write down all the hadiths of Muhammad and Umar ibn al-Khattab, particularly those narrated by Aisha. He had these hadiths collected in books which were circulated around the Umayyad Empire. Although these books are lost today, commentaries on them by Ibn al-Nadim reveals that they are organized like books of fiqh, such as the Muwatta of Imam Malik, the first large compilation of hadiths. Imam Malik himself probably followed the general plan of the early books of hadith ordered by Umar. Hadith studies developed in part because forgery "took place on a massive scale", with perhaps the most famous collector of hadith and practitioner of ʻilm al-ḥadīth—Muhammad al-Bukhari—sifting through nearly 600,000, over 16 years before eliminating all but approximately 7400 hadith. Traditional accounts describe "the systematic study of hadith" as being motivated by the altruism of "pious scholars" seeking to correct this problem. Some scholars (Daniel W. Brown, A. Kevin Reinhart) shed doubt on this. Brown believes the theory "fails" to adequately account "for the atmosphere of conflict" of at least early hadith criticism. The "method of choice" of partisans seeking to discredit opposing schools of Islamic law was to discredit the authorities (transmitters) of their opponent's hadith—to "tear apart" their isnads". (To do this required developing biographical evaluations of hadith transmitters—ʿilm al-rijāl and ilm jarh wa ta’dil). Reinhart finds descriptions of famous companions of Muhammad in Ibn Sa'd's Kitāb aṭ-ṭabaqāt al-kabīr "recording hadith and transmitting it, asking each other about precedents, and reproaching those who disregarded this authentic religious knowledge" in suspicious conformity to the "mythology of the pristine early community". As the criteria for judging authenticity grew into the six major collections of ṣaḥīḥ (sound) hadith (Kutub al-Sittah) in the third century, the science of hadith was described as having become a "mature system", or to have entered its "final stage". The classification of Hadith into sahih, sound or authentic; hasan, good; da'if, weak, (another rating is mawḍūʿ, fabricated). was utilized early in hadith scholarship by Ali ibn al-Madini (161–234 AH). Later, al-Madini's student Muhammad al-Bukhari (810–870) authored a collection, now known as Sahih Bukhari, commonly accepted by Sunni scholars to be the most authentic collection of hadith, followed by that of his student Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj. Al-Bukhari's methods of testing hadiths and isnads are seen as exemplary of the developing methodology of hadith scholarship. Evaluating authenticity An elaborate system was developed by scholars of hadith to determine the authenticity of traditions based on "two premises": that the authenticity of a hadith report is "best measured by the reliability of the transmitters" (known as rāwī pl. ruwāt) of the report; consequently, "carefully scrutinizing" the "individual transmitters" of the hadith (ilm jarh wa ta’dil; ʿilm al-rijāl) and "the continuity of their chains of transmission" is the best way to measure hadith reliability. A basic element of hadith studies consist of a careful examination of the chain of transmission (sanad , also isnād , or silsila ), relaying each hadith from the Prophet to the person who compiles the hadith. The isnād and the commentary are distinct from the matn (), which is the main body, or text, of the hadith, These two terms are the primary components of every hadith. According to the person most responsible for elevation of the importance of hadith in Islamic law, Imam Al-Shafi‘i, "In most cases the truthfulness or lack of truthfulness of a tradition can only be known through the truthfulness or lack of truthfulness of the transmitter, except in a few special cases when he relates what cannot possibly be the case, or what is contradicted by better-authenticated information." The first people who received hadith were Muhammad's "Companions" (Sahaba), who are believed to have understood and preserved it. They conveyed it to those after them as they were commanded; then the generation following them, the "Followers" (Tabi‘un), received it and then conveyed it to those after them, and so on. Thus, the Companion would say, “I heard the Prophet say such and such.” The Follower would say, “I heard a Companion say, ‘I heard the Prophet say’” The one after the Follower would say, “I heard a Follower say, ‘I heard a Companion say, ‘I heard the Prophet say’” and so on. Criteria to be a ṣaḥīḥ hadith To be 'ṣaḥīḥ ("sound") hadith, an isolated hadith (Mutawatir hadith were exempt from these tests) "must pass five tests": "continuity of transmission"; ʿadāla of transmitters, i.e. transmitters must be of good character; "accuracy (ḍabṭ) of the process of transmission, i.e. narrators must not be prone to carelessness or known to have poor memories"; absence of "irregularities" (shadhūdh), i.e. hadith must not contradict a "more reliable source"; "absence of corrupting defects(ʿilla qādiḥa), i.e. inaccuracies in reporting the actual chain of transmission." Biographical evaluation An important discipline within hadith studies is biographical evaluation, the study of transmitters of hadith, ʿilm al-rijāl, (literally "science of men") mentioned above. These are the narrators who make up the sanad. Ilm ar-rijal is based on certain verses of the Quran. Transmitters are studied and rated for their "general capacity" (ḍābit; itqān) and their moral character (ʿadāla). General capacity is measured by qualities such as memory, linguistic ability. Transmitters that have good memories and linguistic ability "might be considered competent (ḍābit)". ʿadāla transmitters must be "adult Muslims, fully in control of their mental faculties, aware of their moral responsibilities, free from guilt for major sins, and not prone to minor sins". Examples of ratings of transmitters include "trustworthy" or thiqa for ones that possess both ʿadāla and ḍābit. Transmitters that are ʿadāla but show signs of carelessness are rated honest or ṣudūq. The result of this study were "vast biographical dictionaries" to check against the isnads of individual hadith. Not all transmitters were evaluated for these characteristics and rated. Companions of the prophet (ṣaḥāba) were traditionally considered to possess collective moral turpitude or taʿdīl, by virtue of their exposure to the Prophet, so that they all possessed ʿadāla without needing to be evaluated. (This quality was similar to that of Prophetic infallibility (ʿiṣma) but of course lower in level.) Shaykh Muhammad Zakariya al-Kandahlawi has mentioned that Imam Bukhari (the famous compiler of "sound" hadith) listed the following as criterion for a muhaddith: The four things which one must write are: The hadith of the Prophet and his rulings The sayings of the Sahaba and the status of each sahabi (companions of the prophet) The sayings of the Tabieen (i.e., the Salaf-us Salaheen who met the Sahaba, but did not meet the Blessed Prophet). The level of each of the Tabieen. Who amongst them was reliable and who was unreliable Knowledge of all the narrators who narrate hadith and their history The history of the narrators must include four things: Their Isma-ul-Rijjal (biographies) Their kunniyaat (nicknames) Their place of settlement Their date of birth and date of death (to verify whether this person met the people whom he narrated from) Traditional importance of the sanad The second criteria after judging the general ability and moral probity of the transmitters, is the "continuity" of the chain of transmission of the hadith. The transmitters must be shown to have received the accounts of the prophet "in an acceptable manner from the preceding authority in the chain". Transmitters must have lived during the same period, they must have had the opportunity to meet, and they must have reached sufficient age at the time of transmission to guarantee their capacity to transmit. Early religious scholars stressed the importance of the sanad. For example, according to an early Quranic exegete, Matr al-Warraq, the verse from the Quran, “Or a remnant of knowledge,” refers to the isnad of a hadith. In addition, Abd Allah ibn al-Mubarak said, “The isnad is from the religion; were it not for the isnad anyone could say anything they wanted.” According to Ibn al-Salah, the sanad originated within the Muslim scholastic community and remains unique to it. Ibn Hazm said that the connected, continuous sanad is particular to the religion of Islam: the sanad was also used by the Jewish community, but they had a break of more than 30 generations between them and Moses, and the Christians limited their use of the sanad to the prohibition of divorce. Ibn Taymiyyah also said that the knowledge of isnad is particular to the followers of Prophet Muhammad. The practice of paying particular attention to the sanad can be traced to the generation following that of the Companions, based upon the statement of Muhammad Ibn Sirin: “They did not previously inquire about the sanad. However, after the turmoil occurred they would say, ‘Name for us your narrators.’ So the people of the Sunnah would have their hadith accepted and the people of innovation would not.” Those who were not given to require a sanad were, in the stronger of two opinions, the Companions of the Prophet, while others, such as al-Qurtubi, include the older of the Followers as well. This is due to the Companions all being considered upright, trustworthy transmitters of hadith, such that a mursal hadith narrated by a Companion is acceptable. Al-Khatib al-Baghdadi, stating likewise, cited various evidences for this, from them, the Quranic verse, “And you were the best nation brought about to mankind.” The fitnah referred to is the conflicting ideologies of the Kharijites and the Ghulat that had emerged at the time of the third Caliph Uthman ibn Affan, his assassination and the social unrest of the Kharijites in opposition to the succeeding rulers, Ali and Muawiyah. The death of Uthman was in the year 35 after the migration. The matn According to scholar Daniel Brown, in traditional hadith studies, "the possibility" of criticizing the matn as well as the isnad "was recognized in theory, but the option was seldom systematically exercised". Syrian hadith scholar Dr. Salah al-Din al-Idlibi is expert in the relatively new field of matn criticism. Whereas traditional criticism has focused on verifying the trustworthiness of the people transmitting the hadith, matn criticism studies the contents of the hadith and compares this with the contents of other hadiths and any other available historical evidence with the aim of arriving at an objective historical reality of the event described by the hadith. Muhaddith: scholar of hadith The term muḥaddith (plural muḥaddithūn often translated as "traditionist") refers to a specialist who profoundly knows and narrates hadith, the chains of their narration isnad, and the original and famous narrators. According to the 8th century Imam, Sheikh Muhammad ibn Idris ash-Shafi`i, a muhaddith is someone who has memorised at least 400,000 narrations along with the chain of narrators for each narration. The female equivalent is a muhadditha. In describing the muhaddith, Al-Dhahabi raised the question, "Where is the knowledge of hadith, and where are its people?" Answering his own question, he said, "I am on the verge of not seeing them except engrossed in a book or under the soil." Both men and women can serve as muhaddithin (traditionists). The requirements for a muhaddith are the same requirements that apply to the reception and transmission of reports (riwayah) in the Islamic tradition more generally: truthfulness, integrity, a competent and accurate memory, being free of prejudice or compulsion that might be presumed to distort the reporting. There are numerous women who have served as muhaddithat in the history of Islam. Nadwi counts more than 8000 based on the biographical dictionaries of the classical and medieval period. Many of these women belonged to the most outstanding scholars and traditionists of their time and men were proud to receive narration from them. One must also note that muhaddithat transmitted the same body of knowledge as their male counterparts – there were and are no restrictions on what could be transmitted by women. The pursuit of knowledge was held above all else and was given even more importance if one travelled to seek that knowledge. Many muhaddithats were born into a prominent family that had connection with the upper class or had a male relative who had a vested interest and/or connections that enhanced the career of these muhaddithats. In many cases, muhaddithats were the last living link between older scholars and the younger generations as they tended to live longer. Their isnads were held with greater value due to this. Below are some of the most prominent muhaddithats of their times. Shuhda al-Katiba (482-574CE) Shuhda al-Katiba was born in Baghdad during a time of turmoil. There were refugees fleeing and the city was being attacked. Despite this, Shuhda was able to find success. Her father played a big role in her education and she has credited him to her success in the field. She began her education at the age of eight when her father began introducing her to some of the most prominent and sought after muhaddiths and scholars of their time. Her husband also gave her access to the upper class of Baghdad. She gained fame later in her career and was known to be the last living link between prominent scholars and the younger generations. This made her isnad a particularly sought after one. Fatimah Bint Sa’d al-Khayr (525-600CE) Fatimah Bint Sa’d al-Khayr was born in China but later dwelled in Isfahan and Baghdad. Her father was a scholar who felt it was very important for his children to be immersed in religious studies, particularly Hadith studies. He had traveled to many places in pursuit of this knowledge and even taught some of his children himself. Fatimah was brought up fully immersed in Hadith studies. Her sister also became a prominent muhaddithat. Her husband was very wealthy, held a high position in society, and a scholar himself, though not at the same level as Fatimah. She lived in Damascus with him for some time then moved to Cairo. Fatimah’s career prospered in these two cities towards the end of her life. She had many students who traveled far and wide to recite to her and learn from her. She died when she was 78 years old. There is some mystery surrounding her life. When her husband died, he had not a penny to his name despite being very wealthy in his life. No one is aware of how this occurred. Zaynab Bint al-Kamal (646-740CE) Zaynab Bint al-Kamal started her career at the age of one in Damascus. It is thought that the credit for that goes to her uncle rather than her father, as seen with other muhaddithats, who took her to prominent scholars at a very young age. Damascus was prospering during her life which gave her career extra stability. She never married, which could have contributed to her extensive education as she had more time to devote to it. Her students went on to become very prominent scholars with their impressive isnads thanks to her. As mentioned with the above muhaddithats, since Zaynab started so young, she had hadiths from scholars who had died when she was teaching which made her highly sought after. People were willing to travel great distances to meet her. She died in her late 90s which is an impressive age for her time period. A’isha Bint Muhammad (723-816CE) A’isha Bint Muhammad came from a very prominent religious family. She started her career at four years old while Damascus was still prospering. Similar to the scholars mentioned above, she was the last link to many muhaddithats who had died which made her the last living link. Her students became prominent scholars as well. She died at the age of 93. By the time of her death, she had the reputation of a very highly regarded muhadditha. Reporting or narrating (riwayah) must be differentiated from giving testimony (shahadah). While women are entirely equal in riwayah, many Islamic jurists place restrictions on women in shahadah – thus in several schools of law the testimony of two women is equal to that of a man. A muḥaddith or "traditionist" is not the same as one of the Ahl al-Hadith or a "traditionalist", a member of a movement of hadith scholars who considered the Quran and authentic hadith to be the only authority in matters of law and creed. Sunni literature for hadith studies As in any Islamic discipline, there is a rich history of literature describing the principles and fine points of hadith studies. Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani provides a summation of this development with the following: “Works authored in the terminology of the people of hadith have become plentiful from the Imaams both old and contemporary: From the first of those who authored a work on this subject is the Judge, Abū Muḥammad al-Rāmahurmuzī in his book, ‘al-Muhaddith al-Faasil,’ however, it was not comprehensive. And al-Hakim, Abu Abd Allah an-Naysaburi, however, it was neither refined nor well arranged. And following him, Abu Nu’aym al-Asbahani, who wrote a mustakhraj upon the book of the later, (compiling the same narrations al-Hakim cited using his own sanads.) However, some things remain in need of correction. And then came al-Khatib Abu Bakr al-Bagdadi, authoring works in the various disciplines of hadith studies a book entitled al-Kifaayah and in its etiquettes a book entitled al-Jami’ Li Adab ash-Sheikh wa as-Saami. Scarce is the discipline from the disciplines of the science of hadeeth that he has not written an individual book regarding, as al-Hafith Abu Bakr ibn Nuqtah said: 'Every objective person knows that the scholars of hadeeth coming after al-Khatib are indebted to his works.' After them came others, following al-Khatib, taking their share from this science." al-Qadi ‘Eyaad compiled a concise book naming it al-Ilmaa’. Abu Hafs al-Mayanajiy a work giving it the title Ma Laa yasu al-Muhaddith Jahluhu or That Which a Hadith Scholar is Not Allowed Ignorance Of. There are numerous examples of this which have gained popularity and were expanded upon seeking to make plentiful the knowledge relating to these books and others abridged making easy their understanding. This was prior to the coming of the memorizer and jurist Taqiyy ad-Deen Aboo ‘Amrin ‘Uthmaan ibn al-Salah ‘Abd ar-Rahmaan ash-Shahruzuuree, who settled in Damascus. He gathered, at the time he had become a teacher of hadith at the Ashrafiyyah school, his well known book, editing the various disciplines mentioned in it. He dictated it piecemeal and, as a result, did not succeed in providing it with an appropriate order. He occupied himself with the various works of al-Khatib, gathering his assorted studies, adding to them from other sources the essence of their benefits. So he combined in his book what had been spread throughout books other than it. It is due to this that people have focused their attention upon it, following its example. Innumerable are those who rendered his book into poetry, abridged it, sought to complete what had been left out of it or left out any extraneous information; as well as those who opposed him in some aspect of his work or supported him. Discussion of validity The science of hadith has not been without critics. According to Muhammad Husayn Haykal, "despite the great care and precision of the Hadith scholars, much of what they regarded as true was later proved to be spurious." He goes on to quote Al-Nawawi (1233–1277), who stated that "a number of scholars discovered many hadiths" in the two most authentic hadith collection Sahih al-Bukhari and Sahih Muslim "which do not fulfill the conditions of verification assumed by these men" (i.e. by the hadith collectors Muhammad al-Bukhari and Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj). Among the criticisms made (of non-sahih as well as sahih hadith) of is that there was a suspiciously large growth in their number with each generation in the early years of Islam; that large numbers of hadith contradicted each other; and that the genre's status as a primary source of Islamic law motivated the creation of fraudulent hadith. Modern Western scholars in particular have "seriously questioned the historicity and authenticity of the hadith", according to John Esposito, maintaining that "the bulk of traditions attributed to the Prophet Muhammad were actually written much later." According to Esposito, Schacht "found no evidence of legal traditions before 722," from which Schacht concluded that "the Sunna of the Prophet is not the words and deeds of the Prophet, but apocryphal material" dating from later. Henry Preserved Smith and Ignác Goldziher also challenged the reliability of the hadith, Smith stating that "forgery or invention of traditions began very early" and "many traditions, even if well authenticated to external appearance, bear internal evidence of forgery." Goldziher writes that "European critics hold that only a very small part of the ḥadith can be regarded as an actual record of Islam during the time of Mohammed and his immediate followers." In his Mohammedan Studies, Goldziher states: "it is not surprising that, among the hotly debated controversial issues of Islam, whether political or doctrinal, there is not one in which the champions of the various views are unable to cite a number of traditions, all equipped with imposing isnads". Patricia Crone noted that early traditionalists were still developing conventions of examining the chain of narration (isnads) that by later standards were sketchy/deficient, even though they were closer to the historical material. Later though they possessed impeccable chains, but were more likely to be fabricated. Reza Aslan quotes Schacht's maxim: `the more perfect the isnad, the later the tradition`, which he (Aslan) calls "whimsical but accurate". Bernard Lewis writes that "the creation of new hadiths designed to serve some political purpose has continued even to our own time." In the buildup to the first Gulf War a "tradition" was published in the Palestinian daily newspaper Al-Nahar on December 15, 1990, "and described as `currently in wide circulation`" It "quotes the Prophet as predicting that "the Greeks and Franks will join with Egypt in the desert against a man named Sadim, and not one of them will return". Others have praised the tradition for its ingenuity: Sheikh Ahmad Kutty, a Senior Lecturer and an Islamic Scholar at the Islamic Institute of Toronto, Ontario, Canada, clarifies what he feels supports the validity of hadith studies: There is a basic distinction between Islam and other religions in this regard: Islam is singularly unique among the world religions in the fact that in order to preserve the sources of their religion, the Muslims invented a scientific methodology based on precise rules for gathering data and verifying them. As it has been said, 'Isnad or documentation is part of Islamic religion, and if it had not been for isnad, everybody would have said whatever he wanted. See also Hadith history Hadith types Hadith terminology Kutub al-Sittah Criticism of Hadith References Notes Citations Books and journal articles Jonathan A.C. Brown (2009), Hadith: Muhammad's Legacy in the Medieval and Modern World. Oneworld Publications. . Jonathan A.C. Brown (2007), The Canonization of al-Bukhārī and Muslim: The Formation and Function of the Sunnī Ḥadīth Canon. Brill Publishers. . External links A brief introduction to hadith studies Hadith Science Magazine Hadith
4859904	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese%20treasure%20ship	Chinese treasure ship	A Chinese treasure ship (, literally "gem ship") is a type of large wooden ship in the fleet of admiral Zheng He, who led seven voyages during the early 15th-century Ming dynasty. The size of the Chinese treasure ship has been a subject of debate with the Chinese records mentioning the size of 44 zhang or 44.4 zhang, which has been interpreted by some as over in length, while others have stated that Zheng He's largest ship was about or less in length. Accounts Chinese According to the (1658), the first voyage consisted of 63 treasure ships crewed by 27,870 men. The History of Ming (1739) credits the first voyage with 62 treasure ships crewed by 27,800 men. A Zheng He era inscription in the Jinghai Temple in Nanjing gave the size of Zheng He ships in 1405 as 2,000 liao (500 tons), but did not give the number of ships. Alongside the treasures were also another 255 ships according to the (1520), giving the combined fleet of the first voyage a total of 317 ships. However, the addition of 255 ships is a case of double accounting according to Edward L. Dreyer, who notes that the Taizong Shilu does not distinguish the order of 250 ships from the treasure ships. As such the first fleet would have been around 250 ships including the treasure ships. The second voyage consisted of 249 ships. The Jinghai Temple inscription gave the ship dimensions in 1409 as 1500 liao (375 tons). According to the Xingcha Shenglan (1436), the third voyage consisted of 48 treasure ships, not including other ships. The Xingcha Shenglan states that the fourth voyage consisted of 63 treasure ships crewed by 27,670 men. There are no sources for number of ships or men for the fifth and sixth voyages. According to the Liujiagang and Changle Inscriptions, the seventh voyage had "more than a hundred large ships". Yemen The most contemporary non-Chinese record of the expeditions is an untitled and anonymous annalistic account of the then-ruling Rasūlid dynasty of Yemen, compiled in the years 1439–1440. It reports the arrival of Chinese ships in 1419, 1423, and 1432, which approximately correspond to Zheng He's fifth, sixth, and seventh voyages. The 1419 arrival is described thus: The later Yemeni historian, Ibn al-Daybaʿ (1461–1537), writes: Mamluks Mamluk historian Ibn Taghribirdi (1411–1470) writes: Niccolò de' Conti Niccolò de' Conti (–1469), a contemporary of Zheng He, was also an eyewitness of Chinese ships in Southeast Asia, claiming to have seen five-masted junks of about 2000 tons* burthen: Other translations of the passage give the size as a 2000 butts, which would be around a 1000 tons, a butt being half a ton. Christopher Wake noted that the transcription of the unit is actually vegetes, that is Venetian butt, and estimated a burthen of 1300 tons. The ship of Conti may have been a Burmese or Indonesian jong. Song and Yuan junks Although active prior to the treasure voyages, both Marco Polo (1254–1325) and Ibn Battuta (1304–1369) attest to large multi-masted ships carrying 500 to 1000 passengers in Chinese waters. The large ships (up to 5,000 liao or 1520–1860 tons burden) would carry 500–600 men, and the second class (1,000–2,000 liao) would carry 200–300 men. Unlike Ming treasure ships, Song and Yuan great junks were propelled by oars, and have with them smaller junks, probably for maneuvering aids. The largest junks (5,000 liao) may have had a hull length twice that of Quanzhou ship (1,000 liao), that is . However, the usual Chinese trading junks pre-1500 was around long, with the length of only becoming the norm after 1500 CE. Large size could be a disadvantage for shallow harbors of southern seas, and the presence of numerous reefs exacerbates this. Marco Polo Ibn Battuta Description Taizong Shilu The most contemporary accounts of the treasure ships come from the Taizong Shilu, which contains 24 notices from 1403 to 1419 for the construction of ships at several locations. On 4 September 1403, 200 "seagoing transport ships" were ordered from the Capital Guards in Nanjing. On 1 March 1404, 50 "seagoing ships" were ordered from the Capital Guards. In 1407, 249 vessels were ordered "to be prepared for embassies to the several countries of the Western Ocean". On 14 February 1408, 48 treasure ships were ordered from the Ministry of Works in Nanjing. This is the only contemporary account containing references to both treasure ships and a specific place of construction. Coincidentally, the only physical evidence of treasure ships comes from Nanjing. On 2 October 1419, 41 treasure ships were ordered without disclosing the specific builders involved. Longjiang Chuanchang Zhi 's Longjiang Chuanchang Zhi (1553), also known as the Record of the Dragon River Shipyard, notes that the plans for the treasure ships had vanished from the ship yard in which they were built. Sanbao Taijian Xia Xiyang Ji Tongsu Yanyi According to 's 1597 novel Sanbao Taijian Xia Xiyang Ji Tongsu Yanyi (Eunuch Sanbao Western Records Popular Romance), the treasure fleet consisted of five distinct classes of ships: Treasure ships (, Bǎo Chuán) nine-masted, 44.4 by 18 zhang, about long and wide. Equine ships (, Mǎ Chuán), carrying horses and tribute goods and repair material for the fleet, eight-masted, 37 by 15 zhang, about long and wide. Supply ships (, Liáng Chuán), containing staple for the crew, seven-masted, 28 by 12 zhang, about long and wide. Transport ships (, Zuò Chuán), six-masted, 24 by 9.4 zhang, about long and wide. Warships (, Zhàn Chuán), five-masted, 18 by 6.8 zhang, about long. Edward L. Dreyer claims that Luo Maodeng's novel is unsuitable as historical evidence. The novel contains a number of fantasy element; for example the ships were "constructed with divine help by the immortal Lu Ban". Scholars have worked, however, to distinguish the fictional elements from those that the author had access to but have subsequently been lost, including both written and oral sources. Dimensions and size Contemporary descriptions The contemporary inscription of Zheng He's ships in the Jinghai temple (靜海寺—Jìng hǎi sì) inscription in Nanjing gives sizes of 2,000 liao (500 tons) and 1,500 liao (275 tons), which are far too low than would be implied by a ship of 444 chi (450 ft) given by the History of Ming. In addition, in the contemporary account of Zheng He's 7th voyage by Gong Zhen, he said it took 200 to 300 men to handle Zheng He's ships. Ming minister Song Li indicated a ratio of 1 man per 2.5 tons of cargo, which would imply Zheng He's ships were 500 to 750 tons. The inscription on the tomb of Hong Bao, an official in Zheng He's fleet, mentions the construction of a 5,000 liao displacement ship. 44 zhang ship History of Ming According to the History of Ming (Ming shi—明史), completed in 1739, the treasure ships were 44 zhang, 4 chi, i.e. 444 chi in length, and had a beam of 18 zhang. The dimensions of ships are no coincidence. The number "4" has numerological significance as a symbol of the 4 cardinal directions, 4 seasons, and 4 virtues. The number 4 was an auspicious association for treasure ships. These dimensions first appeared in a novel published in 1597, more than a century and a half after Zheng He's voyages. The 3 contemporary accounts of Zheng He's voyages do not have the ship dimensions. The zhang was fixed at 141 inches in the 19th century, making the chi 14.1 inches. However the common Ming value for chi was 12.2 inches and the value fluctuated depending on region. The Ministry of Works used a chi of 12.1 inches while the Jiangsu builders used a chi of 13.3 inches. Some of the ships in the treasure fleet, but not the treasure ships, were built in Fujian, where the chi was 10.4 to 11 inches. Assuming a range of 10.5 to 12 inches for each chi, the dimensions of the treasure ships as recorded by the History of Ming would have been between 385 by 157.5 feet and 440 by 180 feet (117.5 by 48 metres, and 134 by 55 metres). Louise Levathes estimates that it had a maximum size of 110–124 m (390–408 feet) long and 49–51 m (160–166 feet) wide instead, taking 1 chi as 10.53–11.037 inches. According to British scientist, historian and sinologist Joseph Needham, the dimensions of the largest of these ships were by . American historian Edward L. Dreyer is in broad agreement with Needham's views. Modern estimates Modern scholars have argued on engineering grounds that it is highly unlikely that Zheng He's ship was in length. Guan Jincheng (1947) proposed a much more modest size of 20 zhang long by 2.4 zhang wide (204 ft by 25.5 ft or 62.2 m by 7.8 m). Xin Yuan'ou, a shipbuilding engineer and professor of the history of science at Shanghai Jiao Tong University, argues on engineering grounds that it is highly unlikely that Zheng He's treasure ships were 450 ft long, and suggests that they were probably closer to 200–250 ft (61–76 m) in length. Hsu Yun-Ts'iao does not agree with Xin Yuan'ou: Estimating the size of a 2,000 liao ship with the Treatise of the Longjiang shipyard (龙江船厂志—lóng jiāng chuánchǎng zhì) at Nanjing, the size is as follows: LOA , bottom's hull length , overhanging "tail" length , front depth , front width , mid-hull depth , mid-hull width , tail depth , tail width , and the length to width ratio is 7:1. Dionisius A. Agius (2008) estimated a size of 200–250 ft (60.96 m–76.2 m) and maximum weight of 700 tons. Tang Zhiba, Xin Yuan'ou, and Zheng Ming have calculated the dimensions of the 2,000 liao ship, obtaining a length of , width of , and draught of . Zheng Ming believes that the "Heavenly Princess Classics" depict 2,000 liao ships. André Wegener Sleeswyk extrapolated the size of liao (料 — material) by deducing the data from mid-16th century Chinese river junks. He suggested that the 2,000 liao ships were bao chuan (treasure ship), while the 1,500 liao ships were ma chuan (horse ship). In his calculations, the treasure ships would have had a length of 52.5 m, a width of 9.89 m, and a height of 4.71 m. The horse ships would have a length of 46.63 m, a width of 8.8 m, and a height of 4.19 m. Richard Barker estimated that the treasure ships would have a length of , a width of , and a draught of . He estimated it using an assumed displacement of 3100 tons. One explanation for the colossal size of the 44 zhang treasure ships, if in fact built, was that they were only for a display of imperial power by the emperor and imperial bureaucrats on the Yangtze River when on court business, including when reviewing Zheng He's actual expedition fleet. The Yangtze River, with its calmer waters, may have been navigable for such large but unseaworthy ships. Zheng He would not have had the privilege in rank to command the largest of these ships. Some of the largest ships of Zheng He's fleet were the 6 masted 2000-liao ships. This would give burthen of 500 tons and a displacement tonnage of about 800 tons. Because they were built and based in Nanjing, and repeatedly sailed along the Yangtze river (including in winter, when the water is low), their draught cannot exceed 7–7.5 m. It is also known that Zheng He's fleet visited Palembang in Sumatra, where they needed to cross the Musi river. It is unknown whether Zheng He's ships sailed as far as Palembang, or whether they waited on the shore in the Bangka Strait while the smaller ships sailed at Musi; but at least the draught of the ship that reaches Palembang should not be more than 6 m. Xin Yuan'ou argued that Zheng He's ships could not have been as large as recorded in the History of Ming. based on the following reasons: Ships of the dimensions given in the Ming shi would have been 15,000–20,000 tons according to his calculations, exceeding a natural limit to the size of a wooden ocean-going ship of about 7,000 tons displacement. With the benefit of modern technology it would be difficult to manufacture a wooden ship of 10,000 tons, let alone one that was 1.5–2 times that size. It was only when ships began to be built of iron in the 1860s that they could exceed 10,000 tons. Watertight compartments characteristic of traditional Chinese ships tended to make the vessels transversely strong but longitudinally weak. A ship of these dimensions would need masts that were 100 metres tall. Several timbers would have to be joined vertically. As a single tree trunk would not be large enough in diameter to support such mast, multiple timbers would need to be combined at the base as well. No evidence that China had the type of joining materials necessary to accomplish these tasks. A ship with 9 masts would be unable to resist the combined strength and force of such huge sails, she would not be able to cope with strong wind and would break. It took four centuries (from the Renaissance era to the early premodern era) for Western ships to increase in size from 1500 to 5000 tons displacement. For Chinese ships to have reached three or four times this size in just two years (from Emperor Yongle's accession in 1403 to the launch of the first expedition in 1405) was unlikely. 200–300 sailor as mentioned by Gong Zhen could not have managed a 20,000 tons ship. According to Xin, a ship of such size would have a complement of 8,000 men. From the comments of modern scholars on Medieval Chinese accounts and reports, it is apparent that a ship had a natural limit to her size, going beyond, would have made her structurally unsafe as well as causing a considerable loss of maneuverability, something the Spanish Armada ships famously experienced. Beyond a certain size (about 300 feet or 91.44 m in length) a wooden ship is structurally unsafe. It was not until the mid to late 19th century that the length of the largest western wooden ship began to exceed 100 meters, even this was done using modern industrial tools and iron parts. Measurement conversion It is also possible that the measure of zhang (丈) used in the conversions was mistaken. Seventeenth-century Ming records state that the European East Indiamen and galleons were 30, 40, 50, and 60 zhang (90, 120, 150, and 180 m) in length. The length of a Dutch ship recorded in the History of Ming was 30 zhang. If the zhang is taken to be 3.2 m, the Dutch ship would be 96 m long. Also, the Dutch Hongyi cannon was recorded to be more than 2 zhang (6.4 m) long. A comparative study by Hu Xiaowei (2018) concluded that 1 zhang would be equal to 1.5–1.6 m, this means the Dutch ship would be 45–48 m long and the cannon would be 3–3.2 m long. Taking 1.6 m for 1 zhang, Zheng He's 44 zhang treasure ship would be long and wide, or 22 zhang long and 9 zhang wide if the zhang is taken to be 3.2 m. It is known that the measuring unit during the Ming era was not unified: A measurement of East and West Pagoda in Quanzhou resulted in a zhang unit of 2.5–2.56 m. According to Chen Cunren, one zhang in the Ming Dynasty is only half a zhang in modern times. 5,000 liao ship In June 2010, a new inscription was found in Hong Bao's tomb, confirming the existence of the Ming dynasty's 5,000 liao ship. Taking the liao to be burthen, that would be 1,250 tons burthen. Sleeswyk argued that the term liao refers to the displacement and not cargo weight, one liao would be equivalent to of displacement. According to Zheng Ming, the 5,000 liao ship would have a dimension of , width of , with draught, and the displacement would reach more than 2,700 tons. The 5,000 liao ship may have been used as the flagship but the number of ships was relatively small. Wake argued that the 5,000 liao ships were not used until after the 3rd voyage, when the voyages were extended beyond India. Xi Longfei identified that the word "treasure ship", which would refer to the 44 zhang ship, appeared for the first time in the 6th year of Yongle. This large ship was too late to be used for the third voyage, so it appeared for the first time during the 4th voyage, and was recorded by Ma Huan. Judging from the three images from the Ming era, the largest ships had 3–4 main masts and 2–3 auxiliary masts. Structure The keel consisted of wooden beams bound together with iron hoops. In stormy weather, holes in the prow would partially fill with water when the ship pitched forward, thus lessening the violent turbulence caused by waves. Treasure ships also used floating anchors cast off the sides of the ship in order to increase stability. The stern had two 2.5 m (8 foot) iron anchors weighing over a thousand pounds each, used for mooring offshore. Like many Chinese anchors, these had four flukes set at a sharp angle against the main shaft. Watertight compartments were also used to add strength to the treasure ships. The ships also had a balanced rudder which could be raised and lowered, creating additional stability like an extra keel. The balanced rudder placed as much of the rudder forward of the stern post as behind it, making such large ships easier to steer. Unlike a typical fuchuan warship, the treasure ships had nine staggered masts and twelve square sails, increasing its speed. Treasure ships also had 24 cast-bronze cannons with a maximum range of 240 to 275 m (800–900 feet). However, treasure ships were considered luxury ships rather than warships. As such, they lacked the fuchuan's raised platforms or extended planks used for battle. Non-gunpowder weapons on Zheng He's vessels seems to be bows. For gunpowder weapons, they carried bombards (albeit shorter than Portuguese bombards) and various kind of hand cannons, such as can be found on early 15th century Bakau shipwreck. Comparing with Penglai wrecks, the fleet may have carried cannons with bowl-shaped muzzle (which dates back to late Yuan dynasty), and iron cannons with several rings on their muzzle (in the wrecks they are 76 and 73 cm long, weighing 110 and 74 kg), which according to Tang Zhiba, a typical of early Ming iron cannon. They may also carry incendiary bombs (quicklime bottles). Girolamo Sernigi (1499) gives an account of the armament of what possibly the Chinese vessels: It is now about 80 years since there arrived in this city of Chalicut certain vessels of white Christians, who wore their hair long like Germans, and had no beards except around the mouth, such as are worn at Constantinople by cavaliers and courtiers. They landed, wearing a cuirass, helmet, and visor, and carrying a certain weapon [sword] attached to a spear. Their vessels are armed with bombards, shorter than those in use with us. Once every two years they return with 20 or 25 vessels. They are unable to tell what people they are, nor what merchandise they bring to this city, save that it includes very fine linen-cloth and brass-ware. They load spices. Their vessels have four masts like those of Spain. If they were Germans it seems to me that we should have had some notice about them; possibly they may be Russians if they have a port there. On the arrival of the captain we may learn who these people are, for the Italian-speaking pilot, who was given him by the Moorish king, and whom he took away contrary to his inclinations, is with him, and may be able to tell.— Girolamo Sernigi (1499) about the then-unknown Chinese visitors Physical evidence From 2003 to 2004, the Treasure Shipyard was excavated in northwestern Nanjing (the former capital of the Ming Dynasty), near the Yangtze River. Despite the site being referred to as the "Longjiang Treasure Shipyard" (龍江寶船廠—lóng jiāng bǎo chuánchǎng) in the official names, the site is distinct from the actual Longjiang Shipyard, which was located on a different site and produced different types of ships. The Treasure Shipyard, where Zheng He's fleet were believed to have been built in the Ming Dynasty, once consisted of thirteen basins (based on a 1944 map), most of which have now been covered by the construction of buildings in the 20th century. The basins are believed to have been connected to the Yangtze via a series of gates. Three long basins survive, each with wooden structures inside them that were interpreted to be frames for the ships to be built on. The largest basin extends for a length of . While they were long enough to accommodate the largest claimed Zheng He treasure ship, they were not wide enough to fit even a ship half the claimed size. The basin was only wide at most, with only a width area of it showing evidence of structures. They were also not deep enough, being only deep. Other remains of ships in the site indicate that the ships were only slightly larger than the frames that supported them. Moreover, the basin structures were grouped into clusters with large gaps between them, if each cluster was interpreted as a ship framework, then the largest ship would not exceed at most, probably less. In 1957, a large 11-meter-long rudder shaft was discovered during excavations at the Treasure shipyards. The rudder blade, which did not survive, was attached to a 6-meter section of the axis. According to Chinese archaeologists, the area of the rudder was approximately 42.5 m², and the length of the ship to which it belonged was estimated at 149–166 meters. However, such use of this piece of archeological evidence rests upon supposing proportions between the rudder and the length of the ship, which have also been the object of intense contestation: That length was estimated using steel, engine-driven ship as the reference. By comparing the rudder shaft to the Quanzhou ship, Church estimated that the ship was long. Speed The treasure ships were different in size, but not in speed. Under favorable conditions, such as sailing with the winter monsoon from Fujian to Southeast Asia, Zheng He's fleet developed an average speed of about ; on many other segments of his route, a significantly lower average speed was recorded, of the order of . As historians note, these speeds were relatively low by the standards of later European sailing fleets, even in comparison with ship of the line, which were built with an emphasis on armament rather than speed. For example, in 1809, Admiral Nelson's squadron, consisting of 10 ships of the line, crossed the Atlantic Ocean at an average speed of . Replica A copy of a treasure ship was announced in 2006 to be completed in time for the 2008 Olympic Games. However, the copy was still under construction in Nanjing in 2010. A new date of completion was set for 2013; when this dateline failed to be met in 2014, the project was built for 4 years. See also List of world's largest wooden ships Jong (ship), Javanese ship, those used by Majapahit were larger than baochuan Grace Dieu (ship), English flagship of Henry V, about the same size as baochuan Ancient Chinese wooden architecture Pagoda of Fogong Temple Notes References Citations Sources Further reading Traditions and Encounters - A Global Perspective on the Past by Bentley and Ziegler. Ships of China Naval ships of China 15th-century ships Exploration ships Treasure voyages Four-masted ships Six-masted ships Seven-masted ships
4860016	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutscher%20Jugendliteraturpreis	Deutscher Jugendliteraturpreis	The (German Youth Literature Award) is an annual award established in 1956 by the Federal Ministry of Family Affairs, Senior Citizens, Women and Youth to recognise outstanding works of children's and young adult literature. It is Germany's only state-funded literary award. In the past, authors from many countries have been recognised, including non-German speakers. Organisation The award is organized by the , also called AKJ or Association for Children's and Youth Literature, which receives financial support, including prize money, from the Federal Ministry for Family Affairs, Senior Citizens, Women and Youth. Awards are given in five categories: Best Picture Book, Best Children's Book, Best Youth Book, Best Non-Fiction Book and Choice of the Youth Jury. Up to six nominations in each category are announced in March at the Leipzig Book Fair, and the awards are presented during the Frankfurt Book Fair by the Federal Minister of Family Affairs, Senior Citizens, Women and Youth. In each category, the winning author receives a 10,000 euro cash prize, and a bronze statuette designed by Detlef Kraft representing Momo from the novel by Michael Ende. Furthermore, two special awards are presented alternately to German authors, illustrators or translators. The special award for lifetime achievement is set at 12,000 Euro. The newly created special award for new talents carries a value of 10,000 Euro. Both are also financed by the Federal Ministry. History Since the award was established, many changes have been made. When the (as the award was known until 1981) began in 1956, only two categories were recognised; Best Children's Book and Best Youth Book. In addition to these, a special prize was awarded every year in a different category. It was not until 1964 that the Best Picture Book and Best Non-fiction Book categories replaced this variable award. The final category recognized today, awarded by the , was not introduced until 2003, when it was originally called the Young People's Prize ().In 1991, to celebrate the 35th anniversary of the award, the special award for lifetime achievement was reintroduced to recognise individual achievement for writers, illustrators and translators. In 2017 it was supplemented by the special award for new talents to celebrate the 60th anniversary of the award.. Jury Awards are decided upon by three juries: the (Critics' Jury), the and the Sonderpreisjury (special award jury). The decides the nominations and the majority of the prizes; the only decides the prize. The Sonderpreisjury awards the special awards for lifetime achievement and new talents. The is appointed by the once every two years, although jury members can serve two consecutive terms. The jury consists of nine members: the chair, and eight specialist judges - two for each award category. The consists of the members of six German youth book clubs. It is also changed every two years, although some clubs serve consecutive terms. The Sonderpreisjury consists of three members and changes every year. Awards 2010–2018 2018 Winner picture book: Der siebente Bruder oder Das Herz im Marmeladenglas by Øyvind Torseter (Text, Illustration), Maike Dörries (translator) 2017 Special award for lifetime achievement: Gudrun Pausewang (author) 2016 Special award for lifetime achievement: Klaus Kordon (author) 2015 Special award for lifetime achievement: Sabine Friedrichson (illustrator) 2014 Special award for lifetime achievement: Angelika Kutsch (translator) 2013 Special award for lifetime achievement: Andreas Steinhöfel (author) 2012 Special award for lifetime achievement: Norman Junge (illustrator) 2011 Jugendjury: Nominees: Margos Spuren (Margo's Footsteps) by John Green (text); Sophie Zeitz (translation) Erebos by Ursula Poznanski Freak City by Katrin Schrocke Nichts (Nothing) by Janne Teller (text); Sigrid C. Engeler (translation) Numbers by Rachel Ward (text); Uwe-Michael Gutzschhahn (translation) Wenn du stirbst, zieht dein ganzes Leben an dir vorbei, sagen sie (If you die, your life moves past you, they say) by Lauren Oliver (text); Katharina Meier Diestel (translation) Picture book: Nominees: Meine große kleine Welt (My big little world) by Marianne Dubuc (text); Anna Dove (translation) Das Baumhaus (The war) by Marije Tolman (illustration); Ronald Tolman (illustration); Oups by Jean-Luc Fromental (text); Joёlle Jolivet (illustration); Leonard Jacobson (translation) Die Geschichte vom Fuchs, der den Verstand verlor by Martin Baltscheit Papas Arme sind ein Boot (Papa's arms are a boat) by Stein Erik Lunde (text); Øywind Torseter (illustration); Maike Dörries (translation) Tatu und Patu und ihre verrückten Maschinen (Tatu and Patu and their crazy machines) by Sami Toivonen (text); Aino Havukainen (text); Elina Kritzokat (translation) Children's book: Nominees: Ich, Gorilla und der Affenstern (Me, Gorilla and Monkey-star) by Frida Nilsson (text); Ulf K. (illustration); Fred Buchinger (translation) Anton taucht ab by Milena Baisch (text); Elke Kusche (illustration) Der letzte unsichtbare Junge (The last invisible boy) by Evan Kuhlman (text); JP Coovert (illustration); Uwe-Michael Gutzschhahn (translation) Rosie und der Urgroßvater by Monika Helfer (text); Michael Köhlmeier (text); Barbara Steinitz (illustration) Onkel Montagues Schauergeschichten (Uncle Montague's tales of horror) by Chris Priestley (text); David Roberts (illustration); Beatrice Howeg (translation) Hundewinter (Dog Winter) by KA Nuzum (text); Gerda Bean (translation) Youth book: Nominees: Schrödinger, Dr. Linda und eine Leiche im Kühlhaus (Schrödinger, Dr. Linda and a corpse in cold storage) by Jan de Leeuw (text); Rolf Erdorf (translation) Tschick (Why We Took the Car) by Wolfgang Herrndorf Town – Irgendwo in Australien (Town – somewhere in Australia) by James Roy (text); Stefanie Schaeffler (translation) Zusammen allein (Together alone) by Karin Bruder Runaway by Oscar Huijelos (text); Günter Ohnemus (translation) Crank by Ellen Hopkins (text); Henning Ahrens (translation) Non-fiction book: Nominees: Das große Buch der Bilder und Wörter (The big book of pictures and words) by Ole Könnecke Alles Familie! (All family!) by Alexandra Maxeiner (text); Anke Kuhl (illustration) Der Junge, der Picasso biss (The boy who bit Picasso) by Antony Penrose (words); Egbert Baqué (translation) Zuckerpass und Blutgrätsche by Christian Eichler (text); Jürgen Rieckhoff (illustration) Die genialsten Erfindungen der Natur (The most ingenious inventions of nature) by Sigrid Belzer Von den Sternen bis zum Tau by Jens Soentgen (text); Vitali Konstantinov (illustration) 2010 Jugendjury: Nominees: Einmal (Once) by Morris Gleitzman, Chatroom-Falle by Helen Vreeswijk, Tote Mädchen lügen nicht (Thirteen Reasons Why) by Jay Asher, Die Tribute von Panem: Tödliche Spiele (The Hunger Games) by Suzanne Collins, Unser allerbestes Jahr (The Film Club) by David Gilmour, Die Einsamkeit der Primzahlen (The Solitude of Prime Numbers) by Paolo Giordano, Picture book: Nominees: Johanna im Zug by Kathrin Schärer, Wenn ich das 7. Geißlein wär´ by Karla Schneider (text) and Stefanie Harjes (illustration), Gedicht für einen Goldfisch by Jean-Pierre Siméon (text) and Olivier Tallec (illustration), Garmans Sommer by Stian Hole, An Großvaters Hand: Meine Kindheit in China by Chen Jianghong, Um Mitternacht by Eduard Mörike (text) and Hannes Binder (illustration), Children's book: Nominees: Die Bibel: Das Alte Testament by Sybil Gräfin Schönfeldt (text) and Klaus Ensikat (illustration), Timur und die Erfindungen aus lauter Liebe by Marlies Bardeli (text) and Anke Kuhl (illustration), Meine Mutter ist in Amerika und hat Buffalo Bill getroffen by Jean Regnaud (text), Émile Bravo (illustration) and Michael Hau (Organisation), Das Mädchen mit den drei Namen by Tami Shem-Tov, Warten auf Anya (Waiting for Anya) by Michael Morpurgo, Ihr kriegt mich nicht by Mikael Engström, Youth book: Nominees: Nathan und seine Kinder by Mirjam Pressler, Klick! Zehn Autoren erzählen einen Roman (Click) by David Almond, Eoin Colfer, Roddy Doyle, Deborah Ellis, Nick Hornby, Gregory Maguire, Margo Lanagan, Ruth Ozeki, Linda Sue Park and Tim Wynne-Jones, Such dir was aus, aber beeil dich! Kindsein in zehn Kapiteln by Nadia Budde, Zweiunddieselbe: "Wie viel von mir bin ich?" by Mary E. Pearson, Rotkäppchen muss weinen by Beate Teresa Hanika, Die Karte meiner Träume (The Selected Works of T.S. Spivet) by Reif Larsen, Non-fiction book: Nominees: Achtung, fertig, Baustelle! Wie ein Haus geplant und gebaut wird by Rolf Toyka (text), Ferenc B. Regös (illustration) and Heike Ossenkop (Organisation, Photography), Kuckuck, Krake, Kakerlake: Das etwas andere Tierbuch by Bibi Dumon Tak (text) and Fleur van der Weel (illustration), drüben! by Simon Schwartz, Mutige Menschen: Widerstand im dritten Reich by Christian Nürnberger, Kanzler lieben Gummistiefel: So funktioniert Politik by Marietta Slomka and Daniel Westland, Die nächste GENeration: Science + Fiction by Charlotte Kerner (text and Editing), Claudia Eberhard-Metzger (text) and Susanne Paulsen (text), 2000–2009 2009 Jugendjury: Die Bücherdiebin (The Book Thief) by Markus Zusak, Nominees: Wie man unsterblich wird (Ways to Live Forever) by Sally Nicholls, Wie ich zum besten Schlagzeuger der Welt wurde – und warum (Drums, Girls, and Dangerous Pie) by Jordan Sonnenblick, Anas Geschichte (Ana's Story) by Jenna Bush (text) und Mia Baxter (photography), Die Nackten by Iva Procházková, Ich, Adrian Mayfield by Floortje Zwigtman, Picture book: Geschichten aus der Vorstadt des Universums (Tales From Outer Suburbia) by Shaun Tan, Nominees: Leute by Blexbolex, Was tun!? by Dieter Böge (text) und Bernd Mölck-Tassel (illustration), Räuberkinder by Antje Damm, Das Kinder-Verwirr-Buch by Norman Junge (illustration) und Joachim Ringelnatz (text), Ein neues Land (The Arrival) by Shaun Tan, Children's book: Rico, Oskar und die Tieferschatten by Andreas Steinhöfel (text) and Peter Schössow (illustration), Nominees: Alabama Moon by Watt Key, Mut für Drei by Bart Moeyaert (text) and Rotraut Susanne Berner (illustration), Rabenhaar by Do van Ranst, Tote Maus für Papas Leben by Marjolijn Hof, Die Entdeckung des Hugo Cabret (The Invention of Hugo Cabret) by Brian Selznick, Youth book: The Road of the Dead (The Road of the Dead) by Kevin Brooks, Nominees: Wintereis by Peter van Gestel, Verkauft (Sold) by Patricia McCormick, Nach dem Unglück schwang ich mich auf, breitet meine Flügel aus und flog davon (After the Wreck, I Picked Myself Up, Spread My Wings, and Flew Away) by Joyce Carol Oates, Die Nackten by Iva Procházková, Scherbenpark by Alina Bronsky, Non-fiction book: Das Rätsel der Varusschlacht by Wolfgang Korn (text) und Klaus Ensikat (illustration), Nominees: Was ist da passiert? by Béatrice Vincent (text) und Bruno Heitz (illustration), Geheime Welt der Raupen by Monika Lange (text) und Ingo Arndt (Photos), So leben wir. Menschen am Rande der Megacitys (The Places We Live) by Jonas Bendiksen, Der Traum vom Fliegen by Susanna Partsch and Rosemarie Zacher, Special prize for Illustration: Jutta Bauer 2008 Jugendjury: Simpel (Simple) by Marie-Aude Murail, Nominees: Running Man (The Running Man) by Michael Gerard Bauer, Der Junge im gestreiften Pyjama (The Boy in the Striped Pyjamas) by John Boyne, Eine wie Alaska (Looking for Alaska) by John Green, Die Minute der Wahrheit. Roman über die Liebe und die Kunst by Bjørn Sortland, Nick & Norah. Soundtrack einer Nacht (Nick and Norah's Infinite Playlist) by Rachel Cohn, David Levithan, Picture book: Hänsel und Gretel by Jacob und Wilhelm Grimm (text), Susanne Janssen (illustration), Nominees: Alle seine Entlein by Christian Duda (text), Julia Friese (illustration), Wann kommt Mama? (Waiting For Mama) by Lee Tae-Jun (text), Kim Dong-Seong (illustration), Andreas Schirmer (translation), Ente, Tod und Tulpe (Duck, Death and the Tulip) by Wolf Erlbruch, Der weiße und der schwarze Bär by Jürg Schubiger (text), Eva Muggenthaler (illustration), 5 Songs by Gipi, Children's book: Ein Bild von Ivan (Portrait of Ivan) by Paula Fox, Nominees: Die schlaue Mama Sambona by Hermann Schulz (text), Tobias Krejtschi (illustration), Zarah. Du hast doch keine Angst, oder? by Zoran Drvenkar (text), Martin Baltscheit (illustration), Big (Piggy) by Mireille Geus, Das Gegenteil von Sorgen by Benny Lindelauf, KIRA-KIRA (Kira-Kira) by Cynthia Kadohata, Youth book: was wäre wenn (Just in Case) by Meg Rosoff, Nominees: Eine wie Alaska (Looking for Alaska) by John Green, Kissing the Rain by Kevin Brooks, Dann tu's doch by Andreas Schendel, Superhero (Death of a Superhero) by Anthony McCarten, Ein Sommer in Venedig by Włodzimierz Odojewski, Non-fiction book: Der Kick. Ein Lehrstück über Gewalt by Andres Veiel, Nominees: 1 roter Punkt (One Red Dot) by David A. Carter, Pole, Packeis, Pinguine. Leben im ewigen Eis by Karoline Stürmer (text), Doris Katharina Künster (Arrangement), Sprache oder Was den Mensch zum Menschen macht by Nikolaus Nützel, Rotes Land Gelber Fluss. Eine Geschichte aus der chinesischen Kulturrevolution (Red Land, Yellow River: A Story From the Cultural Revolution) by Ange Zhang, Ich war das Kind von Holocaustüberlebenden (I Was a Child of Holocaust Survivors) by Bernice Eisenstein, Special prize for Translation: Gabriele Haefs 2007 Source: Jugendjury: Der Joker (The Messenger) by Markus Zusak (Author), Alexandra Ernst (translation), Nominees: Die fünf Tore – Todeskreis (Raven's Gate) by Anthony Horowitz, Bis(s) zum Morgengrauen (Twilight) by Stephenie Meyer, Keeper (Keeper) by Mal Peet, Leihst du mir deinen Blick? Eine E-Mail Freundschaft zwischen Jerusalem und Gaza (Message in a Bottle) by Valérie Zenatti, Zwei Wege in den Sommer by Robert Habeck and Andrea Paluch, Picture book: Königin Gisela (Where the Girls Are) by Nikolaus Heidelbach, Nominees: Die Torte ist weg! (Where is the cake?) by Thé Tjong-Khing, Krawinkel & Eckstein by Wouter van Reek, Der kleine Häwelmann (Little Hobbin) by Theodor Storm (text), Henriette Sauvant (illustration), Herr Eichhorn und der Mond (Mr Squirrel and the Moon) by Sebastian Meschenmoser, Pikko, die Hexe by Toon Tellegen (text), Marit Törnqvist (illustration), From the Dutch by Mirjam Pressler, Children's book: Schwester by Jon Fosse (text), Aljoscha Blau (illustration), Hinrich Schmidt-Henkel (translation), Nominees: Die besten Beerdigungen der Welt (All The Dear Little Animals) by Ulf Nilsson (text), Eva Eriksson (illustration), Ein Zwilling für Leo by Sébastien Joanniez (text), Régis Lejonc (illustration), Steppenwind und Adlerflügel by Xavier-Laurent Petit, Das Buch von allen Dingen (The Book of Everything) by Guus Kuijer, Samuraisommer by Åke Edwardson, Youth book: Wir retten Leben, sagt mein Vater by Do van Ranst (Author), Andrea Kluitmann (translation), Nominees: Meisterwerk (Framed) by Frank Cottrell Boyce, Wenn er kommt, dann laufen wir (Dark Angel) by David Klass, Paradiesische Aussichten (Just Like Tomorrow) by Faïza Guène, Ein reiner Schrei (A Swift Pure Cry) by Siobhan Dowd, Liebeslinien by Marjaleena Lembcke, Non-fiction book: Mutter hat Krebs (Mom's Cancer) by Brian Fies (Author), Wolfgang J. Fuchs (translation), Nominees: Was macht der Bär im Museum? by Claire d'Harcourt, Mount Everest by Maja Nielsen and Jochen Hemmleb, Wolfgang Amadé Mozart by Barbara Mungengast (concept and design), Sigrid Laube (text), Nadia Budde (illustration), Petr Ginz. Prager Tagebuch 1941-1942 (The Diary of Petr Ginz) by Chava Pressburger, Geschichte der Elektrizität by Henning Boëtius, Special prize for Writing: Kirsten Boie 2006 Young People's Prize: Lucas by Kevin Brooks/ Uwe-Michael Gutzschhahn (translation), Nominees: Whisper by Isabel Abedi, was geht wenn du bleibst by Zoran Drvenkar, Eve Green (Eve Green) by Susan Fletcher, Mit offenen Augen. Die Geschichte von Freaky Green Eyes (Freaky Green Eyes) by Joyce Carol Oates, Septimus Heap. Magyk (Magyk) by Angie Sage, Picture book: Gehört das so??! Die Geschichte von Elvis by Peter Schössow, Nominees: Zwei Schwestern bekommen Besuch (The Visitor) by Sonja Bougaeva, Die Wölfe in den Wänden (The Wolves in the Walls) by Neil Gaiman (text) and Dave McKean (illustration), Rote Wangen by Heinz Janisch (text) and Aljoscha Blau (illustration), Gesichter (Faces) by François und Jean Robert, Children's book: Lilis Leben eben (That's Life, Lily) by Valérie Dayre/ Maja von Vogel (translation), Nominees: Besuche bei Charles by Vincent Cuvellier (text) and Charles Dutertre (illustration), Weißnich by Joke van Leeuwen, Ein glücklicher Zufall und andere Kindergeschichten by Ljudmila Ulitzkaja (text) and Wolf Erlbruch (illustration), SoB.It: Heidis Geschichte (So B. It) by Sarah Weeks, Youth book: Wie schön weiß ich bin by Dolf Verroen/ Rolf Erdorf (translation), Nominees: Feuerschlucker (The Fire-Eaters) by David Almond, Ich bin Amerika (America) by E.R. Frank, Evil. Das Böse (Ondskan) by Jan Guillou, Die Nacht, als Mats nicht heimkam by Martha Heesen, So lebe ich jetzt (How I Live Now) by Meg Rosoff, Non-fiction book: 'Denk nicht, wir bleiben hier!' – Die Lebensgeschichte des Sinto Hugo Höllenreiner by Anja Tuckermann, Nominees: Jasper schafft Platz by Martin Bertelsen (text) and Hartmut Kozok (illustration), Das Buch vom Müssen und Machen (Poop: A Natural History of the Unmentionable) by Nicola Davies (text) and Neal Layton (illustration), Das große Familienbuch der Feste und Bräuche by Christa Holtei (text) and Tilman Michalski (illustration), Die Welt der Vögel für Kinder erzählt (Birds) by Gilles Martin (Photos), Jean Chevallier (illustration), Philippe J. Dubois and Valérie Guidoux (text), Special prize for Illustration: Rotraut Susanne Berner 2005 Young People's Prize: Im Schatten der Wächter (Inventing Elliot) by Graham Gardner/ Alexandra Ernst (translation), Nominees: In meiner Haut (Out of the Fire) by Deborah Froese, Kafka am Strand (Kafka on the Shore) by Haruki Murakami, Ein Meer dazwischen, eine Welt entfernt (An ocean apart, a world away) by Lensey Namioka, Asphalt Tribe: Kinder der Straße (Asphalt Tribe) by Morton Rhue, Lilly unter den Linden by Anne C. Voorhoeve, Picture book: Han Gan und das Wunderpferd by Chen Jianghong, Nominees: Der Zapperdockel und der Wock by Georg Bydlinski (text) and Jens Rassmus (illustration), Die große Frage (The Big Question) by Wolf Erlbruch, Meeres Stille und Glückliche Fahrt by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (text) and Peter Schössow (illustration), Brundibar (Brundibár) by Tony Kushner (text) and Maurice Sendak (illustration), Echte Kerle (Boys Are Best!) by Manuela Olten, Children's book: Die Kurzhosengang by Viktor Caspak and Yves Lanois/ Andreas Steinhöfel (translation) and Ole Könnecke (illustration), Nominees: Despereaux (The Tale of Despereaux) by Kate DiCamillo (text) and Timothy Basil Ering (illustration), 35 Kilo Hoffnung (95 pounds of Hope) by Anna Gavalda, Die furchtbar hartnäckigen Gapper von Frip (The Very Persistent Gappers of Frip) by George Saunders (text) and Lane Smith (illustration), Bartimäus: Das Amulett von Samarkand (The Amulet of Samarkand) by Jonathan Stroud, Was ich vergessen habe by Edward van de Vendel, Youth book: Schneeweiß und Russenrot (Snow White and Russian Red) by Dorota Masłowska, Nominees: Busfahrt mit Kuhn by Tamara Bach, Martyn Pig (Martyn Pig) by Kevin Brooks, Doing it (Doing It) by Melvin Burgess, Monsterwochen (Stoner and Spaz) by Ron Koertge, Lauf, Junge, lauf (Run, boy, run) by Uri Orlev, Non-fiction book: Nester bauen, Höhlen knabbern by Anne Möller, Nominees: Nano?! Die Technik des 21. Jahrhunderts by Niels Boeing, Sternenflug und Sonnenfeuer: Drei Astronominnen und ihre Lebensgeschichten by Charlotte Kerner (text & Publisher), Claudia Eberhard-Metzger (text) and Renate Ries (text) Das Buch von der Zukunft: Ein Reiseführer by Andreas Eschbach, Warum? (Why?) by Lila Prap, Der Baum des Lebens (The Tree of Life) by Peter Sís, Special prize for Translation: Harry Rowohlt 2004 Young People's Prize: Das Schwert in der Stille (Across the Nightingale Floor) by Lian Hearn, Nominees: Höhenflug abwärts by Jana Frey, Tintenherz (Inkheart) by Cornelia Funke, Das Orangenmädchen (The Orange Girl) by Jostein Gaarder, Sie hatten einen Traum by Thomas Jeier, Harry Potter und der Orden des Phönix (Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix) by J. K. Rowling, Picture book: Fuchs (Fox) by Margaret Wild (text) and Ron Brooks (illustration), Nominees: Du schon wieder by Zoran Drvenkar (text) and Ole Könnecke (illustration), Nelson, der Käpt'n und ich by Katja Gehrmann, Der hölzerne Mann by Melanie Kemmler, Kwatsch (Baloney (Henry P.)) by Jon Scieszka (text) and Lane Smith (illustration), Einer, der nichts merkte by Robert Walser (text) and Käthi Bhend (illustration), Children's book: Ein Schaf fürs Leben by Maritgen Matter (text) and Anke Faust (illustration), Nominees: Neun nackte Nilpferddamen by Gerda Anger-Schmidt (text) and Renate Habinger (illustration), Der beste Hund der Welt (Love That Dog) by Sharon Creech (text) and Rotraut Susanne Berner (illustration), Die Busfahrerin by Vincent Cuvellier (text) and Candice Hayat (illustration), Tintenherz (Inkheart) by Cornelia Funke, Ein rotes Herz, ein blauer Schmetterling by Annika Thor, Youth book: Marsmädchen (Girl From Mars) by Tamara Bach Nominees: Brando by Mikael Engström, Der Drachenflieger (The Kite Rider) by Geraldine McCaughrean, Die Braut meines Bruders (Bride on Paper) by Nava Semel, Mimus (Mimus) by Lilli Thal, Jinx (Jinx) by Margaret Wild, Non-fiction book: Lieber wütend als traurig. Die Lebensgeschichte der Ulrike Marie Meinhof by Alois Prinz, Nominees: Christophs Experimente by Christoph Biemann (text) and Hildegard Müller (illustration / layout), Die Kinder-Uni: Forscher erklären die Rätsel der Welt by Ulrich Janßen / Ulla Steuernagel (text) and Klaus Ensikat (illustration), Denk dir die Welt: Philosophie für Kinder by Brigitte Labbé / Michel Puech (text) and Jaques Azam (illustration), Der Mikrokosmos für Kinder erklärt by Oliver Meckes and Nicole Ottawa, Selbstdenken! 20 Praktiken der Philosophie by Jens Soentgen (text) and Nadia Budde (illustration), Special prize for Writing: Benno Pludra 2003 Young People's Prize: Krokodil im Nacken by Klaus Kordon, Nominees: Eine für vier (Sisterhood of the Traveling Pants) by Ann Brashares, Sag mir, was du siehst by Zoran Drvenkar, RaumZeit by Christian Linker, Lab 47: Gefahr aus dem Labor (Bloodline) by Malcolm Rose, Ohrensausen by Jochen Till, Picture book: Unsichtbar (Invisible) by Katja Kamm, Nominees: Mitten in der Nacht by Bruno Blume (text) and Jacky Gleich (illustration), Nein! Tomaten ess ich nicht! (I Will Not Ever Never Eat a Tomato) by Lauren Child, Das Notizbuch des Zeichners by Mohieddin Ellabbad, Die Schöpfung by Friedrich Karl Waechter, Die drei Schweine (The Three Pigs) by David Wiesner, Children's book: Schlimmes Ende (Awful End)by Philip Ardagh, Nominees: So was macht die Liebe by Bo R. Holmberg, Salamander im Netz by Elizabeth Honey (text) and Jörg Mühle (illustration), Wenn dich ein Löwe nach der Uhrzeit fragt: Eine Afrikageschichte by Hermann Schulz, Esperanza by Jakob Wegelius, Die fabelhaften Barker Girls (Double Act) by Jacqueline Wilson (text) and Susann Opel-Götz (illustration), Youth book: Prinz William, Maximilian Minsky und ich (Prince William, Maximillian Minsky and me) by Holly-Jane Rahlens, Nominees: Hathaway Jones by Katja Behrens, Was wisst ihr denn schon (The Facts Speak For Themselves) by Brock Cole, Und wenn schon! by Karen-Susan Fessel, Das Rätsel des Feuers (Playing With Fire) by Henning Mankell, Prinz Faisals Ring (The Ring of the Slave Prince) by Bjarne Reuter, Non-fiction book: Geschichte der Wirtschaft by Nikolaus Piper Nominees: Die Geschichte der Titanic by Eric Kentley (text) and Steve Noon (illustration), Philosophie: Abenteuer Denken by Stephen Law (text) and Daniel Postgate (illustration), Weltgeschichte by Manfred Mai, Sag mir, wie ist Afrika? by Marie Sellier (text) and Marion Lesage (illustration), Die Leute von Birka: So lebten die Wikinger by Mats Wahl (text), Björn Ambrosiani (text) and Sven Nordqvist (illustration), Special prize for Illustration: Wolf Erlbruch 2002 Picture book: Die ganze Welt (A Whole World) by Katy Couprie and Antonin Louchard, Nominees: Opas Engel (Grandpa's Angel) by Jutta Bauer, Rotkäppchen by the Brothers Grimm (text) and Susanna Janssen (illustration), Schwi-Schwa-Schweinehund by Karoline Kehr, Der Tag an dem Marie ein Ungeheuer war by Lotte Kinskofer (text) and Verena Ballhaus (illustration), Mama ist groß wie ein Turm by Brigitte Schär (text) and Jacky Gleich (illustration), Children's book: Wir alle für immer zusammen by Guus Kuijer, illustrated by Alice Hoogstad, Nominees: War mal ein Lama in Alabama by Irmela Brender (text) and Verena Ballhaus (illustration), Der einzige Vogel, der die Kälte nicht fürchtet by Zoran Drvenkar (text) and Martin Baltscheit (illustration), Winn-Dixie (Because of Winn-Dixie) by Kate DiCamillo (Author) and Sabine Ludwig (translation), Paul ohne Jacob (Radiance Descending) by Paula Fox (Author) and Cornelia Krutz-Arnold (translation), Mein Großvater war ein Kirschbaum by Angela Nanetti (text), Józef Wilkon (illustration) and Rosemarie Griebel-Kruip (translation), Youth book: Ich habe einfach Glück by Alexa Hennig von Lange, Nominees: Wir Goonyas, ihr Nungas (Deadly, Unna?) by Phillip Gwynne (Author), Cornelia Krutz-Arnold (translation), Malka Mai by Mirjam Pressler, Falsch gedacht by Sigurd Pruetz, Defender: Geschichten aus der Mitte der Welt by Andreas Steinhöfel, Der Unsichtbare (Den osynlige) by Mats Wahl (Author) and Angelika Kutsch (translation), Non-fiction book: Das visuelle Lexikon der Umwelt by Bernd Schuh, Nominees: Als Deutschland am Äquator lag: Eine Reise in die Urgeschichte by Volker Arzt (text) and Knud Jaspersen (illustration), Mensch & Co.:Aufregende Geschichten von Lebewesen, die auf uns wohnen by Jörg Blech (text) and Antje von Stemm (illustration), Die Geschichte der Juden by Lutz van Dijk (text) and Renate Schlicht (illustration), Wörterwerkstatt: Tipps für Jugendliche, die gern schreiben by Sylvia Englert (text) and Stefanie Scharnberg (illustration), Der Mann mit der Zwitschermaschine by Mario Giordano, Special prize for Translation: Cornelia Krutz-Arnold 2001 Picture book: Schreimutter by Jutta Bauer, Nominees: Willi der Maler (Willy's Pictures) by Anthony Browne (Author) and (translation), Otto Karotto by Chiara Carrer (Author), Dorothea Löcker and Alexander Potyka (translation), Pozor by Anna Maar (text) and Bernd Mölck-Tassel (illustration), Die Prinzessin kommt um vier: Eine Liebesgeschichte by Wolfdietrich Schnurre (text) and Rotraut Susanne Berner (illustration), Steinsuppe by Anaïs Vaugelade (Author) and Tobias Scheffel (translation), Children's book: Der Tag, als ich lernte die Spinnen zu zähmen by Jutta Richter, Nominees: Der Mann mit der Maske (Angel Square) by Brian Doyle (Author) and Sylke Hachmeister (translation), Herr der Diebe (The Thief Lord) by Cornelia Funke, Großer Ozean: Gedichte für alle by Hans-Joachim Gelberg (Editor), Reise gegen den Wind by Peter Härtling, Kamos gesammelte Abenteuer by Daniel Pennac (Author) and Wolfgang Rentz (translation), Youth book: Die ohne Segen sind (The Lesser Blessed) by Richard van Camp, Nominees: Ulla und alles by Kim Fupz Aakeson (Author) and Christel Hildebrandt (translation), Im Regen stehen by Zoran Drvenkar, Löcher: Die Geheimnisse von Green Lake (Holes) by Louis Sachar (Author) and Birgitt Kollmann (translation), Sonnennebel by Hermann Schulz, East End, West End und dazwischen Maniac Magee (Maniac Magee) by Jerry Spinelli (Author) and Andreas Steinhöfel (translation), Non-fiction book: Sonnenfresser. Wie Pflanzen leben by Susanne Paulsen, Nominees: Erzählt es euren Kindern: Der Holocaust in Europa by Stéphane Bruchfeld, Paul A. Levine (Authors), Uwe Danker (Editor) and Robert Bohn (translation), Abenteuer Zukunft: Projekte und Visionen für das dritte Jahrtausend by Eirik Newth (Author) and Ina Kronenberger (translation), "Und jedem Anfang wohnt ein Zauber inne": Die Lebensgeschichte des Hermann Hesse by Alois Prinz, Und was kommt dann?: Das Kinderbuch vom Tod by Pernilla Stalfelt (Author) and Birgitta Kicherer (translation), Das unendliche Reich der Sterne: Die faszinierende Welt der Astronomie by Jürgen Teichmann (text) and Christof Gießler (illustration), Special prize for Writing: Peter Härtling 2000 Picture book: Eins zwei drei Tier (One Two Three Me) by Nadia Budde, Nominees: Flieg, Ente, flieg! (Sitting Ducks) by Michael Bedard (Author) and Mirjam Pressler (translation), Nachts by Wolf Erlbruch, Wach doch auf! by Jan Jutta (Author) and Andrea Kluitmann (translation), Waas! (What!) by Kate Lum (text), Adrian Johnson (illustration) and Thomas Minssen (translation), Affenzoff by John A. Rowe, Children's book: Hodder der Nachtschwärmer by Bjarne Reuter, Nominees: Nicht Chicago. Nicht hier. by Kirsten Boie, Der unsichtbare Vater by Amelie Fried (text) and Jacky Gleich (illustration), Viegelchen will fliegen by Joke van Leeuwen (Author) and Hanni Ehlers (translation), Jakob heimatlos by Benno Plundra, Anna und die Sache mit der Liebe by Kaat Vrancken (text), Rotraut Susanne Berner (illustration) and Silke Schmidt (translation), Youth book: Blueprint by Charlotte Kerner, Nominees: So ein alberner Satz wie: Ich liebe dich by Martin Casariego Córdoba (Author) and Katrin Fieber (translation), Ti by Henri van Daele (Author), Jeanne Oidtmann-van Beek und Peter Oidtmann (translation), Victor: Roman über den Wolfsjungen aus dem Aveyron (Victor: A Novel Based on the Life of the Savage of Averyon) by Mordicai Gerstein (Author) and Bettine Braun (translation), Tanz auf dünnem Eis by Pernilla Glaser (Author) and Birgitta Kicherer (translation), Das Mädchen am Kanal by Thierry Lenain (Author) and Anne Braun (translation), Non-fiction book: Fräulein Pop und Mrs. Up und ihre große Reise durchs Papierland. Ein Pop-up-Buch zum Selberbasteln by Antje von Stemm, Nominees: Young Oxford Urgeschichte by Jill Bailey, Tony Seddon (Authors) and Cäcilie Plieninger (translation), Wer regt sich hier so auf? Eine kleine Völkerkunde für Kinder by Pascale Bougeault (Author), Markus Weber und Sabine Meyer-Bachem (translation), Wie die Häuser in den Himmel wuchsen: Die Geschichte des Bauens by Susanna Partsch, Hauptsache Köpfchen! Was unser Gehirn alles kann by Pete Rowan (text), John Temperton (illustration) and Monika Lange (translation), Ich und ein Baby? by Christine Wolfrum, Special Prize for Illustration: Nikolaus Heidelbach 1990–1999 1999 Picture book: Der rote Wolf by F. K. Waechter, Children's book: Eine Insel im Meer (A Faraway Island) by Annika Thor, Youth book: Bruder (Brothers) by Ted van Lieshout, Non-fiction book: Tibet. Das Geheimnis der roten Schachtel (Tibet through the Red Box) by Peter Sís, Special prize for Translation: Birgitta Kicherer 1998 Picture book: Hat Opa einen Anzug an? (Is Grandpa Wearing a Suit?) by Amelie Fried (text), Jacky Gleich (illustration), Children's book: Zwischen zwei Scheiben Gluck (Between Two Seasons of Happiness) by Irene Dische, Youth book: Bloße Hände (Bare Hands) by Bart Moeyaert (text), Rotraut Susanne Berner (illustration), Non-fiction book: Haus der Kunst by Susanna Partsch, Special Prize for Writing: Peter Hacks 1997 Picture book: Du groß, und ich klein by Grégoire Solotareff, Children's book: Karel, Jarda und das wahre Leben by Sheila Och, Youth Book: So Lonely by Per Nilsson, Non-fiction book: Königskinder. Eine wahre Liebe (Paper Kisses: A True Love Story) by Reinhard Kaiser, Special prize for Illustration: Binette Schroeder 1996 Picture book: Feuerland ist viel zu heiß! by Anna Höglund, Children's book: Als die Welt noch jung war (When the World Was New) by Jürg Schubiger (text), Rotraut Susanne Berner (illustration), Youth book: Winterbucht by Mats Wahl, Non-fiction book: Rot, Blau und ein bißchen Gelb by Bjørn Sortland (text), Lars Elling (illustration), Special prize for Writing: Paul Maar 1995 Picture book: Detektiv John Chatterton (Detective John Chatterton) by Yvan Pommaux, Children's book: Wenn das Glück kommt, muß man ihm einen Stuhl hinstellen by Mirjam Pressler, Youth book: Du fehlst mir, du fehlst mir! (I Miss You, I Miss You!) by Peter Pohl / Kinna Gieth, Non-fiction book: Die Zeit ist kaputt by Klaus Kordon, Special prize for Illustration: Klaus Ensikat 1994 Picture book: Macker by David Hughes Children's book: Kannst du pfeifen Johanna? (Can You Whistle Johanna?) by Ulf Stark (text), Anna Höglund (illustration), Youth book: Sofies Welt (Sophie's World) by Jostein Gaarder, Non-fiction book: Anne Frank by Ruud vaan der Rol / Rian Verhoeven, Special prize for Translation: Mirjam Pressler 1993 Picture book: Das Bärenwunder (The Miracle of the Bears) by Wolf Erlbruch, Children's book: Der Hund, der unterwegs zum Stern war (A Bridge to the Stars) by Henning Mankell, Youth book: Jack by A. M. Homes, Non-fiction book: Safari ins Reich der Sterne by Helmut Hornung, Special prize for Lyric Poetry: Josef Guggenmos 1992 Picture book: Die Reise nach Ugri-La-Brek by Thomas Tidholm (text), Anna-Clara Tidholm (illustration), Children's book: Siebenstorch by Benno Pludra (text), Johannes K.G. Niedlich (illustration), Youth book: Kariuki und sein weißer Freund (Little White Man) by Meja Mwangi, Non-fiction book: Linsen, Lupen und magische Skope by Pelle Eckerman (text), Sven Nordqvist (illustration), 1991 Picture book: eins, fünf, viele (One, Five, Many) by Kveta Pacovská, Children's book: Taube Klara by Wolf Spillner, Youth book: Wir Kuckuckskinder by Anatoli Pristawkin, Non-fiction book: Die eiserne Lerche by Michail Krausnick, Special prize for Writing: Ursula Wölfel 1990 Picture book: Aufstand der Tiere oder die Neuen Stadtmusikanten by Jörg Steiner (text), Jörg Müller (illustration), Children's book: Rennschwein Rudi Rüssel by Uwe Timm (text), Gunnar Matysiak (illustration), Youth book: Jan, mein Freund (Johnny, My Friend) by Peter Pohl, Non-fiction book: Wie kommt der Wald ins Buch? by Irmgard Lucht, Non-fiction book: Meines Bruders Hüter (My Brother's Keeper: The Holocaust Through the Eyes of an Artist) by Israel Bernbaum, 1980–1989 1989 Picture book: Papa wohnt jetzt in der Heinrichstraße by Nele Maar (text), Verena Ballhaus (illustration), Children's book: Die Zeit der geheimen Wünsche by Iva Procházková (text), Peter Knorr (illustration), Youth book: Zeit für die Hora by Ingeborg Bayer, Youth book: Samuel Tillerman, der Läufer (The Runner) by Cynthia Voigt, 1988 Picture book: Abschied von Rune (Goodbye Rune) by Marit Kaldhol (text), Wenche Øyen (illustration), Children's book: Deesje macht das schon by Joke van Leeuwen, Youth book: Die Wolke by Gudrun Pausewang, Non-fiction book: Linnéa im Garten des Malers by Christina Björk (text), Lena Anderson (illustration), Non-fiction book: Türme by Paul Maar, 1987 Picture book: Du hast angefangen! Nein, du! (Two Monsters) by David McKee, Children's book: Oma und ich by Achim Bröger, Youth book: Briefe an die Königin der Nacht by Inger Edelfeldt, 1986 Picture book: Ich komm dich holen! (I'm coming to get you!) by Tony Ross, Children's book: Die wundersame Reise der kleinen Sofie (Little Sophie and Lanky Flop) by Els Pelgrom, Youth book: Lady Punk by Dagmar Chidolue, Non-fiction book: Für fremde Kaiser und kein Vaterland by Klas Ewert Everwyn, 1985 Picture book: Mein Papi, nur meiner!(The Visitors Who Came to Stay) by Anthony Browne / Annalena MacAfee, Children's book: Sophiechen und der Riese (The BFG) by Roald Dahl, Youth book: Treffpunkt Weltzeituhr by Isolde Heyne, 1984 Picture book: Mäusemärchen – Riesengeschichte (Giant Story/Mouse Tale) by Annegert Fuchshuber, Children's book: Sonntagskind (Sunday's Child) by Gudrun Mebs, Youth book: In dreihundert Jahren vielleicht by Tilman Röhrig, 1983 Children's book: Der Weg durch die Wand by Robert Gernhardt/ Almut Gernhardt, Youth book: Ganesh oder eine neue Welt (Ganesh) by Malcolm J. Bosse, 1982 Picture book: Selina, Pumpernickel und die Katze Flora (Selina, the Mouse and the Giant Cat) by Susi Bohdal, Children's book: Erzähl mir von Oma by Guus Kuijer, Youth book: Der gelbe Vogel by Myron Levoy, Non-fiction book: Von feinen und von kleinen Leuten by Cornelia Julius, 1981 Picture book: Die Reise mit der Jolle by Margaret Rettich, Children's book: Drunter und drüber by Jürgen Spohn, Youth book: Der lange Weg des Lukas B. by Willi Fährmann, Non-fiction book: Das kurze Leben der Sophie Scholl (The short life of Sophie Scholl) by Hermann Vinke, 1980 Picture book: Was ist dir lieber ... (Would you rather?) by John Burningham, Children's book: Emma oder die unruhige Zeit by Ursula Fuchs, Youth book: Johanna by Renate Welsh, 1970–1979 1979 Picture book: Oh, wie schön ist Panama (The Trip to Panama) by Janosch, Children's book: Die Nachtvögel by Tormud Haugen, 1978 Picture book: Der große Rutsch (The Long Slide) by Ray and Catriona Smith, Children's book: Servus Opa, sagte ich leise by Elfie Donnelly, Youth book: Der Bleisiegelfälscher by Dietlof Reiche, Non-fiction book: Nest am Fenster (Window into a Nest) by Geraldine Lux Flanagan and Sean Morris, 1977 Picture book: Schorschi schrumpft (The Shrinking of Treehorn) by Edward Gorey / Florence P. Heide, Children's book: Wo die Füchse Blockflöte spielen by Ludvík Aškenazy, Youth book: Ich bin Fedde by An Rutgers, Non-fiction book: Eskimos by Wally Herbert, 1976 Picture book: Heute wünsche ich mir ein Nilpferd by Wilhelm Schlote, Children's book: Oma by Peter Härtling, Youth book: Die Wächter (The Guardians) by John Christopher, Non-fiction book: Planet des Menschen by Theodor Dolezol, 1975 Picture book: Wir können noch viel zusammen machen by F. K. Waechter, Youth book: Julie von den Wölfen (Julie of the Wolves) by Jean Craighead George, Non-fiction book: Sie bauten eine Kathedrale (Cathedral: The Story of its Construction) by David Macaulay, 1974 Picture book: Alle Jahre wieder saust der Preßlufthammer nieder by Jörg Müller, Children's book: Als Hitler das rosa Kaninchen stahl (When Hitler Stole Pink Rabbit) by Judith Kerr, Youth book: Momo by Michael Ende, Non-fiction book: Tausend Tricks der Tarnung (Animal camouflage) by Otto von Frisch, 1973 Picture book: Große dürfen alles (If I were a Grown-up) by László Réber/ Éva Janikovszky, Children's book: Wir pfeifen auf den Gurkenkönig (The Cucumber King) by Christine Nöstlinger, Youth book: Ein nützliches Mitglied der Gesellschaft (Run softly, go fast) by Barbara Wersba, Non-fiction book: Ich habe sieben Leben by Frederik Hetmann, 1972 Children's book: Geh und spiel mit dem Riesen by Hans-Joachim Gelberg (Published), Youth book: Krabat (The Satanic Mill) by Otfried Preußler, Non-fiction book: Höhlen – Welt ohne Sonne (Mysterious World of Caves) by Ernst W. Bauer, 1971 Picture book: Der Apfel und der Schmetterling (The Apple and the Butterfly) by Iela and Enzo Mari, Children's book: Der Löwe Leopold by Reiner Kunze, Youth book: Die Erde ist nah (The Earth is Near) by Ludek Pesek, Non-fiction book: Gesellschaft und Staat by Hanno Drechsler (Published), 1970 Picture book: Kunterbunter Schabernack by Wilfried Blecher, Youth book: Der Bruder des schweigenden Wolfes by Klára Jarunková, Non-fiction book: Der Mann, der überlebte (George Washington Carver: the man who overcame) by Lawrence Elliott, 1960–1969 1969 Picture book: Rundherum in meiner Stadt (Round and Round in my Town) by Ali Mitgutsch, Children's book: Zlateh, die Geiß und andere Geschichten (Zlateh the Goat and Other Stories) by Isaac B. Singer, Youth book: Es lebe die Republik (Long live the Republic; All about me, and Julie, and the end of the Great War) by Jan Procházka, 1968 Picture book: Die Wichtelmänner (The Elves and the Shoemaker) by Katrin Brandt, Children's book: Die Zwölf vom Dachboden (The Twelve and the Genii) by Pauline Clarke, Youth book: Der Sohn des Toreros (The Shadow of the Bull) by Maia Rodman, Non-fiction book: ... und unter uns die Erde by Erich H. Heimann, 1967 Picture book: Der goldene Vogel (The Golden Bird) by / Jacob Grimm, Children's book: Achtung – Sturmwarnung Hurricane (Hurricane) by Andrew Salkey, Youth book: Im roten Hinterhaus by Peter Berger, Non-fiction book: Das Rätsel Nordwestpassage by Kurt Lütgen, 1966 Picture book: Wo ist Wendelin? (Where is Peterkin) by Wilfried Blecher, Children's book: David by Max Bolliger, Youth book: Florian 14: Achter Alarm by Hans G. Prager, 1965 Picture book: Swimmy by Leo Lionni, Children's book: Wickie und die starken Männer (Vicky the Viking) by Runer Jonsson, Youth book: Amerika-Saga by Frederik Hetmann, 1964 Children's book: Delphinensommer (Golden Island) by Katherine Allfrey, Youth book: ... und viele Grüße von Wancho by Miep Diekmann, 1963 Children's book: Kater Mikesch (Purrkin, the talking cat) by Josef Lada, Youth book: Insel der blauen Delphine (Island of the Blue Dolphins) by Scott O'Dell, 1962 Children's book: Feuerschuh und Windsandale (Tim Fireshoe) by Ursula Wölfel, Youth book: Sternkinder (Star children) by Clara Asscher-Pinkhof, 1961 Children's book: Jim Knopf und Lukas der Lokomotivführer (Jim Button and Luke the Engine Driver) by Michael Ende, 1960 Children's book: Mein Urgroßvater und ich (My Great Grandfather and I) by James Krüss, Youth book: Schanghai 41 (To Beat a Tiger) by Elizabeth F. Lewis 1956–1959 1959 Children's book: Matthias und das Eichhörnchen (Magnus and the squirrel) by Hans Peterson, Special prize: Latte Igel und der Wasserstein by Sebastian Lybeck, 1958 Picture book: Kasimirs Weltreise by Marlene Reidel, Children's book: Jan und das Wildpferd (Jan and the Wild Horse) by Heinrich M. Denneborg, Youth book: Roter Mond und Heiße Zeit (Red Moon and High Summer) by Herbert Kaufmann, 1957 Children's book: Das Rad auf der Schule (The Wheel on the School) by Meindert DeJong, Youth book: Faß zu, Toyon (Toyon, a dog of the North and his people) by Nicholas Kalashnikoff, Non-fiction book: Pioniere und ihre Enkel (Children on the Oregon Trail) by An Rutgers, 1956 Children's book: Der glückliche Löwe (Happy Lion) by Roger Duvoisin/Louise Fatio, Youth book: Kein Winter für Wölfe (Two Against the Arctic: Story of a Restless Life between Greenland and Alaska) by Kurt Lütgen, Children's book: Mio, mein Mio (Mio, My Son) by Astrid Lindgren, References External links The Deutscher Jugendliteraturpreis website (in German) The Deutscher Jugendliteraturpreis website (English key facts) AKJ website (in German) Children's literary awards German literary awards Awards established in 1956 1956 establishments in West Germany
4860203	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chipper%20Jones	Chipper Jones	Larry Wayne "Chipper" Jones Jr. (born April 24, 1972) is an American former professional baseball third baseman who played in Major League Baseball (MLB) for the Atlanta Braves from 1993 to 2012. The Braves chose Jones with the first overall pick in the 1990 MLB draft. He was also a member of their 1995 World Series championship team that beat the Cleveland Indians. An eight-time All-Star, Jones won the 1999 National League (NL) Most Valuable Player Award and the 1999 and 2000 NL Silver Slugger Award for third basemen. He was the MLB batting champion in 2008 after hitting .364. Jones ended his career in 2012 with a .303 career batting average, 468 home runs, and 1,623 runs batted in (RBIs). He has the most career RBIs for a third baseman and holds the Braves team record for career on-base percentage (.402); Jones ranks third on the Braves career home run list. Among switch hitters, Jones ranks second behind Eddie Murray for career RBIs, and he is the only switch hitter in MLB history with a career batting average of at least .300 and 400 or more home runs. He was the 18th player in MLB history to accumulate 5,000 at bats and finish with at least a .300 batting average, .400 on-base percentage, and .500 slugging percentage—and the only switch hitter to reach all of these milestones. On June 28, 2013, the Braves retired Jones' number 10 and inducted him into the team's Hall of Fame. On July 29, 2018, he was inducted into the National Baseball Hall of Fame in his first year of eligibility. Jones served as an ESPN color analyst in 2020. He returned to the Braves as an assistant hitting consultant in 2021. Early life Chipper Jones was born in DeLand, Florida, on April 24, 1972. His father, Larry Wayne Jones Sr., was a teacher and coach at T. DeWitt Taylor High School in Pierson, the same high school Jones would later attend and play baseball. His mother is Lynne Jones. Jones received the nickname "Chipper" from his father and other family members, who saw the younger Larry as a "chip off the old block." He showed an early love for baseball predominantly because of his father's position as coach, and began to play Little League teams at age seven. High school Jones began his high school baseball career at Taylor High School, where he pitched a one-hitter as a freshman. He went to The Bolles School as a sophomore, where he was a two-way player in football. In baseball, he had a 6–3 win–loss record with 87 strikeouts and a 1.89 earned run average (ERA) as a pitcher, with a .391 batting average and seven home runs, earning him First Team All-State honors. In 1989, Jones won First Team All-State honors in both football and baseball, and won a state championship in baseball. He was also selected as the tournament's most valuable player, and had an 11–1 pitching record, 0.81 ERA, and 107 strikeouts in 84 innings pitched. In his senior year, the Bulldogs were the state-runner up while Jones compiled a 7–3 record with a 1.00 ERA and 100 strikeouts in 79 innings on the mound, while hitting .488 with 14 stolen bases. Jones won the Gatorade Circle of Champions Florida Baseball Player of the Year, Regional Baseball Player of the Year, was the Runner-up National Player of the Year, and was inducted into the Florida High School Athletic Association Hall of Fame in 2012. Jones accepted a scholarship offer to play college baseball at the University of Miami. Professional career Draft The Atlanta Braves selected Jones as the first pick overall in the 1990 Major League Baseball draft and signed him to a contract with a $275,000 signing bonus. Atlanta expressed a desire to select pitcher Todd Van Poppel as the first pick; however, Van Poppel explicitly stated that he would not sign with the Braves. Atlanta then selected Jones, who played shortstop at the time. Minor leagues (1991–1993) In 1991, Jones played with the Macon Braves, Atlanta's class-A minor league affiliate. His average was .326, with 24 doubles, 11 triples, 15 home runs, 40 steals, 69 walks, and 79 strikeouts in 473 at bats; however, he made 56 errors at the shortstop position. Jones moved up to the Durham Bulls, the Braves' class A-advanced minor league team, in 1992. Jones's average was .277 after 70 games; he was then moved to double-A Greenville Braves where he cut his error total from 56 in the previous season to 32. Following a successful season, Jones played with the triple-A Richmond Braves, where he played 139 games before being called to Atlanta for his major league debut. During his time in the Braves' minor league system, Jones was involved in a bench-clearing brawl with future Major League stars Manny Ramirez and Jim Thome. Thome and Jones would eventually go on to develop a good friendship over the years. He also changed his position from shortstop to third base, following the guidance of the Braves organization. Major league career (1993–2012) 1993–1998 Jones made his major league debut on September 11, 1993, as the youngest player in the league. In 1994, he was expected to compete for the starting left field job after veteran Ron Gant broke his leg during an offseason dirt bike accident. However, Jones suffered an anterior cruciate ligament tear in his left knee in spring training. As a result, he spent the entire strike shortened 1994 season on the disabled list. In 1995, Jones led all major league rookies in runs batted in (RBIs; 86), games played (145), games started (123), plate appearances (602), at bats (524), and runs scored (87). That year, he finished second in the National League Rookie of the Year Award balloting behind Los Angeles Dodgers pitcher Hideo Nomo. In addition to achieving a level of personal success, Jones played in the 1995 World Series, in which the Braves won in six games over the Cleveland Indians. He also played in the 1996 World Series, in which the Braves lost to the New York Yankees in six games. Jones recorded the last official hit at Atlanta–Fulton County Stadium before its closure and demolition in 1997, as well as the first hit in Turner Field history. In 1998, Jones came in ninth in the voting for the National League Most Valuable Player Award, as he scored 123 runs and had 96 walks (both fourth best in the league). 1999: MVP season In 1999, Jones won the National League MVP award after becoming the first player ever to hit over .300 (.319) while slugging 40 or more home runs (45; 3rd in the NL) and doubles (41), drawing 100 or more walks (126; 3rd in the league), notching 100 or more RBI (110) and runs scored (116), and stealing 20 or more bases (25). Ironically, Jones was not selected for the MLB All-Star game that year. He was also walked intentionally 18 times; 2nd in the league, and his .633 slugging percentage was 4th best in the NL. A major factor in his selection as MVP was his performance against the Braves' chief competitors, the New York Mets. The Braves led the National League East by only one game as they entered a three-game September series against the Mets, the team that was right on their heels. Atlanta swept the series at Turner Field, though, largely thanks to Jones, who hit four home runs and drove in seven of the 13 runs that the Braves scored. For the season, he hit .319 with a .510 on-base percentage, a 1.000 slugging percentage, and seven home runs against the Mets. During the 1999 NLCS, Jones drew the ire of Mets fans by saying, "Now, all the Mets fans can go home and put their Yankees' stuff on." In the playoffs, Jones led the Braves to the World Series against the New York Yankees, in which the Braves were swept. 2000–2005 Jones signed a six-year, $90 million contract with the Braves in 2000. Jones batted .330 in 2001, 5th best in the league, and led the league with a .349 road batting average. On his 29th birthday, he hit two home runs. On defense, however, his range factor of 2.14 placed him last among the regular major league third basemen who qualified for the fielding ranking. In 2001, a season of flux for the Braves who had won the NL East every year since their 1995 World Series victory, Jones was involved in a public "lingering feud" with former teammate John Rocker. Rocker referred to Jones on the radio by saying "Chip's white trash" and "as two-faced as they came." By late June, the two claimed they had made peace. Before the start of the 2002 season, Jones announced his willingness to move from third base to left field, to make room for the incoming Vinny Castilla. Jones proved adequate in left field, but following two more early playoff exits in 2002 and 2003, a hamstring pull in the early 2004 season and the struggles of third baseman Mark DeRosa, he moved back to his regular position of third base. In 2002, he batted .327, again 5th best in the NL. Jones was third in the league with a .435 on-base percentage. On August 16, 2004, he hit the 300th home run of his career in a 5–4 victory over the San Diego Padres. Following the 2005 season, Jones reworked his contract with the Braves—freeing up money for the Braves to pursue elite free agents, while virtually ensuring he would end his career in Atlanta. The revamped deal gave the Braves $15 million over the course of the next three years, as well as $6 million to use in 2006. The new deal also converted two final team option years to guaranteed contracts. 2006–2007 Jones was selected to play in the inaugural 2006 World Baseball Classic (along with Braves teammates Jeff Francoeur and Brian McCann). He hit a home run in his first at bat of the Classic against Mexico off of Atlanta Braves teammate Óscar Villarreal, who was with the team from 2006 to 2007. Jones went 6-for-17 with a double and two home runs in the tournament. The 2006 season was one of numerous milestones for Jones. On June 10, he became the Atlanta Braves' all-time RBI leader when he drove in his 1,144th run against the Houston Astros at Minute Maid Park, passing former outfielder Dale Murphy and placing Jones third on the franchise's all-time list (including Braves teams based in Boston and Milwaukee), behind Hank Aaron (2,202) and Eddie Mathews (1,388). On July 15, 2006, Jones recorded his 1,902nd career hit, to become the Atlanta Braves' all-time hits leader, passing Dale Murphy. The next day he hit a home run to extend his extra-base hitting streak to 14 games, matching the Major League record set by Pittsburgh's Paul Waner in 1927. A month later, on August 14, Jones had his first career three-home-run game. Jones homered in his final three at bats in the Braves' 10–4 win over the Washington Nationals, finishing the night 4-for-5 with five RBIs. Despite successes at the plate, injuries dogged Jones throughout the season and for the first time in his career, the Braves failed to qualify for postseason play. Jones performed well both offensively and defensively during the 2007 season. On June 16, he hit a single in the second inning against the Cleveland Indians for his 2,000th career hit. On July 5, Jones tied and passed Braves legend Dale Murphy for first on the all-time Atlanta Braves home run list when he hit his 371st and 372nd home runs against the Los Angeles Dodgers at Dodger Stadium. This game was also the first time he hit homers from both sides of the plate since 2000. The next day, he had his 400th career double in the ninth inning against San Diego Padres pitcher Kevin Cameron, who had previously only allowed one extra-base hit all year. On July 29, Jones matched a career-high with 5 RBIs as the Braves shut out the Arizona Diamondbacks 14–0. He accomplished the feat again on August 23 against the Cincinnati Reds. In the fifth inning of an August 9 game at Shea Stadium, Jones hit a towering three-run homer to right field off Mets starter John Maine. It would later be measured at . Jones finished the season first in the NL in times reached base on an error (14) and in OPS (1.029), second in batting average (.337), and third in OBP (.425) and SLG (.604). He was also sixth in MVP voting, his highest finish since winning the award in 1999. While the Braves enjoyed some early successes, injuries to the pitching staff spoiled the ample contributions from Atlanta's potent offense. While the Braves posted a winning record, they finished third in the National League East, and sat out the postseason. He opened the Chipper Jones's 10th Inning Baseball Academy in Suwanee, Georgia, in late 2007. 2008–2011 Jones began the 2008 season where he left off in 2007, hitting over .400 in April while slugging 7 home runs, including the first ever homer at Nationals Park during the inaugural game at the stadium on Opening Day. He also had back-to-back games in which he hit two home runs. Despite these accomplishments, he ultimately lost the NL Player of the Month award in April to Chase Utley. On June 13, Jones was hitting .414 with 15 home runs, but his average dropped to .393 by June 22. He hit his 400th career home run on June 5 off Ricky Nolasco of the Florida Marlins, and he was named NL Player of the Week for the week of June 2–8. He was picked to start in the 2008 Major League Baseball All-Star Game, receiving the most votes by fans, managers, and other players of any NL third basemen. Jones won his first batting title at age 36, the oldest switch-hitter to win a batting title. Jones hit .364 during 2008, one point off the all-time switch-hitter high for a season of .365, set by Mickey Mantle in 1957. In 2008, Jones tied an MLB record for most consecutive 20+ home run seasons to start a career (14). In December 2008, Jones accepted an invitation to play for the USA team in the 2009 World Baseball Classic. He played alongside teammate Brian McCann. Jones was scratched from an elimination game in the 2009 World Baseball Classic after straining his right oblique muscle, while playing for team USA. The announcement came an hour before the game was to be played against team Netherlands. As reported by CBC News on March 13, 2009, Jones criticized Toronto and the play schedule of the World Baseball Classic. On March 31, 2009, Jones agreed to a three-year $42 million contract extension with the Braves; the deal includes an option that could become worth up to $61 million over four seasons. On May 28, against the Giants and Cy Young winner Tim Lincecum, Jones struck out four times in one game for the first time in his career. In 2009, he was ranked #10 on the Sporting News list of the 50 greatest current players in baseball. A panel of 100 baseball people, many of them members of the Baseball Hall of Fame and winners of major baseball awards, were polled to compile the list. In 2009, Jones led all major league third basemen in errors, with 22, and had the lowest fielding percentage of any starting major league third baseman (.930). Jones got off to a poor start in 2010 and met with Atlanta Braves management in June to discuss possible retirement at the end of the season, but his performance improved as the season progressed. Jones's season came to an end after he was injured in a game against the Houston Astros on August 10, 2010; injury reports indicated that he had torn the ACL in his left knee, which would require surgery. In an August 13 press conference, he stated that he would not retire, and that "I don't want the fans' final image of me to be one of me hurt on the field". During the off-season, Atlanta Braves general manager Frank Wren told David O'Brien of The Atlanta Journal-Constitution that Jones would likely be ready for Opening Day stating "I think he's progressed very well. He had a setback earlier in the winter when he was away for a week—I think he was actually on a hunting trip—and he was not doing the [leg] lifts. But as soon as he got back on his weights, he was fine. Right now, talking to the trainers, he should not have any restrictions coming into spring training." Jones made great progress with his rehab and took part in spring training. He was in the Braves' opening day lineup against the Nationals, getting the first hit and scoring the first run of the 2011 Major League Baseball season. On April 8, 2011, Jones hit his 2,500th base hit in the Braves' home opener versus the Philadelphia Phillies. His former manager Bobby Cox was in attendance. On April 13, 2011, he recorded his 1,500th RBI, against the Florida Marlins, with a solo home run off Randy Choate. On April 26, 2011, Chipper recorded his 500th double against the San Diego Padres. He also tied Mickey Mantle for second-most RBIs all-time by a switch hitter; Jones passed Mantle for sole possession of second place all-time on April 27, 2011 (with 1,512 RBI) after a 3-run stand-up triple, helping the Braves beat the San Diego Padres 7–0. Jones suffered from a torn meniscus in his right knee for much of the first half of the 2011 season, and received Cortisone shots in an attempt to manage the pain. When this became ineffective, he elected to undergo arthroscopic surgery and was placed on the disabled list on July 9, 2011. He returned to the lineup on July 25. On August 12, 2011, Jones hit a three-run homer against the Chicago Cubs for his 1000th extra base hit. On August 19, 2011, Jones confirmed that he would return for the 2012 season, the final year on his contract, thus ending ongoing speculation about his possible retirement. On August 31, 2011, Jones hit his 450th career home run off John Lannan of the Washington Nationals. 2012: Final season On March 22, 2012, the Braves announced that Jones would retire following the 2012 season, after 19 major league seasons with the team. Following the announcement, a fan tribute song called "The Chipper Jones Song" was featured in a number of sports blogs. Jones opened the 2012 season on the disabled list, following surgery on March 26, 2012, to repair a torn meniscus in his left knee. He was activated from the disabled list and was in the lineup on April 10, as the Braves faced the Houston Astros; he went 2–4 with a single and a two-run home run, helping the Braves to their first win of the season. On April 24, Jones was in the lineup against the Los Angeles Dodgers on his 40th birthday. He hit a solo home run in Atlanta's 4–3 win, ending up with a career record of .429 (21-for-49) with five home runs on his birthday. The next day, in the final regular-season at-bat at Dodger Stadium of his career, Jones knocked in the winning run in the top of the 9th inning. On May 2, Jones capped off a wild extra-inning contest with the Philadelphia Phillies by hitting a 2-run walk-off homer in the bottom of the 11th. He referred to the game-winning home run as one of the best individual moments of his career, as it finished a 15–13 Braves win that saw the team rally from two deficits of five runs or more. During a May 18 game at Tampa Bay, Jones was hit by a ground ball and suffered a severe contusion to his left leg. On May 25, he was placed on the DL after it became clear that the injury would require more time to heal. Jones returned to the Braves' lineup on June 10. Jones hit his 460th home run off Trevor Cahill of the Arizona Diamondbacks on June 27, 2012, putting Jones in 33rd position on the list of top 300 Major League Baseball home run hitters. Jones is also in 33rd position on the list of Major League Baseball career doubles leaders, passing Lou Gehrig's record for doubles during the same series with Arizona on June 29, 2012. On July 3, 2012, Jones was named to the NL All-Star team as a replacement for the injured Matt Kemp. That same day, he had his third career five-hit game and the first since 2002. He made it known that he wished the National League would win the All-Star game in his pregame address to his NL teammates: During the All-Star game (the only time in his 19-year career that he played in Kansas City), Jones hit a single into right field at his first (and only) at bat during the game, and the National League won 8–0. At the All-Star Game break after July 8, Jones was hitting .318 with 6 home runs and 33 RBIs. On August 16, 2012, Jones hit two home runs and collected his 2,700th hit. On September 12, 2012, Jones recorded his 1,500th walk in a game against the Milwaukee Brewers, becoming the first switch hitter in Major League Baseball history to obtain at least 2,500 hits, 1,500 RBIs, 1,500 runs and 1,500 walks. Jones also joined Stan Musial, Babe Ruth, Ted Williams, and Lou Gehrig as the only players in Major League history to record at least 2,500 hits, 1,500 walks, 1,500 runs, 500 doubles, 450 home runs, and 1,500 RBIs while hitting .300 with a .400 on-base percentage and .500 slugging percentage. Jones ended his career hitting over .300 from each side of home plate. Among switch-hitters with at least 5,000 career at-bats, the only other player to do so is Frankie Frisch. He and Mickey Mantle are the only two switch-hitters in MLB history to have an on-base percentage of .400, slugging percentage of .500, and 400 homers in their careers. Jones also has the most RBIs of any player who was primarily a third baseman. The final game of his career was the 2012 National League Wild Card Playoff (dubbed the "infield fly rule game" following a controversial call by umpire Sam Holbrook), in which the Braves lost 6–3. In his final at-bat, Jones hit a broken-bat single for an infield base hit, with two outs in the bottom of the ninth. Post-baseball In February 2013, the Atlanta Braves announced that they would induct Jones into the Braves Hall of Fame and retire his number, 10. Jones's Braves Hall of Fame induction ceremony took place on June 28 during a luncheon at the Atlanta Marriott Marquis and featured speeches from former Braves players, including Hank Aaron. Jones's number retirement ceremony also took place on June 28 prior to the Braves' game against the Arizona Diamondbacks. Jones, who approached the podium as his former walk-up song ("Crazy Train" by Ozzy Osbourne) played in the background, was joined onstage by former Braves owner Ted Turner, Braves franchise president John Schuerholz, former Braves player Dale Murphy, then-current Braves player Dan Uggla, and former Braves manager Bobby Cox, as well as his parents and children. During his speech, Jones also recognized his former Braves teammates Martín Prado, Randall Delgado, and Eric Hinske, who were all traded to or signed by the Diamondbacks during that offseason. His number 10 is the eleventh number retired by the Braves franchise. Later that same year Chipper Jones's number 10 jersey was also retired by the Durham Bulls on August 20. During a 2014 winter storm, Jones rescued former teammate Freddie Freeman. Freeman was stuck in a traffic jam for hours. Jones came to the rescue on his ATV, and pulled Freeman out of the jam. At the start of the new year in 2016, the Atlanta Braves announced a "Chipper Rescues Freddie" bobblehead night for the upcoming season to honor the rescue. He returned to the Braves as an adviser for the 2016 season. Jones was announced as one of the four (alongside Jim Thome, Vladimir Guerrero, and Trevor Hoffman) inducted into the National Baseball Hall of Fame on January 24, 2018. He is the second 1st-overall draft pick to be elected to the Hall of Fame. On March 1, 2020, Jones was hired by ESPN to be a color analyst, starting with 20 Wednesday Night Baseball broadcasts. Jones left ESPN in the off-season after Jon Sciambi, his primary broadcast partner, joined the Marquee Sports Network as the play-by-play announcer for its Chicago Cubs telecasts. In February 2021, Jones was hired by the Atlanta Braves as a part-time hitting consultant. Due to his hitting consultant role within the organization, Jones received his second World Series championship ring when the Braves won the 2021 World Series. Personal life Jones met his first wife, Karin Fulford, while he was playing with the Braves class A affiliate in Macon, Georgia. The couple married in 1992 and divorced in 2000, after it was revealed that Jones had an 18-month extramarital affair with a Hooters waitress that produced a son, Matthew, born in 1998. He married second wife Sharon Logonov in March 2000 in Pierson, Florida. They have three sons: Larry Wayne III (Trey), Tristen, and Shea, named after Shea Stadium because of Jones's great success in the stadium. As of June 14, 2012, Jones and his wife Sharon had separated. Their divorce was finalized in November of the same year. Soon after his divorce from Logonov, Jones began dating former Playboy model Taylor Higgins. Jones and Higgins were married on June 14, 2015. On June 21, 2016, Jones and Higgins announced via Twitter that they were expecting a baby in January 2017. Their son, Cutler Ridge Jones was born on January 11, 2017, in Atlanta. Their second son, Cooper, was born on August 9, 2018. Jones enjoys deer hunting. Jones was a co-owner of Outdoor Channel's hunting show Buck Commander with friends and pro athletes Adam LaRoche, Ryan Langerhans, Tom Martin, and Willie Robertson. Currently, he is co-owner and co-host of the television show Major League Bowhunter airing on the Sportsman Channel, alongside long time friend Matt Duff. In 2008, Jones released a charity wine called "Chipper Chardonnay", with a portion of the proceeds supporting the Miracle League, an organization serving children with disabilities. Career highlights See also List of Major League Baseball home run records List of Major League Baseball batting champions List of Major League Baseball career hits leaders List of Major League Baseball career doubles leaders List of Major League Baseball career runs scored leaders List of Major League Baseball career runs batted in leaders List of Major League Baseball career home run leaders List of Major League Baseball players who spent their entire career with one franchise References External links Official Major League Bowhunter Channel on CarbonTV Chipper Jones' 10th Inning Baseball Academy 1972 births Living people American hunters Atlanta Braves players Atlanta Braves scouts Baseball players from Jacksonville, Florida Bolles School alumni Durham Bulls players Greenville Braves players Gulf Coast Braves players Macon Braves players Major League Baseball broadcasters Major League Baseball players with retired numbers Major League Baseball third basemen Mississippi Braves players National Baseball Hall of Fame inductees National League All-Stars National League batting champions National League Most Valuable Player Award winners People from DeLand, Florida Baseball players from Volusia County, Florida Richmond Braves players Rome Braves players Silver Slugger Award winners Baseball players from Atlanta World Baseball Classic players of the United States 2006 World Baseball Classic players 2009 World Baseball Classic players
4860258	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banknotes%20of%20the%20Canadian%20dollar	Banknotes of the Canadian dollar	Banknotes of the Canadian dollar are the banknotes or bills (in common lexicon) of Canada, denominated in Canadian dollars (CAD, C$, or $ locally). Currently, they are issued in $5, $10, $20, $50, and $100 denominations. All current notes are issued by the Bank of Canada, which released its first series of notes in 1935. The Bank of Canada has contracted the Canadian Bank Note Company to produce the Canadian notes since then. The current series of polymer banknotes were introduced into circulation between November 2011 and November 2013. Banknotes issued in Canada can be viewed at the Bank of Canada Museum in Ottawa. Currently produced series The currently produced banknote series of the Canadian dollar both consist of polymer banknotes: the 7th series (Frontier), which was launched in 2011, and the 8th series, which was launched in 2018. On 6 May 2023, Prime Minister Justin Trudeau announced that the $20 bill would be updated to feature the new king, Charles III. Production Notes are issued by the Bank of Canada, but the actual production of the banknotes is outsourced to the Canadian Bank Note Company in accordance with the specifications and requirements of the Bank of Canada. All wording on the notes appears in both of Canada's official languages, English and French. Banknotes were printed on paper composed of pure cotton. Cotton fibre was discontinued and replaced by a synthetic polymer starting in 2011, with the last of the paper banknotes being made available in November 2013. Counterfeiting Efforts to reduce counterfeiting in recent years have sharply reduced the number of counterfeit notes in circulation. The number of counterfeit notes passed annually in Canada peaked in 2004, when 553,000 counterfeit notes were passed. Counterfeiting has decreased annually since that peak, with only 53,536 notes passed in 2010. The new Frontier series of banknotes significantly improves security primarily by using a polymer substrate to make up the note instead of the previously used fabric. Even as Canada's counterfeiting problem escalated, the shift to polymer was viewed as too expensive. A polymer note costs 19 cents to produce, compared to 9 cents for a typical cotton-paper note. All older cotton-paper banknotes prior to the 2013 polymer series are now considered unfit for circulation due to their lacking of modern security features, such as a metallic stripe. Financial institutions must return the banknotes to the Bank of Canada, which will destroy them. Individuals may keep the banknotes indefinitely. Counterfeiting is measured using a system borrowed from chemistry known as parts per million (PPM). Normally used to judge the potency of molecules in a solution, PPM in the counterfeit sense refers to the number of fake banknotes found in circulation for every one million genuine notes. In 1990, Canada's counterfeit ratio was just 4 PPM, ranking its currency among the most secure in the world. By the late 1990s, the rise of powerful and affordable home computers, store-bought graphics software, easy-to-use scanners and colour ink-jet printers were breeding a new generation of counterfeiters. The number of fake Canadian bills rose as high as 117 PPM by 1997. In 2004 Canada's counterfeit rate had ballooned to 470 PPM. In 2012, the counterfeiting rate had fallen to its lowest point, at 28 PPM. It has since started modestly rising to 36 PPM in 2014. The Bank of Canada's medium-term planning target is to stay below 30 PPM. Most G20 nations used 50 PPM as their benchmark to stay below. History The first paper money issued in Canada denominated in dollars were British Army notes, issued between 1813 and 1815 in denominations between $1 and $400. These were emergency issues due to the War of 1812. The first banknotes were issued in 1817 by the Montreal Bank. Chartered banks Large numbers of chartered banks were founded in the 1830s, 1850s, 1860s and 1870s, although many issued paper money for only a short time. Others, including the Montreal Bank (later called the Bank of Montreal), issued notes for several decades. Until 1858, many notes were issued denominated in both shillings/pounds and dollars (5 shillings = $1 therefore 1 pound = $4). A large number of different denominations were issued, including $1, $2, $3, $4, $5, $10, $20, $25, $40, $50, $100, $500, $750 and $1,000. After 1858, only dollar denominations were used. The Bank Act of 1871 limited the smallest denomination the chartered banks could issue to $4, increased to $5 in 1880. To facilitate purchases below $5 without using Dominion notes, some charted banks issued notes in unusually domesticated denominations, such as the $6 and $7 notes issued by the Molsons Bank in 1871. After Confederation, chartered banks were permitted to continue issuing notes until 1944. Colonial governments Before Canadian Confederation, dollar-denominated notes were issued by the governments of the Colony of British Columbia, the Province of Canada, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island. Of these, the Province of Canada, established in 1841, was the most prolific issuer of paper money. Notes were produced for the government by the Bank of Montreal between 1842 and 1862, in denominations of $4, $5, $10, $20, $50 and $100. In 1866, the Province of Canada began issuing its own paper money, in denominations of $1, $2, $5, $10, $20, $50, $100 and $500. The Dominion of Newfoundland issued notes denominated in Newfoundland dollars from 1901 until it joined Confederation in 1949. Government of Canada For a temporary period following Confederation in 1867, Province of Canada notes served as the Dominion of Canada's first national currency, and notes were dispatched from Ontario and Quebec to the other provinces. In 1870, the first Dominion of Canada notes were issued in denominations of 25¢, $1, $2, $500 and $1,000. $50 and $100 notes followed in 1872. The bulk of later government note production was of $1 and $2 notes, with a $4 denomination added in 1882. Notes of $5 were issued starting in 1912. The last 25¢ notes, known as shinplasters due to their small size, were dated 1923. Special notes called Bank Legals were issued by the Dominion of Canada only to banks for transferring large sums of money in denominations of $500, $1,000, $5,000, and $50,000. Issuance of all Dominion notes ceased in 1935, after the establishment of the Bank of Canada. Other public issuers Some municipalities also issued dollar-denominated notes. This was most prevalent in the 1930s, when depression scrip was issued in an attempt to alleviate the effects of the Great Depression on local citizens. The province of Alberta also launched its own scheme in 1936 by issuing prosperity certificates. Bank of Canada In 1934, with only ten chartered banks still issuing notes, the Bank of Canada was founded and began issuing notes in denominations of $1, $2, $5, $10, $20, $25, $50, $100, $500 and $1000. In 1944, the chartered banks were prohibited from issuing their own currency, with the Royal Bank of Canada and the Bank of Montreal among the last to issue notes. Since then, the Bank of Canada has been the sole issuer of banknotes denominated in Canadian dollars. A liability of more than $12million remains on the Bank of Canada's books up to the present day, representing the face value of Dominion of Canada, provincial, and chartered bank notes still outstanding. Withdrawn denominations The 1935 series was the only series to have included $25 and $500 denominations. Both denominations were short lived. The $25 note was withdrawn on 18 May 1937. Stacks of unissued 1935 $500 notes were destroyed in February 1938, and issued $500 notes were recalled and withdrawn from circulation five months later. Some of the most significant recent developments in Canadian currency were the withdrawal of the $1, $2, and $1,000 notes in 1989, 1996, and 2000 respectively. The $1 and $2 denominations have been replaced with coins, colloquially referred to as the "loonie" and "toonie" respectively, with the loonie simultaneously replacing the $1 bill as well as the preceding Voyageur dollar coin, the latter of which remains legal tender. In 2000, the $1,000 note was removed at the request of the Solicitor General of Canada and the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, as it was reported that they were largely being used for money laundering and organized crime. List of Bank of Canada banknote series 1935 The Bank of Canada was created in 1934 and given responsibility, through an Act of Parliament, to regulate the country's money supply and to "promote the economic and financial welfare of Canada." Accordingly, it was given the exclusive right to issue bank notes in Canada. On 11 March 1935, the Bank of Canada issued its first series of bank notes. 1937 The creation of a second series of bank notes, only two years after the first issue, was prompted by changes in Canadian government legislation requiring the Bank of Canada to produce bilingual bank notes. Another contributing factor was the death of King George V on 20 January 1936, and the subsequent abdication of Edward VIII. 1954 Canadian Landscape The third series of banknotes of the Canadian dollar issued by the Bank of Canada was the Canadian Landscape series. The banknotes were designed in 1952 following the accession of Elizabeth II to the throne after the death of her father George VI. Her portrait appeared on all denominations in the series. The banknote designs differed significantly from the 1937 series, though the denomination colours and bilingual printing were retained. The design changes were made to portray themes more typical of Canada. This was the first series to include the Canadian coat of arms, which appeared centrally in the background of the obverse. The banknote series became known as the "Devil's Head" series, because the hair behind the Queen's head looked somewhat like a grinning demon. This led to design modifications for all denominations. The second variant of the series was issued in 1956. 1969 Scenes of Canada Because of a growing concern over counterfeiting, the Bank of Canada began to release a new series of bank notes in 1969. This series represented another complete departure in design from earlier issues: colourful, wavy patterns were introduced; a new series of Canadian scenic vignettes was created; portraits of former Canadian prime ministers were re-introduced. Both Laurier and Macdonald were on the 1935 and 1937 series, but now joined by King and Borden. This was the last series to feature a $1 banknote, with the banknote replaced by a dollar coinknown as a loonie for its design of a loon on the obversein 1987; printing of the $1 banknote ceased in 1989. However, there was a 21-month period where both the $1 bill and coin were produced concurrently, from June 1987 to April 1989. 1986 Birds of Canada In 1986 the Bank of Canada introduced new banknotes called the Birds of Canada series. The design on the back of each note features a bird indigenous to Canada with a background representing the typical landscape for that bird. The portraits on the front of the note were made larger than those of previous series, and a metallic patch was introduced on the larger notes. Each banknote weighs . This series was the first to include a bar code with the serial number. This allows the visually impaired to distinguish notes with the use of a hand-held device that tells the note's denomination. This was also the last series that the $2 and $1,000 notes were issued. The $2 note was withdrawn in 1996 and replaced by the $2 coin, known as the toonie. The $1,000 note was withdrawn by the Bank of Canada on 12 May 2000, at the request of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) as part of a program to reduce organized crime. At the time, 2,827,702 of the $1,000 bills were in circulation; by 2011, fewer than 1million were in circulation, most held by organized crime. 2001 Canadian Journey Beginning in 2001, the Bank of Canada introduced a new series of notes called "Canadian Journey", featuring images of Canadian heritage and excerpts from Canadian literature. The $10 was first issued on 17 January 2001; the $5 on 27 March 2002; the $100 note on 17 March 2004, the $20 on 29 September 2004, and the $50 on 17 November 2004. The $20, $50, and $100 notes introduce watermark security features for the first time on Canadian currency since the four-dollar Dominion notes; they also boast significantly expanded holographic security features. Also among the new features are a windowed colour-shifting thread woven into the paper, a see-through number, and enhanced fluorescence under ultraviolet lighting. These features are designed to help Canadians protect themselves by detecting counterfeit notes. All post-2001 series notes also include the EURion constellation, on both sides of the note. The new notes have a tactile feature, which is a series of raised dots (but not Braille) in the upper right corner on the face of each note to aid the visually impaired in identifying currency denominations. The newer security features on the $20, $50, and $100 notes were added to an updated version of the $10 note released on 18 May 2005, and the Bank of Canada began issuing a $5 note with upgraded security features on 15 November 2006, as part of its ongoing effort to improve the security of Canadian bank notes. The illustrations on the front and back of the upgraded notes are the same as those on the $5 and $10 notes issued in 2001 and 2002. The "Canadian Journey" literary excerpts are printed in English and French, with the English versions being: $5: The winters of my childhood were long, long seasons. We lived in three places—the school, the church, and the skating-rink—but our real life was on the skating-rink. (Roch Carrier (born 1937) from his short story Le chandail de hockey (The Hockey Sweater)) $10: In Flanders Fields the poppies blow / Between the crosses, row on row, / That mark our place, and in the sky / The larks, still bravely singing, fly / Scarce heard amid the guns below. (John McCrae (1872–1918), from his poem In Flanders Fields) $20: Could we ever know each other in the slightest without the arts? (Gabrielle Roy (1909–1983) from her novel La Montagne secrète (The Hidden Mountain)) $50: All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights (from Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948) $100: Do we ever remember that somewhere above the sky in some child's dream perhaps Jacques Cartier is still sailing, always on his way always about to discover a new Canada? (Miriam Waddington (1917–2004) from her poem Jacques Cartier in Toronto) Canadian Journey banknotes (2004 style) incorporates background colour and consists of series years 2001, 2003, 2003A, 2004, 2004A and 2006. All the notes except the $100 note have additional series years 2007, 2008, 2009 and 2009A (some banknotes only). The $100 2009 series began issuing to the public in early 2010 and was printed in 2009 before they were issued. The 2004 to 2009 series of the $100 note was withdrawn from the circulation in November 2011. The $50 note was withdrawn on 26 March 2012, and $5–$20 notes would be withdrawn in the next 2 years before it will be officially announced. 2011 Frontier Beginning in 2011, the Bank of Canada introduced a new series of polymer banknotes. The $100 note was issued on 14 November 2011; the $50 was issued on 26 March 2012; the $20 banknote was issued on 7 November 2012, and the $10 and $5 denominations were issued on 7 November 2013. These are the first Canadian notes produced on polymer. In place of a watermark are two visual features: a translucent maple leaf and a transparent window. The leaf includes a security feature that, when viewed close to the eye with a single-point light source behind, produces a circular image displaying the note's denomination. The window is fringed by maple leaves; at its top is a smaller version of the portrait, and at its bottom a light-refracting metallic likeness of an architectural feature from the parliament buildings. The portraits on the face are more centred on the note. The backs of the notes introduce new cultural and thematic imagery, but the literary quotation is not continued. The polymer notes continue the tactile feature, from the Canadian Journey series. 2018 On International Women's Day 2016, Prime Minister Justin Trudeau announced that an "iconic" Canadian woman would be featured on one of the upcoming notes. On 8 December 2016, the Government of Canada and the Bank of Canada announced that civil rights activist Viola Desmond would replace John A. Macdonald (who had been on the face of the $10 note since 1971) as the first non-royal woman to appear alone on a regularly circulated Bank of Canada note. This note was released to the public on 19 November 2018. Beginning in 2018, newly designed Canadian banknotes (initially the $10 note) were vertical in orientation. Commemorative issues ‡ Withdrawn from circulation. Most currency withdrawn from circulation is still legal tender. As of 1 January 2021, the $1, $2, $25, $500 and $1,000 bills from every Bank of Canada series are no longer legal tender. Despite the introduction of new notes, older notes are still in use. + Two varieties were printed, the first with conventional serial numbers, the second with the double date "1867–1967" appearing twice instead. Neither type is scarce. Both varieties also have on the obverse a stylized maple leaf with the double date below it. All notes of the 1954 series or later measure by . See also Withdrawn Canadian banknotes. Myths A number of myths have circulated regarding Canadian banknotes. An American flag is flying over the Parliament Buildings on Canadian paper money. This is not the case. The Birds series notes depict a Union Flag flying over Parliament on the $100; a Canadian Red Ensign (a former Canadian flag) on the $5, $10, and $50; and the modern maple-leaf flag was on the $2 notes. (The $20 depicts the Library of Parliament, with no flag visible.) Those fooled by the rumour were likely fooled by the notes with the Red Ensign, as the flags are very small and not shown in full colour, and the Ensign with its contrasting canton somewhat resembles the American flag. When a note depicts a past prime minister, the Parliament Buildings behind him are flying whichever flag Canada was using at the time of his tenure. The face of the Birds series featured images of prime ministers (or the Queen) and the Parliament Buildings. As noted above, however, the $10 note featured the Canadian Red Ensign alongside Sir John A. Macdonald, who became prime minister 25 years before the Canadian Red Ensign was approved for use by the Merchant Navy and more than 50 years before it was used on government buildings. Also, the Union Flag is on the $100 with Sir Robert Borden, who came after Laurier who appears with the Canadian Red Ensign. This is sometimes explained by the fact that Borden governed during World War I. The views of the Parliament Buildings on the current Canadian Journey series do not feature any flag. The Canadian Journey series $10 note is being recalled because there is a misprint in the poem In Flanders Fields. The first line as printed, "In Flanders fields the poppies blow," startled many people, who believed the last word should be "grow". John McCrae wrote two versions which were both published, but his original manuscript, the one used by the government and widely used for Remembrance Day ceremonies, reads "blow". (The last two lines are "We shall not sleep, though poppies grow/In Flanders fields.") The Canadian $20, $50, and $100 bills have a Norway maple leaf rather than the native maple leaf. The 2011 to present $100 bill was rumoured to be maple scented, although the Bank of Canada denies this. Notes References External links Canadian Bank Notes Price Guide Canadian Paper Money Canadian Currency The Online Canadian Paper Money Museum The Where's Willy? Currency Tracking Project Bank of Canada Currency Museum Currencies of Canada
4860530	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floricienta	Floricienta	Floricienta (; known in English as Flinderella) is an Argentine juvenile musical soap opera based on the Cinderella story. It originally aired from 2004 to 2005, but since then it has been broadcast in many countries. Some international channels that have aired Floricienta are Disney Channel (Latin American), Cartoon Network and Disney Channel (European). It was also available on the Sky UK satellite lineup. The lead roles were portrayed by two-time Martín Fierro-Award-winning actress Florencia Bertotti, Juan Gil Navarro, Isabell Macedo, Fabio Di Tomaso and Benjamín Rojas. The show was created by Cris Morena and was produced by Cris Morena Group in association with RGB Entertainment. The series became an international phenomenon for children and teens throughout Latin America, Israel and parts of Europe. The soap opera spawned over 200 licensed products. The tour was attended by over 1 million people in Latin America and Israel including over 100 concerts in Teatro Gran Rex, ten shows in Estadio Luna Park and four at José Amalfitani Stadium, all in Buenos Aires. The show was adapted by Bandeirantes in Brazil (Floribella), SIC in Portugal, TVN in Chile, RCN Televisión in Colombia and Televisa in Mexico. In an interview with Radio 10, Cris Morena announced she sold the Latin American rights for Disney Channel. Overview The famous Argentinian producer Cris Morena presented her new project Floricienta in 2004, the show became one of her biggest international hits alongside Rebelde Way. The title, Floricienta, is a mix of Flor (the main character, Florencia, nickname) with Cenicienta (Cinderella). Floricienta was a modern re-telling of Cinderella and The Sound of Music. The story was especially developed by Morena as a starring-vehicle for Florencia Bertotti which was cherry-picked by the producer. There are a few similarities between the show and another Cinderella modern re-telling, the movie A Cinderella Story such as the Converse sneakers instead of the glass slipper, but the movie and the show were in production at the same time. (Floricienta premiered on El Trece in March 2004, while the movie debuted in the United States in July). Floricienta was critically acclaimed for its fun storyline, dialogue, creative editing, post-production and the charisma of the main actress, Florencia Bertotti. It became the biggest licensing brand in Argentina in 2004 and 2005. Over 300 licensed products were available during the shows two-years run and even Floricienta branded apples were put on market. Floricienta started with 14 points in its first episode. The show achieved ratings of over 30 points with the death of Federico at the end of the first season, being one of the most watched Morena’s hits in history. The first season was the highest-rated afternoon-slot show in El Trece history. After the huge twist in the end of the first season, many fans of Federico did not liked how the story turned out after his death and drifted away from the show. The ratings for the second season suffered because of that, but the show continued to be huge and won its time-slot. The TV show ended with Florencia's marriage in front of a huge live audience and the finale was also a hit, with 25 points. Floricienta, like most of Morena's productions, had a huge Broadway theatre style live musical in Teatro Gran Rex during the Winter vacations. Demand for tickets were extremely high with some concerts selling out in less than five minutes. In 2004, to satisfy the demand, the cast played two concerts at José Amalfitani Stadium with over 80,000 people attending. In 2005, another musical was done and it was also a huge success with tickets selling out in minutes. Because of this, eight extra shows were played in Estadio Luna Park stadium in Buenos Aires. After the show ended, the complete cast (with the exception of Fabio Di Tomaso who pulled out after disagreements with the production company) waved goodbye in front of 40,000 people at another sold-out concert at José Amalfitani Stadium. The musical was also presented in Rosario, Santa Fe, La Plata and Mar del Plata. The two Floricienta albums were also very successful, with the first album being the third best-selling album in 2004 and the 10th best-selling album in 2005 and with the album from the second season being the biggest seller in 2005 according to Argentine Chamber of Phonograms and Videograms Producers. Floricienta was also a huge success in most of Latin-America, where it was aired by many local channels and at the Disney Channel. The cast made a series of successful shows all over Latin America. The show cast also made sold-out concerts in Tel Aviv, Israel where they performed in front of thousands of fans. Over 1 million people attended Floricienta tour in Argentina, Mexico, Venezuela, Dominican Republic, Israel, Guatemala, Chile, Peru, Uruguay, Bolivia among many other territories. In 2004, a Brazilian version was produced, named Floribella. It doubled the ratings of Rede Bandeirantes at its timeslot, over 40 products were released and the two CDs achieved platinum certifications. In 2006, a Portuguese version was also aired at SIC and was a massive hit. The first CD was one of the most CDs sold on the Portugal's story and over 150 products were released in the country. Because of the massive success of the show, SIC bought the rights to 3 other Cris Morena shows: Alma Pirata, Rebelde Way and Chiquititas (aired in 2007). A version from Chile (also called Floribella) was also produced with great acceptance and the Mexican version (Lola: Once Upon a Time) also did well. There was also a Colombian version, the rights were bought for Greece and Russia, among other countries. In an interview with Radio 10 in February 2009, Morena revealed Disney Channel had bought the rights for an American remake. Background Floricienta is loosely adapted from the story of Cinderella (Cenicienta, in Spanish-speaking countries) and also presents some comparisons to the film The Sound of Music. The plot revolves around Florencia (Flor), a poor dreamer. She is also a rash, vivacious, cheerful and happy Italian Argentine girl whose life changes when she meets Federico Fritzenwalden, the older son of a very rich German Argentine family whose parents died in an accident. Federico is the older brother and head of the family and has 5 younger siblings (Nico, Franco, Maia, Martín, Tomás) living under his responsibility in a big house with him. Fede has a bitter, cold, strict, rigid and lonely personality until he falls in love with Flor. But Fede has a girlfriend, Delfina, who wants Federico's money. Federico's brothers hate Delfina, but when Flor comes to the Fritzenwaldens' residence, hired by Fede as the nanny, everybody loves her. Floricienta was influenced by the original Cinderella story in many ways: Fede is referred to as "Flor's Prince Charming." Flor's trademark is her shoes (in the pilot, she loses one of her shoes at Fede's house when she is initially hired as a singer for a party and Fede searches for her). Flor is helped by her godmother, Titina, throughout the series. One plot twist is that the villain, Malala, is revealed to be Flor's stepmother, making her rival, Delfina, her half-sister, and Sofía her other half-sister. Flor claims to see fairies throughout the series. The fact that Flor is a maid, who marries into wealth and nobility. At the end of the first season, the show has a big twist. Federico, after realizing that his girlfriend Delfina was lying to him all the time, leaves her at the church during their wedding and goes to Flor. He then dies in an accident while saving Máximo Calderón de la Hoya, who then body swap to Federico's soul. In the second season, Flor falls in love with Máximo and they get married in the end. They have three children and a very strong love that came from the part of Fede inside Max. Plot First season Florencia Fazzarino, an orphan girl who tries to live and works in a greengrocery store, dedicating her free time to her friends in the band. When the singer leaves, Florencia takes her place in the group and they get a presentation at the party organized by the brothers Nicolás Fritzenwalden and Maia Fritzenwalden in their mansion. There his destiny will be united forever to that of that family. On the other hand, Federico Fritzenwalden, the older brother of the family, has to return from Germany in order to take over the family business and his four brothers who have been orphaned by parents. His arrival coincides with the party that his brothers have organized without his consent and there he meets Florencia among the foam and unable to recognize it. Soon clashes between him, serious and responsible with his little brothers will begin. And after the escape of the minor named Tomás there will be numerous misunderstandings that will eventually lead Florencia to the mansion to work as a nanny. In the mansion Florencia will win everyone's love. When Malala and Delfina learn that Florencia is not the biological daughter of Eduardo Fazzarino but Alberto Santillán they do the impossible so that Florencia does not find out. They create multiple situations that will face Delfina and Florencia but leaving Federico in between. However, Federico will always prefer Florencia. Finally, Florencia finds out but Delfina seems to have never known and Malala makes several excuses to avoid Florencia claiming her inheritance and being ruined. Florencia falls madly in love with Federico. Being reciprocated by him, they begin a very beautiful and secret love, which becomes impossible when the evil stepsister Delfina makes Federico believe she is pregnant. Then this is the cause of a very serious illness the gynecologist Claudio Bonilla and the real husband of Delfina named Lorenzo who pretends to be a Chinese doctor so that everyone thinks she is sick. There Florencia convinces Federico to marry Delfina to give her happiness before her death. Already at the altar, Federico humiliates her before everyone by refusing to marry her and announcing that he loves Florencia. They rejoin but their love has a tragic turn after Federico's heroic death in a car accident since he interposed to save the life of Conde Máximo Augusto Calderón de la Hoya. Federico will have time to say goodbye to his great, unique and painful love and leave his brothers in charge of Conde Máximo Augusto Calderón de la Hoya. Thus ends the season with the meeting in the foam of Florencia and Conde Máximo Augusto Calderón de la Hoya as happened when she and Federico met. Finally, all this happens when Federico leaves the body of Conde Máximo Augusto Calderón de la Hoya to go definitively to heaven. Second season After the death of Federico (Juan Gil Navarro), Florencia (Florencia Bertotti) meets the Count in foam that turns out to be the reason why Federico had died since he saved his life so that he would not be hit by a car. There is a video in which Federico had recorded the death of the Count on the ground saying that Federico "was" in Máximo (Fabio Di Tomaso) and had to wake up his sleeping heart. Máximo feels that something strange is happening to him because of the irremediable love he has for Flor as if he knew her from another life. Added to this is new ability to handle airplanes, use of foil and love for the Fritzenwalden family. Florencia and Máximo face a series of funny situations which they will have to fight to defend their love since Delfina (Isabel Macedo) wants to conquer Máximo to keep his fortune and have any cravings he wants to be the Countess of Krikoragán, situations such as blackmail for alleged donation of marrow carried out by Delfina to Ana [Máximo's mother (Claudia Lapacó)] supposed disease with which she remains after this donation will be situations that must be overcome. But Máximo falls in love with Florencia and Delfina will put a series of obstacles to prevent their happiness and that Florencia receives an inheritance from Santillán but she will not succeed. She will also confuse Florencia with these obstacles, making her feel guilty about her relationship with Máximo. But force of destiny, fairies and magic of Florence with them. In the end, he claims an inheritance and Malala (Graciela Stefani), Delfina and Malala's husband, that is, Claudio Bonilla (Gerardo Chendo) end up in jail for hiding the truth and for the near-murder of Flor when they went on a camping day. Florencia becomes pregnant with the Count and triplets named Federico are born, (who is probably the reincarnation of Fede) Andrés and Margarita. Delfina kidnaps Margarita and realizes that that special being could have been hers if she had not been so bad and she did not hate her husband. She returns Margarita by ending great evil and turning good. In baby baptism she asks forgiveness for her wrongdoing. Franco (Benjamín Rojas) upon discovering that he is adopted, returns with Olivia (Brenda Gandini) and they go to a tennis tournament abroad. But after a fight, Olivia returns home. At the end when Franco returns home days later they reconcile. Finally Floricienta and Count Máximo get married in a beautiful wedding. Cast Florencia Bertotti as Florencia Fazzarino Valente/Florencia Santillán Valente Juan Gil Navarro as Federico Fritzenwalden Fabio Di Tomaso as Máximo Augusto Calderón de la Hoya Isabel Macedo as Delfina Santillán Torres-Oviedo/Rosita Violeta Torres Benjamín Rojas as Franco Fritzenwalden/Franco Calderón Esteban Prol as Lorenzo "Lolo" Mónaco Nicolás Maiques as Nicolás Fritzenwalden/Lautaro Fritzenwalden Paola Sallustro as Maya Fritzenwalden Agustín Sierra as Martín "Tincho" Fritzenwalden Stéfano de Gregorio as Tomás Fritzewalden Graciela Stefani as María Laura "Malala" Torres-Oviedo viuda de Santillán Ángeles Balbiani as Sofía Santillán Torres-Oviedo Brenda Gandini as Olivia Fritzenwalden Camila Bordonaba as Paloma Mónaco / Julieta Mónaco Lali Espósito as Roberta "Robertita" Espinosa María Eugenia Suárez as Paz Alcántara Henny Trayles as Greta Van Beethoven Zulma Faiad as Teresa "Titina" Ramos Hilda Bernard as Nilda Santillán Mariana Seligmann as Clara Alcántara Claudia Lapacó as Condesa Ana de la Hoya Isabel Sarli as Coca Torres-Oviedo Norberto Díaz as Eduardo Fazzarino Inés Palombo as Elena Herrera Guido Kaczka as Alejandro Diego Mesaglio as Damián Medina Ramos. Diego Child as Danilo Micaela Vázquez as Renata "Nata". Catalina Artusi as Marina Gastón Soffritti as Thiago Felipe Colombo as Miki Gastón Dalmau as Joaquín María Fernanda Neil as Jazmín Jennifer Williams as Jimena Piru Sáez as Piru Jorge Maggio as Julián Mauricio Navarro as Gonzalo Alberto Anchart as Antoine Alejo García Pintos as Evaristo Diego Olivera as Facundo Velasco. Esmeralda Mitre as Lucía Elena Roger as Mora Lydia Lamaison as Helena Vivian El Jaber as Yvonne Ana María Giunta as Alelí Gustavo Guillén as Cacho Diego García as Chucky Mario Pergolini as God Silvina Bosco as Olivia's mother Marcelo Alfaro as Olivia's father Gustavo Mac Lennan as Court judge Gustavo Bonfigli as Dr. Grimberg / Wolfang France. Helena Jios as Boarding school director Alfredo Alessandro as Juvenile judge Silvia Balcells as Directora Domenech Paola Sallustro as Maia Fritzenwalden Laura Azcurra as Amélie viuda de Fritzenwalden Esteban Pérez as Matías Ripamonti Gerardo Chendo as Claudio Paul Bonilla Dolores Sarmiento as María Klinger Mirta Wons as Beba Torres-Oviedo Emilia Mazer as Margarita Valente Germán Kraus as Carlos Fazzarino Federico Olivera as Segundo Tarragón de la Hoya Franco Rau as Ramiro Fritzenwalden Pipa as Max "Pipa" Fritzenwalden Gastón Ricaud as Maximiliano Stoffa Alex Benn as Mateo Calderón Coni Marino as Julia Guerrero Mariana Richaudeau as Camila Acosta Silvia Trawier as Pancha García / Moncha Maida Andrenacci as Valentina Micol Estévez as Dominique Pablo Heredia as Pedro Lencina. Adriana Ferrer as Violeta Geraldine Visciglio as María del Carmen Carlos Kaspar as Óscar Van Beethoven. Carolina Pampillo as Laura Paula Morales as Silvina Gabriel Gallicchio as Lucas Nicole Luis as Luz Delfina Varni as Victoria Agustina Palma as Agustina Victorio D'Alessandro as Fabián Esteban Meloni as Ariel Julia Calvo as Marta Giselle Bonaffino as Isolinda Guido Pennelli as Axel Anahí Martella as Amalia Antonio Caride as Raúl Medina. Irene Goldszer as Mirta Mercedes Funes as Miranda Verónica Pelaccini as Mercedes Paula Kohan as Sol Candela Vetrano as Guillermina Ponce Gabriela Vaca Guzmán as Wendy Gerónimo Rauch as Gero Lucas Merayo as Patricio Omar Calicchio as Rick Ezequiel Abeijón as Bernardo Mauro Dolce as Pipo Daniel Miglioranza as Fauve Marcelo Serre as Poncella Miguel Ángel Rodríguez as Priest First season worldwide broadcasts Second season worldwide broadcasters Worldwide : La Tele (2005) / Paravisión (2014) : Channel 23 (2005) / Channel 50 (2013) : ERT1 (2006) : BTV (2006) Songs 1ª temporada (First season) Chaval Chulito by Flor Pobres los Ricos by Floricienta cast. Ven a Mi by Franco and Flor, it has an acoustic version too Mi Vestido Azul by Flor, it has an acoustic version too Kikiriki by Facha and Flor Por Qué by Flor, it has an acoustic version too Quereme Sólo a Mí by Delfina and Flor Y Así Será by Flor and Federico Floricienta by the cast of Floricienta, opening song Y La Vida by Flor and Federico Tic-Tac by Flor Los Niños No Mueren by Flor 2ª temporada (Second season) Corazones al Viento (by Flor) (Opening song) Cosas que Odio de Vos (By Flor and Maximo) Flores Amarillas (By Flor) Que Esconde el Conde (By Flor) Desde Que Te Vi (By Franco) Ding Dong (By Flor) Un Enorme Dragón (By Flor) Caprichos (By Delfina) Vos Podés (By Flor) Te Siento (By Flor) A Bailar (Cast Floricienta) Hay un Cuento (By Flor) Also performed in the series' episodes but instead found in the Theater 2005 CD are: Algo de Tí (by Lorenzo) Contigo amigo (by Tasos) Tú (by Flor and Maximo) Close cover (by Wim Mertens) Theater 2004 Solo mio (By Delfina) Laberinto (By Franco, Fede and Flor) Theater 2005 Yo creo en milagros (By Flor) (Same music of "Los niños no mueren") Miau miau (By Franco) (Same music of "Kikiriki") Princesa de la terraza (By Lorenzo) Products and live shows The producers, CMG/RGB Entertainment, have launched CDs, DVDs, and a huge range of products trademark, and licensed merchandise. They also produced live shows presenting the main actors of the TV show in a musical-play related to the program's plot. Floricienta, the live show got a high rate of acceptance and massive audience going to each live show in tour in Argentina, all of them got sold-out in minutes, and moreover, due to the high rates of audience at international levels, they launched the tour by visiting other countries overseas as well. Tour Floricienta and her music band transcended TV screens and offered live performances in theater play- format (in Argentina) and concerts-musicals format including almost all the cast in many Latin American countries and in Israel. During these successful tours, actors could meet their fans face to face, gave interviews, TV and radio reports, press conferences, awards for records delivering, etc. 2004-2005 During these years Floricienta presented successful live shows in Argentina. 2005 Floricienta was successful in Israel in 2005. 2006 The Tour of Dreams 2006 visited many countries with sold out records in the most important cities of these countries: Guatemala: Guatemala City El Salvador: San Salvador Dominican Republic: Santo Domingo Panama: Panama City Peru: Lima Venezuela: Maracaibo, Valencia, Caracas Ecuador: Quito, Guayaquil 2007 Two and a half years after this soap opera ended, Floricienta:The Tour of Dreams 2007 visited Mexico for the first time. Even though the time distance, it had such a great success and acceptation of the Mexican audience, Floricienta: The tour of Dreams in Mexico, was absolutely profitable to stir up Floricienta's feelings fans. This tour was presented in these important Mexican cities: Guadalajara México D.F. Monterrey Puebla Querétaro San Luis Potosí Veracruz CDs Floricienta has so far 7 CDs. These are: Floricienta y su banda [2004] Floricienta y su banda karaoke [2004] Floricienta [2005] Floricienta karaoke [2005] Floricienta especial navidad - Christmas special edition [2007] Floricienta princesa de la terraza - The balcony princess [2006] Floricienta grandes éxitos -greatest hits- [2007] DVDs Floricienta en el Teatro-Floricienta at the theater Floricienta 2: Gran Rex 2005 Princesa de la Terraza- Floricienta at Gran Rex Venue- The princess of the balcony Floricienta Temporada 1: First season episodes in 6 DVDs packs (Is a brief version and it is only available in Spain) Floricienta Temporada 1: Dubbed into Greek, targeted to all Balkan region countries. Available in Greece. Music videos Por Qué (Why) Ven a mí (Come to me) Tú (You) Enorme dragón (Enormous dragon) Mi vestido azul (My blue dress) Flores amarillas (Yellow Flowers) (broadcast in MTV channels) Apertura de la primera temporada - Tema: Floricienta - Overture of first season. Apertura de la segunda temporada - Tema: Corazones al viento (hearts flying) overture of second season. Television specials Floricienta: El tour de los Sueños Latinoamérica- Tour of Dreams Latin America Floricienta: El tour de los Sueños en México - Tour of Dreams, México 200 Flores (especial 200 programas) - 200 Flowers. Special celebrating 200 episodes. Flori 100 ta: (especial 100 programas primera temporada) - Special celebrating 100 episodes. Especial 300 programas (especial 300 programas de la segunda temporada) - Special celebrating 300 episodes (Second season). Floricienta & The Count's wedding:Thousands of Floricienta's fans attended to this fiction wedding show, where they could see their favorite actors for real in the same place and time. The "ceremony" seems so real due to the fact it was the first time a soap opera included fans on a wedding ceremony as audience in a real set, which was a famous stadium located in Buenos Aires City. Thousands of excited fans witnessed the famous happy ending fairy tale's style final episode shoot in a super production with a crowded live show including all Floricienta's cast, lively recorded and broadcast in the final episode. The kisses corner: TV program regarding Floricienta. It was weekly broadcast in Venezuela. The program presented reports and other items regarding the plot in its first season, characters, actors biographies, contests, etc. "The kisses corner" was attended by Floricienta's fans, making this show an interactive program. References External links . Official YouTube channel. 2004 telenovelas 2005 telenovelas 2004 Argentine television series debuts 2005 Argentine television series endings Argentine telenovelas Spanish-language telenovelas Musical telenovelas Children's telenovelas Teen telenovelas Television series about orphans
4860610	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts%20health%20care%20reform	Massachusetts health care reform	The Massachusetts health care reform, commonly referred to as Romneycare, was a healthcare reform law passed in 2006 and signed into law by Governor Mitt Romney with the aim of providing health insurance to nearly all of the residents of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. The law mandated that nearly every resident of Massachusetts obtain a minimum level of insurance coverage, provided free and subsidized health care insurance for residents earning less than 150% and 300%, respectively, of the federal poverty level (FPL) and mandated employers with more than 10 full-time employees provide healthcare insurance. Among its many effects, the law established an independent public authority, the Commonwealth Health Insurance Connector Authority, also known as the Massachusetts Health Connector. The Connector acts as an insurance broker to offer free, highly subsidized and full-price private insurance plans to residents, including through its web site. As such it is one of the models of the Affordable Care Act's health insurance exchanges. The 2006 Massachusetts law successfully covered approximately two-thirds of the state's then-uninsured residents, half via federal-government-paid-for Medicaid expansion (administered by MassHealth) and half via the Connector's free and subsidized network-tiered health care insurance for those not eligible for expanded Medicaid. Relatively few Massachusetts residents used the Connector to buy full-priced insurance. After implementation of the law, 98% of Massachusetts residents had health coverage. Despite the hopes of legislators, the program did not decrease total spending on healthcare or utilization of emergency medical services for primary care issues. The law was amended significantly in 2008 and twice in 2010 to make it consistent with the federal Affordable Care Act (ACA). Major revisions related to health care industry price controls were passed in August 2012, and the employer mandate was repealed in 2013 in favor of the federal mandate (even though enforcement of the federal mandate was delayed until January 2015). Background The healthcare insurance reform law was enacted as Chapter 58 of the Acts of 2006 of the Massachusetts General Court; its long form title is An Act Providing Access to Affordable, Quality, Accountable Health Care. In October 2006, January 2007, and November 2007, bills were enacted that amended and made technical corrections to the statute (Chapters 324 and 450 of the Acts of 2006, and chapter 205 of the Acts of 2007). The movement to reform Massachusetts healthcare insurance regulations and market between 2004 and 2006 was driven by multiple issues, not all of which were clearly an issue or directly related to then and now most critical issues of rising costs: A six-year-old federal-government waiver as to how Massachusetts administered its Medicaid program was expiring. Unless the waiver was extended or amended, a large number of people would lose Medicaid coverage as the state reverted to Federal regulations. Reforms made in 1997 to the portion of the insurance market that related to the individual purchase of insurance had failed. In 2000, over 100,000 Massachusetts residents (about 1.5% of the population) were covered by individually purchased insurance but the number had dropped to under 50,000 by the time of the reform debate. As illustrated in the state report referenced in the previous sentence, the price of insurance that covered about 600,000 people in the small group market (about 10% of the population) was rising faster than the prices for the vast majority of the non-senior-citizen population, most of which were – and still are – covered by self-insured group insurance from large employers (self-insured plans are not subject to state regulation). There was a widespread feeling that emergency rooms were misused for non-emergency medical care (the misuse was and is undeniable, not unique to Massachusetts, and continues; the relation to healthcare insurance or lack of it was less clear and apparently did/does not exist). The taxes that fed the state's "free care pool", which covered uninsured emergency room visits as well as uninsured hospital admissions (as well as funding community health centers), consistently underfunded the pool and had to be raised almost annually (with differences made up by appropriations from general revenue). The combination of issues four and five was dubbed by Romney and others the free-rider problem although subsequent to the passage of the law, it is argued that the free-rider problem did not really exist. Almost all people who did not have insurance could not afford it, but since they were still using the good it is considered free riding. Advocacy groups wanted a long list of non-traditionally covered (e.g., vision care) or under-covered (e.g., mood-altering pharmaceuticals) healthcare procedures and goods mandated. Large employers—even large employers that were self-insured—were increasingly dropping health insurance as an employee benefit and/or restricting it to full-time employees such that the "take up rate" of healthcare insurance by employees was dropping. However, the drop in take-up rate actually accelerated after passage of the law although there is no demonstrable relationship between the law's passage and the accelerated drop. Allegedly because of their lack of health insurance, uninsured Massachusetts residents commonly utilize emergency rooms as a source of primary care. The United States Congress passed the Emergency Medical Treatment and Active Labor Act (EMTALA) in 1986. EMTALA requires hospitals and ambulance services to provide care to anyone needing emergency treatment regardless of citizenship, legal status or ability to pay. EMTALA applies to virtually all hospitals in the U.S. but includes no provisions for reimbursement. EMTALA is therefore considered an "unfunded safety net program" for patients seeking care at the nation's emergency rooms. As a result of the 1986 EMTALA legislation, hospitals across the country faced unpaid bills and mounting expenses to care for the uninsured. Some of these uncompensated care costs are paid by the federal government through Medicare and Medicaid Disproportionate Share Hospital (DSH) funding, though such payments are scheduled to decrease to achieve savings to offset the costs of the Affordable Care Act. In Massachusetts, a pool of over $1 billion in 2004/2005, funded by a tax on paying hospital customers and insurance premiums, known as the Uncompensated Care Pool (or "free care pool"), was used to partially reimburse hospitals and health centers for these ED expenses. A much larger portion of the pool was used for non-ED hospital care for the uninsured and for other care at Community Health Centers. It was predicted that implementation of the 2006 Massachusetts healthcare insurance reform law would result in almost complete elimination of the need for this fund. In 2006, MIT economics professor Jonathan Gruber predicted that the amount of money in the "free care pool" would be sufficient to pay for reform legislation without requiring additional funding or taxes. Reform coalitions In November 2004, political leaders began advocating major reforms of the Massachusetts health care insurance system to expand coverage. First, the Senate President Robert Travaglini called for a plan to reduce the number of uninsured by half. A few days later, Governor Mitt Romney announced that he would propose a plan to cover virtually all the uninsured. At the same time, the ACT (Affordable Care Today) Coalition introduced a bill that expanded MassHealth (Medicaid and SCHIP) coverage and increased health coverage subsidy programs and required employers to either provide coverage or pay an assessment to the state. The coalition began gathering signatures to place their proposal on the ballot in November 2006 if the legislature did not enact comprehensive health care reform, resulting in the collection of over 75,000 signatures on the MassACT ballot proposal. The Blue Cross Blue Shield Foundation sponsored a study, "Roadmap to Coverage," to expand coverage to everyone in the Commonwealth. Attention focused on the House when then-Massachusetts House Speaker Salvatore DiMasi, speaking at a Blue Cross Blue Shield Foundation Roadmap To Coverage forum in October 2005, pledged to pass a bill through the House by the end of the session. At the forum, the Foundation issued a series of reports on reform options, all of which included an individual mandate. At the end of the month, the Joint Committee on Health Care Financing approved a reform proposal crafted by House Speaker DiMasi, Committee co-chair Patricia Walrath, and other House members. The state faced pressure from the federal government to make changes to the federal waiver that allows the state to operate an expanded Medicaid program. Under the existing waiver, the state was receiving $385 million in federal funds to reimburse hospitals for services provided to the uninsured. The free care pool had to be restructured so that individuals, rather than institutions, received the funding. Then-U.S. Senator Ted Kennedy (D-MA) and Romney met with outgoing U.S. Health and Human Services Secretary Tommy Thompson on January 14, 2005, Thompson's last day in office. The meeting resulted in Thompson signing a Medicare waiver that would redirect money that previously went to treat uninsured patients at safety net hospitals to near-universal health insurance coverage as proposed by Travaglini. Legislation In Fall 2005, the House and Senate each passed health care insurance reform bills. The legislature made a number of changes to Governor Romney's original proposal, including expanding MassHealth (Medicaid and SCHIP) coverage to low-income children and restoring funding for public health programs. The most controversial change was the addition of a provision which requires firms with 11 or more workers that do not provide "fair and reasonable" health coverage to their workers to pay an annual penalty. This contribution, initially $295 annually per worker, is intended to equalize the free care pool charges imposed on employers who do and do not cover their workers. On April 12, 2006, Governor Romney signed the health legislation. He vetoed eight sections of the health care legislation, including the controversial employer assessment. He vetoed provisions providing dental benefits to poor residents on the Medicaid program, and providing health coverage to legal immigrants who have a U.S. sponsor who is financially responsible for them. The legislature promptly overrode six of the eight gubernatorial section vetoes, on May 4, 2006, and by mid-June 2006 had overridden the remaining two. Statute The enacted statute, Chapter 58 of the Acts of 2006, established a system to require individuals, with a few exceptions, to obtain health insurance. Chapter 58 had several key provisions: the creation of the Health Connector; the establishment of the subsidized Commonwealth Care Health Insurance Program; the employer Fair Share Contribution and Free Rider Surcharge; and a requirement that each individual must show evidence of coverage on their income tax return or face a tax penalty, unless coverage was deemed unaffordable by the Health Connector. The statute expanded MassHealth (Medicaid and SCHIP) coverage for children of low income parents and restores MassHealth benefits like dental care and eyeglasses. The legislation included a merger of the individual (non-group) insurance market into the small group market to allow individuals to get lower group insurance rates. The process of merging the two markets also froze the market for such insurance for a short period in April–May 2010 as the current government tried to keep the leading non-profit insurers, which insure over 90% of the residents, in the state from raising premiums for small businesses and individuals. Eventually the state's non-partisan insurance board ruled that the government did not have the actuarial data or right to freeze the premiums. Five of the non-profit insurers then settled for slightly lower premium increases than they had initially requested rather than litigate further. The sixth litigated and won the right to implement all its original increases retroactively. Payment rates were supposed to be increased to hospitals and physicians under the statute but that has not happened. The statute also formed a Health Care Quality and Cost Council to issue quality standards and publicize provider performance. Commonwealth Health Insurance Connector Authority The Health Connector is designed as a clearinghouse for insurance plans and payments. It performed the following functions: It administers the ConnectorCare program for low-income residents (up to 300% of the FPL) who do not qualify for MassHealth and who meet certain eligibility guidelines. It offers for purchase health insurance plans for individuals who: are not working, are employed by a small business (less than 50 employees) that uses the Health Connector to offer health insurance. These residents will purchase insurance with pre-tax income. are not qualified under their large employer plan, are self-employed, part-time workers, or work for multiple employers, It sets premium subsidy levels for ConnectorCare. It defines "affordability" for purposes of the individual mandate. Employer taxes Employers with more than ten full-time equivalent employees (FTEs) must provide a "fair and reasonable contribution" to the premium of health insurance for employees. Employers who do not will be assessed an annual fair share contribution that will not exceed $295 per employee per year. The fair share contribution will be paid into the Commonwealth Care Trust Fund to fund Commonwealth Care and other health reform programs. The Division of Health Care Finance and Policy defined by regulation what contribution level meets the "fair and reasonable" test in the statute. The regulation imposes two tests. First, employers are deemed to have offered "fair and reasonable" coverage if at least 25% of their full-time workers are enrolled in the firm's health plan. Alternatively, a company meets the standard if it offers to pay at least 33% of the premium cost of an individual health plan. For employers with 50 or more FTEs, both standards must be met, or 75% of full-time workers must be enrolled in the firm's health plan. Regulatory and analytic information is available on the Division's website. There was an additional Free Rider Surcharge assessible to the employer. This surcharge is different from the fair share contribution. The surcharge is applied when an employer does not arrange for a pre-tax payroll deduction system for health insurance (a Section 125 plan, or a "cafeteria plan"), and has employees who receive care that is paid from the uncompensated care pool, renamed in October 2007 as the Health Safety Net. Individual taxes Residents of Massachusetts must have health insurance coverage under Chapter 58. Residents must indicate on their tax forms if they had insurance on December 31 of that tax year, had a waiver for religious reasons, or had a waiver from the Connector. The Connector waiver can be obtained if the resident demonstrates that there is no available coverage that is defined by the Connector as affordable. In March 2007, the Connector adopted an affordability schedule that allows residents to seek a waiver. If a resident does not have coverage and does not have a waiver, the Department of Revenue will enforce the insurance requirement by imposing a penalty. In 2007, the penalty was the loss of the personal exemption. Beginning in 2008, the penalty is half the cost of the lowest available yearly premium which will be enforced as an assessed addition to the individual's income tax. Young adult coverage Beginning July 2007, the Connector offered reduced benefit plans for young adults up to age 26 who do not have access to employer-based coverage. Changes to the law In 2008 and 2010, much more substantive changes were made to the law, one of the most important of which was to begin an open enrollment period for those receiving subsidized health insurance and anyone buying insurance, including those paying full price, as an individual. Prior to that 2010 change, under the Massachusetts law, residents buying healthcare insurance individually could do so at any time, even—theoretically—as being admitted to a hospital or entering an emergency room. This led to a gaming of the system and research by the state said this gaming added 1–2% to premium costs, which were continuing to rise for other reasons as well. Given the continuing overall rise in premiums post Massachusetts 2006 healthcare insurance reform, the major goal of the 2012 amendment was to introduce price controls on health care itself; it is not directly related to healthcare insurance as are the earlier legislative actions. Starting in 2014, Commonwealth Care insurance (and Commonwealth Choice insurance for those not receiving subsidies) has been replaced by insurance compatible with the federal Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act. Among other differences, consistent with PPACA, the out of pocket spending limits and deductibles are higher under similarly priced (after a PPACA tax credit) PPACA-consistent insurance than the superseded Massachusetts insurance law. To try to compensate for these higher limits and deductibles, the Commonwealth funded an additional insurance program called Connectorcare, by which residents who previously would have qualified for Commonwealth Care can get very similar benefits for about the same price. Implementation The implementation of healthcare insurance reform began in June 2006, with the appointment of members of the Connector board and the naming of Jon Kingsdale, a Tufts Health Plan official, as executive director of the Connector. On July 1, MassHealth began covering dental care and other benefits, and began enrolling children between 200% and 300% of the poverty level. The federal Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services approved the state's waiver application on July 26, 2006, allowing the state to begin enrolling 10,500 people from the waitlist for the MassHealth Essential program, which provides Medicaid coverage to long-term unemployed adults below the poverty line. In 2006, the Division of Health Care Finance and Policy issued regulations defining "fair and reasonable" for the fair share assessment. The regulations provide that companies with 11 or more full-time equivalent employees will meet the "fair and reasonable" test if at least 25 percent of those employees are enrolled in that firm's health plan and the company is making a contribution toward it. A business that fails that test may still be deemed to offer a "fair and reasonable" contribution if the company offers to pay at least 33 percent of an individual's health insurance premium. Also effective in 2006, the Connector Board set premium levels and copayments for the state subsidized Commonwealth Care plans. Premiums will vary from $18 per month, for individuals with incomes 100–150% of the poverty line, to $106 per month for individuals with incomes 250–300% of poverty. The Connector approved two copayment schemes for plans for people 200–300% of poverty. One plan will have higher premiums and lower copayments, while a second choice will have lower premiums and higher copayments. Four managed care plans began offering Commonwealth Care on November 1, 2006. Coverage for people above 100% of poverty up to 300% of poverty began on February 1, 2007. As of December 1, 2007, around 158,000 people had been enrolled in Commonwealth Care plans. Initial bids received by the Connector showed a likely cost for the minimum insurance plan of about $380 per month. The Connector rejected those bids, and asked insurers to propose less expensive plans. New bids were announced on March 3, 2007. The Governor announced that "the average uninsured Massachusetts resident will be able to purchase health insurance for $175 per month." But plan costs will vary greatly depending on the plan selected, age and geographic location, ranging from just over $100 per month for plans for young adults with high copayments and deductibles to nearly $900 per month for comprehensive plans for older adults with low deductibles and copayments. Copayments, deductibles and out-of-pocket contributions may vary among plans. The proposed minimum creditable coverage plan would have a deductible no higher than $2,000 per individual, $4,000 per family, and would limit out-of-pocket expenses to a $5,000 maximum for an individual and $7,500 for a family. Before the deductible applies, the proposed plan includes preventive office visits with higher copayments, but would not include emergency room visits if the person was not admitted. The new plan covered abortions (both elective and medically necessary) in the heavily Catholic state. Outcomes prior to ACA The number of uninsured Massachusetts residents dropped from about 6% in 2006 to about 2% in 2010, before increasing to between 3–4% in 2012. The United States Census Department shows a higher percentage of uninsured for the same years but a similar trend line. Both trend lines mirror the approximately 400,000 residents added to the rolls of the insured in 2006/2007 via an expansion in Medicaid eligibility rules and the subsidization of the Commonwealth Care insurance program. A 2011 view of the data, released by the state in 2013, shows the number of people receiving employer-sponsored insurance (ESI) in Massachusetts decreased by approximately 500,000 people (about 8% of the state population) since the enactment of the Massachusetts health insurance law in 2006. The latest U.S. Census data on health care insurance types in Massachusetts was released in September 2012, and also illustrates the long-term decrease in ESI, and an increase in public, free and subsidized insurance. In the early years of the implementation of the law, approximately 2% of those eligible were determined not to have had access to affordable insurance, and a small number opted for a religious exemption to the mandate. Approximately 1% of taxpayers were determined by the Commonwealth to have had access to affordable insurance during tax year 2009 and had to pay an income tax penalty instead. Comparing the first half of 2007 to the first half of 2009, spending from the state's Health Safety Net Fund dropped 38–40% as more people became insured, before increasing in later years. The Fund—which replaced the Uncompensated Care Pool or Free Care—pays for medically necessary health care for those who do not have health insurance. According to the DHCFP in a report dated September 2011, "Total Health Safety Net (HSN) payments increased by 7% in the first six months of Health Safety Net fiscal year 2011 (HSN11) compared to the same period in the prior year while demand increased by 10%. Demand represents the amount that providers would have been paid in the absence of a funding shortfall. Because HSN11 demand is expected to exceed HSN11 funding, hospital providers experienced a $38 million shortfall during the first six months of HSN11." Versus the same period two years earlier, HSN spending plus demand has increased 20% The reduced state Health Safety Net payments anticipated (but not realized) that by reducing the number of uninsured people, Commonwealth Care would reduce the amount of charity care provided by hospitals. In a subsequent story that same month, The Boston Globe reported that Commonwealth Care faced a short-term funding gap of $100 million and the need to obtain a new three-year funding commitment from the federal government of $1.5 billion. By June 2011, enrollment was projected to grow to 342,000 people at an annual expense of $1.35 billion. The original projections were for the program to ultimately cover approximately 215,000 people at a cost of $725 million. According to the DHCFP, 89,000 people bought healthcare insurance directly as of June 2009, up from 40,000 in June 2006. The number of people with group insurance in Massachusetts held steady at around 4,400,000 since passage of the health care reform law, according to the DHCFP. One outcome has been the unavailability of coverage by many insurers previously doing business in Massachusetts. A study published in The American Journal of Medicine, "Medical Bankruptcy in Massachusetts: Has Health Reform Made a Difference?", compared bankruptcy filers from 2007, before reforms were implemented, to those filing in the post-reform 2009 environment to see what role medical costs played. The study found that: 1) From 2007 to 2009, the total number of medical bankruptcies (defined as due to unpaid medical bills or to loss of income due to illness, with no distinction between those causes) in Massachusetts increased by more than one third, from 7,504 to 10,093; and 2) Illness and medical costs contributed to 59.3% of bankruptcies in 2007 and 52.9% in 2009. The researchers note that the financial crisis beginning in 2008 likely contributed to the increased number of bankruptcies, and Massachusetts' increase in medical bankruptcies over the 2007–2009 period was nevertheless below the national average rate of increase. Still, the researchers explain that health costs continued to go up over the period in question, and their overall findings are "incompatible with claims that health reform has cut medical bankruptcy filings significantly." A 2015 study found that the law had "modest effects" on costs of outpatient care for people who were already insured. According to a 2016 study in the American Economic Journal, the reform "reduced the amount of debt that was past due, improved credit scores, reduced personal bankruptcies and reduced third-party collections." The authors note that the "results show that health care reform has implications that extend well beyond the health of those who gain insurance coverage." In 2010, The Boston Globe reported that more than a thousand people in Massachusetts had "gamed" the mandate/penalty provision of the law since implementation by choosing to be insured only a few months a year, typically when in need of a specific medical procedure. On the average, the Globe reported, these part-time enrollees were paying $1,200–$1,600 in premiums over a few months and receiving $10,000 or more in healthcare services before again dropping coverage. A study conducted by the Urban Institute and released in December 2010 by the Massachusetts Division of Health Care Finance and Policy stated that as of June 2010, 98.1 percent of state residents had coverage. This compared to 97.3 percent having coverage in the state in 2009 and 83.3 percent having coverage nationwide. Among children and seniors the 2010 coverage rate was even higher, at 99.8 percent and 99.6 percent respectively. The breakdown of insurance coverage consisted of that 65.1 percent of state residents being covered by employers, 16.4 percent by Medicare, and 16.6 percent via public plans such as Commonwealth Care. The state's Secretary of Health and Human Services, JudyAnn Bigby, said, "Massachusetts' achievements in health care reform have been nothing short of extraordinary. With employers, government and individuals all sharing the responsibility of reform, we continue to have the highest insurance rate in the nation." In June 2011, a Boston Globe review concluded that the healthcare overhaul "has, after five years, worked as well as or better than expected." A study by the fiscally conservative Beacon Hill Institute was of the view that the reform was "responsible for a dramatic increase in health care spending," however. In 2012, the Blue Cross Foundation of Massachusetts funded and released research that showed that the 2006 law and its subsequent amendments – simply in terms of measuring the state-budget effect on the uncompensated care pool and funding subsidized insurance had cost approximately $2 billion in fiscal year 2011 versus approximately $1 billion in fiscal year 2006. Some of this doubling in cost was funded by temporary grants and waivers from the United States federal government. The Blue Cross funded research did not address the increased costs in premiums for employers and individuals or other market dynamics – such as increased providers' costs and increased co-pays/deductibles – necessary to meet minimum creditable coverage standards that were introduced in Massachusetts by other parts of the 2006 legislature and its resulting regulations. Separate research on Premiums and Expenditures found that fully adjusted premiums per member per month (PPMPM) for Massachusetts residents covered by comprehensive private insurance policies (approximately two thirds of the state population) increased approximately 9% in both 2009 and 2010 for subscribers in the "merged market", 7% in the midsized group market, and 5.4% in the large group market. These premium increase do not reflect actual resident experience particularly in the merged market because Massachusetts regulations allow age and other rating factors (e.g., even if premiums were held flat for 55-year-olds living on Cape Cod in construction work from year to year, the 55-year-old in 2009 would pay 10% more in 2010 for the same policy, possibly with lesser benefits). During the years before the changes in the state law related to the enactment of the federal PPACA, the state still used the free care pool—renamed the Health Safety Net—both as originally intended and to fund the subsidies for free (under 150% of FPL) and almost free (151–300% of FPL) networked health care insurance. In addition the state spent a substantial amount of general revenue on the insurance reform. Based on the combination of the increased Health Safety Net tax, general revenue (state income and sales taxes were increased 20%) and smaller additional taxes, the cost of the reform reached about 2% of the state's annual budget in fiscal year 2013, which ended June 30, 2013, up from 1.5% in fiscal 2011. Data following enactment of mandatory insurance showed total emergency visits and spending continued to increase, and low-severity emergency visits decreased less than 2%; researchers concluded, "To the extent that policymakers expected a substantial decrease in overall and low-severity ED visits, this study does not support those expectations." Other analysis concluded that preventable ED visits were reduced 5-8% for non-urgent or primary care ED visits relative to other states. A more complete report released in January 2012 found between 2006 and 2010 emergency department visits and non-urgent visits had dropped 1.9 and 3.8% respectively. A 2014 study found that the law was associated with "a small but consistent increase" in ED use in the state. A 2014 study found that the reform was associated with "significant reductions in all-cause mortality and deaths from causes amenable to health care." Transition to ACA At the point of the implementation of PPACA in 2014, of those citizens acquiring insurance through pre-ACA Massachusetts Health Connector plans, approximately 100,000 Massachusetts residents who received free or highly subsidized CommonWealth Care insurance, were expected be needed to be moved to Medicaid. The number of available plans under the Affordable Care Act that will offer service beginning on January 1, 2014, rose to more than 100 from just under 100 in 2013. The open enrollment period of the insurance marketplace, during which citizens may re-enroll or purchase, lasted from 1 October 2013 to 31 March 2014, but those who did not re-enroll by December 15, were to have no insurance coverage in January 2014 (unless they were among the 100,000 moved to Medicaid). At the start of the Affordable Care act open enrollment at the end of 2013, there was a major technical failure, and the MA Health Connector Software did not work at all. To handle this problem, a special temporary Medicaid was set up, and given to over 320,000 people at no immediate cost to them, who would have under normal ACA procedures gotten either a traditional Medicaid, an ACA expanded Medicaid, or an ACA on-exchange plan. The MA Health Connector was functional starting at open enrollment for 2015, though problems were still widely reported. Outcomes following transition to ACA According to the Kaiser Family Foundation, in 2019 the state's uninsured rate was about 3%, which at the time was the lowest in the country. Though 22% still have trouble paying their medical bills, "with many complaining that high-deductible health plans come with steep out-of-pocket costs." In 2022, the following carriers offer plans through the Massachusetts Health Connector insurance marketplace: AllWays Health Partners (formerly Neighborhood Health Plan) Blue Cross Blue Shield of Massachusetts (BCBSMA) Boston Medical Center/BMC HealthNet Plan (BMCHP) Fallon Community Health Plan Harvard Pilgrim Health Care (HPHC) Health New England (HNE) Tufts (two separate entities: Tufts HMO and Tufts Health Public Plan) UnitedHealthcare Fountas v. Dormitzer A legal challenge was filed in the Superior Court of Essex County, contesting the fine imposed for a citizen's failure to get health insurance as well as the fine imposed for a failure to provide information on a tax return as to whether that citizen had health insurance. The judge dismissed the case upon a motion filed by an assistant to Attorney General Martha Coakley for failure to state a case upon which relief can be granted. A petition for a writ of mandamus to the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court (SJC), ordering Essex Superior Court to vacate this dismissal on procedural grounds, the failure to provide trial by jury in a dispute over property as requested by the plaintiff, was denied by Associate Justice Spina. An appeal was then filed with the Massachusetts Appeals Court. A later petition for a writ of mandamus with the SJC was also denied, this time by Chief Justice Ireland. The Appeals Court then heard the appeal and declined to send the case back to Essex Superior Court for trial by jury based on their belief that no facts needed to be determined and therefore trial by jury in this case was not a protected right under either the US or Massachusetts Constitutions. The SJC declined to hear any further appeals. Transition from fee-for-service to accountable care In November 2016, MassHealth received a federal Medicare waiver that allowed it to transition from fee-for-service payment to the use of accountable care organizations, expected to begin operation in December 2017. This expanded the similar One Care prevention-oriented program for Massachusetts patients who were enrolled in both Medicare and Medicaid, or had disabilities or very low income. See also References Further reading Pulos, Vicky, MassHealth Advocacy Guide, Massachusetts Law Reform Institute (MLRI) and Massachusetts Continuing Legal Education, Inc. (MCLE), Massachusetts Legal Services, 2009 edition, updated again in 2010 (3/18/2010) External links Massachusetts Health Connector - official site . (Various documents). Healthcare in Massachusetts Medicare and Medicaid (United States) Universal health care Mitt Romney Massachusetts Massachusetts
4861008	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20association%20football	History of association football	The history of association football, more commonly known as football or soccer, stretches back at least to the medieval times. Some predecessors of football may date back to ancient Greece and Rome, and similar games were played in ancient China and Japan. The history of football in Britain dates at least to the eighth century CE. The development of association football has its origins in medieval ball games and English public school games. The modern game of association football originated in the mid-nineteenth century by the efforts of English football clubs to standardize the varying sets of football rules, culminating in the formation of The Football Association (The FA) in London, England, in 1863, and their issuing of the Laws of the Game in the same year. The "Laws of the Game" were later trusted to the International Football Association Board (IFAB) and then adopted by the International association football Federation (FIFA). This set of rules drafted by The FA allowed clubs to play each other without dispute, and banned a number of contentious practices, notably both hacking and handling of the ball (except by goalkeepers) during open play. After the fifth meeting of the Association, a schism emerged between association football and the football played by the rules of the Rugby School, which later became rugby football. Besides its dedicated competitions, football has also been an Olympic sport since the second modern Summer Olympic Games in Paris, France, in 1900. The Football Association During the early-mid nineteenth century, different sets of rules for football began to be drawn up in schools, universities, and clubs. The first such set of rules to be published was that of Rugby School in 1845. According to N. L. Jackson, in the University of Cambridge in 1846 "two old Shrewsbury boys, Messrs H. de Winton and J. C. Thring, persuaded some Old Etonians to join them and formed a club. Matches were few and far between, but some were played on Parker's Piece. Unfortunately, the game was not popular at the Varsity then, and the club did not last long". According to Thring's own account, written in 1861: This was among the first of several known attempts to formulate a set of "compromise" rules of football at Cambridge between alumni of different schools. In his History of the Football Association, Geoffrey Green describes it as "the first positive step to create an identity of views and a common code of laws [of football] acceptable to as many as possible," and laments the absence of a plaque "to commemorate this historic moment". These rules underwent several revisions, and in 1848 a new set of rules was created for use at the University of Cambridge, drawing from features present in the different public school games. A later set of "Cambridge Rules" from 1856 survives in a copy at Shrewsbury School. Another set of rules was set by Eton College in 1847. During the 1850s, many clubs unconnected to schools or universities were formed throughout the English-speaking world, to play various forms of football. Some came up with their own distinct codes of rules, most notably the Sheffield Rules, created by the Sheffield Football Club, formed in 1857, which were adopted by the newly formed Sheffield Football Association in 1867. During the early 1860s, there were increasing attempts in England to unify and reconcile the various football games that were played in the public schools as well in the industrial north under the Sheffield Rules. In 1862, J. C. Thring, who had been one of the driving forces behind the original Cambridge Rules, was a master at Uppingham School and issued his own rules of what he called "The Simplest Game" (aka the Uppingham Rules). In early October 1863, a new set of "Cambridge Rules" was drawn up by a seven-member committee representing former pupils of Eton, Harrow, Shrewsbury, Rugby, Marlborough and Westminster. Ebenezer Cobb Morley, a solicitor from Hull, wrote to Bell's Life newspaper in 1863, proposing a governing body for football. Morley was to become the FA's first secretary (1863–66) and its second president (1867–74), but is particularly remembered for drafting the first Laws of the Game at his home in Barnes, London, that are today played the world over. For this, he is considered not just the father of the Football Association, but of association football itself. Public schools such as Charterhouse and Westminster School were influential in forming the new rules, at both schools the pupils' surroundings meant they were confined to playing their football in the cloisters, making the rough and tumble of the handling game that was developing at other schools such as Rugby impossible, and necessitating a different code of rules. Forest School was also influential in formulating the new rules, being present at the fifth meeting of the F.A. on 1 December 1863, and having several members at the influential Forest Club. During the formulation of the rules of association football in the 1860s representatives of Charterhouse and Westminster pushed for a passing game, in particular rules that allowed forward passing ("passing on"). Other schools (in particular Eton College, Shrewsbury School and Harrow) favoured a dribbling game with a tight off-side rule. It is claimed that Stoke Ramblers were formed in 1863 when former pupils of Charterhouse School formed a football club while apprentices at the North Staffordshire Railway works in Stoke-on-Trent. By 1867 the Football Association had chosen in favour of the Charterhouse and Westminster game and adopted a "loose" off-side rule that permitted forward passing. On the evening of 26 October 1863, representatives of several football clubs in the Greater London area met at the Freemasons' Tavern on Long Acre in Covent Garden. This was the first meeting of The Football Association (FA). It was the world's first official football body and for this reason is not preceded with the word English. The first meeting resulted in the issuing of a request for representatives of the public schools to join the association. With the exception of Thring at Uppingham, most schools declined. In total, six meetings of the FA were held between October and December 1863. Committee member J. F. Alcock, said: "The Cambridge Rules appear to be the most desirable for the Association to adopt." Banned practices After the third meeting, a draft set of rules were published by the FA. However, at the beginning of the fourth meeting, attention was drawn to the recently published Cambridge Rules of 1863. The Cambridge rules differed from the draft FA rules in two significant areas; namely running with (carrying) the ball and hacking (kicking opposing players in the shins). The two contentious FA rules were as follows: At the fifth meeting a motion was proposed that these two rules be removed from the FA rules. Most of the delegates supported this suggestion but F. W. Campbell, the representative from Blackheath and the first FA treasurer objected strongly. He said, "hacking is the true football". The motion was carried nonetheless and – at the final meeting – Campbell withdrew his club from the FA. After the final meeting on 8 December the FA published the "Laws of Football", the first comprehensive set of rules for the game later known as association football. The game also came to be called "soccer" as a shortening of "Association" around the same time as Rugby football, colloquially referred to as "rugger", was developing as the main ball carrying version of English football, and "soccer" remains a common descriptor in countries with other prominent football codes today. These first FA laws contained elements that are no longer part of association football, but which are still recognisable in other games (e.g. Rugby Union and Australian rules football): for instance, if a player first touched the ball behind the opponents' goal line, his side was entitled to a "free kick" at goal, from that point and fifteen yards [approximately 14 metres] in front of the goal line; and a player could make a catch and claim a "mark", which entitled him to a free kick from or behind that point (see Laws 7 and 8 respectively). The laws of the game agreed on by the FA members stipulated a maximum length and breadth for the pitch, the procedure for kicking off, and the definition of terms, including goal, throw in, and offside. Passing the ball by hand was still permitted provided the ball was caught "fairly or on the first bounce". Despite the specifications of footwear having no "tough nails, iron plates and gutta percha" there were no specific rules on the number of players, penalties, foul play or the shape of the ball; captains of the participating teams were expected to agree on these things prior to the match. Foundations of a competition The laws laid down by the FA had an immediate effect, with Sheffield F.C. and Nottingham (now Notts County) playing an annual fixture on the FA code, among others. As more teams joined the code in the 1860s, the sport veered away from its origins in public schools and came to be played with round balls and by teams that had settled on 11 players each. The rule eliminating passing of the ball forwards by making all players in front of the ball 'offside' (much like in rugby today) was dropped. A Sheffield against London game in 1866 had allowed the FA to observe how the rules were affecting the game; subsequently handling of the ball was abolished except for one player on each team, the goalkeeper. A red tape was added between the two goalposts to indicate the top of the goal, and a national competition was proposed. 1867 saw the introduction of the first competition and oldest existing trophy in football, the Youdan Cup. First FA Cup On 20 July 1871, C. W. Alcock, a gentleman from Sunderland and a former pupil of Harrow School proposed that "a Challenge Cup should be established in connection with the [Football] Association", the idea that gave birth to the competition. At the first FA Cup in 1872, Wanderers and Royal Engineers met in the final in front of 2,000 paying spectators. Despite the Royal Engineers being the heavy favourites, one of their players sustained a broken collar bone early on and since substitutions had not yet been introduced, the Engineers played a man down for the rest of the match which they eventually lost 1–0. The success of the inaugural FA Cup lead many English clubs to apply to take part. Inclusion required playing by the newly instituted FA code, which led to the quick spread of a universal set of rules. These rules are the basis of which all association football rules today stem. Later competitions saw the 'Gentleman' or Southerners dominate with Old Etonians, Wanderers, Royal Engineers and Oxford University who amongst them took 19 titles. Queens Park withdrew in the semi-finals of the 1873 cup (which due to the format being played that year meant that all the challengers to Wanderers' trophy played a competition for the right to throw down the gauntlet and play the holders, hence the full name FA Challenge Cup) because they had trouble raising travel expenses to pay for the constant trips to England, this directly led to the formation of the Scottish FA. However, despite this, Queens Park continued to participate in the FA Cup, reaching the final twice, before the Scottish FA banned Scottish clubs from entering in 1887. In 1872, Alcock purchased a trophy for the Football Association Cup for £20. That year, fifteen clubs entered the competition. Queen's Park reached the semi-finals without playing due to withdrawals, but then after a goalless draw with Wanderers, were forced to withdraw as before the advent of penalties and extra time, they could not afford to come back to London for the replay. Wanderers won the cup outright in 1878 after what remains to this day one of only two hat tricks of wins ever. However, they returned the cup to the FA in order for the competition to continue, on the condition that no other club could win the cup outright ever again. First league In 1888, William McGregor a gentleman from Perthshire and a director of Aston Villa F.C was the main force between meetings held in London and Manchester involving 12 football clubs, with an eye to league competition. These 12 clubs would later become the Football League's 12 founder members. The meetings were held in London, the main concern was that an early exit in the knockout format of the FA Cup could leave clubs with no matches for almost a year, and if that happened, not only could they suffer heavy financial losses, but fans often didn't stick around for that long without a game, and instead went to other teams. Matters were finalised on 17 April in Manchester. McGregor had voted against the name The Football League, as he was concerned that it would be associated with the Irish Land League. But this name still won by a majority vote and was selected. The competition guaranteed fixtures and members for all of its member clubs. The clubs were split equally among North and Midlands teams. It excluded Southern teams, who were still strictly amateur. A rival English league called the Football Alliance operated from 1889 to 1892. In 1892 it was decided to formally merge the two leagues, and so the Football League Second Division was formed, consisting mostly of Football Alliance clubs. The existing League clubs, plus three of the strongest Alliance clubs, comprised the Football League First Division. First International The first international game was played in Scotland on 30 November 1872. Charles Alcock, who was elected to secretary of the FA at the age of 28, devised the idea of an international competition, inaugurating an annual Scotland-England fixture. In 1870 and 1871 he placed advertisements in Edinburgh and Glasgow newspapers, requesting players for an international between the two countries. The only response that he received stated: "devotees of the "association" rules will find no foemen worthy of their steel in Scotland" For this reason the 1870 and 1871 matches were composed entirely of Scots living in England. Notably, however, Smith of the Queen's Park football club took part in most of the 1870 and 1871 international matches. As early as 1870, Alcock was adamant that these matches were open to every Scotsman [Alcock's italics] whether his lines were cast North or South of the Tweed and that if in the face of the invitations publicly given through the columns of leading journals of Scotland the representative eleven consisted chiefly of Anglo-Scotians ... the fault lies on the heads of the players of the north, not on the management who sought the services of all alike impartially. To call the team London Scotchmen contributes nothing. The match was, as announced, to all intents and purposes between England and Scotland". In 1872 the challenge was eventually taken up by Queens Park FC. The first international currently recognised as official by FIFA (which took place on 30 November 1872, Glasgow, Scotland) ended in a goalless draw between the two sides and thus, one of the most bitterly disputed fixtures in footballing history was born. The 2nd game between the two sides, on 8 March 1873, ended 4–2 in favour of England, the Scots then went on to win the next game 2–1. The fourth game ended in a 2–2 draw after which the Scots enjoyed a 3-game winning streak. The first non-European international was contested on 28 November 1885, at Newark, New Jersey, between the US and Canada, the Canadians winning 1–0. From amateurism to professionalism When football was gaining popularity during the 1870s and 1880s professionals were banned in England and Scotland. Then in the 1880s, soon after Wanderers disbanded, in the north of England, teams started hiring players known as 'professors of football', who were often professionals from Scotland (who were referred to at the time as the 'Scotch Professors'). This was the first time a professional got into football. The clubs in working class areas, especially in Northern England and Scotland, wanted professional football in order to afford to play football besides working. Several clubs were accused of employing professionals. The northern clubs made of lower class paid players started to gain momentum over the amateur 'Gentleman Southerners'. The first northern club to reach the FA Cup final was Blackburn Rovers in 1882, where they lost to Old Etonians, who were the last amateur team to win the trophy. During the summer of 1885, there was pressure put on the Football Association to accept professionalism in English football, culminating in a special meeting on 20 July, after which it was announced that it was "in the interests of association football, to legalise the employment of professional football players, but only under certain restrictions". Clubs were allowed to pay players provided that they had either been born or had lived for two years within a six-mile radius of the ground. There were also rules preventing professional players from playing for more than one club in a season, without obtaining special permission, and all professional players had to be registered with the F.A. Though English clubs employed professionals, the Scottish Football Association continued to forbid the practice. Consequently, many Scottish players migrated southward. At first the FA put residential restrictions in place to prevent this, but these were abandoned by 1889. In the inaugural season of the Football League (1888–89), champions Preston North End fielded ten Scottish professionals. One of the teams to benefit from the move of Scottish players to England, who were nicknamed the Scotch Professors, was Sunderland A.F.C. The club went professional in 1885, and the club recruited a number of Scotsmen the same year, their first internationally capped players. Founder James Allan left Sunderland in 1888 because of his dislike for the "professionalism" that had been creeping into the club, and subsequently formed Sunderland Albion. The wealthy miner Samuel Tyzack, who alongside and shipbuilder Robert Turnbull funded the now professional "team of all talents," often pretended to be a priest while scouting for players in Scotland, as Sunderland's recruitment policy in Scotland enraged many Scottish fans. In fact, the whole Sunderland lineup in the 1895 World Championship was made from entirely Scottish players. On 5 April 1890, the Football League's founder, William McGregor, labelled Sunderland as "the team of all talents" stating that they had "a talented man in every position". Another team to benefit from the Scotch Professors was Preston North End, the first English team to win the Championship and Cup "double", which did so with a majority of their team being made up of Scottish players. The Scottish FA lifted its ban on professionalism in 1893, whereupon 560 players were registered as professionals. Early English women's teams, such as the Dick, Kerr's Ladies from Preston, were so popular that their matches raised money for charities. The first recorded women's football match, on 23 March 1895, was held in England between a northern and southern team. The fundraising matches continued, in spite of objections. A maximum wage was placed on players, players challenged this and came close to strike action in 1909, but it was not to be for another fifty years before the maximum wage was abolished. In 1921, women were banned from playing on FA league grounds. FA history states that this ban "effectively destroyed the game" in England for the next 40 years. In 1934, the Swedish club Malmö FF was relegated from the top division after it had been discovered that they paid their players, something that was not allowed in Swedish football at the time. Association football during wartime Between 1915 and 1919 competitive association football was suspended in England. Many footballers signed up to fight in the war and as a result many teams were depleted, and fielded guest players instead. The Football League and FA Cup were suspended and in their place regional league competitions were set up; appearances in these tournaments do not count in players' official records. International spread Continental Europe The oldest club in continental Europe could be the Swiss club Lausanne Football and Cricket Club, founded 1860. Football was introduced in a Belgian school in Melle (near Ghent) in 1863. In the Netherlands the first football match was played in 1865 in Enschede. This was followed by the founding of Koninklijke HFC by Pim Mulier in 1879. The Koninklijke HFC was the first Dutch football club. Ten years later, in 1889, the Royal Dutch Football Association (the KNVB) was founded. Association football was introduced in the Danish club, Kjøbenhavns Boldklub (KB) by English residents, in Swiss club FC St. Gallen in 1879 and in Belgium Royal Antwerp FC in 1880. This makes KB, St. Gallen, Koninklijke HFC and Royal Antwerp FC the oldest still existing football clubs on Continental Europe. However, Royal Antwerp FC (nickname "The Great Old") is the only one that never merged with or into another club. The Danish Football Association was founded in 1889. Italian football was played in regional groups from its foundation in 1898 until 1929 when the Serie A was organised into a national league by the Italian Football Federation. La Liga, Spain's national league, had its first season in 1928, with its participants based on the previous winners of the Copa del Rey, which began in 1902. The modern German national league, the Bundesliga was late in the foundation, especially for European countries, given it wasn't founded until 1963. The German Football Association was founded as early as 1900 with the first German football champions being Leipzig in 1903. However, prior to the formation of the Bundesliga, German football was played at an amateur level in a large number of regional leagues. Imperial Russia The first recorded football game in Imperial Russia occurred in Odessa when some British sailors played a game amongst themselves. Portugal The first organised game of football in Portugal took place in 1875 in Camacha, Madeira. Organised by the Madeira born Harry Hinton. The oldest surviving team in Portugal is Académica, which was founded in 1876. On 31 March 1914, the 3 regional associations that existed in Portugal (Lisbon, Portalegre and Porto), merged to create a national association called "a União Portuguesa de Futebol" which is the ancestor of the current national association "Federação Portuguesa de Futebol" which was formed on 28 May 1926. South America The first recorded football match in Argentina was played in 1867 by British railway workers at the Buenos Aires Cricket Club Ground. The game was a blend of both association and rugby footballs, allowing the use of hands. The first association football team in South America, Buenos Aires Football Club was created in Argentina that same year. The first country's league was the "Association of Argentine Football" (AAF), founded in 1891 by F.L. Wooley. This league organized the first ever championship to take place in 1891, making Argentina's the oldest association football league outside mainland Great Britain although it only lasted for one season. Its successor, the Argentine Football Association was founded by Scottish schoolteacher Alexander Watson Hutton in 1893, and remaining nowadays. In the 1870s an expatriate named John Miller who worked on the railway construction project in São Paulo together with some 3000 other immigrant families from the British Isles in the last decades of the 19th century, decided to send his young boy Charles William Miller to England for his education. In 1884 Charles aged 10 was sent to Bannister's school in Southampton. Charles was a natural footballer who quickly picked up the arts of the game. The football association was being formed at the time. Eton, Rugby, Charterhouse and other colleges all had developed their own rules to the game. As an accomplished winger and striker, Charles held school honours that were to gain him entry first into the Southampton Club team and then into the County team of Hampshire. In 1892 a couple of years before his return to Brazil, Miller was invited to play a game for the Corinthians, a team formed of players invited from public schools and universities. On his return, Miller brought some association football equipment and a rules book with him. He then went on to develop the new rules of the game amongst the community in São Paulo. In 1888, six years before his return, the first sports club was founded in the city, São Paulo Athletic Club. São Paulo Athletic Club won the first three years of championships. Miller's skills were far and above his colleagues at this stage. He was given the honour of contributing his name to a move involving a deft flick of the ball with the heel "Chaleira". Charles Miller kept a strong bond with English association football throughout his life. Teams from Southampton and Corinthians Club came over to Brazil and played against São Paulo Athletic Club and other teams in São Paulo. One on occasion in 1910 a new local team was about to be formed after a tour of the Corinthians team to Brazil and Charles was asked to suggest a name for the team. He suggested they should call themselves after Corinthians. During the first years of the 20th century, several British clubs toured on South America, mainly Argentina, Uruguay and Brazil. Southampton was the first foreign club to tour the continent in 1904, followed by Nottingham Forest one year later. Those tours contributed to the spread and development of football in the region, with some matches (such as the Alumni v South Africa) being attended by more than 10,000 spectators. Those British teams trips lasted until 1929, with the Chelsea tour. The Argentine Primera División is the oldest league in South America, being first held in 1891. Moreover, Argentina became the first country outside the United Kingdom to establish a football league. The Uruguayan Football Association was also established in 1900. Both associations organised together the first Rioplatense club competitions in the region, starting with the Tie Cup in 1900. In 1988, São Paulo A.C. celebrated its centenary and the English Corinthian F.C. (that had first toured on Brazil in 1910) went across again to play them at Estádio do Morumbi. The end of the tour was against the local Corinthians Paulista team (which had taken its name from the English side) with former stars Sócrates and Rivellino amongst its players. This game was played at Pacaembu Stadium in São Paulo and true to Corinthian principles of good clean association football the score was 1 to 0 in favour of the locals when as agreed Socrates changed shirts to play alongside the English amate. This did not affect the score unfortunately although a largely packed stadium was cheering on for a drawn result. The Brazilian Football Confederation was founded in 1914, and the current format for the Campeonato Brasileiro was established in 1971. United States The first association football club in the United States was the Oneida Football Club of Boston, Massachusetts, founded in 1862. It is often said that this was the first club to play association football outside Britain. However, Oneidas were formed before the English Football Association (FA); it is not known what rules they used and the club wound up within the space of a few years. According to Encyclopædia Britannica, the club is often credited with inventing the "Boston Game", which both allowed players to kick a round ball along the ground, and to pick it up and run with it. The first U.S. match known to have been inspired by FA rules was a game between Princeton and Rutgers in 1869, although the game included features such as extremely physical tackling and teams of 20 each. Other colleges emulated this development, but all of these were converted to rugby-oriented rules from soccer-oriented rules by the mid-1870s on, and they would soon become famous as early bastions of American football. (For more details see: History of American football and 1869 college football season.) Early football leagues in the U.S. mostly used the name football leagues: for example, the American Football Association (founded in 1884), the American Amateur Football Association (1893), the American League of Professional Football (1894), the National Association Foot Ball League (1895), and the Southern New England Football League (1914). However, the word "soccer" was beginning to catch on, and the St. Louis Soccer League was a significant regional competition between 1907 and 1939. What is now the United States Soccer Federation was originally the U.S. Football Association, formed in 1913 by the merger of the American Football Association and the American Amateur Football Association. The governing body of the sport in the U.S. did not have the word soccer in its name until 1945, when it became the U.S. Soccer Football Association. It did not drop the word football from its name until 1974, when it became the U.S. Soccer Federation. Two further football leagues were started in 1967, the United Soccer Association and the National Professional Soccer League. These merged to form the North American Soccer League in 1968, which survived until 1984. The NASL also ran an indoor league in the later years. Indoor soccer was a great success in the 1980s to the '90s, in part due to the input of the North American Soccer League. When the NASL folded, other leagues, including the Major Indoor Soccer League filled in to meet the demand. A new MISL exists today with seven teams operating in the 2013–2014 season. However, it is unrelated to the original MISL. The highest level of association football in the United States is Major League Soccer, formed as a result of the U.S. hosting the 1994 FIFA World Cup. Creation of FIFA The need for a single body to oversee the worldwide game became apparent at the beginning of the 20th century with the increasing popularity of international fixtures. The English Football Association had chaired many discussions on setting up an international body but was perceived as making no progress. It fell to seven other European countries to band together to form this association. FIFA (Fédération Internationale de Football Association) was founded in Paris on 21 May 1904 – the French name and acronym persist to this day, even outside French-speaking countries. Its first president was Robert Guérin. FIFA presided over its first international competition in 1906, however, it met with little approval or success. This, in combination with economic factors, led to the swift replacement of Guérin with Daniel Burley Woolfall from England, which had become a member association by that point. The next tournament staged the football competition for the 1908 Olympics in London was more successful, despite the presence of professional footballers, contrary to the founding principles of FIFA. Membership of FIFA expanded beyond Europe with the application of South Africa in 1909, Argentina in 1912 and the United States in 1913. FIFA however floundered during World War I with many players sent off to war and the possibility of travel for international fixtures severely limited. Post-war, following the death of Woolfall, the organisation fell into the hands of Alexander Bartholomew. The organisation had a new leader though after Bartholomew's death in 1919. It was saved from extinction but at the cost of the withdrawal of the Home Nations, who cited an unwillingness to participate in international competitions with their recent World War enemies. In 1946 the four British nations returned. On 10 May 1947 a 'Match of the Century' between Great Britain and 'Rest of Europe XI' was played at Hampden Park in Glasgow before 135,000 spectators – Britain won 6–1. The proceeds from the match, coming to £35,000, were given to FIFA, to help re-launch it after World War Two. This was followed by FIFA's first post-war World Cup in 1950, held in Brazil. FIFA, meanwhile, continued to expand so that by the time of its fiftieth anniversary it had 84 members. FIFA World Cup The first men's football World Cup was played in Uruguay in 1930. In the first championship match between Argentina and Uruguay, the teams could not decide on a ball so they used Argentina's ball in the first half and Uruguay's in the second. Many countries did not enter, but most of those that did came from the Americas. By 1950 however, European teams took an interest, and the competition blossomed into the world's biggest footballing and sporting event. The South American Copa América was first contested in 1916 and preceded the World Cup. Decades later, other continental championships emerged – the AFC Asian Cup (1956), the African Cup of Nations (1957), the European Championship (1960), North America's Gold Cup (1991) Oceania's OFC Nations Cup (1996) and UEFA Nations League (2018). Brazil is the most successful team in the World Cup, having won five times. The next most successful teams are Italy and Germany (three as West Germany) with four titles each, having won their latest honours in 2006 and 2014 respectively, followed by Argentina with three titles (last in 2022). Uruguay (last in 1950) and France (last in 2018) have two titles each. FIFA Women's World Cup The FIFA Women's World Cup was inaugurated with the 1991 FIFA Women's World Cup, hosted in China, with 12 teams sent to represent their countries. Over 90,185 spectators attended the 1999 FIFA Women's World Cup and nearly 1 billion viewers from 70 countries tuned in. By the 2003 FIFA Women's World Cup, 16 teams competed in the championship finals. Of the eight tournaments held to date (as of 2019), the United States (1991, 1999, 2015, 2019) is the most successful team with four titles; Germany (2003, 2007) have won the championship twice, and Norway (1995) and Japan (2011) have each won once. Women's confederations are the same as men's: Oceania (OFC), European (UEFA), North, Central America and Caribbean (CONCACAF), South American (CONMEBOL), Asian (AFC) and African (CAF). See also History of football in England British football clubs tours to South America Timeline of association football Association football and politics References Further reading External links Royal Engineers Museum When the Sappers won the FA Cup (1875) Potted history of association football in England
4861224	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fate/hollow%20ataraxia	Fate/hollow ataraxia	is a 2005 PC visual novel video game developed by Type-Moon, and the sequel to Fate/stay night. The word "ataraxia" in the title is a Greek term for "tranquility", giving the title the combined meaning of "empty (or false) tranquility". The game also was ported to PlayStation Vita, adding full-voice acting, among other enhancements. This version was released in Japan on November 27, 2014. Plot The plot of Fate/hollow ataraxia is set about 8 months after the events of Fate/stay night. Like its predecessor, the story is set in Fuyuki City. Bazett Fraga McRemitz, a member of the Mages' Association and a master in the Fifth Holy Grail War, wakes on the fourth day of the Fifth Holy Grail war with a new servant, Avenger, and no memory of what happened to her beforehand. She and Avenger set off to fight and win the Holy Grail War. Meanwhile, Shirou Emiya lives a peaceful life with all of his friends from the Fifth Holy Grail War. After one of her experiments changes time and space, Rin Tohsaka leaves for the Mages' Association in England to fix things. The Servants sense a new danger while dark creatures appear soon afterward. Shirou, as a precaution, sets off to ensure nobody is in danger and instead finds himself frequently meeting a mysterious girl, Caren Ortensia. Both Bazett and Shirou find themselves in a time loop that lasts four days, beginning on the fourth day of the Fifth Holy Grail War. Each time they die or survive four days, they always awake on the first day of the loop, aware of what has happened to them since the first time loop began. Determined to end the loop, Bazett, Avenger, and Shirou fight to discover the truth behind what is causing the endless four days. Characters Voiced by: Hitomi Nabatame (Fate/tiger colosseum, Fate/unlimited codes, Carnival Phantasm, Fate/kaleid liner Prisma Illya (anime), and Fate/hollow ataraxia (PSVita)) The first of the three protagonists. A mage from the Knights of the Red Branch sent by the Mage's Association to fight the Fifth Holy Grail War, born in Ireland as a descendant of old mage family. She originally summoned Lancer (her childhood hero), but was betrayed by her old colleague Kotomine and had her left arm with its Command Seals stolen. She was left for dead before she was discovered by Avenger, who created the time loop inside of Bazett's mind, so that she could stay alive from her fatal injuries. Bazett can directly fight and defeat Servants due to her family's combat-based magecraft and her ancestral Noble Phantasm: the sacred dagger Fragarach, which reverses time so that it always strikes first in response to her opponent's ultimate attack. She is mentioned very briefly in Fate/stay night but does not make an appearance. Voiced by Ami Koshimizu (Fate/tiger colosseum, the All Around Type-Moon Drama CD, Carnival Phantasm, Fate/kaleid liner Prisma Illya (anime) and Fate/hollow ataraxia (PSVita)) A new and central character to the story, Caren is a member of the Church and works as a priestess. She is kind and forgiving to the point that she believes her only purpose in life is to help others, even if she is hurt in the process. She never blames the person who has hurt her and blames the act on demons who caused the person to commit the sin. Whenever she is at fault, she apologizes to God rather than the person. Despite her kindness, she has a love for teasing and exploiting others' emotional vulnerability. Upon discovery of an individual's weak spot, she enjoys bringing it out to light in front of all to witness. While this antagonizes many characters and causes much outrage and humiliation, she herself remains calm. Also, in spite of being a priestess, she has deliberately chosen to wear a revealing costume with no skirt to both increase her mobility and to seduce men. As a member of the Church, Caren assists in exorcisms. Her body itself possesses an unusual property: if there is a person nearby who has been possessed by a demon, she will experience the same pain as the possessed person. As a result, exorcists employ her to act as a radar of sorts to find demons. This ability is most evident whenever she comes in proximity to the Servant Avenger as her body sprouts grotesque spikes. As a result of this power, she is always covered in bandages. She also experiences physical pain whenever people in proximity do evil things. In battle, she uses a red cloth of Magdala, which has the power to forcefully bind men. However, while the man is bound, no harmful physical attacks can be made against him or Magdala will be rendered useless. She is actually the daughter of Kotomine Kirei and hates him for abandoning her. In the epilogue, she has some interest in Shirou due to her close interactions with Avenger in the time loop, even painting him with oil to resemble the latter. She also wields control over Lancer, much to Bazett's dismay, as compensation for having saved Bazett, and refuses to return the Command Seals to Bazett unless she can have Bazett's current artificial hand, which the both of them have come to see as a sentimental reminder of Avenger. Voiced by (Takuma Terashima in Fate/tiger colosseum, Fate/hollow ataraxia (PSVita), and Fate/Grand Order) The 8th Servant, who was summoned in the 3rd war in lieu of a Berserker and another of the main protagonists. Avenger was originally a normal boy in the ancient middle east who, in a cruel twist of fate, was labeled as Angra Mainyu via a random lottery and was tortured until he died of old age so that he, as the embodiment of evil itself, could allow the other villagers to live free of sin and as a result became the first "Anti-Hero" to enter the Throne of Heroes, as well as becoming the model from which all martyrs within the Throne of Heroes stem from. He was later summoned as Avenger in the Third Grail War by the Einzbern in an attempt to cheat, but was the first to die (as he is not the actual Angra Mainyu, who had long since left for the Other Side of the World) and corrupted the Grail, as the belief of others had made him into All The World's Evils even though the Grail recognized him as a human with a wish it needed to fulfill (his own rebirth as Angra Mainyu), his presence within the Grail is what allows for the summoning of some of history and mythology's greatest villains and monsters as "heroes". He was released when Emiya Shirou and Saber utterly annihilated the Grail at the end of the Fifth Grail War and came across a dying Bazett and responded to her wish to live, by creating the time loop inside of Bazett's mind and created replicas of characters this dream world, but as he did not personally experience the Fifth Grail War, he instead recreated it using the Fifth's replica participants and with the Third Grail War's development as the base. He then took part in the loop using Emiya Shirou's body as a shell, allowing him to experience the peaceful daily life that Shirou experiences. He wields a pair of misshapen and brittle daggers in combat and his Noble Phantasm is "Verg Avesta" which reflects the pain caused by an opponent's attack back at them. He eventually decides to end the loop after realizing all the trouble he has caused and, with help from his new friends and allies, fights off the pieces of him that protect the Grail and ends the loop for good, but not before using the hidden crack that was opened in space-time of reality in real world made by Rin's copy of the Jeweled Sword of Zelretch by transfer and stabilize the timeline he helped create in the mind of Bazett, thus reviving the participants who died in the real Fifth Holy Grail War more than half a year ago (Masters and Servants, except Kotomine Kirei) and transferring the memories that Avenger did when he acted as Shirou for the true Shirou, so he can live and act on them (except the parts concerning Avenger and his remains as Shades so to hide his existence from Shirou) and so Shirou, Caren, and Bazett can live out whatever life they had made in this new timeline. He is one of the three main protagonists in the story. Within this installment, Shirou experiences unexpected changes in personality and momentary lapses in memory, particularly related to his own skills. It is later revealed that this is because "Shirou" is connected to Avenger in some mysterious way, causing them to switch places when night falls, implying Avenger is either hiding in Shirō's body or is taking his form during the day, but forgets due to his "non-existence" being overwritten by the earth's laws. Once Shirou/Avenger discovers the truth, he becomes conflicted, as Shirou, with his naive sense of justice, wants to end the loop while Avenger wants to keep living his days out as Shirou, constantly repeating the cycle so that he can experience, by proxy, the life of a normal boy that he never had. When he finally convinces Bazett to finish the word loop, it is revealed that Shirou being possessed by Avenger was nothing more than a replica of Shirou that Avenger created to realize his personal desire, while the real Shirou and his friends were still present in the real world, in Fuyuki, after the events of Fifth Holy Grail War and having passed more than half a year. Once Avenger finally ends the loop and frees Bazett, before completely disappearing Avenger/Grail found the hidden crack that opened with the experiment caused by Rin to use the copy Zelretch's Jeweled Sword which she obtained with the help of Shirou and Illya six months after the Fifth Holy Grail War and using what was left of his power as Grail, Avenger corrected the slot and replaced the original timeline with the one he helped to create in Bazett's mind, thus reviving the Masters and Servants who died or disappeared (in the case of Saber) during the conflict (except Kotomine Kirei) and transferring the memories of all the times when the replicas of Fuyuki people who were present in the world loop made, including the true Shirou, so he and his friends would not be suspicious that the Masters and Servants who died more than half a year were killed really and making them think that they survived the end of Fifth Holy Grail War and living with them all this time, with the only people knowing all occurring being only Bazett, Caren, Illya, and Caster. In epilogue, the true Shirou is tricked into allowing Bazett and Caren stay at the Emiya household. Saber is portrayed as having become more willing to open up and try and embrace her gender, rather than rejecting it as she did before, and engages in traditionally feminine tasks such as baking and is willing to wear more overtly feminine clothes (i.e. a bikini or a blouse) if it means impressing Shirou, as the lack of combat during the daytime and co-habitation with Rider and Rin has made Saber extremely self-conscious over her lack of femininity. She has also gained a taste for Japanese sweets, venturing out into town on her own to purchase them with the allowance Taiga gives her. She remains fiercely loyal to Shirou/Avenger and several times puts her life on the line (and loses it) to protect him. As she gets more in touch with her gender, Saber also begins to reveal more about her real personality: she is loyal and brave, but is also painfully shy and gets extremely jealous when other girls express interest in her master, such as when Shirou/Avenger has dinner with Sakura. If the player follows her character arc far enough, Saber will eventually confide in Shirou/Avenger that, while she loves living in Japan with him and their friends, she is beginning to feel homesick and wishes to return to England someday if only to visit, hoping that Shirou will come with her. Saber Alter also exists within her, and comes out whenever Saber's stray hair strand is pulled off, though it regenerates with time; Saber Alter is portrayed as the opposite of Saber, as she is blunt, loud, no-nonsense, and enjoys cheap, greasy fast food such as hamburgers. In the first half of the game, Rin is in London. She returns in the second half with an apparently dramatic change in personality (specifically, a penchant for cosplaying as a miko or magical girls). However, she has also become an experienced mage, demonstrating this when she was the first to logically compose an explanation as to why time has been looping for four days and when she gives Shirou advice. In Fate/hollow ataraxia, she wields the Kaleidostick, another of Zeltretch's inventions which, when activated, transfers knowledge from an alternate version of its user into its current wielder, in addition to providing an ample source of Mana. However, the Kaleidostick dislikes its creator, and frequently manipulates its user into humiliating situations. Her tsundere personality is shown in greater detail here as seen in her interactions. She is shown to be very stingy, bossy and quite mischievous. She makes fun of Shirou several times. She has feelings for Shirou after watching him stubbornly attempting to do a high jump that he had no chance. Although she calls him an idiot, Rin admires Shirou for his tenacity and kind-heart. In Fate/hollow ataraxia, the Kaleidostick is responsible for transforming Rin into the magical girl Kaleido-Ruby. Rin is partially responsible for the current state of affairs in the universe of Fate/stay night. After the Fifth Holy Grail War was finished, she and Shirou's sister, Ilyasviel von Einzbern, were experimenting with creating a copy of the legendary Jeweled Sword of Zelretch and accidentally causing with that any outcome can be drawn in Fuyuki, which meant that at any time, the crack that Rin created by accident and was hidden somewhere in the reality of Fuyuki space-time could be used to alter reality and the timeline in which they were living and could be radically changed from overnight anytime. This is proved in the game's prologue, when the game starts and which is the same time the world loop created by Avenger ended to free Bazett of her comatose for more than half a year, the reality that Shirou and his friends knew how finished the Fifth Holy Grail war and all Servants gone with the end of the war was completely changed when Avenger, using his last strength as the Grail before disappearing completely, found that crack and corrected by transfer timeline effects that he had helped to create in the mind of Bazett when he was performing the world loop, causing the Fate, Unlimited Blade Works, and Heaven's Feel routes of the original visual novel to converge into a single timeline and then stabilized by seal that crack, resurrecting in the process the Masters and Servants (except Kotomine, Zouken and True Assassin) who died in that conflict in the real world. Sakura has developed greatly as a character. Sakura while still retaining her reticent nature throughout the game starts becoming a self confident and self sufficient person both as a magi and as a leader so much so that she even manages to scold Taiga into submission. Sakura has now become the captain of the school's Archery club where which she diligently leads with great skill under the tutelage of Ayako Mitsuzuri. Sakura has become one of the club's top archers to the point that it leads Taiga to believe they could win tournaments. Sakura now stays at the Emiya residence on weekends, holidays and special occasions while becoming the head of the Matou household having ousted Zouken for control. Rider had even said that both Shinji and Zouken are now afraid of her. Sakura continues to assist in cooking having become a sous chef of sorts to Shirou the primary chef of the household and maintaining the upkeep of the Emiya household. Sakura's specialty is apparently pastries beating every other cook in the game in this regard. She and Rin now have a great relationship truly becoming sisters, with Rin educating her in cooking and magecraft despite that Sakura maintains slight resentment and an inferiority complex towards Rin. When it comes to Shirou she still displays jealousy towards other women when Shirou pays them attention over her and continues to pampers and dotes him. Sakura's evil and sadistic side from the Heaven's Feel route of Fate/stay night only comes out every now and then as comic relief in the game. Since the war, Rider has begun staying at the Emiya household, becoming the de facto adult and breadwinner of the home. She got a job at an antique store to bring some much needed income to the household and mocks Saber as being nothing more than a freeloader, though the two made up after Rider bought her some sweets. She has feelings for Shirou due to him being the first male in her life to treat her with care and respect and once had sex with him while he slept, using an illusion to disguise herself within his dreams and openly admitting that she was open to the idea of a polyamorous relationship between herself, Shirou, and Sakura. She, like Saber, is having trouble adjusting to the modern world and must have basic concepts such as apologizing explained to her at length. Other characters While playing less prominent roles, all Masters and Servants of the fifth Holy Grail War from Fate/stay night appear again, with the exception of Kirei Kotomine, Zouken Matou and True Assassin, as they were never destined to survive the Fifth Holy Grail War (with Kotomine having been cursed with an artificial heart in the Fourth Holy Grail War, and both Zouken Matou and True Assassin only appeared in the Heaven's Feel route). Despite this, Zouken is mentioned as still being alive by Shinji. Adaptations Manga There have been many sets of manga anthologies bases on the series produced by different companies and drawn by a multitude of different artists. The first volume of the earliest anthology series was released by Ichijinsha with the title Fate/Hollow Ataraxia Anthology Comic, on January 7, 2006 under their DNA Media Comics imprint; the fifteenth volume in the series was released on August 25, 2008. Two anthology series were then released by Kadokawa, the first was Fate/hollow Ataraxia ~ Comic la carte, released on January 10, 2006. The second, Fate/hollow ataraxia Comic a la carte ~Happy Life hen~, was released on May 24, 2006. Another two anthology series were then released by Enterbrain. Fate/hollow ataraxia Anthology Comic was released between January 30, 2006 and May 25, 2007 in nine volumes under their Magi-Cu Comics imprint. A 4-koma series was later published by Enterbrain between December 25, 2007 and December 25, 2008 in six volumes. In 2013, a Fate/hollow ataraxia manga illustrated by Medori and published by Kadokawa began serializing. Music A soundtrack to the game, entitled Fate/hollow ataraxia Original Sound Track was published by Geneon Entertainment on November 23, 2005. The single "Hollow" was released by Type-Moon on October 28, 2005. Reception Fate/hollow ataraxia became one of the top selling visual novels of 2005. The PS Vita port sold 53,979 copies within the first week of release in Japan, ranking at fourth place amongst all Japanese software sales for that week's sales charts. Notes References External links Type-Moon official Japanese homepage for Fate/hollow ataraxia'' 2005 video games Bishōjo games Fate/stay night video games Eroge Visual novels Japan-exclusive video games Type-Moon Windows games PlayStation Vita games Shōnen manga Harem video games Video games about time loops Video games developed in Japan
4861356	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judicial%20review%20in%20the%20United%20States	Judicial review in the United States	In the United States, judicial review is the legal power of a court to determine if a statute, treaty, or administrative regulation contradicts or violates the provisions of existing law, a State Constitution, or ultimately the United States Constitution. While the U.S. Constitution does not explicitly define the power of judicial review, the authority for judicial review in the United States has been inferred from the structure, provisions, and history of the Constitution. Two landmark decisions by the U.S. Supreme Court served to confirm the inferred constitutional authority for judicial review in the United States. In 1796, Hylton v. United States was the first case decided by the Supreme Court involving a direct challenge to the constitutionality of an act of Congress, the Carriage Act of 1794 which imposed a "carriage tax". The Court performed judicial review of the plaintiff's claim that the carriage tax was unconstitutional. After review, the Supreme Court decided the Carriage Act was constitutional. In 1803, Marbury v. Madison was the first Supreme Court case where the Court asserted its authority to strike down a law as unconstitutional. At the end of his opinion in this decision, Chief Justice John Marshall maintained that the Supreme Court's responsibility to overturn unconstitutional legislation was a necessary consequence of their sworn oath of office to uphold the Constitution as instructed in Article Six of the Constitution. , the United States Supreme Court has held 176 Acts of the U.S. Congress unconstitutional. In the period 1960–2019, the Supreme Court has held 483 laws unconstitutional in whole or in part. Judicial review before the Constitution Hamilton wrote, in Federalist 78:But it is not with a view to infractions of the Constitution only, that the independence of the judges may be an essential safeguard against the effects of occasional ill humors in the society. These sometimes extend no farther than to the injury of particular citizens' private rights, by unjust and partial laws. Here also the firmness of the judicial magistracy is of vast importance in mitigating the severity and confining the operation of such laws. It not only serves to moderate the immediate mischiefs of those which may have been passed, but it operates as a check upon the legislative body in passing them...The first American decision to recognize the principle of judicial review was Bayard v. Singleton, decided in 1787 by the Supreme Court of North Carolina's predecessor. The North Carolina court and its counterparts in other states treated state constitutions as statements of governing law to be interpreted and applied by judges. These courts reasoned that because their state constitution was the fundamental law of the state, they must apply the state constitution rather than an act of the legislature that was inconsistent with the state constitution. These state court cases involving judicial review were reported in the press and produced public discussion and comment. Notable state cases involving judicial review include Commonwealth v. Caton (Virginia, 1782), Rutgers v. Waddington (New York, 1784), Trevett v. Weeden (Rhode Island, 1786). Scholar Larry Kramer agreed with Justice Iredell that any judge who enforces an unconstitutional law becomes complicit in the unconstitutionality and that they themselves become lawbreakers. At least seven of the delegates to the Constitutional Convention, including Alexander Hamilton, John Blair Jr. George Wythe, and Edmund Randolph, had personal experience with judicial review because they had been lawyers or judges in these state court cases involving judicial review. Other delegates referred to some of these state court cases during the debates at the Constitutional Convention. The concept of judicial review therefore was familiar to the framers and to the public before the Constitutional Convention. Some historians argue that Dr. Bonham's Case was influential in the development of judicial review in the United States. Provisions of the Constitution The text of the Constitution does not contain a specific reference to the power of judicial review. Rather, the power to declare laws unconstitutional has been deemed an implied power, derived from Article III and Article VI. The provisions relating to the federal judicial power in Article III state: The Supremacy Clause of Article VI states: The power of judicial review has been implied from these provisions based on the following reasoning. It is the inherent duty of the courts to determine the applicable law in any given case. The Supremacy Clause says "[t]his Constitution" is the "supreme law of the land." The Constitution therefore is the fundamental law of the United States. Federal statutes are the law of the land only when they are "made in pursuance" of the Constitution. State constitutions and statutes are valid only if they are consistent with the Constitution. Any law contrary to the Constitution is void. The federal judicial power extends to all cases "arising under this Constitution." As part of their inherent duty to determine the law, the federal courts have the duty to interpret and apply the Constitution and to decide whether a federal or state statute conflicts with the Constitution. All judges are bound to follow the Constitution. If there is a conflict, the federal courts have a duty to follow the Constitution and to treat the conflicting statute as unenforceable. The Supreme Court has final appellate jurisdiction in all cases arising under the Constitution, so the Supreme Court has the ultimate authority to decide whether statutes are consistent with the Constitution. Statements by the framers of the Constitution regarding judicial review Constitutional Convention During the debates at the Constitutional Convention, the Founding Fathers made a number of references to the concept of judicial review. The greatest number of these references occurred during the discussion of the proposal known as the Virginia Plan. The Virginia Plan included a "council of revision" that would have examined proposed new federal laws and would have accepted or rejected them, similar to today's presidential veto. The "council of revision" would have included the president along with some federal judges. Several delegates objected to the inclusion of federal judges on the council of revision. They argued the federal judiciary, through its power to declare laws unconstitutional, already had the opportunity to protect against legislative encroachment, and the judiciary did not need a second way to negate laws by participating in the council of revision. For example, Elbridge Gerry said federal judges "would have a sufficient check against encroachments on their own department by their exposition of the laws, which involved a power of deciding on their constitutionality. In some states the judges had actually set aside laws, as being against the constitution. This was done too with general approbation." Luther Martin said: "[A]s to the constitutionality of laws, that point will come before the judges in their official character. In this character they have a negative on the laws. Join them with the executive in the revision, and they will have a double negative." These and other similar comments by the delegates indicated that the federal courts would have the power of judicial review. Other delegates argued that if federal judges were involved in the law-making process through participation on the council of revision, their objectivity as judges in later deciding on the constitutionality of those laws could be impaired. These comments indicated a belief that the federal courts would have the power to declare laws unconstitutional. At several other points in the debates at the Constitutional Convention, delegates made comments indicating their belief that under the Constitution, federal judges would have the power of judicial review. For example, James Madison said: "A law violating a constitution established by the people themselves, would be considered by the Judges as null & void." George Mason said that federal judges "could declare an unconstitutional law void." However, Mason added that the power of judicial review is not a general power to strike down all laws, but only ones that are unconstitutional: But with regard to every law however unjust, oppressive or pernicious, which did not come plainly under this description, they would be under the necessity as Judges to give it a free course. In all, fifteen delegates from nine states made comments regarding the power of the federal courts to review the constitutionality of laws. All but two of them supported the idea that the federal courts would have the power of judicial review. Some delegates to the Constitutional Convention did not speak about judicial review during the Convention, but did speak about it before or after the Convention. Including these additional comments by Convention delegates, scholars have found that twenty-five or twenty-six of the Convention delegates made comments indicating support for judicial review, while three to six delegates opposed judicial review. One review of the debates and voting records of the convention counted as many as forty delegates who supported judicial review, with four or five opposed. In their comments relating to judicial review, the framers indicated that the power of judges to declare laws unconstitutional was part of the system of separation of powers. The framers stated that the courts' power to declare laws unconstitutional would provide a check on the legislature, protecting against excessive exercise of legislative power. State ratification debates Judicial review was discussed in at least seven of the thirteen state ratifying conventions, and was mentioned by almost two dozen delegates. In each of these conventions, delegates asserted that the proposed Constitution would allow the courts to exercise judicial review. There is no record of any delegate to a state ratifying convention who indicated that the federal courts would not have the power of judicial review. For example, James Wilson asserted in the Pennsylvania ratifying convention that federal judges would exercise judicial review: "If a law should be made inconsistent with those powers vested by this instrument in Congress, the judges, as a consequence of their independence, and the particular powers of government being defined, will declare such law to be null and void. For the power of the Constitution predominates. Anything, therefore, that shall be enacted by Congress contrary thereto will not have the force of law." In the Connecticut ratifying convention, Oliver Ellsworth likewise described judicial review as a feature of the Constitution: "This Constitution defines the extent of the powers of the general government. If the general legislature should at any time overleap their limits, the judicial department is a constitutional check. If the United States go beyond their powers, if they make a law which the Constitution does not authorize, it is void; and the judicial power, the national judges, who, to secure their impartiality, are to be made independent, will declare it to be void." During the ratification process, supporters and opponents of ratification published pamphlets, essays, and speeches debating various aspects of the Constitution. Publications by over a dozen authors in at least twelve of the thirteen states asserted that under the Constitution, the federal courts would have the power of judicial review. There is no record of any opponent to the Constitution who claimed that the Constitution did not involve a power of judicial review. After reviewing the statements made by the founders, one scholar concluded: "The evidence from the Constitutional Convention and from the state ratification conventions is overwhelming that the original public meaning of the term 'judicial power' [in Article III] included the power to nullify unconstitutional laws." The Federalist Papers The Federalist Papers, which were published in 1787–1788 to promote ratification of the Constitution, made several references to the power of judicial review. The most extensive discussion of judicial review was in Federalist No. 78, written by Alexander Hamilton, which clearly explained that the federal courts would have the power of judicial review. Hamilton stated that under the Constitution, the federal judiciary would have the power to declare laws unconstitutional. Hamilton asserted that this was appropriate because it would protect the people against abuse of power by Congress: In Federalist No. 80, Hamilton rejected the idea that the power to decide the constitutionality of an act of Congress should lie with each of the states: "The mere necessity of uniformity in the interpretation of the national laws, decides the question. Thirteen independent courts of final jurisdiction over the same causes, arising upon the same laws, is a hydra in government, from which nothing but contradiction and confusion can proceed." Consistent with the need for uniformity in interpretation of the Constitution, Hamilton explained in Federalist No. 82 that the Supreme Court has authority to hear appeals from the state courts in cases relating to the Constitution. The arguments against ratification by the Anti-Federalists agreed that the federal courts would have the power of judicial review, though the Anti-Federalists viewed this negatively. Robert Yates, writing under the pseudonym "Brutus", stated: Judicial review between the adoption of the Constitution and Marbury Judiciary Act of 1789 The first Congress passed the Judiciary Act of 1789, establishing the lower federal courts and specifying the details of federal court jurisdiction. Section 25 of the Judiciary Act provided for the Supreme Court to hear appeals from state courts when the state court decided that a federal statute was invalid, or when the state court upheld a state statute against a claim that the state statute was repugnant to the Constitution. This provision gave the Supreme Court the power to review state court decisions involving the constitutionality of both federal statutes and state statutes. The Judiciary Act thereby incorporated the concept of judicial review. Court decisions from 1788 to 1803 Between the ratification of the Constitution in 1788 and the decision in Marbury v. Madison in 1803, judicial review was employed in both the federal and state courts. A detailed analysis has identified thirty-one state or federal cases during this time in which statutes were struck down as unconstitutional, and seven additional cases in which statutes were upheld but at least one judge concluded the statute was unconstitutional. The author of this analysis, Professor William Treanor, concluded: "The sheer number of these decisions not only belies the notion that the institution of judicial review was created by Chief Justice Marshall in Marbury, it also reflects widespread acceptance and application of the doctrine." Several other cases involving judicial review issues reached the Supreme Court before the issue was definitively decided in Marbury in 1803. In Hayburn's Case, 2 U.S. (2 Dall.) 408 (1792), federal circuit courts held an act of Congress unconstitutional for the first time. Three federal circuit courts found that Congress had violated the Constitution by passing an act requiring circuit court judges to decide pension applications, subject to the review of the Secretary of War. These circuit courts found that this was not a proper judicial function under Article III. These three decisions were appealed to the Supreme Court, but the appeals became moot when Congress repealed the statute while the appeals were pending. In an unreported Supreme Court decision in 1794, United States v. Yale Todd, the Supreme Court reversed a pension that was awarded under the same pension act that had been at issue in Hayburn's Case. The Court apparently decided that the act designating judges to decide pensions was not constitutional because this was not a proper judicial function. This apparently was the first Supreme Court case to find an act of Congress unconstitutional. However, there was not an official report of the case and it was not used as a precedent. Hylton v. United States, 3 U.S. (3 Dall.) 171 (1796), was the first case decided by the Supreme Court that involved a challenge to the constitutionality of an act of Congress. It was argued that a federal tax on carriages violated the constitutional provision regarding "direct" taxes. The Supreme Court upheld the tax, finding it was constitutional. Although the Supreme Court did not strike down the act in question, the Court engaged in the process of judicial review by considering the constitutionality of the tax. The case was widely publicized at the time, and observers understood that the Court was testing the constitutionality of an act of Congress. Because it found the statute valid, the Court did not have to assert that it had the power to declare a statute unconstitutional. In Ware v. Hylton, 3 U.S. (3 Dall.) 199 (1796), the Supreme Court for the first time struck down a state statute. The Court reviewed a Virginia statute regarding pre-Revolutionary war debts and found that it was inconsistent with the peace treaty between the United States and Great Britain. Relying on the Supremacy Clause, the Court found the Virginia statute invalid. In Hollingsworth v. Virginia, 3 U.S. (3 Dall.) 378 (1798), the Supreme Court found that it did not have jurisdiction to hear the case because of the jurisdiction limitations of the Eleventh Amendment. This holding could be viewed as an implicit finding that the Judiciary Act of 1789, which would have allowed the Court jurisdiction, was unconstitutional in part. However, the Court did not provide any reasoning for its conclusion and did not say that it was finding the statute unconstitutional. In Cooper v. Telfair, 4 U.S. (4 Dall.) 14 (1800), Justice Chase stated: "It is indeed a general opinion—it is expressly admitted by all this bar and some of the judges have, individually in the circuits decided, that the Supreme Court can declare an act of Congress to be unconstitutional, and therefore invalid, but there is no adjudication of the Supreme Court itself upon the point." Responses to the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions In 1798, the Kentucky and Virginia legislatures passed a series of resolutions asserting that the states have the power to determine whether acts of Congress are constitutional. In response, ten states passed their own resolutions disapproving the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions. Six of these states took the position that the power to declare acts of Congress unconstitutional lies in the federal courts, not in the state legislatures. For example, Vermont's resolution stated: "It belongs not to state legislatures to decide on the constitutionality of laws made by the general government; this power being exclusively vested in the judiciary courts of the Union." Thus, five years before Marbury v. Madison, a number of state legislatures stated their understanding that under the Constitution, the federal courts possess the power of judicial review. Marbury v. Madison Marbury was the first Supreme Court decision to strike down an act of Congress as unconstitutional. Chief Justice John Marshall wrote the opinion for a unanimous Court. The case arose when William Marbury filed a lawsuit seeking an order (a "writ of mandamus") requiring the Secretary of State, James Madison, to deliver to Marbury a commission appointing him as a justice of the peace. Marbury filed his case directly in the Supreme Court, invoking the Court's original jurisdiction, rather than filing in a lower court. The constitutional issue involved the question of whether the Supreme Court had jurisdiction to hear the case. The Judiciary Act of 1789 gave the Supreme Court original jurisdiction in cases involving writs of mandamus. So, under the Judiciary Act, the Supreme Court would have had jurisdiction to hear Marbury's case. However, the Constitution describes the cases in which the Supreme Court has original jurisdiction, and does not include mandamus cases. The Judiciary Act therefore attempted to give the Supreme Court jurisdiction that was not "warranted by the Constitution." Marshall's opinion stated that in the Constitution, the people established a government of limited powers: "The powers of the Legislature are defined and limited; and that those limits may not be mistaken or forgotten, the Constitution is written." The limits established in the Constitution would be meaningless "if these limits may at any time be passed by those intended to be restrained." Marshall observed that the Constitution is "the fundamental and paramount law of the nation", and that it cannot be altered by an ordinary act of the legislature. Therefore, "an act of the Legislature repugnant to the Constitution is void." Marshall then discussed the role of the courts, which is at the heart of the doctrine of judicial review. It would be an "absurdity", said Marshall, to require the courts to apply a law that is void. Rather, it is the inherent duty of the courts to interpret and apply the Constitution, and to determine whether there is a conflict between a statute and the Constitution: Marshall stated that the courts are authorized by the provisions of the Constitution itself to "look into" the Constitution, that is, to interpret and apply it, and that they have the duty to refuse to enforce any laws that are contrary to the Constitution. Specifically, Article III provides that the federal judicial power "is extended to all cases arising under the Constitution." Article VI requires judges to take an oath "to support this Constitution." Article VI also states that only laws "made in pursuance of the Constitution" are the law of the land. Marshall concluded: "Thus, the particular phraseology of the Constitution of the United States confirms and strengthens the principle, supposed to be essential to all written Constitutions, that a law repugnant to the Constitution is void, and that courts, as well as other departments, are bound by that instrument." Marbury long has been regarded as the seminal case with respect to the doctrine of judicial review. Some scholars have suggested that Marshall's opinion in Marbury essentially created judicial review. In his book The Least Dangerous Branch, Professor Alexander Bickel wrote: Other scholars view this as an overstatement, and argue that Marbury was decided in a context in which judicial review already was a familiar concept. These scholars point to the facts showing that judicial review was acknowledged by the Constitution's framers, was explained in the Federalist Papers and in the ratification debates, and was used by both state and federal courts for more than twenty years before Marbury, including the Supreme Court in Hylton v. United States. One scholar concluded: "[B]efore Marbury, judicial review had gained wide support." Judicial review after Marbury Marbury was the point at which the Supreme Court adopted a monitoring role over government actions. After the Court exercised its power of judicial review in Marbury, it avoided striking down a federal statute during the next fifty years. The court would not do so again until Dred Scott v. Sandford, 60 U.S. (19 How.) 393 (1857). However, the Supreme Court did exercise judicial review in other contexts. In particular, the Court struck down a number of state statutes that were contrary to the Constitution. The first case in which the Supreme Court struck down a state statute as unconstitutional was Fletcher v. Peck, 10 U.S. (6 Cranch) 87 (1810). In a few cases, state courts took the position that their judgments were final and were not subject to review by the Supreme Court. They argued that the Constitution did not give the Supreme Court the authority to review state court decisions. They asserted that the Judiciary Act of 1789, which provided that the Supreme Court could hear certain appeals from state courts, was unconstitutional. In effect, these state courts were asserting that the principle of judicial review did not extend to allow federal review of state court decisions. This would have left the states free to adopt their own interpretations of the Constitution. The Supreme Court rejected this argument. In Martin v. Hunter's Lessee, 14 U.S. (1 Wheat.) 304 (1816), the Court held that under Article III, the federal courts have jurisdiction to hear all cases arising under the Constitution and laws of the United States, and that the Supreme Court has appellate jurisdiction in all such cases, whether those cases are filed in state or federal courts. The Court issued another decision to the same effect in the context of a criminal case, Cohens v. Virginia, 19 U.S. (6 Wheat.) 264 (1821). It is now well established that the Supreme Court may review decisions of state courts that involve federal law. The Supreme Court also has reviewed actions of the federal executive branch to determine whether those actions were authorized by acts of Congress or were beyond the authority granted by Congress. Judicial review is now well established as a cornerstone of constitutional law. As of September 2017, the United States Supreme Court had held unconstitutional portions or the entirety of some 182 Acts of the U.S. Congress, the most recently in the Supreme Court's June 2017 Matal v. Tam and 2019 Iancu v. Brunetti decisions striking down a portion of July 1946's Lanham Act as they infringe on Freedom of Speech. Criticism of judicial review Although judicial review has now become an established part of constitutional law in the United States, there are some who disagree with the doctrine. One of the first critics of judicial review was Richard Dobbs Spaight, a signer of the Constitution. In a correspondence with Supreme Court Justice James Iredell, Spaight wrote of his disapproval of the doctrine: At the Constitutional Convention, neither proponents nor opponents of judicial review disputed that any government based on a written constitution requires some mechanism to prevent laws that violate that constitution from being made and enforced. Otherwise, the document would be meaningless, and the legislature, with the power to enact any laws whatsoever, would be the supreme arm of government (the British doctrine of parliamentary sovereignty). The delegates at the Convention differed with respect to the question of whether Congress or the judiciary should make determinations regarding constitutionality of statutes. Hamilton addressed this in Federalist No. 78, in which he explained the reasons that the federal judiciary has the role of reviewing the constitutionality of statutes: Since the adoption of the Constitution, some have argued that the power of judicial review gives the courts the ability to impose their own views of the law, without an adequate check from any other branch of government. Robert Yates, a delegate to the Constitutional Convention from New York, argued during the ratification process in the Anti-Federalist Papers that the courts would use the power of judicial review loosely to impose their views about the "spirit" of the Constitution: In 1820, Thomas Jefferson expressed his opposition to the doctrine of judicial review: In 1861, Abraham Lincoln touched upon the same subject, during his first inaugural address: Lincoln was alluding here to the case of Dred Scott v. Sandford, in which the Court had struck down a federal statute for the first time since Marbury v. Madison. Lincoln did more than argue against the finality of the Supreme Court's interpretation of the Constitution. On June 19, 1862, the 37th Congress enacted, and Lincoln signed, Act CXI of 1862 which explicitly overturned both holdings of the Dred Scott v. Sandford decision: "Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That from and after the passage of this act there shall be neither slavery nor involuntary servitude in any of the Territories of the United States now existing, or which may at any time hereafter be formed or acquired by the United States, otherwise than in punishment of crimes whereof the party shall have been duly convicted." It has been argued that the judiciary is not the only branch of government that may interpret the meaning of the Constitution. Article VI requires federal and state officeholders to be bound "by Oath or Affirmation, to support this Constitution." It has been argued that such officials may follow their own interpretations of the Constitution, at least until those interpretations have been tested in court. Some have argued that judicial review exclusively by the federal courts is unconstitutional<ref name="Crosskey">See W.W. Crosskey, Politics and the Constitution in the History of the United States (Chicago: 1953), chs. 27–29, with which compare Hart, Book Review, 67 Harv. L. Rev. 1456 (1954). A brief review of the debate on the subject is Westin, "Introduction: Charles Beard and American Debate over Judicial Review, 1790–1961", in: C. Beard, The Supreme Court and the Constitution (Englewood Cliffs: 1962 reissue of 1938 ed.), 1–34, and bibliography at 133–149. See more at: http://constitution.findlaw.com/article3/annotation13.html#f576</ref> based on two arguments. First, the power of judicial review is not delegated to the federal courts in the Constitution. The Tenth Amendment reserves to the states (or to the people) those powers not delegated to the federal government. The second argument is that the states alone have the power to ratify changes to the "supreme law" (the U.S. Constitution), and each state's understanding of the language of the amendment therefore becomes germane to its implementation and effect, making it necessary that the states play some role in interpreting its meaning. Under this theory, allowing only federal courts to definitively conduct judicial review of federal law allows the national government to interpret its own restrictions as it sees fit, with no meaningful input from the ratifying, that is, validating power. Standard of review In the United States, unconstitutionality is the only ground for a federal court to strike down a federal statute. Justice Washington, speaking for the Marshall Court, put it this way in an 1829 case: If a state statute conflicts with a valid federal statute, then courts may strike down the state statute as an unstatutable violation of the Supremacy Clause. But a federal court may not strike down a statute absent a violation of federal law or of the federal Constitution. Moreover, a suspicion or possibility of unconstitutionality is not enough for American courts to strike down a statute. Alexander Hamilton explained in Federalist 78 that the standard of review should be "irreconcilable variance" with the Constitution. Anti-federalists agreed that courts would be unable to strike down federal statutes absent a conflict with the Constitution. For example, Robert Yates, writing under the pseudonym "Brutus", asserted that "the courts of the general government [will] be under obligation to observe the laws made by the general legislature not repugnant to the constitution." These principles—that federal statutes can only be struck down for unconstitutionality and that the unconstitutionality must be clear—were very common views at the time of the framing of the Constitution. For example, George Mason explained during the constitutional convention that judges "could declare an unconstitutional law void. But with regard to every law, however unjust, oppressive or pernicious, which did not come plainly under this description, they would be under the necessity as Judges to give it a free course." For a number of years, the courts were relatively deferential to Congress. Justice Washington put it this way, in an 1827 case: "It is but a decent respect to the wisdom, integrity, and patriotism of the legislative body, by which any law is passed, to presume in favor of its validity, until its violation of the Constitution is proved beyond a reasonable doubt." Although judges usually adhered to this principle that a statute could only be deemed unconstitutional in case of a clear contradiction until the twentieth century, this presumption of constitutionality weakened somewhat during the twentieth century, as exemplified by the Supreme Court's famous footnote four in United States v. Carolene Products Co., 304 U.S. 144 (1938), which suggested that statutes may be subjected to closer scrutiny in certain types of cases. Nevertheless, the federal courts have not departed from the principle that courts may only strike down statutes for unconstitutionality. Of course, the practical implication of this principle is that a court cannot strike down a statute, even if it recognizes that the statute is obviously poorly drafted, irrational, or arises from legislators' corrupt motives, unless the flaw in the statute rises to the level of a clear constitutional violation. In 2008, Justice John Paul Stevens reaffirmed this point in a concurring opinion: "[A]s I recall my esteemed former colleague, Thurgood Marshall, remarking on numerous occasions: 'The Constitution does not prohibit legislatures from enacting stupid laws.'" In the federal system, courts may only decide actual cases or controversies; it is not possible to request the federal courts to review a law without at least one party having legal standing to engage in a lawsuit. This principle means that courts sometimes do not exercise their power of review, even when a law is seemingly unconstitutional, for want of jurisdiction. In some state courts, such as the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court, legislation may be referred in certain circumstances by the legislature or by the executive for an advisory ruling on its constitutionality prior to its enactment (or enforcement). The U.S. Supreme Court seeks to avoid reviewing the Constitutionality of an act where the case before it could be decided on other grounds, an attitude and practice exemplifying judicial restraint. Justice Brandeis framed it thus (citations omitted): Laws limiting judicial review Although the Supreme Court continues to review the constitutionality of statutes, Congress and the states retain some power to influence what cases come before the Court. For example, the Constitution at Article III, Section 2, gives Congress power to make exceptions to the Supreme Court's appellate jurisdiction. The Supreme Court has historically acknowledged that its appellate jurisdiction is defined by Congress, and thus Congress may have power to make some legislative or executive actions unreviewable. This is known as jurisdiction stripping. Another way for Congress to limit judicial review was tried in January 1868, when a bill was proposed requiring a two-thirds majority of the Court in order to deem any Act of Congress unconstitutional. The bill was approved by the House, 116 to 39. That measure died in the Senate, partly because the bill was unclear about how the bill's own constitutionality would be decided. Many other bills have been proposed in Congress that would require a supermajority in order for the justices to exercise judicial review. During the early years of the United States, a two-thirds majority was necessary for the Supreme Court to exercise judicial review; because the Court then consisted of six members, a simple majority and a two-thirds majority both required four votes. Currently, the constitutions of two states require a supermajority of supreme court justices in order to exercise judicial review: Nebraska (five out of seven justices) and North Dakota (four out of five justices). Administrative review The procedure for judicial review of federal administrative regulation in the United States is set forth by the Administrative Procedure Act although the courts have ruled such as in Bivens v. Six Unknown Named Agents'' that a person may bring a case on the grounds of an implied cause of action when no statutory procedure exists. Notes Further reading Legal history of the United States Federal judiciary of the United States United States Article Three of the United States Constitution Article Six of the United States Constitution
4861876	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2005%20UEFA%20Champions%20League%20final	2005 UEFA Champions League final	The 2005 UEFA Champions League final was the final match of the 2004–05 UEFA Champions League, Europe's primary club football competition. The showpiece event was contested between Liverpool of England and Milan of Italy at the Atatürk Olympic Stadium in Istanbul, Turkey on 25 May 2005. Liverpool, who had won the competition four times, were appearing in their sixth final, and their first since 1985. Milan, who had won the competition six times, were appearing in their second final in three years and tenth overall. Each club needed to progress through the group stage and knockout rounds to reach the final, playing 12 matches in total. Liverpool finished second in their group behind 2004 runners-up AS Monaco and subsequently beat Bayer Leverkusen, Juventus and Chelsea to progress to the final. Milan won their group ahead of Barcelona and faced Manchester United, Inter Milan and PSV before reaching the final. Milan were regarded as favourites before the match and took the lead within the first minute through captain Paolo Maldini. Milan striker Hernán Crespo added two more goals before half-time to make it 3–0. In the second half Liverpool launched a comeback and scored three goals in a dramatic six-minute spell to level the scores at 3–3, with goals from Steven Gerrard, Vladimír Šmicer and Xabi Alonso. The scores remained the same during extra time, and a penalty shoot-out was required to decide the champions. The score was 3–2 to Liverpool when Andriy Shevchenko's penalty was saved by Liverpool goalkeeper Jerzy Dudek. The match is widely regarded as one of the greatest Champions League finals of all time, and has since been titled by Liverpool supporters as the "Miracle of Istanbul". Route to the final Teams qualified for the Champions League group stage, either directly or through three preliminary rounds, based on both their position in the preceding domestic league and the strength of that league. Each club needed to progress through the group stage and knockout rounds to reach the final, playing 12 matches in total. Liverpool finished second in their group behind 2004 Champions League runners-up AS Monaco. In Liverpool's final group stage match against Olympiacos on 8 December, Steven Gerrard scored a 25-yard half volley in the 86th minute to send the club through to the knockout round. In the knockout rounds, Liverpool beat Bayer Leverkusen, Juventus and Chelsea to progress to the final. The winning goal in the semi-final scored by Luis García was dubbed a ghost goal by Chelsea manager José Mourinho. Milan won their group ahead of Barcelona and faced Manchester United, Inter Milan and PSV Eindhoven before reaching the final. Liverpool entered the competition in the third qualifying round after finishing fourth in the 2003–04 FA Premier League. They faced Austrian side Grazer AK and won the first leg 2–0 at Graz after two goals from captain Steven Gerrard. They lost the second leg 1–0 at Anfield but progressed to the group stage by virtue of winning the tie 2–1 on aggregate. Milan entered the competition in the group stage after winning Serie A. The group stages were contested as eight double round-robin groups of four teams, the top two qualifying for the knockout stages. Knockout ties were decided based on home and away matches. Build-up The final was held at Atatürk Olympic Stadium, it was the first time a European final had been held in Turkey. There were reservations about holding the final in Turkey but UEFA chief executive, Lars-Christer Olsson was satisfied by the assurances of the Turkish authorities: "The conditions there are the same, generally, as for all countries and they have given guarantees, this is important, especially since their experiences last autumn. We have also asked for additional investments in the infrastructure around the stadium and they have agreed to this, too." This was the Liverpool's sixth final and it was their first appearance since the 1985 European Cup final, when they lost 1–0 to Juventus and were subsequently banned from European competition for six years due to the Heysel Stadium disaster. They had previously won the European Cup on four occasions in 1977, 1978, 1981 and 1984. The match was Milan's tenth appearance in the final. They had won on six occasions (1963, 1969, 1989, 1990, 1994, 2003), and lost three times (1958, 1993, 1995). In total the teams had participated in 14 finals between them. Prior to the game, Milan were assured of entering the Champions League the following season after finishing second in Serie A. Liverpool meanwhile had failed to finish in the top four in the Premier League, and had to win the final to enter the competition the following season. Even if they did win the match, they were not assured of a place after UEFA failed to confirm whether they would allow Liverpool to defend the championship. The Football Association supported Liverpool, stating, "We have already submitted a written request to have an additional place, should they win the Champions League". Milan manager Carlo Ancelotti said "I think a team that wins should have the right to defend it but we may just do the English federation a favour and solve this." Each team was allocated 20,000 tickets for the final, out of a total of 69,000. 14,400 tickets were made available to the general public, with half of those allocated through a ballot on UEFA's website, and the other half reserved for Turkish fans by the Turkish Football Federation. The final 14,600 tickets were distributed to UEFA's "football family", consisting of UEFA officials, national football associations, commercial partners and broadcasters. Hotel rooms in the city were scarce, with the 100,000 available quickly booked by travel agents and fans. The BBC reported early arrivals were lively but there was no violence and the mood between the two fans was friendly. Milan were regarded as favourites and their team included many players who had experienced success in the competition. The most notable was captain Paolo Maldini, who had won the competition four times previously, all with Milan, and Clarence Seedorf who had won the competition three times with three clubs. Liverpool had been considered underdogs throughout the competition, but had beaten more favoured opposition, including Juventus and Chelsea, to reach the final. Liverpool manager Rafael Benítez acknowledged this: "Maybe Milan are favourites, but we have confidence, and we can win". Arsenal manager Arsène Wenger felt Liverpool would win the match: "I fancy Liverpool as Milan look jaded physically and certainly mentally, by losing the [Serie A] title, I think they have never had a better chance than now to beat Milan." Liverpool defender Jamie Carragher was not so optimistic, stating that the Liverpool side were not as good as the one that had won the 2001 UEFA Cup Final: "No disrespect to the squad we have got now but it is obvious we are not as strong as we were when we won the UEFA Cup in 2001. Back then we had a settled team and that season when we went into games against Barcelona and Roma, we always felt we were as good as them." Milan were expected to field a 4–4–2 formation, and there was much speculation about who would partner Andriy Shevchenko in attack. Filippo Inzaghi and Jon Dahl Tomasson were touted, but it was expected that on-loan striker Hernán Crespo would be chosen. This was echoed by Milan manager Ancelotti: "I will not say if he will play from the start, but he will definitely play." Liverpool were also expected to adopt a 4–4–2 formation. Dietmar Hamann was expected to start ahead of Igor Bišćan, and when questioned over whether Djibril Cissé or Milan Baroš would start as main striker, Benítez replied, "Both are good enough, maybe both can play, why not?" The referee for the final was Manuel Mejuto González, who led an all-Spanish crew of officials. His assistant referees were Oscar Martínez Samaniego and Clemente Ayete Plou, and the fourth official was Arturo Daudén Ibáñez. Mejuto González was only the third Spanish referee to officiate a European Cup final, following Manuel Díaz Vega in 1996 and José María Ortiz de Mendíbil in 1969. Match First half Liverpool fielded a 4–4–1–1 formation, with the surprise inclusion in the squad being Harry Kewell, who played just behind Milan Baroš, who himself had been picked ahead of Djibril Cissé. The inclusion of Kewell meant Dietmar Hamann was left on the substitutes' bench and Xabi Alonso and Steven Gerrard started in the centre of midfield. Milan fielded a 4–4–2 diamond formation, with Hernán Crespo preferred to Jon Dahl Tomasson and Filippo Inzaghi, who was not included in the match day squad. Liverpool lined up in their red home kit, whilst Milan wore a changed strip of all white, which they historically used in European Cup finals. Liverpool won the coin toss and kicked off. Milan scored within the first minute of the match after captain Paolo Maldini volleyed in an Andrea Pirlo free kick that had been conceded by Djimi Traoré. The goal made Maldini the oldest scorer in the history of the competition. Liverpool responded almost immediately; John Arne Riise, who was picked out by a corner kick from Steven Gerrard, hit a volley from the edge of the penalty box. His shot was cleared only for Gerrard to cross in from the right wing, which Sami Hyypiä headed towards goal producing a save out of Dida. Milan almost extended their lead in the 13th minute, after Crespo's header was cleared off the goal line by Luis García. A few minutes later, Liverpool made a substitution after Harry Kewell picked up a groin injury; he was replaced by Vladimír Šmicer. Soon after, Kaká passed through to Andriy Shevchenko who put his shot past Liverpool goalkeeper Jerzy Dudek, but Shevchenko was adjudged to have been in an offside position and the goal did not stand. Shevchenko had another chance to score a few minutes later; after being played onside by Traore, his shot was saved by Dudek after he came under pressure from the Liverpool defence. Luis García had two chances to score following Shevchenko's shot; the first shot from the edge of the penalty area went well over the crossbar and after he was headed through by Baroš his next shot went wide. Straight after this attack, Crespo went through on goal only to be flagged for offside. Almost immediately after this, Liverpool had a penalty claim turned down after Alessandro Nesta allegedly handballed. Milan countered and scored; Kaka dribbled the ball into the Liverpool half and passed to Shevchenko, who passed to Crespo at the far post to score and make it 2–0. Minutes later, Crespo extended Milan's lead with a chip over Dudek after Kaka provided the assist to make it 3–0. Second half At the start of the second half, Liverpool made a substitution with Dietmar Hamann replacing Steve Finnan and also changed to a 3–4–2–1 formation to reduce the deficit, with Riise and Šmicer on the flanks, Alonso and Hamann as holding midfielders and Gerrard playing as an attacking midfielder. Liverpool had the best chance early on with Xabi Alonso sending an effort from narrowly past Milan's right hand post. Two minutes later, Shevchenko forced a save from Dudek with a strong free-kick from just outside the Liverpool box. A minute after this, Liverpool scored through captain Gerrard, who connected with Riise's cross and lofted a header past Dida. Soon afterwards, Liverpool scored again as Šmicer beat Dida with a long-range shot into the bottom left-hand corner to leave Liverpool a goal behind. Three minutes after Šmicer's goal, Liverpool were awarded a penalty, after Gerrard made a run into the Milan box for Baros' lay-off and was brought down by Gennaro Gattuso. Alonso's penalty was saved, but he scored from the rebound to equalise for Liverpool. Milan and Liverpool had chances to take the lead after this, but Clarence Seedorf and Riise failed to score. Milan almost took the lead in the 70th minute, after Dudek dropped a low cross towards Shevchenko, whose effort was cleared off the line by Traoré. Gerrard then had a chance to score but he sent his shot over the crossbar. About ten minutes later García could not control a pass from Gerrard which led to a Milan attack, Crespo played the ball back to Kaka, whose subsequent shot was blocked by Jamie Carragher. A number of substitutions were made before the end of full-time with Liverpool replacing Milan Baroš with Djibril Cissé, while Milan replaced Hernán Crespo and Clarence Seedorf with Jon Dahl Tomasson and Serginho respectively. Milan had the last chance before full-time but Kaka failed to direct Jaap Stam's header towards goal, meaning the final would go to extra time for the 13th time in the competition's history. Extra time Liverpool kicked off the first half of extra time. Pirlo had a chance in the early stages, but he put his shot over the crossbar. Tomasson came close in the later stages of the first period of extra time, but he could not make contact with the ball. Šmicer required treatment for cramp towards the end of the first period, as a number of Liverpool players felt fatigued. Liverpool had the most of the early exchanges after winning two corners, but could not score. Shortly afterwards, Milan made their final substitution, replacing Gennaro Gattuso with Rui Costa. The best chance of the second half of extra time came in the 117th minute (three minutes from penalties) when Shevchenko shot at goal. Dudek saved, only for it to rebound back out to Shevchenko, who again shot from under , which Dudek saved again, pushing the shot over the bar. Liverpool had one last chance at the end of extra time, but John Arne Riise's free kick was blocked, and following this the referee signalled the end of extra time, which meant a penalty shoot-out would decide the championship. Penalties Liverpool and Milan had each won their last European Cups after winning penalty shoot-outs, and it was also the second time in three years that the final would be decided this way; previously, in the 2003 all-Italian final at Old Trafford, Milan had defeated Juventus 3–2. Milan were first to take a penalty, but Serginho – who had taken Milan's first penalty in 2003 and scored – shot over the crossbar after attempts from Dudek to distract him, which mimicked Bruce Grobbelaar's "spaghetti legs" antics during the shootout in the 1984 final against Roma. Dietmar Hamann took Liverpool's first penalty and, despite having a broken toe, he scored to put Liverpool 1–0 up. Andrea Pirlo was next for Milan, and his penalty was saved by Dudek who dived low to his right. Cisse then scored his penalty to put Liverpool 2–0 up. Tomasson scored Milan's next penalty to make the score 2–1 in Liverpool's favour. Riise was next for Liverpool, but his penalty was saved by Dida. Kaká then scored the subsequent penalty to level the scores at 2–2. Šmicer took the next Liverpool penalty and scored with his eventual last competitive kick for Liverpool to put them on the brink of victory. Shevchenko, who had scored the decisive penalty against Juventus' Gianluigi Buffon in 2003, then had to score to keep Milan in the shootout. He hit his penalty straight down the middle of the goal and Dudek went down to his right, but blocked the shot with his left hand to give Liverpool a 3–2 win in the shoot-out. Details Statistics Post-match events Liverpool's triumph marked their fifth European Cup and the first by an English team since Manchester United had defeated Bayern Munich in the 1999 final in Barcelona. Liverpool were given ownership of the trophy every winner had held aloft since 1995 (after Milan were permanently given the previous trophy after their fifth win in 1994). The 2005–06 participants competed for a new identical trophy. The rule to keep the trophy, which had been in effect since the 1968–69 season, was changed for the 2009–10 season so that the actual trophy remained with UEFA at all times. Liverpool became the fifth and final club to be given this honour after Real Madrid, Ajax, Bayern Munich and Milan – all of whom had either won at least five times (six in Real Madrid's case) or three times consecutively. Liverpool celebrated their victory by parading the trophy around Liverpool in an open-top double-decker bus the day after the final. Business experts estimated that one in five workers took time off following the victory. It was also estimated that Liverpudlians drank around 10,000 bottles of champagne after the match, with supermarket chain Sainsbury's stating: "We've never seen anything like it. We would usually expect to sell this much champagne at Christmas". Liverpool manager Rafael Benítez admitted after the match that the manner of his side's victory had stunned him and he stated: "My problem is that I don't have words to express the things that I feel at this moment". Benítez was also prepared to break up his winning side after the final with a number of players expected to leave the club to make way for new arrivals. One of those leaving was Vladimír Šmicer, who had scored Liverpool's second goal in Istanbul, and whose contract was known not to be renewed before the final, meaning he entered knowing the final was his last game for the club. Milan were similarly astonished at the manner in which they had lost the final. Manager Carlo Ancelotti said, "We had six minutes of madness in which we threw away the position we had reached until then". The result compounded Milan's failure to win Serie A a week before the match. Milan's vice-president, Adriano Galliani, played down the loss, asserting: "Even if we come second in the league, and second in the Champions League, this is not a disastrous season for us". Captain Paolo Maldini was less optimistic, stating that the reverse was a "huge disappointment", but he added that Milan would accept the defeat and "go out with their heads high". Much discussion after the final centered on the future of Liverpool captain Steven Gerrard who had been linked with a move to rivals Chelsea. Gerrard stated in the immediate aftermath of the victory, "How can I think of leaving Liverpool after a night like this?" Media reports then quoted Gerrard as saying he wished to leave Liverpool, citing events that had occurred in the month after the Champions League victory as the reason. On 6 July, however, Liverpool chief executive Rick Parry released a statement confirming that Gerrard would remain at the club, and Gerrard signed a new four-year contract on 8 July. He ultimately never played for another club in Europe, as he departed for the Los Angeles Galaxy of Major League Soccer a decade later. Despite winning the competition, Liverpool's place in next season's Champions League was still in doubt. Prior to the 2005 Champions League final, The Football Association had decided on 5 May that only the top four finishers in the Premier League would qualify and Liverpool ended their domestic season in fifth place behind Everton. UEFA initially maintained that each country could only have four Champions League spots and suggested that the FA could nominate Liverpool instead of Everton. Liverpool faced a three-week wait to discover if they would be allowed to defend their title as all previous winners of the competition had done. UEFA came to a decision on 10 June, confirming that both Everton and Liverpool would be able to compete in the Champions League; however, Liverpool were entered into the first qualifying round, and were given no "country protection"; meaning they could face another English club at any stage of the competition. The UEFA Executive Committee also amended the regulations for future competitions so that the holders would have the right to defend their title and therefore qualify automatically, though at the expense of the lowest placed team in those countries that had more than one qualifier. As champions, Liverpool faced CSKA Moscow (winners of the 2005 UEFA Cup final) in the 2005 UEFA Super Cup, held on 26 August. Liverpool won the match 3–1 after extra time. Liverpool's victory in Istanbul also meant they qualified for the 2005 FIFA Club World Championship. Liverpool beat Deportivo Saprissa 3–0 in the semi-final, and played Copa Libertadores champions São Paulo in the final, losing 1–0. Both teams retained a number of players who played in this final for the rematch in the 2007 final in Athens, which Milan won 2–1. Many players who played in this game also played for their clubs' legends teams, Liverpool Legends and Milan Glorie, in Liverpool's 2019 Legends Game at Anfield; Robbie Fowler and Cissé put Liverpool 2–0 up before Pirlo and Giuseppe Pancaro brought Milan level. Gerrard then scored in the final minute of play to give Liverpool a 3–2 win. The match raised an estimated £1 million for the LFC Foundation. In popular culture The 2014 British comedy movie One Night in Istanbul is set in Istanbul on the night of the final, and includes some footage from the match. The 2011 British sports drama Will (starring Liverpool fan Damian Lewis) centres on the trials and tribulations in the lives of two main fictional characters: eleven-year-old Will Brennan and Bosnian footballer Alek, and their trek to see Liverpool play Milan in the 2005 Champions League final. The final is discussed in author John Green's podcast The Anthropocene Reviewed, and the essay was later adapted for Green's book of the same name. See also 2007 UEFA Champions League final – contested between same teams A.C. Milan in European football Liverpool F.C. in international football References External links 2004–05 season at UEFA website Final UEFA Champions League Final European Cup 2005 Sports competitions in Istanbul UEFA Champions League finals European Cup Final 2005 European Cup Final 2005 International club association football competitions hosted by Turkey May 2005 sports events in Europe 2000s in Istanbul Nicknamed sporting events
4862018	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1991%20Sacramento%20hostage%20crisis	1991 Sacramento hostage crisis	On April 4, 1991, 41 employees and customers were taken hostage by four gunmen and held at a Good Guys! electronics store at the corner of 65th Street and Stockton Boulevard in Florin, California, near the Florin Mall (now Florin Town Centre) for approximately eight hours. Near the end of the hostage crisis, six were killed: three hostages and three of the four hostage-takers. The fourth hostage-taker was captured by authorities, and an additional 14 hostages were injured during the crisis. To this day, the hostage crisis remains the largest hostage rescue operation in US history, with over 40 hostages having been held at gunpoint. Event Background The four gunmen were all Vietnamese immigrants: brothers Loi Khac Nguyen, 21; Pham Khac Nguyen, 19; and Long Khac Nguyen, 17; and their friend, Cuong Tran, 17. The Nguyens had fled Vietnam as a family of eight in 1979 at the start of the second wave of Vietnamese refugees, first sailing to Malaysia and remaining anchored there for the first seven months, then waiting for four more months in an Indonesian refugee camp before they arrived in California in 1980. The entire family lived in a two-bedroom apartment from the Good Guys! store. Cuong Tran had moved with his parents into a new home in Elk Grove 15 months before the hostage crisis. Tran and Long Nguyen were friends and classmates at Florin High School; both had been expelled in March 1991 after stealing athletic equipment and attempting to set fire to the building. Loi Nguyen had attended Valley High School but dropped out during his senior year. Pham Nguyen was attending William Daylor High School (a continuation school) after having transferred from Valley following attendance issues. On the day of the hostage crisis, Pham Nguyen briefly came to school and asked to be excused with a toothache. The Nguyen brothers told their parents they were going fishing at the Sacramento River. Start of the siege At approximately 1:00 p.m., on April 4, 1991, the four young gunmen drove into the parking lot of the Good Guys! electronics store, in the South Area of Sacramento County. The group left their vehicle, a 1982 Toyota Corolla, and entered the store armed with three pistols and a shotgun. They had purchased the guns legally at a local sporting goods store the prior week, following a background check and waiting period. Although reported, the gunmen were not members of the Oriental Boys gang, and the hostage-taking and subsequent crisis were not considered to be gang-related. They herded customers and staff into a group, including a shoplifter attempting to leave the store, and began shooting at the ceiling of the store. One employee escaped after being ordered to lock the doors. Although initial reports indicated they had taken the hostages after a failed robbery attempt, subsequent statements to hostages and negotiators instead proved "they were attempting to gain notoriety," according to Sacramento County Sheriff Glen Craig. They were frustrated with their lives in the United States since it was difficult to find good jobs and expressed a desire to travel to Thailand and fight the Viet Cong, according to two of the hostages. Law enforcement and media response When the 9-1-1 call came in at 1:33 p.m., the Sacramento County Sheriff's Department Special Enforcement Detail (SED) was already in the process of gearing up in anticipation of executing a previously planned drug raid. They immediately paged off-duty team members and began preparations to rush to the scene along with the Department's Critical Incident Negotiations Team (CINT) and other local and state law enforcement agencies. As the situation developed, the local media descended on the area in force, broadcasting the unfolding incident. They were able to get footage of the event because of the store's huge glass front doors, which allowed video crews to see into the store where the hostage-takers lined up some of the hostages in front of the entrance as human shields. Surveillance and negotiation Following the standard operating procedure, the team obtained a floor plan of the building, which was copied and distributed to team members. The SED team was told that there was only one entrance to the store that was not alarmed: a freight entrance located at the rear of the store. Their only option would be to enter the store's showroom, where the hostages were being held, through a fabrics store on the north side of the building. The entry team gained entrance to the fabric store and slowly moved into position. The criminals apparently heard movement by the police amid shouts of "stay away from the door" coming from inside the store itself. One of the entry team members removed a ceiling panel in the hallway between the two buildings and inserted a pole-mounted mirror. He was able to observe the subjects directing hostages to place large boxes against the back door to block entry. Once the door was barricaded, the area was abandoned. A fisheye camera was installed by the team but was of limited use because of the design of the store, showing only a portion of the showroom near the door. By this time, the hostages had been tied up with speaker wire and had been arranged inside the store's glass front entrance doors in standing and kneeling positions. For more than two hours, the department's CINT tried to end the incident peacefully by negotiating with the hostage-takers. Negotiations were initially conducted from police headquarters, and a special negotiation team took over on-site after a few hours from a bank that had been evacuated. The hostage-takers demanded $4 million, forty 1,000-year-old ginseng roots, four bulletproof vests, a 50-troop military helicopter, and transportation for everyone to Thailand after a refueling stop in Alaska. Throughout the incident, the hostage-takers did not present a consistent set of demands to the negotiators. One demand that remained constant was for bulletproof vests. During early negotiations, one of the requested vests was exchanged for what was to be the release of nine hostages, although only three were released initially; the police officer who took the first vest to them stripped to his underwear to prove he was unarmed. Loi Nguyen sent a woman to retrieve the vest and threatened to shoot her children if she did not return; after she retrieved the vest, they were the first three hostages to be released. In addition to the hostage exchange, another benefit was that it allowed police to gain information on the current situation in the store. One of the released hostages revealed that the shots heard earlier had been the hostage-takers shooting at the store's security cameras and that none of the hostages had been harmed up to this point. Soon thereafter, more shots were heard, but this was the hostage-takers testing the vest. Approximately an hour later, another woman and her three children were released; an eighth hostage was released at 8:20 p.m., bearing a message that they would start to shoot the other hostages shortly. At one point during the negotiations, the leader of the hostage-takers, who called himself "Thai" (later shown to be Loi Nguyen), agreed to surrender to the police but only if they were allowed to retain their bulletproof vests and weapons while in prison. The police negotiator informed Loi Nguyen that he would have a short sentence and his vest and guns would be returned upon his release. He set down the phone and began to discuss the situation with his partners. At that point, many of the officers involved felt the exchanges might lead to a negotiated settlement; when he returned to the phone, Loi Nguyen stated that while he accepted those terms, his partners did not. Suddenly, the phone went dead, and the CINT immediately tried to re-establish contact with the store. On the first attempt, the phone was busy, and on the second attempt, a suspect calling himself "Number One" (later shown to be Long Nguyen) answered the phone, informing everyone that he was now in control. From that point on, the situation began to rapidly deteriorate. Shots were once again fired at the store's security cameras. Entry At approximately 9 p.m., Long Nguyen shot a twenty-year-old male hostage named Sean McIntyre in the leg and then released McIntyre as the ninth and final hostage to be released with the instruction to deliver their message and plight to the local media. They claimed they were trying to draw attention to the troubles of their home country and that they were on a suicide mission. At that point, the police attempted to distract the gunmen by putting the hostage on the news, which would also move them to the television area of the store, but this tactic did not work. The police team was finally given the "green light" to enter the store. Sniper Jeffrey Boyes would issue the signal to execute the assault. Boyes had received permission to fire on any subject on whom he could obtain a clear line of sight. After McIntyre was shot and released, another hostage was shot just before 10 p.m.; the gunmen had told the hostages to select the next victim from among themselves, causing an elderly hostage, Harold Brooks, to faint. According to Sheriff Craig, the gunmen joked "he just decided he was going to be our next person shot." Long Nguyen attempted to shoot Brooks, but his gun misfired, and Loi Nguyen shot Brooks in the leg. The surviving hostages stated the gunmen divided them into two groups and had begun flipping a coin to decide their fates. Guns were placed to the hostages' heads. Several hostages were placed on the phone, and they informed the police the gunmen were going to begin executing hostages. A second bulletproof vest was delivered to the front door shortly after Brooks was shot, which was to be exchanged for nine more hostages, but no one was released. Another hostage, Priscilla Alvarez, was sent out to recover the second vest with her wrists tied behind her and harnessed with more speaker cord. As the door was opened and Alvarez was halfway down the path to retrieve the vest, Boyes took a shot at one of the gunmen, but the sniper's bullet was deflected by the glass door as it swung shut, and it hit the target's ear. Immediately, the hostage-takers ran back and forth, and Long Nguyen started to shoot the seated hostages who were tied down in a row behind the glass door, in full view of the news cameras broadcasting the event live. At the same time, Boyes radioed "Go", and the SED entry team immediately hit the door at 9:51 p.m. A stun grenade was tossed into the store from outside, and Curt Warburton, one of the Good Guys employees, managed to scramble to safety through the now shattered glass door. "Number One" (Long Nguyen), now stunned and disoriented, managed to stagger out of Boyes's sights and take cover behind a large pillar. He then immediately began firing his weapon at more bound hostages. It took the seven-person entry team two to three seconds to get through the back doors from where they had been hiding (a storage space in the rear of the store) because of the "barricades" erected earlier. They then had to contend with the distance to the front of the store. The team was armed with a variety of weapons for the entry. Sergeants Don Devlin, Charles Price, and Gordon Smith were armed with SiGARMS Sig P220 pistols, Sergeant Bill Kelly carried a laser-sighted HK MP5, investigators Mike Hammel and Greg Peterson carried H&K MP5SD3 submachine guns, and investigator Roger Stanfill was still armed with his AR-15. Hammel and Price cleared the west side of the store, Peterson and Kelly the east side, and Devlin and Smith went straight up the middle. Stanfill took up a rearguard position. As the team began its movement toward the front of the store, the remaining hostage-takers immediately began to fire on the entry team and hostages. Peterson stepped on the wire that had been used to tether the female hostage sent out to recover the second vest. At that moment, she was snatched to safety by officers outside the store, causing Peterson's feet to fly out from under him, forcing him to fall backward, just as a shotgun blast immediately blew through the area where he was standing. His fellow team members mistakenly believed he had been struck in the face by the blast. As Peterson began to rise to his feet, Devlin and Kelly tried to flank the shotgun-wielding suspect, who fired on them once again, before being taken under fire by the team. Suspects shot Simultaneously, on the west side of the store, the team shot one of the suspects (Cuong Tran) before he could react. Then they spotted a second armed suspect (Pham Nguyen) and fired on him, but he disappeared into the chaos of the screaming and panicking crowd of hostages. Then, "Number One" (Long Nguyen) was shot. At this point, the team could only account for three of the suspects and immediately began a systematic search for the fourth. Price and Hammel discovered an unarmed Asian male (Loi Nguyen) lying on the floor, wearing the sole bulletproof vest that had been provided earlier. Once he was rolled over, they discovered he had a .223 caliber entrance wound, accounting for all four suspects. It took only 30 seconds from the initial police entry until the gunfire ceased, bringing an end to the hostage crisis. Aftermath Casualties During the assault, the suspects wounded eleven hostages and killed three. Of the eleven wounded, ten were shot, and one suffered a miscarriage. Others shot at were Bret Soren, Chris Lauretzen, Curt Warburton, and many others who suffered both physical and extreme emotional consequences including brutal bodily injuries, trauma, and severe ongoing symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Of the four suspects, three were killed by the entry team and one, "Thai" (Loi), was wounded. None of the SED entry team was wounded. The hostages killed were store employees Kris Edward Sohne and John Lee Fritz and customer Fernando Gutierrez. Gutierrez's two nieces were also hostages. One of the nieces, Lisa Joseph, later wrote the book Heads or Tails: A True Hostage Story of Terror, Torture and Ultimate Survival about her ordeal. Two employees hid in a computer closet during the hostage crisis. The Good Guys! announced they would set up trust funds for the two slain employees and would pay for the funerals of all three murder victims. Trial and prosecution Loi Nguyen was arraigned from his hospital bed shortly after the crisis ended and charged with 54 felonies, including murder. Nguyen's attorney, Sacramento public defender Linda Parisi, argued that Loi Nguyen was trying to make peace, based on witness testimony and recorded audio, and did not deserve the death penalty; she pointed to Long Nguyen as the leader. However, Rebecca Moore, a sheriff's detective, pointed out that Loi Nguyen had purchased the guns, driven the group to the store, and handled most of the negotiations: "In my opinion he is the most responsible party for this thing going down." Because of pre-trial publicity, the trial was moved to San Francisco. He was convicted on February 8, 1995, on 51 felony counts: three for murder, eight for attempted murder, two for assault with a firearm, and 38 for kidnapping, after two days of jury deliberation. On March 28, the jury recommended a life sentence in prison rather than the death penalty, after four more hours of deliberation. At the sentencing hearing in Sacramento, Judge W.J. Harpham said, "It's hard to find the adjectives for the terror the defendant put these hostages through." He sentenced Loi Khac Nguyen to 49 life terms in prison, 41 to be served consecutively without the chance of parole. Information that surfaced at Nguyen's trial revealed the men's motivation for committing the crime was that they were frustrated by their inability to learn English and find jobs. Nguyen initially served his sentence at the California State Prison, Lancaster. he was later transferred to California State Prison, Centinela, and has since been transferred to California State Prison, Solano where he is currently serving his term. His CDCR number is J69791. The former Good Guys! building later became a Dollar Tree store, which was modified to move the main entry doors from the front (south facade) to the side of the building (east facade). This Dollar Tree still stands and remains in business. In popular culture In 2000, a play titled The Good Guys: An American Tragedy was created by Michael Edo Keane and Miko Lee and presented by Theater of Yugen, a theatre group that presents work relating to the Pan Asian Diaspora, at the Theater Artaud in San Francisco, California. The hostage crisis was examined in detail in the first season of the documentary series Shootout!, aired on the History Channel, for the first time in September 2005. Footage of the event was featured in World's Scariest Police Shootouts in 1997. In March 2015, the crisis was the focus of an episode of ABC's In an Instant. In 2019 a movie called A Clear Shot, based on the incident, was released. It starred Hao Do as Loi, Kevin Bach as Pham, Tony Dew as Long, and Dang Tran as Cuong. See also List of homicides in California 1996 Honolulu hostage crisis References External links Local ABC news coverage of the event Sacramento County Sheriff's Department SED. SpecWarNet. Good Guys Hostage With Audio April 4th, 1991. YouTube. 1991 murders in the United States 1991 mass shootings in the United States Attacks in the United States in 1991 20th century in Sacramento, California Filmed killings Sacramento hostage crisis Hostage taking in the United States April 1991 crimes April 1991 events in the United States Mass shootings in California Mass shootings in the United States Mass murder in California Mass murder in the United States Crime in Sacramento, California
4862102	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter%20Ellis%20%28childcare%20worker%29	Peter Ellis (childcare worker)	Peter Hugh McGregor Ellis (30 March 1958 – 4 September 2019) was a New Zealand childcare worker who was wrongfully convicted of child sexual abuse. He was at the centre of one of the country's most enduring judicial controversies, after being found guilty in June 1993 in the High Court on 16 counts of sexual offences involving children in his care at the Christchurch Civic Creche and sentenced to 10 years' imprisonment. He maintained his innocence until his death 26 years later and was supported by many New Zealanders in his attempts to overturn his convictions, although others believed he was guilty. Concerns about the reliability of the convictions centred on far-fetched stories told by many of the children (alleging Satanic ritual abuse) and the interview techniques used to obtain their testimony. In 1994, Ellis took his case to the Court of Appeal which quashed convictions on three of the charges but upheld the sentence. His conviction and sentence were upheld in his second appearance before the Court of Appeal in October 1999. In March 2000, former Chief Justice Sir Thomas Eichelbaum was appointed to conduct a ministerial inquiry reviewing the children's evidence. His report upheld the guilty verdicts. The same month Governor-General Sir Michael Hardie Boys rejected Ellis' third bid for pardon on the advice of Justice Minister Phil Goff, who was satisfied with Eichelbaum's finding that Ellis had failed to prove his convictions were unsafe. Ellis refused to attend parole board hearings while in prison because he would have to confess to the crimes in order to obtain early release. Ellis was eventually released in February 2000 after serving seven years in prison. After his release, he continued campaigning to clear his name. In 2019, nineteen years after he was released, he appealed to the Supreme Court to have his conviction overturned. Although he died of cancer before the appeal could be heard, the Supreme Court allowed the appeal in the interests of justice and delivered a judgment in October 2022. The Supreme Court quashed Ellis' convictions, finding that there were problems with the evidence of the main prosecution witness, a psychiatrist, and the jury had not been fairly informed of the risk of contamination of the children's evidence. This marked the first time that a conviction has been quashed posthumously in New Zealand. The Ellis case was one of several similar high-profile child abuse cases around the world in the 1980s and early 1990s as part of the Satanic panic, and has been mentioned as a cause in the decline in the number of male teachers in New Zealand schools. Two books and numerous articles have been written about the case. Personal life Ellis was the eldest of four children. His parents were teachers who separated when he was nine. He left school in 1975 to take up tobacco picking in Motueka. After two years overseas, he returned to New Zealand. He then had a part-time job in a bakery in the 1980s which eventually became full-time. When he left this job and applied for unemployment benefits, authorities discovered he had received dole payments to which he was not entitled. He was prosecuted and convicted in 1986 of "misleading a social welfare officer" and sentenced to 80 hours community service. Ellis carried out his community service at the Christchurch Civic Creche. His supervisor, Dora Reinfeld, later reported that "Peter ... provided some hilarious puppetry shows – one of which we had to abandon as staff and children 'got out of hand'". Ellis became a relieving worker, and Reinfeld's next monthly report said: "Peter Ellis has fitted in extremely well and puts lots of energy into programme planning. Fantastic team spirit." Ellis's pre-sentencing report said, "The overall picture gained of Peter Ellis is that of an outgoing, uninhibited, unconventional person given to putting plenty of enthusiasm and energy into his work and social activities, sometimes to the point of being risqué and outrageous." Before his imprisonment, Ellis had sexual relationships lasting for periods of two to five years with both men and women. He told Lynley Hood, "In a relationship with a woman I was, for want of a better word, bisexual, and with a man I was monogamous." Ellis was described by Hood as appearing "blatantly homosexual", due to his bright clothes, long hair, makeup and demeanour. After his release, he lived an isolated life, settling in the small community of Leithfield Beach in north Canterbury. In July 2019, Ellis was diagnosed with terminal cancer. He died on 4 September 2019 while appealing his conviction at the age of 61. Investigations First allegation and police investigation Ellis loved animals and kept rabbits, cats and dogs as pets. In late September 1991, the mother of a four-year-old boy at the creche, a social worker who had herself recovered memories of sexual abuse, bought a black puppy from him. Ellis showed her son how to identify the puppy's gender. A few months later, in November 1991, the mother alleged that her son said he "didn't like Peter's black penis". His mother, who had written a handbook on sexual abuse, concluded her son had been sexually abused. She made a formal complaint to the creche in November 1991. After a brief investigation, the police decided there was no case to answer, but Ellis had already been suspended from work. The mother then withdrew her son from the creche and enrolled him into a different Christchurch daycare centre. Shortly thereafter, she alleged a male worker at this second creche had also abused her son. The police investigated and again found no evidence to support the allegation. Ellis was popular with children and parents at the creche. In the week following his November 1991 suspension, inspectors from the Education Review Office spent a week at the Civic Creche observing its daily operation. The office subsequently issued a favourable report, stating that the staff "ensure personal needs are met with warmth, care and consideration", and that the children "appear happy, inquisitive and sociable" and "have high self-esteem". Second police investigation Even though police concluded no abuse had occurred, some parents started asking their children about what went on at the creche and then shared these stories with other parents. The Department of Social Welfare was called in to conduct formal interviews with many of these children. A social welfare psychologist, Sue Sidey, initially revealed that there were six children for whom she felt there were grounds for concern, although the children made no disclosures of any indecent touching by a creche staff member. More parents became concerned that something must have happened. As the social welfare interviews continued, claims about bizarre sexual abuse incidents began to surface. A meeting was held at the creche attended by staff members, a group of concerned parents and representatives from the Social Welfare Department. In response, the police reopened their investigation. Altogether, at least 127 children were interviewed. Some detectives believed that up to 80 had been abused. Ellis was accused, among other things, of "sodomising children, forcing them to eat his faeces, urinating on them, suspending them in cages, taking them on terrifying trips of abuse through tunnels, ceilings and trapdoors". Other allegations included children being forced into a steaming hot oven or buried in coffins; one boy claimed he had his belly-button removed with pliers. Allegations which emerged later as the interviews progressed included "Asian men dressed as cowboys, Masonic lodges, cemeteries, the Park Royal Hotel and private houses far from the creche", and "the notorious 'circle incident' where Ellis and his co-workers supposedly took a group of children to 404 Hereford St on the other side of town and made them stand naked and kick each other while the adults danced around them ... Alleged by one parent, was the sacrifice of a boy called Andrew." No child was actually reported missing by anyone involved. The allegations were similar to those made in other Satanic ritual abuse cases. Arrests Arrest of Ellis The police arrested Ellis on 30 March 1992, charging him with the first of what would eventually be 45 counts of sexually abusing 20 different children at the creche. By the time the case went to trial, the Crown had reduced the number of charges to 28, involving 13 complainants. Some charges were dropped because the crown prosecutor, Brent Stanaway, did not want to put the more bizarre claims made by some of the children before a conservative Christchurch jury. Arrest of colleagues and closure of creche In addition to interviews conducted by Sue Sidey, the Christchurch City Council, which owned the creche, requested that psychologist and sex therapist Rosemary Smart review the management practices at the creche. Even though Smart's report was completed in July 1992, nearly 12 months before Ellis' trial, she seems to have assumed he was guilty; although she uses the word "alleged" occasionally, journalist Cate Brett said "the report reads as if the abuse had happened and Ellis had been convicted". Smart suggested that female staff may have been involved with abuse at the Civic Creche. She quoted research by the New Hampshire sociologist David Finkelhor, whose 1987 book, Nursery Crimes, became the source for American believers in ritual abuse occurring in creches. Finkelhor's work has since been discredited. After Smart's report was completed in July 1992, a copy was given to police. Detectives said her report was central to their decision to investigate four of Ellis's female colleagues at the creche. Their houses were searched for everything from pornography to babies' bodies. Nothing was found. In September 1992, the Ministry of Education suspended the creche's licence and it was closed. The four female staff members were arrested on 1 October 1992 amid considerable televised publicity. At depositions they faced 15 charges that included sexual violation, indecent assault and one charge of performing an indecent act (having sex with Ellis) in a public place. Judge Williamson subsequently discharged them on the basis that the evidence against them was of "insufficient weight" and that the publicity meant their chances of a fair trial would be prejudiced by their association with Ellis. Although the charges were dropped, their careers were ruined. In March 1995, the four female employees and six other former staff who had also lost their jobs were awarded $1 million by the Employment Court for unjustified dismissal. In September 1996 the Court of Appeal reduced the payment to around $80,000, which for some staff was not enough to pay their legal costs. Trial Barristers Rob Harrison and Siobhan McNulty represented Ellis; Brent Stanaway and Chris Lange appeared for the Crown. The offences were alleged to have taken place at unspecified times and dates between 1 May 1986 (four months before Ellis started work at the creche) and 1 October 1992 (11 months after he left the creche, and a month after the creche was closed). Defence counsel, Rob Harrison, wanted the jury to see the children's videotaped testimony containing the bizarre allegations as "he believed they would cast reasonable doubt on the more credible testimony." However, Justice Williamson ruled that these tapes were not relevant. In A City Possessed, Lynley Hood observed: "[Judge] Williamson's rulings before and during the trial meant Ellis' lawyer Rob Harrison was effectively hamstrung – the jury did not get to hear the most bizarre of the children's allegations, but did learn of the highly prejudicial but irrelevant conversations Ellis had about unusual sexual practices between consenting adults." Psychiatrist Karen Zelas was the prosecution's expert witness. She also supervised the social workers conducting the children's interviews and advised the police about how they should conduct their investigation. She testified that the complainants were credible and their behaviour was consistent with sexual abuse. However, in August 1992, she wrote to the police saying that two of the complainants had undergone "highly leading questioning" from their parents. Her letter was not disclosed to Ellis's defence, and Zelas did not mention any concerns about the two children's credibility at trial. Psychiatrist and defence expert Keith Le Page said that none of the behaviours described by Zelas were specific to sexual abuse. Le Page said that in his experience, children and adults who had been abused usually expressed distress when recounting their experiences of abuse. The complainants showed little or no distress when describing acts of abuse during their interviews and when later testifying in court. Le Page also testified that children couldn't remember events experienced at a very young age when there was a long delay between the event and the attempt to recall it. Children couldn't remember events, even traumatic events, that had occurred at two or three years of age when there was a long delay, he claimed. The alleged abuse at the creche had occurred when children were at these ages. Conviction In June 1993, Ellis was convicted of 16 counts of sexual offences involving seven children. The charges on which he was found guilty were that he had urinated on two children, made one masturbate him, put his penis in the mouths of three of them, engaged in indecent touching of three, and put his penis or an unknown associate's penis against the vagina or anus of three. The following year he was acquitted of three charges involving the oldest complainant, who retracted her allegations and said her original statement was what her mother told her to say. Treatment in prison Corrections officers who sat through the trial with Ellis did not think he was guilty and let that be known at Paparua prison. As a result, Ellis was not subject to any ill-treatment by staff or inmates in prison. Ellis refused to attend parole board hearings while in prison because he would have to confess to the crimes in order to argue for early release. Reliability concerns Moral panic In the years preceding the first allegation of abuse against Ellis, there had been a number of high profile child abuse cases in Christchurch involving "highly suspect interviews of children", "mistaken mass diagnosis of children" and other "highly questionable claims". The case has also been linked with the day-care sex-abuse hysteria, a moral panic about alleged sexual abuse and Satanic ritual abuse that originated out of California in 1982 and that existed throughout the 1980s. It has also been cited as a major cause in the decline in the number of male teachers in New Zealand schools. From September 1991 (two months before the first allegation against Ellis), there was "continuous publicity of sexual abuse and ritual abuse of children in the local press or in national media." On 4 September 1991, a Wellington sex abuse counsellor, Anne-Marie Stapp, told the Christchurch daily, The Press, that "New Zealand was fast approaching the level of ritual abuse awareness found in the United States." North and South Magazine reported that it was common knowledge around town that "various Christchurch police officers were hunting for a near mythical pornography-paedophile ring alleged to involve judges, Freemasons and prominent businessmen, though it was never found." On 3 November 1991 the Sunday News quoted the police as saying that "Satanism was rampant in New Zealand and linked to child pornography." Seventeen days later, a Christchurch mother rang Gaye Davidson, the supervisor at the Civic Creche to make the first complaint about Peter Ellis. When making his appeal to the Supreme Court announced in July 2019, Ellis' former lawyer, Nigel Hampton QC, said he wants the Supreme Court to take the moral panic of the '90s into account in its decision-making. Interview process At least 118 children were interviewed as part of the second investigation into allegations of sexual abuse. Social Welfare psychologist, Sue Sidey, conducted most of the evidential child interviews used at the trial, although she had no formal qualifications in child psychology. In December 1991, Sidey conducted a number of interviews with children which failed to turn up any statements consistent with abuse. Nevertheless, that month, she made a statement that "Peter Ellis is not a suitable person for a child centre" – before any formal allegations of abuse came to light. However, as more parents became concerned, some children were subsequently interviewed up to six times and began making bizarre allegations. The children's stories "were hardly ever challenged, no matter how fanciful their answers. If the answers were inconsistent or incoherent, then they would be asked again in more elaborate form until an acceptable answer was elicited." Specific questions were employed to elicit allegations that children had apparently made to their parents, contrary to best practice guidelines. The interviewers generally did not check with the children to find out whether their parents had said things to them about Peter Ellis or about the creche to eliminate the possibility of parental contamination. One mother even admitted in court that she encouraged her son to come up with new information by cuddling him, praising him and "telling him how brave he was after he revealed more and more details of his abuse". Michael Lamb, a leading authority on the interviewing of child abuse victims, was asked to review the interviewing process the children endured. In addition to the problems caused by multiple interviews, he noted that there were substantial delays between the alleged events and the formal interviews which were conducted up to 18 months later. Lamb wrote that during this time, the children were exposed to conversations with their parents, social workers and other children and "were likely to have adopted recently acquired information about the events in question". Stephen J. Ceci, a psychologist at of Cornell University and an expert in children's suggestibility and children's courtroom testimony, also studied transcripts of many of the children's evidential interviews. In July 1995 he said the interviews "were not conducted in accordance with currently understood interviewing principles." According to Ceci, it is impossible to distinguish between accurate and inaccurate allegations when children are suggestively and repeatedly interviewed over a long period. Ellis' sexuality A number of people who were involved in the case believed Ellis was convicted because he was homosexual and was the only male worker at the creche. At the trial, he was portrayed as sexually deviant and perverted, which was held to be somehow consistent with the makeup of a child molester. Accident Compensation Corporation involvement One parent, Malcolm Cox, who had three children at the creche suggested that some parents may have been motivated to make claims that their child had been sexually abused because the Accident Compensation Corporation (ACC) automatically awarded $10,000 to anyone claiming to have been abused. He said that he and his wife were visited by a council social worker with ACC claim forms and told "we had to get in quick to claim the money because lump sums were being abolished". In the end, ACC paid more than $500,000 to about 40 parents of Civic Creche children. Generally parents received a standard $10,000, "but in cases where Ellis faced multiple charges relating to a single child, some parents claimed for each alleged incident of abuse" (McLoughlin, 1996). One child's parents allegedly claimed five payments, while another claimed four. According to North and South Magazine, "ACC didn't require a conviction before paying out. It paid up without so much as charges being laid in respect of some allegations. The police even wrote letters to ACC supporting compensation claims." Jury A number of irregularities in the trial were publicised in a 20/20 episode which aired on TV3 on 16 November 1997. The programme alleged that the jury foreman had been the celebrant at the wedding of the Crown Prosecutor Brent Stanaway 15 years earlier. It was also alleged that a female juror had had a sexual relationship with a co-worker of the mother of one of the children involved. The programme also put forward statements that most of the children who made allegations of sexual abuse withdrew their accusations at various times during proceedings but that social workers conducting the interviews treated this as a symptom of 'denial'. Detective Colin Eade The 20/20 programme also claimed the main investigating detective, Colin Eade, had a history of mental health problems. Eade told interviewer Melanie Reid he was "burnt out" before the case started and 'beyond repair' by the time it was over. He left the police force in 1994 suffering from posttraumatic stress disorder. In an interview with Sean Plunkett on Radio New Zealand’s Morning Report on 20 November 1997, Eade admitted that after the trial he had sexual relationships with two of the mothers involved in the case and that he had propositioned another mother during the course of the investigation when he was drunk. New Zealand First MP Rana Waitai, who was a former police commander with 31 years' experience, said "If half of what was on the (20/20) programme is true, Peter Ellis must immediately be released and hugely compensated for the devastation that has been done to his life." Appeals First Court of Appeal hearing in 1994 The case entered the Court of Appeal in July 1994 led by Graham Panckhurst QC. A key aspect of the appeal was that the seven children, whose evidence the jury accepted, had named 21 other victims – either as observers or participants. None of those 21 children confirmed any of the allegations. On the fourth day of the hearing (28 July), the oldest child on whose testimony Ellis was convicted, and probably the most credible of the child witnesses, told her parents that her story was not true, that she had said only what she thought her parents and the interviewer wanted to hear. The Court of Appeal considered that it was not uncommon for child complainants to withdraw their allegations. The appellate judges believed the retraction may have been a case of denial on the part of the child and was grounds to overturn only those convictions relating to that child. The child has continued to maintain that she fabricated her allegations and there was no abuse. Her family say they were pressured by the police and crown prosecutor in an unprofessional manner. They also say the Ministry of Justice has never contacted them about their daughter's retraction. Second Court of Appeal hearing in 1999 In November 1998, Ellis presented a second petition to the Governor General seeking a Royal Commission on Inquiry into his case, and either a free pardon or for the whole case to be referred back to the Court of Appeal. The Secretary for Justice sought advice from Sir Thomas Thorp on the second petition. His advice concluded that the terms of reference should be expanded. In 1999 the Ellis case was referred to the Court of Appeal for a second time. Judith Ablett-Kerr, QC, appeared as counsel for Ellis, and Simon France for the Crown. Ablett-Kerr argued emphatically that the children's evidence had been contaminated by parental questioning and presented updated opinions on the dangers of multiple interviews, using anatomically correct dolls and suggestive questioning. Barry Parsonson, former head of the New Zealand Psychologists Board, was asked to write a report into the process used to interview the children prior to Ellis's second Court of Appeal hearings. Parsonson concluded that "given the conditions prevailing (at the time), the level of parental contamination, and the extremely suggestive interviewing procedures, the probability of the proportion of fact outweighing the proportion of fiction must be very, very small indeed." The Crown presented the expert opinion of Constance Dalenberg. The court concluded that they were not persuaded that a miscarriage of justice had occurred but suggested a Royal Commission of Inquiry could better examine some of the issues raised. Ellis immediately presented a third petition to the Governor General. Petition for mercy In 1999, a retired High Court judge, Sir Thomas Thorp, was commissioned by the Ministry of Justice to examine a petition for the royal prerogative of mercy lodged by Ellis's counsel, Judith Ablett-Kerr QC. She commissioned and supplied reports by experts that were based on selective information, for Thorp to consider. Despite the limitations of the reports, Thorp considered they raised serious concerns that should be investigated further. He wrote that the interview transcripts revealed that on more than one occasion, one child claimed to have seen serious abuse committed against another child, but the second child denied anything happened. Thorp said there was no evidence that the interviewers or the police or did any cross checking before presenting abuse allegations to the jury. He was also concerned that the more bizarre allegations made by children were not put before the jury, arguing that "the jury had to see that the children were capable of outrageous and fanciful allegation". Thorp stated that the central concerns were "the claims of defective interviewing techniques ... the risk of contamination of the children's evidence... (and) the exclusion of evidence necessary to a proper assessment of the children's reliability". He added that if the opinions of Barry Parsonson, Stephen Ceci and Justice Wood were found to have substantial support, it would "be difficult to argue against the existence of a serious doubt about the safety of the Petitioner's convictions." Eichelbaum inquiry in 2000 In March 2000, Phil Goff, then Minister of Justice, established a ministerial inquiry into the conduct of the interviews, headed by Sir Thomas Eichelbaum. This was undertaken in response to Justice Thorp's report and ongoing concerns over the reliability of the children's evidence. In a later submission, Ministry officials stated that the Ministerial Inquiry was "intended to address specific areas of concern that might not have been seen to have been fully resolved by the Court of Appeal." The terms of reference required Eichelbaum to examine the relevant documents and seek written submissions from those who were involved in the case but not to interview anyone. He was also required to appoint two international experts to provide written reviews of the interviewing techniques that had been used to seek information from the children. He appointed Graham Davies of the University of Leicester and Louise Sas, from London, Ontario, Canada. In his evaluation, Graham Davies wrote he would not "pronounce on the reliability of individual children's accounts." Michael Corballis, psychologist at Auckland University, subsequently questioned the credentials of both these experts asking of Sas, "Can she really be considered an expert?" Released in March 2001, Eichelbaum's inquiry concluded that the interviews were of good quality overall, and that though excessive questioning by some parents could have led to some contamination, this would not have been sufficient to affect the convictions. Eichelbaum did not say how he determined the children's evidence to be reliable. Petitions for a royal commission In June 2003, two petitions called for a royal commission of inquiry into the case. The first, organised by then National Party leader Don Brash and MP Katherine Rich, had 140 highly prominent signatories. They included two former prime ministers (David Lange and Mike Moore), four former Cabinet ministers, 26 MPs, a retired High Court Judge (Laurence Greig), a retired District Court Judge, 12 law professors, 12 Queen's Counsel, former Auckland police chief Bryan Rowe, historian Michael King, psychology professors, professors from other disciplines, lawyers, child protection workers, psychologists, social workers, therapists and counsellors. In August 2005, Parliament's justice and electoral select committee reported on the petitions. The committee had several concerns with the way the case was prosecuted. It recommended several changes, although it acknowledged that changes had already been made to the way that children were now interviewed. It also suggested that the testimony of expert prosecution witness Karen Zelas would not be permitted if it were presented now. The committee noted that "The operation of the legal system in respect of this case did not inspire adequate public confidence in the operation of the legal system. A justice system should lead to certainty. In this case it seemed to increase the sense of uncertainty." However, the committee rejected the petitioners' call for a commission of inquiry, concluding that it was not practical to hold such an inquiry. In December 2007 University of Otago psychologist Harlene Hayne conducted research which compared the standard of interviews conducted in the Ellis case with those of the Kelly Michaels case in the United States. Empirical analysis allowed Hayne to conclude that there was a "strong risk that the evidence of children who told of sexual abuse by Ellis was contaminated by the way the interviews were carried out," and that, contrary to Eichelbaum's conclusions, "the standard of the questions in Ellis was not substantially better than those in Michaels." Francis's articles and Hayne's research were cited in January 2008 by Ellis's counsel when making a renewed request that the Ministry of Justice establish a Royal Commission of Inquiry into the case, but Associate Justice Minister Rick Barker rejected this approach in March 2008. A further call for a Commission of Inquiry was made by former National MPs Katherine Rich and Don Brash and author Lynley Hood in November 2008, and the new Minister of Justice Simon Power said that the government would reconsider the issue. He later declined their request for an inquiry, on the grounds that Ellis still held the right of appeal to the Privy Council and an inquiry therefore could not achieve finality. In late 2010, Ellis announced his intention to lodge a fourth petition to the Governor General seeking a full pardon. Supreme Court appeal Lodging of appeal On 25 July 2019, Ellis, aged 61, lodged an appeal to the Supreme Court. However, by this time he had been diagnosed with terminal bladder cancer and was not expected to live. In August, the Supreme Court said it would consider hearing Ellis' appeal even if he died before the scheduled hearing date in November 2019. Ellis died on 4 September 2019. Courts in Commonwealth countries, including New Zealand, have traditionally ruled that an individual's interest in any judicial hearing ends if they die. On 1 September 2020 the Supreme Court granted leave for the appeal to be heard despite Ellis's death. The Court said the reasons for their decision would be released along with their ruling on the appeal. Defence lawyer Robert Harrison commented, "I think it's fantastic news...If the Supreme Court has gone down that particular path they're saying there's a value here that deserves to be respected and it means that there is valuing [sic] in continuing the appeal." New allegations A hearing was held in November 2020 regarding allegations of a historic sex offence by Ellis in the early 1980s, and adjourned so that further investigatory work could be done. The complainant allegedly first approached the police in 1992 or 1993, though there is no record of this. The complainant's claims were supported by her sister. The Crown took responsibility for the delays caused by the complaint not previously having been investigated. Ellis's defence lawyer Robert Harrison expressed concern about the new evidence's credibility. On 26 March 2021 the Supreme Court heard the application for the woman's evidence to be used in the appeal. In her statement, the woman claimed Ellis molested her while babysitting her in 1983, in a manner similar to the alleged crimes against the Civic Creche children. She allegedly recognised the man who molested her as Ellis from a 2007 documentary about his case. Defence lawyer Rob Harrison told the court that the women's evidence was not relevant to the appeal, and if the evidence was admitted it would expand the scope of the appeal to challenge its reliability, through ACC and other records. He said there was no corroborating evidence and it was unfair to admit her statement now given Ellis could no longer respond to it. He also said the woman's statement was inconsistent with earlier statements she had given, suggesting her memory was "evolving". Crown lawyer John Billington admitted there were inconsistencies in the woman's statement and no corroborating evidence to support it. Nonetheless, he said the court must decide if the evidence was helpful in deciding the case. On 16 June 2021 the Court dismissed the application for the women's evidence to be used in the appeal, concluding it was inadmissible. October 2021 hearing The appeal hearing began on 4 October 2021. The Supreme Court took the unusual step of hearing new evidence. Experts from both sides, some from Australia and the US, gave evidence in a panel setting by video link. Counsel for Ellis, Rob Harrison, said the appeal would focus on four issues: the questioning and risk of contamination of the children's testimony; that the jury was inappropriately assisted by the expert testimony of the period; that an expert witness's claims of symptoms exhibited by children being linked to abuse were without scientific foundation; and that the trial was inconsistent with the New Zealand Bill of Rights Act and unfair due to sanitisation of charges. The experts for Ellis' case were memory researcher Harlene Hayne, vice-chancellor of Curtin University, Perth, Australia (and former vice-chancellor of the University of Otago), University of Otago clinical psychologist and memory scientist Deirdre Brown, New Zealand clinical psychologist Tess Patterson, and memory expert Mark Howe from Canada. The Crown experts were Gail Goodman, a memory researcher from the University of California, Frederick Seymour, the former head of the clinical psychology programme at Auckland University, and Auckland clinical psychologist Suzanne Blackwell, who often gave evidence in court about the reliability of sexual abuse accounts. The experts were in fair agreement that young children can recall distinctive and stressful events with a high degree of accuracy, even after long delays, if they are interviewed appropriately and not exposed to additional incorrect information. However, the interview techniques, expert evidence at Ellis' trial and evidence of contamination of the children’s memories came under intense scrutiny. Hayne and Brown argued the climate of accusation at the time, suggestive parental questioning of the children prior to formal interview, children exposed to unwarranted sources of information, interviewers' lack of impartiality and their use of suggestive questions were grounds for doubt. Hayne also said that even the Crown experts agree with her that the children's interviews were below the standard of best practice, even for the time. She also said "Goodman and I are in large agreement on these contamination opportunities. Goodman rated child 3 as having moderate risk and child 4, 5, 6 and 7 as extreme." Crown expert Gail Goodman conceded that the contamination of the children's accounts and the long delay between the time of the events and their recounting made it impossible to know what had happened. Seymour and Blackwell also agreed there were opportunities for contamination and the interviewing approach may have been sub-optimal in some respects. However, in a combined statement, the psychologists said that "while it may be the case that children were impacted by parents' cross-talk and interaction, there is no evidence available to show that this is the case". Goodman also said, "Research at the time showed re-enactment increased very young children's recall. Interview techniques using props can illicit [sic] more answers than verbal questioning alone." She further claimed many of the interviews were doing their best and often began with neutral questions such as "what have you come here to talk to me about today?" before letting the children lead. The use of dolls in the interviews came under criticism and debate. Ellis' lawyer Rob Harrison argued the use of books and dolls depicting sexual abuse was one of the contamination factors in the case. In response, Seymour for the Crown claimed the use of props such as dolls in the interviews was mostly used when children had already disclosed sexual abuse. The dolls were just for clarity: "These targeted interactions took place after the substantial abuse report had already been made by the child. The presentation of these dolls was in keeping with protocol of time following the child already giving a credible description of abuse." Goodman added, "Research at the time showed re-enactment increased very young children's recall. Interview techniques using props can illicit more answers than verbal questioning alone." Karen Zelas, Crown psychiatrist at the 1993 trial, came under intense criticism. At the trial Zelas identified behavioural symptoms shown by the complainant creche children that were "consistent" with child sexual abuse. She had prepared a detailed chart for the trial, which showed the myriad symptoms displayed by each of the complainant children that she said were consistent with sexual abuse, and essentially claimed it was more likely a child had been abused if they exhibited a cluster of some of the 20 or so behavioural symptoms she catalogued. However, Tess Patterson said that even in 1993, there was no evidence of behaviours specific to child abuse and certainly no clusters, and criticised Zelas for not sufficiently considering that troubling behaviours could be due to other factors. Zelas was further criticised for writing a long letter to the police in August 1992 expressing serious concerns about leading parental questioning and intense interrogation before some of the children's interviews, but during cross-examination she failed to repeat "for the court the very serious concerns she had expressed in her letter" to the police. In final submissions on 12 October 2021, Ellis' counsel Rob Harrison said an "abundance" of evidence was available that showed the complainant children had taken on information from a variety of sources before their formal interviews and either regurgitated that information or used it to create accounts. As an example of how a child could be "readied" to give false accounts, Harrison highlighted a letter from August 1992 from the mother of a complainant child (Child 5) about an evidential interview with her child had been cancelled because of her questioning. In the letter the mother also claimed the child told her about another two Christchurch creches being involved in sexual abuse and other workers at the Civic creche being sexual offenders. The two creches were never investigated, and Harrison asked the Supreme Court why this was the case if the police were confident Child 5's evidence was not contaminated. He also asked why the police never charged Ellis with multiple counts of sodomy based on what Child 5 claimed in his fifth and sixth interviews. The letter also mentioned that the counsellor with whom the child was in therapy wanted Satanic ritual abuse expert Pamela Hudson to come to New Zealand to assist in the case. Bridget Irvine, counsel for Ellis, said in further submissions that the interviews of the children were below best practice, pointing out that the children being subjected to a high level of suggestive questions (for example, 46 abuse-related questions in the case of Child 1) before making their first allegations against Ellis. Ellis' counsel Sue Gray claimed the evidence of psychiatrist Karen Zelas about clusters of behaviour that she claimed were consistent with child sexual abuse were scientifically unsound, and she also spoke to the sexual knowledge of the complainants, which was not permitted. In the final submissions from the Crown on 13 October 2021, Crown counsel John Billington claimed the jury verdicts were safe. Although the Crown conceded the interviewing of the children would be done differently today, they claimed the interviews were best practice of the time and demonstrated most of the elements of good evidential interviewing. The way evidence was obtained from the children was not "so egregious, so ill-informed that it starts to get into the category of blood tests versus DNA". Hayne's data showing the number of suggestive questions children were asked before their formal interviews were "a nonsense". He said the parents were not the hysterical types contended by the defence and the sometimes bizarre accounts of the children could have been due to the natural tendency of children to exaggerate. A Crown expert had said fantastical claims could be "part and parcel" of being an abused child. Billington further claimed the jury was able to discriminate between contamination and lack of it in the children's accounts, and their verdicts reflected this. On 14 October 2021, the judges discussed a letter with counsel regarding the letter written by Crown expert Karen Zelas in August 1992 to the police, which was not available at the trial. Zelas' letter raised serious concerns about the potential contamination of accounts given by a child in his evidential interviews because of intense questioning from his parents and siblings, leading to cancellation of a scheduled interview with the child. But Zelas did not mention this when she gave evidence regarding the veracity of the child's accounts. The defence said the omission of this piece of evidence about the letter misled the jury and helped to render its verdicts unsafe. The judges called the letter a real "gotcha" and "cross-examination gold". Crown counsel John Billington argued that Zelas had given admissible evidence and if she had been cross-examined on the letter, she might have endorsed the interviews that took place prior to the cancelled one. He further claimed that although Zelas' cluster evidence could be said to be wrong science, it was not so factually and scientifically flawed to undermine the verdicts. Supreme Court decision On 7 October 2022, the Supreme Court allowed the appeal and quashed Ellis' convictions. The Court unanimously found that there were problems with Karen Zelas' evidence, and that the jury had not been fairly informed of the risk of contamination of the children's evidence (for example through repeated parental questioning). The Court said its decision should not be taken "as a criticism of the parents, the complainants or those involved in the investigation and trial". This was the first time in New Zealand history that a conviction had been overturned posthumously. During the appeal, Ellis' lawyers, including Natalie Coates, had argued that the Court should overturn Ellis' conviction on the basis of Tikanga Māori (the customary rules which govern Māori life), arguing it gave him the right to clear his name and restore his mana (prestige) posthumously. Coates later said: "although tikanga had not been the deciding factor in the [Court's] decision, it had affirmed its relevance in the legal framework". The Supreme Court's decision was welcomed by Ellis' family and supporters as a vindication of several years of efforts to clear his name. By contrast, the parents of some of the alleged victims issued a statement expressing shock and sadness that the Court had allegedly favoured a convicted criminal and ignored the victims by quashing his convictions. Prominent support Lynley Hood's A City Possessed In 2001 Lynley Hood published a 616 page book about the case and the moral panic of sexual abuse within New Zealand at that time. In 2002 A City Possessed won the top prize for non-fiction and for readers' choice in the New Zealand Book Awards. As Hood tells it, fear and anxiety about ritual abuse began in childcare facilities overseas in the early 1980s. Given the number of sex abuse scenarios in Christchurch in the 1980s such as "the Glenelg Health Camp, Ward 24, and the Great Child Pornography fiascos – it was probable that some sort of panic would break out in Christchurch." Hood argued that the professional careers of experts benefited from the case while more than 100 children were subjected to unpleasant, repetitive and psychologically dangerous procedures for no good reason. A former National Party leader, Don Brash, was drawn to the controversy after reading Hood’s book. He commented: "I was stunned at how compelling a case it made. The Peter Ellis case is a serious miscarriage of justice and I am utterly astonished [his conviction] hasn't been overturned. It is implausible to believe four women and one man could do this in a busy creche". In 2006, Brash cited the case when supporting calls for an independent body investigating miscarriages of justice in New Zealand. On 17 December 2014, Brash and author Lynley Hood again called for a review of the case by way of an independent inquiry led by an authority from outside New Zealand. The appeal was made to Amy Adams, the newly appointed Minister of Justice for the National Party-led government returned in the 2014 General Election. Journalists According to Greg Newbold, senior lecturer in sociology at the University of Canterbury, even cynical journalists like Frank Haden, David McLoughlin, Melanie Reid, George Balani, and Martin van Beynen – the only journalist to have sat right through the trial – agree that Ellis is not guilty. Newbold notes that "it was a politician who saved Arthur Allan Thomas, but the Ellis case is different from Thomas's, because Ellis lacks government support." In 2000 (after Ellis' failed appeals) he wrote: "at the moment the judiciary is turning away from the plight of a man impugned by some of the most absurd testimony ever heard in a New Zealand court." New Zealand Law Journal In late 2007 and January 2008, three articles on the Ellis case were published in The New Zealand Law Journal. These included two articles by researcher Ross Francis. Francis concluded that despite two appeal hearings, three applications for a pardon, a ministerial inquiry, and a parliamentary inquiry, questions about the reliability of Ellis' convictions remain. He wrote: "Whilst it may appear that the case has been examined thoroughly, the facts show otherwise. The Court of Appeal did not review all the available evidence and, at the second hearing, failed to give any weight to the expert opinions." The journal review prompted Sir Thomas Thorp to comment that the articles "must add to concerns expressed previously that that case may have gone awry". See also Orkney child abuse scandal References Bibliography Bander, Joy, A Mother's Story: The Civic Creche Child Sex Trial, Howling at the Moon Productions, 1997. Sir Thomas Eichelbaum's Report into the Peter Ellis Case Justice and Electoral Committee Report (pdf) Smart, R. (1992). "A review of the management policy and practices of the Civic Childcare Centre" . Thorp Report, Sir Thomas Thorp, Auckland, March 1999 Transcripts of evidential interviews of (selected) complainant children, R v Ellis 1993 Peter Ellis Toddler Testimonies External links Ellis case 'a witch-hunt against victims' – An August 2019 interview with a complainant's aunt Peter Ellis page on Crime.co.nz PeterEllis.org.nz – advocacy site Satanic ritual abuse 1958 births 2019 deaths Day care sexual abuse allegations New Zealand bisexual people New Zealand people convicted of child sexual abuse People from Christchurch New Zealand prisoners and detainees Daycare workers Deaths from bladder cancer Deaths from cancer in New Zealand Violence against children Overturned convictions in New Zealand 20th-century New Zealand LGBT people 20th-century New Zealand people 21st-century New Zealand LGBT people Sex scandals in New Zealand
4862350	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1967%2024%20Hours%20of%20Le%20Mans	1967 24 Hours of Le Mans	The 1967 24 Hours of Le Mans was the 35th Grand Prix of Endurance, and took place on 10 and 11 June 1967. It was also the seventh round of the 1967 World Sportscar Championship. Dan Gurney and A. J. Foyt, driving a Ford Mk IV, won the race after leading from the second hour, becoming the first (and, as of , only) all-American victors - car, team and drivers - of the race. Ferrari were second and third, and these top-three cars all broke the 5000 km mark in total distance covered for the first time. All overall records were broken – fastest, furthest, a new lap record and biggest engine to win, along with a number of class records. Regulations After the previous year's complete change in the CSI (Commission Sportive Internationale - the FIA’s regulatory body) – the FIA Appendix J – there were no significant changes or updates to the regulations. In an effort to reduce the speed disparity between the classes, the Automobile Club de l'Ouest (ACO) lifted its minimum average speed for qualification, from to . They also now required all cars to qualify to be within 85% of the pole-position car’s average speed. There was also about a 2.5% increase to the minimum distances on the Index of Performance. Entries Once again there was a marked imbalance between the categories with only six Sports Cars and seven GTs versus the 41 Prototypes in the starting line-up. It brought together the best of the world’s racing drivers with 37 who had, or would, race in Formula 1. There were five World Champions and in the previous month, eleven drivers had raced in the Monaco Grand Prix and seven in the Indy 500. Entry list for the 1967 24 Hours of Le Mans: Defending champions Ford, along with Porsche, had the biggest representation with ten cars. The new Ford GT40 Mark IV was an updated version of the Ford J-Car, which was shelved following the fatal accident of Ken Miles in August 1966 (The Mk III being a small-production road-car). The Mark IV had an all new chassis designed and built in the United States. The big-block 427 cu in (7-litre) Ford Galaxie-derived engine from the Mk.II was now pushing out 530 bhp. Four cars were ready for Le Mans: two for Shelby American who had the American pair of Dan Gurney and A. J. Foyt in one car and defending champion Bruce McLaren with Mark Donohue in the other. The team had to fabricate a roof "bubble" to accommodate the helmet of Dan Gurney, who stood more than 190 cm (6 feet, 3 inches) tall. The other two went to Holman & Moody with its teams of Mario Andretti/Lucien Bianchi and Denny Hulme/Lloyd Ruby. After a humiliating loss to the Ferrari works team at the opening round at Daytona (who finished 1-2-3) Ford had won the next round at Sebring with Mario Andretti and Bruce McLaren driving the new Mk IV. For safety in numbers, Ford also entered three Mk IIB's (lightened versions of the previous year's car) run by Shelby American (Ronnie Bucknum/Paul Hawkins), Holman & Moody (Frank Gardner/Roger McCluskey) and Ford France (Jo Schlesser/Guy Ligier) This year Ferrari chose to concentrate its efforts on the large-Prototype category. The latest evolution of the 250P, the 330 P4 had new bodywork, a better gearbox and the engine reworked, now putting out 450 bhp. Although lighter and with far better handling, it could not match the big Fords on sheer straight-line pace. Four were built and all were at Le Mans. The works team, now under Franco Lini, brought three of the cars. F1 team drivers Chris Amon and Lorenzo Bandini had won at Daytona and Monza but after Bandini was killed at Monaco Amon drove with Nino Vaccarella in the open-top, spyder, version. Team regulars Ludovico Scarfiotti/Mike Parkes had the second and Klass/Sutcliffe the third. The other P4 was run by the Equipe Nationale Belge for Willy Mairesse/”Beurlys”. There were also three updated P3's (now called the 412 P) for the other customer teams: Maranello Concessionaires (Richard Attwood/Piers Courage), Scuderia Filipinetti (Jean Guichet/Herbert Müller) and the North American Racing Team (NART) for Pedro Rodriguez/Giancarlo Baghetti. NART also ran their older modified-P2 again. After the success in 1966, John Wyer and Ford had split amicably. J.W. Automotive had purchased the Ford Advanced Vehicles facility and set about adapting the GT40. With a new narrow-cockpit body design by Len Bailey, the Mirage M1 had new suspension and carried the 351 cu in (5.75L) Ford engine. After Jacky Ickx and Dick Thompson sensationally won the Spa 1000km, race two cars were entered for Le Mans. Ickx co-drove with Alan Rees and Thompson had David Piper. Also rewarded for their work with the Ford GT project, Lola Cars returned to Le Mans with the new T70. John Surtees had won the inaugural Can Am series in North America with a Chevrolet V8 engine. The Mk3 GT version was taken to Le Mans, now powered by an Aston Martin engine developing 450 bhp. Surtees had David Hobbs as co-driver, with a second car for Chris Irwin/Peter de Klerk The most striking cars this year were the two Chaparrals. The new model 2F had a high-mounted adjustable wing pushing down on the rear wheels. It was now fitted with a Chevrolet big-block 427 cu in (7-litre) that produced over 550 bhp through a three-speed automatic transmission. Previous race-winner Phil Hill raced with Mike Spence with Bruce Jennings/Bob Johnson in the second car. Once again, Porsche arrived with a new Carrera variant – the 910 was lower and lighter than the homologated 906. With a bigger 2.2L engine it had performed consistently in the season so far, culminating in a victory in the Targa Florio, But for Le Mans, the team was cautious and went back to the 2.0L engines (fuel-injected for 220 bhp) in two cars, for Rolf Stommelen/Jochen Neerpasch and Targa Florio winners Udo Schütz/Joe Buzzetta. However, the team also introduced another new car: the longtail 907 built almost specifically for the Mulsanne Straight. Two cars were present, driven by 1964 race-winner Jochen Rindt with current Hillclimb champion Gerhard Mitter and Jo Siffert/Hans Herrmann. As neither Alfa Romeo nor Dino showed, Porsche's main opposition would be from Matra. Their new MS630 still used the 2-litre BRM engine, but it was built to also be capable of carrying the Ford 4.7-litre V8 (which was tried at the April test weekend) as well as a new Matra 3-litre engine still being developed. Although capable of 290 km/h (180 mph) its handling meant it was still slower than the Porsche. The same driver-combinations returned: Jean-Pierre Beltoise/Johnny Servoz-Gavin alongside Jean-Pierre Jaussaud/Henri Pescarolo. Last present in 1964, Team Elite returned to Le Mans with the new Lotus 47, the race version of the Lotus Europa. Colin Chapman’s new design was fitted with a 165 bhp Ford 1.6-litre twin-cam engine. Alpine arrived with seven entries of its A210 including two for its customer team, Ecurie Savin-Calberson. A range of the Renault-Gordini engine were offered in 1000, 1300 and 1500cc; that latter engine was raced by veterans Mauro Bianchi/Jean Vinatier. There was also an older M64 entered by NART. The two drivers, Therier and Chevallier, had been chosen from 200 applicants in a speed-trial by team-owner Luigi Chinetti. After bring the Mini-Marcos to Le Mans in 1966, this year Frank Costin came up with an unusual aerodynamic design for privateer racer Roger Nathan. With a plywood frame, fibreglass bodywork, it had a 1-litre Hillman Imp engine mounted at a 54° angle, putting out 97 bhp. And making up the class were the returning entries from CD-Peugeot, Marcos and Austin-Healey. There were only six cars in the Group 4 Sports Cars category, as many of the prototypes could not be produced in sufficient numbers. Ford had entered three GT40s in for Ford France, Scuderia Filipinetti and John Wyer’s J.W. Automotive. Porsche entered a standard 906 for Ben Pon and Vic Elford, making his Le Mans debut, as well as French privateer Christian Poirot. Abarth was back at Le Mans for the first time since 1962, with the French Ecurie du Maine running one of the new 1300 GT. It had Abarth’s own 1.3-litre DOHC engine, that developed 147 bhp. In a similarly small field, there were only the seven entrants in the Group 3 GT category. The Scuderia Filipinetti and Equipe Nationale Belge teams supplemented their Prototype entries with Ferrari 275 GTBs. They were up against Belgian privateer Claude Dubois, running a burly Shelby-modified Ford Mustang GT350, and an American-entered second generation Corvette Stingray. Finally, there were four Porsche 911 S, as the car started becoming the privateer’s car of choice. This year also saw the increasing significance of the “war” between the tyre-companies, as they partnered with major manufacturers: Goodyear with Ford, Firestone with Ferrari, Dunlop with Porsche and Michelin with Alpine. Practice At the April Test Weekend, Bandini was fastest in the Ferrari P4 spyder with a sensational lap record of 3:25.4, ahead of Parkes in the other P4, then Surtees in the Lola (3:31.9). Although Donohue could reach in the Ford MkIV. he could only get 4th fastest time (3:32.6). The weekend also had tragedy when Roby Weber in the new Matra lost control at full speed on Mulsanne Straight. The car skidded and somersaulted off the track. Trapped in the burning car Weber died before marshals could reach the accident in time. By race week, Ford had made further aerodynamic improvements and the MkIVs were going even faster. However the cars were very unstable at high speed creating a lot of concern among the drivers, and all the cars had problems with their windscreens cracking and popping out at the high speeds The Ferrari team was not without its own problems: the NART P2, going slow, got in the way of Klass’ P4 sending him off into the trees and wrecking the car but leaving the driver uninjured. Pole position went to Bruce McLaren (3:24.4), just ahead of the surprisingly rapid Chaparral of Phil Hill (3:24.7). Then came the Fords of Andretti, Hulme, Bucknum and Gardner before Parkes’ Ferrari down in 7th with 3:28.9. Initially qualified with their 5.7-litre engines, the Mirages then both had failures and JWA decided to change back to the 5.0-litre engines. However, the scrutineers pointed out that this could not be done as the cars still carried the larger fuel tanks for the 5.0+ class. Ford, however, managed to supply two engines slightly larger than 5 litres to allow the cars to race. The Team Elite Lotus had a similar problem but resolved theirs by putting empty plastic bottles in the fuel tank. All speeds were up and during the race twenty cars were recorded doing over 300 km/h over a flying kilometre on the Mulsanne Straight: Race Start Although the day started overcast, the race started in fine weather. Bucknum's Ford and Rodriguez's NART P3 were first away, while both Chaparrals were among the last as Jim Hall insisted on his drivers doing up their full race-harness before leaving. At the end of the first lap it was the Mk IIBs of Bucknum and Gardner leading Gurney's MkIV, then the Ferraris of Rodriguez and Amon, and Surtees in the Lola. On the fourth lap the Lola's engine broke a piston. Spence meanwhile made great pace to work his way back up the field. Early visitors to the pits included Hulme's Mk IV to fix a sticking throttle, Bianchi's Mk IV to check his windscreen after an errant stone cracked it and Gardner's Ford for a new front tyre. Dubois brought the Shelby Mustang in missing half its front spoiler after bumping fenders in the startline rush and Jaussaud because his Matra's door wouldn't shut properly. Bucknum continued to lead past the first hour, up to the first pitstops. After all the leaders had pitted, it was Foyt now leading from Hill in the Chaparral and the Fords of Andretti and McLaren with Parkes in 5th. Suddenly Mike Salmon's JWA Ford GT burst into flames at over 300 km/h down the back straight with a full tank of fuel. Salmon bravely got the car near to a marshal post at Mulsanne corner before jumping out but was taken to hospital with severe 2nd and 3rd-degree burns. After two hours, the three Americans Foyt, Hill and Andretti (33 laps) already had a lap on the Ferraris and the rest of the field. After his early delay, Hulme then set a new lap record of 3:23.6, faster than the record pole time. The Ferraris were playing a long game, driving within their capability to last the distance. The Porsches of Siffert/Herrmann and Mitter/Rindt, now up to 14th and 15th overall, had a comfortable lead in the Index of Performance. However the big British cars were all out before dark: both the Mirages and the second Lola gone with engine issues after running outside the top-10. Night Soon after 10pm, as night was falling, Amon's Ferrari suffered a puncture while running 5th. Because of a faulty mallet he could not change the tyre out on the track and while crawling back to the pits, sparks from the wheel hub started a fire in the engine. Amon was forced to bale out quickly (unharmed) at a distance from any marshal posts and the car was burnt to a wreck. Not long later the Chaparral had to pit with its aileron stuck in the brake position, making the car lose about 20 km/h off its top speed. Bucknum lost two hours to get a water-pipe rewelded then had to creep around for two laps to reach the mandatory 25-lap minimum for liquids replenishment Twice Lloyd Ruby ditched his Ford in the Mulsanne corner sandtrap, losing all the time Hulme had made up having to get repairs to the undertray. The second incident proved terminal. The Rodriguez/Baghetti NART Ferrari had slipped down the field and retired after 2am with a burnt piston. By 3am Ford was 1-2-3 with Gurney (182 laps) leading Andretti (who had recently matched Hulme's lap record) and McLaren by three laps. At 3:35 am, still running second, Andretti pitted J-7, the #3 Mk IV. A. J. Foyt, who had brought in J-5, the #1 Mk IV at the same time, was complaining loudly about his American rival's aggressive driving. Distracted by this “discussion,” a mechanic changing the front brake pads on J-7 installed a pad backward (which could be done). Andretti accelerated out of the pits and under the Dunlop bridge, but when he braked for the first time, from high speed going into the Esses, the incorrectly installed front brake locked, and J-7 spun, hitting the earth banks and ending up in disarray in the middle of the track. Andretti, with three broken ribs, leapt out and behind the wall. (It later transpired that Bianchi was right and the brakes had been put in back to front) Soon behind him at speed came McCluskey (9th) who deliberately hit the other wall believing the wreck might still have the driver trapped inside, then Schlesser (6th) who tried to weave between the two. Both crashed and suddenly Ford were down three cars. McCluskey, carrying the injured Andretti, commandeered a marshal's car and drove back to the Ford medical centre. McLaren picked up a second puncture going through the debris, and then lost more time with clutch issues. To top it off, the rear engine bonnet later flew off racing down the Mulsanne straight and another 45 minutes were lost retrieving and refitting it, dropping them to 6th. This left the Gurney/Foyt car with a 5-lap lead and elevated the Parkes/Scarfiotti Ferrari to second and the Hill/Spence Chaparral fighting back up to third. During the night, Gurney had eased off a little to preserve his car, and Parkes came up behind in the second-place Ferrari to unlap himself. For several miles Parkes hounded the Ford, flashing his lights in Gurney's mirrors until an exasperated Gurney simply pulled over at Arnage corner and stopped on a grass verge. Parkes stopped behind him, and the two race leaders sat there in the dark, motionless. Finally, Parkes conceded his attempt at provoking a race with Gurney was not going to work and he pulled out and resumed the race, with Gurney following shortly after. The Siffert/Herrmann Porsche still led the Index of Performance although it was now being chased by the improving Alpine of Larrousse/Depailler. Morning Dawn arrived clear and cold, with little mist this year. The Chaparral developed an oil-leak in the transmission dropping it down the order and then eventual retirement. The Belgian Ferrari P4 had been having a consistent race and slotted into third, with the other P4 of Klass/Sutcliffe now in fourth. However, a broken fuel-injection pump forced their retirement mid-morning. The Corvette retired with a broken conrod while leading the GT category. Bucknum and Hawkins, early race-leaders, had driven hard to get back up to 6th after their overnight delay when they were finally halted by engine issues at 9.40am. So by 10am, the three-quarter mark, there were only 16 cars still running. Gurney and Foyt had already covered 293 laps, twenty more than McLaren and Amon had the previous year at the same time. With a decent lead, the leading Ford could afford to drop its lap times by 30 seconds a lap. Even though the Ferraris were lapping 10 seconds a lap faster and could go 20% further between fuel-stops, they were unable to make significant inroads, and the remaining quarter of the race was largely uneventful. Finish and post-race In the end it was a comfortable victory for the all-American Ford with Gurney and Foyt winning by four laps, having led for all but the first 90 minutes of the race. Theirs was the only one of the ten Fords that did not have any issues throughout the race. Perhaps surprisingly for such a big engine, they also won the Index of Thermal Efficiency from their record distance covered. Ferrari salvaged some pride after the previous year's debacle with second and third, with McLaren/Donohue fighting back to fourth. As of this Gurney/Foyt victory remains both the only all-American victory in Le Mans history — American drivers (Dan Gurney and A. J. Foyt), team (Shelby-American Inc.), chassis constructor (Ford), engine manufacturer (Ford), and tires (Goodyear) — as well as the only victory of a car designed and built entirely (both chassis and engine) in the United States. Siffert and Herrmann were 5th in their Porsche 2-litre, covering just 12 km less than the 1966 winners. They led home four more Porsches including Pon/Elford in 7th, being the first Group 4 car home. The privateer Porsche in 8th just beat the Alpine of Grandsire/Rosinski who won the 1300-class. The Swiss Ferrari GTB of Spoerry/Steinemann was the first GT home, coming 11th, nine laps ahead of the French 911. The Austin-Healey, perennial finishers, was the only British car to make it to the end, in 15th. The little Abarth, after a race bedevilled by issues, did finish (in last place) but had not completed enough laps to be classified. When the winners mounted the victory stand, Gurney was handed the traditional magnum of champagne. Looking down, he saw Ford CEO Henry Ford II, team owner Carroll Shelby, their wives, and several journalists who had predicted disaster for the high-profile duo of Gurney and Foyt. They had said that the two drivers, who were strongly competitive in the United States, would break their car in intramural rivalry. Instead, both drivers took special care to drive the car with discipline and won easily. On the victory stand, Gurney shook the bottle and sprayed everyone nearby, establishing a tradition re-enacted in victory celebrations the world over ever since. "What I did with the Champagne was totally spontaneous. I had no idea it would start a tradition. I was beyond caring and just got caught up in the moment. It was one of those once-in-a-lifetime occasions where things turned out perfectly… I thought this hard-fought victory needed something special”. Gurney, incidentally, autographed and gave the bottle of champagne to Life Magazine photographer, Flip Schulke, who used it as a lamp for 30 years. Schulke later returned the bottle to Gurney, who placed it in his All American Racers team headquarters’ boardroom in California. Chaparral got its due reward a month later with the only victory for the 2F at Brands Hatch. It was a suitable finale for Phil Hill, 1961 F1 World Champion to retire from a distinguished sports-car racing career that included three Le Mans victories. Official results Finishers Results taken from Quentin Spurring's book, officially licensed by the ACO Class Winners are in Bold text. 'Note *: Not Classified because Insufficient distance covered. Did Not Finish Did Not Start Class Winners Note: setting a new Distance Record. Index of Thermal Efficiency Note: Only the top ten positions are included in this set of standings. Index of Performance Taken from Moity's book. Note: Only the top ten positions are included in this set of standings. A score of 1.00 means meeting the minimum distance for the car, and a higher score is exceeding the nominal target distance. Statistics Taken from Quentin Spurring's book, officially licensed by the ACO Fastest Lap in practice – B.McLaren, #2 Ford Mk IV – 3:24.4secs; Fastest Lap – D.Hulme, #4 Ford Mk IV / M.Andretti #3 Ford Mk IV – 3:23.6secs; Distance – Winner's Average Speed – Attendance – 310 000 Challenge Mondial de Vitesse et Endurance Standings As calculated after Le Mans, Round 4 of 4 Citations References Armstrong, Douglas – English editor (1967) Automobile Year #15 1967-68 Lausanne: Edita S.A. Clarke, R.M. - editor (1997) Le Mans 'The Ford and Matra Years 1966-1974' Cobham, Surrey: Brooklands Books Clausager, Anders (1982) Le Mans London: Arthur Barker Ltd Fox, Charles (1973) The Great Racing Cars & Drivers London: Octopus Books Ltd Laban, Brian (2001) Le Mans 24 Hours London: Virgin Books Moity, Christian (1974) The Le Mans 24 Hour Race 1949-1973 Radnor, Pennsylvania: Chilton Book Co Spurring, Quentin (2010) Le Mans 1960-69 Yeovil, Somerset: Haynes Publishing External links Racing Sports Cars – Le Mans 24 Hours 1967 entries, results, technical detail. Retrieved 9 April 2018 Le Mans History – Le Mans History, hour-by-hour (incl. pictures, YouTube links). Retrieved 9 April 2018 World Sports Racing Prototypes – results, reserve entries & chassis numbers. Retrieved 9 April 2018 Team Dan, as archived at web.archive.org – results & reserve entries, explaining driver listings. Retrieved 2 May 2022 Unique Cars & Parts – results & reserve entries. Retrieved 9 April 2018 Formula 2 – Le Mans results & reserve entries. Retrieved 9 April 2018 YouTube – American colour news report about the start & the finish (3mins). Retrieved 9 April 2018 YouTube – Colour personal footage with music overlaid (7mins). Retrieved 9 April 2018 YouTube – Colour personal 8mm footage (10mins). Retrieved 9 April 2018 YouTube – B/w footage, in Spanish (4mins). Retrieved 9 April 2018 24 Hours of Le Mans races Le Mans 1967 in French motorsport
4862743	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smorgon%20family	Smorgon family	The Smorgon family is a Jewish-Australian business family known for their establishment of Smorgon Steel. Family tree Norman (Naum) Smorgon (17 December 1884 – 1956) m. (1) Tzippa Smorgon nee Mejov (1887 - ??) (div. 1925); (2) m. Vera Naumovna Smorgon nee Feldman (1885 - ??) (div. 1954); Eric (Isiat) Smorgon (1911 – 1999) m. Anne Smorgon nee Bernstein (1910 – 1996) Jack Smorgon m. Val Sheezel Gary Smorgon Robert Smorgon m. Vicki Thurin Stephen Smorgon m. Kelly Hudson Victor (Abrasha) Smorgon AC (1913 – 2009) m. Loti Smorgon AO nee Kiffer (1919 – 2013) Ginny Green nee Smorgon m. Leslie Green Vicki Vidor nee Smorgon m. (1) Raymond Vidor; (2) Peter Avery Bindy Koadlow nee Smorgon m. (1) Colin Edwards; (2) David Koadlow Sandra Bardas nee Smorgon OAM (1941 – 2007) m. David Bardas Belinda, Robyn, Anna, Elli, Morris and Ben Anna / Annia / Anne Castan nee Smorgon (1909 – 2000) m. Morris / Mossy Castan nee Lubenfeld (1906 – 1971) Aaron Ronald (Ron) Castan AM QC (1939 – 1999) m. Nellie Castan Melissa, Lindy and Stephen Noel Isiah Castan (1942 – 1998) m. Anita Castan nee Dundas Karina, Rowan, Jason and Kylie George Castan m. Freda Glover Richard, Andrew and Suzie Clara Orloff nee Smorgon (1916 – 1946) and Joseph (Joe) Orloff (1912 – 1977) Raymond Orloff m. Mary-Lou Phillips Paulette Orloff m. (1) Peter Terracall; (2) Alex Steinlouf Moses Smorgon (1892 – 1954) m. Luba Smorgon nee. Novic (1887 – 1988) George Smorgon (1921 – 2004) m. Gita Smorgon nee Fetter David Smorgon (1947 - ) m. (1) Rosynly Smorgon nee Hirsch (?? – 2008) m. (2) Kathie Smorgon nee Rozner Dean (1969–70), Ricky (1971–72), and Dale (1974–75) Barry Smorgon m. Sandra Smorgon nee Horin Rodney Smorgon m. Ann Smorgon nee Jackman Sam Smorgon AO (1924 – 2019) m. Minnie Smorgon (1927 - ) Graham Smorgon AM m. Annette Finkel Barbara Smorgon m. (1) Phil Krasonstein; (2) Barry Landau Marilyn Smorgin m. Noah Mazor Family origins The Smorgon family originates from the small town of Heidelberg (now known as Pryshyb), in eastern Ukraine. Norman (Naum) Smorgon, patriarch of the family, was born in Heidelberg in 1884 to Gershon and Leah Smorgon. He married Tzippa Mejov at Blumental in 1908. The couple opened a mixed goods store the following year (1909). During their time in Heidelberg they had four children; Annia (1909), Eric (Ishay) (1911), Victor (Abrasha) (1913) and Clara (1914). In 1918 the Smorgons moved to Bolshov Tokmak to escape the violence of the Russian Revolution of 1917. There, Norman and his youngest brother, Isak, established a tannery. Their brothers, Abram and Moisey, worked in the meat trade supplying cattle for the Red Army. When pressure from the White Army forced Norman and Isak to close, the four brothers opened a small flour mill. Due to the continuing violence and anti-Semitism of the Russian Civil War, the Smorgon family then moved to Mariupol. Here, Norman and his brothers re-established their flour mill. During this time, Tzippa, Norman’s wife, suffered ongoing health conditions of bleeding ulcers and paralysis. She moved to stay with her mother in Cherna (Chernivitsi), Melitopol. Vladimir Lenin’s death in 1924 and the rise of Joseph Stalin prompted Norman to immigrate to Australia, following his relatives Ruvin and Bertha. In 1925, Norman divorced Tzippa and married the family’s governess, Vera Naumovna Feldman, so that she could obtain a travel permit too. The Smorgon family travelled from Mariupol to Marseilles where they boarded a converted French cattle ship taking passengers to Australia.The Smorgons arrived in Melbourne, Australia in 1927 and settled in the suburb of Carlton. Sources of wealth Kosher butcheries In 1927, Norman Smorgon opened a kosher butcher shop in Melbourne on 366 Lygon Street, Carlton. Carlton was the centre of a Yiddish community that was growing with influxes of Jewish immigrants from Eastern Europe. For this Jewish community of up to 15 000 people, there were only 2 butcher shops in Melbourne supplying kosher meat. Norman recognised the high demand for kosher meat and went into business with his brothers, Abram and Moses. The shop was successful and prompted the brothers to open more butcher shops over the years. Wholesale meat In 1934, Victor Smorgon began a wholesale meat business, Vic Smorgon and Co., which acted as a wholesaling arm for his father and uncle’s butcheries. Norman Smorgon then decided to go into business with his sons, Victor and Eric. Together they established a new wholesale meat business, Norman Smorgon and Sons, separate from the butcheries. This broke the partnership between Norman, Adam and Moses Smorgon. Adam and Moses were left with two butcheries in Richmond. Meat exporting The business, Norman Smorgon and Sons, began exporting meat to England using the export license of the London firm, Mickie and White. In 1939, Victor Smorgon met with Ben Chifley, then treasurer of Australia, to discuss the building of an abattoir at the Smorgon’s new Brooklyn facility. Victor asked for 750 pounds and a license to export meat to the United Kingdom which Chiefly granted. The building of the Smorgon's new meat processing plant in Brooklyn, Melbourne was completed in 1945. The facility housed a slaughterhouse, cannery, freezers, boilers and boning rooms which allowed the Smorgons to streamline their business operations. This also housed their patented Freezer Chain System, developed by Eric Smorgon. By 1956, the Smorgons had expanded into a new meat works in Dinmore, Queensland and had a large stake of the Australian export market. During the 1970s, Smorgon Consolidated Industries, the conglomerate family business formed in 1958, bought three abattoirs in Inverell, Mareeba and Perth. In April 1983, the Smorgons closed their original Brooklyn meat processing plant. The Smorgon’s abattoir in Mareeba, Queensland was absorbed into a joint venture called Australian Meat Holdings. To save their meat processing business, Smorgon Consolidated Industries bought two new plants in 1983. Their abattoir in Richmond Council had to close just 18 months after opening. Their last abattoir, located in Melbourne, closed after workers went on strike 24 times in its 64-day operating period. Rabbit meat In 1946, Victor and Sam Smorgon started exporting rabbit meat to England after Victor noticed a demand for rabbit exports at London’s Smithfield Market. In 1948, the Smorgons began to supply rabbit meat to the US. Rabbit became the Smorgons most profitable operation where Australians consumed 27 million rabbits annually during the 1940s and were exporting over 50 million rabbits by the end of the 1940s. In the early 1960s, the introduction of the disease myxomatosis by the Australian Government to cull rabbit overpopulation, led to decreased supply for the Smorgons. As a result, they ended their rabbit meat operations. Canning While exporting meat, Norman Smorgon rented a factory near the Melbourne Meat Market where he canned the cuts of meat that weren’t fit to be sold to England raw. In 1948, Sam Smorgon and Jack Morris began to use the Smorgon canning facilities to sell canned fruit. They then branched into selling canned vegetables, soups, sauces and spaghetti. In 1967, the Smorgons exited the fruit cannery business due to cheap South African products lowering the cost of goods in the UK. Paper In response to the establishment of the European Economic Community in 1957 that threatened the Smorgon’s exports with competition from European meat suppliers, Victor Smorgon diversified the company’s operations into paper production. Smorgon Consolidated Industries competed against the paper monopoly, Australian Paper Manufacturers (AMP). They added machinery to their existing Brooklyn factory and produced paper and carton materials. To compete with AMP, the Smorgons decided to start producing boxes as part of a vertical integration of their paper business. The family got into a legal dispute with APM as both businesses sought to purchase shares in the public packaging company, Fibre Containers Ltd. In 1984, Smorgon Consolidated Industries won the rights to supply 64% of Fibre Containers' paper, making the purchase of the company by AMP less desirable. The Smorgons purchased the company shares, having spent $53 million to complete this vertical integration of their paper business. In the early 1980s, Loti and Victor Smorgon began living in New York. The family used this opportunity to invest in American business and purchased a newsprint mill in Chicago. They then built a tissue plant alongside this factory. From 1988 to 1989 AMP (known as Amcor from 1986) drastically lowered box prices and raised charges for feedstock paper to capture more of the market. As a result, the Smorgon paper industry started making losses. The family decided to sell this business. Three box plants were purchased by Amcor and Richard Pratt, another market competitor, purchased two. Property The Smorgon family used capital from Smorgon Consolidated Industries to invest in property in the United States. The goal of this was to provide income for all family shareholders, giving non-working family members financial stability too. For 12 years, Victor and Loti Smorgon spent 6 months in the United States to head this operation where they invested in more than 25 properties. Victor Smorgon and friend, Ron Altman, also became limited partners in major projects with developers. Glass In 1982, David Smorgon purchased the Australian subsidiary of a Canadian packaging company, Glass Containers, which made glass and plastic packaging. This purchase put them in competition with the large company, Australian Consolidated Industries. The business secured the Smorgons 25% of the glass packaging market and 50% of the plastic bottle market. In 1989, Smorgon Consolidated Industries sold its corrugated-box plants to Amcor and the Pratt Group and its Humes plastics business to James Hardie. In November 1990, their glass containers business was sold to BTR Nylex, an Australian Consolidated Industries subsidiary. In the 1995 company breakup, the remaining plastic containers business was sold to industrial conglomerate, Southcorp. Steel The Smorgon family saw an opportunity to capitalise on the monopoly industry of steel. BHP controlled Australia’s steel market in the 1980s. Since 1930, BHP had been Australia’s largest industrial company and by the 1980s, it was producing 2% of Australia’s GDP and 9% of its exports. However, BHP had fluctuating profits as it was yet to adopt the new and efficient steel technology of electric-arc furnaces, also known as the mini-mill. The mini-mill used electricity to melt scrap metals into steel billets. This process increased product quality and factory productivity compared to traditional blast furnace production methods. Victor Smorgon partnered with David Holckner and began researching this new manufacturing method by visiting steel mills in the US. They originally had plans to export steel to South-East Asia but, when the foreign steel market collapsed, the family decided to compete with BHP’s domestic market instead. They began constructing the electric mini-mill in Laverton, Melbourne in 1981. The Smorgons started steel production in the first quarter of 1983. In January 1984, they diversified their product by purchasing a used rolling mill and rolling steel billets into reinforced bar. The Smorgons offered lower prices, distributed directly to customers and adapted their production schedules to suit their client’s needs. Through this strategy, they secured major building materials manufacturers such as ARC, Aquila and Boral, as clients. To vertically integrate their steel business, the Smorgons sold their steel operations to Humes Ltd in 1987. Humes Ltd was a client of the Smorgons and ran a steel product production and distribution operation under the name ARC. The Smorgons sold their steel operations for a 46% stake in Humes Ltd, valued at $346 million at the time. In 1988, the Smorgons then purchased Humes Ltd outright for $2.90 a share, paying approximately $375 million. They sold off the company’s building products operations and produced steel under the names of ARC and Australian Tube Mills. In 1995, Smorgon Consolidated Industries divested itself of all assets except for their steel business. The company was renamed Smorgon Steel. On 3 February 1999, the company listed on the Australian Securities Exchange and 33% was sold to new investors. The family retained 67% and still had members on the board and Graham Smorgon as the board chairman. In 1998, the company bought out Australian National Industries for its steel operations and in 2000 they purchased NSW’s leading scrap metal recycler, Metalcorp. In 2001, Smorgon Steel purchased Palmer Tube Mills and joined OneSteel in a partnership to acquire Email Ltd. The steel products distributor, Albion Steel Group, was purchased by Smorgon Steel in 2002. In 2003, Smorgon Steel acquired a 50% stake in the Hong Kong company, Hartwell Pacific Ltd, to export steel to foreign markets. In September the same year, the company bought Chantlers Metal Recyclers, the second largest scrap dealer in Sydney. During this time, members of the Smorgon family began to sell their shares in the company, reducing the family’s shareholding position. Smorgon Steel was sold to OneSteel in 2007. Divestment of assets In December 1994, Victor Smorgon stepped down as chairman of Smorgon Consolidated Industries along with Sam and Eric Smorgon and Charlie Holckner. The new board consisted of the younger family generation with George Castan, David Smorgon, Raymond Orloff, David Holckner, Robert Smorgon and Leslie Green. Graham Smorgon became the new chairman. In February 1995, the new board decided to divest the Smorgon family of their conglomerate, Smorgon Consolidated Industries. Smorgon Consolidated Industries had a complex shareholder structure of over 100 members from seven distinct family groups and so the aim of this move was to sell many of the company businesses so that all members could profit. At the time of the breakup, Smorgon Consolidated Industries employed over 400 people, operated companies in steel, meat, plastic containers, paper mills and recycling and was worth $1.5 billion. By August 1995, the meat, plastic containers, paper mills and recycling businesses were sold. Smorgon Consolidated Industries also sold the property portfolio of Victor Smorgon and Ron Altman and Victor and Loti Smorgon’s American Contemporary Art collection as these were purchased using the company’s finances. No family member could purchase the company assets for sale with the exception of Victor Smorgon who retained a small plastic recycling plant. After this period of sales, the family was left with their steel business, Smorgon Steel. After the company went public in 1999 the family still retained 67% but, over time, family members have sold their shares. Members of the Smorgon family used the money from the Smorgon Consolidated Industries breakup to fund other ventures. The Victor Smorgon Group was created to run the plastics recycler, Vicfam, Smorgon Fuels, General Pants Co, publicly listed coal reclamation company Greenfields Coal Co, Hale Agency advertising group, and other ventures. Victor Smorgon became executive chairman with Peter Edwards as managing director and Victor’s four daughters, Ginny, Vicki, Bindy and Sandra, as directors. Eric Smorgon founded the Escor Group which originally specialised in cosmetics but has since invested in multiple industries. David Smorgon and his three sons, Dean, Ricky and Dale set up Generation Investments. David Smorgon also operated DBR Investments and DBR Corporation with his brothers Barry and Rodney which passively invested in equities, property, venture capital and offshore funds. Philanthropy The Smorgon family has various philanthropic foundations including the Victor Smorgon Foundation, Victor Smorgon Scholarship Fund, the Sandra and Barry Smorgon Family Charitable Trust, and the Jack and Robert Smorgon Families Foundation. Through these, the Smorgons provide funding to aid chronic illness, homelessness, refugees, child abuse and medical research. The Smorgon family has a wing named after them in the Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre and the Royal Victorian Eye and Ear Hospital. They are life trustees at the Mount Scopus Memorial College and donate $30 000 annually to the Premier’s Award for Health and Medical Research. Loti and Victor Smorgon are also supporters of the arts where they are benefactors of the Victorian Arts Centre, Melbourne Symphony Orchestra and have a Loti and Victor Smorgon Gallery at the National Gallery of Australia. In 1995, Loti Smorgon also donated her collection of 154 contemporary Australian artworks to Sydney’s Museum of Contemporary Art. References Australian Jews Australian families Business families of Australia Jewish families
4862767	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balance%20board	Balance board	A balance board is a device used as a circus skill, for recreation, balance training, athletic training, brain development, therapy, musical training and other kinds of personal development. It is a lever similar to a see-saw that the user usually stands on, usually with the left and right foot at opposite ends of the board. The user's body must stay balanced enough to keep the board's edges from touching the ground and to keep from falling off the board. A different challenge is presented by each of the five basic types of balance boards and their subtypes. Some of them can be attempted successfully by three-year-olds and elderly people, and some, because of their steepness and speed, are difficult and dangerous for professional athletes. In their design, what differentiates the five types (and their subtypes) is how unstable each of them is, i.e., in how many and in which of the three dimensions of space each board turns and/or sways and how freely its fulcrum contacts the board and the ground. Uses and users In 1953, Stanley Washburn Jr. filed a patent for a balance board with the intention of its use for recreation. These boards quickly become popular for skiers and surfers to practice their balancing skills in the off season or when natural conditions were poor. The balance board is a device that has come to be used for training in sports and martial arts, for physical fitness and for non-athletic purposes that are listed here. It is used to develop balance, motor coordination skills, weight distribution and core strength; to prepare people, before and after they reach old age, to avoid injurious falls; to prevent sports injuries, especially to the ankle and knee; and for rehabilitation after injuries to several parts of the body. Uses of a balance board beyond its athletic origin have become more common: to expand neural networks that enable the left and right hemispheres of the brain to communicate with each other, thereby increasing its efficiency; to develop sensory integration and cognitive skills in children with developmental disorders; to make dancers lighter on their feet; to teach singers optimal posture for the control of air-flow; to teach musicians how to hold their instrument; to shake off writer's block and other inhibitors of creativity; as an accessory to yoga and as a form of yoga, cultivating holistic health, self-awareness and calm. Some people use a balance board for recreational purposes, enjoying the challenge that this equipment presents. Circus skill The balance board is used as a circus skill for recreation and performance. Many circus performers refer to the balance board as the rola bola. Skillful and dramatic balancing acts using the rola bola are performed by circus performers in traditional circus as well as by freelance circus skills artists. The performance can involve a single rola bola or a stack of multiple rola bolas on top of one another to increase the challenge and visual spectacle. Some circus performers also combine the use of the rola bola with other circus skills such as juggling or equilibristics to present a different visual spectacle. Structure The user stands on a board or other platform which is on top of an unstable ground-contacting member, the fulcrum. The height of the fulcrum of most models is between 3 and 6 inches (i.e., the top of the fulcrum is that distance above the ground). Due to the fulcrum's instability, the user must remain balanced and coordinated in order to prevent the board from touching the ground. Thus, the rider stimulates, exercises and teaches the parts of the body that implement the act of balancing (toes, soles, ankles, knees, hips, shoulders, arms and neck) and the parts of the body and brain that create the sense of balance and that engineer the implementation of the act of balancing (inner ears, cerebellum, proprioceptors and eyes). The degrees of movement through which the board can move – sliding, pivoting, rotating, tilting, rolling or some combination of those – and the speed of the board differ in different types and subtypes of models, depending on the shape and size of the fulcrum, whether it is attached to the board and, if it isn't attached, the method(s) by which it is constrained by the board, if any. With an increase of speed and with each additional degree of movement through which one model or another can move, the need to avoid losing control of the board forces the rider to exercise considerably more skill in order to avoid falling. In rocker boards and wobble boards, the fulcrum is attached to the board. In rocker-roller boards and sphere-and-ring boards, the fulcrum is a separate piece from the board. In sphere-and-ring boards, the fulcrum (an inflatable or solid ball) is constrained by a ring on the board's underside. In some rocker-roller boards, the fulcrum (a cylinder or mainly a cylinder) isn't constrained by the board (except by their friction), and in most rocker-rollers the cylinder is constrained by the board in any of five ways (a different number and combination of those ways in each type of rocker-roller) that are described below, in this article's "Rocker-Roller Boards" section. Positions other than standing are also used, in order to work on particular muscles and skills. For better foot traction, the stood-on surface of most boards is manufactured with an unsmooth texture: for plastic models, in the molding; for wooden models, with grip tape or rubber. A smooth surface under the feet or shoes can cause a user to slip off a balance board and fall. Wobble boards are the only type of balance board that is commonly made of plastic. Being no longer than their width, they don't need to be as strong and warp-resistant as other balance boards. Types There are more than a hundred models of balance boards on the market in the United States. Each of them is a version of one of about fifteen types of balance board. Each of these models and types can be classified as one of five basic types of balance board according to two binary parameters: whether its fulcrum is attached to the board and whether the board tilts in only two opposite directions (left and right or forward and back) or in every direction (360 degrees). More specifically: In other words: A rocker-roller board is a rocker board whose fulcrum is a separate piece. A sphere-and-ring board is a wobble board whose fulcrum is a separate piece. A wobble board is a rocker board that tilts toward 360 degrees. A sphere-and-ring board is a rocker-roller board that tilts toward 360 degrees. A spring board rests on compression springs that tilts towards 360 degrees Those five analogies are not precise definitions. They ignore some details of models' structure. Rocker A rocker board is the most basic and least challenging type of balance board. It is a flat board with a fulcrum attached to the board's underside. In some models the fulcrum is perpendicular to the board's length and in the other models the fulcrum is two rockers that are parallel to each other and parallel to the board's length, one in front of the person who is standing on the board and one behind. The ground-contacting edge of the fulcrum is curved in most models and is flat in some models. With one foot placed at each end of the board, the user can tilt it from side to side until the balance point is found and can then either try to keep the board stationary or continue rocking. Rocker boards offer only one degree of movement: part rotation about the longitudinal axis, i.e., banking (left-right tilting). Most rocker boards are made by manufacturers of toys or of gym equipment. Rocker-roller Rocker-roller boards add a degree of instability to the rocker board that makes them much more challenging for the rider than a rocker board is. Rather than on a fixed pivot, a rocker-roller's board is placed on a cylindrical roller; this fulcrum is a wheel that moves in relation to the ground and in relation to the board. The board's pivot point shifts back and forth as the cylinder rolls beneath it. In almost all models the two flat ends of the wheel/roller are about as far from each other as the width of the board. In most models the axis of the roller is perpendicular to the board's length. Thus, as the rider's weight moves over the roller, the board both tilts from side to side and also slides sideways. In models whose roller can be placed with its axis parallel to the board's length, the board slides and tilts toward the front and back (if the rider's feet are oriented accordingly). The roller has a different form in different models. Some are a cylinder and some are a cylinder in their midsection that tapers toward the two ends. That tapering enables tricky moves by the rider. How the roller and rocker interface can vary. Rollers may have grooves to fit a guide on the board to keep the roller aligned with the rocker and prevent the rocker from sliding along the roller. Rockers may have guard rails at the ends to prevent the rocker from rolling off the roller. The diameter of the roller of almost all rocker-rollers is between 3.5 and 6 inches at its widest section. The rollers of the rola bolas that circus performers use are usually between 7 and 9 inches in diameter. Wobble The fulcrum of almost all wobble boards is a semi-sphere or smaller spherical cap (or a shape that is approximately such) whose flat side is attached to the center of the board's underside. This allows the board to pivot in all directions, through 360 degrees. Standing on a wobble board exercises muscles that are not exercised by standing on boards that tilt in only two (opposite) directions. In almost all models, the board's length and width are about the same size; a circle is the usual shape. Wobble boards are widely used in child development, gymnasiums, sport training, prevention of injuries to the ankle and knee, rehabilitation after ankle, knee and hip injuries and physiotherapy. The basic use of a wobble board is to stand on it with both feet, and tilt in any direction without letting the board tilt so far that its edge touches the ground. Other common exercises are squats, standing on the board with one foot while keeping the other foot off the ground, push-ups (pressing down on the board with the hands while lying face-down with only the knees or toes contacting the ground), and sit-ups (with the board under the buttocks). Any exercise is much more work when a person's weight is on a wobble board than when supported by a stable and level base such as a floor. For additional muscle exercise while wobbling, some models can have an elastic stretch band attached: each hand pulls up one of the bands ends. The ends of the band fit through two opposed holes near the rim of the board, for quick attachment and detachment. A wobble board offers full rotation about the vertical axis (i.e., yawing, i.e., twisting), part rotation about the transverse/lateral axis (i.e., pitching, i.e., backward-forward tilting) and part rotation about the longitudinal axis (i.e., banking, i.e., left-right tilting). Additional movement, translation (i.e., sliding or skidding, usually unintended and unwanted), across the supporting surface is possible, except for the few wobble boards that have a stationary base. Sliding occurs much less often and usually across a shorter distance than in the case of a rocker-roller board and sphere-and-ring board. Most wobble boards are made of plastic. Wooden models are better able than plastic ones to withstand long use, such as in a gym. Some plastic models are more durable than others. Wobble boards are made by manufacturers of gym, sports and physical therapy equipment. Sphere-and-ring A sphere, either an inflatable rubber ball (such as a basketball) or a solid polyurethane ball, is the fulcrum on which the board is balanced, and the fulcrum is kept contained under the board by a guard rail or ring on the underside. By redistributing his/her weight across the board, the rider can move the board in any direction– side to side, forward and backward, twisting, diagonal, and full rotations or any combination of these movements. A rider can move the board vertically by doing an advanced maneuver called an ollie. It can also be tilted in any direction and fully rotated. Sphere-and-ring boards provide the greatest freedom of movement of any type of balance board, allowing rotation about all axes (yawing, pitching and banking) and translation (i.e., sliding) in both transverse (i.e., lateral) and longitudinal directions. They, like wobble boards, simultaneously exercise muscles that are not exercised by use of boards that tilt about only one axis (in two opposite directions). When balancing or riding on a sphere-and-ring board, the difficulty and ride speed, which is how fast the rider can move the board on the ball, are determined by the following: Ring shape and size Larger rings allow more movement of the fulcrum. Different shapes change how the fulcrum might move. Sphere's size, weight, and rigidity These affect how fast the fulcrum moves and how much strength is required to move it. Board's shape and size Changing these can affect the weight and weight distribution of the board, changing how much strength is required to move it. Aquatic These are underwater balance boards. They were developed for physical therapy and are used also for recreation. Besides the general advantages of aquatic therapy over non-aquatic therapy (the use of the smooth resistance of water instead of the jerky resistance of weights and the avoidance of burdening an injured joint with excessive weight– in this case, the weight of the patient's own body), aquatic balance boards have the specific advantage over non-aquatic balance boards of saving a patient who slips off of a board from the impact of falling and crashing into a floor. Slipping off of an aquatic balance board is safe as long as the user knows to avoid inhaling while underwater and knows how to tread water. Three models are produced by Theraquatics Australia: The Theraquatics Balance Board is a V-shaped rocker board that a user stands, kneels or sits on. The Wonder Board is a V-shaped rocker board that a user kneels or sits on. The Aquatic Balance Board (a.k.a. the Aquafit Balance Board) is a wobble board. The holes in it allow water to fill it, making it neutrally buoyant (i.e., neither sinking on its own nor floating up to the water's surface) so that it is easier to control and safer than it would be if this wobble board were more buoyant. Two products that Theraquatics Australia calls balance boards, its Star Balance Board and its Theraquatics Balance Board with Straps, are not balance boards in the familiar sense of the term, though they can be used for practicing balance skills. Wii The Wii Balance Board is not a rocking board as described in this article, but an electronic board which tracks the user's center of balance. It is used as an accessory with the Nintendo Wii game console and compatible applications such as Wii Fit. Psychological aspects Proper use of a balance board is a test of both physical skill and the user's sense of balance. Another sensation often experienced by a user of a balance board is the sensation of falling. Apart from actually falling, this often occurs during sharp accelerations caused by leaning too far or too quickly. Feeling like falling can raise fears and provoke reflexes that while useful on a stable surface can be counter-productive on a balance board, such as throwing the arms forward to catch the fall or over-correcting and sharply shifting weight onto the opposite leg, causing a fall in the opposite direction. Injury risk and prevention Falls from balance boards can break bones, sprain joints, and tear tendons, ligaments and cartilage. These risks can be diminished by preparing the space, wearing protective gear and following manufacturers' other safety recommendations. Risk can be lowered by anticipating falls and clearing the surrounding area of objects that the rider might fall onto, and making sure that the surface is soft. Some of the best surfaces for balance boarding include a soft yoga mat, a patch of grass, or the sand. Important protective gear is gear that protects the joints, the head and face, and otherwise protects from bumps and scrapes during falls. Care should be taken in selecting a helmet, as the weight could make falls worse or the shape might be unsuited for protecting from falls and might be pressed into the neck during impact. Standing on a balance board is extremely dangerous for a person who is prone to dizziness or whose balance is impaired, such as by being tired or under the influence of alcohol or other drugs. References External links A Guide to Balance Boards That Rock, Wobble and Roll Sports equipment Exercise equipment Boardsports Circus equipment Articles containing video clips
4862820	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GameTrailers%20TV%20with%20Geoff%20Keighley	GameTrailers TV with Geoff Keighley	GameTrailers TV with Geoff Keighley (or GT.TV) is a television show about video games hosted by video game journalist Geoff Keighley. Originally titled Game Head, on January 25, 2008, the show relaunched under its current name with a slightly different format and further incorporation of GameTrailers hosts, Amanda MacKay and Daniel Kayser. The series airs Friday nights at different times (depending on the previous programming) at 12am, 12:30am, 1am, and 1:30am Eastern Time on Spike in the U.S. and Canada. Series overview In the program, host Geoff Keighley, along with his correspondents, are seen on location at video game companies or interviewing with special guests while divulging exclusive information on upcoming video games. During the program, video game previews, reviews, new gadgets, and trivia facts about the video games are featured. Notable episodes Past episodes have included interviews with film director Uwe Boll, former Nintendo of America President and Chief Operating Officer Reggie Fils-Aimé, professional video gamer Johnathan "Fatal1ty" Wendel, and fashion designer Marc Ecko. Episodes have also focused on the "Best of E3" in their E3 2006 and E3 2007 episode, featuring editors from internet gaming site GameSpot. Other episodes have featured the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences's D.I.C.E. Summit, including an interview with the former head of Microsoft's Interactive Entertainment Business division Peter Moore, the 8th Annual Independent Games Festival, PAX East, and Spike TV Video Game Awards (VGAs). Ratings According to Spike TV, GT.TV is the highest rated video game show on television, and consistently has higher ratings than anything on G4 or MTV2. Hosts Geoff Keighley (2005–present) - Video game journalist for online, print and television, freelance writer, and executive producer. Former correspondent for G4TV's The Electric Playground. Amanda MacKay (2007–present) - On-location host, actress, and producer. Daniel Kayser (2007–present) - On-location correspondent and interviewer. iJustine (2010–present) - On-location gadget correspondent, and actress. Celebrity guests A number of celebrities have also appeared as guests, including Clint Eastwood, Kiefer Sutherland, Tobey Maguire, Kirsten Dunst, and even Triumph the Insult Comic Dog. Game Head: Episode Guide Season 1 (2005) 101 – Frag Dolls profile show 102 – The Nintendo Fusion Tour with Fall Out Boy 103 – Star Wars: Battlefront II Show, shot at LucasArts/LucasFilm's new office in San Francisco, CA 104 – Spike TV Video Game Awards Nomination Special 105 – Xbox 360 Launch Special 106 – Fight Night Round 3 107 – Spike TV Video Game Awards Post-Show 108 – University of Southern California Videogame Program Show 109 – 1UP/Ziff Davis 2006 Preview Show Season 2 (2006) 201 – Blur Studios, a 3D animation company 202 – The Collective, developer of The Da Vinci Code and Star Wars Episode III: Revenge of the Sith video games 203 – Uwe Boll, infamous videogame filmmaker 204 – Alex Ward, game designer of Burnout and BLACK 205 – Marc Ecko about his game, Marc Ecko's Getting Up: Contents Under Pressure 206 – Reggie Fils-Aimé, A profile of Nintendo's top North American executive 207 – Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences's D.I.C.E. Summit 208 – EA Los Angeles. This show featured an exclusive preview for Medal of Honor: Airborne 209 – Training Day with Johnathan "Fatal1ty" Wendel. 210 – The Godfather: The Game Shot at Paramount Pictures backlot in Hollywood, CA 211 – NBA Ballers Phenom 212 – Kingdom Hearts II 213 – The Sundance of Gaming. Shot at the Game Developers Conference in San Jose, CA Features Cliff Bleszinski from Epic Games Season 3 (2006) 301 – I Am 8 Bit Art Exhibit at Gallery 1988 in Los Angeles, CA 302 – Ubisoft Montreal Show shot in Montreal, QC, Canada 303 – E3 2006 Special 304 – X-Men: The Official Game 305 – E3 Game Critics Awards Show 306 – Mega64 307 – Pandemic Studios 308 – Video Games Live Music Concert, shot in Philadelphia, PA 309 – Sex and Videogames 310 – God of War II 311 – The Madden NFL 07 Kickoff Party at the ESPN SportsZone in New York City, NY 312 – Resident Evil: Extinction. On the set of the new movie in Mexico City, Mexico 313 – San Diego Comic-Con 2006 314 – Red vs. Blue from Buda, TX, and the world exclusive look at Command & Conquer 3: Tiberium Wars gameplay 315 – QuakeCon 2006. 316 – Game On: The History of Videogames 317 – The Warped Tour – Thirty Seconds to Mars, Less Than Jake and other bands discuss lending songs to videogames 318 – The cast of Family Guy discuss their new video game 319 – The PlayStation 3 game Resistance: Fall of Man from Insomniac Games 320 – Scarface: The World is Yours in Miami with Steven Bauer (Manny in the film). 321 – The Sopranos: Road to Respect with show creator David Chase and actor Vincent Pastore (Big Pussy) 322 – Warner Brothers Interactive and Superman Returns: The Game 323 – Uwe Boll on the set of his new film Postal 324 – Call of Duty 3 Challenge 325 – PlayStation 3 launch special 326 – Nintendo Wii launch special with Reggie Fils-Aimé 327 – 2006 Spike TV Video Game Awards hour-long special Season 4 (2007) During the 2006 Spike TV Video Game Awards on December 13, 2006, a 30-second commercial revealed that Game Head will return for a fourth season in 2007. Commercials stated that new episodes would premiere on Fridays at 1AM in January. However, the first new episode actually aired on Friday, February 2, 2007. The start of season 4 brought with it a new logo and new graphics throughout the show. Other new additions include a ratings score for game reviews, based on a 10-point scale, and a Game Head Icon segment, highlighting an iconic character in video game history. Also, a feature called Open World lists the top-selling games at a given independent video game retailer. 401 – 2007 videogame preview show from the offices of IGN in San Francisco, CA (February 2, 2007) 402 – Behind the scenes at Sega 403 – Madden Bowl 2007 from Miami, FL 404 – DICE Convention 2007 with Nintendo, Sony, and Microsoft 405 – NBA All-Star Game in Las Vegas 406 – Atari founder Nolan Bushnell 407 – God of War II Special with David Jaffe 408 – Fable creator Peter Molyneux plus a feature on Kotaku 409 – Inside Nintendo Power Magazine 410 – Alternative Reality Gaming at 42 Entertainment In keeping with the ARG theme, Game Head had a URL and images of Shigeru Miyamoto – hidden in split-second images flashed on the screen – to a trailer for the next episode: a Super Tribute to Shigeru Miyamoto. The link was "miyamoto.spiketv.com" 411 – Shigeru Miyamoto: A Super Tribute 412 – Inside Valve for Team Fortress 2 413 – Halo 3 Multiplayer Beta Special 414 – Pirates of the Caribbean: At World's End 415 – Big Buck Hunter Pro and Eugene Jarvis 416 – A look at Star Wars games at Star Wars Celebration IV 417 – Video game modder Ben Heckendorn 418 – The Voice of Mario: Charles Martinet 419 – Naughty Dog on Uncharted: Drake's Fortune This episode was re-aired in January 2008 with an updated Head Start news segment 420 – Gears of War creators Epic Games 421 – E3 2007 Special 422 – E3 Hangover Special 423 – Comic-Con 2007 with David Jaffe, Uwe Boll and the casts of Iron Man and Heroes 424 – Madden NFL 08 launch from Times Square 425 – Stranglehold special 426 – EA Chicago 427 – Projekt Revolution Tour 2007 428 – EA Summer Showcase 429 – Halo 3: LAUNCHED! 430 – Hollywood and Games 431 – World Cyber Games 432 – Call of Duty 4 creators Infinity Ward 433 – The writers of The Simpsons 434 – E For All Expo 2007 435 – Mass Effect at BioWare 436 – Harmonix the creators of Rock Band 437 – Videogame Violence with Jack Thompson 438 – Game Head Best of 2007 439 - Game Head: A Mockumentary (Online Short) GameTrailers TV (GT.TV) Episode Guide Season 1 (2008) In January 2008 it was announced that the 5th season Game Head would be relaunched as GameTrailers TV with Geoff Keighley, further aligning the show with MTV's popular gaming site GameTrailers. The format of the show is largely the same as Game Head, although game reviews are now handled by GameTrailers.com so the scores match those on the website. The show was also re-launched in high-definition on SpikeHD and is available in HD on GameTrailers.com and Xbox Live Marketplace. 101 – The world premiere of Tiberium with EA Los Angeles 102 – Turok creators Propaganda Games 103 – The Most Anticipated Games of 2008 104 – Madden Bowl 2008 with Peter Moore 105 – D.I.C.E. Summit 2008 106 – 2008 Game Developers Conference 107 – Iron Man creators Secret Level 108 – Star Wars: The Force Unleashed Special from LucasArts 109 – The Bourne Conspiracy creators High Moon Studios 110 – Brothers in Arms: Hell's Highway creators Gearbox Software 111 – Ghostbusters: The Video Game creators Terminal Reality 112 – Dead Space creators EA Redwood Shores 113 – FaceBreaker creators EA Canada 114 – Resistance 2 with Insomniac Games 115 – Lord of the Rings: Conquest with Pandemic Studios 116 – Prototype with Radical Entertainment 117 - Mortal Kombat vs. DC Universe with Midway Games 118 – Gears of War 2 with Epic Games 119 - E3 2008 Special 120 - Comic-Con 2008 121 - The Godfather II with Electronic Arts 122 - TNA Impact! with TNA wrestlers and Midway Games 123 - 2008 Penny Arcade Expo 124 - Halo Wars with Ensemble Studios 125 - Fallout 3 with Bethesda Game Studios 126 - Call of Duty: World at War with Treyarch 127 - Skate 2 with EA Canada 128 - Wanted: Weapons of Fate with GRIN and F.E.A.R. 2: Project Origin with Monolith Productions 129 - 2008 Spike Video Game Awards preview special Season 2 (2009) 201 - Most Anticipated Games of 2009 202 - Grand Theft Auto IV: The Lost and Damned with Rockstar Games 203 - inFamous with Sucker Punch Productions 204 - D.I.C.E. Summit 2009 205 - Alpha Protocol with Obsidian Entertainment 206 - Wolfenstein with Raven Software 207 - BioWare special 208 - 2009 Game Developers Conference 209 - Fight Night Round 4 with Electronic Arts 210 - Mafia II with 2K Games 211 - Army of Two: The 40th Day with EA Montreal 212 - Tony Hawk: Ride with Robomodo 213 - Heavy Rain with Quantic Dream 214 - E3 2009 Preview 215 - E3 2009 216 - Dante's Inferno with Visceral Games 217 - Uncharted 2: Among Thieves with Naughty Dog 218 - Brütal Legend with Double Fine Productions 219 - Comic-Con 2009 220 - Valve special 221 - Halo 3: ODST with Bungie 222 - LucasArts special 223 - Ratchet & Clank Future: A Crack in Time with Insomniac Games 224 - Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2 with Infinity Ward 225 - Grand Theft Auto: The Ballad of Gay Tony with Rockstar North 226 - BioShock 2 with 2K Marin 227 - Nintendo special 228 - Mass Effect 2 with BioWare Season 3 (2010) 301 - Battlefield: Bad Company 2 (January 21, 2010) 302 - Most Anticipated Games 2010 (January 28, 2010) 303 - Splinter Cell Conviction (February 11, 2010) 304 - X10 Convention (February 18, 2010) 305 - God of War III (February 25, 2010) 306 - TBA (March 5, 2010) 307 - TBA (March 12, 2010) 308 - GDC 2010 (March 19, 2010) 309 - Halo: Reach (April 4, 2010) 310 - Red Dead Redemption (May 8, 2010) 311 - TBA (May 15, 2010) 312 - Spiderman: Shattered Dimensions (May 22, 2010) 313 - Bulletstorm (May 29, 2010) 314 - Crysis 2 (June 5, 2010) 315 - TBA (June 12, 2010) 316 - The Big 3 at E3 (June 18, 2010) 317 - Deadliest Warrior (July 3, 2010) 318 - God of War III/Fallout: New Vegas (July 24, 2010) 319 - Comic Con 2010 (July 31, 2010) 320 - TBA (August 14, 2010) 321 - Portal 2 (August 21, 2010) 322 - Halo: Reach/Bungie (August 28, 2010) 323 - Dead Space 2 (September 11, 2010) 324 - Star Wars: The Force Unleashed 2 (September 18, 2010) 325 - Epic Mickey (September 25, 2010) 326 - Call of Duty: Black Ops (October 15, 2010) 327 - Rock Band 3 (October 22, 2010) 328 - Mortal Kombat (October 29, 2010) 329 - Fall Games Preview (November 5, 2010) 330 - Back to the Future: The Game (December 3, 2010) 331 - 2010 VGA Preview (December 10, 2010) Season 4 (2011) 401 - Fight Night Champion/Twisted Metal (January 29, 2011) 402 - Nintendo 3DS (February 4, 2011) 403 - Duke Nukem Forever/Madden Bowl 2011 (February 11, 2011) 404 - Infamous 2/SOCOM 4 (February 24, 2011) 405 - GDC 2011 Special (March 3, 2011) 406 - Rage (March 8, 2011) 407 - PAX East (March 11, 2011) 408 - L.A. Noire/Twisted Metal (April 15, 2011) 409 - Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim/Uncharted 3: Drake's Deception (April 22, 2011) 410 - Sony Surprise: Starhawk/Madden NFL 12 (Top 5 Most Anticipated Games at E3) (May 13, 2011) 411 - Countdown to E3 2011 (May 26, 2011) 412 - E3 First Look (Exclusive E3 2011 Trailers) (June 3, 2011) Special - GT.TV Presents: E3 2011 All Access Live (June 6, 2011) 413 - BioShock Infinite (15 minute trailer from E3) (July 8, 2011) 414 - Resistance 3 (July 22, 2011) 415 - Comic-Con 2011: Saint's Row: The Third/Mass Effect 3/Batman: Arkham City (July 29, 2011) 416 - Saints Row: The Third (August 12, 2011) 417 - Gears of War 3 (August 19, 2011) 418 - Fall Preview/GamesCon/Kotaku.com (August 26, 2011) 419 - NBA 2K12/PAX '11 (September 2, 2011) 420 - Assassin's Creed: Revelations (September 9, 2011) 421 - Batman: Arkham City (September 16, 2011) Special - GameStop All Access (Battlefield 3/Assassin's Creed: Revelations/Uncharted 3: Drake's Deception/Batman: Arkham City) (September 16, 2011) 422 - Aliens & Syndicate (Aliens: Colonial Marines/Syndicate) (September 30, 2011) Season 5 (2012) 501 - Battlefield 3 (October 7, 2011) 502 - Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 3 (October 14, 2011) 503 - Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim (October 21, 2011) 504 - Nintendo Exclusives (w/ Reggie Fils-Aimé) (The Legend of Zelda: Skyward Sword) (October 28, 2011) 505 - The Simpsons E3 Parody/Spike Video Game Awards Nominees (November 11, 2011) 506 - GameStop Unwrapped (The biggest games of the season)/World Premiere DLC (November 25, 2011) 507 - VGA Games of the Year (Spike's VGA nominees of the year) (December 9, 2011) 508 - Mass Effect 3/CES 2012 (January 20, 2012) 509 - Spring Preview: Madden Bowl 2012/Starhawk/MLB 12: The Show/Darksiders II/Syndicate (February 10, 2012) 510 - DICE Summit2012/Transformers: Fall of Cybertron/Sleeping Dogs (February 17, 2012) 511 - Xbox 360 Spring Showcase/Halo 4/Forza Horizon (March 9, 2012) 512 - GDC 2012 (San Francisco Game Developer's Conference)/Tony Hawk's Pro Skater HD/Bellator: MMA Onslaught (March 16, 2012) 513 - Junction Point Studio Visit: Disney's Epic Mickey 2: The Power of Two (March 23, 2012) 514 - FreddieW (April 6, 2012) 515 - Medal of Honor: Warfighter (April 13, 2012) 516 - PlayStation 3 Exclusive Game: PlayStation All-Stars Battle Royale (April 27, 2012) Special - GT.TV presents Max Payne 3 (May 4, 2012) 517 - Transformers Fall of Cybertron (May 11, 2012) 518 - Far Cry 3 (May 18, 2012) 519 - E3 2012 First Look Special (Star Wars: 1313/Guardians of Middle-earth/Metal Gear Rising: Revengeance/Castlevania: Lords of Shadow 2/Dishonored/Tomb Raider) (May 31, 2012) 520 - Epic Games (June 8, 2012) 521 - Dead Space 3 (June 15, 2012) 522 - Tomb Raider (June 22, 2012) 523 - Borderlands 2/Vid Con 2012 (July 13, 2012) 524 - Dishonored (August 3, 2012) 525 - Valve (Dota 2/Source Film Maker/Steam/QuakeCon) (August 17, 2012) 526 - Media Molecule/Forza Horizon (September 7, 2012) 527 - Fuse (September 14, 2012) 528 - Halo 4 (September 21, 2012) 529 - Assassin's Creed III (September 28, 2012) Season 6 (2013) 601 - Need For Speed: Most Wanted and Medal of Honor: Warfighter (October 5, 2012) 602 - Call of Duty: Black Ops 2 (October 12, 2012) 603 - God of War: Ascension (November 9, 2012) 604 - VGA 10 Nomination Special (December 7, 2012) 605 - CES 2013 (January 18, 2013) 606 - Star Trek/Star Wars Pinball (February 22, 2013) 607 - South by Southwest/Metal Gear Solid V: The Phantom Pain (March 15, 2013) 608 - GDC 2013/Battlefield 4 (April 12, 2013) 609 - Behind the Scenes: Microsoft Xbox One (May 24, 2013) 610 - Pre-E3 2013 Countdown (Dying Light/Yaiba: Ninja Gaiden Z) (June 7, 2013) 612 - Penny Arcade Expo 2013 (PAX) (September 13, 2013) Season 7 (2013) 701 - Killzone: Shadow Fall/Batman: Arkham Origins (October 18, 2013) 702 - Xbox & Nintendo Fall Preview (November 7, 2013) Special - PS4 All Access: Greatness Awaits (Special) (November 14, 2013) Special - Xbox One: Day One Countdown (Special) (November 21, 2013) 703 - Donkey Kong Country: Tropical Freeze (November 22, 2013) References External links Spike (TV network) original programming Television shows about video games 2005 American television series debuts 2008 American television series endings 2008 American television series debuts 2013 American television series endings English-language television shows
4862882	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold%20Edward%20Elliott	Harold Edward Elliott	Major General Harold Edward "Pompey" Elliott, (19 June 1878 – 23 March 1931) was a senior officer in the Australian Army during the First World War. After the war he served as a Senator for Victoria in the Australian parliament. Elliott entered the University of Melbourne in 1898 to study law, but left in 1900 to serve in the Imperial Bushmen in the South African War. He was awarded the Distinguished Conduct Medal, and given a British Army commission, but chose to remain with the Victorian Imperial Bushmen as an attached subaltern. He returned to Australia in 1901, but went back to South Africa to serve with the Border Scouts, who patrolled remote and inhospitable areas. In December 1901, he distinguished himself in repelling a numerically superior Boer force, and received a congratulatory telegram from General Lord Kitchener. After he returned to Australia, he completed his law degree and became a solicitor. He was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the Militia in 1904, and he was promoted to lieutenant in 1905, captain in 1909, major in 1911, and lieutenant colonel in 1913, commanding the 58th Battalion (Essendon Rifles). After the outbreak of the First World War, Elliott joined the Australian Imperial Force (AIF), and formed and commanded the 7th Infantry Battalion, which he led in the landing at Anzac on 25 April 1915, and the Battle of Lone Pine in August. In March 1916, he became the commander of the newly formed 15th Infantry Brigade, which he led in the disastrous Battle of Fromelles in July 1916. In March 1917, the German retreat to the Hindenburg Line gave Elliott a rare chance to display his tactical acumen in an independent command as the 15th Brigade operated as an advance guard of the British Fifth Army. It fought in the Second Battle of Bullecourt in May 1917, and the Battle of Polygon Wood at the end of September 1917, when Elliott's leadership transformed a near-defeat into a victory. In the Second Battle of Villers-Bretonneux in April 1918, he won another famous victory. Elliott won the 1919 federal election as a Nationalist Party of Australia candidate for the Senate, and was re-elected in the 1925 election. His involvement with returned servicemen's issues led to his redrafting of the constitution of the Returned Sailors and Soldiers Imperial League of Australia, and he played an important part in the Victoria Police strike, making a call alongside Lieutenant General Sir John Monash for members of the AIF to come to Melbourne Town Hall and sign up as special constables. In 1926, he was appointed to command the 15th Brigade again, and the following year was finally promoted to the rank of major general, and became the commander of the 3rd Division. Suffering from chronic post-traumatic stress disorder, he killed himself in March 1931. Early life Harold Edward Elliott was born 19 June 1878 in West Charlton, Victoria, the third son and fifth child of eight children of a farmer and prospector, Thomas Elliott, and his wife Helen, née Janvrin. To his family, he was nicknamed "Harkey". He grew up on the family farms, and attended the local school, known as the Rock Tank. In 1894, his father was one of six men who made a sensational find on the goldfields at Coolgardie, Western Australia. They sold their claim to the Earl of Fingall for £180,000 and a sixth interest. Fingall then floated it in London as a company valued at £700,000. This changed the family's circumstances. Debts were paid, and the farms acquired outright. The family moved to a new house named "Elsinore" near Lake Wendouree in Ballarat, Victoria. In January 1895, Elliott commenced at Ballarat College, a private Presbyterian boys' school, where one of the school houses, "Elliott", is now named after him. Despite concerns about the adequacy of his Rock Tank education, Elliott topped his class in Latin, bookkeeping, and Bible studies in his first year. He topped the class in seven of his eight subjects in 1896, and went on to become dux of the school in 1897. Elliott entered Ormond College, the Presbyterian hall of residence at the University of Melbourne in 1898 to study law. Between 1883 and 1896, law students had been required to first obtain a Bachelor of Arts degree before going on to study law. This had been changed, but Elliott, who was under no financial pressure to complete his degree quickly, elected to follow the old route and complete an arts degree first. He also represented Ormond College in football and athletics, and joined the University Officers' Training Corps. In March 1900, the Imperial authorities asked the Australian colonial governments to raise a force of 2,500 Imperial Bushmen for service in the South African War. Elliott decided to interrupt his studies to serve, and was one of 4,000 applicants for the 626 positions allotted to Victoria. He was accepted for the Victorian Imperial Bushmen, and trained at Langwarrin, Victoria, before embarking for South Africa on 1 May 1900. In another aspect of his life, Elliott would join the United Grand Lodge of Victoria as a Freemason in the old and established Naval & Military Lodge No 49. Boer War service The Victorian Imperial Bushmen were initially based at Marandellas in case the Boers invaded Southern Rhodesia. In January 1901 they moved to the Cape Colony, where they were attached to a Coldstream Guards force under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Arthur Henniker. This sometimes formed part of a larger force under the command of Colonel Herbert Plumer. On 28 February 1901, a 16-man detachment of Victorian Imperial Bushmen under the command of Captain Joseph Dallimore tracked a party of Boers. During the night, Elliott, now a corporal, stole the Boers' 54 horses without waking them. At dawn the bushmen surrounded and attacked the Boer party's encampment, and compelled all 33 of them to surrender. For his part, Elliott was awarded the Distinguished Conduct Medal, the British Empire's second-highest award for gallantry by other ranks after the Victoria Cross, and mentioned in despatches. He was given a British Army commission as a lieutenant in the 2nd Battalion, Royal Berkshire Regiment on 20 November 1900, but he remained with the Victorian Imperial Bushmen as an attached subaltern. He embarked for Australia on 22 June 1901, reaching Melbourne on 12 July. His British Army commission was cancelled at his own request. On 24 August 1901, he sailed for South Africa again on the SS Britannic. There, he obtained a commission as a lieutenant in the Cape Colony Cyclist Corps on 18 October 1901. He then joined the Border Scouts, who patrolled remote and inhospitable areas. In December 1901, he distinguished himself in repelling a numerically superior Boer force under Commandant Edwin Alfred Conroy. For this he received a congratulatory telegram from General Lord Kitchener that read: "Please tell Lieut. Elliott that I am very pleased with his conduct and that of his men in driving off Conroy and saving horses." The war ended in May 1902, but Elliott remained with the Border Scouts until they were disbanded in September. In addition to his Distinguished Conduct Medal, Elliott was awarded the Queen's South Africa Medal with four clasps (Rhodesia, Orange Free State, Transvaal, and Cape Colony), and the King's South Africa Medal with two clasps (South Africa 1901 and South Africa 1902). Early law career In 1903, Elliott returned to his studies, completing his arts degree. Instead of staying at Ormond College, he lived at "Endersleigh", a residence in Drummond Street, Carlton, owned by Alexander and Mary Campbell. The following year he commenced law, winning a residential scholarship to Ormond College. He was also commissioned in the Militia as a second lieutenant in the 5th Infantry Regiment. He returned to Ormond in 1905, where he was joined by his brother George, who had also been dux of Ballarat College, and went on to play football for Fitzroy and University in the Victorian Football League. Elliott graduated in 1906 with his Bachelor of Arts and Bachelor of Laws with second class honours, sharing the Supreme Court Prize for the top law student. A law degree was not sufficient to allow one to practise law; aspiring lawyers had also to complete articles. Elliott joined the firm of Moule, Hamilton and Kiddle on Market Street. While working on his articles, he lived at Endersleigh and courted Belle and Kate, the daughters of its owners. He completed his articles in August 1907, and was dismissed by Moule, Hamilton and Kiddle, since the firm would now have to pay him a living wage. Elliott practised as a solicitor in Stawell, Victoria, for a while, before returning to Melbourne, where he formed a partnership with a fellow solicitor, Glen Roberts, with offices in Collins Street. He bought a house called "Dalriada" in Northcote, with a loan from his father, and married Kate Campbell there on 27 December 1909. They had two children, a daughter, Violet, born in March 1911, and a son, Neil, in June 1912. His militia career also flourished, and he was promoted to lieutenant in 1905, captain in 1909, major in 1911, and lieutenant colonel in 1913, commanding the 58th Battalion (Essendon Rifles). First World War Gallipoli Campaign On 14 August 1914, soon after the First World War began, Elliott was given the same rank in the Australian Imperial Force (AIF), and command of the 7th Infantry Battalion, one of four Victorian battalions in Colonel James Whiteside McCay's 2nd Infantry Brigade. Elliott's first action was to ask Major Walter McNicoll to be his second in command, a position McNicoll readily accepted. He then supervised the raising of his battalion. Three of his eight companies were drawn from the northern suburbs of Melbourne, but the other five came mainly from central Victoria. He took particular care over the selection of officers. The newly formed battalion marched from Victoria Barracks to the training camp at Broadmeadows, Victoria, on 19 August. Elliott believed that Australians would take readily to military discipline if the reasons for it were properly explained. McCay was disturbed at the numbers of men without prior militia training that were being enlisted, but some of the battalion's recruiting area had no militia units. Instead, Elliott relied on the quality of the militia's officers and non-commissioned officers to produce well-trained soldiers. On 18 October, the 7th Battalion entrained for Port Melbourne, where it boarded the SS Hororata for England. While it was en route, the destination was changed to Egypt. In Egypt, the battalion was re-organised, changing over to the new establishment of four companies instead of eight, and McNicoll left to take over command of the 6th Infantry Battalion. Elliott established a mystique as a larger than life personality, and his idiosyncrasies drew intense devotion and loyalty from his men. He acquired the nickname "Pompey" after the famous football player Fred "Pompey" Elliott, who played 209 games for Carlton and Melbourne. Throughout the war, he was accompanied by a black charger, called "Darkie", who (with subtle encouragement) would spot the smallest irregularities in the men. Years later, his men were still convinced that it was the horse who had noticed the errors their commander had berated them for. For the landing at Anzac on 25 April 1915, the 6th and 7th Battalions travelled from Lemnos in the . The plan called for the troops to be landed by tows—wooden rowboats towed by a powered craft; but when the ship came under fire with no sign of the tows that were to take the troops ashore, the ship's master decided that the 7th Battalion must proceed ashore in the ship's rowboats. Elliott was strongly opposed to this, as the men would have to row a long way, and the battalion would become disorganised from the start, but had to give way. Elliott went in the fifth boat. When his boat and the one following were about from shore, they were met by a steam pinnace, which towed them to Anzac Cove, where Elliott stepped ashore about 0530. The plan called for the 2nd Brigade to advance on the left towards Hill 971, but Colonel Ewen Sinclair-Maclagan told him that the plan needed to be changed, and that the 2nd Brigade was required on the right, around the 400 Plateau. Climbing up to the 400 Plateau to view the situation for himself, Elliott was wounded in the ankle. He was helped down to the beach, where he remained for several hours, insisting that others were more severely wounded than himself. Eventually, he was taken to the hospital ship HMHS Gascon, and thence back to Alexandria. Elliott was admitted to the 1st Australian General Hospital in Heliopolis on 7 May 1915, was discharged on 26 May, and rejoined the 7th Battalion at Anzac on 5 June. On 8 July he was in his headquarters behind Steele's Post when he received word that the Turks were in an Australian tunnel near the German Officers' Trench. Characteristically, he went forward in person to ascertain the situation, entering the tunnel with two men. Some from the end there was a flash in his face, and the man behind him was shot. Elliott drew his pistol and barricaded the tunnel with sand bags, refusing help for fear that anyone else coming forward might also be hit. The tunnel was blocked off, and sealed with an explosion. On 8 August 1915, the 7th Battalion moved into positions captured the previous day in the Battle of Lone Pine, and he took over responsibility for the defence of the entire position. He led his men from the front trenches, steadying them in an uncertain situation. They fought off a series of Turkish counterattacks, winning four Victoria Crosses in the process. In the fighting, a man next to him was shot dead, splashing him from head to foot with blood and brains, but he was not decorated for the battle despite inspirational leadership. Apparently his name, originally at the top of the recommendations for decorations, had been struck off the list. On 28 August, Elliott was evacuated to England towards the end of August with pleurisy, and did not rejoin the 7th Battalion until 7 November. On 18 December, one day before the evacuation of Anzac, he sprained his ankle and was evacuated ahead of his troops. He was mentioned in despatches on 28 January 1916. Suez Canal After the evacuation, the 7th Battalion was returned to Egypt, where Elliott rejoined it on 15 January. On 15 February, he was appointed to command, with the rank of brigadier general, the 1st Infantry Brigade, vice Brigadier General Nevill Smyth, who was being promoted. Two weeks later the news came that Smyth would not be promoted after all, so Elliott asked to be returned to the 7th Battalion. When the commander of the AIF, Lieutenant General Sir William Birdwood, offered Elliott the newly formed 14th Infantry Brigade in Maj. Gen. James Whiteside M’Cay's new 5th Division instead, Elliott said that he would prefer the 15th Infantry Brigade, as it was the Victorian brigade of the 5th Division, whereas the 14th was from New South Wales. Birdwood granted this request. Elliott soon made himself unpopular with Birdwood when he wanted to replace three of the four battalion commanders allotted to him. He was told that their reputations were sacred, but Elliott replied that the lives of his men were more so. Birdwood forced him to accept them for the time being; but Elliott eventually had his way. He also reorganised the brigade to match that of the Militia brigade of the same number at home. In March 1916, the 5th Division was sent across the desert to defend the Suez Canal. The crossing was first attempted by the 14th Brigade, who suffered badly. Elliott personally inspected the route, talked with officers familiar with it, and drew up a new timetable for the march, managing to get his men across with only a handful of casualties. On the march, one man forgot the ban on smoking. Elliott characteristically started to scream at the man, even threatening to shoot him. Out from the ranks came a shout: "If you shoot him, I'll shoot you." When the soldier who called out was brought forward and explained that no one talked to his brother like that, Elliott sent the man to his school for non-commissioned officers, with the rationale that anyone who could stand up to himself in full flight clearly had leadership potential. On arriving at Suez, the water that the Battalion had been promised was nowhere to be found. They were assured that the water was coming, but hours later it still had not appeared. Elliott then made one of the "vigorous protests" that he was becoming famous for. He even threatened to march them back across the Suez Canal to get them a drink. "It was outrageous to deprive men of water in the desert" Elliott thundered. He was assured that the water would be available at 5.30 the next morning. Elliott was up at 0500, and found many of his men had been unable to sleep due to their thirst, and were licking at the taps around camp. He found the camp's Chief Engineer who informed him that the Egyptian civil authorities had not provided enough water for the troops in camp, and that he had strict orders not to start the pumps before 0800, as it would wake the II Anzac Corps Commander, Lieutenant General Sir Alexander Godley. Elliott remounted his horse and went to II Anzac Corps Headquarters, where he informed a yawning staff officer in silk pyjamas that unless the water was turned on in the next five minutes, the brigade would be assembling and telling the Corps Commander exactly what they thought of him. The staff officer made a phone call, and Elliott was warned that he shouldn't make such a fuss again. He simply replied that he would do whatever was needed to help his men whenever he had to. Western Front The 15th Brigade embarked for the Western Front on 17 June 1916. Its first battle was the disastrous Battle of Fromelles. Despite his inexperience in trench warfare, he pointed out to Major H. C. L. Howard of Field Marshal Sir Douglas Haig's British Expeditionary Force staff that the width of no-man's land was too great for the assault to succeed. Major Howard agreed and, on returning to Haig's Chateau, attempted to persuade him that the attack was doomed to fail. But the commander-in-chief decided that the operation must go on, so Elliott did all that was possible to make it a success by himself going to the front line to personally inspect the lie of the land and encourage his men. He soon realised that the attack had been a complete failure, reported to that effect, and established that he was now organising the defence of the original trenches. In the end, 1,804 of the 5,533 Australian casualties were from the 15th Brigade. For his part, Elliott was made a Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George, mentioned in despatches, and awarded the Russian Order of St Anna (3rd class, with swords). These losses precluded the 5th Division's further involvement in the fighting in the Battle of the Somme. It was not sent south to join the other division of I Anzac Corps until October. Ordered to make an attack north of Flers that he didn't believe would succeed, he refused. In March 1917, the Germans retreated to the Hindenburg Line, giving Elliott a rare chance to display his tactical acumen in an independent command as his brigade operated as an advance guard of the British Fifth Army. He was mentioned in despatches, and made a Companion of the Distinguished Service Order. His citation read: The 15th Brigade fought in the Second Battle of Bullecourt in May 1917, and the Battle of Polygon Wood at the end of September. According to Charles Bean, this victory was For Elliott, the victory was marred by the death of his brother George, a captain in the Medical Corps attached to the 14th Brigade. He submitted a detailed report of the battle that was highly critical of the British 33rd Division on his right flank, and which Birdwood ordered suppressed. Elliott was mentioned in despatches. In March 1918, a British Army captain was apprehended in Corbie looting champagne. The culprit was handed over to the military police, and Elliott posted a proclamation that the next officer found looting would be publicly hanged in the village market square, in emulation of the actions of Major General Robert Craufurd. He reasoned that the enlisted men could not be expected to refrain from looting if officers set a bad example. The Second Battle of Villers-Bretonneux in April 1918, was another famous victory, praised by Marshal Ferdinand Foch for its "altogether astonishing valiance". Elliott was again mentioned in despatches, and made a Companion of the Order of the Bath. Bean wrote that Elliott was deeply disappointed at being passed over for command of a division in favour of John Gellibrand and William Glasgow, who were of equal seniority. He continued to lead the 15th Brigade, which fought in the Battle of Hamel on 4 July 1918, the Battle of Amiens on 8 August, and the Battle of St. Quentin Canal in August and September. At Peronne on 1 September, after leading his troops across a damaged bridge over the Somme River, he slipped and fell in the river. The division radio network became clogged with stations repeating the message that "Pompey's fallen in the Somme". During the mutinies over disbanding battalions in September 1918, Elliott was the only brigade commander with sufficient sway over his men for a battalion, the 60th, to obey his order to disband. As the members of the brigade began to return to Australia after the war, he became increasingly depressed. Eventually, he called a parade to hand out some last medals, and gave them a farewell speech to thank them for upholding his demanding standards. They were then dismissed and he returned to his paperwork. Later that afternoon, the brigade returned to his chateau preceded by bands and colours. Each company circled the chateau and cheered for their commander. Lastly, the senior colonel called for three cheers and told Elliott that the men wanted to show their appreciation for him and that, despite it being a voluntary march, everyone was there. He was mentioned in despatches twice more, and awarded the French Croix de Guerre. Political service Elliott embarked for Australia on the RMS Orontes on 15 May 1919, sharing a cabin with an old friend, Brigadier General Gordon Bennett. They arrived back in Melbourne on 28 June, and his AIF appointment was terminated the following day. He contested the federal election as a candidate for the Nationalist Party of Australia on 13 December 1919. He achieved the greatest popular vote of any Victorian candidate for the Senate. Moreover, he repeated this success at the 1925 election. Although not naturally suited to life in the federal parliament, he made significant contributions, and was outspoken in his efforts to assist returned servicemen, particularly those with whom he had served. This outspokenness often took the form of arguing in the Senate in relation to new legislation being brought before it, when such legislation involved the defence forces. At other times, he would personally champion the cause of those men who had been in his battalion. In 1919, Elliott became Melbourne's city solicitor, and around this time founded H. E. Elliott and Downing, solicitors, with fellow-digger W. H. Downing and offices in Collins Street. His involvement with returned servicemen's issues led to his redrafting the constitution of the Returned Sailors and Soldiers Imperial League of Australia. He played an important part in the Victoria Police strike, making a call alongside Lieutenant General Sir John Monash for members of the AIF to come to Melbourne Town Hall and sign up as special constables. Many men came specifically for Elliott, ready to stand behind him again, although he was forced to leave only a few days into the Strike to attend meetings in Queensland of the Royal Commission on the Navigation Act. He received special thanks from the Premier of Victoria, Harry Lawson. He built a house at 56 Prospect Hill Road, Camberwell, where he lived with his wife, children, sister-in-law Belle, and mother-in-law, Mary Campbell, until she died in 1923. He often attended functions escorted by Belle. Violet attended Fintona Girls' School while Neil went to Camberwell Grammar School. With considerable justice, Elliott felt that he had been sidelined by the new leadership of the Australian Army. This was most probably due to his tactlessness, particularly in relation to post-war changes of policy, and regarding the wartime records of some of those now being selected for the prime military appointments, particularly Lieutenant General Sir Brudenell White, who was now the Chief of the General Staff. In 1921, the Army established a division structure, and the two divisions in Victoria, the 3rd and 4th were given to Gellibrand and Charles Brand respectively. Elliott used the Senate as a forum to protest this, and he was supported by fellow senators and generals, Charlie Cox and Edmund Drake-Brockman. White was succeeded as Chief of the General Staff by Lieutenant General Sir Harry Chauvel in 1926, and he moved to rehabilitate Elliott, who was appointed to command the 15th Brigade again. In 1927, he was finally promoted to the rank of major general, and became the commander of the 3rd Division. Death Increasingly, Elliott suffered from diabetes, hypertension, and what was diagnosed by Dr J. F. Williams as a "definite form of nervous disorder", now most likely post traumatic stress disorder and major depressive disorder. He was admitted to the Alfred Hospital on 16 February 1931 after making an attempt to gas himself in the oven at his house. His older sister Nell died by suicide, as had a niece. Early on the morning of 23 March 1931, Elliott committed suicide by cutting himself with his shaving razor while an inpatient in a private hospital in Malvern. Elliott's funeral took place on 25 March. Following a short service at his home, his casket was drawn, with full military honours including bands and an escort party, on a gun carriage pulled by horses resplendent with black plumes, to the Burwood Cemetery, a march of some four miles. Stanley Bruce, whose premiership came to an end in late 1929, marched as a common returned soldier. Reports in the newspapers of the time state that several thousand people followed the cortège and lined the parade route. The parade was led by Rear Admiral William Munro Kerr, with Brigadier Generals Charles Brand, Thomas Blamey and J. C. Stewart. His grave bears the epitaph (from Shakespeare's Julius Caesar) "This was a man". His papers are held by the Australian War Memorial in Canberra. In popular culture Elliott was portrayed by Francis Bell in the 1985 Anzacs television miniseries. Pompey Elliott was one of the six Australians whose war experiences were presented in The War That Changed Us, a four-part television documentary series about Australia's involvement in World War I. A street in Ascot Vale, Victoria, was created in the Whiskey Hill subdivision around 6 km north of Melbourne in around 1930 and named after Elliott. The street is called Elliott Street and is a time capsule of early 1930s architecture. Notes References External links 1878 births 1931 suicides 1931 deaths Military personnel from Victoria (state) Australian generals Australian military personnel of the Second Boer War Australian military personnel of World War I Australian military personnel who committed suicide Australian politicians who committed suicide Australian recipients of the Distinguished Conduct Medal Australian Companions of the Distinguished Service Order Australian Companions of the Order of St Michael and St George Australian Companions of the Order of the Bath Federation University Australia alumni Melbourne Law School alumni Members of the Australian Senate for Victoria Suicides by sharp instrument in Australia Nationalist Party of Australia members of the Parliament of Australia 20th-century Australian politicians Recipients of the Croix de Guerre 1914–1918 (France) Recipients of the Order of St. Anna, 3rd class Royal Berkshire Regiment officers Burials in Victoria (state)
4863138	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chung%20Keng%20Quee	Chung Keng Quee	Kapitan China Chung Keng Quee (; Pha̍k-fa-sṳ: Chhang Kín-kui, 182713 December1901) was the founder and administrator of modern Taiping in Perak, Malaysia. Appointed "Capitan China" by the British in 1877, he was a millionaire philanthropist and known as an innovator in the mining of tin. He was involved in many other industries including farming, pawnbroking and logging. He was respected by both Chinese and European communities in the early colonial settlement. His survival in the chaotic era owes much to his standing as leader of the Hai San, a Chinese secret society in British Malaya during the time of the Larut Wars (1862–73). a position he is said to have held till early 1884 although in all probability he continued to remain a leading member. The old fort at Teluk Batu was built by him to safeguard the mine that he opened there. He was a member of the Commission for the Pacification of Larut and sat as one of six members of the Advisory Perak State Council appointed by the British. Commenting on the role of the Perak Council, Richard James Wilkinson wrote, "It is for the reader, in the light of subsequent events, to judge how far the Councillors were right or wrong, and to see for himself who really did the pioneer work of building up the prosperity of Perak. In the published accounts of British rule in Malaya, sufficient prominence has not always been given to the efforts of these early pioneers; the reaper, intent on his own work, is apt to forget the man who sowed. These Council Minutes are the record of the work of the sowers. A study of that record will show how much the State owes to Sir Hugh Low and to his fellow-Councillors, especially Raja Dris (the present Sultan), Sir William Maxwell, and the Chinese towkays, Ah Kwi [Chung Keng Quee] and Ah Yam." Early history Third among his father's five sons, Chung Keng Quee was born into a peasant Hakka family in Xin Cun (新村) village, Cheng Sheng (Zengcheng 增城) county of Guangdong province, China. At the time of his death the Perak Pioneer & Native States Advertiser VOL VIII Taiping Saturday 14 December 1901 reports: "Precise information as to the date of his arrival in Perak is difficult to obtain but it is apparently certain that he has passed over forty-five years in the State before he retired to Penang." It is believed that in 1841, he journeyed from China to British Malaya in a junk, sent by his mother, Madam Lai, to look for his father, Chung, Hsing Fah (Chung, Xingfa 郑兴发; Hakka: Chang Hin Fatt). He had left his wife (Madam Lin) in China to look after his elderly mother. He is thought to have been 20 years of age at that time. Chung Hsing Fa, had come to Malaya as an indentured labourer during a time of great turbulence in China to make a living and support his family in China (see First and Second Opium Wars and Taiping Rebellion). After some time when Madam Lai received no news from her husband she sent Chung Keng Seng (鄭景勝 / 郑景胜), her second son. Still receiving no news, she then sent Keng Quee. When Keng Quee arrived in Perak, he discovered that both his father Hsing Fa and his brother Keng Seng were by that time well established in business. In fact, Keng Seng was so popular he was known as Lui Kong Seng (literally Thunder God Seng). His father, Hsing Fa was one of the early leaders of the Tseng Lung association on King Street. Keng Quee entered the mining business which his father and brother were engaged in. By 1860 he controlled the Penang-based Hai San Secret Society as well as the Larut tin-fields the Hai San were associated with. Information about his career before that time is generally unknown. Names Chung's name has been spelt in many different ways due to differences of dialect and transliteration. Apart from Chung Keng Quee, the name has also been spelt Cheng Ching-kuei, Chang Ching-kuei, Chung Keng Kwee and Chang Ah Quee (). Chung has also been spelt Chang, Chan, Cheng, Cheang. Keng has also been spelt Chin, Kung, King etc. Quee has also been spelt Kooi, Kwee, Kwi, Kuei and Kui. He has also been known as Teh Keng Quee (Zheng4 is Teh in Hokkien), Ah Quee, Ah Kwi, Ah Kooi etc. Upon receiving his honorary title from the Chinese Imperial Court, he took to using the "fancy" names Cheng Sheng Chih, Cheang Shin Thong and Cheng Ssu-Wen (). Larut Wars Around 1848 'Che Long Ja'afar introduced Chinese miners to Larut (spelt Laroot or Larot at that time). The original mine field, Klian Pauh is where the jail at Taiping stands today. Long Ja'afar appointed Low Sam from Penang as agent and Low Sam was associated with Chung Keng Quee. According to Chung Keng Quee in his evidence provided to the Straits Government, the development of the Larut tin fields was initiated by Malay Chief 'Che Long Ja'afar by advancing money to the Chinese miners in his district to work the mines and it was only in his son Ngah Ibrahim's time (c. 1858-74) that the Chinese worked the mines with their own money. At a time when Ngah Ibrahim was administrator of Larut the Chinese had increased in number and in early 1860 two large groups were formed by the Chinese, the "Five Associations" whose members worked in the mines of Klian Pauh and the "Four Associations" whose members worked in the mines of Klian Baharu. Mining rights were given to the Hakka "Five Associations" or Go-Kuan ( or ) (Hakka: Ng Khiun) and the Cantonese "Four Associations" or Si-Kuan (四馆). Chung Keng Quee was leader of the Hakka Go-Kuan and the Hai San () (Hakka: Hoi San) society they were aligned with and began to operate his tin mines in Larut (see Larut, Matang) in 1860. Many Hakka fled China when the Taiping Rebellion broke out there and found work in the mines of Chung, Keng Quee establishing his position over the mining area in Larut as leader of the Hai San from 1860 to 1884. Larut was destined to be plagued by four major wars between members of the Ghee Hin Society () that owned the Cantonese Si-Kuan on the one hand and the Hakka Hai San and Hokkien Tua Pek Kong societies on the other hand. While the first of the Larut wars broke out over land and water rights, the rivalry between the two groups already existed in Ujong Salang, Selangor, Penang, Singapore and Kwangtung itself where both groups fought with each other between 1855 and 1868. To many people it appeared that the trouble in Larut was merely a continuation of the trouble between the Ghee Hin and Tua Pek Kong societies in Ujong Salang in 1859 which later spread to Penang. The Larut Wars were fought between Hakka and Hakka. The Hai San miners were mainly Hakka men from Cheng Sheng. The first two battles (1861 and 1865) were between the Cheng Sheng Hakka of the Hai San and the Hui Chew Hakka of the Ghee Hin. The Last two (1872 and 1873) were between the Cheng Sheng Hakka of the Hai San and the Sin Neng Hakka of the Ghee Hin, the Hui Chew Hakka from the Ghee Hin from the earlier two battles having gone down to Selangor to join Yap Ah Loy, a Hui Chew Hakka who was head of the Hai San in Selangor. Lee Ah Kun (Lee Ko Yin), Ho Ghi Siu and Chin Seng Yam (陈亚炎, Chin Ah Yam 陳亞炎) were Sin Neng Hakka. First Larut War (1861) The First Larut War began in July 1861 when arguments over control of watercourse to their mines escalated and led members of the Hai San Society to drive the members of the Ghee Hin society out of Klian Bahru (now known as Kamunting). The Governor of Straits Settlement, Colonel William Orfeur Cavenagh intervened and the Mentri of Larut, Ngah Ibrahim, was made to compensate the Ghee Hin with $17,447 on behalf of the Sultan of Perak. Second Larut War (1865) The Second Larut War took place in 1865 and was sparked off by a gambling quarrel in June of that year between members of the two opposing secret societies. According to Parkinson in his book British Intervention in Malaya 1867-1877 the "Hysan or Tokong" leader in Penang was "Chan Keng Kwi", with "Lew Ah Sam" as leader in Larut. The Hai San members took 14 Ghee Hin as prisoners, 13 of whom were killed. The 14th escaped to inform his clan and the Ghee Hin retaliated by attacking the Hai San village, razing it to the ground and killing 40 men in the process. The battle continued back and forth and spread to Province Wellesley and the island of Penang and other secret societies joined the fray. Both sides, exhausted, finally came to terms. An official inquiry took place and both the Hai San and Ghee Hin societies were fined $5,000 each for violating the peace of Penang and their leaders, banished. So Ah Chiang, leader of the Ghee Hin was captured by Ngah Ibrahim at Teluk Kertang (Port Weld) and executed. By around 1870 there were a combined total of about 40,000 Hakka and Cantonese mine workers in the Larut district and the mining areas between the two groups were near to each other. It is this proximity that might explain how the next battle began. Third Larut War (1872) According to Charles John Irving, then Auditor-General of the Straits Settlements, and later Acting Lieutenant-Governor of Penang, there were about 20,000 to 25,000 Chinese in Larut around February 1872, 2,000 to 3,000 of whom were Cantonese or "Macao Men" as he referred to them, and the remainder being Khay (Hakka) men from Cheng Sheng and Sin Neng. In February 1872 Cheng Sheng miners had a dispute with Sin Neng miners over the boundaries of some mining lands. Lee Ah Kun (Lee Ko Yin) represented the Sin Neng and attempted to negotiate but was murdered on 16 February on the pretext of an adulterous affair. It has been believed that The Third Larut War erupted in 1872 over a scandal involving the Lee Ah Kun (李亞勤 / 李亚勤), the attorney at Larut (for the Ghee Hin leader Ho Ghi Sui) and the wife of a nephew of the Hai San leader, Chung, Keng Quee. It is said that upon discovery, the allegedly adulterous couple was caught, tortured, put into a pig basket () and thrown into a disused mining pond where they drowned. Supposedly to avenge the death of their leader, the Ghee Hin had 4,000 professional fighting men (brought in from China via Penang) attack the Hai Sans. For the first time, the Hai Sans were driven out of Larut. About 10,000 Hai San men sought sanctuary in Penang. It took months before the Hai Sans, supported by Ngah Ibrahim recovered their Matang and Larut mines. Others hold that the alleged "intrigue" never happened and was merely a political fiction to justify the murder of Ah Kun (aka Lee Coyn) in a manner that would permit Tokong to save face for the death sentence passed down on their leader Khoo Thean Tek for his part in the Penang Riots of 1869 where Ah Kun apparently got off Scot free. At this time, Raja Abdullah a claimant to the royal throne of Perak and an enemy of Ngah Ibrahim, took sides against the Hai Sans and Ngah Ibrahim. On 26 September 1872, Chung Keng Quee signed a petition together with 44 other Chinese leaders, seeking British interference following the attack of 12,000 men of Chung Shan by 2,000 men of Sen Ning. (See The Petition of Chung Keng Quee & 44 Others and The humble petition of Ah Yeu, Ung Keng Sin, Soh Ah Pang, Su Ah Fooed, and others) Fourth Larut War (1873) The Fourth Larut War occurred in 1873, merely a year after the previous battle. Weeks after the Hai Sans regained Larut, the Ghee Hin, supported by Raja Abdullah, counter-attacked with arms and men from Singapore and China. Ngah Ibrahim's properties in Matang were destroyed. Local Malay residents were also killed and their property, destroyed. Trouble spread to Krian, Pangkor and Dindings. The quarrelling Malay chiefs who had taken sides in the Larut Wars were now alarmed at the disorder created by the Chinese miners and secret societies. The Straits Settlement Penang Chinese seeing their investments destroyed in the Larut Wars sought intervention form British. Over 40,000 Chinese from the Go-Kuan and Si-Kuan were engaged in the fratricidal war involving the Perak royal family. In August 1873, Archibald Edward Harbord Anson, the last Lieutenant-Governor of Penang, sought to bring about a ceasefire between the two parties and convened a meeting at the beginning of the month attended, apart from Anson, by Chung Keng Quee (Hai San), Ho Ghi Sui (Ghee Hin), Foo Tye Sin (pro-Hai San), Ngah Ibrahim (pro-Hai San), Abdullah (pro-Ghee Hin), Tengku Kudin (pro-Abdullah) and a British Naval Captain. The two sides agreed to keep the peace pending British arbitration with Ngah Ibrahim taking responsibility for the Hai San and Abdullah taking responsibility for the Ghee Hin. Abdullah failed so completely in his task in ensuring the Ghee Hin kept the peace that the British were prompted to back Ngah Ibrahim and the Hai San. On 3 September 1873 outgoing Straits Settlements Governor Sir Harry Ord recognised Ngah Ibrahim, through a proclamation, as the independent (i.e. independent of Perak rule) ruler of Larut. On 5 September he temporarily lifted an arms embargo (imposed since February) just long enough for the Hai San in Larut to receive munitions. In the middle of that month a British vessel got into an entanglement with some Ghee Hin junks and this led to British bombardment and capture of Ghee hin stockades at Matang and Kuala Selinsing. Ngah Ibrahim's Penang residence was blown up on 16 September 1873. A week later two things happened - a similar attempt was made on Chung Keng Quee's house and Abdullah and his Ghee Hin cohorts were arrested at sea and brought back to Penang where they were eventually released but forbidden to return to Perak. Abdullah's mission to Singapore Meantime the Perak sultanate, involved in a protracted succession struggle was unable to maintain order. Things were increasingly getting out of hand and chaos was proving bad for the Malays, Chinese and British. In her book "The Golden Chersonese and The Way Thither" (Published 1892 G.P. Putnam's Sons) Victorian traveller and adventuress Isabella Lucy Bird (1831–1904) describes how Raja Muda Abdullah as he then was turned to the head of the Ghee Hin in Singapore, Tan Kim Ching. Abdullah met with Tan in Singapore in October 1873. He was accompanied by Raja Dris, the Shahbandar and a Penang lawyer. Tan offered to put Abdullah on the throne in return for five elevenths (5/11) of all duties collected between Telok Serah and Krian for a period of ten years. Tan Kim Ching introduced Abdullah to William Henry Macleod Read (W. H. M. Read) and Read in turn introduced Abdullah to Sir Henry Ord on the eve of Ord's retirement as Governor of the Straits Settlements. A letter was drafted by Tan and Read on Abdullah's behalf to new incoming Governor Sir Andrew Clarke seeking British recognition of Abdullah as ruler of Perak, British protection and the provision of "a man of sufficient abilities to live with us in Perak. .. and show us a good system of government for our dominions. .." The letter dated 30 December 1873 did not reach Clarke's hands till 9 January 1874 by which time he had already taken the first steps towards bringing Perak under British control. Sir Andrew Clarke takes charge Clarke's main objective was to mediate peace between the two Chinese factions and settle their differences so that tin production could resume and threats to the internal security of British-held Penang would cease. Parkinson tells us in British Intervention in Malaya 1867-1877 that Sir Andrew Clarke decided to summon the Chinese factions to a conference following a meeting on or about 9 January 1874 between Chung Keng Quee and the Hai San headmen and Pickering (together with McNair and Dunlop) who had been sent to meet them at the mouth of the Larut River to persuade them to accept arbitration. Sir Andrew Clarke, just weeks after his arrival in Singapore, had already found evidence of the continuing disturbances in Perak and Selangor. Apart from his executive council, he talked to Tan Kim Ching. Clarke decided that both the Hai San and Ghee Hin should have access to Larut with neither side being excluded, a complete reversal of the policy of his predecessor, Sir Henry Ord. Tan Kim Ching agreed and wrote to the Ghee Hin at Penang to put this to them and advocate peace. Clarke then sent Pickering to Penang to talk to the respective headmen in Penang. Pickering gave Tan Kim Ching's letter to Chin Ah Yam (陳亞炎 / 陈亚炎). Twenty Ghee Hin headmen met through the night at the Ghee Hin Kongsi house considering Tan Kim Ching's letter. In the morning they met with Pickering and agreed to surrender their forces in seven days time. It was also at this time that Clarke saw an opportunity to settle the question of succession to the throne in Perak and to make use of that as a means to further British interests in the Malay Peninsula by getting the sultan to accept a British Resident. Following the surrender of the Ghee Hin to Pickering and the outcome of a meeting with Chung Keng Quee whom Pickering also met, Sir Andrew Clarke then gathered the main Chinese leaders (principally Chung Keng Quee and Chin Ah Yam and some Malays – including Abdullah – at Pulau Pangkor where the 'Pangkor Engagement' was formulated and signed, recognising Abdullah as Sultan, and getting the Chinese to agree to settle their differences in Larut under British arbitration. Pangkor Engagement The need to restore law and order in Perak gave cause for a new British policy concerning intervention in the affairs of the Malay States which resulted in the Treaty of Pangkor. On 20 January 1874, the Straits Settlements governor Sir Andrew Clarke convened a meeting aboard the H. M. S. Pluto anchored off Pangkor island. Documents were signed aboard the ship The Pluto at Pangkor Island to settle the Chinese dispute, clear the Sultan succession dispute and pave the way for the acceptance of British Residency - Captain Speedy was appointed to administer Larut as assistant to the British Resident. Abdullah was recognised as Sultan by the British and was to be installed on the throne of Perak in preference to his rival, Sultan Ismail. In actuality there were two distinctive agreements made. The primary agreement was intended to ensure an end to the fighting between Ghee Hin and Hai San and pave the way for peaceful coexistence in future. The second, to settle the issue of succession in Perak. Tate in The Making of Modern South-East Asia says of these that "the first one, which had been ready for over a week prior to the signing, concerned Larut and provided for a settlement between the Hai San and Ghee Ghin which both sides respected and carried out satisfactorily. The second (more recently drafted) agreement concerned the succession dispute around the Perak throne and was unsatisfactory from the very beginning." Chinese Engagement Chung, Keng Quee was one of the two main signatories to the treaty known as the Pangkor Engagement (copy of treaty) entered into aboard the H.M.S. Pluto at Pangkor Island by twenty-six headmen of the Chinese Secret Societies. Chung, Keng Quee and Chin, Ah Yam, leaders of the Hai San and Ghee Hin, respectively, were ennobled by the British with the title of Kapitan China (leader of the Chinese community) and the town of Larut was renamed Taiping ("太平" in Chinese, meaning "everlasting peace") as a confirmation of the new state of truce. Malay Engagement There were three possibilities for the Perak throne and of these only one was present at the meeting - Abdullah. Sultan Ismail who was the crowned ruler, had refused to attend. The British did not appear to know of the existence of the third possible claimant, Raja Yusof, who was naturally not invited. The agreement that was signed recognised Abdullah as Sultan giving Ismail the status of Sultan Muda, and provided for a British officer called Resident whose advice must be asked and acted upon on all questions other than those touching on Malay Religion and Custom. Ngah Ibrahim's position in Larut as granted by Sultan Ja'afar and confirmed by Sultan Ali was recognised. However, as far as the chiefs of Perak (who were not present) were concerned (with this agreement made between the British and Abdullah or the British's recognition of Abdullah as Sultan) - the issue of succession was settled three years earlier with the election of Sultan Ismail. To these Chiefs the British may have proclaimed Abdullah Sultan but his accession was not valid in their eyes and indeed in Malay eyes if he did not hold the (royal) regalia which was at that time in the hands of Sultan Ismail, all attempts at recovering these from him having failed. Pacification Commission Three days afterwards, Chung, Keng Quee was appointed a member of Commission for the Pacification of Larut also comprising Captain S. Dunlop, John Frederick Adolphus McNair, Frank Swettenham, W. A. Pickering and Chin Seng Yam, whose terms of reference, among others, was to arrange for an amicable settlement relating to the Larut tin mines. The Commissioners after due investigation and deliberation decided to hand the mines in Klian Pauh (Taiping) over to the Hai Sans and the mines in Klian Bharu (Kamunting) to the Ghee Hins. Perak Council Sir Hugh Low established the Perak State Council in 1877. Kapitan Chung, Keng Quee was appointed a member of the State Council of Perak (there were six members of the council, four Malays and two Chinese) which held its first meeting at Kuala Kangsar on 10 September 1877. The other members of the Council present were Raja Yussof (the Raja Muda), Sir Hugh Low (Resident), Captain Tristram Speedy (Assistant Resident), Raja Dris', Orang Kaya Temenggong, and Kapitan Chin Seng yam, Che Karim of Selama being absent. His magnanimity is manifestly clear from the Council Minutes of Perak in "Papers on Malay Subjects" by Richard James Wilkinson, F. M. S. (Federation of Malay States) Government Press, Kuala Lumpur, 1908. He was the first of three generations to serve on the council, his son Chung Thye Phin and his grandson Chung Kok Ming following in his footsteps. Anecdotes Chung Keng Kwee, when reminded of the Larut Wars by an inquiring visitor, dismissed the subject with an expression of distaste - 'Banyak rugi!' (meaning 'Big loss!) -- see The Protected Malay States: 1874–1895. Chung Keng Quee and Chin Seng Yam (Chin Ah Yam) having made peace with each other became fast friends, going so far as to have Ah Yam become the Ch' Yeh or godfather of Keng Quee's fourth son, Chung Thye Phin. Sir Hugh Low's letter of vindication The September 1891 issue of Harpers's New Monthly Magazine (Volume 83, Issue 489) carried an article on Chinese Secret Societies and credited Chung Keng Quee with wealth amounting to two million Sterling. The article also stated that Chung, Keng Quee was tried for murder an accusation that was refuted following the publication of a letter to the editor from Sir Hugh Low, British Resident at Perak, in the December issue (Volume 84, Issue 499) of the same magazine. In his letter, Sir Hugh refers to Chung, Keng Quee as "my friend Captain Chang Ah Kwi, of Perak" and "my old friend" and urges the editor to take steps to correct the inaccuracies published earlier which he says do great injustice to his friend. Sir Hugh Low acknowledged that Chung, Keng Quee was leader of the "Go Kwan faction" in the disturbances that preceded the British intervention under Sir Andrew Clarke, in 1874. He also acknowledged that long after that time when Chung, Keng Quee visited China he was accused of piracy by his rivals in the tin mining business and while he was initially arrested and brought before the mandarins in Canton he was triumphantly acquitted of the charge. Sir Hugh goes on to state categorically that "Captain Ah Kwi" who was at that time a long-standing member of the State Council, had never ever been "arrested on criminal charges where British influence prevailed", and had in fact from the very beginning "been a strenuous supporter of the settlement of the State of Perak". The insertion ended with an apology from the author, Frederick Boyle, to the editor of Harper's Magazine. The relationship between Sir Hugh Low and Chung Keng Quee goes all the way back to Sir Hugh's arrival in Perak. At that time Chung Keng Quee was getting frustrated with the management of the revenue farm that had been given over to him and it was Sir Hugh Low who, as he recalls in his journal "laughed him out of the nonsense about giving up the farm". The two of them had many long and frank discussions about the mining business in general as well as revenue farming and the system of "advancers". On 15 May 1877 in a casual meeting between the two, Chung Keng Quee advocated the granting of land leases for the mines for periods of 21 years arguing that this would make it easier for miners to raise money. On 11 September the same year, Sir Hugh Low made this so. For Sir Hugh Low, Chung Keng Quee represented a stabilising factor in mining communities that had yet to settle down following the Larut Wars. His was the voice of reason, admonishing the towkays who had stirred up a riot in 1879 and it was a voice that Sir Hugh trusted and backed up. Business interests Chung Keng Quee was involved in many different businesses but he was first and foremost a tin man. Not only did he help his sons start out in the business, he was apt to support others as well. Between 1884 and 1889 Chung Keng Quee sublet a part the land granted to him for his mining activities to a young man starting out in the business, Foo Choo Choon. Tin mining By 1879 there were 80 mines in operation in Larut, owned by 40 firms, with an average of nearly 86 men per mine. The largest mine of all in the country was owned by the Kong Loon Kongsi, in Kamunting, directed by Chung Keng Quee whom Doyle in Mining In Larut describes as: "an enterprising Chinese gentleman whose appreciation of European appliances is envinced by a centrifugal pump and engine, in supersession of the cumbrous and comparatively useless, Chinese water-wheel."Tin Mining in Larut By Patrick Doyle Published by Spon, 1879; pp. 7, 29, 30 The Kong Loon mine employed 300 coolies, more than any other mine at that time. Chung, Keng Quee was a wealthy miner who (circa 1889 - 1895) was granted big mining concessions including (4 km2) in Kinta. By 1887 Chung Keng Quee was the largest tin producer in Perak accounting for almost 29,000 pikuls or 1,700 tons out of a total state output of about 220,000 pikuls or about 13,000 tons—more than what all the foreign mines put together could produce. In the early 1890s Chung Keng Quee was reported to own some of the finest tin mines in Sorakai (Kinta) and Kota (Larut). The Government of India sanctioned the grant of a large concession in Mergui for him to prospect for tin. According to the Calcutta Correspondent of The Times, this was "the first attempt to encourage, on a large scale, the mining industry in Mergui." According to the Ipoh Echo Chung Keng Quee owned the largest alluvial tin mine in the world, the Kwong Lee Mine, which employed 5,000 mining coolies. The Singapore Free Press and Mercantile Advertiser reported, "The largest mine in Perak is aboiut to be closed, the produce having become too limited to be payable. This is the Kwong Lee mine of Kota, the property of Captain Ah Kwi. This excavation has been a show place for some time, and has been visited by many persons out of curiosity because of the large scale on which it has been carried on. It was feared, some few months back, that the mine would give out, and a number of the men employed were discharged. Since then, instead of improving, the wash has diminished in value, and the owner is obliged to relinquish it. It paid remarkably well at one time." There are those who argue that his were the first true capitalist Chinese enterprises in the country and not those of Yap Ah Loy. Innovation and leadership Chung Keng Quee was the first miner to experiment with hydraulic machinery. He was a progressive miner, farsighted and innovative and this together with his close relationship with Sir Hugh Low helped spur on the economic development of the territory. In 1878 on a visit to his mines at Larut, Sir William Cleaver Francis Robinson the Governor of the Straits Settlements (1877–1879), was impressed to see a steam pump, installed by the Perak Government at Chung Keng Quee's request on the undertaking that if successful it would be taken over and rented by the mine. Sir Hugh Low introduced the portable steam pump for draining mines in the protected states in 1878 by first demonstrating its usefulness in Chung Keng Quee's mines. Convinced by the practical results of a real demonstration, owners of large mines in Perak, Selangor and Sungei Ujong soon had similar pumps installed, overcoming the periodic problem of flooding that used to bring work at the mines to a virtual standstill. Revenue farming By 1888 he held the General Farm (taxes upon gambling, spirits and pawnbroking) of Kuala Kangsar, the North and South Larut Coast Farm and the Opium Farm of Lower Perak. In 1890 he obtained the Penang Opium Farm. By 1891 he had the Kinta General Farm and the General Farm and Opium Duty Farm of Kuala Kangsar and in 1895 he had the General Farm of Perak and the Coast and Opium Farms of Lower Perak. He acquired the Kinta General Farm in August 1890 at a considerably reduced price. In 1889, after the Pangkor settlement of 1874, Sir Hugh Low, British Resident at Perak, gave over most of the Larut and Kurau opium, gambling, spirits, pawnbroking and tobacco farms to Chung, Keng Quee and his business partner, Khoo, Thean Teik. In Penang, Chung, Keng Quee and his friends and relatives made up one of three similar syndicate groups that dominated the Opium Farms there. Chung Keng Quee apart from being a man of vision was also a great risk-taker. Sir Hugh Low in his own notes describing negotiations over the leasing out of the Perak revenue farms compares Chung Keng Quee and Khoo Thian Teik. Chung Keng Quee had told him that he needed five thousand more coolies to make the venture successful while Khoo Thian Teik had talked of two or three hundred more. Not only did he get his coolies from China, Ah Quee also employed coolies from India. His exceptional management of the revenue farms entrusted to him helped bring fresh capital into Perak and helped him to become, by 1886, the largest financier in Larut. While he obviously was making a lot of money from revenue farming, in 1897 Sir Hugh Low, then the Resident, negotiated with Chung, Keng Quee, who was at that time owner of the largest mine in the country and probably the most influential financier of tin mines in the country, to abolish the supply of opium in return for greater protection of tin mine employers from their absconding coolies and for longer working hours. From 1880 to 1897, in partnership with the Tan, Yeoh, Lim, Cheah, and Khoo families, Chung Keng Quee invested over $2.8 million to dominate all the revenue farms from upper to lower Perak. Tobacco farming He had many tobacco farms in several areas in Perak, including Larut, Kuala Kangsar, Kerian and Selama. Together with Chen Eok he held the Tobacco farms in Larut and Larut Coast between 1883 and 1885. Reputation for business success Chung Keng Quee formed close relationships with the many British Residents of Perak and built a reputation for making mining operations a success. E. W. Birch (Ernest Woodford Birch), seventh British Resident to Perak, left in February 1897 to take up the post of Acting British Resident, Negeri Sembilan and on 15 March 1897, while paying visits of inspection to various parts of the Negri Sembilan, recorded in his papers "I wish we could induce Captain Ah Kwi, of Perak, to enter Lukut and Labu" (The Selangor Journal: Jottings Past and Present, Vol V, 1897 Page 254). Succession His son Chung Thye Phin (then only 22 years of age) was appointed to take over his seat on the Perak State Council in 1900, and upon his death in 1901, his business activities were managed by his son Chung Thye Phin. Chung Keng Quee and Khoo Thean Teik Chung Keng Quee and Khoo Thean Teik were connected both politically and commercially, the politics of the day being commercially motivated in any case. Apart from the monopolies for tobacco, liquor, opium and gambling revenue farming in Perak that these two jointly obtained from Sir Hugh Low, British Resident at Perak in 1889, they were both heads of their respective secret societies which were allied against their common foe, the Ghee Hin. While Chung, Keng Quee was head of the Hai San his ally Khoo, Thean Teik was head of the Tua Pek Kong or Kien Tek Society. Chung, Keng Quee and Khoo, Thean Teik together represented the allied Haisan-Khianteik group of Perak Hakkas and Penang Hockiens. Both Chung and Khoo were in the business of procuring, supplying or employing coolies. Khoo, Thean Teik aided by Koh, Seang Thye on one occasion supplied $60,000 in goods, money and ammunition to Chung, Keng Quee and Tan, Yit Hoon for their mining activities and for their military activities against the Ghee Hin in return for seven-tenths of the percentage of the tin they produced. Chung Keng Quee and Foo Choo Choon Foo Choo Choon originally worked for Chung Keng Kwee in his Lahat mining concession. He went on to marry a niece of Chung Keng Quee. The Sri Sarawak Chung Keng Quee had a screw steamer, the Sri Sarawak, that plied a route between the Larut river and Penang. This vessel is mentioned in various documents of the time including personal journals. Emily Sadka in the Journal of Sir Hugh Low, Perak, 1877, remarks about an unflattering description of the craft given in Isabella Bird's The Golden Chersonese (and the way thither) p 277 but the unflattering part of Bird's description that Sadka referred to was actually about the pier and not the boat. What Bird said about the Sri Sarawak was that it is "a small but very useful Chinese trading steamer". Personality Chung Keng Quee was a big-hearted philanthropist and in his lifetime his donations, subscriptions and sponsorships benefited many individuals and groups. Together with Cheong Fatt Tze, Chang Yu Nan, Cheah Choon Seng and Tye Kee Yoon, he was part of a group referred to as The Five Great Sponsors. According to Lau-Fong Mak, who says he "is indisputably the century's biggest patron of all," Chung Keng Quee alone accounted for about 92% of the charitable contributions made by the sole three members of the Cantonese-Hakka economic elite between the years 1850 and 1910. Supporting education Support for poor scholars in China In the absence of Malayan citizenship laws during that time, Kapitan Chung, Keng Quee occasionally visited his home village in China. In commemoration of the birthday of his mother, Madam Lai, Chung, Keng Quee founded and endowed a big scholarship fund for poor Chinese scholars preparing themselves for the time-honoured civil service examinations. He erected a memorial arch (Men fang) for his mother, Madam Lai, in 1886. Five Luck Villa: school for all Chinese dialect groups Chung Keng Quee was a principal director of Ng Fook Hsu Yin (Wufu School) in Penang. In 1893, Chung, Keng Quee, already a millionaire, built a Chinese school in Penang, for all the Chinese children irrespective of their dialects. Having bought over the property in Church Street where the school (the Five Luck Villa also called Goh Hock Tong, Ng Fook Tong and the United Association of Cantonese Districts) was originally located, Chung Keng Quee identified a new site for the school in Chulia Street. The board membership was made up of four secretaries and 209 assistant secretaries. Chung Keng Quee was its chief secretary. There were nearly 1,300 donors who gave between 5760 and 1 yuan. The largest amount, as well as the building site were donated by Chung Keng Quee. On top of his donations, Chung Keng Quee also gave a loan of 20,000 yuan towards the construction of the new building. The Ch'ien-i bank-society was set up by leading members of the community for this purpose and members of the society invested at least 30 cents a month for 36 months and the interest on these deposits as on the capital were used to repay the Chung Keng Quee's loan. 175 people deposited amounts from 816 yuan (from Chung Keng Quee himself) to 15 yuan. The new building was completed in 1898. St. Xavier's Institution In 1895, the new double-storey building he had erected together with Gan Hong Kee, and Lim Ah Kye (the latter two posthumously), was completed and its inauguration took place on Thursday 28 November at 1.30pm, where Chung Keng Quee and the Honourable Resident Councillor, Henry Trotter, were guests of honour. Chong Wen She Institute In March 1901, just months before he died, Chung, Keng Quee and several other members of the Hakka Associations in Penang established an Educational Institution called Chong Wen She (崇文社). The Educational Institution organised campaigns to encourage the Chinese in Penang to respect education. The motto of the campaigns was "Jing Xi Zi Zhi" or to respect the words written on the paper. The Educational Institution established a free of charge private school for all the children irrespective of their dialects. The school also enrolled the locally born Chinese children with the intention of giving them a classical education so that they would not forget about their roots. Support for temples Tua Pek Kong Temples in Tanjung Tokong and King Street, Penang Chung, Keng Quee was a principal donor to the Haichu-yu (Sea Pearl) Tua Pek Kong Temple (1865 and 1868) in Tanjung Tokong, Penang. Chung Keng Quee's donation of 150 yuan for the restoration of the temple is inscribed in a stone set up on the occasion, dated 1865 or early 1866 and kept at the Tua Pek Kong Temple in King Street, Penang, which the Tanjung Tokong temple is connected to. The lowest amount recorded is two yuan and the highest is 250 yuan. His donation of 30 yuan is inscribed in a stone (1868) set up by board members of the King Street Tua Pek kong Temple to commemorate the gilding and varnishing of the temple. On the stone he is referred to as Chou T'ung, First Class Assistant Department Magistrate. Two other donors are called Kung-yuan, Senior Licentiate. Kwangtung and Teochew Cemeteries, Mount Erskine, Penang He was the primary benefactor of the Guangdong/Kwangtung and Tingchou/Teochew Cemeteries (1885 and 1901) and Kek Lok Si Temple (1906). At the Kwangtung and Tingchou Cemeteries (Kuang-tung chi T'ing-chou i-shan cemetery for Kuangtung and T'ing-chou Prefecture of Fukien is located in Mount Erskine Road) Chung Keng Quee's donation of 600 yuan towards the construction of a hall for funeral ceremonies is inscribed in a stone dated 1885. Donations ranged from 600 to 10 yuan. A donation of land to the cemetery by Chung Keng Quee and his daughter Kang Neoh (also spelt Keng-niang and Huang Jiang) is recorded in one of two similar stones. One of a set of three stone inscriptions dated 1901 records the 600 yuan donation of Chung Keng Quee (made during the period from 1898 to 1900) as well as the position of secretary held under the name of Hye Kee Chan (Hai-chi chan 海记栈), his company. Chung Keng Quee headed the list of over 250 donors most of whom donated amounts ranging from 100 to 5 yuan. Kek Lok Si Temple/Pagoda, Penang At Kek Lok Si (Chi-lo Ssu/Jili Si), the Temple of Supreme Happiness, on an inscription in stone dated 1906 listing the particulars of donors, it is recorded that Cheng Ssu-wen (Chung Keng Quee) with honorary second rank, donated 6,000 yuan, the 5th largest donation. Another stone inscription, this one dated 1907 recording the origin and development of the temple, shows that Cheng Ssu-wen (Chung Keng Quee) was one of the six senior secretaries of the temple at that time. He was one of the five wealthy patrons from Penang whom Beow Lian convinced (between 1887 and 1891) to form the core support for the construction of the temple, after having selected the site in Ayer Itam. With this, Chung Keng Quee became a director or Da Zongli (Great Prime Minister) of the new temple. Perak Temples Chung Keng Quee was one of the principal donors to the construction of the Yueh-ting ku-miao/Sam-wang tien, Kamunting in the late 1850s and heads the list of donors for the construction of the Sui-ching po miao in Matang in 1883. Supporting Associations Chung Association, Penang The Teh Kongsi or Teh Si Eng Eong Tong (鄭氏滎陽堂 / 郑氏荥阳堂) or Zhengshi Ying Yang Tang in Penang was first founded by Chung Keng Quee (Zheng Jinggui) in Kimberley Street. Chung in the Hockien dialect is Teh. Penang Chinese Town Hall He became the prominent president (1881–1883) of the Penang Chinese Town Hall (also known as P'ing-chang hui-kuan P'I'I, P'ing-chang kung-kuan or its current official Chinese name, Hua-jen ta-hui-t'ang). Chung Keng Quee was a major donor towards the founding of the town hall (600 yuan) according to the inscription on a stone dated 1886 kept within the town hall. Founder of the Guangdong Association in Taiping The Kwantung hui-kuan (Guangdong Association) along Temple Street in Taiping was founded in 1887 by Chung, Keng Quee and others as an association of people from Kuangtung (Guangdong) province in South China. Penang Tseng Ch'eng Association The Straits Settlements Factory Records show that the association was headed by Chung Ah Yat and had 16 members in 1825. It was largely an inactive association until 1849 when Chung Keng Quee and others put up a new building for it. Tseng Lung Association While he lived, he was a patron and benefactor to the Tseng-Lung Hui-kuan in Penang, Taiping and Gopeng. Chung, Keng Quee built the current temple-like premises of the Tseng Lung (Zeng Long) Association in Taiping in 1888, rebuilt the premises of the Tseng-Lung Hui-kuan, Gopeng in 1898 and the premises of the Tseng-lung Hui-kuan, Penang in 1886. The Tseng Lung Hui Kuan were associations for people from Tseng ch'eng and Lung-men (Longmen 龙门) counties of Kuang-chou (Guangzhou or Canton) prefecture in South China. According to Tan Kim Hong, Keng Quee whose father was an early leader of the association became the Chief Director of the association around 1890. Principal donor to international charities India Famine Relief Fund In 1897 the British establishment tried to drum up support for an India famine-relief drive. Penang millionaire and Deli Bank director Hsieh Yung-kuan, then Chinese vice-consul, contributed $200 and Chung, Keng Kwee gave $300 more, completely dwarfing the Governor who managed only $100. (See also Indian famine of 1896–97) Transvaal War Fund On the twenty fourth day of collections for the Transvaal War Fund For Widows and Orphans Chung Keng Quee donated $1,000 bringing total for that day to $16,033. In March 1900 he donated $15,000 to the Transvaal War Fund (see Second Boer War), started in November 1899 by the Straits Times in connection with the South African War. For perspective the total amount collected was approximately $215,000 out of which $50,000 came from the government and $10,000 each came from Kapitan Yap Kuan Seng and Towkay Tet Shin. Franco-Annam War Relief Fund On many other occasions he also contributed to various other charities including the War Relief Fund arising from the Franco-Annam war (see Annam (French protectorate) and Sino-French War) under the command of Viceroy Li Hongzhang. He donated 100,000 taels to the Ching Government to support China's war efforts against the French in Indochina. Host to China's Admiral Ting In March 1894, Chung, Keng Quee hosted in his gardens, in the name of Vice Consul Chang, Pi Shih (Cheong Fatt Tze), a dinner to welcome Admiral Ting (see Battle of Yalu River (1894) and Battle of Weihaiwei) and the Chinese Imperial Fleet of warships that he commanded. These included the King Yuen (Captain Lin Yang Hing) and the Ching Yuen (Captain Yih Choo Kwei). Queen Victoria's Golden & Diamond Jubilees "... his munificent gifts on such occasions as the two Jubilees of Her Late Majesty will not soon be forgotten."—The Perak Pioneer & Native States Advertiser VOL VIII Taiping Saturday 14 December 1901 Support for European engineers in Penang The Engineers' Institute was probably the first of its kind in the country. Opened for the recreation and general use of the engineers who formed a large part of the European community (30%). Originally the institute occupied rooms in Beach Street but later moved to a beautiful double storey building presented by the Capitan Chung Kheng Kwi at the junction of Leith Street and Farquhar Street. On 5 March 1888, an institute was opened for the recreation and general convenience of European mechanical engineers. For some time membership was confined exclusively to engineers and mechanics but was so popular that before long the regulations were altered so as to include deck officers, and certain longshoremen. The growth and development of the institute proceeded so rapidly that larger buildings were soon required, and, by arrangement with Kapitan Chung, Keng Quee, a new two-storey headquarters building was erected at the junction of Leith and Farquhar streets. Upon the staircase was a beautiful stained-glass window presented by Chung, Keng Quee, and bearing the inscription, "Erected by Captain Cheng Kheng Kwi, Perak and Pinang, 1901". Near at hand was a portrait of the donor. Property donations When the Lim Ancestral Temple building on Beach Street was completed in 1866, the Kew Leong Tong (Hall of Nine Dragons) Lim Kongsi, one of the three Lim Clan Associations in Penang, moved its office there. The address was 234 Beach Street. Later, Ah Quee Street was established when Kapitan Chung, Keng Quee donated his Beach Street shophouse to be demolished to create the street that bears his name. Ah Quee Street runs beside 164 Beach Street which also happens to be the longest shophouse in Penang. (Source: Timothy Tye) Recognition and reward by the Qing Imperial Government, China For his many acts of greatness the Manchu Qing dynasty Imperial government in 1894 conferred on him the title of "Mandarin, Second Rank" retrospectively for three generations. This meant that Kapitan Chung, Keng Quee, his father, Chung, Hsing Fah, and his grandfather, Chung, Tung Lin, the last two posthumously, simultaneously became Mandarins of the Second Rank. In line with his elevation he then adopted the fancy name of "Sheng Chih". Townhouse and temple on Church Street In Georgetown, Penang Chung, Keng Quee became known as the city's great connoisseur of architecture. In 1893, Chung, Keng Quee acquired two adjacent properties along Church Street on Penang Island. The first was the former headquarters of the Ghee Hin - the Hai San had ousted them in the 1870s. The second was a Chinese school, the Goh Hock Tong (or Ng Fook Tong in Cantonese) meaning Five Luck Villa. He offered the school an alternative site in Chulia Street, where a new building was completed in 1898. Chung, Keng Quee converted the former Ghee Hin headquarters into his townhouse and office and named this, Hye Kee Chan (海记栈), or Sea Remembrance Store. It has interior fittings including Victorian cast iron columns from Walter Macfarlane & Co of Glasgow (also known as The Saracen Foundry). Macfarlane was also responsible for the beautiful iron gates and fencing of the former Five Luck Villa building which was converted into a personal temple (Shen-chih hsueh-shu where Shen-chih was his fancy name and hsueh-shu means a traditional-style private family school). In the temple stands a life-size bronze statue of Chung Keng Quee. The statue was commissioned by the Engineers' Institute that he had generously donated a new building to. It was created by Benjamin Creswick and a facsimile of it was shown at the Royal Academy of Arts in 1903. On the base of the statue will be found the signature of Benjamin Creswick, and an imprint, Broad and Sons, the bronze founders in Birmingham who cast the statue. Today, Hye Kee Chan is more commonly known as the Pinang Peranakan Mansion. Open to the public, it serves as a museum showcasing the lifestyle, customs and traditions of the Peranakans or Straits Chinese - an example of adaptive reuse. Roads Two streets in Penang were named after him, Keng Kwee Street and Ah Quee Street. Progeny Kapitan Chung, Keng Quee had ten sons, the 4th and best known of whom was Chung Thye Phin. Chung, Keng Quee had four principal wives or "t'sais", including Lim Ah Chen whom he married early in life in China, Tan Gek Im who survived him and Teng Nyong who was the mother of Chung Thye Phin. He also had a secondary wife or "t'sip" Tan Ah Loy, mother of his daughter Cheang Ah Soo. They bore him 8 sons and 5 daughters. He also had a child (Cheang, Thye Gan) (born 1893) alias Cheng Tai Kwong by a woman named Tye Thye. His eldest son, Thye Yong, was adopted. Sons Chung Thye Yong Chung Thye Phin Chung Thye Siong Chung Thye Siong (1855–1907) was born in Penang, educated at both the Penang Free School and St. Xavier's Institution and went on to join together two important lineages by marrying (1893) Koh Chooi Peng, eldest daughter of Kaw Cheng Sian (辜禎善 / 辜祯善) who in turn was the son of Koh Seang Tat a descendant of Koh Lay Huan, the first Kapitan China of Penang. He helped in the management of his father's estate and lived in his father's residence in Church Street. Daughters Generation names and etymology Chung Keng Quee's generational name was "Keng" meaning "picture" or "landscape". The generation after him, "Thye" means "big" or "large" or "great". The next generation "Kok" means "country" or "land" and i.e. to do with the geography of a place. The generation after that, "choong" is the same word as "China". And the generation after that "Chung" means "originating from" or "coming from". When written out and read from the last generation, "Chung", to the first generation, "Keng", it reads, 从中國大景 : "Coming from China, a big picture", or "From China comes a great visionary". Death Kapitan China Chung Keng Quee died at the age of 74 on 13 December 1901 after a brief illness of only a few days. The Perak Administrative Report for 1901: "The death of Captain Cheang Keng Kwi is announced. He held the title for 30 years. It is no longer required and is allowed to lapse as the Protector (of Chinese) working under the Federal Secretary for Chinese Affairs is the best intermediary between the Government and the Chinese." The Malay Mail Monday 16 December 1901: "The late Capitan China of Perak is said to have died worth $10,000,000." The Perak Pioneer & Native States Advertiser Vol VII Taiping Saturday 14 December 1901: "By the death of Capitan Chang Keng Kwi, which occurred at his residence in Penang on Thursday night, one of the most picturesque figures in the history of Malaysia has been removed." Reported net worth He made his fortune early in his life in the tin mines and revenue farms of Perak, and while lost it all during the Larut Wars, he rebuilt his empire and died a rich man. At the time of his death: he had held the Perak Revenue Farms for twelve years he owned ten mines employing an aggregate of 1,000 coolies his property in Hong Kong was estimated at $10,000,000 his property in Beach Street, Penang was valued at $1,500,000 According to the Ipoh Echo he was the richest man in the Federated Malay States and, when he died, the whole of his estate in Penang alone was worth seven million Straits dollars. The Singapore Free Press and Mercantile Advertiser wrote, "The property of the late Cheang Keng Kwi is valued at ten millions," and reported that he was the largest tin miner in the Peninsula and owned a tenth part of Georgetown Penang in addition to property in Perak and Hong Kong at the time of his death. Final acts of charity He was a generous man given to acts of charity and besides Chinese educational institutions he had given money to the Free School ($12,000) and the Brother's School ($6,000). Funerary He left behind a wife, ten sons and five daughters, 20 grandchildren, and four great grandchildren. Chung, Keng Quee was buried in the Chung Family Burial Plot in Mount Erskine purchased beforehand by himself and his daughter Chung, Kang Neoh. His tomb is dated 1898. It was named "Region of Long Life", and Franke (Chinese Epigraphy. ..) believed that it was built before the great man died and was probably set up on the occasion of the demise of the wife who pre-deceased him. In his book published in 1985 Franke declared it was "the largest Chinese tomb in the whole of Malaysia. ..appropriate only to members of the imperial family or to the highest officials" and incorporating four-man-sized statues (the only tomb in Malaysia with statues of this kind) "called weng-chung. .. ...permitted only for the tombs of officials of the first rank." His headstone bears the inscription: "Kapitan of Perak, Chung Keng Quee from Tseng-ch'eng, appointed by Imperial patent of the Ch'ing Emperor as Tzu-cheng ta-fu, rewarded with the Peacock Feather, and Expectant Intendant of a Circuit of the fourth rank, and of his wife Lady Cheng, nee Ch'en, with the personal name Yii-yin and the posthumous name Chao-i appointed by Imperial patent as Third Rank Shu-jen, set up by nine sons, six daughters, twelve grandsons, and six granddaughters of the deceased." Lee, Eng Kew (Ah Kew The Digger) named his book about Taiping and its historical figures, Yi Guo (which literally means "to move country"), words derived from the inscriptions on the grave of Chung, Keng Quee. Although he died in December 1901, he was only laid in his final resting place in 1904. On Sunday 11 May 1902 (almost five months after he left this world), his remains were removed from Hye Kee Chan (29 Church Street) and placed in a temporary vault awaiting his final interment. The funeral procession from home to the family graveyard made up of people on foot and on rickshaws was reported to have been over a mile long and included several hundred Europeans catered to by Messrs Sarkies Brothers. Security was personally supervised by the CPO of Penang. The Straits Times reported that his funeral procession took an hour and a half to pass a fixed point. Taiping Lake Gardens One of his mining pools was donated for public use and is today the Taiping Lake Gardens. The work began in the early eighteen eighties. By 1893, a large area comprising swamps and abandoned mining pools was drained, levelled, planted and fenced for a public garden in Taiping. In 1911, it was considered to be perhaps the most beautiful of any gardens in the then Federated Malay States. Chung surname Pinyin Romanisation: Zheng4 Zhèng Chinese Character (Traditional Big5): 鄭 B5 No.: 7 Meaning: Serious; Solemn Wade–Giles Romanisation/Pronunciation: Cheng4 Cantonese Romanisation/Pronunciation: Cheng Hockien Romanisation/Pronunciation: Teh Others: Chung, Chang, Cheang (esp. Hong Kong) The surname Zheng4 is about 2370 years old. According to Chung, Yoon-Ngan "the surname Zheng4 originated in an area referred to during the Han Dynasty as Ying Yang Prefecture (滎陽郡 / 荥阳郡). The present day location of Ying Yang Prefecture is in an area about 17 kilometers southwest of Ying Ze county (滎澤縣 / 荥泽县) of Henan province." Further reading Nostalgia Taiping Oleh Syah Rul Aswari Abdullah published on Thursday 4 October 2007 by Harian Metro Cerpen Sunlie Thomas Alexander, Sebuah Kota, Serupa Imaji, seperti Mimpi... published on 27 April 2008 by SuaraMerdeka.com Orang-orang Cina di Tanah Melayu By Nik Hasnaa Nik Mahmood Published by Penerbit UTM pp. 70, 114, 115, 120, 124, 331, 333 Historical Personalities of Penang By Historical Personalities of Penang Committee Published by Historical Personalities of Penang Committee, 1986 pp. 47, 81 Records and Recollections (1889–1934): Chinese Women, Prostitution & a Welfare Organisation By Neil Jin Keong Khor, Keat Siew Khoo, Izrin Muaz Md. Adnan Published by Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, 2004 p. 26 The Making of Modern South-East Asia By D. J. M. Tate Published by Oxford University Press, 1971 p. 300 Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society (Vol. 3, pt. 2 comprises a monograph entitled: British Malaya, 1864–1867, by L.A. Mills, with appendix by C. O. Blagden, 1925. Issued also separately) By Malaysian Branch, Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland Malaysian Branch, Singapore Published by, 1991 pp. 4, 22, 24, 80, 82, 86, 87 Pour une histoire du développement By Catherine Coquery-Vidrovitch, Daniel Hemery, Jean Piel Published by L'Harmattan, 2008 p. 182 Mitteilungen der deutschen Gesellschaft für Natur- und Völkerkunde Ostasiens By Gesellschaft für Natur- und Völkerkunde Ostasiens, Deutsche Gesellschaft für Natur- und Völkerkunde Ostasiens, Tokyo Published by Der Gesellschaft, 1979 p. 477 Peninjau sejarah: journal of the History Teachers' Association of Malaya By History Teachers' Association of Malaya, Universiti Malaya Jabatan Sejarah, History Teachers' Association of Malaya Published by History Teachers' Association of Malaya, 1966 p. 29 Rites of Belonging: Memory, Modernity, and Identity in a Malaysian Chinese Community By Jean DeBernardi, Jean Elizabeth DeBernardi Published by Stanford University Press, 2004 p. 307 Tōnan Ajia kenkyū By Kyōto Daigaku Tōnan Ajia Kenkyū Sentā Published by Kyōto Daigaku Tōnan Ajia Kenkyū Sentā., 1987 p. 414 Larut Wars (1972-1874) by Badriyah Haji Salleh in Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor By Keat Gin Ooi, Contributor Keat Gin Ooi, Published by ABC-CLIO, 2004 p. 775 Kapitan China System by Ooi, Keat Gin in Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor By Keat Gin Ooi, Contributor Keat Gin Ooi, Published by ABC-CLIO, 2004 p. 711 The Journals of J. W. W. Birch, First British Resident to Perak, 1874-1875: First British Resident to Perak, 1874-75 By James Wheeler Woodford Birch, Peter Laurie Burns Contributor Peter Laurie Burns Published by Oxford University Press, 1976 pp. 11, 63, 64, 83, 161 British Intervention in Malaya, 1867-1877 By Cyril Northcote Parkinson Published by University of Malaya Press, 1960 pp. 77, 91, 92 Pickering: Protector of Chinese By Robert Nicholas Jackson Published by Oxford U. P., 1965 p. 22 Immigrant Labour and the Development of Malaya, 1786-1920: A Historical Monograph By Robert Nicholas Jackson Published by Printed at the Govt. Press, 1961 p. 41 The Making of Modern Malaya: A History from Earliest Times to the Present By N. J. Ryan Published by Oxford University Press, 1963 p. xi The Mining Magazine: For Minerals Industry Management Worldwide Vols. 1 (September 1909) - 145 (December 1981) Published by Mining Publications, 1909 p. 123 The Malay States, 1877-1895: Political Change and Social Policy By Philip Fook Seng Loh Published by Oxford University Press, 1969 pp. 111, 142, 214 The Malayan Tin Industry to 1914: With Special Reference to the States of Perak, Selangor, Negri, Sembilan, and Pahang By Lin Ken Wong Published by Published for the Association for Asian Studies by the University of Arizona Press, 1965 pp. 65, 84, 86 Nineteenth-century Malaya: The Origins of British Political Control By Charles Donald Cowan Published by Oxford University Press, 1961 pp. 119, 125, 278 Records of the Geological Survey of India By Geological Survey of India Published by The Survey, 1893 p. 44 Events Prior to British Ascendancy: Notes on Perak History By Richard James Wilkinson Published by Printed by J. Russell at the F.M.S. gov't press, 1908 & 1924 p. 113 Der Urquell By Verein für verbreitung volksthümlich-wissenschaftlicher kunde Published by E.J. Brill, 1898 p. 162 The Impact of Chinese Secret Societies in Malaya: A Historical Study By Wilfred Blythe, Royal Institute of International Affairs Published by Issued under the auspices of the Royal Institute of International Affairs [by] Oxford U.P., 1969 120, 174, 176 Pangkor Engagement Chinese Locality and Dialect Groups in the 19th-Century Straits Settlements by Lau-fong Mak published Number 63 (Spring 1987) Bulletin of the Institute of Ethnology Academia Sinica Chinese Coolie Trade in the Straits Settlements in Late Nineteenth Century by Chen-tung Chang published Number 65 (Spring 1988) Bulletin of the Institute of Ethnology Academia Sinica The Development of the Tin Mining Industry of Malaya by Yip, Yat Hoong, (1969) Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: University of Malaya Press. Page 97 Calendar of Probate and Administration, Hong Kong Supreme Court Returns for the year 1902 (No 11/1903) dated 13 March 1903, Page 73 by Registrar J. W. Norton-Keyne Calendar of Probate and Administration, Hong Kong Report to the Registrar of the Supreme Court for the year 1905 (No 8/1906), Page 77 The Selangor Journal: Jottings Past and Present, Vol V, Published 1897, Selangor Government Printing Office The China Mail (Hong Kong, Estd 1845), Monday 30 December 1901, Page 2 Tin Mining In Larut by Doyle 1879 republished in 1963 in the Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society British Rule In Malaya: The Malayan Civil Service and its Predecessors, 1867 - 1942 by Robert Heussler, Clio Press, Oxford, England, 1981; Swettenham by H. S. Barlow published by Southdene Sdn Bhd KL 1995 Chinese Epigraphic Materials in Malaysia (Volume 2) - collected, annotated, and edited by Wolfgang Franke and Chen Tieh Fan published 1985 by University of Malaya Press, Koh Seang Thye v Chung Ah Quee (1886) 4 Ky 136 – 3 [3155] The Big Five Hokkien Families in Penang, 1830s–1890s by Yeetuan Wong The Western Malay States 1850–1873: the Effects of Commercial Development on Malay Politics, p. 209 by Khoo Kay Kim, Arkib Negara Malaysia Negeri-negeri Melayu Pantai Barat, 1850–1873: Kesan Perkembangan Dagang Terhadap Politik Melayu, Translation of: The Western Malay States, 1850–1873, By Prof. Khoo, Kay Kim Published 1984 by Fajar Bakti Xiao En E-Magazine 23/09/2002, 19/09/2001, 19/09/2001 中央硏究院民族学硏究所集刊 By Zhong yang yan jiu yuan Min zu xue yan jiu suo, 中央硏究院民族学硏究所 Published 1956 中央硏究院民族学硏究所 (Pages 93, 94 & 98) "Generations: The Story of Batu Gajah" By Ho, Tak Ming Published 2005 by Ho, Tak Ming pp. 105, 108, 120 THE KAPITAN SYSTEM - XI By Wu Liu (pen name of Mr. C. S. Wong/Wong, Choon San) published in the Sunday Gazette, 19 June 1960, Penang A gallery of Chinese kapitans. by Mr. C. S. Wong/Wong, Choon San; Published in Singapore: Ministry of Culture, 1963. 114p. [DS596 Won] Twentieth Century Impressions of British Malaya: its history, people, commerce, industries, and resources, by Arnold Wright, Published 1908 - Page 130, 203, 252, 262, 508, 509, 568 The Record of Meritorious Deeds of the Chung Family, op. cit., pp. 9–12 "Miscellaneous Chronicles of Penang", Kuang, Kuo-hsiang op. cit., pp. 112–113 The Case of the Chinese in Penang, 1890s-1910s \| SHINOZAKI Kaori, PhD student 200 years of the Hakkas in Penang (槟城客家两百年) By the Federation of Hakka Associations of Malaysia Reveal the True Face of Secret Societies (揭开私会党真面目) Written by Guo Rende (郭仁德) Published by the Malaysian Chinese Cultural Center "The Luxuriant Tree" and "Chung Keng Kwee, the Hakka Kapitan" by CHUNG Yoon-Ngan (郑永元) Heritage Road named in honour of Chung Thye Phin by Sita Ram, Stories of Yesteryear, The Ipoh Echo 16–31 March 2006 Honoured in Penang for his generosity [on philanthropist Chung Keng Kwee, 1849-1901]. The Star, 6 December 2001 by Catherine Chong Chung Keng Quee Temple Doors Opened, The Star 5 July 2000 Help From China To Restore Chung Keng Quee Temple, The Star, 8 November 2002 Turning Chung Keng Quee Temple into A Museum, The Star 16 January 2003 Restoration of Hai Kee Chan, The Star, Friday 3 October 2003 Kapitan's great-grandson By CHOONG KWEE KIM, The Star Thursday 9 September 2004 Producer hopes to make movie on Kapitan Cina of Perak By CHOONG KWEE KIM, THE STAR The Star Online > Features Saturday, 21 September 2002 Taiping revived Lee Eng Kew (AH Kew The Digger), self-taught field researcher 66 Usahawan Malaysia (66 Malaysian Entrepreneurs) by Ashadi Zain, Cerita 50 Mendiang Chung Keng Kwee A History of Malaya by R.O. Winstedt Published in March 1935 The Chinese in Malaya by Victor Purcell C.M.C. PhD published in 1948 pp. 264, 266, 268 The Mandarin-Capitalists from Nanyang: Overseas Chinese Enterprise in the Modernisation of China. .. By Michael R. Godley Published by Cambridge University Press 25 July 2002 Gangsters Into Gentlemen: The Breakup of Multiethnic Conglomerates and The Rise of A Straits Chinese Identity in Penang by Engseng Ho, Department of Anthropology, William James Hall, Harvard University Cambridge, MA 02138, presented at The Penang Story International Conference 2002, 18–21 April 2002, The City Bayview Hotel, Penang, Malaysia - Organised by The Penang Heritage Trust & Star Publications. TANJONG, HILIR PERAK, LARUT AND KINTA -- THE PENANG-PERAK NEXUS IN HISTORY by Prof. Emeritus Dato' Dr. Khoo Kay Kim, Department of History, University of Malaya SEJARAH DAERAH DAN PEJABAT - LAMAN RASMI PEJABAT DAERAH LARUT MATANG DAN SELAMA SEJARAH DAERAH DAN PEJABAT - Perak State Government Website Perak Tourist Information Centre, Ipoh City Council Taiping Town Council/Laman Rasmi Majlis Perbandaran Taiping Will of Cheang Ah Quee 17 July 1894 Chinese Secret Societies. [Harper's new monthly magazine. / Volume 83, Issue 489, September 1891] Editor's Drawer. [Harper's new monthly magazine. / Volume 84, Issue 499, December 1891] A Social History of The Chinese in Singapore and Malaya 1800 - 1911 by Yen Ching-Hwang, Singapore, Oxford University Press, New York 1986 Annexation in the Malay States: The Jervois Papers edited/compiled by Burns, Peter L. published by Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. 72:14-93, Issue Date: 1999 The Mining Magazine edited by Thomas Arthur Rickard Published by Mining Journal, 1919; Item notes: v.20 1919 Jan-Jun; p. 123 Tōnan Ajia kenkyū By Kyōto Daigaku Tōnan Ajia Kenkyū Sentā Published by Kyōto Daigaku Tōnan Ajia Kenkyū Sentā., 1987; Item notes: v.25 1987–1988; p. 259 The Rise of Ersatz Capitalism in South-East Asia by Kunio Yoshihara All India Reporter - 1929 Immigrant Labour and the Development of Malaya, 1786-1920: A Historical Monograph By Robert Nicholas Jackson Published by Printed at the Govt. Press, 1961; p. 40 Chinese Secret Societies in Malaya: A Survey of the Triad Society from 1800 to 1900 By Leon Comber Published by Published for the Association for Asian Studies by J.J. Augustin, 1959; p. 194 A History of Perak By Richard Olof Winstedt, Richard James Wilkinson, William Edward Maxwell, Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland Malaysian Branch Published by Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1974; p. 116, 117 The Western Malay States, 1850–1873: the effects of commercial development on Malay politics By Kay Kim Khoo Published by Oxford University Press, 1972; 137, 237 The Chinese in Southeast Asia By Victor Purcell, Royal Institute of International Affairs Published by Oxford University Press, 1965; pp. 266, 611 Events Prior to British Ascendancy ...: Notes on Perak History ... By Richard James Wilkinson Published by Printed by J. Russell at the F.M.S. gov't press, 1908 Item notes: v.1-5 (1908–1911); p. 10 Immigrant Labour and the Development of Malaya, 1786-1920: A Historical Monograph By Robert Nicholas Jackson Published by Printed at the Govt. Press, 1961; p. 41 The Impact of Chinese Secret Societies in Malaya: A Historical Study By Wilfred Blythe, Royal Institute of International Affairs Published by Issued under the auspices of the Royal Institute of International Affairs [by] Oxford U.P., 1969; p. 249 The Making of Modern Malaya: A History from Earliest Times to Independence By N. J. Ryan Published by Oxford University Press, 1965; pp. xi, 110 Peninjau sejarah: journal of the History Teachers' Association of Malaya By History Teachers' Association of Malaya, Universiti Malaya Jabatan Sejarah, History Teachers' Association of Malaya Published by History Teachers' Association of Malaya, 1966; Item notes: v.1-2:1; pp. 29, 30, 37 新马华族史料文献汇目 (Xin Ma Hua zu shi liao wen xian hui mu): Classified bibliography of Chinese historical materials in Malaysia and Singapore / Tay Lian Soo By Liangshu Zheng, 郑良树 Published by Nanyang xue hui, 1984; Malaixiya Xinjiapo Hua ren wen hua shi lun cong By Liangshu Zheng, 郑良树 Published by Xinjiapo Nanyang xue hui, 1982; Item notes: v.1 邝国祥《槟城散记》内载：《郑景贵其人》（新加坡：世界书局有限公司，1958）页111-112。 Perak Et Les Orang-Sakeys (Perak and the Orang Sakeys) by Brau De Saint-Pol Lias, Paris, 1883 "Rajah Abdulah Mohamat Shah ibn Almarhome Sultan Japahar to the Chinese Chiefs of the Sening Tew Chew and the Tew Chew Factions of the Chinese at Larut," 11 August 1873, PRO/Admiralty 125/140 Secret trades, porous borders: smuggling and states along a Southeast Asian ... By Eric Tagliacozzo Birthday Eulogy of Chang Keng Kui otherwise called The paper presented to Chang Keng Kui on his 75th birthday by Chang Pi-shih and others cited in 'A Biography of Chang Keng Kui' in Ping-ch'eng san-chi (Anecdotes of Penang/An Anecdotal History of Penang) by K'uang Kuo-hsiang, Hong Kong, 1958, p112 Modern Asian studies, Volume 21, Cambridge University Press., 1987, P423 Court cases Chang Ah Quee & Others vs Huttenbach, Liebest & Co. Cheang Thye Phin & Others v Tan Ah Loy, Privy Council (1920) & (1921) Cheang Thye Phin v Lim Ah Chen/Lim Ah Cheng and others; p. 317 Cheang Thye Phin v Lam Kin Sang Koh Seang Thye v Chung Ah Quee [1886] 4 Ky 136 – 3 [3155] Cheang Thye Gan v Lim Ah Chen & Others [0. J. No. 189 OF 1918], Cheang Thye Gan v Lim Ah Chen, (1921) 16 H.K.L.R. 19, H.K.L.R. 1957 "...that she was not received in the Penang family house owing to the jealousy of Tan Gek Im who refused her. No definite finding here appears necessary, but this point should be borne in mind in view of subsequent developments. Plaintiff was provided with a separate house by Cheang Ah Kwee in which she lived until 1901. In 1893 she bore Cheang Ah Kwee a son, Cheang Thye Gan who died a few ....", "Special provision was made for Cheang Thye Gan by Cheang Ah Kwee in his Will. ..." References Notes Church Street where Kapitan Chung Keng Quee's townhouse and office, Hye Kee Chan, still stands, used to be called Ghee Hin Street after the Ghee Hin Society's Congsee house that Ah Quee purchased, demolished and built his townhouse on top of. Sources People Timothy Tye who has been researching Chung Keng Quee for AsiaExplorers' microsite on Hai Kee Chan mansion and Chung Keng Kwee temple Historian Khoo Salma Nasution Jeffery Seow 1827 births 1901 deaths Businesspeople from Guangzhou Malaysian businesspeople Malaysian people of Hakka descent People from Zengcheng Triad members History of Penang History of Perak People from British Malaya Kapitan Cina
4863813	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halkieriid	Halkieriid	The halkieriids are a group of fossil organisms from the Lower to Middle Cambrian. Their eponymous genus is Halkieria , which has been found on almost every continent in Lower to Mid Cambrian deposits, forming a large component of the small shelly fossil assemblages. The best known species is Halkieria evangelista, from the North Greenland Sirius Passet Lagerstätte, in which complete specimens were collected on an expedition in 1989. The fossils were described by Simon Conway Morris and John Peel in a short paper in 1990 in the journal Nature. Later a more thorough description was undertaken in 1995 in the journal Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London and wider evolutionary implications were posed. The group is sometimes equated to Sachitida, although as originally envisaged, this group includes the wiwaxiids and is thus equivalent to the Halwaxiida. History of discovery Armor plates called "sclerites" had long been known as elements of the small shelly fossils, and detailed analysis showed that some of these belonged to the same animal and how they fitted together. The first articulated specimens of Halkieria evangelista, with all their hard parts together, were collected in 1989 from the Sirius Passet lagerstätte in Greenland, and were described in 1990 by Simon Conway Morris and John S. Peel. H. evangelista is used as a model for identifying and reconstructing as halkieriids other similar shells and sclerites; its epithet evangelista reflects its power to explain the Lower Cambrian fossil record. Description of the fossils Features shared by Halkieria and Australohalkieria Only armor-like sclerites of Australohalkieria have been found, and much of the analysis assumes that these animals were similar to Halkieria. However the sclerites are so similar that this assumption looks fairly safe. In both genera the sclerites are of the type called "coelosclerites", which have a mineralized shell around a space originally filled with organic tissue, and which show no evidence of growth by adding material round the outside. Both genera also have sclerites of three different shapes: "palmate", flat and shaped rather like a maple leaf, which are generally the smallest; "cultrate", flat but shaped like knife blades; and "siculate", which are about the same size as the cultrates but are spine-shaped and like rather squashed cylinders. In both Halkieria and Australohalkieria the palmate and cultrate sclerites have prominent ribs, and are fairly flat except for 90° bends at the bases, which indicate that they fitted snugly against the animals' bodies. The siculates mostly lack ribs and appear to have projected away from the body at angles between about 45° and 90°. Halkieria evangelista The animals looked like slugs in chain mail - to long, bilaterally symmetric, flattened from top to bottom and unarmored on the bottom. Very near each end there is a shell plate with prominent growth lines rather like the growth rings of trees. The rest of the upper surface was covered with about 2,000 sclerites that overlapped each other like tiles and formed three zones with sclerites of different shapes: "palmates", shaped rather like maple leaves, ran along the center of the back between the shell plates; blade-shaped "cultrates" lay on either side of the palmates and pointing towards the middle of the upper surface; and slim, sickle-shaped "siculates" covered the outer edges. The sclerites bore a wide central cavity, and (at least in some specimens) finer lateral canals. As the animals grew, the shell plates grew by adding material to the outer edges. Individual sclerites stayed the same size; since the cultrate sclerites form a pattern that is constant in all fairly complete specimens, the old ones that were too small may have been shed and replaced by larger ones as the animals grew. The sclerites seem to have grown by basal secretion. There are traces of thin ribs between the sclerites and the skin. The shellplates and the sclerites were probably made of calcium carbonate originally; it has been suggested on the basis of how they were preserved that they may have been wholly organic, but this is less likely since fossils of non-calcified organisms are usually thin films while Halkeieria fossils are three-dimensional like those of trilobites and hyoliths - in fact several specimens show curvature in the horizontal plane, which suggests that the muscles associated with the sclerites were still present at the time of burial The sole was soft and probably muscular. Since Halkieria was unsuited to swimming and had no obvious adaptations for burrowing, it must have lived on the sea-floor, "walking" by making its muscular sole ripple. The backward-projecting siculate sclerites may have improved its grip by preventing it from slipping backwards. Some specimens have been found partially rolled up, rather like a pillbug, and in this position the cultrate sclerites projected outwards, which probably deterred predators. It is difficult to determine the functions of the cap-shaped shells at either end of the animal, as the sclerites appear to have offered adequate protection. Scars on the inner surface of the front shell may indicate that it provided an attachment for internal organs. In one specimen the rear shell appears to have rotated by about 45° before fossilization, which suggests there was a cavity underneath, which may have housed gills. Traces of a gut have been found in the rear halves of some fossils. Parts of one specimen have been interpreted as a radula, the toothed chitinous tongue that is the signature feature of molluscs, but in this specimen the edge of the "scleritome", i.e. coat of sclerites, is folded and the putative radula could be a group of dislocated siculate sclerites. Australohalkieria superstes The name of the most complete and abundant Australian find means "Southern Halkieria the Survivor" because it proves that halkieriids survived the end-Botomian extinction. The sclerites assigned to this species are convex on the upper surface and concave on the lower. They may also curve within their own plane, and they overlap so that the concave side of each is partly covered by the convex side of the next one. The internal cavity within Australohalkieria is more complicated than the simple tube in Halkieria; about half-way up the sclerite, the cylindrical tube splits into a pair of longitudinal canals, with the central canal flattening; the canals don't seem to be connected. The walls also have a different microscopic structure. In A. superstes the central canals of sclerites are flattened on their upper surfaces, and this produces a depression on the upper surface of the tip. The surface of this depression is not mineralized, which suggests the depression may have helped the animals' sense of smell by letting chemicals in the water penetrate the exposed skin. The phosphatic coating on sclerites of A. superstes has features that suggest they were originally covered by a thin organic skin. An outer organic layer has also been found on sclerites of the chancelloriids, sessile organisms that are thought to have looked rather like cacti. If halkieriids were early molluscs, the outer layers of the sclerites may have been similar to the periostracum of some modern molluscs. The sclerites of A. superstes have right- and left-handed variants which are equally abundant, which suggests that A. superstes was bilaterally symmetrical. All of the sclerites were tiny: the palmate ones ranged from to in length, and the cultrates from to . The siculates fall into two groups: those with a shallow S-curve at the base, which range from to in length, and often have a slight twist at the base; and those with a 45° and 90° bend at the base and are to long. Scleritomes of Early Cambrian halkieriids have many more palmate and cultrate than siculate sclerites. On the other hand, siculate sclerites of A. superstes are more abundant than either cultrate or palmate sclerites; in fact palmate sclerites are rare. Possibly some process after death removed many of the palmates and some of the cultrates, but it is more likely that in A. superstes the part of the scleritome, or "coat of mail", closest to the sea-bed was larger relative to the lateral and dorsal zones further up and towards the center. A. superstes sclerites are also about one-third the size of Early Cambrian halkieriid sclerites. Since the Georgina assemblage includes larger fossils and most Early Cambrian halkieriids are preserved by the same method, phosphatization, it is unlikely that preservational bias has produced an unrepresentative sample. Possible explanations for the small size of A. superstes sclerites include: the individual(s) represented in the Georgina assemblage were juveniles; their scleritomes were composed of many more sclerites than those of Early Cambrian halkieriids; or the species itself was relatively small. No shells that might be assigned to halkieriids have been found in the Georgina Basin. This does not prove that Australohalkieria lacked shells, as shells of Halkieria are rarely found. Australohalkieria parva This species, whose name means "Small Southern Halkieria", was first described in 1990. Like A. superstes, its sclerites have undivided longitudinal canals and a very similar structure to their walls wall, but A. parva has sclerites whose central canals are not flattened. Other halkieriid fossils from Australia The other sclerites from the Georgina Basin are different enough to be excluded from Australohalkieria superstes, but are not sufficiently abundant to provide enough detail for them to be classified. One type is very similar to those of A.superstes, even having a two-pronged tip, but the middle canal is not flattened. The other has a flattened central canal and no longitudinal canals, and may represent an additional Middle Cambrian halkieriid genus, distinct from Australohalkieria and from the Early Cambrian Halkieria. Siphogonuchitids Siphogonuchitids have two sclerite morphs as well as their shell(s), thus may have had a simpler scleritome than Halkieria and its ilk, concordant with the sclerites' simpler internal anatomy. The genera Siphogonuchites, Dabashanites, Lopochites, and Maikhanella all seem to represent components of the Siphogonuchites animal. Sclerites of Drepanochites can be distinguished based on their aspect ratio. Maikhanella is shell formed of Siphogonuchites sclerites that are fused together with a calcified matrix. Juvenile shells appear not to incorporate sclerites. The central cavity of the Siphogonuchites sclerite is simple, with no lateral chambers attached. Ninellids The ninellids, typified by Ninella, are a Lower Cambrian group that had an even simpler scleritome, with only one sclerite type (although variation in the morphology of the sclerites is observed, and left- and right-sided sclerites exist). Their sclerites are hooked or scoop-like, and are very similar to halkieriid or siphonogunuchitid sclerites; they were hollow and calcareous and had a ridged upper surface. Hippopharangites Hippopharangites has sclerites with a broad central cavity and small pores opening through the shell wall, equivalent to the lateral chambers of other halkieriids (and the aesthete canals of Chitons?) This genus is the closest in form to Chancelloriid sclerites, and is thus used to support the union of halkieriids and chancelloriids as Coeloscleritophora. Lomasulcachites Lomasulcachites is a further genus known from sclerites alone. Sachites Sachites Meshkova 1969 is a genus that comprised spiny sclerites; many Sachites specimens are now referred to other halkieriid taxa. Although believed to be related to the halkieriids, a chancelloriid affinity has more recently been proposed. Sinosachites Sinosachites is a genus of 'halkieriid' known only from sclerites; these have internal chambers that are sub-perpendicular to the central canal, to which they are connected by narrow channels. The chambers are the same diameter, ~40 µm, as the longitudinal canals in Australohalkieria; their greater number and arrangement as lateral rather than longitudinal bodies reflects the greater size of the Sinosachites sclerites, which measure about 1–2 mm in length. The sclerites are synonymous with Thambetolepis, which was originally described from Australia. Left-hand and right-hand sclerites exist, so the animal was bilaterally symmetrical; as in Halkieria, palmate, cultrate and siculate sclerite morphologies exist. Oikozetetes Oikozetetes is known only from two types of cap-shaped shell found in the Burgess Shale and dated to about . The two types are thought to be the front and rear shells of a halkieriid. They were probably calcareous while the organism was alive (although diagenesis sometimes replaces the original mineral with another, such as silica). It is thought to also have borne an armour coat consisting of biomineralised sclerites, like Halkieria. These are never found in direct association with the shells, but there are many biostratinomic processes which could account for this fact. The lower Cambrian taxon Ocruranus (=Eohalobia) is putatively equivalent to the shells of Oikozetetes and seemingly belonged to a halkieriid-type body, although an intermediate valve suggests a Palaeoloricate-like body form. Occurrence The only reasonably complete specimens, of Halkieria evangelista, were found in the Sirius Passet lagerstätte in Greenland. Fragments which are confidently classified as belonging to halkieriids have been found in China's Xinjiang province and Australia's Georgina Basin, while shells of a possible halkieriid have been found in Canada's Burgess Shale. Halkieriid-like armor plates, called "sclerites" have been found in many other places as part of the small shelly fauna. The earliest known occurrences of Halkieriids sclerites, classified as Halkieria longa, date from the Purella antiqua Zone of the Upper Nemakit-Daldynian Stage in Siberia. The mass extinction at the end of the Cambrian period's Botomian age was thought to have wiped out most of the small shellies, including the halkieriids, but in 2004 Halkieriid fossils classified as Australohalkieria were reported from Mid-Cambrian rocks of the Georgina Basin in Australia. It is not known why this clade would have survived while other halkieriid clades apparently died. It may be significant that the only archaeocyathans known to have survived the end-Botomian extinction also occur in Gondwana, the old super-continent that embraced South America, Africa, India, Australia and Antarctica. Halkieriids and other small shelly fossils are typically, although not always, preserved in phosphate, which may or may not have been their original mineral composition. Preservation by a covering of phosphate only seems to have been common during the early Cambrian, becoming rarer with time as a result of increased disturbance of sea-floors by burrowing animals. Hence it is possible that halkieriids and other small shelly fossils were alive earlier than the earliest known fossils and later than the latest known fossils — paleontologists call this kind of uncertainty the Signor–Lipps effect. Species Nearly all members of the genera Halkieria are known only from finds of isolated scaly sclerites: Halkieria alata Duan, 1984 Halkieria amorpha Meshkova,1974 Halkieria bisulcata Qian et Yin, 1984 Halkieria costulata Meshkova, 1974 Halkieria curvativa Mambetov in Missarzhevsky and Mambetov, 1981 Halkieria deplanatiformis Mambetov in Missarzhevsky and Mambetov, 1981 Halkieria desquamata Duan, 1984 Halkieria directa Mostler, 1980 Halkieria elonga Qian et Yin, 1984 Halkieria equilateralis Qian et Yin, 1984 Halkieria folliformis Duan, 1984 Halkieria fordi Landing, 1991 Halkieria hexagona Mostler, 1980 Halkieria lata Mostler, 1980 Halkieria longa Qian, 1977 Halkieria longispinosa Mostler, 1980 Halkieria maidipingensis Qian, 1977 Halkieria mina Qian, Chen et Chen, 1979 Halkieria mira Qian et Xiao, 1984 Halkieria obliqua Poulsen, 1967 Halkieria operculus Qian, 1984 ?Halkieria pennata He, 1981 [=?Halkieria sthenobasis Jiang in Luo et al., 1982] Halkieria phylloidea He, 1981 Halkieria praeinguis Jiang in Luo et al., 1982 Halkieria projecta Bokova, 1985 Halkieria sacciformis Meshkova, 1969 Halkieria solida Mostler, 1980 Halkieria sthenobasis Jiang in Luo et al., 1982 Halkieria stonei Landing, 1989 Halkieria symmetrica Poulsen, 1967 Halkieria terastios Qian, Chen et Chen, 1979 Halkieria uncostata Qian et Yin, 1984 Halkieria undulata Wang, 1994 Halkieria ventricosa Mostler, 1980 Halkieria wangi Demidenko, 2010 Halkieria zapfei Mostler, 1980 At present, the structure of complete scleritome is known only for the single species named Halkieria evangelista from the Lower Cambrian of Greenland (Sirius Passet Formation). Phylogenetic position of Halkieria The evolutionary relationships of the halkieriids are a complex topic which is still being debated. Most of this debate is about their relationship to Wiwaxia and to the three major lophotrochozoan phyla — molluscs, annelids and brachiopods. The question of their relationship to an apparently much more primitive Cambrian group, the chancelloriids is also significant and may raise some difficult questions. Relationship to Molluscs, Annelids and Brachiopods In 1995 Conway Morris and Peel presented a cladogram based both on the fossils' features and on early 1990s research in molecular phylogeny, which is the application of cladistic analysis to DNA and RNA: The siphogonotuchids, a group found in Earliest Cambrian rocks, were the "sister" group to all the rest. These are known only from isolated fragments. The earliest halkieriids were a "sister" group to the molluscs, in other words descendants of a fairly closely related common ancestor. This relationship, they said, was supported by the muscular foot that most researchers assumed halkieriids had. Another halkieriid genus, Thambetolepis / Sinosachites, was a "great aunt" of annelids and Wiwaxia was an "aunt" of annelids. Their claim of a close relationship between halkieriids and Wiwaxia was based on both groups' having sclerites divided into three concentric zones. The close relationship of Wiwaxia to annelids was based on the similarities Butterfield (1990) found between Wiwaxia sclerites and the bristles of polychaete annelids. Canadia is a Burgess Shale fossil that is widely agreed to be a polychaete. Halkieria evangelista, which Conway Morris had found in Greenland's Sirius Passet lagerstätte, was a "sister" group" to brachiopods, animals whose modern forms have bivalve shells but differ from molluscs in having muscular stalks and a distinctive feeding apparatus, the lophophore. Brachiopods have bristles that are similar to those of annelids and hence to Wiwaxia sclerites, and hence to halkieriid sclerites. A brachiopod affinity seemed plausible because brachiopods pass through a larval phase that resembles a halkieriid, and some isolated fossil shells thought to belong to halkieriids had a brachiopod-like microstructure. In 2003 Cohen, Holmer and Luter supported the halkieriid-brachiopod relationship, suggesting that brachiopods may have arisen from a halkieriid lineage that developed a shorter body and larger shells, and then folded itself and finally grew a stalk out of what used to be the back. Vinther and Nielsen (2005) proposed instead that Halkieria was a crown group mollusc, in other words more similar to modern molluscs that to annelids, brachiopods or any intermediate groups. They argued that: Halkieria sclerites resembled those of the modern solenogaster aplacophoran shell-less molluscs (see ), of some modern polyplacophoran molluscs, which have several shell plates, and of the Ordovician polyplacophoran Echinochiton; Halkieria shells are more similar to the shells of conchiferan molluscs, since shells of both of these groups show no trace of the canals and pores seen in polyplacophoran shell plates; the bristles of brachiopods and annelids are similar to each other but not to Halkieria sclerites. Caron, Scheltema, Schander and Rudkin (2006) also interpreted Halkieria as a crown group mollusc, with Wiwaxia and Odontogriphus as stem group molluscs, in other words "sister" and "aunt" of the crown group molluscs. Their main reason for regarding Halkieria as crown group molluscs is that both possessed armor mineralized with calcium carbonate. They treated Wiwaxia and Odontogriphus as stem group molluscs because in their opinion both possessed the distinctive molluscan radula, a chitonous toothed "tongue". Also in 2006, Conway Morris criticized Vinther and Nielsen's (2005) classification of Halkieria as a crown group mollusc, on the grounds that the growth of the spicules in the aplacophorans and polyplacophorans is not similar to the method of growth deduced for the complex halkieriid sclerites; in particular, he said, the hollow spines of various molluscs are not at all like the halkieriid sclerites with their complex internal channels. Conway Morris repeated his earlier conclusion that halkieriids were close to the ancestors of both molluscs and brachiopods. Butterfield (2006) accepted that Wiwaxia and Odontogriphus were closely related, but argued that they were stem-group polychaetes rather than stem-group molluscs. In his opinion the feeding apparatus of these organisms, which consisted of two or at most four rows of teeth, could not perform the functions of the "belt-like" molluscan radula with their numerous tooth-rows; the different tooth-rows in both Wiwaxia and Odontogriphus tooth-rows also have noticeably different shapes, while those of molluscan radulae are produced one after the other by the same group of "factory" cells and therefore are almost identical. He also regarded lines running across the middle region of Odontogriphus fossils as evidence of external segmentation, since the lines are evenly spaced and run exactly at right angles to the long axis of the body. As in his earlier papers, Butterfield emphasized the similarities of internal structure between Wiwaxia sclerites and the bristles of polychaetes, and the fact that polychaetes are the only modern organisms in which some of the bristles form a covering over the back. Conway Morris and Caron (2007) published the first description of Orthrozanclus reburrus. This resembled the halkieriids in having concentric bands of sclerites, although only two and not mineralized; and one shell at what was presumed to be the front and which was similar in shape to Halkieria front shell. It also had long spines rather like those of Wiwaxia. Conway Morris and Caron regarded this creature as evidence that the "halwaxiids" were a valid taxon and were monophyletic, in other words shared a common ancestor with each other and with no other organism. They published two cladograms, representing alternative hypotheses about the evolution of the lophotrochozoa, the lineage that includes molluscs, annelids and brachiopods: This is the more likely, although it falls apart if the organisms' characteristics are changed even slightly: Kimberella and Odontogriphus are early, primitive molluscs, without sclerites or any kind of mineralized armor. Wiwaxia, the siphogonotuchids, Orthrozanclus and Halkieria from a side-branch of the mollusc family tree, which diverged in that order. This would mean that: Wiwaxia was the first of them to have sclerites, which were unmineralized; the siphogonotuchids were the first to have mineralized sclerites, although the scleritome was simpler; halkieriids then develop more complex scleritomes, while in Orthrozanclus the scleritome became unmineralized again and the rear shell vanished or became so small that it has not been seen in fossils. This hypothesis faces the difficulty that siphogonotuchids appear in earlier rocks and have simpler scleritomes than the other three groups. The annelids and brachiopods evolved from the other main branch of the family tree, which did not include the molluscs. The alternative view is: Kimberella and Odontogriphus are early, primitive lophotrochozoans. The siphogonotuchids, Halkieria, Orthrozanclus and Wiwaxia form a group that is closer to the shared ancestor of annelids and brachiopods than it is to the molluscs. The siphogonotuchids are the first of the group to become distinctive, with two types of mineralized sclerites and a "shell" made of fused sclerites. Halkieriids had three types of sclerites and two one-piece shells. In Orthrozanclus the sclerites became unmineralized and in Wiwaxia the shells were lost. The network of internal cavities within sclerites of the halkieriid Sinosachites have been likened to the aesthete canals in polyplacophora, strengthening the case for a molluscan affinity. Relationship to chancelloriids Porter (2008) revived an early 1980s idea that the sclerites of Halkieria are extremely similar to those of chancelloriids. These were sessile, bag-like, radially symmetric organisms with an opening at the top. Since their fossils show no signs of a gut or other organs, they were originally classified as some kind of sponge. Butterfield and Nicholas (1996) argued that they were closely related to sponges on the grounds that the detailed structure of chancellorid sclerites is similar to that of fibers of spongin, a collagen protein, in modern keratose (horny) demosponges. However Janussen, Steiner and Zhu (2002) opposed this view, arguing that: spongin does not appear in all Porifera, but may be a defining feature of the demosponges; the silica-based spines of demosponges are solid, while chancellorid sclerites are hollow and filled with soft tissues connected to the rest of the animal at the bases of the sclerites; chancellorid sclerites were probably made of aragonite, which is not found in demosponges; sponges have loosely bound-together skins called pinacoderms, which are only one cell thick, while the skins of chancellorids were much thicker and shows signs of connective structures called belt desmosomes. In their opinion the presence of belt desmosomes made chancellorids members of the Epitheliazoa, the next higher taxon above the Porifera, to which sponges belong. They thought it was difficult to say whether chancellorids were members of the Eumetazoa, "true animals" whose tissues are organized into Germ layers: chancellorids' lack of internal organs would seem to exclude them from the Eumetazoa; but possibly chancellorids descended from Eumetazoans that lost these features after becoming sessile filter-feeders. There are intriguing hints that the Ediacaran genus Ausia may represent a halkieriid ancestor with strong similarity to the chancelloriids. The coelosclerites ("hollow sclerites") of halkieriids and chancelloriids resemble each other at all levels: both have an internal "pulp cavity" and a thin external organic layer; the walls are made of the same material, aragonite; the arrangement of the aragonite fibers is in each is the same, running mainly from base to tip but with each being closer to the surface at the end nearest the tip. It is extremely improbable that totally unrelated organisms could have developed such similar sclerites independently, but the huge difference in the structures of their bodies makes it hard to see how they could be closely related. This dilemma may be resolved in various ways: One possibility is that chancelloriids evolved from bilaterian ancestors but then adopted a sessile lifestyle and rapidly lost all unnecessary features. However the gut and other internal organs have not been lost in other bilaterians that lost their external bilateral symmetry, such as echinoderms, priapulids, and kinorhynchs. On the other hand, perhaps chancelloriids are similar to the organisms from which bilaterians evolved. That would imply that the earliest bilaterians had similar coelosclerites. However, there are no fossils of such sclerites before , while Kimberella from was almost certainly a bilaterian, but shows no evidence of sclerites. One solution to this dilemma may be that preservation of small shelly fossils by coatings of phosphate was common only for a relatively short time, during the Early Cambrian, and that coelosclerite-bearing organisms were alive several million years before and after the time of phosphatic preservation. In fact there are over 25 cases of phosphatic preservation between and , but only one between and . Alternatively, perhaps the common ancestor of both chancelloriids and halkieriids had very similar but unmineralized coelosclerites, and some intermediate groups independently incorporated aragonite into these very similar structures. See also Coeloscleritophoran Notes External links Palaeos' article on Halkieria & H. evangelista Pharyngula entry on Orthrozanclus reburrus Cambrian molluscs Cambrian invertebrates Cambrian animals of Africa Cambrian animals of Asia Cambrian animals of Europe Cambrian animals of North America Cambrian animals of Oceania Cambrian first appearances Cambrian extinctions Sirius Passet fossils Cambrian genus extinctions

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