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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20L.%20Kane
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Thomas L. Kane
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Thomas Leiper Kane (January 27, 1822 – December 26, 1883) was an American attorney, abolitionist, philanthropist, and military officer who was influential in the western migration of the Latter-day Saint movement and served as a Union Army colonel and general of volunteers in the American Civil War. He received a brevet promotion to major general for gallantry at the Battle of Gettysburg.
After meeting members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints at an 1846 Philadelphia conference, Kane offered to help in their conflicts with the US government as they tried to migrate West. He negotiated to allow them to occupy land along the Missouri River, and later worked to help Utah achieve statehood. He passed on an offer to govern the territory, giving the position to Brigham Young. During 1857 and 1858, Kane attempted to mediate a dispute between the Latter-day Saints and the US government, persuading Young to concede his governorship to President Buchanan's appointee, preventing further escalation of the Utah War.
During the Civil War, Kane organized a Pennsylvania regiment (the "Bucktails"), and served as lieutenant colonel. After his promotion of brigadier general of volunteers, he journeyed by railroad and buggy to convey intelligence about Robert E. Lee's Gettysburg Campaign. Kane and his brigade were victorious at Gettysburg, but Kane had fallen ill and was forced to resign his commission. After the war, Kane and his family settled and helped establish Kane, Pennsylvania. He died of pneumonia in 1883. Both Kane County, Utah, and Kanesville Tabernacle are named for Kane. The Kane Historic Preservation Society maintains the Thomas L. Kane Memorial Chapel in Kane, Pennsylvania, and a statue of Kane stands in the Utah State Capitol, titled "Friend of the Mormons".
Education and abolitionism
Kane was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, to John Kintzing Kane, a US district judge, and Jane Duval Leiper. He was described as being of small stature, or "jockey-like", and food was always marginal. In correspondence, he referred to himself as an invalid. After receiving a stateside education, he traveled to Europe to study in Great Britain and France, and to build up his constitution. In Paris, he befriended French intellectuals such as Auguste Comte. His apartment in France was raided by police who suspected revolutionary activity due to his acceptance of Comte's philosophies. During his several years in Paris, he became proficient in French and contributed articles to several French magazines. He began to study law after returning to the states, and was admitted to the Pennsylvania bar in 1846.
As a young man, he expressed interest in a political career and sought a position in the government of California at the conclusion of the Mexican–American War (1848), but was unsuccessful. He briefly clerked for his father, then obtained a position as a Clerk of the District Court in eastern Pennsylvania. An abolitionist, Kane was distressed at the passage of the Compromise of 1850, which increased his legal responsibility to return fleeing slaves to southern territories under the Fugitive Slave Act. He almost immediately tendered his resignation to his father, who had the younger Kane jailed for contempt of court. The US Supreme Court later overturned this arrest. After his release, Kane became increasingly active in the abolitionist movement. He maintained a correspondence with Horace Greeley and Ralph Waldo Emerson, and wrote newspaper articles on abolition and social issues related to members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.
Mormon philanthropy
Mormon Battalion
Kane came in contact with members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints during a Philadelphia conference in May 1846. Kane offered them his advice and help in their conflicts with the US government and in their efforts to emigrate to western territories. Jesse C. Little, presiding LDS elder in the East, was soliciting support for the Latter-day Saints' westward migration. Politically well-connected through his father, Kane provided letters of recommendation and later joined Little in Washington, D.C. The two called on the Secretary of State, Secretary of War, and President James K. Polk. As a result of their negotiations, the United States agreed to enlist up to 500 LDS men, in five companies of 75 to 100 men each, as the Mormon Battalion, to serve in the Mexican–American War.
With the help of his father, Kane obtained US government permission for the refugee Mormons to occupy Pottawattamie and Omaha Indian lands along the Missouri River. After carrying dispatches relating to the land agreements and battalion criteria to Fort Leavenworth, Kane sought out Little in the Latter-day Saint encampments on the Missouri River. On July 17, 1846, a meeting was held with Kane, LDS leaders, and Army Captain James Allen to create the Mormon Battalion. Kane met many leaders of the church, and became a popular figure among Mormon emigrants. Miller's Hollow, the principal Iowa settlement of the LDS group at the site of present-day Council Bluffs, was renamed Kanesville in recognition of his service.
During this stay, Kane became seriously ill. Although good care from both an army physician from Fort Leavenworth and church members helped him recover, he suffered poor health the rest of his life.
Utah territory and statehood
In March 1850, in the midst of debate over establishing Utah Territory, Kane delivered an important lecture before the Philadelphia Historical Society. He described the religion of the Latter-day Saints, their conflicts with other settlers, and the desolation he witnessed during a visit to the recently abandoned Nauvoo, Illinois. He also described the Saints' westward trek. One thousand copies of the lecture, with associated notes and materials, were printed and distributed, primarily to members of Congress and influential men in the Executive Branch. The lecture was reprinted in several Mormon publications: the Frontier Guardian (August 7, 1850), and in the Millennial Star (April 15 to July 15, 1851) where it reached an even larger audience. Six months later, he defended Brigham Young in eastern newspapers. Kane was asked to provide recommendations and information about the Mormons to President Millard Fillmore. When Utah was granted a territorial government by Congress on September 9, 1850, Fillmore asked Kane to be the first governor. He declined and recommended Young. Throughout the 1850s, he promoted Utah statehood and defended the church's interests at every opportunity.
Kane married his British-born cousin Elizabeth Dennistown (or Dennistoun) Wood on April 21, 1853. Elizabeth Wood Kane completed a medical degree from the Philadelphia Female Medical College in 1883, though she never practiced independently. Two of their sons, Evan and William (later known as Thomas L., Jr.), and their daughter Harriet, became physicians.
The brother of General Kane, Elisha Kent Kane, was a civil engineer, and later an arctic explorer.
After Thomas Kane died in 1883, his widow built the home Anoatok in Kane, Pennsylvania.
In a work produced in 1902, historian William Alexander Linn, evidently believing that no non-Mormon would serve as an advocate for the group, asserted that Kane was a secret member of the LDS church and dated his baptism to his 1846 stay on the Missouri River. Kane, his family, and LDS Church leaders all stated that, despite his interest in Mormons and Mormon doctrine and practices, Kane never joined the LDS church. His wife's letters and journals indicate that, to her distress, her husband was unable to state unequivocally that he was a Christian. Although he was raised Presbyterian, he never joined that or any church, nor practiced Presbyterianism as his wife did.
Utah War
In the winter of 1857–1858 Kane made a strenuous trip from the East coast to Salt Lake City. Once there, he helped prevent bloodshed by mediating a dispute between the Mormons and the federal government, known as the Utah War. Mormonism, the practice of plural marriage, and the governance of the Utah territory were issues in the federal election of 1856. Responding to rumors and reports of Mormon misrule in Utah shortly after his inauguration in March 1857, President James Buchanan appointed a new Utah Territorial governor Alfred Cumming of Georgia, replacing Brigham Young. Responding to rumors (later proved false) that the Mormons were in rebellion against the US government, Buchanan sent an army of 2,500, with orders to place Cummings in Young's Governor Office by force if necessary.
Unfortunately, Buchanan did not officially notify Young about the change in appointment, and rumors of planned US army attacks on Utah communities flew just ahead of the troops. The Mormons, who had already been driven out of several states, were prepared to burn their settlements to the ground and resist yet another forced removal. The Mormons prepared to fight, activating the Nauvoo Legion (essentially all able-bodied men aged 15 to 60), and began preparing for a scorched-earth fighting withdrawal to southern Utah. 168 Mormon patrols located three Army supply trains following the army troops on the Oregon/California/Mormon trail which were attacked and burned by Nauvoo Legion members led by Lot Smith. This stalled the US Army advance at Fort Bridger in Wyoming for the winter of 1857–1858.
Earlier in the year, hearing of the "misunderstanding", Kane offered to mediate. As it was a heavy winter, he traveled under an alias to Utah by way of Panama, crossing the isthmus by the newly completed (1855) Panama Railroad and taking a ship north to southern California. He then went overland through San Bernardino, California to Salt Lake City over the strenuous southern branch of the California Trail (now Interstate 15), arriving in Salt Lake City in February 1858. Kane persuaded Young to accept Buchanan's appointment of Cumming as Territorial governor, and to present no opposition to the federal troops, called Johnston's Army, acting as escort. Kane then traveled to the army's winter base at Fort Bridger, and persuaded Governor Cumming to travel to Salt Lake City without his military escort. Cumming was courteously received by Young and Utah residents, and was shortly installed in his new office. The army came into Utah some weeks later and was bivouacked on vacant land that became Camp Floyd, southwest of Salt Lake City. The army left the territory in 1860 as the looming Civil War pulled in nearly all frontier troops.
While in Salt Lake City, Kane received news that his father had died in 1858. He remained in Utah until May 13, when he and an LDS escort returned east across the continent to make his report to President Buchanan.
Friendship with Young
Kane became a personal friend of Brigham Young, and stayed in contact with the church leader for many years. Kane visited Utah several times, advising Young on dealing with the federal government. In 1869 the railroad completed its connection to both coasts (by a tie-in in northern Utah), and in 1871 Young urged Kane and his family to visit:
Kane, his wife, and their two younger sons spent the winter of 1872 in Utah. They traveled throughout the territory and were Young's guests at his winter home in St. George, partially in an effort to regain Kane's failing health. During the winter, Kane and Young laid plans for the Mormon settlement of sections of Arizona and the Sonora Valley in Mexico. Kane also interviewed Young, gathering information for a planned biography (which he did not complete). In turn, Young consulted Kane as an attorney on dealing with federal charges pending against him.
Elizabeth Kane corresponded with her family during her visit to Utah. Her father, William Wood, later published selected letters as a book titled Twelve Mormon Homes, since issued in several editions. The journal that she kept during her winter in St. George was edited and published in 1992 as Elizabeth Kane's St. George Journal. Kane returned to Utah upon Young's death in 1877, attending his funeral and offering condolences to family and church leaders. He also oversaw the execution of Young's will, which he had prepared, ensuring an appropriate separation of church and personal property. Young held a number of church properties in his own name due to the Morrill Anti-Bigamy Act of 1862, which made it illegal for the LDS church to own property valued at more than $50,000. Ownership of these properties was transferred to his successor in the presidency, John Taylor.
Civil War service
By 1858, Thomas Kane's service to the Mormons mostly ended. As the Civil War began, Kane raised a mounted rifle regiment, the 42nd Pennsylvania Infantry, also referred to as the 13th Pennsylvania Reserves. He recruited woodsmen and lumbermen from western Pennsylvania—men who were experienced in the woods, could forage for themselves, and could shoot rifles. As the regiment was forming, one recruit ornamented his hat with a tail from a deer's carcass that he found in a butcher shop. Other men in the regiment liked this decoration and copied him, causing the regiment to be known as the "Bucktails". The men in the regiment built three large log rafts and one smaller one, and floated down the Susquehanna River to Harrisburg, where they were mustered in. On June 12, 1861, veteran Charles J. Biddle was named the Union regiment's colonel with Kane as lieutenant colonel. Kane was originally voted as colonel with Biddle as his lieutenant, but he resigned and requested that Biddle be made colonel, because Biddle had more military experience.
Kane has been described as a "visionary" of infantry tactics. He taught his men what would become known as "skirmisher tactics". They learned to scatter under fire and to make use of whatever cover the ground offered, and to fire only when they could see their targets. He stressed individual responsibility in his soldiers, a contradiction to the military thinking of the time. He held target practice, which was also an innovative idea, and drilled them in long-range firing, developing his men into fine sharpshooters.
The Bucktails were assigned to the Pennsylvania Reserves division of the V Corps of the Army of the Potomac. When Colonel Biddle resigned to enter United States Congress, Lt. Col. Kane took command. On December 20, 1861, Kane was wounded while leading a patrol at the Battle of Dranesville. A bullet struck the right side of his face, knocking out some teeth and producing long-term difficulties with his vision.
By the spring of 1862, Kane had partially recovered from his wound and returned to the Bucktails. They served as part of Brig. Gen. George Dashiell Bayard's cavalry in the Shenandoah Valley, fighting against Stonewall Jackson's Valley Campaign. At Harrisonburg, he and 104 picked riflemen were sent to the rescue of an ambushed regiment. Kane encountered three Confederate regiments on June 6, 1862. He was struck by a bullet that split the bone below his right knee and his men left him on the field. When he tried to rise after the fighting was over, a Confederate soldier broke his breastbone with a blow from the butt of his rifle and Kane, unconscious, was captured. He was exchanged for Williams C. Wickham in mid-August. He returned to duty in time for the Northern Virginia Campaign, but was so weakened that another officer led his regiment. He had to be helped onto his horse and was forced to walk using crutches; his Harrisonburg wound would reopen repeatedly for the next two years.
Kane was promoted to brigadier general of volunteers on September 7, 1862, and given command of the 2nd Brigade, 1st Division, XII Corps of the Army of the Potomac. This brigade was mustered out in March 1863 before Kane could lead it in combat. Kane was assigned a new brigade (now in the 2nd Division of the XII Corps) and saw action at Chancellorsville. After his horse stumbled in the Rapidan River and dumped him into the water on April 28, 1863, Kane developed a case of pneumonia. He was sent to a Baltimore, Maryland, hospital, where he remained through June. Upon hearing of General Robert E. Lee's second invasion of the North (Lee's Gettysburg Campaign), Kane volunteered to convey intelligence to the commander of the Army of the Potomac, George Gordon Meade, and rose from his sickbed to join his men. On a difficult ride by railroad and buggy, he avoided capture by Maj. Gen. J.E.B. Stuart's cavalry by disguising himself as a civilian. He arrived at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, on the morning of July 2, 1863.
Kane resumed command of his brigade, occupying a position on Culp's Hill, the right of the Union line. His men did not participate in the bloody fighting of July 2 because his division, commanded by Maj. Gen. John W. Geary, was pulled out of the line and sent to defend against Confederate attacks on the Union left. (Due to bad navigation by Geary, the column took a wrong turn and never did reach the fighting that day.) However, when his men returned to their hastily constructed breastworks on Culp's Hill that night, they found Confederate soldiers occupying them and Kane's corps commander ordered an assault for early the next morning to regain the position. Before the Union attack could be launched on July 3, the Confederates struck first, and Kane and his men met and repulsed them. During the action Kane fell ill, and the brigade's second-in-command, Colonel George A. Cobham, Jr., actively assisted in command. Although his brigade was victorious, Kane was a broken man and never recovered his health. He suffered from his festering facial wound, lingering chest problems, and impaired vision. He formally relinquished command the next day. He was then posted to Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, where he supervised the draft depot. As he failed to recover his health, Kane resigned his commission on November 7, 1863. For his service at Gettysburg, he was named Brevet major general on March 13, 1865.
Later life and death
After the Civil War, Kane and his wife moved to the frontier in western Pennsylvania, eventually owning over of timberland on which oil and gas were later discovered. Kane, whose father had been the attorney who incorporated the Pennsylvania Railroad, laid out railroad routes in that area and located the low summit over which the Philadelphia and Erie Railroad crosses the Alleghenies. Kane was involved in founding the community of Kane, Pennsylvania. Kane acted as a director of the Sunbury and Erie Railroad. He had served as secretary at the United States legation in Paris in 1842–1843. He was the first president of the Board of State Charities, and a member of the American Philosophical, American Geographical, and Pennsylvania Historical Societies. He was a Freemason. His later years were spent in charitable work and writing. He died of pneumonia in Philadelphia and is buried in Kane, Pennsylvania.
Legacy and memorials
Kane County, Utah was named for Thomas L. Kane, as was the Kanesville Tabernacle in Council Bluffs, Iowa. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints maintains as a historic site the Thomas L. Kane Memorial Chapel, in Kane, Pennsylvania, in recognition of Kane's friendship and assistance. Kane was a founder of the Borough and is buried in the chapel. In addition, a bronze statue of Thomas L. Kane is displayed in Utah's Capitol Building, identified as a "Friend of the Mormons". An area of the Hooper Ward, in northeast Hooper, Utah was divided off and was named Kanesville in honor of Thomas L. Kane. The area was known as Kanesville which was later incorporated into Hooper, Utah and Farr West, Utah. A stone and bronze memorial stands behind a church building with his likeness.
Publications
See also
List of American Civil War generals (Union)
Thomas L. Kane Memorial Chapel
References
Bibliography
Allen, James B.; Glen M. Leonard. The Story of the Latter-day Saints. Deseret Book Co., Salt Lake City UT, 1976. .
Bowen, Norman R., editor. A Gentile Account of Life in Utah's Dixie, 1872–73, Elizabeth Kane's St. George Journal. Tanner Trust Fund, University of Utah Library, Salt Lake City UT, 1995. .
Eicher, John H., and Eicher, David J., Civil War High Commands, Stanford University Press, 2001, .
Grow, Matthew J. "Liberty to the Downtrodden": Thomas L. Kane, Romantic Reformer. Yale University Press, New Haven CT, 2009.
Holmes, Gail. "Kane, Thomas Leiper" The Biographical Dictionary of Iowa. University of Iowa Press, 2009.
Kane, Elizabeth Wood, with Everett L. Cooley, editor, Twelve Mormon Homes: Visited in Succession on a Journey through Utah to Arizona. Tanner Trust Fund, University of Utah Library, Salt Lake City UT, 1974 [1874]. OCLC 1499817.
Ludlow, Daniel H., editor. Church History, Selections from the Encyclopedia of Mormonism. Deseret Book Co., Salt Lake City UT, 1995. .
Thomas L. Kane Papers. Held by the American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia PA. Facsimile copies held by the Special Collections Department, University of Utah Library.
Tagg, Larry, The Generals of Gettysburg, Savas Publishing, 1998, .
Tyler, Daniel. A Concise History of the Mormon Battalion in the Mexican War, 1846-1847. Salt Lake City, 1881.
External links
Archival collections
Thomas Leiper Kane Papers, University of Utah
Kane family papers, Vault MSS 792, L. Tom Perry Special Collections, Harold B. Lee Library. Brigham Young University
Kane family collection, MSS 3910, L. Tom Perry Special Collections, Harold B. Lee Library.
Transcriptions of Elizabeth Kane journals, L. Tom Perry Special Collections, Harold B. Lee Library.
Thomas Leiper Kane Papers. Yale Collection of Western Americana, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University.
Other links
Thomas L. Kane, "Saints Without Halos", by Leonard J. Arrington and Davis Bitton, Signature Books
1822 births
1883 deaths
American abolitionists
Deaths from pneumonia in Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania Reserves
Military personnel from Philadelphia
People of Pennsylvania in the American Civil War
Union Army generals
People of the Utah War
Harold B. Lee Library-related 19th century articles
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rail%20gauge%20in%20Australia
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Rail gauge in Australia
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Rail gauges in Australia display significant variations, which has presented an extremely difficult problem for rail transport on the Australian continent since the 19th century. , there are of narrow-gauge railways, of standard gauge railways and of broad gauge railways.
In the 19th century, each of the colonies of Australia adopted their own gauges.
With Federation in 1901 and the removal of trade barriers, the short sightedness of three gauges became apparent. It would be 94 years before all mainland state capitals were joined by one standard gauge.
Rail gauges and route kilometres
A report by the Australian Government’s Bureau of Infrastructure, Transport and Regional Economics, and the Australasian Railway Association, estimated that as of September 2020, there were of heavy rail lines open and operational throughout the nation.
The three main railway gauges in Australia are narrow: , standard: , and broad: . A slow progression towards unification to standard gauge has taken place since the 1930s.
About of light railways in Queensland support the sugar-cane industry. They are not included in the following table.
History
Pre-construction uniformity
In 1845, a Royal Commission on Railway Gauges in the United Kingdom was formed to report on the desirability for a uniform gauge. As a result, the Regulating the Gauge of Railways Act 1846 was passed which prescribed the use of in England, Scotland and Wales (with the exception of the Great Western Railway) and in Ireland.
In 1846, Australian newspapers discussed the break of gauge problem in the United Kingdom, especially for defence. In 1847, South Australia adopted the gauge as law.
In 1848, the Governor of New South Wales, Charles Fitzroy, was advised by the Secretary of State for the Colonies in London, Earl Grey, that one uniform gauge should be adopted in Australia, this being the British standard gauge. The recommendation was adopted by the then three colonies. Grey notes in his letter that South Australia has already adopted this gauge.
At this stage, Victoria and Queensland were still part of New South Wales.
Since the Australian Overland Telegraph Line and under-sea cable communications with England did not open until 1872, communications between Britain and Australia before then were hampered by having to be conducted via sailing ship. The journey varied from about seven months on slower ships to about two and a half months on fast clipper ships. This had particular consequences for the selection of railway gauge in Australia.
Origins of the gauge muddle
At that time, the private Sydney Railway Company had begun planning its railway line to Parramatta. The chief engineer of the company was Irish-born Francis Webb Sheilds. After his appointment in 1849, Sheilds initially stated a preference for but in 1850 he persuaded the company, which in turn asked the NSW legislature, to change to the Irish standard gauge of . This decision was endorsed by the NSW Governor, and Colonial Secretary Earl Grey in London agreed in 1851.
However, Sheilds and his three subordinates resigned in December 1850 when the company cut their salaries for financial reasons. After the interim appointment of Henry Mais in July 1852, the company selected a new Scottish engineer, James Wallace, who preferred the British standard gauge. The government was persuaded to make the change back to and in January 1853 they advised the company that the Act requiring would be repealed.
In February 1853, the other colonies (Victoria having separated from New South Wales in 1851) were sent a memorandum advising them of the pending change and recommended they likewise adopt . In Victoria, the memorandum was distributed to three railway companies and their responses were sought, with two replying and only one showing a distinct preference for . However, the Melbourne and Hobson's Bay Railway Company asked for a determination from the government as it had prepared plans for both gauges and was due to send an order for locomotives and rolling stock to England by boat at the start of April. In reply at the end of March, the companies were told the colonial Victorian government preferred and the order was subsequently placed.
In July 1853, the Government of Victoria advised New South Wales that it would use the broader gauge and later appealed to the British Government to force a reversal of New South Wales' decision. Subsequently, the Melbourne and Hobson's Bay Railway Company opened the first railway in Australia in 1854, as a broad gauge line, and the South Australian Railways used the same gauge on its first steam-hauled railway in 1856.
Despite a request by the Secretary of State for the Colonies to reconsider this alteration, in 1855, the NSW Governor William Denison gave the go-ahead for the Sydney to Parramatta railway, which opened in September of that year.
Concerns over the gauge difference began to be raised almost immediately. At a Select Committee called in Victoria in September 1853, a representative of the railway company which had not replied to Charles La Trobe's earlier memorandum, reported a preference for , but when asked if Victoria should follow NSW he answered: "We must, I conclude of necessity, do so". In 1857, the NSW railway engineer John Whitton suggested that the short length of railway then operating in New South Wales be altered from gauge to to conform with Victoria but, despite being supported by the NSW Railway Administration, he was ignored. At that time, there were only of track, four engines and assorted cars and wagons on the railway. However, by 1889, New South Wales, under engineer Whitton, had built almost 1,950 miles (3,500 km) of standard gauge line.
Extension of the gauge muddle
The narrow gauge was introduced to Australia in 1865, when the Queensland Railways opened its first railway from Ipswich to Grandchester. The gauge was chosen on the supposition that it would be constructed more cheaply, faster and on tighter curves than the wider gauges. This was the first narrow gauge main line in the world.
South Australia first adopted this gauge in 1867 with its line from Port Wakefield to Hoyleton. The main reasons for choosing this were reduced cost, and the expectation that the narrow gauge would never connect to broad gauge lines. Overbuilt English railways were criticised. The Wakefield line was also envisaged as a horse-drawn tramway.
Later narrow gauge lines went towards Broken Hill and to Oodnadatta and from Mount Gambier. The Port Lincoln system was always isolated by geography.
The Western Australian Government Railways adopted it in 1879 for its first line from Geraldton to Northampton.
The Tasmanian Government Railways opened its first railway from Launceston to Deloraine in 1871 using broad gauge, but converted to narrow gauge in 1888.
Towards a continental network
Until the 1880s, the gauge issue was not a major problem, as there were no connections between the separate systems. The focus of railway traffic was movement from the hinterland to the ports and cities on the coast, so governments were not concerned about the future need for either inter-city passenger or freight services. It was not until 1883 when the broad and standard gauge lines from Melbourne and Sydney met at Albury, and in 1888, narrow and standard gauge from Brisbane and Sydney met at Wallangarra that the break of gauge became an issue.
The issue of rail gauge was mentioned in an 1889 military defence report authored by British army officer Major General James Bevan Edwards, who said that the full benefit of the railways would not be attained until a uniform gauge was established. It needs to be remembered, that until Federation (1901) the benefits of a uniform gauge were not immediately apparent, as passengers would have to pass through customs and immigration at the intercolonial border, meaning that all goods would have to be removed for customs inspection. It was only with Federation in 1901, and the introduction of free trade between the states, that the impediment of different gauges became apparent.
Post Federation
At the time of Federation, standard gauge was used in only NSW, but was favoured for further work. Work on gauge conversion was assisted by section 51 (xxxiii) of the Constitution of Australia, which made specific provisions for the Commonwealth Parliament to make laws with respect to railway acquisition and construction. An agreement was made with the South Australian and Western Australian state governments for the Trans-Australian Railway from Port Augusta to Kalgoorlie, with work started in 1911 and completed in 1917. However, with the different gauges, to ship goods from Queensland to Perth required four transhipments.
Royal Commission
In 1921, a royal commission into rail gauge was delivered, recommending gauge conversion of large areas of the country. It stated "that the gauge of 4-ft. 8.5-in. be adopted as the standard for Australia; that no mechanical, third rail, or other device would meet the situation, and that uniformity could be secured by one means only, viz., by conversion of the gauges other than 4-ft. 8.5-in." Following the royal commission, agreements were made for the standard gauge NSW North Coast line to be extended from Kyogle to South Brisbane (completed in 1930) and for the Trans-Australian Railway to be extended from Port Augusta to Port Pirie (completed 1937).
By the outbreak of World War II in 1939, there were 13 break-of-gauge locations, with upwards of 1,600 service personnel and many more civilians employed to transfer 1.8 million tons of freight during the period. The breaks of gauge were at:
Hamley Bridge ceased to be a break of gauge point in 1927 when the broad gauge was extended to Gladstone
South Brisbane ceased to be a break of gauge point when the NSW North Coast line was extended over the Merivale Bridge to Roma Street in 1986
Acacia Ridge was developed as a break-of-gauge yard in Brisbane in the 1970s to relieve overcrowding at Clapham goods station, which is opposite the Moorooka passenger station.
The NSW North Coast line from Acacia Ridge to Bromelton was dual gauged in 2009 as part of the Nucleus Transmodal Hub to relieve overcrowding at Acacia Ridge
Break-of-gauge devices
In 1922, 273 inventions to solve the break-of-gauge had been proposed, and none adopted. In 1933, as many as 140 devices were proposed by inventors to solve the break-of-gauge problem, none of which was adopted.
Even dual gauge with a third rail for combining Irish gauge and standard gauge was rejected as too reckless, as the gap between these gauges of was considered to be too small. Dual gauge combining Irish gauge and narrow gauge where the gap was was also rejected.
Opposition to a third rail
Although Prime Minister Billy Hughes had expressed support for the idea of a third rail solving the break of gauge difficulty, the predominant opinion of senior officers of the railways was to oppose it.
Clapp Report
After the wartime experience, a report into the Standardisation of Australia's rail gauges was completed by former Victorian Railways Chief Commissioner Harold Clapp for the Commonwealth Land Transport Board in March 1945. It included three main proposals:
Gauge standardisation from Fremantle and Perth to Kalgoorlie, all of South Australian and Victorian broad gauge lines, all of the South Australian south east and Peterborough division narrow gauge lines, and acquisition and conversion of the Silverton Tramway. Costed at £44.3 million.
A new standard gauge "strategic and developmental railway" from Bourke, New South Wales to Townsville, Queensland and Dajarra (near Mount Isa) with new branch lines from Bourke via Barringun, Cunnamulla, Charleville, Blackall to Longreach. Existing narrow gauge lines in Queensland would be gauge converted, including Longreach – Linton – Hughenden – Townsville Dajarra and associated branches. Costed at £21.6 million.
A new standard gauge line to Darwin, including a new line from Dajarra, Queensland to Birdum, Northern Territory, and a gauge conversion of the Birdum to Darwin narrow gauge line. Costed at £10.9 million.
The report wrote that if only main trunk lines were converted, it would introduce a multitude of break of gauge terminals and result in greatly increased costs. It also recommended abandoning part of the existing Perth to Kalgoorlie narrow gauge line, and build a flatter and straighter route using third rail dual gauge, as modernisation was just as important as standardisation.
South Australia was unhappy with the report, as the link to the Northern Territory would not run through its state. Western Australia and Queensland both saw no advantage in the report, as they already had a common gauge in their states, and only one main break of gauge. NSW entered into the agreement to advance gauge standardisation in Victoria and South Australia, but did not ratify it.
Gauge conversion continued, with the South Australian Railways' Mount Gambier line from Wolseley to Mount Gambier and associated branches converted to broad gauge in the 1950s, on the understanding it would change again to standard gauge at a later date, which would have made it the first and only railway in Australia to have successfully been converted to all three gauges. It closed in 1995. Standard gauge lines were also built, with the line between Stirling North and Marree opened in July 1957.
Wentworth Committee
In 1956, a Government Members Rail Standardisation Committee was established, chaired by William Wentworth MP. It found that while there was still considerable doubt as to the justification for large scale gauge conversion, there was no doubt that work on some main trunk lines was long overdue. Both the committee and the government strongly supported three standardisation projects at a cost of £41.5 million:
Albury to Melbourne (priority 1)
Broken Hill to Adelaide via Port Pirie (priority 2, built third)
Kalgoorlie to Perth and Fremantle (priority 3, built second)
The Commonwealth, NSW and Victorian governments were first to start work, with the first freight train operating on the converted North East line to Melbourne operating in January 1962 and the first through passenger train in April 1962. Over the next 12 months, net freight tonnage was up 32.5%. To 1973, there was an average increase of 8.6%.
The work in Western Australia was predicated by an agreement entered into in November 1960 between the state government and BHP for a standard gauge line to be built to allow iron ore from Koolyanobbing to be shipped to a new steel mill at Kwinana. A new dual gauge line was built through the Avon Valley from Midland to Northam on 1 in 200 grades instead of 1 in 40. A new line was built from Southern Cross to Kalgoorlie though Koolyanobbing.
The first wheat train ran from Merredin to Fremantle in November 1966. The first iron ore train ran from Koolyanobbing to Kwinana in April 1967. The line opened in full in August 1969. Kalgoolie to Perth freight train times were reduced from 31 hours to 13 hours, and passenger train times from 14 hours to 8 hours. A new line was built from Woodbridge to Kwinana. One of the tracks on the Fremantle line converted to dual track from Cockburn Junction to Fremantle Harbour. The Eastern Railway in Perth was converted to dual gauge and a new terminus station built.
In November 1971, following the discovery of rich nickel deposits, work started on converting the 640 kilometre line from Leonora to Esperance, including 90 kilometres of track on a new alignment. The work was completed in September 1974.
In South Australia, work on Port Pirie to Broken Hill started in 1963. The narrow gauge lines from Gladstone and Peterborough were not converted, with triple gauge yards provided. Standard gauge access to Adelaide was not provided. From Cockburn to Broken Hill a new railway was built on an improved alignment, avoiding the private Silverton Tramway route. The completion of this link enabled the first Indian Pacific to run across the nation in March 1970 from Sydney to Perth.
Whitlam government
A new line between Tarcoola and Alice Springs was given the go ahead by the Whitlam government in 1974. Built to replace the narrow gauge Central Australia Railway, the 831 kilometre long line was completed in 1980.
Fraser government
Work on standard gauge access to Adelaide started in 1982, with conversion of the broad gauge south of Red Hill. A new line went north of there to Crystal Brook, where it met the standard gauge line from Port Pirie to Broken Hill. Freight trains began using the line in 1983, with passenger trains in 1984 when Keswick Terminal opened. With benefits exceeding the cost by 2.8 times over 25 years, Australian National was able to obtain a loan for the funding of the work.
One Nation project
As part of the Keating government's One Nation project, the Melbourne-Adelaide railway line was converted to standard gauge in 1995. The Hopetoun, Portland and Yaapeet lines in Victoria, and the Pinnaroo, Loxton and Apamurra lines in South Australia were also gauge converted. The remaining isolated broad gauge and narrow gauge lines were closed, with the Mount Gambier and Mount Barker lines being the most controversial. The Fisherman Islands line was converted to dual gauge in 1997 to serve the Port of Brisbane.
21st century projects
Gauge conversion of 2,000 kilometres of track in Victoria was announced by the state government in May 2001 but did not proceed due to the difficulty of achieving any agreement with then track manager, Freight Australia. In 2010, 200 kilometres of the North East line in Victoria was gauge converted between Seymour and Albury. In the same year, standard gauge access was provided to the Port of Geelong, 13 years after the conversion to standard gauge of the Western standard gauge line between Melbourne and Adelaide, which runs through the northern suburbs of Geelong.
The Oaklands branch line was converted in 2009 to standard gauge as part of the project to standardise the North East line, to prevent that branch becoming isolated as an orphan.
To allow the creation of the Nucleus Transmodal Hub at Bromelton, Queensland, the Acacia Ridge to Bromelton section of the NSW North Coast line was converted to dual gauge in 2009, however it was not used until 2017.
In November 2012, Brookfield Rail completed an upgrade on the Morawa to Geraldton line with gauge convertible sleepers installed to allow for conversion in the future. The Mildura railway line and the Murrayville railway lines in Victoria were converted to standard gauge in 2018.
Gallery
Notes
References
Further reading
)
Brady, I.A. (1971) A Brief History of Standard Gauge in Australia Brady I. A. Australian Railway Historical Society Bulletin, May;June, 1971 pp98–120;131-139
External links
Infrastructure.gov.au
Australasian Railway Association 2004 network map
South Australian Railway History, Riding piggyback to solve the different gauge problems
Interstate rail in Australia
Rail infrastructure in Australia
Australia
Railway management in Australia
Standards of Australia
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4809959
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Easy%20Aces
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Easy Aces
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Easy Aces is an American serial radio comedy (1930–1945). It was trademarked by the low-keyed drollery of creator and writer Goodman Ace and his wife, Jane, as an urbane, put-upon realtor and his malaprop-prone wife. A 15-minute program, airing as often as five times a week, Easy Aces wasn't quite the ratings smash that such concurrent 15-minute serial comedies as Amos 'n' Andy, The Goldbergs, Lum and Abner, or Vic and Sade were. But its unobtrusive, conversational, and clever style, and the cheerful absurdism of its storylines, built a loyal enough audience of listeners and critics alike to keep it on the air for 15 years.
Accident of circumstance
Goodman Ace (b. Goodman Aiskowitz, 1899–1982) was a film critic for the Journal Post in his native Kansas City. On radio station KMBC, he read comic strips to children on Sunday mornings and reviewed films on Friday evenings. One night in 1930, the cast of the 15-minute show that followed his slot failed to show up, and Ace found himself having to fill in the time. His wife, Jane (b. Jane Epstein, 1897–1974), had accompanied him to the studio that night, and the two engaged in an impromptu chat about their weekend bridge game. This brought such a favorable response that the station invited Ace to create a domestic comedy—even though neither of the couple had ever really acted before.
At first, according to radio historian John Dunning (in On the Air: The Encyclopedia of Old-Time Radio), the show oriented entirely around the couple's bridge playing, and nearly died the same way, when Jane Ace was said to have lost her temper over her husband's constant needling of her style of play, and threatened to quit the show entirely. Ace revamped the show into "a more universally based domestic comedy revolving around Jane's improbable situations and impossible turns of phrase." The result was one of radio's most respected comedies, going on to a fifteen-year air life despite its never being a ratings blockbuster. It was the first KMBC program to go on to become a network radio show.
Easy Aces moved to WBBM Chicago in 1930 on a trial basis; the Aces themselves launched a write-in appeal to test the size of their audience and thousands of letters convinced original sponsor Lavoris to renew the deal for 1932–33. (A typical Ace maneuver, according to Dunning, was to buy trade publication ad space poking fun at the show's modest rating: after all, a typical Ace ad would say, the ratings were polled by telephone and the Easy Aces audience never answered the phone while the show was on.) The program began airing on the CBS network in March 1932. That summer, the Aces sought New York City backing and found it in the Blackett, Sample and Hummert agency headed by Frank Hummert, soon to become radio's top soap opera producer with his wife Anne but then producing various other programs.
Hummert liked the Aces' style and the show's low overhead and put them on CBS as often as four times weekly, as an afternoon offering, before Anacin (marketed at that time by American Home Products' Whitehall Pharmaceutical division) moved them to 7 p.m. in 1935—right up against Amos 'n' Andy. They couldn't possibly out-rate that hit, but they could and did build a loyal audience of their own. The show moved to the NBC Blue Network and a 7:30 p.m. time slot Mondays and Wednesdays, beginning in 1935, before returning to CBS in 1942, holding the same time slot on Wednesdays and Fridays. The show became a half-hour entry one night a week from 1943 through January 1945. It ended only when Goodman Ace and Anacin had a disagreement over a musical bridge in one of the episodes; he, in turn, criticized their use of cardboard packaging instead of tin for their headache tablets, calling it a "gyp".
In 1934 the couple was signed by Educational Pictures to do Easy Aces two reel comedies. Dumb Luck was released 18 January 1935, with the Aces reprising their radio roles. In 1936–37, the "Easy Aces" narrated a series of one-reel comic travelogues for the Van Beuren Corporation, released thru RKO Radio Pictures.
Easy Aces storylines often ran several episodes, though there were many single-episode stories, and the show was performed live on the air but in an isolated studio, without an audience, which made perfect sense considering its conversational style. Goodman Ace wrote the show's scripts and played the exasperated but loving husband of Jane Ace as his deceptively scatterbrained, language-molesting, more than periodically meddlesome wife. (Like many radio couples of the day, the Aces used their real names on the air, though no one ever addressed Ace by his first name—it was always Ace—and Jane chose the maiden name of Sherwood for her on-air character.)
There were no sound effects beyond the almost ambient-like playing of normal life sounds, and the Aces' inexperience as actors probably worked in their favour: they simply played as though they were allowing listeners to eavesdrop on their own real-life conversations, allowing Easy Aces listeners more than those of many shows to believe the Aces really could have been their own unusual neighbours. The couple worked from a card table with a microphone sunk in its center, feeling it was easier to talk to each other in this manner rather than standing at a microphone. In addition, as Arthur Frank Wertheim noted in his book Radio Comedy, Ace shunned belly laughs in favour of consistent character humour. "A lot of times, on the air," Wertheim quoted Ace as saying, "I noticed comics in a sketch do a joke that destroys the character because it gets a big laugh."
The cast included Mary Hunter as best friend and boarder Marge; Paul Stewart as ne'er-do-well brother-in-law Johnny; Martin Gabel as Neil Williams, a newspaper reporter and Marge's love interest; Helene Dumas as Southern maid Laura; Ken Roberts as Cokie, an orphaned young adult "adopted" by the Aces; Ann Thomas as Ace's secretary; Ethel Blume as the Aces' niece, Betty; Alfred Ryder (remembered best as Sammy on another old-time radio mainstay, The Goldbergs) as Betty's husband, Carl Neff; Peggy Allenby as Mrs. Benton, a nosy, gossipy neighbour who turned up now and then to leave openings for Jane to fret and gnash over imagined slights or indiscretions; and, Truman Bradley and Ford Bond as their announcers. When Easy Aces relocated from Chicago to New York, the actor who played Marge's husband did not move along with the rest of the cast; Ace wrote him out of the script with a divorce for the couple and a new boyfriend for Marge. He then received a letter from an extremely loyal fan who said that since he did not believe in divorce, he would stop listening to the show unless Marge's ex-husband was written out of the story as dead.
They made it seem as natural as tying their shoes: Ace himself prodded his network to build set tables with microphones embedded beneath them, not in front of or above them, the better to ease the prospect of mike fright among their co-performers and allow them to sound like themselves and not actors. Further along that line, Ace refused to rehearse an episode more than once, the better to avoid destroying the spontaneity that made the show work as it did.
"I am his awfully-wedded wife"
That and almost everything else could be forgotten amidst Jane Ace's linguistic mayhem, much of it provided by her wry husband's scripts and enough improvised by her. (Mary Hunter's real laughter, at Jane's malaprops or Ace's arch barbs, was practically the show's laugh track, years before anyone ever thought of using canned laughter.) Known as often as not as "Jane-isms," the better remembered of her twisted turns of phrase were more than a match for Gracie Allen's equally celebrated illogical logic, anticipating such later word and context manglers as Jimmy Durante, Lou Costello, Phil Harris, and, especially, All in the Family'''s Archie Bunker. The famed Jane-isms included:
Perish forbid!
Congress is back in season.
You could have knocked me down with a fender.
Up at the crank of dawn.
Time wounds all heels.
Now, there's no use crying over spoiled milk.
I'm completely uninhabited.
Seems like only a year ago they were married nine years!
I am his awfully-wedded wife.
He blew up higher than a hall.
I look like the wrath of grapes!
I wasn't under the impersonation you meant me!
He shot out of here like a bat out of a belfry.
I'm sitting on pins and cushions.
The coffee will be ready in a jitney.
This hangnail expression...
I don't drink, I'm a totalitarian.
We'll be together like Simonized twins.
Well, you've got to take the bitter with the better.
Jane Ace's malaprops were less limited in their word play than the Mrs. Malaprop of Richard Brinsley Sheridan's The Rivals. She was scripted as having a knack for making right the muddled situations she made muddled in the first place, by stumbling into the solutions right before her original muddling might have blown everything to smithereens. Some critics such as the New York Herald-Tribune's John Crosby noted her language molestation betrayed a "crazy like a fox" intelligence with its own logical illogic, but as Crosby himself said, "There are a lot of Malaprops in radio but none of them scrambles a cliché quite so skillfully as Jane."
Cheerful absurdity
The show's storylines, crafted to allow for steady unfurling of absurdities, included dealing with deadbeat brother-in-law Johnny falling into work as a private investigator; accidentally discovering a potential boxing champion when first thinking about adopting an orphan; losing (in a crooked politician's crooked deal) and then regaining Ace's real estate business; Jane becoming a professional bridge player (as the instructor's living example of how not to play bridge!); Jane's misguided attempts to help her husband's business affairs (mostly under the influence of a domineering woman who had manipulated her husband's business success); and various Jane-instigated romantic mishaps. (Jane: "Well, you could have knocked me over with a fender"; Ace, deadpan: "There's an idea"). There were frequent allusions to playing bridge, as well, even when the game wasn't a storyline centerpiece; this may have been the Aces' own nod of thanks to the subject that provoked the show's creation in the first place.
Even this gently droll show couldn't avoid controversy. At one point, Easy Aces lost its longtime sponsor, Anacin, after a company representative objected to a musical interlude. (The Aces at one point used small music themes, usually spun off a line of dialogue toward the end of the previous scene.) Ace rejoined by suggesting he didn't like Anacin switching from small tins to small cardboard boxes to package its aspirin. "They sent me a two-word answer: 'you're fired'," Ace remembered in a radio interview many years later.
SurvivalEasy Aces survives with many of its best episodes intact thanks to a bit of foresight on the Aces' part. They owned the rights from the beginning, recorded ("transcribed," in the day's vernacular) just about all its episodes, and sold the syndication rights to over three hundred episodes from 1937 to 1941 to the Frederick Ziv Company, a Cincinnati-based distribution firm (and later producers of television shows like Bat Masterson), in 1945.
These episodes became a bigger ratings hit in syndicated play than when the Aces and cast performed them originally. They are the Easy Aces episodes long since available to old-time radio collectors, in above-average sound condition, but minus their commercial spots, edited away the better to foster future, differently-sponsored airings. (The Library of Congress is believed to have perhaps one or two hundred more Easy Aces episodes in its collection as well.)
Resurrected Aces
In 1948, the Aces revived the show on CBS as mr. ace and JANE (the unusual spelling was Ace's idea) on Saturday nights at 7pm. (Time had reported a year earlier that the Aces were pondering whether to create a new fifteen-minute serial for Jane almost exclusively, but she couldn't decide whether to do that or a new half-hour show with a live audience.) Recorded live before a studio audience, the new version also revived and expanded a few of the vintage Easy Aces plots and presented a few new ones. The new show was sponsored first by the U.S. Army Recruiting Service and, later, by Jell-O.
"The new program," wrote Crosby, in a 31 March 1948 column, "differs from the old Easy Aces in about the same manner as the new and old Amos 'n' Andy programs. It's once a week, half-hour, streamlined up-to-date and very, very funny... Goodman Ace, the brains of this team, tags along behind his wife, acting as narrator for her mishaps in a dry, resigned voice (one of the few intelligent voices on the air) and interjecting witty comment. The couple's conversations are usually masterpieces of cross-purpose."
And, chock full of new or modified Jane-isms, such as this jewel, when told she was assigned to a jury panel: I'll say he's not guilty, whoever he is. If he's nice enough to pay me three dollars a day to be his jury, the least I can do is recuperate, doesn't it to you? "In most other respects," John Crosby wrote, "Jane is a rather difficult conversationalist because she is either three jumps ahead or three long strides behind the person she is conversing with."
Of Goodman Ace, Crosby wrote that with the revival show he "uses his program to take a few pokes at radio, the newspapers, and the world in general. He's particularly sharp on the subject of radio, a field he knows intimately. Once, playing the role of an advertising man, he asked a prospective sponsor what sort of radio program he had in mind. 'How about music?' asked Ace. 'Music? That's been done, hasn't it?' said the sponsor."
The Aces' co-stars now included Leon Janney, John Griggs, Evelyn Varden, Eric Dressler, Cliff Hall, and Pert Kelton. (Kelton would soon become the first Alice Kramden, in the earliest "Honeymooners" sketches on Jackie Gleason's original Cavalcade of Stars variety hour on the old, experimental DuMont network.) The new announcer was Ken Roberts, from their old cast, and he also joined the new cast as a next-door neighbour who just so happened to be . . . a radio announcer. (Jane's asking for an autograph each time they met became a small running gag on the new show.) Ace sketched Roberts in character as full of jibes about radio commercial announcements, a typical such jibe going thus: "Fifty years ago, Blycose began selling the public its high-quality products. And, today, just as it was fifty years ago, it is 20 March."
But however favorably mr. ace and JANE was reviewed, however high the quality the Aces injected into it, it wasn't enough to extend its new life for more than one year. CBS kept the show on the air as a sustaining (non-sponsored) program for some months after Jell-O no longer was the sponsor. Nor was it enough to gain the Aces a steady television audience, when they tried reviving the original Easy Aces format and style and adapting it to a 15-minute TV show on the Dumont Television Network which ran from 14 December 1949 to 7 June 1950. Only one episode of this DuMont show is known to exist, in the J. Fred MacDonald collection at the Library of Congress.(subscription required)
In 1956, it seemed that the television version of the show would be revived. There was news that NBC and Goodman Ace had selected Ernie Kovacs and his wife, Edie Adams, to play the roles of the couple in a pilot, but there is no information as to whether the pilot was ever filmed.
Afterlife
Jane Ace all but retired from public life (taking a very brief turn as what her husband called "a comedienne now making her come-down as a disc jockey" in the early 1950s) after Easy Aces was laid to rest at long last. The Aces were hired as NBC Radio Monitor "Communicators" in 1955; they were given a spot just after Dave Garroway. The couple was also signed to an NBC Radio show for women called Weekday that went on the air not long after Monitor's debut. Weekday was aired Monday through Friday. They also went into commercial work.
Goodman Ace enjoyed a second career as a writer. He wrote for radio (most notably, as head writer for Tallulah Bankhead's weekly variety show, The Big Show, but also for Ed Wynn, Jack Benny, Abbott & Costello, Danny Kaye, and others), for television (most notably, for Milton Berle, Sid Caesar, Perry Como, Robert Q. Lewis, and Bob Newhart), and as a weekly columnist for Saturday Review (formerly The Saturday Review of Literature). Those columns eventually yielded three anthologies: The Book of Little Knowledge: More Than You Want to Know About Television, The Fine Art of Hypochondria, or How Are You and The Better of Goodman Ace.
In 1970, Ace surprised and delighted old Easy Aces fans when he published a book with eight complete Easy Aces scripts and essays about living with, working with and loving the malaprop queen, plus a seven-inch flexidisc that extracted from the original radio performance of one of those scripts, "Jane Sees a Psychiatrist." The book was named for the show's standard introduction: Ladies and Gentlemen--Easy Aces. He also held a regular slot for humorous commentaries on New York-area station WPAT for a few years before spending the rest of his life as a writer and lecturer. But it was Easy Aces that made its co-stars and writer's name forever. Appropriately, the show and the Aces were inducted into the National Radio Hall of Fame in 1990.
A Canadian television sitcom, The Trouble with Tracy, was adapted from the Easy Aces scripts in the early 1970s. Through a variety of factors -- notably, that 7 episodes were recorded every five days, allowing no time for retakes for flubbed lines or missed cues -- The Trouble with Tracy has been labelled by some television critics as one of the worst TV comedies ever produced.
See also
List of programs broadcast by the DuMont Television Network
List of surviving DuMont Television Network broadcasts
References
Sources
Goodman Ace, Ladies and Gentlemen, Easy Aces (New York: Doubleday, 1970).
Fred Allen (Joe McCarthy, editor), Fred Allen's Letters (New York: Doubleday, 1965).
Dick Bertel, The Golden Age of Radio, interview with Goodman Ace, October 1971.
Tim Brooks and Earle Marsh, The Complete Directory to Prime Network TV Shows -- 1946 to Present (First Edition)Frank Buxton and Bill Owen, The Big Broadcast 1920-1950John Crosby, Out of the Blue (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1952)
WBAI-FM, Richard Lamparski interview with Goodman Ace, December 1970.
Leonard Maltin, The Great American Broadcast: A Celebration of Radio's Golden Age (New York: Dutton/Penguin, 1997)
Robert Metz, CBS: Reflections in a Bloodshot EyeArthur Frank Wertheim, Radio Comedy. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1979)
John Dunning, On the Air: The Encyclopedia of Old-Time Radio'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998)
Listen to
Download 239 Easy Aces episodes from archive.org
Boxcars711: Easy Aces (two episodes)
Easy Aces and mr. ace and JANE episodes Old Time Radio-OTR
"Easy Aces on Way Back When"
External links
Five Easy Aces scripts written by Goodman Ace
Jerry Haendiges Vintage Radio Logs: Easy Aces
"Radio's Original Comedy Couple" by Walter J. Beaupre
Easy Aces (TV show, 1949-50) at IMDB
DuMont historical website
Pittsburgh Post-Gazette (January 24, 1950) article on TV show
American comedy radio programs
DuMont Television Network original programming
1930 radio programme debuts
1945 radio programme endings
1930s American radio programs
1930s in comedy
1940s American radio programs
Educational Pictures short films
CBS Radio programs
NBC Blue Network radio programs
NBC radio programs
Radio programs adapted into television shows
1949 American television series debuts
1950 American television series endings
Black-and-white American television shows
Ziv Company radio programs
Syndicated American radio programs
Television series by Ziv Television Programs
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4810017
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian%20rules%20football%20in%20New%20South%20Wales
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Australian rules football in New South Wales
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Australian rules football in New South Wales is a team sport played and observed in the Australian state. It dates back to the colonial era in 1866, with organised competitions being continuous since the 1880s. Today, it is popular in several regions of the state, including areas near the Victorian and South Australian borders—Riverina, Broken Hill, and South Coast. These areas form part of an Australian cultural divide described as the Barassi Line. To the east of the line, it is known as "AFL", named after the elite Australian Football League competition. AFL NSW/ACT is the main development body, and includes the Australian Capital Territory.
Two teams currently compete in the professional Australian Football League (AFL): the Sydney Swans and the Greater Western Sydney Giants. The Swans in 1982 became the first professional Australian sporting team to move interstate. The Giants debuted in the 2012 AFL season and compete against the Swans in the Sydney Derby (also known as "The Battle of the Bridge").
The representative team, nicknamed the Blues, played Interstate matches against other Australian states and Territories between 1881 and 1988. Its long standing rivalry with Queensland saw them evenly matched since their first meeting in 1880. The Blues defeated Victoria in 1923 and in 1990 under State of Origin rules at the Sydney Cricket Ground. WR 'Billy' McKoy holds the record for the number of representative caps for New South Wales with 31. Sydney hosted the national carnivals of 1914, 1933, 1960 and 1974. The underage Blues also claimed national AFL Under-19 Championships in 1974 and 1975 as well as a Division 2 title in 1993. The 1993 merger by the AFL into a composite NSW/ACT team ended over a century of representative competition.
Two leading pioneers of the sport, cousins Tom Wills and H. C. A. Harrison, were born in New South Wales. Hundreds of New South Welshmen have competed in the AFL, with notable players being Haydn Bunton Sr. and Jock McHale, now Legends in the Australian Football Hall of Fame. Current player Tom Hawkins holds the AFL record for playing the most games and scoring the most goals for a born and raised player with 332 games and 741 goals. Sophie Casey holds the AFL Women's record for the most games, while Haneen Zreika and Rebecca Beeson hold the record for the most goals for a female player.
History
Sydney
First clubs and matches (1865–1867)
On 26 May 1865, calls were put out to form a Sydney Football Club. The club was incorporated on 17 June 1865 with Richard Driver as its first president and up to 60 members, of whom were mostly cricketers. It played its first match shortly thereafter in Hyde Park, Sydney, and in August against Sydney University. Two other clubs, the Australian Club and a Sydney University team, played football matches against the Sydney club in 1865, though it is not known under what code de Moore (2021) notes that accounts point to strong similarities with the Victorian code but with a strong influence of rugby. Early matches were scored low, cancelled mid game, and were subjected to frequent disputes over the rules. The Sydney University club is often noted as "The Birthplace of Australian Rugby" in 1863; however, historical records show its incorporation in 1865 and that it did not begin playing regularly under rugby rules until 1869.
At its first annual meeting, the Sydney Football Club announced that it had formally adopted the Victorian football rules and encouraged Victorian clubs to travel north for intercolonial matches. On 26 May 1866, the rules were published in Bells Life in Sydney. The Australian Club formally adopted the code shortly after.
During the 1860s, Sydney had a smaller number of clubs, compared to Melbourne's 12, playing in organised competitions. Sydney, like Brisbane, could not recruit enough football players for organised football matches. As a result, the late 1860s had few clubs playing, and without intercolonial competition, newcomer clubs soon disbanded. Newcastle revised the Rules of Football (the Victorian Rules), and was published in the press in that city. The first recorded game of Australian football under codified rules was played in 1877 on the Albert Ground, Redfern between the Rugby Union Club, Waratah, and the Carlton Football Club from Melbourne.
One of the first Sydney schools to adopt the code was Newington College in 1867, before becoming the first Australian school to play rugby in 1869. With the growing rivalry between the two colonies, Sydney journalists criticized the code in 1868, protesting that the "old English game of football" would be preferable to Sydneysiders than a game imported from the rival Colony of Victoria. In 1869, Newington College replaced the codes, becoming the first Australian school to play rugby in 1869.
Despite the formation of football clubs adopting English rules, rugby footballers could manage just four matches prior to the 1870s.
Revival and rugby takeover (1868–1876)
In 1868, a new Sydney Football Club was founded with Victorian rules to play over rugby, citing the code of Melbourne. Details of matches played under the Victorian rules were scant; however, a match was held against the 60th Queen's Own Regiment on 11 July 1868. The new Sydney club would soon suffer the same fate, as its predecessor and organised football team disappeared completely.
In the 1870s, rugby was integrated into schools, later producing organised competitions between clubs. Soon after, rugby spread throughout the colony. The cause of the code's disappearance in New South Wales was that the newly formed New South Wales Rugby Union in 1874 banned member clubs from playing matches under Victorian rules.
Intercolonial competition and NSWFA era (1877–1893)
In June 1877, Sydney's Waratah Rugby Football Club (now defunct) accepted a challenge from Victoria's Carlton Football Club to reciprocal matches in their respective codes. The first match, hosted by Waratah, was played at the Albert Ground under rugby rules in front of 3,000 spectators—then the largest ever football crowd in Sydney—was won by Waratah 2–0. Defunct newspaper publication The Argus noted that the Victorians were not lacking in skills, just their knowledge of the game. The second match was played in front of a smaller crowd of about 1,500 at the Albert Ground with the result being Carlton 6–0. Among the best players were George Coulthard, who showed a particular prowess in both codes despite having never played rugby. When Waratah toured Victoria in July 1878, a crowd of 8,000 at the Melbourne Cricket Ground witnessed Carlton and Waratah draw scores in rugby, while a smaller crowd of 6,000 witnessed a surprise victory against Carlton by 2 goals in Victorian rules.
By 1880, Waratah and other Sydney clubs began initiating changes to rugby rules. Rugby interests, however, repeatedly rejected suggestions to switch codes or even play intercolonial matches under alternating rules against Victoria. In response, the proponents of the Australian game formed the New South Wales Football Association (NSWFA) in 1880. In 1881, the first Australian rules game between NSW and Victoria was played in Sydney. The NSWFA only had a few clubs, including Waratah which switched codes in 1882. Until 1889, competition wasn't present when clubs competed for the Flanagan Cup. Despite this, the Sydney Rugby Football Union, seeing the new competition as a threat, enforced a strict ban on every one of its member clubs playing Victorian rules.
South Melbourne was the second club to visit New South Wales in 1883, defeating Sydney by just a single goal in front of a large crowd at the Sydney Cricket Ground, and in a goal in front of 600 spectators during a game against East Sydney Football Club. Waratah played against South Australia in 1884 at Moore Park.
New South Wales competed against Queensland in 1884, initially losing to its northern neighbour before gaining primacy in their 1886 matches. It also competed against a touring New Zealand Native football team on 29 June 1889, with the result being a 4–4 draw.
The Northern District Football Association around Newcastle began in 1886, with teams from 1888 competing for the Black Diamond Cup, though participation by local clubs continued to be sporadic from 1881.
The NSWFA had trouble gaining access to enclosed grounds and gate receipts. With its two clubs divided, it collapsed in 1893.
Post-Federation, NSW Football League era: 1903–1917
With the Federation of Australia, the Australian code was revised. The NSW Football League, later the NSW Australian Football League (NSWAFL), was formed on 12 February 1903 at a meeting held in the YMCA Hall in George St. The NSWAFL promoted the game in schools and lobbied for VFL exhibition matches in Sydney to promote the code.
The first Victorian Football League match played in Sydney was with Fitzroy Football Club 7–10, defeating the Collingwood Football Club 6–9 at the Sydney Cricket Ground on 24 May 1903. The large attendance of 20,000 saw the exhibition hailed as a success and inspired the league to continue scheduling more matches in Sydney. However, follow-up matches quickly began to attract cynicism from the Sydney football public, as a VFL push when Geelong Football Club 8.7 (55) defeated Carlton Football Club 6.9 (45) at the SCG a few months later. The matches were seen by the Sydney media as an attempt to force-feed the Victorian game to Sydneysiders who had plenty of rugby to attract their ongoing interest. The crowd of 5,000 was much smaller than those of rugby games in the city. In 1904, Melbourne Football Club 9–17 (71) defeated Essendon Football Club 6–3 (39) in front of 6,000 people. Without any interest, top-level VFL disappeared from Sydney for decades.
In contrast to the reception of the game at professional level, the grassroots level was having enormous success, growing the game in the schools with 48 in Sydney, including all the Roman Catholic schools playing Australian Football, by 1905.
In 1907, New South Wales defeated South Australian powerhouse Port Adelaide Football Club 8–9 to 5–14 in front of 4,000 spectators at Sydney Showground. Another South Australian club, Norwood Football Club, toured with Victorian club Carlton, playing a match in front of 7,000 at the Showgrounds. North Adelaide Football Club also toured in 1910 to play against New South Wales at Erskineville Oval, which attracted 2,000 spectators. In 1911, Geelong toured and played a combined Sydney side at Alexandria in front of 6,000 spectators. Dally Messenger contributed to the paid football code of rugby league; as a result, rugby established itself into the culture of Sydney in 1908.
Although Australian football remained popular, the NSWAFL was still denied access to enclosed grounds, and the new professional code of rugby league further lured players from Australian rules. By 1911, however, Australian rules were supported more than the rugby union, according to The Referee.
Interwar popularity surge, interstate success, and proposed Rugby League amalgamation: 1918–1939
Popularity peaked in 1921 when attendances at the Sydney competition grew from hundreds to thousands. While increased gate takings were funding an increase in playing standard and junior development, the local league had exclusive access only to Erskineville Oval and Hampden Oval, relatively small grounds, and had difficulty scheduling matches used by the rugby authorities.
During the 1920s, funded by a NSWAFL in Sydney and a thriving schoolboys competition, NSW defeated Victorian sides on several occasions at home, notably Melbourne Football Club on 28 July 1923, the VFL at the SCG in 1923, and again at Erskineville Oval by one point on 15 August 1925.
The Australian National Football carnival of 1933 was held at the Sydney Cricket Ground. Several matches drew large crowds, particularly those involving New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, South Australia and West Australia.
Following the successful interstate football carnival in 1933, a proposal by the New South Wales Rugby League to amalgamate Australian football and rugby league was investigated. A report, with a set of proposed rules known as Universal football, was prepared by the secretary of the NSWRL, Harold R. Miller, and sent to the Australian National Football Council. A trial game was held in secret, but plans were never instituted.
Three of the original NSWAFL clubs are still in existence and currently play in the Sydney AFL: North Shore, East Sydney (now UNSW-ES), and Balmain, but the league remained almost entirely amateur with limited audience following and sponsorship.
Post-war decline: 1945–1981
World War II proved a massive setback for the code in Sydney; the government insisted that the league cease operations. Struggling Sydney clubs were propped up by visiting servicemen from traditional Australian rules states. Despite this, between 1953 and 1957, the game survived in parts of Sydney, Newcastle, and Wollongong. Several junior clubs and leagues were established. The St. George and Sutherland Shire Junior Australian Football Association was established in southern Sydney and consisted of Penshurst Junior Australian Football Club (JAFC) Panthers, Miranda JAFC Bombers, St. Patrick's Ramsgate (later Ramsgate JAFC Rams), Heathcote JAFC Hawks, Cronulla JAFC Sharks, Peakhurst, Como-Jannali, Boys' Town, Cronulla Blues, and St. Patrick's Sutherland.
Top level VFL returned to the SCG on 14 June 1952 when Collingwood 10–12 (72) defeated Richmond 5–6 (36) in front of 24,174 spectators. However, the league would not return for another few decades.
Sydney Swans era: 1981–present
In 1979, the VFL scheduled 2 premiership matches for the Sydney Cricket Ground. On 10 June 1979, Hawthorn 23–18 (156) defeated North Melbourne 16–9 (105) in front of a large crowd of 31,395. However, a few months later, 17,140 attended a match in which Richmond 22–20 (152) defeated Fitzroy 20–15 (135). Fitzroy Lions, in a financial struggle, was prevented from conducting a feasibility study into the possibility of moving to North Sydney; a proposal was put forward, but was voted down by its board in 1980. The VFL scheduled 4 matches for the SCG in 1980, with its purpose to test the market. The VFL's market studies found an increase in television ratings in Sydney and sustained attendance at matches. Based on the market study, the VFL stated that there was sufficient support for a Sydney team, and that it intended to have one, possibly as soon as 1982. A 1981 report by Graham Huggins concluded that there was an "untapped market" in Sydney. In 1981, the VFL had decided that it would establish an entirely new 13th VFL club in Sydney. With the results, South Melbourne announced its move to Sydney.
The first professional VFL or AFL players were from Sydney, and the Sydney AFL did not begin to emerge until the 1980s. Russell Morris was one of the earliest players, followed by Sanford Wheeler, Mark Roberts, Greg Stafford, Nick Davis and Lenny Hayes. In recent years, there has been a dramatic increase in AFL players coming from the Sydney region, and in 2007, a total of 11 AFL players identified themselves as coming from this region.
Riverina
Australian Football was introduced to the Riverina region of New South Wales in Wagga Wagga in 1881, with a match between sides from the Wagga Wagga Football Club and Albury Football Club. Subsequently, a local competition formed in 1884 around Wagga Wagga. The league went through many incarnations including the:
Wagga Football Association (1888–1889).
Wagga United Football Association (1890–1897).
Murrumbidgee District Football Association (1897).
Wagga United Football Association (1898–1921).
Riverina Mainline Football Association (1922).
Wagga United Football Association (1923, 1924, 1925).
The Rock and District Association (1926–1927), district towns based teams competition.
Wagga and District Association (1926–1927), Wagga based teams competition.
Wagga Football Association (1928–1957).
The South West Football League (New South Wales) was founded in 1894.
In 1905, the Wagga Football Association representative side lost a close match against the Fitzroy Football Club at Wagga.
In these early days, the Ovens and Murray Football League produced champion players including Haydn Bunton, Sr., who was born in Albury and played with the Albury Rovers FC, Albury Football Club, and West Albury prior to playing with Fitzroy in the VFL in 1931.
In 1944, rugby authorities from Sydney began a campaign to oust Australian rules from the Riverina, successfully campaigning for it to be banned from public schools in Albury, Wagga, and Junee to be replaced by Rugby League in an effort to expand the code into Victoria.
The Farrer Football League superseded the Albury & District Football League in 1957.
During the 1970s, the region had famous footballer family the Danihers: Terry Daniher, Neale Daniher, Anthony Daniher, and Chris Daniher.
In 1982, at the instigation of the Victorian Country Football League (who had jurisdiction over the area at the time), the South Western District Football League, the Farrer Football League, and the Central Riverina Football League were all combined into the Riverina Football League and the Riverina District Football League. The district league reverted to the Farrer Football League in 1985. There were two divisions of the Riverina DFL / Farrer FL between 1983 and 1994. In 1995, these two leagues were part of the Murrumbidgee Valley Australian Football Association.
Further south towards the Murray River, the Ovens & Murray Football League included teams from Albury that formed as the Ovens & Murray Football Association in 1893.
Clubs also formed in the smaller towns around the mid to late 1890s and early 1900s and played ad hoc fixtures against each other, as well as organising formal competitions during the first half of the 1900s in Southern Riverina and Central Riverina, such as the:
Federal District Football Association 1897–1902
Deniliquin Football Association: 1900–1932
McLaurin Football Competition: 1901
Southern Riverina Football Association: 1905–1931
Greengunyah Football Association: 1906
Corowa & District Football Association: 1906–1907
Central Riverina Football League: 1907
Lockhart Football Association: 1908–1909, 1911–1914, 1921, 1925
Coreen & District Football Association: 1909–1930
The Rock Football Association: 1910–1911, 1914
Culcairn & District Football Association 1910–1913, 1919–1921
Barellan & District Football Association: 1912
Walbundrie Football Association: 1914
Milbrulong Football Association: 1914–1915
Walla Walla Football Association: 1915–1916, 1919–1921
Urangeline Football Association: 1919–1926
Faithful & District Football Association: 1920–1939
Borree Creek Football Association: 1922
Hume Football Association: 1922–1926
Lockhart Oaklands Line Football Association: 1923–1924
Riverina Football Association: 1924–1929
Osborne & District Football Association: 1927–1928
Lockhart & District Lines Football Association: 1929
Central Hume Football Association: 1929–1934
Albury & District Football League: 1930–1957
Corowa & District Football Association: 1931–1935
Coreen & District Football League: 1936–2007
At the conclusion of the 2007 season, the Coreen league was disbanded with most of its clubs joining the Hume league for the 2008 season.
In the modern era, the Riverina had many players for the VFL/AFL, including champions such as Wayne Carey, Paul Kelly, Dennis Carroll, John Longmire, Leo Barry, Shane Crawford, and Brett Kirk. Some other players from the region to have played AFL level football include Isaac Smith, Luke Breust, Zac Williams, Dean Terlich, and Sam Rowe.
Australian rules football is the most popular sport in Albury, but is behind rugby league as the largest sport in Wagga Wagga and Griffith.
Western New South Wales
Australian football was first played in Broken Hill in 1885 between Day Dream and Silverton. Informal competition began in 1888 between four clubs. The Barrier Ranges Football Association formed in 1890, which later became the Broken Hill Football League. In recent years, the area has players such as Dean Solomon, Brent Staker, and Taylor Walker. Steve Hywood played on the half-back flank for Richmond in the 1972 VFL Grand Final, losing to Carlton. Due to transfer problems, he resumed his career at Glenelg in 1973 and played in the 1973 Glenelg Premiership team. Hywood was seen as one of the best back flankers ever to play the game.
Newcastle
Australian football was introduced to Newcastle, New South Wales, in 1883 when the Wallsend and Plattsburg Football Club was formed by miners from Ballarat.
In 1888, the Black Diamond Cup, Australia's oldest existing and active sporting trophy, was first awarded to the champion team in the region. In 1889, a donation of five guineas each from Northern Districts Football Association (Australian Rules) patron Mr. Stewart Keightley and the proprietors of the Newcastle Morning Herald led to the procurement of the Junior Challenge Cup. This Cup was supplied by A. J. Potter (Alfred John Potter), watchmaker, and jeweller of Hunter Street Newcastle.
Five clubs were established in the Newcastle area: Newcastle City, Wallsend and Plattsburg, Northumberland, Lambton, and Singleton.
In 1883, a touring South Melbourne Football Club defeated a combined Northern District team by only one goal. In 1888, a touring defeated Wallsend by 10–5. The following year, Wallsend defeated Fitzroy. Isaac Heeney was drafted by the Sydney Swans in 2014, making him the first Newcastle-born footballer to play in the AFL.
South Coast
The game was first played at a senior level in 1969. There are eight teams that compete in the AFLSC senior's competition and 11 teams in the reserves. In terms of junior numbers, there has been a significant expansion since 1999. AFL players originating from the South Coast include Arthur Chilcott, Aidan Riley, and Ed Barlow.
North Coast
The game was first played in the Coffs Harbour area as late as 1978. The North Coast Australian Football League was formed in 1982 and grew rapidly with up to eight clubs by 2000. In recent years, the number of clubs has declined due to Woolgoolga, Nambucca, Kempsey, and Urunga folding. North and South Coffs were forced to merge before the start of the 2015 season due to lack of player numbers. The area includes AFL player Sam Gilbert.
VFL / AFL competition in NSW
Establishment of a Sydney VFL team and relocation of the Swans
In 1977, Ron Barassi proposed the VFL setting up a club in Sydney, which he offered to coach believing that it would help spread the code in the state. The following year, the league investigated playing Sunday matches at the SCG. The VFL scheduled 2 premiership matches for the SCG in 1979. One of them, between the previous year's grand finalists North Melbourne and Hawthorn, drew a record 31,395 to the gates. Researching and testing the market, the VFL scheduled four matches for the SCG in 1980 with an average attendance of 19,000. In April 1980, the VFL stated that its market study showed there was sufficient support for a Sydney team, finding that there was an increase in television ratings in Sydney and sustained attendance at matches and that it intended to have a team in Sydney, possibly as soon as 1982. A 1981 report by Graham Huggins concluded that there was an "untapped market in Sydney which represented an excellent opportunity for the league." The report claimed that 60,000 people in Sydney had stated that they would regularly support the new club: 90% of these supporters would watch VFL on television from Sydney, 80% of these supporters had not attended rugby, and 92% believed that Australian rules could become popular in Sydney. Following the report, the VFL announced that the league had decided to put a team in Sydney in 1982. Financially struggling VFL club South Melbourne, fearing a missed opportunity to establish a new market, announced its decision to play all 1982 home games in Sydney. After playing, the VFL formally approved the Swans shift to Sydney on 29 July 1981, becoming the first team based outside of Victoria. In 1982, the club was renamed the Sydney Swans. The relocation of Swans from South Melbourne to Sydney included sponsorship away from the local Australian rules football clubs and leagues, and there was an initial decline in the sport locally. The Swans' debt, much of it to the AFL, not only hung over attempts to establish the Sydney Swans but now burdened Australian rules football in New South Wales.
On 31 July 1985, Dr. Geoffrey Edelsten, through Powerplay Limited, bought the Sydney Swans for $2.9 million in cash with debt payments, funding and other payments spread over five years. Powerplay was floated and sold shares to supports and the public, but with only a licence for the team and debts, the uptake was poor. Within less than twelve months, Edelsten resigned as chairman, and by 1988, the licence was sold back to the VFL for just $10. The AFL appointed a board to operate the team in order to take control of the club's financial losses. Board members Mike Willesee and Craig Kimberley, together with Basil Sellers Peter Weinert as a consortium known as the Private Ownership Group, purchased the licence and operated the Sydney Swans until 1993, when the AFL again took over ownership of the team.
With substantial monetary and management support from the AFL, the Sydney Swans continued and with player draft concessions in the early 1990s, has fielded a competitive team throughout the decade. In 1996, the Swans lost the grand final to North Melbourne, which had been their first appearance in a grand final since 1945. The game was played in front of 93,102 at the MCG. Since 1995, the Swans have only missed the finals five times, including in the COVID-affected 2020 season, in which they played only four home games and finished third to last on the ladder.
The culmination of the recent success was the 2005 premiership against the West Coast Eagles, played in front of 91,898 at the MCG, taking the flag to Sydney for the first time and breaking a 72-year drought for the club from when it was based in South Melbourne. It also broke the longest premiership drought in the history of the competition. Another flag followed not long after, in 2012.
The AFL had eventually established the Swans in Sydney but the model of off-loading a debt-laden team to a new market had resulted in enormous cost to the AFL passed on to its other member clubs, and ultimately supporters. Despite the eventual success of the Swans, the former Melbourne based club had struggled for many years to gain support of the Sydney public, and the AFL and Australian rules football are still far behind rugby league in the Sydney market.
Establishment of a second AFL Team: Greater Western Sydney Giants
The Australian Football League expressed intentions to invest in junior development in the growing Sydney market, particularly in Sydney's west and compete head on with the established rugby football codes.
A second team in Sydney was founded in 1999, when Sydney became a target for the proposed relocation of the North Melbourne Football Club. However, poor attendance at the club's home matches, low television viewership, and strong opposition from the Sydney Swans saw an end to the initiative.
In 2005, the AFL went on a Sydney-centric recruitment drive, offering a NSW scholarships program and young apprentice scheme. By 2007, at least two of the NSW and ACT scholarship recipients had been officially promoted to AFL rookie lists, qualifying them for selection in the senior squad in the event of long-term injury to listed players.
In 2008, the AFL stated their intention to establish a second team in Sydney to be based in the western suburbs, as part of the expansion of the competition. This process was completed with the establishment of the Greater Western Sydney Giants, who played for a season in the North East Australian Football League prior to commencing competition in the Australian Football League in 2012. The Giants struggled in their early years, winning only three games in their first two seasons, but since then, made gradual progress up the ladder, culminating in a Grand Final appearance in 2019. Although the Giants have been somewhat successful on the field, despite more than $200 million in AFL investment, the club has made little impact in growing attendance, television viewership, or participation in the region.
AFL NSW/ACT Commission Limited
The AFL established the AFL NSW/ACT Commission Limited to govern its expansion in New South Wales and the Australian Capital Territory.
AFL Women’s
GWS was awarded a license for the inaugural AFL Women's season with the Sydney Swans, deciding not to bid for entry until later.
was awarded a license in 2021 and made its debut in round 1 AFL Women's Season 7 match against at the North Sydney Oval. It set a new record for a crowd in a stand-alone women's Australian rules football in New South Wales on 27 August 2022, with 8,264 in attendance.
Participation
Ausplay reported that there were 69,168 regular participants in Australian rules in New South Wales in 2019.While lower than the AFL reported figure for 2011 of 131,829 (which included the ACT and 41,626 Auskick registrations), the state has now eclipsed rugby union participation in New South Wales.
In 2012, the figure was 148,230 people of which 48,965 were Auskick registrations. In 2013, the number of Australian football participants in NSW, and the ACT had jumped up to 177,949, of which 47,888 were Auskick participants.
The Australian Bureau of Statistics "Children's Participation in Cultural and Leisure Activities, Australia, Apr 2009" estimated 18,000 Australian rules football participants in NSW and 1,400 in the ACT. The ABS used a small sample size of 20,126 private dwelling in obtaining their data of participation numbers for the 2011/12 season.
In 2007, there were 7,225 senior players in NSW and the ACT and in 2006, a total of around 95,100 participants. Although Australian rules football was one of the fastest growing sports in the state, the overall participation per capita was only about one percent, the lowest in Australia.
Registered players (Excluding Auskick registrations)
Audiences
Attendance Record
72,393 (2003). AFL Sydney Swans v. Collingwood Football Club at Stadium Australia, Sydney.
Attendances
In 2006, the Sydney Swans averaged 41,205 people through the gate per home match. In 2013, the average had decreased to 29,104, with the suggestion that this was partly due to the redevelopment of the Bradman Stand at the SCG.
Major Australian rules football events in New South Wales
Sydney Derby, also called The Battle of the Bridge – Swans v Giants (held twice annually at ANZ Stadium starting in 2012)
Players
Past Greats and Hall of Fame members
A number of notable players have been born in New South Wales or played the majority of their junior careers in New South Wales; many of these players have been from the traditional Australian rules football areas of Broken Hill or the Riverina. Australian football pioneers Tom Wills and H. C. A. Harrison were born in New South Wales in the 1830s.
Notable players from the Riverina include: Australian Football Hall of Fame Legend Haydn Bunton, Sr. (Albury), who was the first player born in New South Wales to win the Brownlow Medal and the Sandover Medal, in 1931 and 1938 respectively; Bill Mohr of Wagga who kicked 735 league goals; Paul Kelly from Wagga the first New South Welshman to win the Brownlow, Shane Crawford (Finley) who won the Brownlow in 1999; and Wayne Carey (Wagga), won the Leigh Matthews Trophy twice in the 1990s. Notable players from Broken Hill include Dave Low, Robert Barnes and Bruce McGregor, who all won Magarey Medals in the 1910s and 1920s, and Jack Owens, a three-time South Australian National Football League (SANFL) leading goalkicker.
Many notable players have also been recruited from Sydney, with football having been played in the city since 1880, pre-dating other major sports. Despite the lack of media attention the game has received, Sydney has still generated many players of high quality. Notable people include Bob Merrick (a leading goal kicker in the 1920s recruited from East Sydney), Roger Duffy (1954 premiership player who was recruited from Newtown), Mark Maclure (multi-premiership player and Carlton FC captain), Michael Byrne (1983 premiership player with Hawthorn who was recruited from the Sydney club of North Shore), Mark Roberts (202-game AFL player from 1985 to 1999 who played junior football for Ramsgate AFC and senior football for St. George AFC before playing in the AFL for the Sydney Swans), Brisbane Bears, and North Melbourne, notably in their 1996 premiership, Greg Stafford (a 200-game player recruited from Western Suburbs in Sydney), Jarrad McVeigh (2012 AFL premiership captain) and his brother Mark (who played for ), Lewis Roberts-Thomson (2005 and 2012 premiership player for the Swans) and Lenny Hayes (2010 Norm Smith Medallist), amongst others.
Men's
Current players
AFL players from NSW
Women's
Current players
ALFW players from NSW
Representative team
The New South Wales representative team, nicknamed the Blues, played Interstate matches against other Australian states and Territories. The team wore a blue uniform with a Waratah symbol badge and, until the 1970s, was the only representative team to buck the trend of sleeveless guernseys fit with the fashions in rugby. The Blues defeated the Victoria team in 1923 and again in 1990 under State of Origin rules at the Sydney Cricket Ground. Its final appearance was at the 1988 Adelaide Bicentennial Carnival.
In 1993, the game's new governing body, the AFL Commission created a composite team with the Australian Capital Territory, the NSW/ACT Rams. Notable New South Welshmen in this team included Wayne Carey and Brownlow Medalist Shane Crawford. Senior players have not represented the state since.
NSW was an inaugural participant in the National underage titles. It competed from 1993 to 2016 as NSW/ACT, after which it was dropped from the national championships and instead now competes in the TAC Cup.
Principal venues
The following venues are the largest that meet AFL Standard criteria and have been used to host AFL (National Standard) or AFLW level matches (Regional Standard) and have hosted such matches in the last decade:
Sydney
Sydney Cricket Ground
Stadium Australia, Sydney Olympic Park
Sydney Showground Stadium, Sydney Olympic Park
North Sydney Oval
Blacktown ISP Oval, Rooty Hill
Bruce Purser Reserve, Kellyville
Ern Holmes Oval, Pennant Hills
Henson Park, Marrickville
Picken Oval, Croydon Park
Trumper Park Oval, Paddington
Monarch Oval, Macquarie Fields
Village Green, University of New South Wales, Kensington
Drummoyne Oval
Gore Hill Oval
Olds Park, Penshurst
University Oval, University of Sydney
Jubilee Oval, Carlton
Regional NSW
Lavington Sports Ground, Hamilton Valley, Albury
Newcastle Number 1 Sports Ground, Newcastle
Coffs Harbour International Stadium, Coffs Harbour
Narrandera Sports Ground, Narrandera
North Dalton Park, Towradgi, Wollongong
Robertson Oval, Wagga Wagga
Books
See also
Representative matches in Australian rules football
References
External links
The Hidden Story of Australian Rules in Sydney
NSW Footy History
Australian Rules Almost Held Sydney
Sydney Australian Football Foundation – non-profit organisation assisting development of the code in Sydney
New
History of Australian rules football
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lego%20Batman
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Lego Batman
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Lego Batman (stylized as LEGO Batman) is a discontinued theme and product range of the Lego building toy, introduced in 2006, based on the superhero character Batman, under license from DC Comics. The sets feature vehicles, characters and scenes from the comics and films. The inspirations for the design of these vary widely. For example, the Batmobile retains its basic sleek shape and prominent fins from the Tim Burton films, whereas the "Bat-Tank" seems to be based on the tank-like Batmobile in Frank Miller's The Dark Knight Returns. The theme was relaunched in early 2012 as part of the Lego DC Universe Superheroes line, which is a sub-theme of the Lego Super Heroes line. In total there were 17 sets, almost all of them including Batman.
The theme spawned multiple TV series, video games and films.
Overview
The product line focuses on the superhero character Batman has been adapted into various media including film, radio, television, and video games, as well as numerous merchandising items. Lego Batman aimed to recreate the main characters in Lego form, including Batman, Robin, the Joker, Bane and Harley Quinn.
Development
Lego Batman was inspired by the Batman franchise. The construction toy range was based on the media franchise and developed in collaboration with Warner Bros. Consumer Products. The construction sets were designed to recreate the story and characters of the media franchise in Lego form.
Construction sets
According to Bricklink, The Lego Group released a total of 15 Lego sets as part of Lego Batman theme.
Non-Batman film sets
Batman is given a wide range of vehicles, their appearances resembling their accepted forms. Several vehicles, including the "Batman Dragster", "Batman's Buggy", and "Bat-Tank", have also been introduced. The Batmobile appears similar to the way it does in the 1989 film, while the Batboat takes on a hovercraft-like form. All the set-boxes feature a comic strip by artist Greg Hyland at the back, featuring stylized versions of the set in action.
The first seven sets were released in 2006: The Batman Dragster: Catwoman Pursuit (set number: 7779), The Batboat: Hunt for Killer Croc (set number: 7780), The Batmobile: Two-Face's Escape (set number: 7781), The Batwing: The Joker's Aerial Assault (set number: 7782), The Batcave: The Penguin and Mr. Freeze's Invasion (set number: 7783), The Batmobile: Ultimate Collector's Edition (set number: 7784) and Arkham Asylum (set number: 7785).
The next two sets were released in 2007: The Batcopter: The Chase for Scarecrow (set number: 7786) and The Bat-Tank: The Riddler and Bane's Hideout (set number: 7787).
The last four sets were released in 2008: Batman's Buggy: The Escape of Mr. Freeze (set number: 7884), Robin's Scuba Jet: Attack of The Penguin (set number: 7885), The Batcycle: Harley Quinn's Hammer Truck (set number: 7886) and The Tumbler: Joker's Ice-Cream Surprise (set number: 7888).
Lego Batman has been re-introduced in 2012 as part of the Lego Super Heroes theme. Five sets were released on 1 January 2012. They are The Dynamic Duo Funhouse Escape (set number: 6857), Catwoman Catcycle City Chase (set number: 6858), The Batcave (set number: 6860), Batwing Battle Over Gotham City (set number: 6863), and Batmobile and the Two-Face Chase (set number: 6864). Later, on 28 December 2012, Arkham Asylum (set number: 10937), and Batman vs. Mr. Freeze: Aquaman on Ice (set number: 76000) were released.
In 2013, a Robin and Redbird Cycle (set number: 30166) polybag was released as a promotion.
Three sets were released on 4 January 2014. They are Batman: The Penguin Face Off (set number: 76010), Batman: Man-Bat Attack (set number: 76011) and Batman: The Riddler Chase (set number: 76012). Later, on 18 February 2014, Batman: The Joker Steam Roller (set number: 76013) was released. In addition, a The Joker Bumper Car (set number: 30303) polybag was released as a promotion.
Two sets were released on 2 August 2015. They are The Batboat Harbor Pursuit (set number: 76034) and Jokerland (set number: 76035).
On 1 March 2016, Gotham City Cycle Chase (set number: 76053) was released. Later, three sets namely Batman: Scarecrow Harvest of Fear (set number: 76054), Batman: Killer Croc Sewer Smash (set number: 76055) and Batman: Rescue from Ra's al Ghul (set number: 76056) were released on August 1 the same year.
Three sets were released on 1 August 2018. They are Batman: The Attack of the Talons (set number: 76110), Batman: Brother Eye Takedown (set number: 76111) and App-Controlled Batmobile (set number: 76112).
Two sets were released on 2 January 2019. They are Batman Batsub and the Underwater Clash (set number: 76116), and Batman Mech vs. Poison Ivy Mech (set number: 76117). Later, July 1, Mr. Freeze Batcycle Battle (set number: 76118) was released. Five sets were released on August 2. They are Batmobile: Pursuit of The Joker (set number: 76119), Batwing and The Riddler Heist (set number: 76120), Batcave Clayface Invasion (set number: 76122), Batman vs. The Riddler Robbery (set number: 76137) and Batman and The Joker Escape (set number: 76138).
Three sets were released on 24 August 2020. They are Batboat The Penguin Pursuit! (set number: 76158), Joker's Trike Chase (set number: 76159), and Mobile Bat Base (set number: 76160).
The Dark Knight Trilogy
The Bat vs. Bane: Tumbler Chase (set number: 76001), based on The Dark Knight Rises film, was released on 29 December 2012.
The Tumbler (set number: 76023), based on The Dark Knight film was released was released on 24 December 2014. In addition, a The Batman Tumbler (set number: 30300) polybag was released as a promotion.
In 2021, a remake of the 2014 The Tumbler (set number: 76240) was released.
Batman Classic TV Series
The Batman Classic TV Series - Batcave (set number: 76052), based on the 1960s Batman TV series was released on 1 March 2016. In addition, a Batman Classic TV Series - Mr. Freeze (set number: 30603) polybag was released as a promotion.
The Lego Batman Movie
From 2017 to 2018, Lego released 42 sets and promotional polybags as part of The Lego Batman Movie theme.
1989 Batman
The 1989 Batmobile (set number: 76139), based on the 1989 Batman film, was released on 30 November 2019.
The 1989 Batwing (set number: 76161) was released on 1 November 2020.
The Batman
In conjunction with the 2022 The Batman film, Lego released four movie tie-in sets on 1 November 2021, namely Batman & Selina Kyle Motorcycle Pursuit (set number: 76179), Batmobile: The Penguin Chase (set number: 76181), Batcave: The Riddler Face-Off (set number: 76183) as well as The Batman - Batmobile (set number: 42127) under the Lego Technic theme.
Lego Minifigures
In 2017, 71017 The Lego Batman Movie Series 1 was released, based on The Lego Batman Movie film, with a total of 20 minifigures. A follow-up was released in 2018 in 71020 The Lego Batman Movie Series 2, with a total of 20 minifigures.
In 2020, 71026 DC Super Heroes Series was released, based on DC Comics, with a total of 16 minifigures.
Lego Brick Sketches
Lego released the 40386 Batman and 40428 The Joker under the Lego Brick Sketches theme on 1 June 2020.
Lego Art
Lego released the 31205 Jim Lee Batman Collection under the Lego Art theme on 1 March 2022.
Film and television
Animated short film
An official animated short film called "Lego Batman: Bricks, Bats & Bad Guys" was produced with Cartoon Network to promote the product line. It was made in 2006. It contains three adventures where Batman tries to stop The Joker, The Penguin, Two-Face and Mr. Freeze to their getaway vehicles by his Bat-vehicles and were all sent to Arkham Asylum.
DC Nation
During the premiere of Green Lantern: The Animated Series, animation from Lego Batman was part of the preview for the DC Nation block of programming coming in 2012 to Cartoon Network.
LEGO Batman: The Movie – DC Super Heroes Unite
Lego Batman: The Movie – DC Super Heroes Unite is a direct-to-video computer-animated superhero action comedy film based on the video game Lego Batman 2: DC Super Heroes. It encompasses most cutscenes from the game, while the gameplay was replaced by new scenes. The film was released on Blu-ray and DVD on 21 May 2013, and received generally positive reviews, with praise for the animation and action, although the promotional tone of the film was criticized.
The Lego Movie
The Lego Batman character appears in the 2014 The Lego Movie voiced by Will Arnett.
Lego DC Comics: Batman Be-Leaguered
Cartoon Network aired the television special Lego DC Comics: Batman Be-Leaguered on 27 October 2014, which details Superman wanting to recruit Batman into the Justice League while he is fighting Penguin and other villains over a gem, but he refuses the league. When Superman mysteriously goes missing, Batman recruits Flash to help find him. With nothing to report, they run into Captain Cold, who is trying to steal an Atlantean pillar in a desert. After a fight which results in the Batwing getting destroyed and Flash mysteriously disappearing, Batman defeats Cold, only for him and the pillar to go missing as well. He goes to Aquaman in the sea, who fights Black Manta for the trident of Poseidon, but he goes through a similar situation, where Aquaman disappears, Batman defeats Manta, and then he and the trident are warped away. Realizing that the Justice League is the target and not the artifacts Batman goes to Wonder Woman and Cyborg, who are fighting Luthor in Metropolis. As Luthor reveals an anonymous buyer wants the daily planet globe, Wonder Woman and Cyborg disappear, leaving Batman to defeat Luthor, only for him and the globe to disappear. Batman realizes that the plot was by Bat-Mite and it was to abduct the members of the Justice League and so that Batman can be the number one superhero in the universe. The film was released on DVD with Lego DC Comics Super Heroes: Justice League vs. Bizarro League in 2015.
Lego DC Comics Super Heroes: Justice League vs. Bizarro League
Lego DC Comics Super Heroes: Justice League vs. Bizarro League is an animated comedy film based on the Lego and DC Comics brands, released on February 10, 2015, on Blu-ray and DVD. This is the third Lego DC Comics film following Lego Batman: The Movie – DC Super Heroes Unite and Lego DC Comics: Batman Be-Leaguered. Some actors from various DC properties reprise their respective roles, including Nolan North as Superman, Khary Payton as Cyborg, Diedrich Bader as Green Lantern (Guy Gardner) and Tom Kenny as The Penguin and Plastic Man. The film received mixed but unfavorable reviews from critics, with criticisms focusing on the silly and promotional tone and the characters, although the animation was praised.
Lego DC Comics Super Heroes: Justice League – Attack of the Legion of Doom
Lego DC Comics Super Heroes: Justice League – Attack of the Legion of Doom is a computer-animated comedy film based on the Lego and DC Comics brands, which was released on August 25, 2015, on Blu-ray, DVD and Digital HD. This is the fourth Lego DC Comics film following Lego Batman: The Movie – DC Super Heroes Unite, Lego DC Comics: Batman Be-Leaguered and Lego DC Comics Super Heroes: Justice League vs. Bizarro League.
Actors from various (also copyrighted) DC properties reprise their respective roles, including Mark Hamill as The Trickster, Nolan North as Superman, Khary Payton as Cyborg, John DiMaggio as The Joker, Josh Keaton as Green Lantern, Kevin Michael Richardson as Black Manta, Grey Griffin as Lois Lane and Tom Kenny as The Penguin. The film received generally positive reviews, with praise for the animation, action, and humor, although some criticized the consumerism in the film.
Lego DC Comics Super Heroes: Justice League – Cosmic Clash
Lego DC Comics Super Heroes: Justice League – Cosmic Clash is a computer-animated action comedy film based on the Lego and DC Comics brands, which was released on February 9, 2016, on Digital HD and March 1 on Blu-ray and DVD. It is the fifth Lego DC Comics film following Lego Batman: The Movie – DC Super Heroes Unite, Lego DC Comics: Batman Be-Leaguered, Lego DC Comics Super Heroes: Justice League vs. Bizarro League and Lego DC Comics Super Heroes: Justice League – Attack of the Legion of Doom. Some actors from various DC properties reprised their respective roles, including Nolan North as Superman and Khary Payton as Cyborg. The film received positive reviews, with critics deeming it superior to past films in the Lego DC Comics film series.
Lego DC Comics Super Heroes: Justice League – Gotham City Breakout
Lego DC Comics Super Heroes: Justice League – Gotham City Breakout is a direct-to-video computer-animated superhero action comedy film based on the Lego and DC Comics brands, which was released on June 21, 2016, in Digital HD and on July 12 on Blu-ray and DVD. It is the sixth Lego DC Comics film following Lego Batman: The Movie – DC Super Heroes Unite, Lego DC Comics: Batman Be-Leaguered, Lego DC Comics Super Heroes: Justice League vs. Bizarro League, Lego DC Comics Super Heroes: Justice League – Attack of the Legion of Doom and Lego DC Comics Super Heroes: Justice League – Cosmic Clash. Some actors from various DC properties reprise their respective roles, including Nolan North as Superman and Troy Baker as Batman. The film received positive reviews, with praise for the action, although the consumerism was criticized.
The Lego Batman Movie
The Batman from The Lego Movie received his own spin-off film. Arnett reprised his role of Batman, while Chris McKay, who was earlier attached to the sequel, directed the film. It was released on February 10, 2017.
Lego DC Comics Super Heroes: The Flash
Lego DC Comics Super Heroes: The Flash is an American direct-to-video computer-animated film. It is a superhero action-adventure comedy, based on the DC Comics and Lego brands. It is produced by DC Entertainment, The Lego Group and Warner Bros. Animation and distributed by Warner Bros. Home Entertainment, and was released digitally on February 13, 2018, and was released on DVD and Blu-ray on March 13. It is the seventh Lego DC Comics film. This is the first posthumous release for longtime DC producer Benjamin Melniker, who died a month before its release. The film received positive reviews from critics, who praised the action, humor, and animation.
The LEGO Movie 2: The Second Part
Batman also appears in the 2019 The LEGO Movie 2: The Second Part.
Lego DC Comics Super Heroes: Aquaman: Rage of Atlantis
Lego DC Comics Super Heroes: Aquaman – Rage of Atlantis is an American direct-to-video computer-animated film. It is a superhero action-adventure comedy, based on the DC Comics and Lego brands. Produced by DC Entertainment, The Lego Group and Warner Bros. Animation and distributed by Warner Bros. Home Entertainment. It premiered at the San Diego Comic-Con International on July 22, 2018 and was later released digitally, DVD and Blu-ray on July 31. It is the eighth Lego DC Comics film. The film received mixed reviews, with praise for the animation but criticism for the consumerism.
Lego DC Batman: Family Matters
Lego DC Batman: Family Matters is an American direct-to-video computer-animated film. It is a superhero action-adventure comedy based on the DC Comics and Lego brands produced by DC Entertainment, The Lego Group and Warner Bros. Animation, and distributed by Warner Bros. Home Entertainment, it premiered at the San Diego Comic-Con on July 21, 2019 and was later released on DVD, Blu-ray and Digital on August 20. It is the ninth Lego DC Comics film. The DVD release includes a free 84-piece LEGO set. The film received positive reviews, with praise for the humor and action, although the consumerism was criticized.
Lego DC: Shazam!: Magic and Monsters
Lego DC Shazam!: Magic and Monsters is an American direct-to-video computer-animated superhero action-adventure comedy film based on the DC Comics and Lego brands produced by DC Entertainment, The Lego Group and Warner Bros. Animation and distributed by Warner Bros. Home Entertainment. It is the tenth Lego DC Comics film. The film was released on digital on April 28, and on Blu-ray/DVD on June 16, 2020. The film received positive reviews from critics, with praise for the humor and action.
Video games
A video game based on the theme called Lego Batman: The Videogame was released in 2008. Produced by TT Games, the game followed similar titles based upon Lego Star Wars and Lego Indiana Jones.
A sequel to the first Lego Batman called Lego Batman 2: DC Super Heroes was released in 2012 and included other DC Comics characters like Superman, Wonder Woman, Green Lantern, and The Flash, most of them appearing towards the end of the story.
The Lego Batman character appeared as a playable character in the video game based on The Lego Movie in which he also appeared in.
{{vanchor|The Lego Batman Movie Game (2017)}}
Based on The Lego Batman Movie, Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment released the endless-runner game coinciding with the release of the film. It was released for Android and iOS.
A direct sequel to Lego Batman 2 called Lego Batman 3: Beyond Gotham was released in 2014. This third installment saw Batman travel outside of Gotham into space with the Justice League. The game features bonus DLC content featuring different generations of Batman in Lego form such as Batman 1966 and The Dark Knight Trilogy. Despite the title, Batman was not the main focus in this installment and it was more focused on the entire Justice League and other DC Superheroes.
The Lego Batman character appeared again in the video game Lego Dimensions, which was released in 2015. This game involves a crossover of different characters from different franchises such as DC Comics, The Wizard of Oz, Back to the Future, The Lego Movie etc.
A direct spin-off to the Lego Batman trilogy called Lego DC Super-Villains that was released in 2018. The spin-off sees both Batman and the Justice League missing as the game focuses on villains of the DC Universe.
Awards and nominations
In 2012, Batwing Battle Over Gotham City was awarded "DreamToys" in the Construction category by the Toy Retailers Association.
In 2014, Batman Man-Bat attack was awarded "DreamToys" in the Build The World category by the Toy Retailers Association.
See also
The Lego Batman Movie''
The Lego Batman Movie (Lego theme)
Lego DC Super Hero Girls
Lego Super Heroes
References
External links
Official The Lego Batman Movie website at Lego.com
Batman toys
DC Comics titles
Batman
Products introduced in 2006
Products and services discontinued in 2008
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Day%20Before%20You%20Came
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The Day Before You Came
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"The Day Before You Came" is a song recorded by Swedish pop group ABBA, released in October 1982 as the lead single from the compilation album The Singles: The First Ten Years.
History
Development
Following the November 1981 release of ABBA's eighth album The Visitors, the four ABBA members took some time away from the group to focus on individual priorities. Björn Ulvaeus and Benny Andersson both became fathers again in January 1982, and wanted to spend some time with their wives and new born children; at the same time, they were beginning to develop ideas for their first musical, Chess, alongside Tim Rice. Meanwhile, Anni-Frid (Frida) Lyngstad recorded her first solo album in seven years, working with Phil Collins to produce Something's Going On, and Agnetha Fältskog took a break from music to spend time with her children.
Björn and Benny returned to work on a planned follow up album to The Visitors in April 1982, working together in songwriting sessions and coming up with three new songs, "You Owe Me One", "I Am the City" and "Just Like That". This was followed by recording sessions at Polar Studios in May 1982 with Agnetha and Frida to record the new songs. The sessions were tense, and the results disappointing. Of the three songs recorded, "You Owe Me One" was deemed fit to be a B-side at best; as for "I Am the City" and "Just Like That", the band felt the former "wasn't one of their better songs" and decided the verse and chorus of the latter did not fit together. All three songs were filed away for possible use at a later date. In the end, "I Am the City" would not see international release until 1993's More ABBA Gold CD, and ABBA's recording of "Just Like That" has never been released in its entirety, though an excerpt was released in 1994. Concluding that a new full length album was not a realistic prospect for 1982, Polar Music decided instead to release a double-album compilation of ABBA’s most successful singles in autumn 1982, in which would be included some new recordings which could also be released as singles.
Composition
Having taken a break, on 2–4 August 1982 ABBA returned to the recording studio with two new songs written, "Cassandra" and "Under Attack". Both songs were recorded to Björn and Benny's satisfaction in these sessions, though they were sceptical that either would work as a single A-side. With the studio booked for the rest of the day, and nothing else ready for recording, they decided to work on some song ideas there and then. One idea Benny had was "a single melodic fragment that lent itself to being repeated in a series of ascending and descending phrases over several key changes". Working with Björn, he used this as the basis for an entire song. Within an hour they had written the whole melody, and had given the new song the working title ‘Den lidande fågeln’ (‘The Suffering Bird’). This song would be released under the title "The Day Before You Came".
Björn wrote the lyrics at and following the 2–4 August sessions. His first task was to decide on a theme, and here he was inspired by the characteristics of the melody he and Benny had written: "The tune is narrative in itself, and relentless. That almost monotonous quality made me think of this girl who was living in a sort of gloominess and is now back in that same sense of gloom." His idea for a theme therefore was "a woman recounting all the dull, ordinary things she “guessed she must have done” the day before she had a highly charged encounter with a man" and began a relationship that would end unhappily: "He has left her, and her life has returned to how it ‘must have been’ before she met him.”
Once he had his theme, he started writing the lyrics. "When I started writing the lyrics I already knew that the melody was such that from a technical point of view they had to be constructed so that they would lead up to the 'day before you came' place in the melody," he said. "I wrote down all the everyday incidents and things I could think of, that would happen to someone leading a routine kind of life. It was very difficult from a grammatical point of view to get it all to fit together, because it would all have to be logical, there were no place for hitches."
Recording
With the melody and lyrics written, the group reconvened at Polar Studios on 20 August to lay down a track. As in all the 1982 recording sessions, the production was minimalist, Benny and Björn aiming to "keep...the arrangements as simple as possible and to create them electronically". As with the majority of other tracks produced around this time, there was no use of grand piano, and only limited hints of bass, electric, or acoustic guitars. Most of the instruments were played by Benny, synthetically produced on his GX-1 synthesiser and using a Linn drum machine for rhythmic accompaniment. He built up the music from a click track template, something which he later said "was probably not a good idea", despite his liking the track. Real drums were initially rejected in favour of a "synth-generated beat"; later in the session, Benny and Björn changed their minds, and percussionist Åke Sundqvist was called in to lay down a snare drum overdub for the track. The only other instrumentalist was Björn himself, who provided "a few licks of acoustic guitar".
The song has the same production style as "I Am The City", a song recorded earlier that year. Throughout the song, Benny litters the soundscape with a "surprising...mixed bag of synth sounds" which add texture to the piece. The production was influenced by the "sequencer-driven, shrill blipping sound" popular on the records of contemporary musicians such as Gary Numan, The Human League, Soft Cell and Depeche Mode. ABBA had never used a sequencer on their records before, but for this track their sound engineer Michael Tretow simulated the characteristic sequencer effect by 'gating' Benny's synthesizer-playing, the beat of the percussion determining at what moments in the song the sound of Benny's normal long-chord synthesizer playing would be heard or not. While the song has "long, sustained block chords" – a "given" for ABBA songs – it also has "a liberal smattering of percussive synth effects". An example is the "carefree", "spontaneous", and "conversational" synthetic twin flutes, which begin their "integral role in the soundscape [by] offering regular bouts of whimsical reassurance" at the very start of the track. These 'flutes' are "arguably [the song's] signature sound". Their riff "smooths out a series of sustained chordal layers" in the refrains, aided by the backing vocals.
Agnetha sang the lead vocal. The song is noteworthy as "Frida does not double or harmonise with Agnetha's vocal line", and instead only provides backing vocals. In an "intriguing new approach" that had rarely been done in previous ABBA recordings, where she usually sang the lower melody and harmony lines, Frida used a "vibrato-laden...operatic technique" when singing "the sustained high range melody line [of the] refrains". At the point in each refrain where the vocal line drops an octave "to a more manageable register", she "relaxes her vowel sound to a free-flowing and tender falsetto". A "series of subtle vocal and production re-enforcements" give verse three both a sense of empathy and heightened tension. It is at this point in the song that Frida provides a "delicate and brittle" backing vocal to Agnetha's lead. Björn joins in later in the verse, at "I must've gone to bed...", to add to this "smooth and genial major-key affirmation". Benny's riffs "level...out into a more synthetic plateau" at "And rattling on the roof...", Agnetha's second-last phrase. One more repeat of the "forlorn title hook", and the lead vocals end, the soundscape being swept up by the instruments and backing vocals in a "moving mosaic of sound colours" until the end of the song.
Björn commented that "you can tell in that song that we were straining towards musical theatre as we [he and Benny] got Agnetha to act the part of the person in that song". This creative choice meant Agnetha sang like an "ordinary woman" rather than a lead vocalist. Agnetha, Benny and Björn would all subsequently wonder if "the dramatic scope [would] have been far greater had Agnetha's natural instincts been allowed to take hold". Swedish novelist Jerker Virdborg noted in a newspaper piece 20 years later that the vocal is "sung by a dimmed and turned off...Agnetha Fältskog".
Many years after the song was recorded, Michael Tretow recalled Agnetha performing the lead with dimmed lights and said that the mood had become sad and everybody in the studio knew that 'this was the end'. On this rumour, Stephen Emms of The Guardian continues the story by saying "finishing her vocals, our heroine was to remove her headphones and walk solemnly out into the daylight, never to return".
Music video
The song was promoted by a music video clip filmed on 21 September 1982, and produced by the team of director Kjell Sundvall and cinematographer Kjell-Åke Andersson, breaking ABBA's eight-year directing relationship with Lasse Hallström. The change in direction had been prompted by Polar Music and its affiliates, who believed Hallström's "sometimes unglamorous, almost documentary-style aesthetics" were out of step with the "spectacular, American-type, glossy video" becoming increasingly popular via MTV, and had decided a fresh focus was necessary. Sundvall and Andersson, regarded as an up-and-coming filmmaker team, were recruited by Björn to replace Hallström on the advice of his wife Lena Källersjö, who had worked with them on another project.
The video featured scenes filmed on location in and around Stockholm, showing Agnetha flirting with and developing a romantic relationship with a stranger on a train, played by Swedish actor Jonas Bergström, best known for his role in Jerry Lewis's unfinished and unreleased 1972 movie The Day the Clown Cried. The video included shots of the Årstabron bridge, located in the southern part of Stockholm. These shots were difficult for Sundvall and Andersson to capture, and almost resulted in tragedy: "There is a kind of cool helicopter shot when the train passes over the Årstabron bridge, but when we filmed it I almost fell out," Andersson later claimed. Within the context of the music video, the train on the bridge actually goes in the wrong direction. In the clip, Agnetha waits at Tumba station for the train and ends up in the city. However, in reality the train seen on the bridge goes from the city to Tumba.
The parts of the video featuring all the members of ABBA were filmed at the China Theatre in Berzelii Park, Stockholm, near the Polar Music offices. There were several photo sessions done during filming at the theatre. One of them, known as "the green session", was taken in the theatre's foyer. Overall, the video shoot went well - Kjell-Åke Andersson reported Agnetha was "incredibly easy to work with" - but Sundvall would later recall a strange atmosphere: “It didn’t really feel like we had been working with a group, but with four individuals.”
Christopher Patrick, in ABBA: Let the Music Speak, says the final sequence in the music video, in which "the train [where the narrator meets her lover] shunts off into oblivion, leaving in its wake a bleak and deserted railway station", is a fitting metaphor for ABBA, having reached the end of their creative partnership.
Release and chart performance
"The Day Before You Came" was released as a single on 18 October 1982, with "Cassandra", as the B-side. By this time, ABBA were experiencing a slow decline in single sales. Although the single hit the top 5 in Belgium, Finland, West Germany, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Sweden and Switzerland, and reached no. 5 on the Adult Contemporary chart in Canada, it peaked at no. 32 in the UK singles chart, making it one of their least successful singles ever and breaking "a string of 19 consecutive top 30 hits" which started in 1975 with "S.O.S."
Reflecting on the song's failure, Björn would later suggest, "If we at least had let Agnetha sing it more beautifully I believe people would have found it easier to take the song to their hearts." But the primary cause, he suggested was that the group was "simply starting to get out of touch with the pop music mainstream … You can only manage to be a part of that mainstream – that remarkable, mysterious force that is so hard to define – for a limited number of years." Instead, he believed, they were "heading into something more mature, more mysterious and more exciting", but that at that time it was "one step too far for [their] audience". He said that although Tim Rice really liked the song, he had warned them that it was "beyond what [the ABBA] fans expected". However, the Sydney Morning Herald article "Happily ABBA after" suggests this may be because ABBA only "promoted it in Britain with a couple of glum TV appearances". Benny said that in his opinion, "'The Day Before You Came' is the best lyric that Björn has written: it's a really good song, but not a good recording". He compared this to "Under Attack", recorded around the same time, which he described as "a wonderful recording, but not such a good song".
Christopher Patrick, in his work ABBA: Let The Music Speak, describes the song as "more unusual and atmospheric" than "Under Attack". He says that these two ABBA singles, the last before the group unofficially split up, "are crystal balls that provide a glimpse as to the intriguing future direction in which Benny and Björn were starting to take the group sound". Acoustic instruments had been slowly replaced by a more synth-sound ever since Super Trouper, and by this time, ABBA's final output would have "s[a]t very comfortably on either of the two albums Benny and Björn … produced for Swedish duo Gemini in the mid-'80s", as they are also "quite minimalist in arrangements and orchestration", and synth-orientated. He says that Agnetha's "lament", whether the boys' "stylistic directive" is taken into account, is made "heart-rendering". He argues this is the case as beyond ABBA she, like the narrator in the song, lived an "ordinary … life", far removed from celebrity and fame. He also argues that although ABBA's final moments had come by the time this song was released, "no-one was empowered to concede it", but also said that the "lukewarm" response toward the song by the public "had already made the decision for [the band over whether to stay together or split up]".
Reissues and compilations
On reissues of The Visitors on CD, "The Day Before You Came" has been added as track 11 (the second bonus track after "Should I Laugh Or Cry"). The song is also featured as track 3 on the 1993 compilation More ABBA Gold – More ABBA Hits, track 14 of disc 3 in the 1994 compilation Thank You for the Music, track 11 of disc 2 in the 1999 compilation The Complete Singles Collection, track 13 of disc 2 in the 2001 compilation The Definite Collection (also featured on the DVD release), and the fourth bonus track on The Visitors album in the 2005 compilation The Complete Studio Recordings (on which the music video is also featured). The song is also featured on The Visitors [Deluxe Edition].
The sheet music of the song has been released.
Analysis
Interpretation
The lyrics chronicle an ordinary half-remembered day in the life of the protagonist, "before it is changed forever: By what, we never learn." The identity of the titular "You" was long regarded as a "pop mystery" like the "identity of the subject of Carly Simon's 'You're So Vain'". After being asked by The Times about this on 26 March 2010, Björn Ulvaeus "smiled enigmatically" and said: "You've spotted it, haven't you? The music is hinting at it". Subsequently, in 2012 Björn elaborated, "The tune is narrative in itself, and relentless. That almost monotonous quality made me think of this girl who was living in a sort of gloominess and is now back in that same sense of gloom. He has left her, and her life has returned to how it 'must have been' before she met him".
Others have described it as "the ordinary life of a woman the day before the arrival of her lover"; about "the wonder of falling in love by flatly documenting how banal life was before love struck"; as an illustration of a common ABBA theme, in which "the unremarkable woman [is] given purpose by a remarkable man...most often...through romance"; and as the "account of one ordinary woman's mundane and predictable daily existence", made sobering as it becomes evident that she does not have the lover she yearns for.
Prior to Björn's 2012 comments, some interpretations of the song presumed a more sinister narrative. The song's narrative has been described as epitomising a central ABBA theme, which is that "life is trivial and nothing happens, but the somethings that might happen are worse." The song, argued one article, conveys a sense that "there is something wrong", in that "instead of being a happy song about complete solitude", the song is driven forward "by an overwhelming sadness". It draws the conclusion that "when [the narrator] met the man [her life] became even worse", for unspecified reasons that might include "fear, confinement, [or] beatings". Some writers have even suggested the song's "spectral choirs", the "keening backing vocals of...dread" suggest the "You" referred to by the narrator could be "a murderer as much as a lover".
Lyrics
Stephen Emms for The Guardian argues that the "ordinariness [and] universality [of the] first-person account" of a depressing day is what draws the audience in, and "morphs [the song] into an unusually poignant parable of what modern life means". He points out that beyond the supposed simplicity, the lyrics are "oddly imprecise...in a vague recollective tone", and adds that the fact sentences include phrases such as "I must have...", "I'm pretty sure...", or "...or something in that style" implies that Agnetha is an "unreliable narrator" and give the entire song a veil of ambiguity. He says that sentences such as "at the time I never noticed I was blue" gives "her account a tinge of unreality, even fiction". Sometimes she may state something about her day (such as "I'm sure my life was well within its usual frame"), and we as the audience fear that in reality the opposite may be true.
Tom Ewing of Pitchfork refers to the lyrics as "awkward" and "conversational". He says that as non-native speakers, they rarely used metaphors or poetic imagery, and instead relied on a "matter-of-fact reportage of feeling", resulting in a "slight stiltedness" which, he argues "is what makes ABBA great lyricists". He says that this style of lyric writing, coupled with the female leads' "occasional...halting pronunciation... could make them sound devastatingly direct and vulnerable", as shown in The Day Before You Came.
Tony Hawks, in his work One Hit Wonderland, cites "The Day Before You Came" when commenting that despite the ABBA lyricists' genius, "there were occasions when [Benny and Björn] clearly had difficulty coming up with lines which provided the requisite number of syllables to complete a line", thereby causing the girls to sing things that no native English speaker would ever actually say. His "favourite line" due to its bizarreness is "there's not I think a single episode of Dallas that I didn't see", and responds with the equally bizarre sentence "...there's not I think a single example of better lyrics that I didn't see". He refers to these "nonsense lyric[s]" as gems, and argues "what does it matter when as long as it's got a catchy tune". He adds, via a dialogue with a character named Willie, that "[Euro-dance artists] just sing about whatever they want and don't worry in the slightest if it makes any sense or not".
Priya Elan of NME says "a deeper probe [into the lyrics] suggests something a bit darker at the core" than just a woman reflecting on her life before meeting her lover. He comments that the song's working title, The Suffering Bird, may be "hinting at a prison-like fragility". He also comments on the "disorientating ambiguity" of the lyrics, reminiscent of a "zombie sleepwalking through their life", and also notes the line "I need a lot of sleep", which suggests the narrator is suffering from depression.
Margaret-Mary Lieb, as part of the 13th Annual KOTESOL International Conference, suggested that a variety of "grammar lessons...can be based on popular songs", and states that "The Day Before You Came" "offers reinforcement of past modals".
Cultural references
There are some pop-culture references in the song, which are open to interpretation. For example, the narrator refers to never missing an episode of the TV show Dallas, very popular at that time due to the 1980 murder-themed storyline Who shot J.R.?. She also recalls reading something by Marilyn French, or within the same genre. French (1929–2009) was an American author, a radical feminist whose "primary subject was the subjugation of women". The "latest [novel] by Marilyn French", by the time the song was written, was the 1980 work The Bleeding Heart, which involves a couple who meet on the train, and "fall instantly in love, only to discover they agree on nothing...from the start [knowing] they have only one year together". This plot has been cited as having similarities to the song's narrative.
Repetitiveness and simplicity
The song follows in the footsteps of "The Winner Takes it All" as another ABBA song that had no "clearly defined verse/chorus structure". The song is deceptively complicated, perhaps due to its length, and is actually one of their simplest tunes melodically. Underneath the "rich tapestry" of the three-verse song is a "close-knit series of three-note building blocks", the last block in each statement being repeated at the start of the following one. For example, "I must have left my house/at eight because I always do" has the musical pattern 1-7-6/2-1-7 while the following phrase, "My train, I'm certain left/the station just when it was due" has a musical pattern of 2-1-7/3-2-1. These "descending three-note patterns" go up a note each time a new statement is sung. For example, as the verse is sung, the pattern could go from do-ti-la to re-do-ti to mi-re-do etc., with each new phrase. Starting with a "minor anchor power-of-three" (mi-re-do), this pattern "remains intact" during the entire song, with the tune "weaving its soulful way through the hues of its relative keys C minor and E flat major, and their collaborators". After the first two statements, the minor key swaps to the relative major, where it remains until the final few statements, just in time for the title hook. The only time the descending pattern is broken is in the eighth statement of each verse ("The usual place, the usual bunch" in the first verse – 6-5-4/5-6-5 went to 4-3-2).
In his work Thank You for the Music, Robert Davidson discusses the notion of "young pop stars" commenting on the "musical sophistication" of ABBA songs (which, he argues, would in turn have seemed simple to earlier artists), and the general trend of simpler music in recent times. He says that ABBA itself took part in this trend with its final output, and cites "The Day Before You Came" as one "in which texture takes primacy [over the] tunes".
Reception
Critical reception
In 2010, "The Day Before You Came" was positively reviewed by Stephen Emms for The Guardian. Emms opined that the song is a "forgotten masterpiece", and that the mixture of "the genuine sense of loss in Agnetha's voice, Frida's operatics, a moodily expressionist video and plaintive synths as omnipresent as the rain 'rattling' on the roof . . . carries a sense of foreboding almost unparalleled in pop music." Emms continued to state that "the track's power lies in its layering of boredom and grandeur, transience and doom. It combines a rising sense of melancholy, both in its melody and production, with wistful, nostalgic lyrics." Emms also interpreted that the pathos is "heightened by an extended funereal instrumental coda which acts as one big question mark, leaving us with the feeling that this is not just a meditation on the quotidian but something greater, existential even. Is this imagined relationship, like the band itself, doomed?" He argues in his review that, in his opinion, it is unlikely that the "complexity [in "The Day Before You Came" could be replicated in] ABBA's [then] rumoured comeback single"
In an interview done for the book Abba – Uncensored on the Record, music journalist Hugh Fielder says that the song is "built on banks of electronic instruments that provide a strong atmosphere for Frida's vocals". He comments that her vocals have been mixed into the background of the song, creating a "cold, objective" atmosphere, "almost as if she's looking down on the rest of us". He says the song has a "theatrical element", and puts this down to the fact that by this time Benny and Björn had started thinking beyond 5-minute pop songs and begun writing in terms of stage productions, the next frontier beyond ABBA.
Kultur says the song "is portrayed, sophisticated enough, simply by harmonies and minor cadences, topped off with Anni-Frid Lyngstad's obbligato that could just as easily belong in a baroque largo by Handel and Albinoni".
Virdborg describes it as ABBA's "darkest song" and their "very last--and best--recording". It noted that the "happy and well-behaved Abba in [its] last creative moment managed to portray how the romantic dream--which so incredibly strongly permeates our entire culture, especially through advertising--might as well mean destructiveness and suffocating nightmare, that was the last thing many expected [ABBA to do] a few years earlier".
The song has been described as: "mesmerising [and] hypnotic", "[a] stark, superb swansong", and "[the] strangest and maybe best of all [from ABBA's catalogue]". Evening Standard music critic John Aizlewood referred to the "detailed résumé of the ordinariness of someone's life" as "desperately unhappy".
In a critique of the 2012 album The Visitors [Deluxe Edition], in which "The Day Before You Came" is a bonus track, Tom Ewing of Pitchfork describes the song as the "career highlight" for ABBA. He says that the song "shares its themes with much of the album", despite being "on paper, a happier song" than the title track. He suggests that the song holds the view that "life is unstable, happiness may be fleeting, and your world can be instantly and forever overturned", and comments that these "strong, resonant ideas" are the perfect way for the band to have ended their career, and serves as an almost "spectral, uneasy premonition . . . of [ABBA's] own demise".
In his work ABBA: Let The Music Speak, Christopher Patrick refers to "The Day Before You Came" as "ABBA's swansong" and an "electronic masterpiece". He describes it as "one of the saddest ABBA songs of all" and "like a magnificent piece of embroidery". He states that "the melancholy is so deeply engrained in [the song's] fabric", and says the "meticulous attention to detail in the vocals and production" is "intricately beautiful". He comments that the approach, involving giving Agnetha lead vocal and make Frida essentially a backup singer, "serves the song very well", adding that "Agnetha's solitary vocal accentuates th[e] sense of loneliness and isolation". He says that "the resulting performance" is both emotional and effective, and "is perfectly matched to the production". He says that into the "dying fade", there is a "faint haze of farewell"
As poetry
In her paper The Return of Melodrama, Maaike Meijer explains that critic Guus Middag analysed "The Day Before You Came" within the context of examining how "unsophisticated texts [such as popular songs] were able to evoke [immediate emotion] in the reader". He appreciated how the song "creates an open space for the listener by effectively remaining silent about what had changed the grey life of the speaker", and cited a similar effect in Wisława Szymborska’s poem May 16, 1973. Although Middag claims the poem achieved it much better, Meijer says there still is some worth in comparing the song and the poem. She also comments on novelist Marcel Möring's reading of "The Day Before You Came" "as a serious poem", thereby "demonstrat[ing] how a song could be transformed into a complex, multi-layered and interesting text, thanks to an interpretative approach, which looks for these aspects". Möring saw the song as "small labyrinths of language, refined aquarelle paintings, complex clockworks of Swiss precision", which Meijer says is an analysis fitting of a "poem deserving careful reading". She adds that "Möring’s sophisticated modernist poetics transports the song to the realm of hermetic poetry". Möring also "compared the Abba song to the classics by Strauss, Mahler and Ives", and in response critic Pieter Steinz, while "declar[ing] the song to be a good one", also "questioned the necessity of Möring's complex academic hermeneutics".
Post-ABBA polls and competitions
In a "The Greatest Pop Songs in History" countdown conducted by NME, the song came in at #6. Priya Elan commented that the song was "arguably [ABBA's] finest". He says the song is "interesting" as it "totally breaks with the popular impression of the band as all showbiz smiles, massive harmonies, gaudy outfits...". In a career largely based in trying to stuff as much into one song as possible – a "more is better" philosophy – Elan noted that it is unusual for the "track [to] scuttle...along like a slow heartbreak, sparsely painting its picture with the sole palette of a synth and Agnetha’s lone vocal". However he also implied that the song is deceptively simple, and that "there are layers of sonics beneath the smooth surface". He says that ABBA's "mastery of this Cold Wave keyboard sound" could have seen the band "seamlessly ma[k]e the transition into the [1980s]", using "The Day Before You Came" as a template for the new sound. He concludes the analysis with: "the song is the ultimate tease, a door left ajar, a murder mystery with its final page torn out...which arguably makes it all the more wonderful".
On 5 December 2010 on British TV for ITV1 a poll was made where fans could vote for "The Nation's Favourite ABBA song". Despite its poor chart position of No. 32 in the UK back in 1982, "The Day Before You Came" was voted the third favourite ABBA song.
The site Icethesite ran a competition for what songs should be featured on a hypothetical Benny Andersson solo instrumental album, in which he revisits past recordings with his piano. While over 125 different songs were suggested, "The Day Before You Came" came out on top with 14 votes.
Personnel
ABBA
Agnetha Fältskog - lead vocals
Anni-Frid Lyngstad – backing vocals
Björn Ulvaeus – guitar
Benny Andersson – keyboards, synthesizer
with:
Åke Sundqvist - snare drums
Charts
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Blancmange version
In 1984, two years after the song's original release, the first cover version of "The Day Before You Came" was released by British synth-pop duo Blancmange. In this version Marilyn French was changed to Barbara Cartland in the lyrics. The cover charted at No. 22 in the UK Singles Chart and was included on that year's Mange Tout album as the final track.
Track listings
7"
"The Day Before You Came" – 4:20
"All Things Are Nice" (Version) – 4:16
12"
"The Day Before You Came" (Extended Version) – 7:58
"Feel Me" (Live Version) – 6:24
"All Things Are Nice" (Version) – 4:12
Charts
References
1980s ballads
1982 singles
1982 songs
1984 singles
ABBA songs
Blancmange (band) songs
Music videos shot in Stockholm
Music videos showing Stockholm
Number-one singles in Finland
Songs written by Benny Andersson and Björn Ulvaeus
Synth-pop ballads
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bechukotai
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Bechukotai
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Bechukotai, Bechukosai, or Bəḥuqothai (Biblical) ( bəḥuqqōṯay—Hebrew for "by my decrees," the second word, and the first distinctive word, in the parashah) is the 33rd weekly Torah portion (, parashah) in the annual Jewish cycle of Torah reading and the 10th and last in the Book of Leviticus. It constitutes Leviticus 26:3–27:34. The parashah addresses blessings for obeying the law, curses for disobeying it, and vows. The parashah is made up of 3,992 Hebrew letters, 1,013 Hebrew words, 78 verses, and 131 lines in a Torah Scroll (, Sefer Torah).
Jews generally read it in May or early June. The lunisolar Hebrew calendar contains up to 55 weeks, the exact number varying between 50 in common years and 54 or 55 in leap years. In leap years (for example, 2024 and 2027), Parashat Bechukotai is read separately. In common years (for example, 2025 and 2026), Parashat Bechukotai is combined with the previous parashah, Behar, to help achieve the needed number of weekly readings.
In years when the first day of Passover falls on a Sabbath (as it did in 2022), Jews in Israel and Reform Jews read the parashah following Passover one week before Conservative and Orthodox Jews in the Diaspora. In such years, Jews in Israel and Reform Jews celebrate Passover for seven days and thus read the next parashah (in 2018, Shemini) on the Sabbath one week after the first day of Passover, while Conservative and Orthodox Jews in the Diaspora celebrate Passover for eight days and read the next parashah (in 2018, Shemini) one week later. In some such years (for example, 2018), the two calendars realign when Conservative and Orthodox Jews in the Diaspora read Behar together with Bechukotai while Jews in Israel and Reform Jews read them separately.
Readings
In traditional Sabbath Torah reading, the parashah is divided into seven readings, or , aliyot.
First reading—Leviticus 26:3–5
In the first reading, God promises that if the Israelites follow God's laws, God will bless Israel with rains in their season, and abundant harvests.
Second reading—Leviticus 26:6–9
In the second reading, God promises that if the Israelites follow God's laws, God would bless Israel with peace, victory over enemies, and fertility, and God's presence.
Third reading—Leviticus 26:10–46
In the third reading, God promises that if the Israelites follow God's laws, God will bless Israel with God's presence. But in the section known as Tocheichah or the Admonitions, if the Israelites do not observe God's commandments, God will wreak upon Israel misery, consumption, fever, stolen harvests, defeat by enemies, poor harvests, attacks of wild beasts, pestilence, famine, desolation, and timidity. Those who survive will be removed to the land of their enemies, where they will become heartsick over their iniquity, confess their sin, and atone. God promises them that He will remember His covenant with Jacob, Isaac, Abraham, and the ancients whom God freed from Egypt.
Fourth reading—Leviticus 27:1–15
In the fourth reading, God told Moses to instruct the Israelites that when anyone vows to offer God the value of a human being, the following scale would apply:
for a man from 20 to 60 years of age, 50 shekels of silver;
for a woman from 20 to 60 years, 30 shekels;
for a boy from 5 to 20 years, 20 shekels;
for a girl from 5 to 20 years, 10 shekels;
for a boy from 1 month to 5 years, 5 shekels;
for a girl from 1 month to 5 years, 3 shekels;
for a man 60 years or over, 15 shekels; and
for a woman 60 years or over, 10 shekels.
But if a vower could not afford the payment, the vower must appear before the priest, and the priest will assess the vower according to what the vower could afford. If the vow concerns an animal that could be brought as an offering, the animal is holy, and one cannot exchange another for it, and if one does substitute one animal for another, the thing vowed and its substitute will both be holy. If the vow concerns an unclean animal that could not be brought as an offering, the vower is to present the animal to the priest, the priest is to assess it, and if the vower wishes to redeem it, the vower is to add one-fifth to its assessment. If one consecrates a house to God, the priest is to assess it, and if the vower wishes to redeem it, the vower is to add one-fifth to the assessment.
Fifth reading—Leviticus 27:16–21
In the fifth reading, if one consecrates to God land of one's ancestral holding, the priest is to assess it in accordance with its seed requirement. If the vower consecrates the land after the jubilee year, the priest is to compute the price according to the years left until the next jubilee year, and reduce the assessment accordingly. If the vower wishes to redeem the land, the vower is to add one-fifth to the assessment and retain title, but if the vower does not redeem the land and the land is sold, it will no longer be redeemable, and at the jubilee the land is to become the priest's holding.
Sixth reading—Leviticus 27:22–28
In the sixth reading, if one consecrates land that one purchased (not land of ancestral holding) the priest is to compute the assessment up to the jubilee year, the vower is to pay the assessment as of that day, and in the jubilee the land is to revert to the person whose ancestral holding the land was. No firstling of a clean animal could be consecrated, for it already belongs to God. But a firstling of an unclean animal should be redeemed at its assessment plus one-fifth, and if not redeemed, is to be sold at its assessment. Nothing that one had proscribed for God (subjected to cherem) could be sold or redeemed.
Seventh reading—Leviticus 27:29–34
In the seventh reading, no human being proscribed could be ransomed, but he is to be put to death. All tithes from crops are to be God's, and if one wishes to redeem any of the tithes, the tither is to add one-fifth to them. Every tenth head of livestock is to be holy to God, and the owner is not to choose among good or bad when counting off the tithe.
Readings according to the triennial cycle
Jews who read the Torah according to the triennial cycle of Torah reading read the parashah according to a different schedule.
In inner-biblical interpretation
The parashah has parallels or is discussed in these Biblical sources:
Leviticus chapter 26
Leviticus 26:9 addresses God's role in the creation of children. While Leviticus 12:6–8 required a new mother to bring a burnt-offering and a sin-offering, Leviticus 26:9 Deuteronomy 28:11 and Psalm 127:3–5 make clear that having children is a blessing from God, Genesis 15:2 and 1 Samuel 1:5–11 characterize childlessness as a misfortune, and Leviticus 20:20 and Deuteronomy 28:18 threaten childlessness as a punishment.
In Leviticus 26:14–15, God warned of consequences “if you reject My laws and spurn My rules.” Similarly, in Amos 2:4, the 8th century BCE prophet Amos condemned people of Judah, “because they have spurned the Teaching of the Lord and have not observed His laws.”
The Admonitions of Leviticus 26:14–38 are paralleled in Deuteronomy 28:15–68. The curses in Leviticus are considered more severe than those in Deuteronomy, for "the former [were] spoken by Moses in the name of God and the latter by Moses on his own initiative; the former is worded in first person and addressed to the Jews in plural while the latter is in first-person and addressed in singular form".
In Leviticus 26:42–45, God promises to "remember" God's covenant with Jacob, Isaac, and Abraham to deliver the Israelites and the Land of Israel. Similarly, God remembered Noah to deliver him from the flood in Genesis 8:1, God promised to remember God's covenant not to destroy the Earth again by flood in Genesis 9:15–16, God remembered Abraham to deliver Lot from the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah in Genesis 19:29, God remembered Rachel to deliver her from childlessness in Genesis 30:22, God remembered God's covenant with Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob to deliver the Israelites from Egyptian bondage in Exodus 2:24 and 6:5–6, Moses called on God to remember God's covenant with Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob to deliver the Israelites from God's wrath after the incident of the Golden Calf in Exodus 32:13 and Deuteronomy 9:27, the Israelites were to blow upon their trumpets to be remembered and delivered from their enemies in Numbers 10:9, Samson called on God to deliver him from the Philistines in Judges 16:28, Hannah prayed for God to remember her and deliver her from childlessness in 1 Samuel 1:11 and God remembered Hannah's prayer to deliver her from childlessness in 1 Samuel 1:19, Hezekiah called on God to remember Hezekiah's faithfulness to deliver him from sickness in 2 Kings 20:3 and Isaiah 38:3, Jeremiah called on God to remember God's covenant with the Israelites to not condemn them in Jeremiah 14:21, Jeremiah called on God to remember him and think of him, and avenge him of his persecutors in Jeremiah 15:15, God promises to remember God's covenant with the Israelites and establish an everlasting covenant in Ezekiel 16:60, God remembers the cry of the humble in Zion to avenge them in Psalm 9:13, David called upon God to remember God's compassion and mercy in Psalm 25:6, Asaph called on God to remember God's congregation to deliver them from their enemies in Psalm 74:2, God remembered that the Israelites were only human in Psalm 78:39, Ethan the Ezrahite called on God to remember how short Ethan's life was in Psalm 89:48, God remembers that humans are but dust in Psalm 103:14, God remembers God's covenant with Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob in Psalm 105:8–10, God remembers God's word to Abraham to deliver the Israelites to the Land of Israel in Psalm 105:42–44, the Psalmist calls on God to remember him to favor God's people, to think of him at God's salvation, that he might behold the prosperity of God's people in Psalm 106:4–5, God remembered God's covenant and repented according to God's mercy to deliver the Israelites in the wake of their rebellion and iniquity in Psalm 106:4–5, the Psalmist calls on God to remember God's word to God's servant to give him hope in Psalm 119:49, God remembered us in our low estate to deliver us from our adversaries in Psalm 136:23–24, Job called on God to remember him to deliver him from God's wrath in Job 14:13, Nehemiah prayed to God to remember God's promise to Moses to deliver the Israelites from exile in Nehemiah 1:8, and Nehemiah prayed to God to remember him to deliver him for good in Nehemiah 13:14–31.
Leviticus chapter 27
Tamara Cohn Eskenazi wrote that Biblical laws required Israelites to act as redeemers for relatives in four situations: (1) redemption of land in Leviticus 25:25–34, (2) redemption of persons from slavery, especially in Leviticus 25:47–50, (3) redemption of objects dedicated to the sanctuary in Leviticus 27:9–28, and (4) avenging the blood of a murdered relative in Numbers 35.
The Torah addresses tithes in Leviticus 27:30–33, Numbers 18:21–24, and Deuteronomy 14:22–29 and 26:12–14.
In early nonrabbinic interpretation
The parashah has parallels or is discussed in these early nonrabbinic sources:
Leviticus chapter 27
Reading Leviticus 27:1–8, Philo taught that in the case of those who vowed not merely property but their own selves, the law affixed a price to their vows, not having regard to the vower's beauty, importance, or anything of the kind, but treating each individual alike (separating men from women, and infants from the fully grown). Philo interpreted the law to set this price with equality for three reasons: (1) The importance of a vow is equal whether it was made by a person of great or of little importance. (2) Those who have made a vow should not be exposed to the treatment of slaves, who were valued according to the condition and beauty of their bodies. (3) Most importantly, while people value inequality, God honors equality.
In classical rabbinic interpretation
The parashah is discussed in these rabbinic sources from the era of the Mishnah and the Talmud:
Leviticus chapter 26
The Gemara reasoned that according to the opinion of Rabbi Meir, the words "If you walk in My statutes" in Leviticus 26:3 are written because "If you walk in My statutes," you will receive blessings; conversely, as Leviticus 26:15 tells us, "And if you shall reject My statutes," you will receive curses. However, the Gemara reasoned that according to the opinion of Rabbi Ḥanina ben Gamliel, we need both clauses, as it might enter one's mind to say: If one follows God's statutes one will receive a blessing, whereas if one rejects God's statutes one will receive neither a blessing nor a curse. The verse therefore teaches us that the rejection of God's statutes warrants a curse.
The Sifra asked whether the words "If you walk in My statutes" in Leviticus 26:3 might refer to observing religious duties. But the Sifra noted that the continuation of Leviticus 26:3 says, "and keep My commandments, and do them," and that must cover observing religious duties. Thus the Sifra concluded that the words "If you walk in My statutes" must mean laboring in the Torah.
The Mishnah taught that they read the blessings and curses of Leviticus 26:3–45 and Deuteronomy 28:1–68 on public fast days. The Mishnah taught that they did not interrupt the reading of the curses, but had one person read them all. In the Babylonian Talmud, however, Abaye taught that this rule applies only with regard to the curses in Leviticus 26, but with regard to the curses in Deuteronomy 28, one may interrupt them and have two different people read them. The Gemara explained this distinction by noting that the curses in Leviticus are stated in the plural, and Moses pronounced them from the mouth God, and as such, they are more severe. The curses in Deuteronomy, however, are stated in the singular, and Moses said them on his own, like the rest of the book of Deuteronomy, and are thus considered less harsh. The Tosefta reported that some say that on Tisha B'Av, they read the curses starting at Leviticus 26:14.
The Mishnah taught that when (in the words of Leviticus 26:6) "the sword [went] through [the] land," they would sound an alarm in all places, because it was a spreading evil.
The Tanna Devei Eliyahu taught that if you live by the commandment prohibiting murder (in Exodus 20:13 and Deuteronomy 5:17), then (in the words of Leviticus 26:6) "the sword shall not go through your land." If, however, you transgress the commandment, then (in God's words in Leviticus 26:33) “I will draw out the sword after you.”
The Gemara deduced that the Sanctuary (that is, the Temple in Jerusalem) was called “Tabernacle” from Leviticus 26:11, “And I will set my Tabernacle among you” (as this was said after the Israelites had already erected the Tabernacle in the wilderness). And the Gemara deduced from Exodus 25:8, “And let them make Me a sanctuary, that I may dwell among them,” that the Tabernacle was called “Sanctuary.” Thus the Gemara concluded that Scripture calls the Tabernacle “Sanctuary” and the Sanctuary (that is, the Temple) “Tabernacle,” and one may thus analogize between the two.
A Baraita taught that several of the curses in Leviticus 26:16–35 result from particular transgressions. Rabbi Eleazar the son of Rabbi Judah read the word "behalah" ("terror") in Leviticus 26:16 as "be-challah" ("on account of challah") to interpret Leviticus 26:16 to teach that as punishment for the neglect of the challah tithe, God fails to bless what is stored, a curse is sent on prices, and people sow seed but others eat the harvest. The Baraita interpreted Leviticus 26:22–23 to teach that as punishment for vain oaths, false oaths, desecration of God's Name, and desecration of the Sabbath, wild beasts multiply, domestic animals cease, population decreases, and roads become desolate. Using Jeremiah 33:25 to equate the word "covenant" with the Torah, the Baraita interpreted Leviticus 26:25–26 to teach that as punishment for delaying judgment, perverting judgment, corrupting judgment, and neglecting Torah, sword and spoil increase, pestilence and famine come, people eat and are not satisfied, and people eat their scarce bread by weight. And the Baraita interpreted Leviticus 26:30–35 to teach that as punishment for idolatry and failure to observe the Sabbatical (Shmita) and Jubilee (Yovel) years, the Jews are exiled and others come to dwell in their land.
Just as Leviticus 26:19 attributes famine to sin, the Mishnah taught that a famine from drought comes when some of the people do not give tithes, a famine from tumult and drought comes when all decide not to give tithes, and a famine of annihilation comes when they decide (in addition) not to set apart the dough offering. Just as Leviticus 26:25 attributes the sword to sin, the Mishnah taught that the sword comes to the world for the delay of justice, for the perversion of justice, and because of those who interpret the Torah counter to the accepted law. And just as Leviticus 26:25 attributes pestilence to sin, the Mishnah taught that pestilence comes to the world for failure to execute judgment in capital crimes and for violation of the laws governing the produce of the Sabbatical year.
The Mishnah taught that the coming of the sword, as in Leviticus 26:25, was one of several afflictions for which they sounded the ram's horn (shofar) in alarm in every locale, because it is an affliction that spreads.
The Gemara read the words of Leviticus 26:37, "And they shall stumble one upon another," to mean that one will stumble through the sin of another. The Gemara concluded that all everyone is held responsible for each another. Similarly, elsewhere, the Gemara read the words of Leviticus 26:37, "And they shall stumble one upon another," to mean that for all transgressions of the Torah, the whole world is punished. Thus the Gemara taught that all Jews stand as guarantors for one another.
The Gemara reconciled apparently discordant verses touching on vicarious responsibility. The Gemara noted that Deuteronomy 24:16 states: "The fathers shall not be put to death for the children, neither shall the children be put to death for the fathers; every man shall be put to death for his own sin," but Exodus 20:5 says: "visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the children." The Gemara cited a Baraita that interpreted the words "the iniquities of their fathers shall they pine away with them" in Leviticus 26:39 to teach that God punishes children only when they follow their parents' sins. The Gemara then questioned whether the words "they shall stumble one upon another" in Leviticus 26:37 do not teach that one will stumble through the sin of the other, that all are held responsible for one another. The Gemara answered that the vicarious responsibility of which Leviticus 26:37 speaks is limited to those who have the power to restrain their fellow from evil but do not do so.
In Leviticus 26:41, the heart is humbled. A Midrash catalogued the wide range of additional capabilities of the heart reported in the Hebrew Bible. The heart speaks, sees, hears, walks, falls, stands, rejoices, cries, is comforted, is troubled, becomes hardened, grows faint, grieves, fears, can be broken, becomes proud, rebels, invents, cavils, overflows, devises, desires, goes astray, lusts, is refreshed, can be stolen, is enticed, errs, trembles, is awakened, loves, hates, envies, is searched, is rent, meditates, is like a fire, is like a stone, turns in repentance, becomes hot, dies, melts, takes in words, is susceptible to fear, gives thanks, covets, becomes hard, makes merry, acts deceitfully, speaks from out of itself, loves bribes, writes words, plans, receives commandments, acts with pride, makes arrangements, and aggrandizes itself.
The Tosefta noted that Leviticus 26:42 reports that God said that God would remember God's covenants with Jacob, Isaac, and Abraham—in that order—while in every other place, Scripture gives precedence to Abraham over the other Patriarchs. The Tosefta concluded that this teaches that Scripture deems the three equivalent to each other.
A Midrash interpreted the words, "And yet for all that, when they are in the land of their enemies, I will not reject them," in Leviticus 26:44 to teach that the Shekhinah accompanied Israel into exile. Samuel of Nehardea interpreted the words, "I will not reject them, neither will I abhor them, to destroy them utterly, and to break My covenant with them, for I am the Lord their God," in Leviticus 26:44 to teach that God did "not reject" the Jews in the days of the Greeks, nor "abhor them" in the days of Nebuchadnezzar, nor "destroy them utterly" in the days of Haman, nor "break [God's] covenant with them" in the days of the Persians, "for [God will be] the Lord their God" in the days of Gog and Magog. Similarly, a Baraitha taught that God did "not reject" them in the days of the Chaldeans, for God sent them Daniel, Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah, God did not "abhor them" in the days of the Greeks, for God sent them Simeon the Righteous, the Hasmonean and his sons, and Mattathias the High Priest, and God did not "destroy them utterly" in the days of Haman, for God sent them Mordecai and Esther, and God did not "break [God's] covenant with them" in the days of the Persians, for God sent them the house of Rabbi and the generations of Sages, "for [God will be] the Lord their God" in the time to come, when no nation or people will be able to subject them.
Leviticus chapter 27
Tractate Arakhin in the Mishnah, Tosefta, and Babylonian Talmud interpreted the laws of dedicatory vows in Leviticus 27:1–33.
Rabbi Simeon ben Yoḥai taught that just as the texts "He shall not break his word" in Numbers 30:3 and "Defer not to pay it" in Ecclesiastes 5:3 apply to vows, so they also apply to valuations, and thus Moses exhorted the Israelites in Leviticus 27:2: "When a man shall clearly utter a vow of persons to the Lord, according to your valuation... "
Interpreting the law of vows in Leviticus 27:2, the Mishnah taught that a young child's vows were not binding. When a girl turned 11 years old and throughout the year thereafter, they examined to determine whether she was aware of the significance of her vows. The vows of a girl 12 years old or older stood without examination. When a boy turned 12 years old and throughout the year thereafter, they examined to determine whether he was aware of the significance of his vows. The vows of a boy 13 years old or older stood without examination. For girls below age 11 or boys below age 12, even if they said that they knew in honor of Whose Name they vowed, their vows and dedications were not valid. After girls turned 12 or boys turned 13, even though they said that they did not know in the honor of Whose Name they vowed, their vows and dedications stood. The Sifri Zutta told that once a youth told Rabbi Akiva that the youth had dedicated a shovel. Rabbi Akiva asked the youth whether perhaps he had sanctified his shovel to the sun or the moon. The youth replied that Rabbi Akiva did not need to worry, as the youth had sanctified it to the One Who had created them. Rabbi Akiva told the youth that his vows were valid.
The Mishnah taught that the law of valuation sometimes tended toward leniency, and at other times tended toward stringency. The law valued equally the handsomest and the ugliest men in the country, either one owed 50 selas.
The Mishnah taught that to secure a vow to the Temple, they seized property from the one who made the vow. But they let the one who made the vow keep food for 30 days, garments for 12 months, bed and bedding, shoes, and tefillin. If the one who made the vow was a craftsperson, they left two of every kind of tool. If the one who made the vow was a carpenter, they left two axes and two saws. Rabbi Eliezer said that if the one who made the vow was a farmer, they left a yoke of oxen. If the one who made the vow was a donkey-driver, they left a donkey.
Comparing the redemption values for people between the ages of 20 and 60 in Leviticus 27:3–4 with the values for people aged 60 and older in Leviticus 27:7, the Gemara asked why an older woman retained a third of her adult value, but an older man did not retain even that much of his adult value. In response, the Gemara noted that Hezekiah said people say that an old man in the house is a burden, while an old woman in the house is a treasure.
Interpreting the instruction of Leviticus 27:8 that "according to the means of him that vowed shall the priest value him," the Mishnah taught that this was done according to the ability of the one who vowed. The Mishnah taught that if a poor person vowed to give the value of a rich person, the poor person would pay only the valuation for a poor person. But if a rich person vowed to give the value of a poor person, the rich person still had to pay the full value of a rich person. Citing Leviticus 27:8, the Gemara explained that the Merciful One made the obligation dependent upon the means of the one who vowed. The Tosefta taught that while the valuation of a rich man was 50 selas as stated in Leviticus 27:3, the valuation of a poor man was one sela.
Tractate Temurah in the Mishnah, Tosefta, and Babylonian Talmud interpreted the laws of substituting one sacrifice for another in Leviticus 27:1–33.
Tractates Terumot, Ma'aserot, and Ma'aser Sheni in the Mishnah, Tosefta, and Jerusalem Talmud interpreted the laws of tithes in Leviticus 27:30–33, Numbers 18:21–24, and Deuteronomy 14:22–29 and 26:12–14.
The Pirke De-Rabbi Eliezer taught that Jacob designated Levi as a tithe, holy to God, within the meaning of Leviticus 27:32. Jacob wished to ford the Jabbok and was detained there by an angel, who asked Jacob whether Jacob had not told God (in Genesis 28:22), "Of all that you shall give me I will surely give a tenth to You." So Jacob gave a tenth of all the cattle that he had brought from Paddan Aram. Jacob had brought some 5,500 animals, so his tithe came to 550 animals. Jacob again tried to ford the Jabbok but was hindered again. The angel once again asked Jacob whether Jacob had not told God (in Genesis 28:22), "Of all that you shall give me I will surely give a tenth to You." The angel noted that Jacob had sons and that Jacob had not given a tithe of them. So Jacob set aside the four firstborn sons (whom the law excluded from the tithe) of each of the four mothers, and eight sons remained. He began to count from Simeon, and included Benjamin, and continued the count from the beginning. And so Levi was reckoned as the tenth son, and thus the tithe, holy to God, as Leviticus 27:32 says, "The tenth shall be holy to the Lord." So the angel Michael descended and took Levi and brought him up before the Throne of Glory and told God that Levi was God's lot. And God blessed him, that the sons of Levi should minister on earth before God (as directed in Deuteronomy 10:8) like the ministering angels in Heaven.
In medieval Jewish interpretation
The parashah is discussed in these medieval Jewish sources:
Leviticus chapter 26
Baḥya ibn Paquda read Leviticus 26:3–12 to teach that God sends observable rewards for the fulfillment of observable duties. While for fulfillment of inner, hidden duties, God rewards with hidden rewards, that is, in the World To Come. And God's punishments for hidden and revealed misdeeds is similar. This can be seen in how God has guaranteed to God's people that for their visible service, God will give them visible and swift rewards in this world, as God explained in Leviticus 26:3–12, "If you will go in My ways . . . ." Likewise, for visible sins, God sends visible punishment in this world, because most people understand only what is visible and not what is hidden, as Deuteronomy 29:28 says: "the hidden things belong to God, but the revealed things belong to us and to our children, forever." And Leviticus 20:4 says "if the people will turn their eyes away from the [evil] acts of this man and his family, I will turn My face to this man and his family." Hence, Baḥya taught, the reward and punishment for the fulfillment or transgression of the duties of the heart belongs to God, and consequently, Scripture omits an explanation of their reward and punishment in the World To Come. Reading Leviticus 26:11–12, "My soul shall not abhor you, and I . . . will be your God, and you shall be My people," Baḥya found allusions to the proposition that pleasing God and drawing near to God are the greatest rewards.
Baḥya ibn Paquda read Leviticus 26:41, "if their uncircumcised heart be humble and they accept their punishment," to teach that humility is called for when accepting God's judgment.
Baḥya ibn Paquda argued that evidence of God's existence can be found in Jews' position among the nations since the Exile began and Jews' condition in their midst, notwithstanding that Jews do not agree with them in belief or practice, as they well know. Even so, Jews' standard of living is close to theirs, and perhaps better. Baḥya argued that this is as God promised in Leviticus 26:44, "And yet for all that, when they are in the land of their enemies, I will not reject them neither will I abhor them, utterly to destroy them and to break my covenant with them for I am the Lord their God."
Leviticus chapter 27
Maimonides considered the law concerning the exchange of a sacrifice as preventive, for if it were permitted to substitute a good animal for a bad one, people would substitute a bad animal for a good one and say that it was better than the original. Thus, Leviticus 27:9 sets forth the rule that if any such change took place, both the "original sacrifice and the exchange thereof should be holy." And Maimonides explained that the reason for the rule of Leviticus 27:13–15 that when a person redeemed a thing devoted to the Sanctuary, the person needed to add one fifth, was because people are usually selfish and naturally inclined to keep and save their property. The owner would therefore not take the necessary trouble in the interest of the Sanctuary and would not expose the property sufficiently to the valuer, and its true value would not be fixed. Therefore, the owner had to add one-fifth. Maimonides taught that these rules were laid down in order that people should not despise what was connected to the name of God, and which served as a means of approaching God.
In modern interpretation
The parashah is discussed in these modern sources:
Leviticus chapter 27
Mary Douglas noted that while chapter 25 deals with person-to-person obligations, the release of slaves, their return to their homes, redemption of property, remission of secular debts, chapter 27 deals with the same topics from the point of view of debts to God. In Leviticus 27:24, God respected the jubilee law. And God allowed redemption of persons in Leviticus 27:2–8, of property in Leviticus 27:14–15, and animals in Leviticus 27:9–13. God, as a creditor, came under the power of the jubilee laws. God proved God's generosity by telling Moses the conditions under which persons, animals, or chattels that had been dedicated to God's service could be redeemed. Douglas also taught that chapter 27 serves a rhetorical function. Douglas saw in chapter 27 a ring composition in which the end of Leviticus returns to its beginning. Noting that Leviticus starts with the meats reserved for the priests at a sacrifice, Douglas pointed out that at the end, Leviticus is largely about consecrated things and the things that belong to God: blood, the priests, the land, and dedicated animals.
Leviticus 27:25 reports that a shekel equals 20 gerahs. This table translates units of weight used in the Bible:
Robert A. Oden taught the idea that spoils of holy war were devoted to God (, cherem) evident in Leviticus 27:28–29, Numbers 18:14, and Deuteronomy 7:26 was revelatory of (1) as "to the victor belong the spoils," then since God owned the spoils, then God must have been the victor and not any human being, and (2) the sacred and religiously obligatory nature of holy war, as participants gained no booty as a motivation for participation.
Commandments
According to Sefer ha-Chinuch, there are 7 positive and 5 negative commandments in the parashah:
When one vows a person's value, to estimate the value as determined by the Torah
Not to substitute another beast for one set apart for sacrifice
The new animal, in addition to the substituted one, retains consecration.
To estimate the value of consecrated animals
To estimate the value of consecrated houses
To estimate the value of consecrated fields
Not to change consecrated animals from one type of offering to another
To carry out the laws of interdicting possessions
Not to sell interdicted possessions
Not to redeem interdicted possessions
To separate the tithe from animals every year
Not to redeem the tithe
Haftarah
The haftarah for the parashah is Jeremiah 16:19–17:14. The blessings and curses in Leviticus 26 are matched by a curse on "the man that trusts in man" in Jeremiah 17:5 and a blessing on "the man that trusts in the Lord" in Jeremiah 17:7.
References
Further reading
The parashah has parallels or is discussed in these sources:
Ancient
Vassal treaties of Esarhaddon
Biblical
Deuteronomy 27:9–28:69 (blessings and curses).
2 Kings 6:25–30 (cannibalism).
Isaiah 9:19 (cannibalism).
Jeremiah 19:9 (parents eating children).
Ezekiel 5:10 (parents eating children); 6:3–14 (sword, famine, pestilence, destroy high places, bring the sword against, cast slain men before idols, make the land desolate, make cities a waste, the savor).
Amos 9:13 (abundant harvests).
Zechariah 11:9 (cannibalism).
Psalms 1:1–6 (blessings and curses); 3:6 (to lie down in peace); 44.htm 44:12 (scattered among the nations); 50:14–15 (performing vows); 65:2 (performing vows); 76:12 (performing vows); 78:59 (God abhorred Israel); 97:7 (graven images); 98:2 (in the sight of the nations); 106:41, 45 (they that hated them ruled over them, but God remembered God's covenant); 127:1 (labor in vain); 136:23 (God remembered).
Lamentations 4:10 (mothers eating children).
Early nonrabbinic
Josephus. The Wars of the Jews, 6:3:3–5. Circa 75 CE. In, e.g., The Works of Josephus: Complete and Unabridged, New Updated Edition. Translated by William Whiston, pages 737–38. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 1987.
Classical rabbinic
Mishnah: Challah 4:9; Taanit 3:5; Megillah 3:3, 6; Chagigah 1:4; Avot 5:8; Menachot 9:7, 12:1; Bekhorot 1:7, 9:1–8; Arakhin 1:1–9:8; Temurah 1:1–7:6. Land of Israel, circa 200 CE. In, e.g., The Mishnah: A New Translation. Translated by Jacob Neusner, pages 157, 312, 320–21, 329, 752, 759, 790, 807–36. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988.
Tosefta: Terumot 3:16; Challah 2:8–10; Rosh Hashanah 2:2; Megillah 3:9; Makkot 5:5, 10; Arakhin 1:1–5:19; Temurah 1:1–4:17; Keritot 4:15. Land of Israel, circa 250 CE. In, e.g., The Tosefta: Translated from the Hebrew, with a New Introduction. Translated by Jacob Neusner (Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 2002), volume 1, pages 149, 339, 611, 646; volume 2, pages 1215–16, 1495–535, 1570.
Sifra 260:1–277:1. Land of Israel, 4th Century CE. In, e.g., Sifra: An Analytical Translation. Translated by Jacob Neusner, volume 3, pages 345–409. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1988.
Jerusalem Talmud: Berakhot 90b; Peah 8a, 64a; Maasrot 1a; Maaser Sheni 4a, 24a, 31b, 37b, 48a, 50a; Challah 15b, 31b, 46b; Shabbat 88b; Rosh Hashanah 4b; Taanit 4b; Megillah 8a, 30a; Yevamot 10b; Nedarim 1a; Nazir 1a, 6b, 16b, 23b; Kiddushin 7b, 19a; Bava Metzia 16a; Sanhedrin 37b, 39a, 62a. Tiberias, Land of Israel, circa 400 CE. In, e.g., Talmud Yerushalmi. Edited by Chaim Malinowitz, Yisroel Simcha Schorr, and Mordechai Marcus, volumes 2–3, 9–11, 15, 24, 25–26, 29, 33–34, 40, 42, 45. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 2006–2018. And reprinted in, e.g., The Jerusalem Talmud: A Translation and Commentary. Edited by Jacob Neusner and translated by Jacob Neusner, Tzvee Zahavy, B. Barry Levy, and Edward Goldman. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 2009.
Genesis Rabbah 1:15; 4:5; 6:5; 12:2, 6; 13:15; 56:9; 66:2. Land of Israel, 5th century. In, e.g., Midrash Rabbah: Genesis. Translated by Harry Freedman and Maurice Simon, volume 1, pages 13–14, 30, 44, 88–89, 91–93, 108–09, 498–99; volume 2, 601. London: Soncino Press, 1939.
Leviticus Rabbah 6:5, 10:7, 11:3, 15:1, 34:9, 35:1–37:4. Land of Israel, 5th Century. In, e.g., Midrash Rabbah: Leviticus. Translated by Harry Freedman and Maurice Simon, volume 4, pages 84, 131, 137, 189, 435, 446–71. London: Soncino Press, 1939.
Babylonian Talmud: Berakhot 47b; Shabbat 32b–33a, 77b, 104a, 136b, 148b; Eruvin 2a, 31b, 50a; Pesachim 37b, 63a, 66b; Yoma 50b, 66a, 80a; Beitzah 36b; Rosh Hashanah 2a, 4a; Taanit 7b, 22b; Megillah 2b, 11a, 23b, 25b, 28a, 31a–b; Chagigah 10a; Yevamot 20a, 84a; Ketubot 37b, 46a, 54a; Nedarim 18b, 20a, 36b, 69b; Nazir 25a, 31a–b, 61a, 62a; Gittin 12a, 37a, 38b, 48a; Kiddushin 5a, 7a, 17a, 24a, 29a, 32a, 53a, 54b, 61a–b; Bava Kamma 10a, 13a, 40a, 68b, 69b, 73b, 78a, 102b, 109b, 110b, 115b; Bava Metzia 6a, 7a, 46a, 47a, 53b–55a, 57a, 67b, 91a, 106a, 113b; Bava Batra 71a, 72a–b, 75a, 88b, 91b, 103a, 108b, 112a, 121b; Sanhedrin 14b–15a, 27b, 52b, 63b, 70a, 87a, 88a, 100a; Makkot 13a–b, 16a, 19a, 21b, 22b, 24a; Shevuot 11b, 16b, 21a, 22a, 39a; Avodah Zarah 5a, 13a, 63a; Zevachim 5b–6a, 9a, 12a, 30a, 56b, 81b; Menachot 6a, 79b, 81a, 82a, 87b, 92a, 93a, 101a; Chullin 2a, 25b, 30a, 41b, 69a–b, 84a, 114a, 130a, 133b, 135a, 136b, 139a; Bekhorot 4b, 10b–11a, 12a, 13a, 14a–b, 15b, 31b–32b, 36b, 37b, 41b–42a, 49a, 50a–b, 51b, 53a–b, 54b, 57a, 58b, 59b–60b; Arakhin 2a–34a; Temurah 2a–34a; Keritot 27a; Meilah 10b, 13a; Niddah 4b; 28b; 48a. Sasanian Empire, 6th Century. In, e.g., Talmud Bavli. Edited by Yisroel Simcha Schorr, Chaim Malinowitz, and Mordechai Marcus, 72 volumes. Brooklyn: Mesorah Pubs., 2006.
Tanhuma Bechukotai. 6th–7th Century. In, e.g., Metsudah Midrash Tanchuma: Vayikra. Translated and annotated by Avraham Davis, edited by Yaakov Y.H. Pupko, volume 5, pages 531–58. Monsey, New York: Eastern Book Press, 2006.
Medieval
Tanna Devei Eliyahu. Seder Eliyyahu Rabbah 16, 56, 95–96, 130–31. Eliyyahu Zuta 171. 10th Century. In, e.g., Tanna Debe Eliyyahu: The Lore of the School of Elijah. Translated by William G. Braude and Israel J. Kapstein, pages 34, 129, 212, 283, 365. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1981.
Solomon ibn Gabirol. A Crown for the King, 24:284. Spain, 11th Century. Translated by David R. Slavitt, pages 38–39. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998.
Rashi. Commentary. Leviticus 26–27. Troyes, France, late 11th Century. In, e.g., Rashi. The Torah: With Rashi's Commentary Translated, Annotated, and Elucidated. Translated and annotated by Yisrael Isser Zvi Herczeg, volume 3, pages 347–86. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1994.
Rashbam. Commentary on the Torah. Troyes, early 12th century. In, e.g., Rashbam's Commentary on Leviticus and Numbers: An Annotated Translation. Edited and translated by Martin I. Lockshin, pages 139–54. Providence: Brown Judaic Studies, 2001.
Abraham ibn Ezra. Commentary on the Torah. Mid-12th century. In, e.g., Ibn Ezra's Commentary on the Pentateuch: Leviticus (Va-yikra). Translated and annotated by H. Norman Strickman and Arthur M. Silver, volume 3, pages 261–87. New York: Menorah Publishing Company, 2004.
Maimonides. The Guide for the Perplexed, part 1, chapter 30; part 3, chapters 17, 32, 35, 36, 37, 41, 46, 51. Cairo, Egypt, 1190. In, e.g., Moses Maimonides. The Guide for the Perplexed. Translated by Michael Friedländer, pages 39, 287, 326, 329, 331–32, 334, 346, 360–61, 388. New York: Dover Publications, 1956.
Bahir, part 1, paragraphs 67, 103. Provence, circa 1174. In, e.g., The Bahir: A Translation and Commentary. Translation and commentary by Aryeh Kaplan, pages 24, 38. Lanham, Maryland: Jason Aronson, 1977.
Hezekiah ben Manoah. Hizkuni. France, circa 1240. In, e.g., Chizkiyahu ben Manoach. Chizkuni: Torah Commentary. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 830–46. Jerusalem: Ktav Publishers, 2013.
Naḥmanides. Commentary on the Torah. Jerusalem, circa 1270. In, e.g., Ramban (Nachmanides): Commentary on the Torah. Translated by Charles B. Chavel, volume 3, pages 455–83. New York: Shilo Publishing House, 1974.
Zohar 3:112a–115b. Spain, late 13th Century. In, e.g., The Zohar. Translated by Harry Sperling and Maurice Simon. 5 volumes. London: Soncino Press, 1934.
Bahya ben Asher. Commentary on the Torah. Spain, early 14th century. In, e.g., Midrash Rabbeinu Bachya: Torah Commentary by Rabbi Bachya ben Asher. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 5, pages 1845–77. Jerusalem: Lambda Publishers, 2003.
Jacob ben Asher (Baal Ha-Turim). Rimze Ba'al ha-Turim. Early 14th century. In, e.g., Baal Haturim Chumash: Vayikra/Leviticus. Translated by Eliyahu Touger, edited, elucidated, and annotated by Avie Gold, volume 3, pages 1295–318. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 2000.
Jacob ben Asher. Perush Al ha-Torah. Early 14th century. In, e.g., Yaakov ben Asher. Tur on the Torah. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 986–1003. Jerusalem: Lambda Publishers, 2005.
Isaac ben Moses Arama. Akedat Yizhak (The Binding of Isaac). Late 15th century. In, e.g., Yitzchak Arama. Akeydat Yitzchak: Commentary of Rabbi Yitzchak Arama on the Torah. Translated and condensed by Eliyahu Munk, volume 2, pages 673–83. New York, Lambda Publishers, 2001.
Modern
Isaac Abravanel. Commentary on the Torah. Italy, between 1492 and 1509. In, e.g., Abarbanel: Selected Commentaries on the Torah: Volume 3: Vayikra/Leviticus. Translated and annotated by Israel Lazar, pages 253–301. Brooklyn: CreateSpace, 2015.
Obadiah ben Jacob Sforno. Commentary on the Torah. Venice, 1567. In, e.g., Sforno: Commentary on the Torah. Translation and explanatory notes by Raphael Pelcovitz, pages 626–37. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1997.
Moshe Alshich. Commentary on the Torah. Safed, circa 1593. In, e.g., Moshe Alshich. Midrash of Rabbi Moshe Alshich on the Torah. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 2, pages 772–90. New York, Lambda Publishers, 2000.
Avraham Yehoshua Heschel. Commentaries on the Torah. Cracow, Poland, mid 17th century. Compiled as Chanukat HaTorah. Edited by Chanoch Henoch Erzohn. Piotrkow, Poland, 1900. In Avraham Yehoshua Heschel. Chanukas HaTorah: Mystical Insights of Rav Avraham Yehoshua Heschel on Chumash. Translated by Avraham Peretz Friedman, pages 238–40. Southfield, Michigan: Targum Press/Feldheim Publishers, 2004.
Thomas Hobbes. Leviathan, 3:40. England, 1651. Reprint edited by C. B. Macpherson, pages 503–04. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Classics, 1982.
Shabbethai Bass. Sifsei Chachamim. Amsterdam, 1680. In, e.g., Sefer Vayikro: From the Five Books of the Torah: Chumash: Targum Okelos: Rashi: Sifsei Chachamim: Yalkut: Haftaros, translated by Avrohom Y. Davis, pages 530–87. Lakewood Township, New Jersey: Metsudah Publications, 2012.
Chaim ibn Attar. Ohr ha-Chaim. Venice, 1742. In Chayim ben Attar. Or Hachayim: Commentary on the Torah. Translated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 1291–346. Brooklyn: Lambda Publishers, 1999.
Nachman of Breslov. Teachings. Bratslav, Ukraine, before 1811. In Rebbe Nachman's Torah: Breslov Insights into the Weekly Torah Reading: Exodus-Leviticus. Compiled by Chaim Kramer, edited by Y. Hall, pages 426–37. Jerusalem: Breslov Research Institute, 2011.
Samuel David Luzzatto (Shadal). Commentary on the Torah. Padua, 1871. In, e.g., Samuel David Luzzatto. Torah Commentary. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 993–1003. New York: Lambda Publishers, 2012.
Yehudah Aryeh Leib Alter. Sefat Emet. Góra Kalwaria (Ger), Poland, before 1906. Excerpted in The Language of Truth: The Torah Commentary of Sefat Emet. Translated and interpreted by Arthur Green, pages 209–15. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1998. Reprinted 2012.
Alexander Alan Steinbach. Sabbath Queen: Fifty-four Bible Talks to the Young Based on Each Portion of the Pentateuch, pages 103–06. New York: Behrman's Jewish Book House, 1936.
Isaac Mendelsohn. Slavery in the Ancient Near East, pages 117ff. New York: Oxford University Press, 1949. (The 50 shekels of Leviticus 27:3 was a reasonable price for an adult male slave.)
Gordon J. Wenham. "Leviticus 27:2–8 and the Price of Slaves." Zeitschrift für die Alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, volume 90 (1978): pages 264–65.
Gordon J. Wenham. The Book of Leviticus, pages 324–43. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1979.
William D. Barrick. “Leviticus 26: Its Relationship to Covenant Contexts and Concepts.” PhD dissertation, Grace Theological Seminary, 1981.
Lionel E. Moses. "Is There an Authentic Triennial Cycle of Torah Readings?" New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 1987. OH 137.1987b. In Responsa: 1980–1990: The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement. Edited by David J. Fine, pages 77, 90. New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2005. (implications of an injunction to read the curses before the end of Passover for a triennial Torah reading cycle).
Avram Israel Reisner. "A Halakhic Ethic of Care for the Terminally Ill." New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 1990. YD 339:1.1990a. In Responsa: 1980–1990: The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement. Edited by David J. Fine, pages 467, 477, 497 n. 32. New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2005. (God's role in illness and healing, and the implications for our duty to seek medical care).
Pinchas H. Peli. Torah Today: A Renewed Encounter with Scripture, pages 151–54. Washington, D.C.: B'nai B'rith Books, 1987.
Mark S. Smith. The Early History of God: Yahweh and the Other Deities in Ancient Israel, page 100. New York: HarperSanFrancisco, 1990.
Harvey J. Fields. A Torah Commentary for Our Times: Volume II: Exodus and Leviticus, pages 150–61. New York: UAHC Press, 1991.
Walter C. Kaiser Jr., "The Book of Leviticus," in The New Interpreter's Bible, volume 1, pages 1175–91. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1994.
Judith S. Antonelli. "Mother Nature." In In the Image of God: A Feminist Commentary on the Torah, pages 322–28. Northvale, New Jersey: Jason Aronson, 1995.
Ellen Frankel. The Five Books of Miriam: A Woman's Commentary on the Torah, pages 191–93. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1996.
W. Gunther Plaut. The Haftarah Commentary, pages 318–26. New York: UAHC Press, 1996.
Sorel Goldberg Loeb and Barbara Binder Kadden. Teaching Torah: A Treasury of Insights and Activities, pages 220–25. Denver: A.R.E. Publishing, 1997.
Elliot N. Dorff and Aaron L. Mackler. "Responsibilities for the Provision of Health Care." New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 1998. YD 336:1.1998. In Responsa: 1991–2000: The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement. Edited by Kassel Abelson and David J. Fine, pages 319, 321 note 2. New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2002. (God's role in illness and healing, and the implications for our duty to provide medical care).
Elizabeth Bolton. "Mir Zaynen Do—We Are Here." In The Women's Torah Commentary: New Insights from Women Rabbis on the 54 Weekly Torah Portions. Edited by Elyse Goldstein, pages 246–52. Woodstock, Vermont: Jewish Lights Publishing, 2000.
Frank H. Gorman Jr. “Leviticus.” In The HarperCollins Bible Commentary. Edited by James L. Mays, pages 164–65. New York: HarperCollins Publishers, revised edition, 2000.
Lainie Blum Cogan and Judy Weiss. Teaching Haftarah: Background, Insights, and Strategies, pages 396–401. Denver: A.R.E. Publishing, 2002.
Michael Fishbane. The JPS Bible Commentary: Haftarot, pages 203–09. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2002.
Robert Alter. The Five Books of Moses: A Translation with Commentary, pages 660–72. New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 2004.
Jacob Milgrom. Leviticus: A Book of Ritual and Ethics: A Continental Commentary, pages 317–33. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2004.
Baruch J. Schwartz. "Leviticus." In The Jewish Study Bible. Edited by Adele Berlin and Marc Zvi Brettler, pages 273–80. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.
Hanna Gracia Yerushalmi. "Haftarat Bechukotai: Jeremiah 16:19–17:14." In The Women's Haftarah Commentary: New Insights from Women Rabbis on the 54 Weekly Haftarah Portions, the 5 Megillot & Special Shabbatot. Edited by Elyse Goldstein, pages 151–58. Woodstock, Vermont: Jewish Lights Publishing, 2004.
Antony Cothey. “Ethics and Holiness in the Theology of Leviticus.” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, volume 30 (number 2) (December 2005): pages 131–51.
Professors on the Parashah: Studies on the Weekly Torah Reading Edited by Leib Moscovitz, pages 225–30. Jerusalem: Urim Publications, 2005.
Calum Carmichael. Illuminating Leviticus: A Study of Its Laws and Institutions in the Light of Biblical Narratives. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2006.
Bernard J. Bamberger. “Leviticus.” In The Torah: A Modern Commentary: Revised Edition. Edited by W. Gunther Plaut; revised edition edited by David E.S. Stern, The Torah: A Modern Commentary: Revised Edition. Revised edition edited by David E.S. Stern, pages 864–82. New York: Union for Reform Judaism, 2006.
James L. Kugel. How To Read the Bible: A Guide to Scripture, Then and Now, pages 291, 302, 346–49, 609–10. New York: Free Press, 2007.
Christophe Nihan. From Priestly Torah to Pentateuch: A Study in the Composition of the Book of Leviticus. Coronet Books, 2007.
Tamara Cohn Eskenazi and Andrea L. Weiss, editors. The Torah: A Women's Commentary, pages 765–86. New York: URJ Press, 2008.
Ted D. Manby. “An Exegetical Study of Leviticus 26: Mosaic Covenantal Laws, Blessings, and Curses with Implications for the Reading of Old Testament Canonical Books.” Master's thesis, Southeastern Baptist Theological Seminary, 2008.
Roy E. Gane. "Leviticus." In Zondervan Illustrated Bible Backgrounds Commentary. Edited by John H. Walton, volume 1, pages 323–26. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan, 2009.
Reuven Hammer. Entering Torah: Prefaces to the Weekly Torah Portion, pages 189–92. New York: Gefen Publishing House, 2009.
Sarah Pessin. “‘Less Is More’ and the Gift of Rain: The Value of Devaluation in Behukotai and Cixous's Desire-That-Gives: Parashat Behukotai (Leviticus 26:3–27:34).” In Torah Queeries: Weekly Commentaries on the Hebrew Bible. Edited by Gregg Drinkwater, Joshua Lesser, and David Shneer; foreword by Judith Plaskow, pages 179–83. New York: New York University Press, 2009.
Stuart Lasine. “Everything Belongs to Me: Holiness, Danger, and Divine Kingship in the Post-Genesis World.” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, volume 35 (number 1) (September 2010): pages 31–62.
Jeffrey Stackert. “Leviticus.” In The New Oxford Annotated Bible: New Revised Standard Version with the Apocrypha: An Ecumenical Study Bible. Edited by Michael D. Coogan, Marc Z. Brettler, Carol A. Newsom, and Pheme Perkins, pages 180–83. New York: Oxford University Press, Revised 4th Edition 2010.
William G. Dever. The Lives of Ordinary People in Ancient Israel: When Archaeology and the Bible Intersect, pages 188, 244, 291. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2012.
Shmuel Herzfeld. "If You Want To Sleep at Night, Give Away Your Pillow." In Fifty-Four Pick Up: Fifteen-Minute Inspirational Torah Lessons, pages 184–89. Jerusalem: Gefen Publishing House, 2012.
Jonathan Sacks. Covenant & Conversation: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible: Leviticus: The Book of Holiness, pages 401–33. Jerusalem: Maggid Books, 2015.
Jonathan Sacks. Lessons in Leadership: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible, pages 175–80. New Milford, Connecticut: Maggid Books, 2015.
Jonathan Sacks. Essays on Ethics: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible, pages 207–11. New Milford, Connecticut: Maggid Books, 2016.
Shai Held. The Heart of Torah, Volume 2: Essays on the Weekly Torah Portion: Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy, pages 81–89. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2017.
Steven Levy and Sarah Levy. The JPS Rashi Discussion Torah Commentary, pages 106–09. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2017.
Julia Rhyder. "Sabbath and Sanctuary Cult in the Holiness Legislation: A Reassessment." Journal of Biblical Literature, volume 138, number 4 (2019): pages 721–40.
Mira Balberg. "The Fruits of Halakhah." The Jewish Quarterly Review, volume 3, number 3 (summer 2021): pages 356-61. (tithes).
External links
Texts
Masoretic text and 1917 JPS translation
Hear the parashah read in Hebrew
Commentaries
Academy for Jewish Religion, New York
Aish.com
American Jewish University—Ziegler School of Rabbinic Studies
Chabad.org
Hadar
Jewish Theological Seminary
MyJewishLearning.com
Orthodox Union
Pardes from Jerusalem
Reconstructing Judaism
Union for Reform Judaism
United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism
Yeshiva University
Weekly Torah readings in Iyar
Weekly Torah readings from Leviticus
Hebrew words and phrases in the Hebrew Bible
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port%20Disney
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Port Disney
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Port Disney was a planned Walt Disney resort spanning surrounding Queensway Bay next to the Port of Long Beach in Long Beach, California, United States. The property was going to feature a marine-themed amusement park, a marina, a cruise ship port, a specialty retail and entertainment area, and hotel accommodations. The land it would occupy housed the RMS Queen Mary and the Hughes H-4 Hercules aircraft (nicknamed the "Spruce Goose"), both of which were obtained by Disney in its acquisition of the Wrather company in 1989.
Port Disney was first announced in July 1990, originally presented to city and port officials in closed meetings, then revealed publicly later that month. This was followed by the publication of The Port Disney News, which was mailed directly to homes in 1991 to drum up public support. Mounting costs and local opposition led to the project's cancellation in December 1991, and Disney instead turned its attention to building the WestCOT theme park in Anaheim, California. Some of the park's planned elements were later incorporated into the development of Tokyo DisneySea in Japan, which opened in 2001. In March 1992, Disney announced plans to end its lease on the Queen Mary, Spruce Goose, and surrounding property, relinquishing development rights to all of its Long Beach properties.
Port Disney planned amenities
Port Disney was to be built in two phases:
Construction to occur from 1995–1999 for a 2000 opening
Expansion to occur from 2007–2009 for a 2010 opening
The planned Port Disney final build-out included development on both sides of Queensway Bay, at the mouth of the Los Angeles River. The northern side of Queensway Bay (adjacent to Long Beach's downtown) was called the "City-side", and the southern side (adjacent to the existing freight Port of Long Beach) was called the "Port-side".
Port Disney was publicly unveiled on July 31, 1990, and would have included the following attractions after the full build-out in 2010:
The DisneySea theme park (Port-side)
Five new resort hotels (3,900 new rooms in total) and waterfront restaurants
Shoreline Hotel and retail/entertainment center (City-side)
Tidelands Hotel (City-side)
Marina Hotel (City-side)
Canal Hotel (Port-side)
Port Hotel (Port-side)
Water transportation, consisting of:
400 new marina slips (250 long term and 150 guest slips, in two new marinas located Port-side)
The WorldPort ferry landing (for trans-Queensway Bay service), historic vessel harbor, and local (Orange County) harbor cruises (Port-side)
The Quay, offering excursions, dinner boats, and charters (Port-side, adjacent to Port Hotel)
A five-berth cruise ship port to distant destinations (Mexico, Seattle, San Diego; Port-side)
A monorail linking the City- and Port-sides of Queensway Bay
The planned resort would have taken over the space occupied by the Spruce Goose, with the disposition of the plane unknown, and would have taken over two parcels of city parkland. The 3,900 proposed new rooms would have nearly doubled the then-4,800 room combined capacity of all hotels and motels within the city of Long Beach. The plan also called for filling of ocean with of material and asked the city to widen roads and improve infrastructure to accommodate a projected 13 million visitors per year, at a total proposed cost of . The Queen Mary would have been moved to a new berth. The complexity of the proposed development meant that an agreement would have to be reached between Disney, the city of Long Beach, the Port of Long Beach, the California Coastal Commission, and the Army Corps of Engineers.
DisneySea Theme Park
The lone theme park touted for the new property would have been named DisneySea. However the park proposed for Long Beach at Port Disney would have been different from the DisneySea park that was eventually built in Tokyo.
Proposed attractions for the Long Beach DisneySea included:
Oceana, the architectural centerpiece of DisneySea consisting of a complex of bubbles with a two-story "oceanarium" inside depicting the evolution of the seas. Within Oceana would be:
The Future Research Center, a working meeting center for oceanographic researchers
The Ocean Outreach Center, an educational "library of the sea"
Mysterious Island, a recreation of Atlantis with a suspended thrill ride entitled Nemo's Lava Cruiser
A boardwalk with amusement rides reminiscent of the Long Beach oceanfront during the glory days of The Pike
Fleets of Fantasy, a harbor with replicas of ships hosting rides and restaurants
Heroes′ or Hero′s Harbor, rides themed for mythological adventurers such as Sinbad and Odysseus
A Grecian village
An Asian water market
Venture Reefs, a Caribbean lagoon featuring artificial tropical reefs and a shark cage dive experience
Port Disney News
The illustrative site plan presented in the Port Disney News brochure distributed to Long Beach residents had a slightly different layout and names for some of the featured attractions. The Canal Hotel was now split into two hotels, the Regatta Hotel (on the west side) and the Canal Hotel (on the east side). In addition, The Quay was now an enclosed park and renamed Treasure Lagoon Park.
History
Wrather Corporation leased the Queen Mary from the City of Long Beach in 1981 and added the Spruce Goose the next year, making a pre-tax profit on the two attractions by 1983 after the city had sustained years of losses. Wrather made approximately in profit by 1984, but had invested in refurbishing and improving the two attractions. Wrather went on to announce ambitious plans to add a ten-story hotel and parking garage with 350 rooms and in meeting space to the site by 1988; if the hotel was successful, it was to be followed by a second phase building 'The Festival Marketplace' with in retail space; if the second phase was successful, a third phase with a exhibition hall would follow, capitalizing on the combined Queen Mary/Spruce Goose crowds of 3,000,000 tourists per year; and finally, five to six high-rise office buildings with a combined would be built contingent on prior successes. The proposal won the support of the Port of Long Beach, and would not require new fill.
Disney acquires Wrather Corporation
In addition to the Queen Mary and Spruce Goose attraction leases in Long Beach, Wrather Corp. also owned the Disneyland Hotel in Anaheim since its construction, making it an irresistible target for Disney. Wrather was acquired in late September 1987 by a new company formed as an equal partnership between the Walt Disney Company and Industrial Equity (Pacific) Ltd. of Hong Kong (IEP). IEP itself was controlled by Ronald Brierley and had already amassed 28% of the approximately 10.1 million publicly-traded shares of Wrather Corporation. The remaining 72% of shares (7.3 million shares) were purchased by the Disney-IEP partnership at a cost of per share, for a total indicated price of . Wrather had previously rejected an unsolicited offer in August 1987 from Disney at per share. Disney bought out IEP in March 1988 at a total indicated price of , which was an offer on half the partnership's shares acquired in 1987 at a cost of per share. In doing so, Disney obtained sole ownership of the Disneyland Hotel and Long Beach attraction leases.
Since Wrather owned land adjacent to Disneyland, the acquisition of Wrather meant Disney could now either expand Disneyland or add a retail and entertainment district near the 1955 theme park. However, Wrather also held the rights to lease and develop near the Queen Mary under the 1985 proposal, though much of that land was underwater, giving Disney the option to build a new park in Long Beach. By June 1989, Disney had already advanced a concept for an oceanfront theme park using the Queen Mary as a backdrop. As a first step, Disney won the right to develop a hotel on a site near the intersection of Pine Avenue and Shoreline Drive, across the Queensway Bay from the Queen Mary.
Competition with Anaheim
In January 1990, Disney announced that a new $1-billion theme park would be built in either Long Beach or Anaheim, with Disney chairman Michael Eisner saying "It depends a lot on which community wants us more." While Disney only owned in Anaheim for development (with the acquisition of the Disneyland Hotel), it held much larger options in Long Beach: the ex-Wrather Queen Mary and Spruce Goose leases for and an option to develop an additional of ocean. Long Beach City Councilman Evan Anderson Braude touted the existing infrastructure and transportation. Eisner pointed out the Long Beach Freeway, which ends at Queensway Bay, was one of the least-used freeways in the Los Angeles region. Long Beach officials touted the unique opportunity to develop the oceanside location and were considering engineered fill, tax exemptions, and parking garages to help attract a new theme park, but stopped short of wholeheartedly endorsing the idea, saying that impacts on economy and traffic would be studied first. Long Beach Mayor Ernie Kell said "That [Queensway Bay land] is some of the primest land in the world, and there are many uses for it. Yes, Disney would be a key (to the city's success.) But if Disney decides not to come here, it is not the end of the world."
In contrast, Anaheim Mayor Fred Hunter took "the first opportunity before Long Beach to say the answer is, 'Yes, yes, yes,'" and Anaheim "vowed to do 'almost anything' to be Disney's choice", although Mayor Hunter believed that both projects would eventually be built. Either project was anticipated to bring in millions of dollars in tax revenues to the winning city. Formal negotiations for financial responsibility between Disney and Long Beach were scheduled to begin on September 12, 1990, after the city reviewed Disney's plans.
Several independent analysts gave the edge to Port Disney, citing the uniqueness of the project and the lack of a similar nautical/ocean theme park in Los Angeles County since the 1987 closure of Marineland. In February 1991, Disney disclosed that it had been buying large tracts of land near Disneyland in Anaheim, although Disney vice-president of development David Malmuth said the land acquisition would not affect the decision between Anaheim and Long Beach, which would be announced by the end of 1991.
Local opposition
Although city officials were bullish, with City Councilman Les Robbins saying "[...] if you took a (council) vote today, it would be nine-zip to pursue Disney and leave no rock unturned", and Long Beach business owners asked the city to "bend over backward" for Disney, Long Beach residents remained cool to the idea, even before the concept was presented to the public for the first time on July 31, 1990. The public unveiling followed earlier closed-door meetings presenting the concepts between Disney and city officials. Some of the representatives from 80 neighborhood associations and businesses objected to added traffic from tourists, and felt that public subsidies in the form of infrastructure improvements were not warranted for Disney, a very profitable private corporation. Still others voiced concerns that Disney, notorious for unyielding enforcement of employee grooming and dress codes, would not fill the majority of the estimated 10,000 new jobs from the local population.
Michael Humphrey, then-president of the Belmont Heights Community Association, stated "[...] Long Beach might snub its nose at Disney. Who knows? We may see history in the making." The cool reception surprised Disney officials, although Disney's project director, David Malmuth, himself a resident of Long Beach, said the company would "be willing to listen and try to understand the community's concerns."
Following the public unveiling, more impacts to Long Beach were noted, including:
The Port Disney project would entail filling of ocean, requiring an offsetting restoration of similar habitat elsewhere in the state.
Land taken for the project would displace the Spruce Goose and two existing city parks. The Queen Mary would need to be relocated.
The new cruise ship port would compete with the existing Port of Los Angeles for cruise ship traffic.
Road traffic had already reached levels projected for 2020, and the addition of 13 million annual visitors would require expensive city investments in wider roads and added infrastructure.
Traffic concerns were echoed by the South Coast Air Quality Management District, who felt that Disney had not fully reviewed the impact of 13 million guests per year, 70% of which were anticipated to travel by private car. Critics pointed out that even with contemplated widening of the Long Beach Freeway and the new Blue Line light rail service, no real improvements to alleviate traffic were included in the Preliminary Master Plan beyond hoping that traffic to Port Disney would run opposite to the traditional commute direction.
Following the unveiling, Disney met with community groups, contacting approximately 3,000 residents in total during meetings held, on average, three times a week, between August 1990 and February 1991. Citizens of Long Beach campaigned to ensure they would have a hand in the city government's evaluation of Disney's proposal. In October 1990, a plan was approved to set up a 21-member committee, composed of nine residents appointed by the city council (one per councilman), two residents appointed by the mayor, and ten residents nominated by recognized community groups.
Disney touted the benefits to the city, including linking the downtown district with the waterfront. At the time, the retail tax base in Long Beach was so poor the city was unable to support a shopping mall. In October 1990, Disney released a privately commissioned study which projected that tax revenues within Long Beach would rise by $47 million and that Long Beach alone would see 23,900 new jobs, consisting of 12,400 directly employed by Disney and the rest indirectly from businesses supporting the new Port Disney. City officials were skeptical as the numbers were provided by Disney and did not address the cost of modifications to infrastructure, which were later revealed to include a request for $880 million in road improvements, made during an early round of negotiations with Disney. A year later, employment issues remained, with opponents wondering whether park employees would be drawn from and reflect the diversity of Long Beach residents.
Public relations effort
Disney had already commissioned a report before declaring the competition open between Long Beach and Anaheim. The report was presented internally in October 1989 and estimated the economic impacts of new resorts as a strategic tool to build governmental support. The estimated annual tax revenue for the City of Long Beach was predicted to increase by , with the majority of the revenue increase coming from property and hotel taxes. Anaheim's annual tax revenue was estimated to increase by , with most of that coming from property tax, hotel tax, and convention center revenue. The later 1990 Port Disney Fiscal Impact Report provided a revised (decreased) annual tax revenue increase of , again with most of the increase coming from hotel taxes. In comparison, the fiscal year 1991 city budget was estimated at only .
The Friends of Port Disney group, formed to voice support for the proposed Port Disney project and advocate for the passage of SB 1062, was criticized as a sockpuppet of Disney; despite claims of independence, Disney donated the use of the Queen's Salon aboard Queen Mary for the announcement of the group's formation. Disney also allowed Friends of Port Disney to use their logo on invitations and bumper stickers. The Long Beach Chamber of Commerce endorsed the project "in concept" in October 1991, contingent on assurance the project would benefit the Long Beach business community.
Disney created a Port Disney project display room aboard the Queen Mary on the Promenade Deck in Picadilly Circus, open on Mondays and Wednesdays in the evening from 6 p.m. to 9 p.m. The project display room included a large model of the proposed Port Disney project and other project components.
In addition to community outreach events, Disney produced the Port Disney News publication and distributed it to Long Beach residents in 1991. The paper was made to look like a newspaper and was used mainly to create public support for the planned property. The Port Disney News saw only one issue and was abandoned. A similar publication was produced for Virginia residents relating to the unbuilt Disney's America park.
California SB 1062
During negotiations between Disney and the California Coastal Commission, Commission members informed Disney the bulk of the proposed Port Disney project was not permitted under the Coastal Act. Recreational use was prohibited on the planned of new fill. California State Senator Ken Maddy and coauthors Sens. Beverly, Dills and Presley introduced Senate Bill (SB) 1062 on March 8, 1991. SB 1062 was written on Disney's behalf to clarify and confirm that Disney would have the authority under the California Coastal Act to fill open waters and build Port Disney atop the fill. Later amendments to the proposed legislation would have clarified that recreation uses are permitted on new landfill, and was later amended to apply specifically to the city of Long Beach only. Environmental groups, including the Sierra Club, and the California Coastal Commission opposed the bill, saying that despite the proposed changes, it would allow similar projects along the California coastline. The proposed legislation was seen as threatening a habitat which supported the California brown pelican, and that it would set a dangerous precedent opening the way to offshore oil drilling. Other legislators attached amendments to the proposed legislation requiring Disney to restore Southern California wetlands and set park employee diversity goals.
The bill stalled in the California State Senate Natural Resources and Wildlife Committee, where hearings for the bill were postponed four times from April–May 1991 (three times in May alone). The Coastal Commission dropped its opposition to the bill in June 1991, overruling the recommendation from its executive director, Peter Douglas, who opposed the bill due to the projected impact on the important fish habitat in San Pedro Bay, off Long Beach. During closed-door negotiations, Disney and Committee members were unable to come to a compromise on the amount Disney would be required to pay for restoring wetlands elsewhere. Committee members initially proposed a 4:1 ratio of restoration to fill, meaning Disney and the City of Long Beach would be responsible for spending approximately $100 million to restore to compensate for the proposed of fill. Eventually, the Committee proposed a 3:1 ratio (approximately $75 million and restored), while Disney would not budge from their proposal for a 2:1 ratio ($50 million, restored). After discontinuing negotiations, Committee members were left with the impression that Disney would defer further negotiations to 1992.
Later in June 1991, the committee chairman canceled a hearing of the bill which was scheduled for June 25, 1991. State Senator/Chairman Dan McCorquodale felt that last-minute amendments submitted just before the scheduled hearing reneged on earlier promises that Disney had made to delay consideration of the bill until 1992, calling it "a highhanded effort of trying to breeze through the Legislature with a change that I think the Legislature has not wanted." Local business and labor leaders endorsed the proposed legislation, urging passage to provide educational opportunities and an economic boost to the region. Disney said the project would be "dead without passage of the bill." However, citing failure to reach an agreement for the specific amount it needed to spend to mitigate marine impacts, Disney shelved the legislation for further consideration in 1992.
Port of Long Beach and late changes
Sources at the Port of Long Beach privately commented they wished Disney would just "dry up and blow away", citing concerns that Port Disney could interfere with operations at the busy port. When Maersk signed a renewed lease with the Port in 1991, it included an escape clause that would allow Maersk to withdraw if Port Disney affected their operations.
Faced with the uncertainty of passing SB 1062 to allow recreational use on fill, Disney unveiled a revised proposal in October 1991 reducing the amount of fill required for Port Disney from to . The revised proposal included traffic segregation measures designed to prevent lost tourists from wandering onto Port of Long Beach property, and would not decrease the overall size of the resort. In order to avoid the recreational use restriction, the land created by new fill would be used by the oceanographic research institute and port use; the DisneySea theme park would be moved onto existing Port-side land and reconfigured to fit within the land freed up by moving the Queen Mary to the cruise ship terminal and relocating (or closing) existing harbor offices and businesses. At the same time, the Port Disney project was renamed to DisneySea, as some foreign customers of the Port of Long Beach thought the project included renaming the entire Port of Long Beach to Port Disney.
Cancellation
A decision on whether to proceed with the Port Disney project was scheduled to be made by January 1992. The mayor of Long Beach cited the issues with SB 1062, stating that he "just [doesn't] think it makes as much economic sense for Disney or the city now", in November 1991, and the Port Disney project was canceled in favor of the WestCOT project in December 1991. In announcing the decision, Disney officials cited the cost of regulatory review involving 27 different government agencies on the federal, state and local levels, which could cost up to .
According to former Disney cast members, the company abandoned the idea mainly due to its significant financial problems caused by the EuroDisney Project (the cost of the construction and operation of the marina was an estimated $1 billion at the time) which ultimately led to the cancellation of the Port Disney and the planned Disney WestCOT Project in Anaheim. David Malmuth later stated "It was really my inability to muster the support that I needed within the Walt Disney Company" that led to the selection of the Anaheim proposal. City of Long Beach employees say that it was abandoned because the city did not agree to make expensive improvements to the Long Beach Freeway and other roads leading to the development site as requested by Disney.
See also
List of never built Disney attractions
References
External links
Walt Disney Parks and Resorts
Unbuilt Disney attractions
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikolai%20Kamanin
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Nikolai Kamanin
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Nikolai Petrovich Kamanin (; 18 October 1908 – 11 March 1982) was a Soviet Air Force general and a program manager in the Soviet space program. A career aviator, he awarded the title of Hero of the Soviet Union in 1934 for the rescue of SS Chelyuskin crew from an improvised airfield on the frozen surface of the Chukchi Sea near Kolyuchin Island.
In World War II he successfully commanded an air brigade, air division, and air corps, reaching the rank of Airforce Colonel General and Air Army commander after the war. It was at this time that his son, Arkady Kamanin, became a fighter pilot at the age of 14, the youngest military pilot in world history.
From 1960 to 1971, General Kamanin was the program manager of the cosmonaut training in the Soviet space program. He recruited and trained the first generation of cosmonauts, including Yuri Gagarin, Valentina Tereshkova, Gherman Titov and Alexei Leonov. Kamanin was the Soviet Air Force representative to the space program, a proponent of crewed orbital flight and air force influence over the Space Race. His diaries of this period, published from 1995 to 2001, are among the most important sources documenting the progress of the Soviet space program.
Early life
Nikolai Kamanin was born in Melenki, in Vladimir Governorate (now Melenkovsky District, Vladimir Oblast). Kamanin's grandfather was a wealthy shoemaker with his own workshop; however, his father, Pyotr Kamanin, broke with tradition and joined the Bolsheviks. He died in 1919 at the age of 49; mother, Stefanida Danilovna (1876–1964) lived all her life in Melenki. Stefanida and Pyotr Kamanin had 10 children; Nikolai survived all his four brothers. Alexander Ivanovich Kamanin, Nikolai's uncle, lived a very long life, including 50 years of religious hermitage, and had a reputation of a holy elder.
According to his son, Lev Kamanin, Nikolai Kamanin was actually born in 1909 and changed it to 1908 to cheat the Army admission staff when he volunteered in 1927. He passed the airforce physical test and completed the pilots' school in Borisoglebsk in 1929, trained by legendary pilot Victor Kholzunov. Kamanin was dispatched to the site of Russo-Chinese railroad conflict in the Far East, arriving one day after ceasefire. There, he joined the legendary Lenin Air Regiment, the first air force unit in Soviet history. Kamanin flew a two-seater reconnaissance airplane, including 11-hour endurance flights over the Sea of Japan. His crewmate, incidentally, was an ethnic Chinese.
Chelyuskin rescue
In February 1934, the steamship SS Chelyuskin was crushed by Arctic ice in the Chukchi Sea. The surviving 104 crewmembers and passengers set their base on pack ice. At that time, the United States grounded all Arctic flights after a string of accidents, and the only rescue force on hand was Anatoly Liapidevsky and his ANT-4 crew. After 28 failed attempts, Liapidevski located the ice camp on 5 March, landed and hauled out twelve of 104 survivors. A week later, on the second flight to ice camp, he crash-landed the airplane after an engine failure. The operation stalled. The Soviet government dispatched three groups of pilots from Far Eastern air bases.
The largest group of seven military and civilian reconnaissance pilots on Polikarpov R-5 biplanes, based in Primorsky Krai, was led by Kamanin (he later grounded one of the pilots for insubordination). The group sailed from Vladivostok 2 March 1934, disembarked at Olyutorka and landed at Vankarem airfield 1 April. Kamanin and Vasily Molokov flew from a temporary base in Vankarem settlement to the ice camp, saving 34 and 39 survivors. On their first flight from the ice camp, R-5 (designed as a two-seater) carried a crew of two, plus two men from Chelyuskin in the hull. The next flights added makeshift wing gondolas, carrying two more men per mission. Other pilots from the Kamanin team hauled them from Vankarem to Providence Bay seaport. The ice camp was completely evacuated 13 April 1934; Kamanin returned with the ship's bosun and eight riding dogs.
The next day, six pilots that flew to the ice camp and back (including Kamanin) and Sigizmund Levanevsky were announced as the first Heroes of the Soviet Union. Pilots who ferried survivors from Vankarem to Providence received the Order of the Red Star.
World War II
Occupation of Iran
In 1939, Kamanin completed training at Zhukovsky Airforce Academy. Prior to his front-line assignments, Colonel Kamanin held a staff role in Central Asia, setting up 17 training facilities and shaping up fresh air force units. On 25 August 1941, in agreement with the United Kingdom, Soviet troops crossed the border with Iran, eventually taking control over the northern part of this country. Kamanin's air brigade provided logistical and reconnaissance support for this operation. On 20 July 1942, Kamanin was summoned to Moscow to organize, train and lead the newly conceived 292nd Ground Attack Air Division (292 штурмовая дивизия, 292 шад).
Division Commander: Rzhev, Demyansk
On 25 July 1942, Kamanin arrived at his new command, only to find orders that the division had to send its fully manned, combat-ready aviation regiments to the front. The division was given new units only in September 1942, including the 800th, 820th and 667th Attack Aviation Regiments equipped with Ilyushin Il-2, and 427th Fighter Aviation Regiment equipped with Yakovlev Yak-1 fighters.
On 16 October 1942, in the days of the Battle of Stalingrad the division was assigned to front-line airfields near Andreapol, Tver Oblast and subordinated to Mikhail Gromov's Third Air Army targeted against Rzhev and Smolensk. The division entered combat 29 October. Kamanin's first personal combat sortie in World War II occurred 28 December 1942, against Velikiye Luki railroad station. The division was engaged in the Battle of Velikiye Luki and Second Rzhev-Sychevka Offensive, which ended in German evacuation of Rzhev bridgeheads at an enormous cost to the Red Army. The 292nd Division, credited with saving the Soviet offensive at Bely, Tver Oblast (8 December) and other tactical successes, was slowly bleeding, losing 20 pilots and 35 aircraft in two months, with no replenishments until January 1943. The refitted division served against Demyansk Pocket, 15–23 February 1943. On 1 March 1943, Kamanin was summoned to Moscow again and passed command of 292nd Division to Filipp Agaltsov, future Marshal of Aviation.
Corps Commander: Kursk
Kamanin, promoted to major general on 18 May 1943, took command of 8th Combined Air Corps. The corps contained two ground attack divisions: 212th, later Fourth Guards (commander Colonel Georgiy Baidukov) and 264th (commander Colonel Evgeny Klobukov), the latter manned with inexperienced pilots. One of the seasoned pilots was Georgi Beregovoi, flying the IL-2 since 1941. The third unit, 256th Pursuit Division, was in the formation stage. All units needed extensive training; however, instead of 400 tons of petrol required, Kamanin could only secure 40 tons. Another shipment of 200 tons provided 4-5 training sorties for young pilots. This brief round of training was interrupted by a fatal accident that revealed structural defects in their IL-2 fleet, and required modifications to correct the defects.
On 21 May 1943, the corps relocated south, near Liski, Voronezh Oblast. Across the front line, German troops were concentrating for the Battle of Kursk. The corps was subordinate to the newly organized Steppe Front, a strategic reserve force behind the main Soviet line around Kursk. At the end of the German offensive against Kursk, it was renamed Fifth Ground Attack Corps and dispatched to the front-line Second Air Army, targeted at capturing Belgorod. Their first combat sortie occurred at 11:00, 23 July 1943, in preparation for Operation Rumyantsev (3–23 August). On 16 August 1943, the corps suffered its worse losses ever, losing 15 planes in one day. Soon, in the action around Kharkiv, Kamanin's corps, notably Beregovoy's unit, excelled in anti-tank warfare using new PTAB anti-tank bomblets.
Advancing over Ukraine
Throughout 1943, the corps followed advancing troops in Ukraine, but its actions were limited by fuel and ammunition rationing. In the beginning of Battle of the Dnieper, the Corps could only dispatch two active regiments to Bukrin bridgehead; the rest was grounded by fuel shortage. The situation improved when the direction of the Soviet offensive switched to Lyutezh bridgehead. Kamanin earned the Order of Suvorov for his corp's achievement in the Battle of Kiev (1943). This was followed by action against Korsun-Cherkassy Pocket in January–February 1944 and subsequent Kamenets-Podolsky pocket in March–April.
In spring 1944, Kamanin obtained permission to fly personal missions in enemy territory and was engaged in deep reconnaissance of the Lviv area with Lieutenant Pyotr Schmigol (Hero of the Soviet Union, 1944). This information paved the road to the Lvov-Sandomierz Offensive of July 1944.
Raid on Lviv
Lviv was defended by an estimated force of 700 German aircraft. Shortly before the battle, Ivan Konev prohibited any ground action until the air force provided reliable data on enemy formations. Instead, Kamanin proposed a combination of night-time reconnaissance with a major ground attack by IL-2 units. This plan was originally considered doomed to failure, since the IL-2 was never intended for night flight, and very few Sturmovik pilots had night flight experience. Technicians modified IL-2 exhaust pipes so that exhaust would not blind pilots completely, but otherwise the operation remained a high risk. Thus, Kamanin planned to take off at night, arrive over Lviv airfields early at dusk and return after dusk.
The first group to arrive at Lviv airfield - six Yak fighters - prevented takeoff of German defence fighters. Another group of 12 fighters patrolled along the return route. The first attack unit of eight IL-2's, protected by eight fighters, attacked the German airplanes on the ground in a 1300-meter dive. This was followed by the main force of IL-2 bombers, arriving in groups of four.
The Soviet formation of 34 fighters and 24 attack planes lost 3 airplanes. Kamanin estimated German losses at 30 twin-engined airplanes and one Focke-Wulf Fw 190 (of the 150 aircraft presumed to be on the ground) plus warehouses and other materiel. The same night, similar strikes at three other airfields effectively crippled German resistance in the air.
After completion of Lviv-Sandomierz operation, Kamanin was awarded the Order of Kutuzov.
Budapest to Prague
In September 1944, Romania changed sides and turned against Germany (see Battle of Romania (1944)). Romanian air corps, led by General Ionescu, was temporarily placed under Kamanin's command. Kamanin admitted it was a strong, well-trained force of 170 aircraft (mostly, modern German types), and the Romanians proved themselves as capable aviators.
Meanwhile, Kamanin's own force was heavily engaged over Tisza valley, flying 150-200 sorties daily, paving the road to Budapest. In December 1944, his regiments relocated to an extremely dangerous position - airfields only 10-12 kilometers behind the front line. This was, however, the only solution that could enable effective support of ground troops after an all-out offensive was launched 20 December 1944. This day, the corps flew over 1000 sorties. Kamanin's corps operations in the Battle of Budapest were limited mostly by the physical state of dirt airfields (other formations, based farther from the front line, were also limited by long approach distances). The new position happened to be placed directly on the axis of German Operation Konrad, and was key in tying up this counteroffensive.
Arkady Kamanin
Arkady Kamanin, Nikolai's son, was born in 1928. He spent most of his childhood on the airfields and at an early age could identify most of the Soviet military airplanes by the engine's sound alone. After the outbreak of the Great Patriotic War, Arkady worked at one of the aircraft plants in Moscow. Later in 1941, he was evacuated to Tashkent with his mother and younger brother Leo, where they lived until the spring of 1943. In the middle of spring of 1943 he arrived at Andreapol airfield (Kalininsky battlefront), where his father's air division was quartering. Formally enlisted at the age of 14, Arkady served as a mechanic at a liaison squadron, where he learned practical flying skills by hitchhiking rides with real pilots, whom he asked to let him steer. After he managed to land a Polikarpov Po-2 by himself when the pilot was wounded by shrapnel, he passed the official examinations for piloting the Po-2, becoming the youngest pilot of World War II at the age of 15. Soon after that he was granted his personal Po-2 with forked lightning painted on fuselage. On one of these flights, Arkady managed to save the wounded Lieutenant Berdnikov, who crash-landed his damaged IL-2 near the front line, while retrieving the plane's reconnaissance film and returning safely to the base. For his excellent service, Arkady Kamanin received two combat Orders of the Red Star, the Order of the Red Banner, the Medal "For the Victory over Germany in the Great Patriotic War 1941–1945", the Medal "For the Capture of Budapest" and the Medal "For the Capture of Vienna". After the war Arkady decided to enter the Zhukovsky Air Force Engineering Academy, wanting to learn to fly new types of aircraft. Arkady Kamanin died of meningitis on April 13, 1947, at the age of 18.
Space program
Kamanin completed the General Staff Academy in 1956 and commanded the air force of Central Asian district for three years. In 1960, Chief Marshal of Aviation Konstantin Vershinin assigned Kamanin to the Soviet space program as the military chief of the crewed orbital flight program. His formal title was Deputy Chief of Combat Training for Space (Russian: заместитель начальника боевой подготовки ВВС по космосу), formally a step down from his previous roles of First Deputy to Air Force Chief of Staff and Air Army Commander. Kamanin was assisted by major general and Hero of Soviet Union Leonid Goreglyad, Colonel Boris Aristov (a skilled navigator with 232 combat sorties experience), and other notable war pilots. The Center for Cosmonaut Training (present-day Star City, Russia) was initially led by Colonel Karpov, Kamanin's subordinate.
Preparation for crewed flight
Kamanin's diaries, first published in 1995, began on 17 December 1960, and explained the development of the Soviet crewed program and related internal politics. The diaries present at least four sides of his activities prior to Yuri Gagarin's flight, all of which continued until Kamanin's retirement:
Coordination of design bureaus developing life support systems for crewed spaceflight: spacesuits, parachutes, air regeneration etc. Kamanin's diaries present hims as a risk-taker, willing to go forward with incomplete systems to beat the Americans to orbit. Later, when the space programs focused on fully automatic controls, Kamanin asserted his viewpoint in favor of human controls. At the same time, during 1962 discussions on flight duration, he was always on the conservative side, voting for no more than two day spaceflights.
Tracking, search and recovery of landed craft, coordination and refinement of search and rescue efforts. For example, 9 March 1961, the Vostok 3A prototype flew a flawless mission. The capsule with Chernushka and Ivan Ivanovich landed in an open field near Stary Tokmak. Kamanin and Vladimir Yazdovsky arrived on site, encircled by curious villagers, and arranged recovery of the craft. The tracking network was considerably expanded after 1965, with a special naval group and installations in Cuba.
Management of cosmonaut training squad, probably the least time-consuming activity, started with selection of Air Force Group I in March 1960. Between 17–18 January 1961, Kamanin chaired the Examination Committee that evaluated the first six cosmonauts prepared for the Vostok program. Kamanin rated Yuri Gagarin, Gherman Titov and Grigori Nelyubov as the best candidates. He personally developed the cosmonaut flying manual and training schedule, traveled across landing areas with flight candidates and supervised last-minute training at Baikonur. Kamanin also campaigned for early disclosure of Soviet launches, as soon as the craft is in orbit, against Vershinin's original opinion. Kamanin's view was upheld 29 March when the state commission approved the first crewed launch.
Commissioner for all other space launches, including the first interplanetary space probes. He was skeptical about the value of these probes: "Venus launch is hardly a sensible endeavor: it delays crewed flight and decreases Rocket Force battle-readiness" ("Пуск на Венеру - затея едва ли разумная: она задерживает полет человека и снижает боеспособность ракетных войск"). Indeed, the first Venus mission failed - the Venera spacecraft was trapped in Earth's orbit. The second Venera, launched 12 February 1961, missed its target by 100,000 kilometers, which was a success for 1961 technology.
Gagarin's flight
By 5 April 1961, Kamanin was still indecisive, ranking Gagarin and Titov equally fit for the flight. Three days later, he recommended Gagarin, with Titov as backup. After the final training session (afternoon, 11 April), Kamanin parted with Yuri Gagarin. The next day, Gagarin lifted off in Vostok 1, made a full orbit and safely landed 23 kilometers from Saratov. Kamanin left mission control 20 minutes after launch, as soon as Gagarin reported that he is safe in orbit, and rushed to Stalingrad in an Antonov An-12 transport. Still airborne, Kamanin received a radio message that Gagarin had landed safely and was flown to Kuybyshev airport. Later, in 1966, he recorded that "As odd as it may seem, Gagarin's flight was the safest. Voskhod 2 was the most dangerous to date" ("Как это ни странно звучит, но самым надежным у нас был полет Гагарина. Самым опасным до настоящего времени являлся полет "Восхода-2").
Public relations
On 14 April, Kamanin accompanied Gagarin on his triumphant ride into Red Square and was the publicity mentor of Soviet cosmonauts until his retirement. In May–September 1961, Gagarin and Kamanin performed a world publicity tour, reaching countries like Iceland and Brazil.
This was followed by a near disaster in Crimea. For the first time, Kamanin reported Gagarin and Titov having serious personal problems, and attempted to repair their discipline and motivation. On 4 October 1961, Gagarin injured his head in a bizarre jump from a balcony, ending up in a hospital and failing to attend the opening of 22nd Communist Party Congress. This was a political blow to the air force, and Kamanin personally; Kamanin had to concentrate on politics to restore his former influence. On 20 October. the United States media, curious why Gagarin missed the Congress, started its own inquiries and speculations; Kamanin was called to intervene. On 24 October, Gagarin, bearing fresh evidence of plastic surgery on his torn eyebrow, made a brief appearance at the Congress; he later explained the scar as a routine tourist accident.
In December 1961, Gagarin and Kamanin flew on another tour, this time to India, Sri Lanka, and Afghanistan. Later, Kamanin had to persuade Vershinin to let him stay at home and concentrate on real work instead of meeting foreign dignitaries. He, however, appreciated the results of the United States tour (28 April - 12 May 1962), and the practical information released by John Glenn and Alan Shepard.
Another particularly challenging campaign followed the flight of Voskhod 1. Three cosmonauts landed 13 October 1964, the day when Nikita Khrushchev was ousted from power. Their triumphant return was compromised by uncertainty with new Soviet leadership and the accidental death of Marshal Sergey Biryuzov (19 October).
Women in space
Kamanin campaigned for training and launching women cosmonauts since Gagarin's flight, but the subsequent publicity assignments separated him from decision-making. However, on 25 December the Soviet government authorized selection of a second group of 60 trainees, including women. By the end of January 1962, Kamanin collected 58 women's resumes and picked 23 who still had to pass the physical tests. On 12 March, a group of five women was picked for active training; on 29 March he identified Valentina Tereshkova, Irina Solovyova and Tatyana Kuznetsova as the most capable for the flight. Another set of problems he handled was the life support systems for the women, notably the female spacesuits - an unexpected problem.
The group passed cosmonauts examinations on 28 November 1962 and was put on hold until the end of April 1963. Preparation to the flight was impossible without a firmly set launch date, and nobody in the government dared to give a go-ahead. On 24 April, the government finally ordered a joint flight of two available Vostok spacecraft - the only two craft in stock. Their shelf life was set at 15 June 1963 and could not be extended. Thus, the flight preparation of Valery Bykovsky and Valentina Tereshkova (approved to fly 21 May) was hurried by "use it or lose it" deadline. Kamanin and the cosmonauts relocated to Baikonur 27 May and stayed there until the launch. In fact, Tereshkova lifted off 16 June - one day past her craft's expiration date. Kamanin worked mission control shifts while she was in space and had to wake Tereshkova who, asleep, failed to respond. Both crafts landed safely but overshot the landing target by two degrees. Like Gagarin, Tereshkova bailed from the landing capsule and used her personal parachute. After the flight, Kamanin again was involved in a time-consuming publicity campaign - this time, centered around Tereshkova.
In 1965, after Voskhod 2, Kamanin proposed a flight of female crew on the next Voskhod. Gagarin and other (male) cosmonauts were strongly against it. The case was closed with cancellation of all planned Voskhod launches.
Political failures
Kamanin was engaged in the rivalry between various powers behind Soviet space program - on the air force side. His personal vision of the space program was more than once cut short by this political rivalries.
Establishment of a single space agency. Kamanin realized the need to eradicate friction between the Rocket Force, the Air Force and different industrial groups (Korolyov, Mikhail Yangel, Vladimir Chelomei). His political influence alone was not enough to achieve this; the closest achievable goal was to unite all military space efforts under a single command. In November 1963, the General Staff proposed placing all military space projects under the Commander of Air Force; Rodion Malinovsky, minister of defence, scrapped the project. A later pro-Air Force campaign (May–July 1964) also failed. Rivalry and duplicate functions continued on lower levels; for example, the Institute of Medical and Biological Problems (established 1964) competed with the older Institute of Aviation and Space Medicine for personnel and premises, etc.
Expansion of Vostok programme. Kamanin also realized that Korolyov's Soyuz project was in the very distant future, and relying on Soyuz alone would ground his cosmonaut squad for years. From 1961 to 1963, he campaigned for more Vostok crewed launches. His calls to build 8-10 Vostok spacecraft did not materialize (at some point in 1963, he seemed to succeed with a "build Vostoks" program, but it was soon folded down). As a result, there were only three Soviet crewed flights between the last Vostok (June 1963) and the first crewed Apollo flight (October 1968); Kamanin was on mission control for all three, including Vladimir Komarov's fatal flight. By June 1964, Kamanin realized that the Soviet side had lost the space race; he blamed Korolyov and Mstislav Keldysh for the lack of realistic long-term plans. It's not surprising that idle time worked against personnel morale and caused even more interdepartmental politics.
Head of Training Center problems. After demotion of Colonel Karpov, the first head of Cosmonaut Training Center, Kamanin initially supported nomination of General Odintsov. Odintsov was approved 5 April 1963, and in a few weeks proved himself completely incompetent to the task - a view allegedly supported by Korolyov and Marshal Rudenko. 17 July AirForce Military Council dismissed Odintsov; Kamanin campaigned to nominate 29-year-old Yuri Gagarin, but was stonewalled by his superiors Vershinin and Rudenko. However, in September Rodion Malinovsky reinstalled Odintsov; the situation normalized in November 1963 with appointment of General Nikolai Kuznetsov. After the death of Gagarin, Kamanin (himself ultimately responsible for all cosmonaut training) blamed Kuznetsov for a sequence of errors that allowed Gagarin and Seregin to take off on their fatal flight. Replacing Kuznetsov, again, became a long bureaucratic struggle.
Disaster years: 1966-1968
Korolyov. 1966 started with death of Sergey Korolyov. His successor, Vasily Mishin, backed by Mstislav Keldysh, started his own political campaign, targeted at capturing cosmonaut training facilities from the Air Force - which forever alienated Kamanin. In particular, Mishin promoted his own candidates into the space program; Kamanin deemed them inadequately trained to fly and insisted on Air Force candidates with a proven flight record. For some time, the future Soyuz missions had two competing crews - Air Force and OKB-1,. Kamanin's cosmonauts were also assigned to the future Almaz, Spiral and two competing lunar projects. Probably as a reaction against Mishin, Kamanin rated Vladimir Chelomei and his staff very high, and his products - superior to Mishin's.
Komarov. Kamanin, as the state commissioner for the Soyuz 1 launch, was present at Baikonur throughout launch preparation that began 6 April 1967. Once the rocket lifted off on 23 April Kamanin took charge of the first mission control shift. Vladimir Komarov, on his second orbit, reported failure in solar panels - one of them failed to deploy. So far, the situation was manageable, and Kamanin dispatched Gagarin to the second mission control station in Yevpatoria. On the 13th orbit, the state commission realized there was an imminent danger and decided to land Komarov and cancel Soyuz 2. At 6:45 AM on 24 April, while Komarov was still alive, Kamanin boarded the plane departing to the landing area. In the air, Kamanin received the first (incorrect) news of Soyuz descending with a fully deployed parachute. He was not aware of disaster until meeting General Artamonov on the Orsk airfield. Kamanin lost an hour and half travelling to the crash site, only to see the capsule still on fire. Later, the Soyuz 1 parachute failure was linked to an insufficient pilot chute that failed to drag the main parachute from its container.
Gagarin and Seryogin. On 27 March 1968, Yuri Gagarin and Colonel Vladimir Seryogin were killed on a routine training flight in a Mig-15UTI jet trainer. Enquiries continued for more than a year and did not produce a clear answer. All cosmonaut flight training was suspended. Kamanin, as the person ultimately responsible for cosmonaut training, received a formal reprimand; without Gagarin and without any prospects of winning the space race, his own influence and influence of the Air Force on the space program deteriorated - while the American lunar program was steadily under way.
Retirement
On November 11, 1969, Marshal Kutakhov notified the 62-year-old Kamanin of his upcoming transfer to "consultancy" — a soft retirement. Two weeks later, before that paperwork was completed, Kamanin sent a bitter letter to Minister of Defense Andrei Grechko, explaining his view on military space program and rejecting as unnecessary "consultancy" employment. Kamanin continued working as usual; the string of premature deaths continued with Pavel Belyayev (10 January 1970).
In 1970, the Soviet space program re-oriented from lunar travel to orbital stations. In February 1970, Kamanin estimated first Almaz (Chelomei) or DOS-7K (Mishin) to be ready in summer 1971, at best. Selection of cosmonauts for the first orbital station, again, became a tug of war between Mishin and Kamanin, while the Air Force continued recruitment of new military pilots like Vladimir Dzhanibekov. 19 May - 19 June, Kamanin conducted the usual flight preparation and flight control sequence of Soyuz 9; health problems of cosmonauts returning from an 18-day mission caused a major redesign of future flight programs and another clash with Mishin (Mishin insisted on 30-days flights, Kamanin set for no more than 24 days).
Salyut 1 was launched 19 April 1971; initial failures of on-board fans and the scientific equipment bay were not considered a major problem. The crew of Soyuz 10, launched four days later, docked with the stations, but failed to lock the docking gasket firmly. They did not have enough fuel for a second docking and a safe return, nor the spacesuits for an EV transfer, and the mission controller aborted the flight. For the first time in Soviet space program, Soyuz 10 landed at night.
On 21 May 1971, Kamanin arrived at Baikonur for his last mission launch. Soyuz 11 lifted off 6 June, docked with the station, and completed the program, but the crew was killed by decompression on their landing run. Kamanin was at the mission control at Yevpatoria throughout their fatal descent and left his own transcript of conversation and the silence that followed.
Kamanin retired after the accident, replaced by Vladimir Shatalov.
In retirement, Kamanin acted as the leader of the Communist Party committee of his apartment building. He also continued writing books and articles, and giving public talks. He died in 1982 at the age of 74.
Kamanin in media
Arkady and Nikolai Kamanin (played by Alexander Porokhovshchikov) are the characters of a 1978 Soviet film, Then You Will See the Sky ("И ты увидишь небо").
Honours and awards
Hero of the Soviet Union ("Gold Star", No. 2)
Three Orders of Lenin (No. 414, ...)
Order of the October Revolution
Order of the Red Banner, twice
Order of Suvorov, 2nd class, twice
Order of Kutuzov, 2nd class
Order of the Red Star
Honorary Citizen of Vinnitsa, Bratislava, Plovdiv, Riga, Kaluga
Medal "For the Victory over Germany in the Great Patriotic War 1941–1945"
Medal "For the Capture of Vienna"
Medal "For the Capture of Budapest"
Jubilee Medal "XX Years of the Workers' and Peasants' Red Army"
References
"Bank of the Universe" - edited by Boltenko A. C., Kiev, 2014., publishing house "Phoenix",
Nikolai Kamanin in the family history
S. P. Korolev. Encyclopedia of life and creativity" - edited by C. A. Lopota, RSC Energia. S. P. Korolev, 2014
The official website of the city administration Baikonur - Honorary citizens of Baikonur
Citations
Sources
Heroes of the Soviet Union: Nikolai Kamanin
"The hidden space" – Nikolai Kamanin, М: "Инфортекс-ИФ, 1995.
1908 births
1982 deaths
People from Vladimir Oblast
People from Melenkovsky Uyezd
Heroes of the Soviet Union
Recipients of the Order of Suvorov, 2nd class
Recipients of the Order of Kutuzov, 2nd class
Recipients of the Order of the Red Banner
Recipients of the Order of Lenin
Soviet space program personnel
Russian aviators
Soviet Air Force generals
Soviet colonel generals
Soviet Air Force officers
Russian people of World War II
Soviet World War II pilots
Recipients of the Cross of Valour (Poland)
Military Academy of the General Staff of the Armed Forces of the Soviet Union alumni
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West%20Orange%20High%20School%20%28Florida%29
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West Orange High School (Florida)
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West Orange High School is a high school located in Winter Garden in southwest Orange County, Florida, United States. West Orange serves Winter Garden, Oakland, Tildenville, and parts of Lake Butler and Ocoee.
History
1970s
Completed in 1975 at a cost of 6.5 million dollars, West Orange High was formed as a consolidation of two over-crowded high schools within western Orange County: Lakeview High School and Ocoee High School. Ocoee High School has since been rebuilt and reinstated due to overcrowding in West Orange and Apopka High School. The Lakeview High School site became Lakeview Junior High School. In recent times, Lakeview has undergone a campus expansion and renovation as Lakeview Middle School.
The first classes were held at Lakeview High School in September 1975. The first principal of the school was Lester Dabbs. Upon completion of the new facility, classes began onsite in January 1976. Many of the teachers that first year transferred from Lakeview, Ocoee, and Evans High Schools.
The original West Orange High School building design was extremely modernistic for its time. In fact, the WOHS main building was an award-winning design for the architectural firm. Apopka High School was the only school in existence with the same exact building format. West Orange appeared virtually identical to its sister school, both in the original pristine white paint scheme. The school name's facade on the side of the gym and the front entrance were trimmed in cypress wood. Gymnasium accent columns, as well as the round front entrance planters, were trimmed in red brick.
All academic classrooms were housed within an innovative floorplan design, with each of the three circular wings arranged and interconnected in the shape of a triangle. New to Central Florida high schools at the time, all classrooms and common areas were located within one contiguous building complex so that the weather did not affect the school day. The lunchroom "commons," as well as the library media center and auditorium, were designed to be located centrally within the complex. The band room, gym, and industrial arts wings, as well as the science building, were located along the periphery of the complex. Designed in the aftermath of the 1973 energy crisis, the architectural design also called for a minimum of windows to maximize energy efficiency, as the building was 100% air-conditioned. Large portions of the building were also designed with removable partitions to allow for easy re-configuration as classroom size changed. Also contemporary with the 1970s, nearly all floors were carpeted and many of the interior walls were either covered with carpet or high-grade vinyl wall texturing. In the campus' final years, however, the building interior has been modified, removing most of the carpeting on the walls and floors.
The school opened with a population of nearly 1800 students for the 1975–1976 school year. As a result of the rapid growth brought on by the earlier opening of the Magic Kingdom and the more recent opening of EPCOT Center, the school was at or past maximum capacity at about 2200 students by the 1977–1978 school year. Many of the palm trees and additional landscaping elements near the front entrance portico were donated by a foundation associated with Disney. Despite uniqueness of building design, the size of the community student body was already at the bursting point. A science wing was added to the original structure, being both the first and last major addition to the school main building.
One of the school's earlier principals, Raymond Screws, was shot dead in his own office by a co-worker, Assistant Principal Roosevelt Holloman, who had been accused of misconduct on December 12, 1977. The football field, Raymond Screws Field, is named in his honor.
2000s
Ocoee High School opened in 2005 and nearly half of West Orange's student body was sent to the new school, along with some West Orange teachers. Ocoee's first principal, Michael Armbruster, is both an alumnus and a former principal of West Orange.
In April 2006, WOHS held a gala to celebrate 30 years with performances by the drama and choir departments and the marching band and ensemble. The school honored six teachers and staff members who had been at the school since it first opened its doors: Pat Moran, Karen Whidden, Maxine Lee, Fred Savage (retired), Gay Annis, and Rick Stotler (retired). In 2006, additional property at the corner of Warrior and Beulah Road was purchased to expand the campus.
On October 11, 2013, for the first time on record in Orange County, two students with Down syndrome were awarded Homecoming King and Queen.
As of the 2014–2015 school year, the school's enrollment was 3,873. The racial makeup of the school was 51% White, 24% Hispanic, 16% Black, 6% Asian, 2% Multicultural, and 1% Native American.
As of the 2016–2017 school year, 4,285 students are registered for classes at West Orange.
In 2017, Windermere High School was built as a relief school for the overcrowding at West Orange.
Original site architect
The original West Orange High School building was designed by architect Eoghan Newman Kelley of Sanford. His school designs include the original Lake Brantley High School, Apopka High School, and a number of high schools in Seminole County and Pasco County, Florida. He designed Lake Howell High School in Seminole County, and Land'O Lakes, Hudson High School, and Zephyrhills High School in Pasco County are among his designs.
Kelley's designs were based in part on a trend of the early 1970s called the Open School Concept. The outer school building was composed of large, simple geometric shapes with no windows, and the interior of each module was so laid out that it had few permanent walls; instead, movable walls abounded and very few of the classrooms had any doors. This was supposedly done to facilitate free movement between the rooms and other resources (such as the libraries) in each module. As the first few years were to make clear, the "no-doors" concept proved problematic, with teachers complaining constantly about noise from other rooms and halls. At Lake Brantley, eventually all the gaps were boarded up and each classroom got a door. At West Orange, the open school concept was retained to a large extent to maintain the original aesthetic vision.
Among the school designs in Orange, Seminole, and Pasco Counties, there were a number of common design themes. These almost invariably included a rectangular front entrance portico and a circular drive for easier locating of school buses during dismissal at the end of the school day. The library was often an open, sunken design located in the center of the complex. Commons areas were spacious, had high ceilings, yet were inviting through the use of carpeting on the floors and walls. Lockers were in colorful yellows, blues, and reds. The band room walls were fully carpeted to dampen sound. Support columns and recessed door openings were both architecturally functional and stylistic.
Kelley also stated that he had designed each school to be a fallout shelter if ever needed. (There was controversy as to whether these buildings were sturdy enough for this, no exterior windows notwithstanding. They contained no steel reinforcement in the outer cinder-block walls, and engineers doubt that they could have withstood a hurricane stronger than Category 2 or even a tornado, let alone a nuclear blast.) Kelley was awarded the contract to design the Educational Plaza schools and several others in Seminole County, as well as other schools in Florida, primarily in Pasco County.
Within just six years, serious flaws in construction and material quality at Lake Brantley High School began to appear, and massive roof leaks appeared in many different places. Two major repair and refurbishing projects were undertaken in 1980 and 1985, but eventually the school board had had enough, and plans were unveiled in 1996 to demolish the school and rebuild it from the ground up. By 1979, Seminole County had given up on Eoghan Kelley. By 1996, five of the 15 schools he designed in Seminole County were demolished. The other 10 have been semi-gutted and re-modeled, but the exterior of Forest City Elementary School, Altamonte Elementary School, Lake Orienta Elementary School, Winter Springs Elementary School, Sabal Point Elementary School, and a private school down the street from Lake Brantley High School (Forest Lake Academy) clearly still show their Kelley School design. Only a few fragments remain of the others: the gymnasium of Lake Howell High School, and a partial addition to the original Teague Middle School. His Pasco County, Flagler County, Volusia County, Sarasota County, Columbia County, and Alachua County schools are still standing. It is believed that both West Orange and Apopka High School were victims of the Kelley School issues.
Academics
Advanced Placement courses available at West Orange High School are:
AP Art 2-D Portfolio
AP Art 3-D Portfolio
AP Art History
AP Biology
AP Calculus AB
AP Calculus BC
AP Chemistry
AP Comparative Government and Politics
AP Computer Science Principles
AP Computer Science A
AP English Language
AP English Literature
AP Environmental Science
AP European History
AP Human Geography
AP Macroeconomics
AP Microeconomics
AP Music Theory
AP Physics 1
AP Physics 2
AP Physics C
AP Psychology
AP Research
AP Seminar
AP Spanish Language
AP Spanish Literature
AP Statistics
AP United States History
AP United States Government and Politics
AP World History
Extracurricular activities
Musical arts
Band
West Orange High School, borrowing heavily upon a strong program foundation at Lakeview and a smaller program at Ocoee High School, has had a 30-year prominent band program within Orange County.
The West Orange Warrior Band has appeared at many local and national venues, including the Magic Kingdom, Camping World Stadium, the Orlando Christmas Parade, and the National Cherry Blossom Festival in Washington, D.C. On November 25, 1992, the West Orange High School Band had the honor of opening the Macy's Thanksgiving Parade. For being a shelter during the hurricane seasons during 2004, West Orange High School band was given the opportunity to march in the Hollywood Christmas Parade in 2004, and the Chicago St. Patrick's Day Parade in 2002, 2007 and 2015. On December 30, 2008, the West Orange Warrior Band participated in the 2008 Florida Citrus Bowl Parade. The event was aired nationally on ABC on New Year's Day 2009.
In 2013, the band marched in the Annual Cherry Blossom Parade in Washington D.C. They also marched in the 2010 and 2017 Philadelphia Thanksgiving Day Parade. In 2020, the band marched in the London's New Year's Day Parade. In addition, the band has performed at the Midwest Clinic, the College Band Directors National Association/National Band Association's Southeast Regional Conference, and the 2017 FMEA President's Conference. The band program was also recently named a Blue Ribbon Program of Excellence by the National Band Association.
Choir
The WOHS choral and theatre departments have won outstanding ratings at district and state festivals. The Advanced Choirs won 1st place, 2nd place and Outstanding Director Awards in 2005 at a competition in Verona, Italy. The choir program attended the competition again in 2019.
West Orange's choir director, Dr. Jeffery Redding, was awarded the 2019 Grammy Music Educator Award.
Theatre
The theatre department is home to Thespian Troupe 1983, and has won many awards, from a year-to-year 1st place holding in the District Thespian competition, to being named the best play in 7 states at the South Eastern Theatre Conference with Mark Medoff's play, Children of a Lesser God.
In 2017, the theatre department held the high school premiere of Steve Martin and Edie Brickell's musical, Bright Star. Under the direction of Tara Whitman, they submitted the show to the International Thespian Society's "mainstage" competition. This led to West Orange being one of eight schools invited to perform at the Florida State Thespian Festival at the Straz Center for the Performing Arts in Tampa, Florida, and one of only eleven schools in the world invited to perform at the 2018 International Thespian Festival at the Lied Center for Performing Arts in Lincoln, Nebraska. The department also had brought mainstage productions to the state festival in previous years, such as 42nd Street (2017), Annie Get Your Gun (2014), Jekyll & Hyde (2011), Hair (2010), and The Crucible (2003).
At the 2019 Florida State Thespian Festival, the theatre department received top honors for their performance of Jim Leonard Jr.'s play, The Diviners.
The department was set to attend the 2020 Florida State Thespian Festival with two shows, a mainstage production of Kander and Ebb's Curtains, and a one-act play entitled Lilies on the Land, however, the festival was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
In the spring of 2022, the department returned to the state thespian festival in-person for the first time in three years with two shows; Pippin, a mainstage production in Carol Morsani Hall, and Ruby's Story, a one act play, for which they received top honors.
The department made history in the fall of 2022, becoming the first high school ever to perform The Prom, taking it to the state festival yet again, making it the fourth time in five years that the school would perform on the festival mainstage, this time at Howard W. Blake High School on March 16 and 17, 2023. Their production received a favorable review from BroadwayWorld as well as numerous accolades from their community.
AFJROTC
An aerospace science program (Air Force Junior Reserve Officer Training Corps) is offered at West Orange High School, with more in-depth activities available within the corps, such as Kitty Hawk Air Society, Drill Team, Rocket Club, Aim High, and an Honor Guard (which is nationally ranked for its drill team and color guard).
Their first national recognition was not until 2008–2009, when they were ranked among the top schools of the nation. In May 2013 the Honor Guard came home with multiple trophies, including a 3rd place color guard trophy. The drill team also won trophies.
Sports
West Orange sports include at least 30 teams in at least 18 different sports.
An artificial turf field was installed for football at a cost of approximately $500,000.
The West Orange Foundation, Inc was established to help the school fund this and other projects. Construction for the field was completed in 2006, and lasted for 11 years. In 2015, the field was deemed unsafe due to large amounts of melted rubber and plastic. The field was eventually redone after even more extensive damage was done to it thanks to Hurricane Irma. The field reopened in late March 2018.
Starting in June 2014, the baseball facility is home to the Winter Garden Squeeze, a member of the Florida Collegiate Summer League.
Communities served
Communities served by the school include: Winter Garden, Oakland, Tildenville, and sections of Lake Butler, and Ocoee.
Areas served by West Orange High prior to 2017 include: additional sections of Lake Butler, the Orange County portion of Four Corners, and Bay Lake.
Principals
West Orange High School's principals have included:
Lester Dabbs (1975–1976)
Raymond Screws (1976–1977)
Ray Aldridge (1977–1978)
Anthony Krapf (1978–1984)
Joe Worsham (1984–1991)
Sara Jane Turner (1991–1996)
Gary Preisser (1996–2000)
Mike Armbruster (2000–2005)
Daniel Buckman (2005–2007)
Edward Jones (interim 2007)
James Larsen (2007–2013)
Douglas Szcinski (2013–2016)
William Floyd (2016–2019)
Melissa Gordon (interim 2019–2020)
Matthew Turner (2020–present)
Notable alumni
Kane Beatz '05, music producer
Nolan Fontana '09, former MLB infielder for the Los Angeles Angels
Austin Gomber '11, fourth round pick in the 2014 MLB Draft by the St. Louis Cardinals,
Doug Nikhazy ‘18, second round pick in the 2021 MLB Draft by the Cleveland Guardians
Sammie '05, R&B artist
Chris Seise '17, first round pick in the 2017 MLB Draft by the Texas Rangers
Adande Thorne ‘98, Trinidadian-American YouTuber and animator known for his YouTube channel sWooZie
Dexter Williams '15, former Green Bay Packers running back
Mason Williams '10, MLB outfielder
Cori Yarckin '00, actress and singer
References
External links
Official web site
Current monthly construction update
Educational institutions established in 1975
Orange County Public Schools
High schools in Orange County, Florida
Public high schools in Florida
Winter Garden, Florida
1975 establishments in Florida
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonathan%20Maberry
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Jonathan Maberry
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Jonathan Maberry (born May 18, 1958) is an American suspense author, anthology editor, comic book writer, magazine feature writer, playwright, content creator and writing teacher/lecturer. He was named one of the Today's Top Ten Horror Writers.
Early life
Jonathan Maberry was born in Kensington, Philadelphia, attended Frankford High School, and then went on to Temple University. Growing up in a rough neighborhood, he began learning martial arts at the age of 6.
Career
Author
Maberry's early work featured martial arts as a topic, such as Judo and You (Kendall Hunt 1990), Ultimate Jujutsu (Strider Nolan, 2002) and Ultimate Sparring (Strider Nolan 2003).
In the next phase of his career, he departed from martial arts writing and wrote several books on the folklore and beliefs of the occult and paranormal, including The Vampire Slayers Field Guide to the Undead (Strider Nolan, 2000), written under the pen name of Shane MacDougall; Vampire Universe: The Dark World of Supernatural Beings That Haunt Us, Hunt Us and Hunger for Us (Citadel Press, 2006); The Cryptopedia, co-authored by David F. Kramer (2007); Zombie CSU: The Forensics of the Living Dead (2008); They Bite (also with David F. Kramer, 2009); and Wanted Undead or Alive (with Janice Gable Bashman, 2010). The Cryptopedia won the Bram Stoker Award for best nonfiction work.
His first novel, Ghost Road Blues, won the 2007 Bram Stoker Award for Best First Novel. That book was the first of the Pine Deep Trilogy and was followed by Dead Man's Song (2007) and Bad Moon Rising (2008), all from Pinnacle Books.
Maberry is also a freelance comic book writer, first for Marvel and later for Dark Horse and IDW Publishing. His first story, "Wolverine: Ghosts", was published as a backup story in Wolverine: Anniversary, April 2009. In August 2009 he became the regular writer for Marvel's Black Panther series, starting on the 7th issue, and he wrote Marvel Zombies Return: Wolverine. In 2010, he wrote Doom War and Marvel Universe Vs The Punisher, Marvel Universe Vs Wolverine, Marvel Universe Vs The Avengers; Klaws of the Panther, and Captain America: Hail Hydra. He moved to Dark Horse Comics and produced a single miniseries, Bad Blood, with artist Tyler Crook, which went on to win the Bram Stoker Award for Best Graphic Novel. His work for IDW Publishing includes two collections of V-Wars, a five-issue standalone series Rot & Ruin: Warrior Smart, and his latest series Pandemic.
His bestselling work was the novelization of the 2010 film The Wolfman which starred Benicio del Toro, Anthony Hopkins, Emily Blunt, and Hugo Weaving. In March 2010, the novel reached #35 on the mass-market paperback section of The New York Times Best Seller List. It was nominated for and won the Scribe Award for Best Film Adaptation, issued by the International Association of Media Tie-in Writers.
In 2010 Maberry began writing young adult post-apocalyptic zombie stories. His first prestigious award was for his first young adult novel, Rot & Ruin (2010, Simon & Schuster). It won the 2010 Bram Stoker Award for Best Novel, was named in Booklist's Ten Best Horror Novels for Young Adults, an American Library Association Top Pick, a Bram Stoker and Pennsylvania Keystone to Reading winner; winner of several state Teen Book Awards including the Cricket, Nutmeg and MASL; winner of the Cybils Award, the Eva Perry Mock Printz medal, Dead Letter Best Novel Award, and four Melinda Awards. It became the first of a new series of post-apocalyptic zombie thrillers such as Dust & Decay (winner of a 2011 Bram Stoker Award) Flesh & Bone (winner of a 2012 Bram Stoker Award), Fire & Ash, a collection of short stories, Bits and Pieces, Broken Lands, and Lost Roads, which will be released August 25, 2020.
Maberry then launched a series called The Nightsiders that blends science fiction with horror. Book 1 of that series, The Orphan Army was named as one of the 100 Best Books for Children. A follow-up, Vault of Shadows was published in August 2016.
The series for which Maberry is best known is the Joe Ledger Series, in which a Baltimore police detective is recruited into a Special Ops unit attached to the mysterious Department of Military Sciences, which is run by enigmatic Mr. Church. Each of the books in the series pits Ledger and his team against a different kind of extreme science threat. In the first novel, Patient Zero, the threat is a pathogen that turns people into zombies. In the second book, The Dragon Factory, the villains are geneticists using cutting-edge science to restart the Nazi master race eugenics program. The rest of the series follows with The King of Plagues, Assassin's Code, Extinction Machine, Code Zero, Predator One, Kill Switch, Dogs of War; and Deep Silence. Maberry recently launched Rage, the first in the follow-up Rogue Team International series, also featuring Joe Ledger. A collection of Maberry's Joe Ledger short stories, Joe Ledger: Special Ops, was released by JournalStone. The series' main publisher, Griffin, released Joe Ledger: Unstoppable, an anthology of Ledger stories written by a variety of top suspense and mystery writers including Tim Lebbon, Scott Sigler, Steve Alten, Weston Ochse, Dana Fredsti, Christopher Golden, Joe McKinney, Jeremy Robinson, Javier Grillo-Marxuach, Sherrilyn Kenyon, Bryan Thomas-Schmidt, and others.
In 2015 Maberry released a rare standalone novel, Ghostwalkers, based on the Deadlands table top role playing game. The book was nominated for a Scribe Award for best original novel based on a licensed property.
His most recent standalone novel was Glimpse, published in March 2018 by St. Martin's Press. Glimpse is a chilling thriller that explores what happens when reality and nightmares converge, and how far one will go to protect the innocent when their own brain is a threat. Another standalone, Ink, will be released by St. Martin's Griffin as a trade paperback in 2020. Although a standalone, Ink has elements of other books, including characters and locations from the Pine Deep Trilogy, and the appearance of Monk Addison and Patty Cakes from Glimpse.
Maberry is also a prolific editor of anthologies in a variety of genre including dark fantasy (Out of Tune and Out of Tune Vol 2), science fiction/horror (The X-Files: Trust No One, The X-Files: The Truth is Out There, and The X-Files: Secret Agendas, all from IDW Publishing); horror (Nights of the Living Dead, with George A. Romero); mystery pastiche (Alternate Sherlocks, with Michael Ventrella), political thrillers with horror (V-wars, V-Wars: Blood and Fire, V-Wars: Night Terrors, and V-Wars: Shockwaves), and an anthology of horror stories for teens (Scary Out There) which features original stories and poetry by R.L. Stine, Ellen Hopkins, Linda Addision, Ilsa J. Bick, and many others.
In 2017 he published Devil's Advocate, one of the first two books in the X-Files Origins series. Maberry wrote the story about a young Dana Scully, while colleague Kami Garcia (Beautiful Creatures), wrote Agent of Chaos, a young Fox Mulder story.
Also in 2017, Maberry published Indigo, a collaborative work of fiction written with nine other authors including Charlaine Harris and Christopher Golden.
Film and television
In May 2010, Maberry's work was the basis of a television pilot written by Javier Grillo-Marxuach named "Department Zero", which was moved into active production by ABC Television.
In April 2018, it was announced that Netflix greenlit a television adaptation of the V-WARS novels and comics. Following the series announcement, it was confirmed that Maberry would be credited as an executive producer and creator for the Netflix series V Wars. Production for the first season began and ended in 2018 for a 10-episode first season. The series premiered on December 5, 2019.
Other work
Maberry is a speaker for the National Writers Union, a writing mentor for the Horror Writers Association and the Mystery Writers of America, a member of the International Thriller Writers and president of the NJ-PA Chapter of the Horror Writers Association.
Maberry is also a contributing editor for The Big Thrill, the monthly newsletter of the International Thriller Writers, and a founding partner of The Liars Club, a networking group of professionals in publishing and other aspects of entertainment.
Personal life
Maberry holds an 8th degree black belt in Shinowara-ryu Jujutsu. In 2004 he was inducted into the Martial Arts Hall of Fame.
Awards
2003, Writer's Award, International Martial Arts Hall of Fame
2004, Martial Arts Hall of Fame (USA)
2006, winner: Bram Stoker Award for Best First Novel, for Ghost Road Blues
2006, nominated: Bram Stoker Award for Novel, for Ghost Road Blues
2007, winner: Bram Stoker Award for Best Non-Fiction for The Cryptopedia
2008, nominated: Bram Stoker Award for Best Non-Fiction for Zombie CSU
2009, nominated: Bram Stoker Award for Novel, for Patient Zero
2010, winner: Bram Stoker Award for Best Novel, for Rot & Ruin
2010, nominated: Bram Stoker Award for Best Non-Fiction, for Wanted Undead or Alive
2011, winner (tie): Bram Stoker Award for Young Adult Novel, for Dust and Decay
2011, nominated: Bram Stoker Award for Best Graphic Novel, for Marvel Universe vs. Wolverine
2012, winner: Bram Stoker Award for Best Young Adult Novel, for Flesh & Bone
2014, winner: Bram Stoker Award for Best Graphic Novel, for Bad Blood
Bibliography
Stand-alone novels
The Wolfman Movie Novelization (2010, Tor Books) –
Deadlands: Ghostwalkers (October 2010, Tor Books)
Mars One (2016, Simon & Schuster)
Indigo (2017, St. Martin's Press) –
Glimpse (2018, St. Martin's Griffin) –
Night Universe
Pine Deep Trilogy
Ghost Road Blues (June 2006, Pinnacle Books) –
Dead Man's Song (July 2007, Pinnacle Books) –
Bad Moon Rising (May 2008, Pinnacle Books) –
Monk Addison:
Ink (2020, St. Martin's Griffin) –
Rot & Ruin series
Rot & Ruin (September 2010, Simon & Schuster)
Dust & Decay (August 2011, Simon & Schuster
Flesh & Bone (September 2012, Simon & Schuster
Fire & Ash (September 2013, Simon & Schuster) (finale)
Bits & Pieces (September 2015, Simon & Schuster) (short story collection)
Broken Lands series:
Broken Lands – Broken Lands #1/Rot & Ruin #6 (December 2018, Simon & Schuster)
Lost Roads – Broken Lands #2/Rot & Ruin #7 (August 2020, Simon & Schuster)
Joe Ledger series
Patient Zero (March 2009, St. Martin's Griffin)
The Dragon Factory (March 2010, St. Martin's Griffin)
The King of Plagues (March 2011, St. Martin's Griffin)
Assassin's Code (April 2012, St. Martin's Griffin)
The Extinction Machine (March 2013, St. Martin's Griffin)
Code Zero (March 2014, St. Martin's Griffin)
Predator One (March 2015, St. Martin's Griffin)
Kill Switch (April 2016, St. Martin's Griffin)
Dogs of War (2017, St. Martin's Griffin)
Deep Silence (October 2018, St. Martin's Griffin)
Joe Ledger – Rogue Team International
Rage (November 2019, St. Martin's Griffin)
Relentless (July 2021, St. Martin's Griffin)
Cave 13 (August 2023, St. Martin's Griffin)
Dead of Night series
Dead of Night (2011, St. Martin's Griffin) –
Fall of Night (2014, St. Martin's Griffin) –
Dark of Night (2016, JournalStone) (novella)
Still of Night (2018, JournalStone) –
The Nightsiders
The Nightsiders: The Orphan Army (2015, Simon & Schuster Books for Young Readers)
The Nightsiders: Vault of Shadows (2016, Simon & Schuster Books for Young Readers)
X-Files Origins
Devil's Advocate (2017, Imprint/Macmillan)
Kagen the Damned
Kagen the Damned (May 2022, St. Martin's Griffin) –
"I Say Your Name in the Dark Nights" (short story) (November 2022, St. Martin's Griffin) – ISBN 9781250887658
Son of the Poison Rose (January 2023, St. Martin's Griffin) – ISBN 9781250783998
Anthologies and collections
V-Wars: Chronicles of the Vampire Wars
V-Wars (editor and principal writer – 2012, IDW Publishing)
V-Wars: Blood and Fire (editor and principal writer – 2014, IDW Publishing)
V-Wars: Night Terrors (editor and principal writer – 2016, IDW Publishing)
V-Wars: Shockwaves (editor and principal writer – 2016, IDW Publishing)
Others
Anthology editor
Out of Tune Vol 1 (2014, JournalStone Publishing)
Out of Tune Vol 2 (2016, JournalStone Publishing)
X-Files: Trust No One (2015, IDW Publishing)
X-Files: The Truth is Out There (2016, IDW Publishing)
X-Files: Secret Agenda (2016, IDW Publishing)
Scary Out There (2016, Simon & Schuster)
Joe Ledger: Unstoppable (2017, Simon & Schuster) (with Bryan Thomas-Schmidt)
Baker Street Irregulars (2017, Diversion Books) (with Michael Ventrella)
Nights of the Living Dead (2017, St. Martin's Griffin) (with George A. Romero)
Hardboiled Horror (2017, JournalStone Publishing)
The Baker Street Irregulars: The Game's Afoot (2018, Diversion Books) (with Michael Ventrella)
Aliens: Bug Hunt (2018, Titan Books)
New Scary Stories to Tell in the Dark (2019, HarperCollins)
Don't Turn Out the Lights (2020, HarperCollins)
Aliens vs Predator: Ultimate Prey (2022, Titan Books)
Nonfiction
Judo and You: A Handbook for the Serious Student (1991, Kendall Hunt) –
Self-Defense for Every Woman (1992, Vortex Multimedia)
Shinowara-ryo Jujutsu: A History (1993, Vortex Multimedia)
Introduction to Asian Martial Arts (1993, Vortex Multimedia)
Shinowara-ryo Jujutsu: Student Handbook (1994, Vortex Multimedia)
The Martial Arts Student Log Book (October 2002)
Ultimate Jujutsu: Principles and Practices (October 2002)
Ultimate Sparring: Principles & Practices (January 2003)
The Vampire Slayers' Field Guide to the Undead (2003, Strider Nolan Publishing) (as Shane MacDougall) –
Vampire Universe: The Dark World of Supernatural Beings That Haunt Us, Hunt Us and Hunger for Us (September 2006)
The Cryptopedia: A Dictionary of the Weird, Strange, and Downright Bizarre (September 2007)
Zombie CSU: The Forensics of the Living Dead (September 2008)
THEY BITE!: Endless Cravings of Supernatural Predators (August 2008)
Wanted Undead or Alive: Vampire Hunters and Other Kick-Ass Enemies of Evil (September 2010)
The Joe Ledger Companion (2017, JournalStone) (with Dana Fredsti & Mari Adkins)
Comics
Marvel Universe vs. The Punisher (with Goran Parlov, 4-issue limited series, Marvel Comics, October–November 2010, tpb, 112 pages, hardcover, January 2011, , softcover, June 2011, )
Marvel Universe vs. Wolverine (with Laurence Campbell, 4-issue limited series, Marvel Comics, June–August 2011, tpb, 112 pages, hardcover, November 2011, , softcover, May 2012, )
Marvel Universe vs. The Avengers (with Leandro Fernández, 4-issue limited series, Marvel Comics, December 2012 – March 2013, tpb, 96 pages, softcover, April 2013, )
Rot & Ruin (with Tony Vargas and Alex Roland, continuing series, IDW Publishing, September 2014 – Current)
Captain America: Hail Hydra (Marvel Entertainment, 2011)
Klaws of the Panther (Marvel Entertainment, 2011)
Black Panther: DoomWar (Marvel Entertainment, 2009)
Black Panther: Power (Marvel Comics, 2009)
Marvel Zombies Return, Issue 3 (Marvel Comics, 2009)
Punisher: Naked Kills (Marvel Comics, 2008)
Black Panther: Age of Heroes (Marvel Comics, 2011)
Wolverine: Flies to a Spider (Marvel Comics, 2009)
Bad Blood Dark Horse Comics, 2014)
V-Wars: Crimson Queen (IDW Publishing, 2014)V-Wars: All of Us Monsters (IDW Publishing, 2015)V-Wars: Gods of Death (IDW Publishing, 2019) V-Wars: The Complete Collection (IDW Publishing, 2019)Road of the Dead: Highway to Hell, Issues 1-3 (IDW Publishing, 2018–2019)Road of the Dead: Highway to Hell, Graphic Novel, (IDW Publishing, 2019)Pandemica, Issues 1-3 (IDW Publishing, 2019)Pandemica, Graphic Novel Collection (IDW Publishing, June 2020)
AudiobooksLullaby, Narrated by Scott Brick, Audible Original, (Audible Studios 2018)Bewilderness, Part One: Threshold, Narrated by Shayna Small, Audible Original, (Audible Studios December 2020)Bewilderness, Part Two: What Rough Beast, Narrated by Shayna Small, Audible Original, (Audible Studios January 2021)Bewilderness, Part Three: Destroyer of Worlds'', Narrated by Shayna Small, Audible Original, (Audible Studios February 2021)
References
External links
Zombie Research Society Advisory Board
Interview with Michael A. Ventrella
Interview with Super Hero Speak
IDW Publishing
Marvel Entertainment
Marvel Comics
Dark Horse Comics
JournalStone Publishing
Diversion Press
Simon & Schuster
Simon & Schuster Books for Young Readers
Blackstone Audio
St. Martin's Griffin
Tor Books
Pinnacle Books
American comics writers
American horror writers
American martial arts writers
1958 births
Living people
American male novelists
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quakers
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Quakers
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Quakers are people who belong to the Religious Society of Friends, a historically Protestant Christian set of denominations. Members of these movements ("theFriends") are generally united by a belief in each human's ability to experience the light within or "answering that of God in every one". Some profess a priesthood of all believers inspired by the First Epistle of Peter. They include those with evangelical, holiness, liberal, and traditional Quaker understandings of Christianity. There are also Nontheist Quakers, whose spiritual practice does not rely on the existence of God. To differing extents, the Friends avoid creeds and hierarchical structures. In 2017, there were an estimated 377,557 adult Quakers, 49% of them in Africa.
Some 89% of Quakers worldwide belong to evangelical and programmed branches that hold services with singing and a prepared Bible message coordinated by a pastor. Some 11% practice waiting worship or unprogrammed worship (commonly Meeting for Worship), where the unplanned order of service is mainly silent and may include unprepared vocal ministry from those present. Some meetings of both types have Recorded Ministers present, Friends recognised for their gift of vocal ministry.
The proto-evangelical Christian movement dubbed Quakerism arose in mid-17th-century England from the Legatine-Arians and other dissenting Protestant groups breaking with the established Church of England. The Quakers, especially the Valiant Sixty, sought to convert others by travelling through Britain and overseas preaching the Gospel. Some early Quaker ministers were women. They based their message on a belief that "Christ has come to teach his people himself", stressing direct relations with God through Jesus Christ and belief in the universal priesthood of all believers. This personal religious experience of Christ was acquired by direct experience and by reading and studying the Bible. Quakers focused their private lives on behaviour and speech reflecting emotional purity and the light of God, with a goal of Christian perfection.
Past Quakers were known to use thee as an ordinary pronoun, refuse to participate in war, wear plain dress, refuse to swear oaths, oppose slavery, and practice teetotalism. Some Quakers founded banks and financial institutions, including Barclays, Lloyds, and Friends Provident; manufacturers including the footwear firm of C. & J. Clark and the big three British confectionery makers Cadbury, Rowntree and Fry; and philanthropic efforts, including abolition of slavery, prison reform, and social justice. In 1947, in recognition of their dedication to peace and the common good, Quakers represented by the British Friends Service Council and the American Friends Service Committee were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.
History
Beginnings in England
During and after the English Civil War (1642–1651) many dissenting Christian groups emerged, including the Seekers and others. A young man, George Fox, was dissatisfied with the teachings of the Church of England and nonconformists. He claimed to have received a revelation that "there is one, even Christ Jesus, who can speak to thy condition", and became convinced that it was possible to have a direct experience of Christ without the aid of ordained clergy. In 1652 he had a vision on Pendle Hill in Lancashire, England, in which he believed that "the Lord let me see in what places he had a great people to be gathered". Following this he travelled around England, the Netherlands, and Barbados preaching and teaching with the aim of converting new adherents to his faith. The central theme of his Gospel message was that Christ has come to teach his people himself. Fox considered himself to be restoring a true, "pure" Christian church.
In 1650, Fox was brought before the magistrates Gervase Bennet and Nathaniel Barton, on a charge of religious blasphemy. According to Fox's autobiography, Bennet "was the first that called us Quakers, because I bade them tremble at the word of the Lord". It is thought that Fox was referring to or . Thus the name Quaker began as a way of ridiculing Fox's admonition, but became widely accepted and used by some Quakers. Quakers also described themselves using terms such as true Christianity, Saints, Children of the Light, and Friends of the Truth, reflecting terms used in the New Testament by members of the early Christian church.
Quakerism gained a considerable following in England and Wales, not least among women. An address "To the Reader" by Mary Forster accompanied a Petition to the Parliament of England presented on 20 May 1659, expressing the opposition of over 7000 women to "the oppression of Tithes". The overall number of Quakers increased to a peak of 60,000 in England and Wales by 1680 (1.15% of the population of England and Wales). But the dominant discourse of Protestantism viewed the Quakers as a blasphemous challenge to social and political order, leading to official persecution in England and Wales under the Quaker Act 1662 and the Conventicle Act 1664. This persecution of Dissenters was relaxed after the Declaration of Indulgence (1687–1688) and stopped under the Act of Toleration 1689.
One modern view of Quakerism at this time was that the direct relationship with Christ was encouraged through spiritualisation of human relations, and "the redefinition of the Quakers as a holy tribe, 'the family and household of God. Together with Margaret Fell, the wife of Thomas Fell, who was the vice-chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster and an eminent judge, Fox developed new conceptions of family and community that emphasised "holy conversation": speech and behaviour that reflected piety, faith, and love. With the restructuring of the family and household came new roles for women; Fox and Fell viewed the Quaker mother as essential to developing "holy conversation" in her children and husband. Quaker women were also responsible for the spirituality of the larger community, coming together in "meetings" that regulated marriage and domestic behaviour.
Migration to North America
The persecution of Quakers in North America began in July 1656 when English Quaker missionaries Mary Fisher and Ann Austin began preaching in Boston. They were considered heretics because of their insistence on individual obedience to the Inner light. They were imprisoned for five weeks and banished by the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Their books were burned, and most of their property confiscated. They were imprisoned in terrible conditions, then deported.
In 1660, English Quaker Mary Dyer was hanged near Boston Common for repeatedly defying a Puritan law banning Quakers from the colony. She was one of the four executed Quakers known as the Boston martyrs. In 1661, King Charles II forbade Massachusetts from executing anyone for professing Quakerism. In 1684, England revoked the Massachusetts charter, sent over a royal governor to enforce English laws in 1686 and, in 1689, passed a broad Toleration Act.
Some Friends migrated to what is now the north-eastern region of the United States in the 1660s in search of economic opportunities and a more tolerant environment in which to build communities of "holy conversation". In 1665 Quakers established a meeting in Shrewsbury, New Jersey (now Monmouth County), and built a meeting house in 1672 that was visited by George Fox in the same year. They were able to establish thriving communities in the Delaware Valley, although they continued to experience persecution in some areas, such as New England. The three colonies that tolerated Quakers at this time were West Jersey, Rhode Island, and Pennsylvania, where Quakers established themselves politically. In Rhode Island, 36 governors in the first 100 years were Quakers. West Jersey and Pennsylvania were established by affluent Quaker William Penn in 1676 and 1682 respectively, with Pennsylvania as an American commonwealth run under Quaker principles. William Penn signed a peace treaty with Tammany, leader of the Delaware tribe, and other treaties followed between Quakers and Native Americans. This peace endured almost a century, until the Penn's Creek Massacre of 1755. Early colonial Quakers also established communities and meeting houses in North Carolina and Maryland, after fleeing persecution by the Anglican Church in Virginia.
In a 2007 interview, author David Yount (How the Quakers Invented America) said that Quakers first introduced many ideas that later became mainstream, such as democracy in the Pennsylvania legislature, the Bill of Rights to the U.S. Constitution from Rhode Island Quakers, trial by jury, equal rights for men and women, and public education. The Liberty Bell was cast by Quakers in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
Quietism
Early Quakerism tolerated boisterous behaviour that challenged conventional etiquette, but by 1700, its adherents no longer supported disruptive and unruly behaviour. During the 18th century, Quakers entered the Quietist period in the history of their church, becoming more inward-looking spiritually and less active in converting others. Marrying outside the Society was cause for having one's membership revoked. Numbers dwindled, dropping to 19,800 in England and Wales by 1800 (0.21% of the population), and 13,859 by 1860 (0.07% of population). The formal name "Religious Society of Friends" dates from this period and was probably derived from the appellations "Friends of the Light" and "Friends of the Truth".
Splits
Around the time of the American Revolutionary War, some American Quakers split from the main Society of Friends over issues such as support for the war, forming groups such as the Free Quakers and the Universal Friends. Later, in the 19th century, there was a diversification of theological beliefs in the Religious Society of Friends, and this led to several larger splits within the movement.
Hicksite–Orthodox split
The Hicksite–Orthodox split arose out of both ideological and socioeconomic tensions. Philadelphia Yearly Meeting Hicksites tended to be agrarian and poorer than the more urban, wealthier, Orthodox Quakers. With increasing financial success, Orthodox Quakers wanted to "make the Society a more respectable body – to transform their sect into a church – by adopting mainstream Protestant orthodoxy". Hicksites, though they held a variety of views, generally saw the market economy as corrupting, and believed Orthodox Quakers had sacrificed their orthodox Christian spirituality for material success. Hicksites viewed the Bible as secondary to the individual cultivation of God's light within.
With Gurneyite Quakers' shift toward Protestant principles and away from the spiritualisation of human relations, women's role as promoters of "holy conversation" started to decrease. Conversely, within the Hicksite movement the rejection of the market economy and the continuing focus on community and family bonds tended to encourage women to retain their role as powerful arbiters.
Elias Hicks's religious views were claimed to be universalist and to contradict Quakers' historical orthodox Christian beliefs and practices. Hicks' Gospel preaching and teaching precipitated the Great Separation of 1827, which resulted in a parallel system of Yearly Meetings in America, joined by Friends from Philadelphia, New York, Ohio, Indiana, and Baltimore. They were referred to by opponents as Hicksites and by others and sometimes themselves as Orthodox. Quakers in Britain recognised only the Orthodox Quakers and refused to correspond with the Hicksites.
Beaconite controversy
Isaac Crewdson was a Recorded Minister in Manchester. His 1835 book A Beacon to the Society of Friends insisted that the inner light was at odds with a religious belief in salvation by the atonement of Christ. This Christian controversy led to Crewdson's resignation from the Religious Society of Friends, along with 48 fellow members of Manchester Meeting and about 250 other British Quakers in 1836–1837. Some of these joined the Plymouth Brethren.
Rise of Gurneyite Quakerism, and the Gurneyite–Conservative split
Orthodox Friends became more evangelical during the 19th century and were influenced by the Second Great Awakening. This movement was led by British Quaker Joseph John Gurney. Christian Friends held Revival meetings in America and became involved in the Holiness movement of churches. Quakers such as Hannah Whitall Smith and Robert Pearsall Smith became speakers in the religious movement and introduced Quaker phrases and practices to it. British Friends became involved with the Higher Life movement, with Robert Wilson from Cockermouth meeting founding the Keswick Convention. From the 1870s it became common in Britain to have "home mission meetings" on Sunday evening with Christian hymns and a Bible-based sermon, alongside the silent meetings for worship on Sunday morning.
The Quaker Yearly Meetings supporting the religious beliefs of Joseph John Gurney were known as Gurneyite yearly meetings. Many eventually collectively became the Five Years Meeting and then the Friends United Meeting, although London Yearly Meeting, which had been strongly Gurneyite in the 19th century, did not join either of these. Such Quaker yearly meetings make up the largest proportion of Quakers in the world today.
Some Orthodox Quakers in America disliked the move towards evangelical Christianity and saw it as a dilution of Friends' traditional orthodox Christian belief in being inwardly led by the Holy Spirit. These Friends were headed by John Wilbur, who was expelled from his yearly meeting in 1842. He and his supporters formed their own Conservative Friends Yearly Meeting. Some UK Friends broke away from the London Yearly Meeting for the same reason in 1865. They formed a separate body of Friends called Fritchley General Meeting, which remained distinct and separate from London Yearly Meeting until 1968. Similar splits took place in Canada. The Yearly Meetings that supported John Wilbur's religious beliefs were known there as Conservative Friends.
Richmond Declaration
In 1887, a Gurneyite Quaker of British descent, Joseph Bevan Braithwaite, proposed to Friends a statement of faith known as the Richmond Declaration. This statement of faith was agreed to by 95 of the representatives at a meeting of Five Years Meeting Friends, but unexpectedly the Richmond Declaration was not adopted by London Yearly Meeting because a vocal minority, including Edward Grubb, opposed it.
Missions to Asia and Africa
Following the Christian revivals in the mid-19th century, Friends in Great Britain sought also to start missionary activity overseas. The first missionaries were sent to Benares (Varanasi), in India, in 1866. The Friends Foreign Mission Association was formed in 1868 and sent missionaries to Madhya Pradesh, India, forming what is now the Mid-India Yearly Meeting. Later it spread to Madagascar from 1867, China from 1896, Sri Lanka from 1896, and Pemba Island from 1897.
The Friends Syrian Mission was established in 1874, which among other institutions ran the Ramallah Friends Schools, which still exist today. The Swiss missionary Theophilus Waldmeier founded Brummana High School in Lebanon in 1873, Evangelical Friends Churches from Ohio Yearly Meeting sent missionaries to India in 1896, forming what is now Bundelkhand Yearly Meeting. Cleveland Friends went to Mombasa, Kenya, and started what became the most successful Friends' mission. Their Quakerism spread within Kenya and to Uganda, Tanzania, Burundi, and Rwanda.
Theory of evolution
The theory of evolution as described in Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species (1859) was opposed by many Quakers in the 19th century, particularly by older evangelical Quakers who dominated the Religious Society of Friends in Great Britain. These older Quakers were suspicious of Darwin's theory and believed that natural selection could not explain life on its own. The influential Quaker scientist Edward Newman said that the theory was "not compatible with our notions of creation as delivered from the hands of a Creator".
However, some young Friends such as John Wilhelm Rowntree and Edward Grubb supported Darwin's theories, using the doctrine of progressive revelation. In the United States, Joseph Moore taught the theory of evolution at the Quaker Earlham College as early as 1861. This made him one of the first teachers to do so in the Midwest. Acceptance of the theory of evolution became more widespread in Yearly Meetings who moved toward liberal Christianity in the 19th and 20th centuries. However, creationism predominates within evangelical Friends Churches, particularly in East Africa and parts of the United States.
Quaker Renaissance
In the late 19th century and early 20th century, the so-called Quaker Renaissance movement began within London Yearly Meeting. Young Friends in London Yearly Meeting at this time moved away from evangelicalism and towards liberal Christianity. This movement was particularly influenced by Rowntree, Grubb, and Rufus Jones. Such Liberal Friends promoted the theory of evolution, modern biblical criticism, and the social meaning of Christ's teaching – encouraging Friends to follow the New Testament example of Christ by performing good works. These men downplayed the evangelical Quaker belief in the atonement of Christ on the Cross at Calvary. After the Manchester Conference in England in 1895, one thousand British Friends met to consider the future of British Quakerism, and as a result, Liberal Quaker thought gradually increased within the London Yearly Meeting.
Conscientious objection
During World War I and World War II, Friends' opposition to war was put to the test. Many Friends became conscientious objectors and some formed the Friends Ambulance Unit, aiming at "co-operating with others to build up a new world rather than fighting to destroy the old", as did the American Friends Service Committee. Birmingham in England had a strong Quaker community during the war. Many British Quakers were conscripted into the Non-Combatant Corps during both world wars.
World Committee for Consultation
After the two world wars had brought the different Quaker strands closer together, Friends from different yearly meetings – many having served together in the Friends Ambulance Unit or the American Friends Service Committee, or in other relief work – later held several Quaker World Conferences. This brought about a standing body of Friends: the Friends World Committee for Consultation.
Evangelical Friends
A growing desire for a more fundamentalist approach among some Friends after the First World War began a split among Five Years Meetings. In 1926, Oregon Yearly Meeting seceded from the Five Years Meeting, bringing together several other yearly meetings and scattered monthly meetings.
In 1947, the Association of Evangelical Friends was formed, with triennial meetings until 1970. In 1965, this was replaced by the Evangelical Friends Alliance, which in 1989 became Evangelical Friends Church International.
Role of women
In the 1650s, individual Quaker women prophesied and preached publicly, developing charismatic personae and spreading the sect. This practice was bolstered by the movement's firm concept of spiritual equality for men and women. Moreover, Quakerism initially was propelled by the nonconformist behaviours of its followers, especially women who broke from social norms. By the 1660s, the movement had gained a more structured organisation, which led to separate women's meetings. Through the women's meetings, women oversaw domestic and community life, including marriage. From the beginning, Quaker women, notably Margaret Fell, played an important role in defining Quakerism. Others active in proselytising included Mary Penington, Mary Mollineux and Barbara Blaugdone. Quaker women published at least 220 texts during the 17th century. However, some Quakers resented the power of women in the community. In the early years of Quakerism, George Fox faced resistance in developing and establishing women's meetings. As controversy increased, Fox did not fully adhere to his agenda. For example, he established the London Six Weeks Meeting in 1671 as a regulatory body, led by 35 women and 49 men. Even so, conflict culminated in the Wilkinson–Story split, in which a portion of the Quaker community left to worship independently in protest at women's meetings. After several years, this schism became largely resolved, testifying to the resistance of some within the Quaker community and to the spiritual role of women that Fox and Margaret Fell had encouraged. Particularly within the relatively prosperous Quaker communities of the eastern United States, the focus on the child and "holy conversation" gave women unusual community power, although they were largely excluded from the market economy. With the Hicksite–Orthodox split of 1827–1828, Orthodox women found their spiritual role decreased, while Hicksite women retained greater influence.
Friends in business and education
Described as "natural capitalists" by the BBC, many Quakers were successful in a variety of industries. Two notable examples were Abraham Darby I and Edward Pease. Darby and his family played an important role in the British Industrial Revolution with their innovations in ironmaking. Pease, a Darlington manufacturer, was the main promoter of the Stockton and Darlington Railway, which was the world's first public railway to use steam locomotives. Other industries with prominent Quaker businesses included banking (Lloyds Banking Group and Barclays PLC), pharmaceuticals (Allen & Hanburys), chocolate (Cadbury and Fry's), confectionery (Rowntree), shoe manufacturing (Clarks), and biscuit manufacturing (Huntley & Palmers).
Quakers have a long history of establishing educational institutions. Initially, Quakers had no ordained clergy, and therefore needed no seminaries for theological training. In England, Quaker schools sprang up soon after the movement emerged, with Friends School Saffron Walden being the most prominent. Quaker schools in the UK and Ireland are supported by The Friends' Schools' Council. In Australia, Friends' School, Hobart, founded in 1887, has grown into the largest Quaker school in the world. In Britain and the United States, friends have established a variety of institutions at a variety of educational levels. In Kenya, Quakers founded several primary and secondary schools in the first half of the 20th century before the country's independence in 1963.
International development
International volunteering organisations such as Service Civil International and International Voluntary Service were founded by leading Quakers. Eric Baker, a prominent Quaker, was one of the founders of Amnesty International and of the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament.
The Quaker Edith Pye established a national Famine Relief Committee in May 1942, encouraging a network of local famine relief committees, among the most energetic of which was the Oxford Committee for Famine Relief, Oxfam. Irving and Dorothy Stowe co-founded Greenpeace with many other environmental activists in 1971, shortly after becoming Quakers.
Friends and slavery
Some Quakers in America and Britain became known for their involvement in the abolitionist movement. In the early history of Colonial America, it was fairly common for Friends to own slaves, e.g. in Pennsylvania. During the early to mid-1700s, disquiet about this practice arose among Friends, best exemplified by the testimonies of Benjamin Lay, Anthony Benezet and John Woolman, and this resulted in an abolition movement among Friends.
Nine of the twelve founding members of the Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade, or The Society for the Abolition of the Slave Trade, were Quakers: John Barton (1755–1789); William Dillwyn (1743–1824); George Harrison (1747–1827); Samuel Hoare Jr (1751–1825); Joseph Hooper (1732–1789); John Lloyd; Joseph Woods Sr (1738–1812); James Phillips (1745–1799); and Richard Phillips. Five of the Quakers had been amongst the informal group of six Quakers who had pioneered the movement in 1783, when the first petition against the slave trade was presented to Parliament. As Quakers could not serve as Members of Parliament, they relied on the help of Anglican men who could, such as William Wilberforce and his brother-in-law James Stephen.
By the beginning of the American Revolutionary War, few Friends owned slaves. At the war's end in 1783, Yarnall family members along with fellow Meeting House Friends made a failed petition to the Continental Congress to abolish slavery in the United States. In 1790, the Society of Friends petitioned the United States Congress to abolish slavery.
One example of a reversal in sentiment about slavery took place in the life of Moses Brown, one of four Rhode Island brothers who, in 1764, organized and funded the tragic and fateful voyage of the slave ship Sally. Brown broke away from his three brothers, became an abolitionist, and converted to Christian Quakerism. During the 19th century, Quakers such as Levi Coffin and Isaac Hopper played a major role in helping enslaved people escape through the Underground Railroad. Black Quaker Paul Cuffe, a sea captain and businessman, was active in the abolitionist and resettlement movement in the early part of that century. Quaker Laura Smith Haviland, with her husband, established the first station on the Underground Railroad in Michigan. Later, Haviland befriended Sojourner Truth, who called her the Superintendent of the Underground Railroad.
However, in the 1830s, the abolitionist Grimké sisters dissociated themselves from the Quakers "when they saw that Negro Quakers were segregated in separate pews in the Philadelphia meeting house".
Theology
Quakers' theological beliefs vary considerably. Tolerance of dissent widely varies among yearly meetings. Most Friends believe in continuing revelation: that God continuously reveals truth directly to individuals. George Fox, an "early Friend", said, "Christ has come to teach His people Himself". Friends often focus on trying to feel the presence of God. As Isaac Penington wrote in 1670, "It is not enough to hear of Christ, or read of Christ, but this is the thing – to feel him to be my root, my life, and my foundation..." Quakers reject the idea of priests, believing in the priesthood of all believers. Some express their concept of God using phrases such as "the inner light", "inward light of Christ", or "Holy Spirit".
Diverse theological beliefs, understandings of the "leading of the Holy Spirit" and statements of "faith and practice" have always existed among Friends. Due in part to the emphasis on immediate guidance of the Holy Spirit, Quaker doctrines have only at times been codified as statements of faith, confessions or theological texts. Those that exist include the Letter to the Governor of Barbados (Fox, 1671), An Apology for the True Christian Divinity (Barclay, 1678), A Catechism and Confession of Faith (Barclay, 1690), The Testimony of the Society of Friends on the Continent of America (adopted jointly by all Orthodox yearly meetings in the United States, 1830), the Richmond Declaration of Faith (adopted by Five Years Meeting, 1887), and Essential Truths (Jones and Wood, adopted by Five Years Meeting, 1922). Most yearly meetings make a public statement of faith in their own Book of Discipline, expressing Christian discipleship within the experience of Friends in that yearly meeting.
Conservatives
Conservative Friends (also known as "Wilburites" after their founder, John Wilbur), share some of the beliefs of Fox and the Early Friends. Many Wilburites see themselves as the Quakers whose beliefs are truest to original Quaker doctrine, arguing that the majority of Friends "broke away" from the Wilburites in the 19th and 20th centuries (rather than vice versa). Conservative Friends place their trust in the immediate guidance of God. They reject all forms of religious symbolism and outward sacraments, such as the Eucharist and water baptism. Conservative Friends do not believe in relying upon the practice of outward rites and sacraments in their living relationship with God through Christ, believing that holiness can exist in all of the activities of one's daily life – and that all of life is sacred in God. Many believe that a meal held with others can become a form of communion with God and with one another.
Conservative Friends in the United States are part of three small Quaker Yearly Meetings in Ohio, North Carolina and Iowa. Ohio Yearly Meeting (Conservative) is generally considered the most Bible-centred of the three, retaining Christian Quakers who use plain language, wear plain dress, and are more likely to live in villages or rural areas than the Conservative Friends from their other two Yearly Meetings.
In 2007, total membership of such Yearly Meetings was around 1642, making them around 0.4% of the world family of Quakers.
Evangelical
Evangelical Friends regard Jesus Christ as their personal Lord and Saviour, and have similar religious beliefs to other evangelical Christians. They believe in and hold a high regard for penal substitution of the atonement of Christ on the Cross at Calvary, biblical infallibility, and the need for all to experience a relationship with God personally. They believe that the Evangelical Friends Church is intended to evangelise the unsaved of the world, to transform them spiritually through God's love and through social service to others. They regard the Bible as the infallible, self-authenticating Word of God. The statement of faith of Evangelical Friends International is comparable to that of other Evangelical churches. Those who are members of Evangelical Friends International are mainly located in the United States, Central America and Asia.
Beginning in the 1880s, some Friends began using outward sacraments in their Sunday services, first in Evangelical Friends Church–Eastern Region (then known as Ohio Yearly Meeting [Damascus]). Friends Church–Southwest Region also approved such a practice. In places where Evangelical Friends engage in missionary work, such as Africa, Latin America and Asia, adult baptism by immersion in water occurs. In this they differ from most other branches of the Religious Society of Friends. EFCI in 2014 was claiming to represent more than 140,000 Friends, some 39% of the total number of Friends worldwide.
Gurneyites
Gurneyite Friends (also known as Friends United Meeting Friends) are modern followers of the Evangelical Quaker theology specified by Joseph John Gurney, a 19th-century British Friend. They make up 49% of the total number of Quakers worldwide. They see Jesus Christ as their Teacher and Lord and favour close work with other Protestant Christian churches. Gurneyite Friends balance the Bible's authority as inspired words of God with personal, direct experience of God in their lives. Both children and adults take part in religious education, which emphasises orthodox Christian teaching from the Bible, in relation to both orthodox Christian Quaker history and Quaker testimonies. Gurneyite Friends subscribe to a set of orthodox Christian doctrines, such as those found in the Richmond Declaration of faith. In later years conflict arose among Gurneyite Friends over the Richmond Declaration of faith, but after a while, it was adopted by nearly all of Gurneyite yearly meetings. The Five Years Meeting of Friends reaffirmed its loyalty to the Richmond Declaration of faith in 1912, but specified that it was not to constitute a Christian creed. Although Gurneyism was the main form of Quakerism in 19th-century Britain, Gurneyite Friends today are found also in America, Ireland, Africa and India. Many Gurneyite Friends combine "waiting" (unprogrammed) worship with practices commonly found in other Protestant Christian churches, such as readings from the Bible and singing hymns. A small minority of Gurneyite Friends practice wholly unprogrammed worship.
Holiness
Holiness Friends are heavily influenced by the Holiness movement, in particular John Wesley's doctrine of Christian perfection, also called "entire sanctification". This states that loving God and humanity totally, as exemplified by Christ, enables believers to rid themselves of voluntary sin. This was a dominant view within Quakerism in the United Kingdom and United States in the 19th century, and influenced other branches of Quakerism. Holiness Friends argue (leaning on writings that include George Fox's message of perfection) that early Friends had this understanding of holiness.
Today, some Friends hold holiness beliefs within most yearly meetings, but it is the predominant theological view of Central Yearly Meeting of Friends, (founded in 1926 specifically to promote holiness theology) and the Holiness Mission of the Bolivian Evangelical Friends Church (founded by missionaries from that meeting in 1919, the largest group of Friends in Bolivia).
Liberal
Liberal Quakerism generally refers to Friends who take ideas from liberal Christianity, often sharing a similar mix of ideas, such as more critical Biblical hermeneutics, often with a focus on the social gospel. The ideas of that of God in everyone and the inner light were popularised by the American Friend Rufus Jones in the early 20th century, he and John Wilhelm Rowntree originating the movement. Liberal Friends predominated in Britain in the 20th century, among US meetings affiliated to Friends General Conference, and some meetings in Canada, Europe, Australia, New Zealand and Southern Africa.
These ideas remain important in Liberal Friends' understanding of God. They highlight the importance of good works, particularly living a life that upholds the virtues preached by Jesus. They often emphasise pacifism, treating others equally, living simply, and telling the truth.
Like Conservative Friends, Liberal Friends reject religious symbolism and sacraments such as water baptism and the Eucharist. While Liberal Friends recognise the potential of these outward forms for awakening experiences of the Inward Light of Christ, they are not part of their worship and are thought unnecessary to authentic Christian spirituality.
The Bible remains central to most Liberal Friends' worship. Almost all meetings make it available in the meeting house, often on a table in the centre of the room, which attendees may read privately or publicly during worship. But Liberal Friends decided that the Scriptures should give way to God's lead, if God leads them in a way contrary to the Bible. Many Friends are also influenced by liberal Christian theologians and modern Biblical criticism. They often adopt non-propositional Biblical hermeneutics, such as believing that the Bible is an anthology of human authors' beliefs and feelings about God, rather than Holy Writ, and that multiple interpretations of the Scriptures are acceptable.
Liberal Friends believe that a corporate confession of faith would be an obstacle – both to authentic listening and to new insight. As a non-creed form of Christianity, Liberal Quakerism is receptive to a wide range of understandings of religion. Most Liberal Quaker Yearly Meetings publish a Faith and Practice containing a range of religious experiences of what it means to be a Friend in that Yearly Meeting.
Universalist
Universalist Friends affirm religious pluralism: there are many different paths to God and understandings of the divine reached through non-Christian religious experiences, which are as valid as Christian understandings. The group was founded in the late 1970s by John Linton, who had worshipped with the Delhi Worship Group in India (an independent meeting unaffiliated to any yearly meeting or wider Quaker group) with Christians, Muslims and Hindus worshipping together.
After moving to Britain, Linton founded the Quaker Universalist Fellowship in 1978. Later his views spread to the United States, where the Quaker Universalist Fellowship was founded in 1983. Most of the Friends who joined these two fellowships were Liberal Friends from the Britain Yearly Meeting in the United Kingdom and from Friends General Conference in the United States. Interest in Quaker Universalism is low among Friends from other Yearly meetings. The views of the Universalists provoked controversy in the 1980s among themselves and Christian Quakers within the Britain Yearly Meeting, and within Friends General Conference. Despite the label, Quaker Universalists are not necessarily Christian Universalists, embracing the doctrine of universal reconciliation.
Non-theists
A minority of Friends have views similar to post-Christian non-theists in other churches such as the Sea of Faith, which emerged from the Anglican church. They are predominantly atheists, agnostics and humanists who still value membership in a religious organization. The first organisation for non-theist Friends was the Humanistic Society of Friends, founded in Los Angeles in 1939. This remained small and was absorbed into the American Humanist Association. More recently, interest in non-theism resurfaced, particularly under the British Friend David Boulton, who founded the 40-member Nontheist Friends Network in 2011. Non-theism is controversial, leading some Christian Quakers from within Britain Yearly Meeting to call for non-theists to be denied membership. In one study of Friends in the Britain Yearly Meeting, some 30% of Quakers had views described as non-theistic, agnostic, or atheist. Another study found that 75.1% of the 727 members of the Religious Society of Friends who completed the survey said that they consider themselves to be Christian and 17.6% that they did not, while 7.3% either did not answer or circled both answers. A further 22% of Quakers did not consider themselves Christian, but fulfilled a definition of being a Christian in that they said that they devoutly followed the teachings and example of Jesus Christ. In the same survey, 86.9% said they believed in God.
Practical theology
Quakers bear witness or testify to their religious beliefs in their spiritual lives, drawing on the Epistle of James exhortation that "faith by itself, if it is not accompanied by action, is dead". This religious witness is rooted in their immediate experience of God and verified by the Bible, especially in Jesus Christ's life and teachings. They may bear witness in many ways, according to how they believe God is leading them. Although Quakers share how they relate to God and the world, mirroring Christian ethical codes, for example the Sermon on the Mount or the Sermon on the Plain, Friends argue that they feel personally moved by God rather than following an ethical code.
Some theologians classify Friends' religious witness into categories, known by some Friends as Testimonies. These Friends believe these principles and practices testify to, witness to, or provide evidence for God's truth. No categorisation is universally accepted.
In the United Kingdom, the acronym STEPS is sometimes used (Simplicity, Truth, Equality, Peace, and Sustainability) to help remember the Testimonies, although most Quakers just use the full words. In his book Quaker Speak, British Friend Alastair Heron, lists the following ways in which British Friends have historically applied the Testimonies to their lives: Opposition to betting and gambling, capital punishment, conscription, hat honour (the largely historical practice of dipping one's hat toward social superiors), oaths, slavery, times and seasons, and tithing. Promotion of integrity (or truth), peace, penal reform, plain language, relief of suffering, simplicity, social order, Sunday observance, sustainability, temperance and moderation.
In East Africa, Friends teach peace and non-violence, simplicity, honesty, equality, humility, marriage and sexual ethics (defining marriage as lifelong between one man and one woman), sanctity of life (opposition to abortion), cultural conflicts and Christian life.
In the United States, the acronym SPICES is often used by many Yearly Meetings (Simplicity, Peace, Integrity, Community, Equality and Stewardship). Stewardship is not recognised as a Testimony by all Yearly Meetings. Rocky Mountain Yearly Meeting Friends put their faith in action through living their lives by the following principles: prayer, personal integrity, stewardship (which includes giving away minimum of 10% income and refraining from lotteries), marriage and family (lifelong commitment), regard for mind and body (refraining from certain amusements, propriety and modesty of dress, abstinence from alcohol, tobacco and drugs), peace and non-violence (including refusing to participate in war), abortion (opposition to abortion, practical ministry to women with unwanted pregnancy and promotion of adoption), human sexuality, the Christian and state (look to God for authority, not the government), capital punishment (find alternatives), human equality, women in ministry (recognising women and men have an equal part to play in ministry). The Southern Appalachian Yearly Meeting and Association lists as testimonies: Integrity, Peace, Simplicity, Equality and Community; areas of witness lists Children, Education, Government, Sexuality and Harmony with Nature.
Calendar and church holidays
Quakers traditionally use numbers for referencing the months and days of the week, something they call the plain calendar. This does not use names of calendar units derived from the names of pagan deities. The week begins with First Day (Sunday) and ends with Seventh Day (Saturday). Months run from First (January) to Twelfth (December). This rests on the terms used in the Bible, e.g. that Jesus Christ's followers went to the tomb early on the First Day. The plain calendar emerged in the 17th century in England in the Puritan movement, but became closely identified with Friends by the end of the 1650s, and was commonly employed into the 20th century. It is less commonly found today. The term First Day School is commonly used for what is referred to by other churches as Sunday School.
From 1155 to 1751, the English calendar (and that of Wales, Ireland and the British colonies overseas) marked March 25 as the first day of the year. For this reason, Quaker records of the 17th and early 18th centuries usually referred to March as First Month and February as Twelfth Month.
Like other Christian denominations derived from 16th-century Puritanism, many Friends eschew religious festivals (e.g. Christmas, Lent, or Easter), and believe that Christ's birth, crucifixion and resurrection, should be marked every day of the year. For example, many Quakers feel that fasting in Lent, but then eating in excess at other times of the year is hypocrisy. Many Quakers, rather than observing Lent, live a simple lifestyle all the year round (see Testimony of simplicity). Such practices are called the testimony against times and seasons.
Some Friends are non-Sabbatarians, holding that "every day is the Lord's day", and that what should be done on a First Day should be done every day of the week, although Meeting for Worship is usually held on a First Day, after the advice first issued by the elders of Balby in 1656.
Worship
Most groups of Quakers meet for regular worship. There are two main types of worship worldwide: programmed worship and waiting worship.
Programmed worship
In programmed worship there is often a prepared Biblical message, which may be delivered by an individual with theological training from a Bible College. There may be hymns, a sermon, Bible readings, joint prayers and a period of silent worship. The worship resembles the church services of other Protestant denominations, although in most cases does not include the Eucharist. A paid pastor may be responsible for pastoral care. Worship of this kind is celebrated by about 89% of Friends worldwide. It is found in many Yearly Meetings in Africa, Asia and parts of the US (central and southern), and is common in programmed meetings affiliated to Friends United Meeting, (who make up around 49% of worldwide membership), and evangelical meetings, including those affiliated to Evangelical Friends International, (who make up at least 40% of Friends worldwide.) The religious event is sometimes called a Quaker meeting for worship or sometimes a Friends church service. This tradition arose among Friends in the United States in the 19th century, and in response to many converts to Christian Quakerism during the national spiritual revival of the time. Friends meetings in Africa and Latin America were generally started by Orthodox Friends from programmed elements of the Society, so that most African and Latin American Friends worship in a programmed style.
Some Friends hold Semi-Programmed Worship, which brings programmed elements such as hymns and readings into an otherwise unprogrammed service of worship.
Unprogrammed worship
Unprogrammed worship (also known as waiting worship, silent worship, or holy communion in the manner of Friends) rests on the practices of George Fox and early Friends, who based their beliefs and practices on their interpretation of how early Christians worshipped God their Heavenly Father. Friends gather together in "expectant waiting upon God" to experience his still small voice leading them from within. There is no plan on how the meeting will proceed, and practice varies widely between Meetings and individual worship services. Friends believe that God plans what will happen, with his spirit leading people to speak. A participant who feels led to speak will stand and share a spoken ministry in front of others. When this happens, Quakers believe that the spirit of God is speaking through the speaker. After someone has spoken, it is customary to allow a few minutes to pass in silence for reflection on what was said, before further vocal ministry is given. Sometimes a meeting is quite silent, sometimes many speak. These meetings lasted for several hours in George Fox's day. Modern meetings are often limited to an hour, ending when two people (usually the elders) exchange the sign of peace by a handshake. This handshake is often shared by the others. This style of worship is the norm in Britain, Ireland, the continent of Europe, Australia, New Zealand, Southern Africa, Canada, and parts of the United States (particularly yearly meetings associated with Friends General Conference and Beanite Quakerism)—constituting about 11% of Quakers. Those who worship in this way hold each person to be equal before God and capable of knowing the light of God directly. Anyone present may speak if feeling led to do so. Traditionally, Recorded Ministers were recognised for their particular gift in vocal ministry. This practice continues among Conservative Friends and Liberal Friends (e.g. New York Yearly Meeting,), but many meetings where Liberal Friends predominate abolished this practice. London Yearly Meeting of Friends abolished the acknowledging and recording of Recorded Ministers in 1924.
Governance and organisation
Organisational government and polity
Governance and decision-making are conducted at a special meeting for worship – often called a meeting for worship with a concern for business or meeting for worship for church affairs, where all members can attend, as in a Congregational church. Quakers consider this a form of worship, conducted in the manner of meeting for worship. They believe it is a gathering of believers who wait upon the Lord to discover God's will, believing they are not making their own decisions. They seek to understand God's will for the religious community, via the actions of the Holy Spirit within the meeting.
As in a meeting for worship, each member is expected to listen to God, and if led by Him, stand up and contribute. In some business meetings, Friends wait for the clerk to acknowledge them before speaking. Direct replies to someone's contribution are not permitted, with an aim of seeking truth rather than debate. A decision is reached when the meeting as a whole feels that the "way forward" has been discerned (also called "coming to unity"). There is no voting. On some occasions Friends may delay a decision because they feel the meeting is not following God's will. Others (especially non-Friends) may describe this as consensus decision-making; however, Friends in general continue to seek God's will. It is assumed that if everyone is attuned to God's spirit, the way forward becomes clear.
International organization
Friends World Committee for Consultation (FWCC) is the international Quaker organization that loosely unifies the different religious traditions of Quakers; FWCC brings together the largest variety of Friends in the world. Friends World Committee for Consultation is divided into four sections to represent different regions of the world: Africa, Asia West Pacific, Europe and Middle East, and the Americas.
Various organizations associated with Friends include a United States' lobbying organization based in Washington, D.C. called the Friends Committee on National Legislation (FCNL); service organizations such as the American Friends Service Committee (AFSC), the Quaker United Nations Offices, Quaker Peace and Social Witness, Friends Committee on Scouting, the Quaker Peace Centre in Cape Town, South Africa, and the Alternatives to Violence Project.
Yearly meetings
Quakers today are organised into independent and regional, national bodies called Yearly Meetings, which have often split from one another over doctrinal differences. Several of such unite Quakers who share similar religious beliefs – for example Evangelical Friends Church International unites evangelical Christian Friends; Friends United Meeting unites Friends into "fellowships where Jesus Christ is known, loved and obeyed as Teacher and Lord;" and Friends General Conference links Quakers with non-creed, liberal religious beliefs. Many Quaker Yearly Meetings also belong to the Friends World Committee for Consultation, an international fellowship of Yearly Meetings from different Quaker traditions.
Membership
A Friend is a member of a Yearly Meeting, usually beginning with membership in a local monthly meeting. Means of acquiring membership vary. For example, in most Kenyan yearly meetings, attenders who wish to become members must take part in some two years' adult education, memorising key Bible passages, and learning about the history of orthodox Christianity and of Christian Quakerism. Within the Britain Yearly Meeting, membership is acquired through a process of peer review, where a potential member is visited by several members, who report to the other members before a decision is reached.
Within some Friends Churches in the Evangelical Friends Church – in particular in Rwanda, Burundi, and parts of the United States – an adult believer's baptism by immersion in water is optional. Within Liberal Friends, Conservative Friends, and Pastoral Friends Churches, Friends do not practise water baptism, Christening, or other initiation ceremonies to admit a new member or a newborn baby. Children are often welcomed into the meeting at their first attendance. Formerly, children born to Quaker parents automatically became members (sometimes called birthright membership), but this no longer applies in many areas. Some parents apply for membership on behalf of their children, while others allow children to decide whether to be a member when they are ready and older in age. Some meetings adopt a policy that children, some time after becoming young adults, must apply independently for membership.
Worship for specific tasks
Memorial services
Traditional Quaker memorial services are held as a form of worship and known as memorial meetings. Friends gather for worship and offer remembrances of the deceased. In some Quaker traditions, the coffin or ashes are not present. Memorial meetings may be held many weeks after the death, which can enable wider attendance, replacement of grief with spiritual reflection, and celebration of life to dominate. Memorial meetings can last over an hour, particularly if many people attend. Memorial services give all a chance to remember the lost individual in their own way, comforting those present and re-affirming the love of the people in the wider community.
Marriage
A meeting for worship for the solemnisation of marriage in an unprogrammed Friends meeting is similar to any other unprogrammed meeting for worship. The pair exchange promises before God and gathered witnesses, and the meeting returns to open worship. At the rise of meeting, the witnesses, including the youngest children, are asked to sign the wedding certificate as a record. In Britain, Quakers keep a separate record of the union and notify the General Register Office.
In the early days of the United States, there was doubt whether a marriage solemnised in that way was entitled to legal recognition. Over the years, each state has set rules for the procedure. Most states expect the marriage document to be signed by a single officiant (a priest, rabbi, minister, Justice of the Peace, etc.) Quakers routinely modify the document to allow three or four Friends to sign as officiant. Often these are the members of a committee of ministry and oversight, who have helped the couple to plan their marriage. Usually, a separate document containing the vows and signatures of all present is kept by the couple and often displayed prominently in their home.
In many Friends meetings, the couple meet with a clearness committee before the wedding. Its purpose is to discuss with the couple the many aspects of marriage and life as a couple. If the couple seem ready, the marriage is recommended to the meeting.
As in wider society, there is a diversity of views among Friends on the issue of same-sex marriage. Various Friends meetings around the world have voiced support for and recognised same-sex marriages. In 1986, Hartford Friends Meeting in Connecticut reached a decision that "the Meeting recognised a committed union in a celebration of marriage, under the care of the Meeting. The same loving care and consideration should be given to both homosexual and heterosexual applicants as outlined in Faith and Practice." Since then, other meetings of liberal and progressive Friends from Australia, Britain, New Zealand, parts of North America, and other countries have recognised marriage between partners of the same sex. In jurisdictions where same-sex marriage is not recognised by civil authorities, some meetings follow the practice of early Quakers in overseeing the union without reference to the state. There are also Friends who do not support same-sex marriage. Some Evangelical and Pastoral yearly meetings in the United States have issued public statements stating that homosexuality is a sin.
National and international divisions and organisation
By country
Like many religious movements, the Religious Society of Friends has evolved, changed, and split into sub-groups.
Quakerism started in England and Wales, and quickly spread to Ireland, the Netherlands, Barbados and North America. In 2012, there were 146,300 Quakers in Kenya, 76,360 in the United States, 35,000 in Burundi and 22,300 in Bolivia. Other countries with over 5,000 Quakers were Guatemala, the United Kingdom, Nepal, Taiwan and Uganda. Although the total number of Quakers is around 377,000 worldwide, Quaker influence is concentrated in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; Kaimosi, Kenya; Newberg, Oregon; Greenleaf, Idaho; Whittier, California; Richmond, Indiana; Friendswood, Texas; Birmingham, England; Ramallah, Palestine, and Greensboro, North Carolina.
Africa
The highest concentration of Quakers is in Africa. The Friends of East Africa were at one time part of a single East Africa Yearly Meeting, then the world's largest. Today, the region is served by several distinct yearly meetings. Most are affiliated with the Friends United Meeting, practise programmed worship and employ pastors. Friends meet in Rwanda and Burundi; new work is beginning in North Africa. Small unprogrammed meetings exist also in Botswana, Ghana, Lesotho, Namibia, Nigeria, South Africa and Zimbabwe.
In 2012, there were 196,800 adult Quakers in Africa.
Australia and New Zealand
Friends in Australia and New Zealand follow the unprogrammed tradition, similar to that of the Britain Yearly Meeting.
Considerable distances between the colonies and small numbers of Quakers meant that Australia Friends were dependent on London until the 20th century. The Society remained unprogrammed and is named Australia Yearly Meeting, with local organizations around seven Regional Meetings: Canberra (which extends into southern New South Wales), New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia (which extends into Northern Territory), Tasmania, Victoria, and Western Australia. The Friends' School is found in Hobart. An annual meeting each January, is hosted by a different Regional Meeting over a seven-year cycle, with a Standing Committee each July or August. The Australia Yearly Meeting published This We Can Say: Australian Quaker Life, Faith and Thought in 2003.
Meetings for worship in New Zealand started in Nelson in 1842 and in Auckland in 1885. In 1889 it was estimated that there were about 30 Quakers in Auckland. The New Zealand Yearly Meeting, today consists of nine monthly meetings. The Yearly Meeting published Quaker Faith and Practice in Aotearoa New Zealand, in 2003.
Asia
Quaker meetings occur in India, Hong Kong, Korea, Philippines, Japan and Nepal.
India has four yearly meetings – the unprogrammed Mid-India Yearly Meeting, programmed Bhopal Yearly Meeting, and the Mahoba Yearly Meeting. Bundelkhand Yearly Meeting is an evangelical Friends Church affiliated to Evangelical Friends International. Other programmed and unprogrammed worship groups are not affiliated to any yearly meeting.
Evangelical Friends Churches exist in the Philippines and Nepal and are affiliated to Evangelical Friends International.
Europe
In the United Kingdom, the predominantly liberal and unprogrammed Yearly Meeting of the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers) in Britain, has 478 local meetings, and 14,260 adult members, with an additional 8,560 non-member adults who attend worship and 2,251 children. The number has declined steadily since the mid-20th century. Programmed meetings occur, including in Wem and London. Small groups of Conservative Friends meet in Ripley and Greenwich in England, and Arbroath in Scotland, who follow Ohio Yearly Meeting's Book of Discipline.
Evangelical Friends Central Europe Yearly Meeting has 4,306 members across six nations, including Albania, Hungary and Romania.
Ireland Yearly Meeting is unprogrammed and more conservative than Britain Yearly Meeting. It has 1,591 members in 28 meetings. across the Republic of Ireland, and in Northern Ireland.
German Yearly Meeting is unprogrammed and liberal and has 340 members, worshipping in 31 meetings in Germany and Austria.
Small groups of Friends in Czech Republic, Estonia, Greece, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Portugal, and Ukraine attend meetings for worship there.
Middle East
Middle East Yearly Meeting has meetings in Lebanon and Palestine.
There has been an active and vibrant Palestinian Quaker community in Ramallah since the late 1800s. In 1910 this community built the Ramallah Friends Meetinghouse and later added another building that was used for community outreach. The Ramallah Friends Meeting has always played a vital role in the community. In 1948 the buildings and grounds became home to many Palestinian refugees. Throughout the years, the members of the Ramallah Friends Meeting organised numerous community programmes such as the Children's Play Centre, the First Day School, and women's activities.
By the early 1990s the Meetinghouse and Annex, which housed meeting rooms and bathroom facilities, fell into disrepair as a result of damage inflicted by time and the impact of conflict. So serious was the deterioration of the meetinghouse that by the middle 1990s it was impossible to use the building at all. A further blow to the Friends and the wider Palestinian community was the high level of emigration brought on by the economic situation and the hardships arising from continuing Israeli military occupation. The Meetinghouse, which had served as a place of worship for the Friends in Ramallah could no longer be used as such and the Annex could no longer be used for community outreach.
In 2002 a committee consisting of members of the Religious Society of Friends in the US and the Clerk of the Ramallah Meeting began to raise funds for the renovations of the buildings and grounds of the Meetinghouse. By November 2004 the renovations were complete, and on 6 March 2005, exactly 95 years to the day after the dedication, the Meetinghouse and Annex were rededicated as a Quaker and community resource. Friends meet every Sunday morning at 10:30 for unprogrammed Meeting for Worship. Everyone is welcome to attend.
North and South America
Quakers can be found throughout the Americas. Friends in the United States in particular have diverse worship styles and differences of theology, vocabulary, and practice.
A local congregation in the unprogrammed tradition is called a meeting, or a monthly meeting (e.g., Smalltown Meeting or Smalltown Monthly Meeting). The reference to "monthly" is because the meeting meets monthly to conduct the group's business. Most "monthly meetings" meet for worship at least once a week; some meetings have several worship meetings during the week. In programmed traditions, local congregations are often referred to as "Friends Churches" or "Meetings".
Monthly meetings are often part of a regional group called a quarterly meeting, which is usually part of an even larger group called a yearly meeting; with the adjectives "quarterly" and "yearly" referring specifically to the frequency of meetings for worship with a concern for business.
Some yearly meetings, like Philadelphia Yearly Meeting, belong to larger organisations to help maintain order and communication within the Society. The three chief ones are Friends General Conference (FGC), Friends United Meeting (FUM), and Evangelical Friends Church International (EFCI). In all three groups, most member organisations, though not necessarily members, are from the United States. FGC is theologically the most liberal of the three groups, while EFCI is the most evangelical. FUM is the largest. Friends United Meeting was originally known as "Five Years Meeting". Some monthly meetings belong to more than one larger organisation, while others are fully independent.
Service organisations
There are many Quaker service organizations dedicated to peace and humanitarian activities overseas. The first, the British Friends Service Council (FSC), was founded in Great Britain in 1927 and shared the 1947 Nobel Prize for Peace with the American Friends Service Committee (AFSC).
The Quaker star is used by many Quaker service organizations, such as The American Friends Service Committee, Canadian Friends Service Committee and Quaker Peace and Social Witness (previously Friends Service Council). It was originally used by British Quakers performing war relief efforts during the Franco-Prussian War to distinguish themselves from the Red Cross. Today the star is used by multiple Quaker organizations as their symbol to represent "a common commitment to service and the spirit in which it is provided."
Relations with other churches and faiths
Ecumenical relations
Quakers prior to the 20th century considered the Religious Society of Friends to be a Christian movement, but many did not feel that their religious faith fit within the categories of Catholic, Orthodox, or Protestant. Many Conservative Friends, while fully seeing themselves as orthodox Christians, choose to remain separate from other Christian groups.
Many Friends in Liberal Friends' meetings are actively involved in the ecumenical movement, often working closely with other Mainline Protestant and liberal Christian churches, with whom they share common religious ground. A concern for peace and social justice often brings Friends together with other Christian churches and other Christian groups. Some Liberal Quaker yearly meetings are members of ecumenical pan-Christian organisations, which include Protestant and Orthodox churches—for example Philadelphia Yearly Meeting is a member of the National Council of Churches. The Britain Yearly Meeting is a member of Churches Together in Britain and Ireland, and Friends General Conference is a member of the World Council of Churches.
Guerneyite Friends would typically see themselves as part of an orthodox Christian movement and work closely with other Christian denominations. Friends United Meeting (the international organisation of Gurneyite yearly meetings) is a member of the National Council of Churches and the World Council of Churches, which are pan-Christian organisations that include Lutheran, Orthodox, Reformed, Anglican and Baptist Churches, among others.
Evangelical Friends work closely with other evangelical churches from other Christian traditions. The North American branch of Evangelical Friends Church International is a member church of the National Association of Evangelicals. Evangelical Friends tend to be less involved with non-evangelical churches and are not members of the World Council of Churches or National Council of Churches.
The majority of other Christian groups recognise Friends among their fellow-Christians. Some people who attend Quaker Meetings assume that Quakers are not Christians, when they do not hear overtly Christian language during the meeting for worship.
Relations with other faiths
Relationships between Quakers and non-Christians vary considerably, according to sect, geography, and history.
Early Quakers distanced themselves from practices that they saw as pagan. For instance, they refused to use the usual names of the days of the week, since they were derived from the names of pagan deities. They refused to celebrate Christmas because they believed it was based on pagan festivities.
Early Friends called on adherents of other world religions to turn to the 'Light of Christ within' that they believed was present in all people born into the world. For example, George Fox wrote a number of open letters to Jews and Muslims, in which he encouraged them to turn to Jesus Christ as the only path to salvation (e.g. A Visitation to the Jews, To the Great Turk and King of Algiers in Algeria, and all that are under his authority, to read this over, which concerns their salvation and To the Great Turk and King of Algiers in Algeria). In the letters to Muslim readers, Fox is exceptional for his time in his sympathetic and wide-ranging use of the Qur'an, and his belief that its contents were consistent with Christian scripture.
Mary Fisher probably preached the same message when she appeared before the Muslim Mehmed IV (the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire) in 1658.
In 1870, Richard Price Hallowell argued that the logical extension of Christian Quakerism is a universal Church, which "demands a religion which embraces Jew, Pagan and Christian, and which cannot be limited by the dogmas of one or the other".
Since the late 20th century, some attenders at Liberal Quaker Meetings have actively identified with world faiths other than Christianity, such as Judaism, Islam, Buddhism and Paganism.
See also
David Cooper and Anthony Benezet – Quakers active in the 18th century abolitionist movement
The Light upon the Candlestick – a 17th-century tract which was popular among English Quakers
List of Christian denominations
Quaker oats company – American food conglomerate
References
Further reading
(1980)
Margaret Hope Bacon, "Quakers and Colonization" Quaker History. 95 (Spring 2006), 26–43
Hugh Barbour and J. William Frost, The Quakers. (1988), 412 pp.; historical survey, including many capsule biographies online edition
Philip Benjamin, Philadelphia Quakers in an Age of Industrialism, 1870–1920 (1976)
J. Brent Bill, Holy Silence: The Gift of Quaker Spirituality
David Boulton, ed., 2006, Godless for God's Sake: Nontheism in Contemporary Quakerism Dales Historical Monographs.
Michael L. Birkel, Silence and Witness: The Quaker Tradition (in the UK, )
William C. Braithwaite, The Beginnings of Quakerism. (1912); revised by Henry J. Cadbury (1955) online edition
William C. Braithwaite, Second Period of Quakerism. (1919); revised by Henry Cadbury (1961), covers 1660 to 1720s in Britain
Howard H. Brinton, Friends for 350 Years
Peter Brock, Pioneers of the Peaceable Kingdom. (1968) on Peace Testimony from the 1650s to 1900
Edwin B. Bronner, William Penn's Holy Experiment (1962)
G. B. Burnet, Story of Quakerism in Scotland. The Lutterworth Press 2007, Cambridge
Jennifer Connerley, Friendly Americans: Representing Quakers in the United States, 1850–1920 PhD dissertation U. of North Carolina, Chapel Hill 2006. 277 pp. Citation: DAI 2006 67(2): 600-A. DA3207363 online at ProQuest Dissertations & Theses
Wilmer A. Cooper, A Living Faith: An Historical and Comparative Study of Quaker Beliefs 2nd ed.
A. Glenn Crothers, Quakers Living in the Lion's Mouth: The Society of Friends in Northern Virginia, 1730–1865. Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida, 2012
Pink Dandelion, A Sociological Analysis of the Theology of the Quakers: The Silent Revolution (Lewiston, New York: Edwin Mellen Press, 1996)
Pink Dandelion, The Quakers: A Very Short Introduction
Adrian Davies, The Quakers in English Society, 1655–1725 (2000) 261 pp.
Robert Doherty, The Hicksite Separation. (1967), uses the new social history to inquire who joined which side
Mary Maples Dunn, William Penn: Politics and Conscience (1967)
J. William Frost, The Quaker Family in Colonial America: A Portrait of the Society of Friends. (1973), emphasis on social structure and family life
J. William Frost, "The Origins of the Quaker Crusade against Slavery: A Review of Recent Literature", Quaker History 67 (1978): 42–58.
Jonathan Fryer, ed., George Fox and the Children of the Light (London: Kyle Cathie, 1991)
Harvey Gillman, A Light that is Shining: Introduction to the Quakers
George H. Gorman, Introducing Quakers. (3rd revised reprint) (London: Quaker Home Service, 1981)
Gerard Guiton, The Growth and Development of Quaker Testimony
Thomas Hamm, The Quakers in America. (2003). 293 pp., strong analysis of current situation, with brief history
Thomas Hamm, The Transformation of American Quakerism: Orthodox Friends, 1800–1907. (1988), looks at the impact of the Holiness movement on the Orthodox faction
Thomas D. Hamm, Earlham College: A History, 1847–1997. (1997) 448 pp.
Jean Hatton, Betsy: The Dramatic Biography of Prison Reformer Elizabeth Fry (2005) and
Jean Hatton, George Fox: Founder of the Quakers (2007) and
Hubbard, Geoffrey, Quaker by Convincement. and
Joseph E. Illick, Colonial Pennsylvania: A History. 1976. online edition
H. Larry Ingle, First Among Friends: George Fox and the Creation of Quakerism and
H. Larry Ingle, Nixon's First Cover-up: The Religious Life of a Quaker President
H. Larry Ingle, Quakers in Conflict: The Hicksite Reformation
Sydney James, A People among Peoples: Quaker Benevolence in Eighteenth-Century America. (1963), broad-ranging study that remains the best history in America before 1800
Rufus M. Jones, Amelia M. Gummere and Isaac Sharpless. Quakers in the American Colonies (1911), history to 1775 online edition
Rufus M. Jones, Later Periods of Quakerism. 2 vols. (1921), covers England and America until World War I.
Rufus M. Jones, The Story of George Fox. (1919) 169 pp. online edition
Rufus M. Jones, A Service of Love in War Time: American Friends Relief Work in Europe, 1917–1919 (1922) online edition
Ryan Jordan, "The Dilemma of Quaker Pacifism in a Slaveholding Republic, 1833–1865", Civil War History Vol. 53, 2007 online edition
Ryan Jordan, Slavery and the Meetinghouse: The Quakers and the Abolitionist Dilemma, 1820–1865. (2007) 191 pp.
Thomas C. Kennedy, British Quakerism, 1860–1920: The Transformation of a Religious Community. (2001). 477 pp.
Rebecca Larson, Daughters of Light: Quaker Women Preaching and Prophesying in the Colonies and Abroad, 1700–1775 (1999) 399 pp.
James David LeShana, "'Heavenly Plantations': Quakers in Colonial North Carolina." PhD dissertation: U. of California, Riverside 1998. 362 pp. DAI 2000 61(5): 2005-A. DA9974014 Fulltext: ProQuest Dissertations & Theses
Mark Minear, Richmond, 1887: A Quaker Drama Unfolds
Rosemary Moore, The Light in Their Consciences: The Early Quakers in Britain 1646–1666 (2000) 314 pp.
John A. Moretta, William Penn and the Quaker Legacy
Michael Mullet, ed., New Light on George Fox
Gary Nash, Quakers and Politis: Pennsylvania, 1680–1726 (1968)
John Punshon, Portrait in Grey : A Short History of the Quakers (2nd ed.) (London: Quaker Books, 2006)
Ane Marie Bak Rasmussen, A History of the Quaker Movement in Africa (1994) 168 pp.
Elbert Russell, The History of Quakerism (1942) online edition
Harold Smuck, Friends in East Africa (Richmond, Indiana: 1987)
Douglas Steere, 1967 On Being Present Where You Are Wallingford, Pa: Pendle Hill Pamphlet No. 151
Frederick B. Tolles, Meeting House and Counting House (1948), on Quaker businessmen in colonial Philadelphia
Frederick B. Tolles, Quakers and the Atlantic Culture (1960)
D. Elton Trueblood The People Called Quakers (1966)
John Michael Vlach, "Quaker Tradition and the Paintings of Edward Hicks: A Strategy for the Study of Folk Art", Journal of American Folklore Vol. 94, 1981
Karen Anna Vogel, Christmas Union: Quaker Abolitionists of Chester County, PA. Murray Pura's Cry of Freedom Series, Volume 5
James Walvin, The Quakers: Money and Morals (1997) 243 pp.
Clarence H. Yarrow, The Quaker Experience in International Conciliation (1979) for post-1945
Primary sources
J. Brent Bill, Imagination and Spirit: A Contemporary Quaker Reader
Amelia Gummere, ed. The Journal and Essays of John Woolman (1922) online edition
Rufus M. Jones, ed. The Journal of George Fox: An Autobiography online edition
Lucretia Coffin Mott, ed. Beverly Wilson Palmer, Selected Letters of Lucretia Coffin Mott, U. of Illinois Press, 2002, 580 pp.
Robert Lawrence Smith, A Quaker Book of Wisdom
Jessamyn West, ed. The Quaker Reader (1962) collection of essays by Fox, Penn and other notable Quakers
Children's books
Marguerite De Angeli, Thee, Hannah!
Katherine Milhous
The Egg Tree
Appolonia's Valentine
Brinton Turkle
The Adventures of Obadiah
Obadiah the Bold
Rachel and Obadiah
Thy Friend, Obadiah
External links
Friends of the Light in England
Online resource for information from the perspective of the Friends General Conference
Friends in Christ in Scotland
Digital Quaker Collection: – a list of Christian Quaker literature
Post Reformation Digital Library: a library of early modern Quaker texts
Quaker Heritage Press publishes etexts of rare and out-of-print Quaker documents.
Society of Friends Church history collection, Rare Books and Manuscripts, Indiana State Library
Christian groups with universalist beliefs
Christian mysticism
Peace churches
Silence
Protestant denominations established in the 17th century
1652 establishments in England
Religious organizations established in the 1650s
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Katya Kinski
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Katya Kinski is a fictional character from the Australian soap opera Neighbours, played by Dichen Lachman. She made her first on-screen appearance during the episode broadcast on 12 December 2005. Lachman originally auditioned for the role of Elle Robinson. But producers asked her to play Katya instead. Katya is characterised as a "bitchy nasty person" with a "dark past". She arrives in Erinsborough to visit her terminally-ill father Alex (Andrew Clarke) before he died. She reunites with her younger siblings Rachel (Caitlin Stasey) and Zeke Kinski (Matthew Werkmeister). Katya feuds with Susan Kennedy (Jackie Woodburne) and Karl Kennedy (Alan Fletcher) over custody of her siblings. Lachman believed that her flawed character disliked Susan to justify her own failings as a sister.
Writers paired her with psychopath character Robert Robinson (Adam Hunter). He planned to murder her, stalked her and kidnapped her. Katya develops posttraumatic stress disorder and her neighbour Max Hoyland (Stephen Lovatt) supports her. Katya falls in love with Max but he remains loyal to his wife. Producers introduced Guy Sykes (Fletcher Humphrys) to explore her criminal past. Katya participates in car thefts, is blackmailed and shot by Guy. He then tries to attack her with a defibrillator and later holds her hostage. Other storylines include a romance with Ned Parker (Daniel O'Connor) and being run over. Lachman left Neighbours in 2006 and Katya's last appearance was broadcast on 7 February 2007.
Casting
Lachman originally auditioned for the role of Elle Robinson, but the producers decided to create the role of Katya for her instead.
Development
Characterisation
Network Ten describe Katya as being "introspective and self-sufficient" after her siblings were born. She had been given a "sheltered life" and became a "naturally curious teenager" wanting to explore the world. They state that Katya was close to her mother and dealt with her death by going off the rail because she felt so much anger and hurt inside. Katya has an extremely dark past and she often shows signs of "self-destructive behaviour". Lachman enjoyed playing the "more fun side" of her character, opposed to the "bitchy nasty person" she was often written as. Lachman said was "fatiguing" but a "good challenge".
Reuniting with family
On her arrival, Katya was described as "feisty" by Jackie Brygel from TV Week and Lachman added Katya is "very complicated and full of contradictions, she may have quite a dark past." Lachman later explained that Katya ran away from home when she was sixteen and that there is a lot of "animosity" between Katya and her father. When her younger siblings, Rachel (Caitlin Stasey) and Zeke (Matthew Werkmeister), ask Katya to return with them to see their dying father, Katya is "too angry to think about trying to mend bridges." However, she later turns up in Ramsay Street and Karl Kennedy (Alan Fletcher) urges her to make up with Alex (Andrew Clarke). Lachman told Jason Herbison from Inside Soap that Katya and Alex "have been estranged for several years" and that she "holds a lot of resentment towards her father" because he kicked her out following her mother's death. Upon seeing Alex again Lachman states that "It's not easy for her to do – it's very painful. Katya is retrained the first time she sees Alex, but eventually her anger spills out, and she has a huge argument with him. Katya says what she's wanted to say for years. She brands Katya's final moments with Alex as a time of "great joy and great pain."
Katya's reunion with her brother and sister is "very emotional". Lachman explained that her character has convinced herself that Zeke and Rachel did not care about her. But their efforts to track her down prove otherwise. Katya and Alex try to solve their differences before he dies. She promises to help take care of her younger siblings and takes that seriously. But Katya's insistence on looking after them causes problems with Alex's widow Susan Kennedy (Jackie Woodburne). Susan had already raised three children of her own but Katya questions her parenting skills. Her friendship with ex-husband Karl becomes an issue for Katya, who they are about to reconcile.
Lachman later told Herbison that Katya feels as though her "territory is being encroached upon". Susan has developed a bond with Rachel and Zeke plus married her father. This makes her resent Susan and her suspicions about Karl only serve to make matters worse. The actress explained that Karl was Alex's doctor and believes he was in love with Susan while treating him. She is also angry with him involving himself with Zeke who had been suffering from traumatic mutism because of Alex's death. Katya's attitude frustrates Susan and she tries to make amends over a meal. Lachman believed that her character "lets her guard down with Susan" and Katya "forgets herself" in the moment. But Susan reveals that Karl informed her about Alex's illness against his wishes and "that progress comes undone". Katya is furious with Karl for breaking his medical oath and threatens to report his behaviour to the medical board. Writers developed the Katya and Susan feud further by introducing a custody battle over Rachel and Zeke. Susan hires lawyer and friend Toadie Rebecchi (Ryan Moloney) to help her win the case. But he is placed in a difficult situation because he has grown close to Katya. A writer from the Sunday Mercury revealed that Toadie "uncovers some dark secrets" about Katya. Rather than report her he deletes the information. Lachman believed that Katya did not really think Karl and Susan did wrong by her father. She explained that her character needed a reason to justify her behaviour. Katya feels guilty for abandoning her family and blaming the Kennedy's "gives her a reason to fight to get them [Rachel and Zeke] back."
Relationship with Robert Robinson
Producers lined up a romance storyline with Robert Robinson (Adam Hunter). She begins dating him under the impression that he is his twin brother, Cameron Robinson (also played by Hunter). Katya was played as having a fear of intimacy and unsure about him. But following encouragement from Susan she agrees to accompany her new love interest on a picnic. But Robert was plotting to ruin his father Paul Robinson's (Stefan Dennis) life. He worries that his feelings for Katya are distracting him from his original goal. He plans to murder her and takes her to deserted bush land. But when they arrives he changes his mind. Katya slips and fall over the edge of a cliff. He rushes to her aid and saves her. Producers continued to display the character's sinister side when Sean, a "dark figure" from Katya's past arrives. Robert decides to murder Sean to prevent him from upsetting Katya. Katya is asked to do a shift at the same hospital Cameron is lay comatose in. Fearing she will discover the truth, he offers her a lift and crashes the car to prevent her from making her shift.
Katya begins to suspect that Robert is pretending to be Cameron. He takes Paul hostage down a mineshaft and leaves him for dead. Dennis told Inside Soap's Herbison that Katya knows something is not right, "she realises Robert must be up to no good. For Paul's sake, lets hope she can convince others!" Katya exposes Robert's crimes and Paul is rescued. Writers added Katya to the list of characters Robert wants to seek revenge. Lachman explained that the situation is distressing for Katya because Robert is tormenting many of her fellow neighbours. Katya orders a taxi and Robert turns up in a disguise. He takes her hostage and takes her to a secluded location in a motorhome. Lachman told Herbison that had been stalking Katya and is obsessed. She believed Robert loves Katya "in his own mad way". Katya decides to play along with Robert's fantasies about them starting a new life elsewhere. Dichman said her "clever" character tells Robert she wants to spend her life with him. They read an advertisement which publicises Paul's wedding. Katya mentions that it may be the final chance he has to kill his father. She suggests they delay their departure and he visit the ceremony, hoping that it will give her time to escape.
Filming alongside Hunter proved difficult for cast members. He played both characters and Robert spent most of his time impersonating Cameron. Lachman approached the issue by only reading scenes Katya was involved in. She said that had she read the script as normal she would have been too confused. She praised "brilliant" Hunter for his professionalism and performance as two characters.
Max Hoyland
Following her kidnapping producers created a story in which Katya falls in love with Max Hoyland (Stephen Lovatt). But he is married to Stephanie Scully (Carla Bonner). Their story begins when Katya is involved in an accident. Katya is having an argument with Toadie while Max is on his mobile phone. Katya walks into the path of Max's car and is knocked down. He feels guilty because he knows that the accident would not have occurred if he had been concentrating on his driving. Katya blames herself for the accident and a guilty Max continues to visit her in hospital. Lachman defended her character because it starts innocently and she is not trying to steal Steph's husband. But Katya is a "lonely soul who needs someone to connect with. That's what gets her into trouble." The actress had been playing Katya as having a form of posttraumatic stress disorder. It occurs as a delayed reaction to all of the traumatic situations she had been exposed to with Robert. She added that her "vulnerable" on-screen counterpart needs someone she can trust. Max offers his friendship and she takes it, but her "motives are pure".
Max cannot deal with his guilt and tells Katya the truth. She forgives him and he vows to help her move on. He encourages Katya to explore her Tibetan heritage and learn the language. Max feels obligated to help her and Lachman viewed her character as "so lost now". She felt that writers had set the scene for inevitable trouble between the two. Max agrees to attend a Tibetan language workshop with Katya. But when they arrive it turns out to be a Tibetan meditation retreat. An embarrassed Katya suggests they leave but Max convinces her to stay. They participate in a form of meditation aimed at unveiling hidden desires. Max fantasises about being a football player but Katya's fantasy shocks her. Lachman explained that Katya and Max had grown closer, she is lonely and "come to depend on his advice and friendship." But she noted that it was platonic prior to arriving at the retreat. Katya imagines her and Max kissing, which she thinks is a natural development for them. As her character accepts her feelings for Max, Lachman stated that she honestly believes he feels the same way.
Katya tells Max she loves him but he does not feel the same and rejects her advances. Lachman assessed it had been a terrible time for Katya. She has been "dealing with all the humiliation. It's also caused hearthache for Max's wife, Steph. Katya feels she's messed up everyone's lives." Steph warns Katya to stay away from Max but she ignores her. Robert sends Katya a love letter which makes her scared because he is supposed to be in a secure psychiatric unit. Lachman said Katya fears that her "nightmare" with Robert will repeat itself. So she confides in Max, "the person she craves comfort from". He also ignores his wife's wishes and promises to look after Katya. Production had lined up another dramatic storyline for Katya. It advanced when Katya accepts a lift from Cameron. Max investigates why Robert was able to send Katya a letter. But he is misled that Robert has gone missing in the facility. He telephones Katya to warn her of the potential danger. She presumes that Cameron is actually Robert and escapes from the car. Max witnesses Katya running from Cameron and believing that it is Robert, Max knocks Cameron over and kills him. Lachman warned that serious repercussions would occur following Cameron's death.
Relationship with Ned Parker
Producers then paired Katya with Ned Parker (Daniel O'Connor) but their relationship is filled with drama and often overshadowed by Ned's feelings for Carmella Cammeniti (Natalie Blair). Prior to the relationship being official Katya has to compete with Carmella to gain Ned's love. A writer from the Daily Record warned that viewers could expect "fur flying" as Katya and Carmella try to "get their claws into poor Ned." Katya fares better than Carmella as she spends time with Ned interviewing tenants interested in moving into his brother's home. Despite choosing to be with Katya and being in a steady relationship for some time, Ned's feelings for Carmella do not disappear. When Carmella is in hospital recovering from facial surgery he becomes concerned and confesses his love.
Writers refused to let the characters achieve lasting happiness together. Additional problems created for them include Katya stealing cars, which Ned becomes embroiled in. He then receives unwanted romantic attention from his client Loris Timmins (Kate Fitzpatrick). She grows increasingly jealous of Katya. Then prison time for Katya results in a temporary break-up. When she is released they resume their relationship but then has to contend with Ned's gambling addiction and theft crimes.
Guy Sykes and crime spree
Nearing the end of Katya's time in Neighbours, writers revisited the character's past of crime. They introduced Fletcher Humphrys to play Guy Sykes, an old associate of Katya from her criminal past. Guy has obtained DVD footage of Katya committing crimes and blackmails her. She begins to steal cars in order to pay Guy off. But he gets greedy and increases his cash demands. Lachman told Herbison that her character's behaviour "really starts to get out of hand." She steals a luxury car but before she sell it Ned almost exposes her crime. She added that "poor Ned" gets in her way and needing to escape she knocks him unconscious. Katya realises that harming her boyfriend is too much. Lachman found the story difficult to comprehend because she did not believe her character could so easily over power a strongly built character such as Ned. The actress added "she comes to the conclusion that things have gone too far, and realises that she must take drastic action to get Guy off her back once and for all."
Katya decides that she needs to end her involvement with Guy. She lures him to secluded woodland under the pretence she has a cash payment for him. When he arrives, Katya pulls a gun on him and a fight breaks out. In the struggle Katya is shot and Guy flees the scene. When Katya is rushed to hospital she has slipped into a coma. Guy arrives at the hospital acting worried for his victim. Susan agrees to let police search Katya's bedroom but hoping to find her attacker. But they are shocked by their findings and numerous tools which are usually used to steal vehicles are recovered from her property. Given the rise in car theft in Erinsborough, Katya becomes the prime suspect. Woodburne said that her character "goes into complete denial and insists there must be some kind of misunderstanding." But Karl does not share her optimism and is "more realistic" about the situation than Susan. But she continues to defend Katya, Woodburne added that Susan believes she owes Katya "the benefit of the doubt." Fed up with comatose Katya, Guy decides to use a defibrillator to "violently rouse her". But Katya wakes up in time and attacks Guy with the defibrillator. She is then arrested for attempted murder alongside car theft charges. Guy later holds Katya, Steph, Toadie and Zeke hostage. They escape and he is arrested for his crimes.
Departure
Lachman announced that she was leaving Neighbours in September 2006. Her contract was not renewed by producers. An Inside Soap columnist said Katya's departure would be "unmissable" and she would "upset a lot of people before she goes." As a leaving gift the actress was given a signed poster and some of Katya's clothing. On-screen Katya decides to leave Erinsborough to take a new job in Adelaide. In her final scenes she tries to convince Ned to leave with her and cure his gambling addiction. But Paul successfully plans to stop him leaving. Katya's final appearance occurred during the episode broadcast on 7 February 2007. Lachman believed it may have been a good idea to kill the character off. But she was content with Katya's exit storyline. She told Will Martin from Last Broadcast that "I think it was good they didn't make a big deal... she did kind of piss everyone off!"
In 2009, Lachman revealed that she would consider a return to Neighbours if she was asked. She said "It's a place that's home to me so I'd definitely consider it if they wanted to. There's always a place in my heart for Neighbours."
Storylines
Rachel and Zeke track down Katya and convince her to return home to make amends with her father. She arrives at Susan's house and takes a dislike to her. She resents Susan for lot letting her share Alex's final moments alone. Following Alex's death Zeke refuses to talk and Susan takes him to see her ex-husband doctor Karl. When Katya learns of their past marriage she believes Susan is still in love with Karl. Katya initiates court proceedings to gain sole custody of Rachel and Zeke. Susan lets Katya take care of them but Katya proves to be a poor guardian. When being strict fails she tries to act more like a friend and lets them stay up late. Susan believes this affected their education. She goes round to their home but Katya is absent and Rachel is having a party. he called round she found that Katya wasn't there and Rachel was having a party and Zeke is drunk and unconscious. The event makes Katya realise her failings and she and her siblings move in with Susan and she bonds with her step-mother.
Katya dates Robert, under the impression that he is his twin brother,Cameron and is heartbroken to learn of his deception. Robert plans to push Katya off a cliff, but she ends up falling off before he can. Robert decides to save her life by pulling her up. She falls in love with him but begins to have doubts when he frames his comatose brother for his crimes. Robert returns to being himself while his innocent brother is jailed. Believing Cameron is innocent she teams up with Izzy Hoyland (Natalie Bassingthwaighte) and Gail Robinson (Fiona Corke) to prove Robert's guilt. She saves Paul when Robert leaves him to die trapped in a mineshaft.
Robert kidnaps Katya in revenge and she tries to convince him that she loves him still. She was found by Toadie and Susan tied up in a camper van. Ned grows close to Carmella and they begin seeing each other. But she thinks they are spending too much time together. A rejected Ned decides to spend time with Katya and they grow close, but Carmella finds out, she and Katya begin to fight over Ned, with Katya making the most effort to secure his attentions. Eventually, Katya won and begins dating Ned.
Guy Sykes (Fletcher Humphrys) arrives in Erinsborough and blackmails Katya for money or he will reveal her secrets. To fund this Katya begins stealing cars. Ned interrupts Katya stealing and she attacks him in order to escape. Katya lures Guy to secluded woodlands under the promise of a blackmail payment. Instead of paying him she pulls a gun on him. Guy fights Katya for the gun she is accidentally shot. Guy leaves her and steals her handbag unaware the money is fake. Katya is rushed to hospital and but had fallen into a coma. Guy befriends the Kinskis and tries to find Katya's money in their home. He begins visiting Katya in the hope she wakes and informs him of the money's location. She spends an additional two weeks in her coma until Guy becomes impatient. He sets up a defibrillator believing that delivering a shock to her may wake her up. Zeke tries to stop Guy, but Katya regains consciousness and attacks Guy with the defibrillator. Katya is given time in prison but released on bail to spend Christmas with her family. Guy shows up with a gun and takes Katya, Zeke, Toadie, Stephanie Scully (Carla Bonner), Charlie Hoyland (Aaron Aulsebrook-Walker) hostage. During an intense struggle between Guy and Toadie, Toadie is shot. Katya decides to leave Ramsay Street after receiving a suspended sentence for her crimes. She accepts the position as a medic to the Adelaide Crows football team and leaves to start over in Adelaide.
Reception
Upon Katya's introduction, a writer for Daily Record said she had a "hard heart". A fellow writer from the publication added that she was Susan's "evil stepdaughter" and "dastardly nurse". When Katya and Toadie shared a kiss, Doug Anderson from The Sydney Morning Herald thought it was "the start of something vile." The Sunday Mercury's Roz Laws thought that Katya was foolish to try and break Guy's hold over her. A writer from Roadshow Entertainment said that Katya Kinski was best Neighbours character name ever, adding "how sexy is that!"
A Daily Record reporter called Katya "disturbed" and quipped "Being bashed by Max's bumper obviously had an odd effect on her, because before long she thinks she's fallen in love with him." Another writer bemoaned the dearth of realism of Katya and Max, comparing it to Bouncer's dream. They added that being run over by him did "odd things" the "sexy nurse's" brain if she loves the "grumpy family man" Max. The writer noted the unusually long list of traumas the character had endured in just one year. Jesting that "Katya must be regretting ever laying eyes on Ramsay Street", they recounted that her father died, fought a custody battle, gained a "mad boyfriend" and contended with Toadie's "obsessive attention".
References
External links
Character profile at the Official AU Neighbours website
Neighbours characters
Fictional nurses
Fictional criminals in soap operas
Television characters introduced in 2005
Female characters in television
Female villains
Fictional characters who awoke from a coma
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ken%20%22Snakehips%22%20Johnson
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Ken "Snakehips" Johnson
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Kenrick Reginald Hijmans Johnson (10 September 1914 – 8 March 1941), known as Ken "Snakehips" Johnson, was a swing band leader and dancer. He was a leading figure in black British music of the 1930s and early 1940s before his death while performing at the Café de Paris, London, when it was hit by a German bomb in the Blitz during the Second World War.
Johnson was born in Georgetown, British Guiana (present-day Guyana). He showed some musical ability, but his early interest in a career in dancing displeased his father, who wished him to study medicine. He was educated in Britain, but instead of continuing on to university, he travelled to New York, perfecting dance moves and immersing himself in the vibrant jazz scene in Harlem. Tall and elegant, he modelled himself professionally on Cab Calloway. He returned to Britain and set up the Aristocrats (or Emperors) of Jazz, a mainly black swing band, with Leslie Thompson, a Jamaican musician. In 1937 he took control of the band through a legal loophole, resulting in the departure of Thompson and several musicians. Johnson filled the vacancies with musicians from the Caribbean; the band's popularity grew and its name changed to the West Indian Dance Orchestra.
From 1938 the band started broadcasting on BBC Radio, recorded their first discs and appeared in an early television broadcast. Increasingly popular, they were employed as the house band at the Café de Paris, an upmarket and fashionable nightclub located in a basement premises below a cinema. A German bombing raid on London in March 1941 hit the cinema, killing at least 34 and injuring dozens more. Johnson and one of the band's saxophonists were among those killed; several other band members were injured.
The West Indian Dance Orchestra were the leading swing band in Britain at the time, well-known and popular through their radio broadcasts, but their impact was more social than musical. As leader of a mainly black orchestra playing the most up-to-date music of the time, Johnson was seen as a pioneer for black musical leaders in the UK. When the band broke up after Johnson's death, the members had an impact on the nature and sound of British jazz. In 1940 Johnson had begun a relationship with Gerald Hamilton, a man twenty years his senior. After Johnson's death Hamilton never travelled without a framed photograph of him, always referring to him as "my husband".
Biography
Early life
Kenrick Reginald Hijmans Johnson was born in Georgetown, British Guiana (present-day Guyana), on 10 September 1914. His parents were Dr Reginald Fitzherbert Johnson, a doctor and medical officer of health from British Guiana, and Anna Delphina Louisa Hijmans, a nurse from Dutch Guiana (now Suriname). His uncle was the pianist Oscar Dummett.
Johnson appeared in a comb and paper band at his Georgetown school, Queen's College, and played the violin. His early interest in dancing was opposed by his father, who considered a future in the medical profession more appropriate for his son. To give him a British education and to further the possibility of a medical career, Kenrick was sent to the UK at the age of 14—arriving at Plymouth on 31 August 1929—for schooling at Sir William Borlase's Grammar School near Marlow, Buckinghamshire. He played cricket and football at the school; as a tall boy—he was eventually —he was an excellent goalkeeper. He also played the violin in the school chapel, and danced for his friends.
On leaving school in 1931, Johnson studied law at the University of London, but gave up to work as a dancer. He worked with travelling revue troupes and took professional lessons. His main influence was Buddy Bradley, a well known African American dancer and choreographer who ran a dance school in the West End of London. Through Bradley's influence, Johnson was recorded in 1934 for the film Oh, Daddy!, and in December 1934 he travelled to Trinidad. He toured the Caribbean, dancing on stage, before moving on to the US, where he visited Harlem, New York. He spent his time in the US honing his tap dancing skills, and studying the styles of the local African American dancers. According to Val Wilmer, the writer on jazz, it was here that he "learnt to wind his hips in the suggestive manner that his nickname implied". According to Andrew Simons, Head of Music at the British Library, it is likely that Johnson also saw the act of Bill "Bojangles" Robinson, who performed a "stair dance" that was well-known on the New York vaudeville stage. Johnson met Fletcher Henderson, who encouraged him in a future band-leading career and allowed him to conduct his orchestra. While in the US he featured in two short films. He appeared on stage in August 1935 for a one-night performance in British Guiana; posters advertised him as "Ken 'Snakehips' Johnson, Direct in from Hollywood after contract with Warner Bros. Studios". He returned to Britain in 1936.
Career
Johnson's experiences in Harlem motivated him to start his own swing band. According to Wilmer, British dance bands of the time "were technically proficient but generally lacked the ability then to 'swing' like African Americans". Johnson saw his music in "the context of black internationalism and Pan-Africanism that shaped London in the 1930s". Wanting to model himself on the entertainer-bandleader model, such as the American Cab Calloway—an elegant figure who led his swing orchestra in tails—Johnson began to build an all-black band. In 1936 he teamed up with the Jamaican trumpeter Leslie Thompson to form an all-black jazz band, the Aristocrats (or Emperors) of Jazz, sometimes the "Jamaican Emperors", who made their debut that April.
Thompson was the musical leader of the band. Wanting to achieve the same sounds as the American big bands, he said "I made them rehearse to get that lift that Jimmie Lunceford and [Duke] Ellington were getting on their records"; he described Johnson as "a stick wagger—he was no musician". While Johnson left the musical practice for Thompson to direct, he rehearsed his showmanship and dance moves. On saxophone the band included three Jamaicans (Bertie King, Louis Stephenson and Joe Appleton) and Robert Mumford-Taylor, who was of Sierra Leonean descent. Thompson was joined on trumpet by the Trinidadian Wally Bowen, the Jamaican Leslie "Jiver" Hutchinson and Arthur Dibbin, who was born in South Wales of West African descent. On double bass they employed either the South African Bruce Vanderpoye or Abe "Pops" Clare from the Caribbean. Yorke de Souza, a Jamaican, was the pianist; Joe Deniz, who was born in South Wales of a father from the Cape Verde Islands, was the guitarist. As Thompson could not find suitable black trombonists, he employed Reg Amore and Freddie Greenslade, both of whom were white but would wear blackface to ensure the band were seen as an all-black ensemble.
Although the group struggled financially when they first started, they soon built a reputation and following. First performing in cinemas in outer London from April 1936, the band toured Britain, appearing on the variety circuit. Towards the end of 1936 Johnson and the band were recruited for a residency as the house band at the Old Florida club in Old Bruton Mews, Mayfair for a six-week trial—with an associated income of four or five times more than most night club bands. Johnson received £20 a week; the others a little less, but all did well at a time when the average wage was £5 a week. In February 1937 Johnson and his manager, Ralph Deene, renegotiated the band's contract with the club in their names, omitting Thompson from the contract, effectively taking ownership of the orchestra. Thompson left, taking several members loyal to him. To fill the gaps in the orchestra, Johnson recruited four musicians he knew from Trinidad: the saxophonists George Roberts and Dave "Baba" Williams; Dave Wilkins on trumpet and Carl Barriteau on clarinet, although several of those who left returned over time. With Thompson gone from the band, Hutchinson took over the role of musical leader.
The band continued performing at the Old Florida Club and began taking day-time stage work. They were soon scouted at the Shepherd's Bush Empire by Leslie Perowne of the BBC's Variety Department. This led to their first radio broadcast on 11 January 1938 for a 30-minute segment on the BBC Regional Programme. It was the first of 43 broadcasts they were to make. The following month they recorded their first discs, "Goodbye" and "Remember", although neither was issued. In July that year they recorded their first releases, "Washington Squabble" and "Please be Kind". Johnson and the West Indian Dance Orchestra, as the band were now known, appeared in an early television broadcast on the BBC in either 1938 or 1939.
Towards the end of 1938 Johnson began making plans for an overseas tour, focused on Scandinavia and the Netherlands; he also planned to attend the 1939 New York World's Fair, appearing in the West Indian section. The outbreak of the Second World War curtailed these plans. In 1939 the band appeared as a backing orchestra for the film Traitor Spy. Johnson did not appear in the film, and his post as band leader was taken by "Jiver" Hutchinson. In April 1939 the band began a residence at a new club, Willerby's. As well as providing a show for the audience, they played music for dancing. The music magazine Melody Maker considered that the move to music for dancing was advantageous for the band as "their music has a dance-inducing quality which cannot fail to please, while, as an entertaining unit, the band ranks high".
Due to the threat of bombing, Willerby's closed in October 1939, but the band were in demand and began an engagement at the Café de Paris, an upmarket nightclub in Coventry Street, London. The band's popularity rose, as did their profile: the Café de Paris was equipped to broadcast on the BBC, and they regularly performed on radio across the UK. The demand for their employment was aided by British musicians being conscripted for war service, which the largely West Indian orchestra were not.
In 1940 Johnson began a relationship with Gerald Hamilton, a man twenty years his senior; the couple lived for a while in Kinnerton Street, Belgravia. When the Blitz started, they took a cottage in Bray, Berkshire, on the banks of the River Thames, and Johnson would commute into London to perform, returning to Bray to arrive in the early hours of the morning. According to Tom Cullen, Hamilton's biographer, Johnson:
was amused by Gerald's Edwardian airs and malicious anecdotes and considered him to be 'a real cool cat'; while Gerald, for his part, undertook to educate Ken's palate in the mysteries of wine ('I can conceive no greater pleasure than that of instructing a willing pupil in the glories of a worthwhile cellar', as Gerald expresses it)."
Death
London's West End and club-land continued to party late into the night, despite the nightly raids by German bombers. Clubs prospered as Londoners and visitors revelled for any excuse.
Mad to celebrate this or that—a call-up, a promotion, an unexpected week-end pass, or a hasty marriage—they groped their way through the black-out to the Savoy and the Café de Paris ... and enjoyed the added thrill of dancing the night away while anti-aircraft guns thudded away outside.
The Café de Paris capitalised on the situation. With the club underground, beneath the Rialto cinema, the Café's manager, Martin Poulsen, advertised it as "the safest and gayest restaurant in town – even in air raids. Twenty feet below ground". In reality all that stood between the club and the German bombs were the glass roof of the Rialto and the club's ceiling.
On 8 March 1941 Johnson had drinks with friends at the Embassy Club, near the Café de Paris. It was a night of heavy bombing in central London and his friends tried to persuade him to stay. Johnson was resolved to make his entrance, so ran to the club through the blackout to arrive in time for his 9:45 pm entrance. As the band began playing its signature song, "Oh Johnny", at least one high-explosive bomb hit the building. At least 34 people died in the club, and dozens were injured. Johnson was killed instantly, as was the saxophonist "Baba" Williams, who was cut in half by the blast; Poulsen was also killed. The band's guitarist Deniz later recounted:
As we started playing there was an awful thud, and all the lights went out. The ceiling fell in and the plaster came pouring down. People were yelling. A stick of bombs went right across Leicester Square, through the Café de Paris and further up to Dean Street. The next thing I remember was being in a small van which had been converted into an ambulance. Then someone came to me and said: "Joe, Ken's dead." It broke me up.
Several other members of the band were also injured in the explosion. Barriteau's wrist was broken; Deniz and Bromley each had a broken leg; de Souza had splinters of glass in his eye, near the pupil. According to the screenwriter Sid Colin, "The West End paused for a moment of horrified silence—then the dance went on".{{efn|The Café de Paris was requisitioned as a Nuffield Centre—a recreational institution for servicemen; many new talents had their breaks there, including Peter Sellers, Harry Secombe, Benny Hill, Tommy Cooper, Tony Hancock, Michael Bentine, Frankie Howerd, Spike Milligan and Ronnie Corbett.{{sfn|"Mary Cook". The Daily Telegraph}} The Café reopened in 1948 and continued trading until December 2020, when it closed because of bankruptcy brought on by the COVID-19 lockdown.}}
The following morning, Hamilton was phoned by the police and asked to go to the Westminster mortuary to identify Johnson. He wrote in his diary "Again that awful feeling of nausea which I had felt when France fell, and again the sensation of the ground slipping from beneath my feet". Hamilton was devastated by the loss of his partner and never travelled without a framed photograph of Johnson in evening dress, always referring to him as "my husband". Johnson's funeral took place on 14 March 1941 at Golders Green Crematorium; his ashes were placed in the Borlase School chapel following a memorial service on 8 March 1942.Melody Maker published coverage on Johnson and his band for three weeks after his death. The BBC waited until September 1941 to broadcast a memorial to him on the Radio Rhythm Club programme; it drew a 15.3 per cent listenership, which was high for a late-night broadcast on the BBC Forces Programme. That October Melody Maker arranged a jam session at HMV Recording Studios, Abbey Road. Many of Johnson's former colleagues played—Deniz and Bromley still showing the leg injuries they sustained—and they played several songs together, with other musicians filling in the gaps in the group. The BBC also broadcast two further programmes in February 1942, once when Perowne played Johnson's records, and once when the band reunited under Barriteau for a one-off performance.
Impact and legacy
The West Indian Dance Orchestra became the leading swing band in Britain, and one of the first British bands to play the style in the manner of the US bands. According to the musicologist Catherine Tackley, by 1941 Johnson and his orchestra were "a unique ensemble in Britain". Wilmer considers the impact they made was "wider and more complex" than just as entertainers. Culturally the orchestra made an impact in society: the apparently all-black outfit was the only one in the country. According to Wilmer:
Johnson's was neither the first black British band nor the first all-black ensemble to appear in Britain. He played some excellent musical arrangements, but as these owed strict allegiance to prevailing American principles and style, his significance in maintaining the first established black British band was social as much as musical.
The historian Peter Fraser wrote that Johnson became both a pioneer and model for later British black musicians. His impact on London clubland, and the social changes brought about from the war, led to the emergence of later racially mixed bands. Within a month of his death, several of his band members had been employed by bandleaders whose band composition had been white until their introduction. Such racial integration in mainstream British jazz and dance orchestras increased over the following years, although many bands, including those led by Hutchinson, still faced what was called the "colour bar" when trying to gain bookings in clubs.
The band broke up with Johnson's death, devastated and traumatised. Al Bowlly, the singer who sometimes performed with the band, was killed in an air raid the month after Johnson; others moved on to work with other bands: Harry Parry, the Welsh bandleader, hired Deniz, De Souza and Wilkins for his Radio Rhythm Sextet, and Barriteau started a mixed swing orchestra in 1942. Hutchinson worked with the bandleader Geraldo for three years, before he formed another all-black band, the "All-Coloured Orchestra", or "All-Star Coloured Band", that comprised many members of Johnson's group, including Williams, Stephenson, Roberts, Appleton, de Souza, Deniz and Coleridge Goode. The musical historian Roberta Freund Schwartz writes that the movement of "surviving members ... arguably improved the overall sound of native jazz".
In 2013 the BBC screened Dancing on the Edge by Stephen Poliakoff. The series centred on a fictional jazz band in the early 1930s, led by Louis Lester (played by Chiwetel Ejiofor). The character was a composite of several band leaders of the time, including Johnson. The same year the broadcaster Clemency Burton-Hill presented Swinging in the Blitz for the BBC, an exploration of the role of jazz in Britain during the Second World War; Johnson and his band's history was the focus for much of the programme. In 2019 the actor and writer Clarke Peters presented the BBC Radio 4 series Black Music in Europe: A Hidden History; the episode covering the Second World War included a history of Johnson and his band.
Approach and style
Johnson was tall, elegant and handsome. His image to the public is described by Bourne as "a gentleman about town". Both he and his all-black band dressed in white jackets—Johnson would wear white tails and conduct the orchestra using an extra-long baton. His band wore white dinner jackets and, according to Wilmer, "For the general public, the sight of twelve disciplined men of African descent, dressed smartly in white band jackets, was exciting and memorable." One of Johnson's aims was to ensure the band had a strong visual impact, just as the American swing bands did. This included choreographing the movements of the musicians, as well as incorporating his own dance moves into the music. According to the writer Amon Saba Saakana, Johnson's "brilliant dancing and showmanship established the band's reputation as one of the best in Britain".
Although Johnson was not as musically talented as the musicians he led—one of his former colleagues said of him "he couldn't tell a B flat from a pig's foot!"—he had, as his business manager said, "the gift of imparting his terrific enthusiasm to those who were [talented]".
Introducing a black musician into a largely or all-white group was difficult, and several London venues blocked the inclusion of a black musician. Those clubs and band-leaders that did include black musicians would use one—often seen as a novelty for a band—but struggle to include a second against a club manager's veto unless the musician was better than a white musician. When Johnson discussed the problem with Bert Firman, who preceded him at the Café de Paris, Johnson related he had also faced the obstruction:
So what real chance has your ordinary, competent but day-to-day coloured musician got unless, of course, he is American? There is such an inferiority complex about Americans that a lousy musician would still get by so long as he had a Yank accent ... But I'm talking about West Indians. What real chance does a West Indian got? Not much. Put us in a group, stress that we are a West Indian Dance Orchestra and then we become a big novelty. Those clever fellows with their natural rhythms. Just make sure everyone gets the point, call me Ken Snakehips Johnson!
Professional output
Recordings
Johnson's first band—the Aristocrats (or Emperors) of Jazz—did not make any recordings. The discs produced by the West Indian Dance Orchestra were commercial issues for listeners of dance band music, not swing. Because the 78 record had a 3 minute 20 second limit on the recording, "the band's special sense of swing was sometimes dampened", according to Simons. Nevertheless, initially recording for Decca Records, their work was promoted by the company in their "Swing" series.
Some of the arrangements of Johnson's music were done by the American musician Adrian de Haas, others by Barriteau and some by Kenny Baker—who later appeared in the Ted Heath Orchestra. The jazz musician Soweto Kinch considers Johnson's recordings contain aspects of Calypso music. The musical historian Jason Toynbee considers the music an authentic swing, with sophisticated arrangement "but still very much American in its derivation". For some of the recordings, Johnson employed his friend, Al Bowlly—who also accompanied the band at the Café de Paris—and the Henderson Twins on vocals. One of the recordings, "Exactly Like You" features the whole band singing in syncopated vocal.
Broadcasts
Johnson both appeared with his band on BBC Radio and acted as a disc jockey, presenting programmes such as Calypso and other West Indian Music''; the broadcast he made on 24 June 1939 preceded the cricket Test match between the West Indies and the MCC. Although the BBC eschewed jazz and ensured their modern music output was more conventional dance music, Johnson played swing, advertising the programme as "ultra-modern dance music". Johnson had recordings made of his radio broadcasts onto acetate discs, giving some of these to the band members. Some of these recordings are now held by the British Library Sound Archive.
Notes and references
Notes
References
Sources
Books
Journals and magazines
News
Websites
Television
1914 births
1941 deaths
20th-century British male musicians
20th-century British LGBT people
British civilians killed in World War II
British jazz bandleaders
Deaths by airstrike during World War II
Guyanese emigrants to England
Guyanese musicians
British LGBT artists
Black British LGBT people
British LGBT musicians
People educated at Sir William Borlase's Grammar School
Musicians from Georgetown, Guyana
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20rail%20accidents%20%28before%201880%29
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List of rail accidents (before 1880)
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17th century
1650
England – Whickham, County Durham. Two boys die when they are run over by a wagon on a wooden coal train way. While such tramway accidents are not generally listed as rail accidents (note the lack of accidents listed for the next 163 years) this is sometimes cited as the earliest-known railway accident.
1810s
1813
February – United Kingdom – A 13-year-old boy named Jeff Bruce is killed whilst running alongside the Middleton Railway tracks. The Leeds Mercury reports that this would "operate as a warning to others".
1815
15 July – United Kingdom – Thirteen or sixteen people, mainly spectators, are killed, and 40 are injured by the boiler explosion of the experimental locomotive "Brunton's Mechanical Traveller" on the Newbottle Waggonway at Philadelphia, County Durham.
1818
28 February – United Kingdom – The driver is killed on the Middleton Railway in Hunslet, Leeds, West Yorkshire when Salamanca's boiler explodes, as a result of the force of the explosion, he was "carried, with great violence, into an adjoining field the distance of one hundred yards." "This was the result of the driver tampering with the safety valves."
1820s
1821
5 December – United Kingdom – David Brook, a carpenter, is walking home from Leeds, Yorkshire along the Middleton Railway in a sleet storm when he is run over, with fatal results, by the steam engine of a coal train.
1827
United Kingdom – An unnamed woman from Eaglescliffe, County Durham, England (believed to have been a blind beggar woman) is "killed by the steam machine on the railway". This is said to be the first case of a woman being killed in a railway collision.
1828
19 March – United Kingdom – The boiler of Stockton and Darlington Railway locomotive No. 5 explodes at Simpasture Junction, County Durham. One person is killed.
July 1 – United Kingdom – The boiler of Stockton and Darlington railway locomotive Locomotion No. 1 explodes at station, County Durham. One person is killed.
1829
4 September – United Kingdom – "A poor fellow incautiously placed himself in the way of a locomotive engine, which was driving waggons on the Liverpool and Manchester Railway in Salford, when the wheel went over one of his legs, which was literally cut off. He was carried to a surgeon's in the neighbourhood, but no effectual aid could be given to him, nor the bleeding staunched, and he died."
1830s
1830
15 September – United Kingdom – William Huskisson becomes the first widely reported passenger train death. During the ceremonial opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, while standing on the track at Parkside, he is struck and fatally injured by the locomotive Rocket. (Locomotives did not yet have whistles.)
1831
8 February – United Kingdom – William Tewburn was a guard on an overnight goods train of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, pulled by the Twin Sisters locomotive which arrived at Liverpool Road, in Manchester at 2 am, where the unfortunate victim got aboard the tender unbeknownst to the engineer, who started moving the locomotive to take on coke and water, one of these short lurching trips caused the benumbed guard to lose his grip, and he fell under first the tender and then the locomotive, virtually cutting him in half.
17 June – United States – After the pressure safety valve is tied down by the train's fireman, the locomotive Best Friend of Charleston suffers a boiler explosion at Charleston, South Carolina, killing him, scalding the engineer, and injuring three others. The locomotive was the first engine of the South Carolina Canal and Railroad Company.
21 October – United Kingdom – On the Warrington & Newton Railway. Mr. Kitchingman had a garden that backed onto the railway at Dallam-brook. He was on the train with a friend and decided to jump out at his house, but was dragged under the wheels of the following coach, which mangled his leg, which had to be amputated. He later succumbed to his injuries and expired.
1833
1 February – United Kingdom – At Parr Moss, west of Newton-le-Willows on the Liverpool & Manchester Railway, an eastbound train is stopped by the bursting of a fire tube in the locomotive. Passengers get off to see what has happened, and some of them stand on the westbound track where the escaping steam blocks them from seeing (or being seen from) a train approaching from Bolton. Four are run over by the westbound train, three of them killed instantly and the fourth reported as unlikely to survive.
8 November – United States – Hightstown rail accident – The carriages of a Camden & Amboy passenger train derail in the New Jersey countryside between Spotswood and Hightstown when an axle breaks on a car due to an overheated journal. One car overturns, killing two people and injuring fifteen. Among the injured is Cornelius Vanderbilt, who will later head the New York Central Railroad. Uninjured in the coach ahead is former U.S. President John Quincy Adams, who continues on to the nation's capital the next day.
1834
12 February – United Kingdom – A boiler explosion on a Middleton Colliery locomotive at Hunslet, Yorkshire kills one person.
1836
2 October – United States – A broken axle of a Cincinnati-bound train throws a woman and a child onto the track where they are both dragged and run over. The woman perishes, but the child manages to survive, though seriously injured.
11 October – France – An employee of the line from Saint-Étienne to Lyon falls on a track and is decapitated by a train. The first train accident in France.
1837
11 August – United States – The first head-on collision to result in passenger fatalities occurred on the Portsmouth and Roanoke Railroad near Suffolk, Virginia, when an eastbound lumber train coming down a grade at speed rounded a sharp curve and smashed into the morning passenger train from Portsmouth, Virginia. The first three of the thirteen stagecoach-style cars were smashed, killing three daughters of the prominent Ely family and injuring dozens of the 200 onboard returning from a steamboat cruise. An engraving depicting the moment of impact was published in Howland's Steamboat Disasters and Railroad Accidents in 1840.
1838
7 August – United Kingdom – A ticket inspector, Thomas Port, falls from a moving London and Birmingham Railway passenger train at Harrow, Middlesex. Both his legs are amputated following the accident.
October – United Kingdom – A collision involving an experimental engine which Dionysius Lardner is allowed to operate on the Great Western Railway kills a "pupil" of Lardner.
1839
2 February – United Kingdom – Charlotte Carrad was killed by a train heading for Slough on the Great Western Railway, eight months after this section, the first of the GWR, had opened. She was trying to cross the track at Langley to pick turnip tops in a field. She had seen the train, Hurricane, with three carriages, coming at about but hurried down the public footpath to get across the track. She reached the further rail when the engine struck her on the shoulder. Her friend, who was with her, found her in the ditch on the other side of the track. There was a little sign of life, but she died a minute or two later, her neck vertebrae having been dislocated.
1840s
1840
4 May – United States – One passenger was killed and several others injured when a lattice bridge over rain-swollen Catskill Creek collapsed under the weight of a Canajoharie and Catskill Railroad train en route from Catskill, New York, to Cairo, New York.
7 August – United Kingdom – Howden rail crash, Five passengers are killed when a casting falls from a wagon and derails the carriages of a Hull and Selby Railway passenger train.
September – United Kingdom – A North Midland Railway passenger train is derailed between South Wingfield and , Derbyshire. Two passengers are killed.
September – United Kingdom – An Eastern Counties Railway passenger train is in a rear-end collision with another at Old Ford, Essex. One person is killed.
10 November – United Kingdom – Two employees of the Birmingham and Gloucester Railway lose their lives when the boiler of the 2-2-0 steam locomotive Surprise explodes at Bromsgrove, Worcestershire.
11 November – United Kingdom – A York and North Midland Railway luggage train is in a rear-end collision with a passenger train at Taylor's Junction, Yorkshire. Two passengers are killed.
1841
5 October – United States – Two Western Railroad passenger trains are in a head-on collision between Worcester, Massachusetts and Albany, New York. A conductor and a passenger are killed and seventeen passengers are injured.
24 December – United Kingdom – Sonning Cutting railway accident: a Great Western Railway Paddington to Bristol train including goods wagons and open passenger wagons runs into a landslide in a cutting. Nine passengers are killed and sixteen are injured, leading to calls for better protection for passengers.
1842
8 May – France – Versailles rail accident: Following the King's fete celebrations at the Palace of Versailles, a train returning to Gare Montparnasse, Paris derails at Meudon, Hauts-de-Seine due to a broken axle on the leading locomotive. The wreckage catches fire, killing between 52 and 200 people, including the explorer Jules Dumont d'Urville.
1843
6 January – United Kingdom – A collision between two North Midland Railway trains at Barnsley, Yorkshire killed one person. The only passenger to be killed travelling by train in the United Kingdom that year.
10 March – Netherlands – During a test drive a locomotive derailed on a incompletely closed railway bridge near Warmond. One person was killed. This was the first railway accident in the Netherlands.
United Kingdom – A locomotive boiler explosion on the Hartlepool Railway kills one person, a member of the public travelling illegally on the footplate.
1844
1 May – United Kingdom – The boiler of Newcastle and Carlisle Railway locomotive Adelaide explodes at Carlisle, Cumberland. Two people are injured.
December 11 – United Kingdom – The boiler of South Eastern Railway locomotive No. 78 Forrester explodes as it hauls a freight train near , Surrey. Both crew are killed.
1845
28 January – United Kingdom – The boiler of Newcastle and Carlisle Railway locomotive Venus exploded whilst it was hauling a freight train.
28 January – United Kingdom – The boiler of Manchester and Leeds Railway locomotive No. 27 Irk explodes at Miles Platting, Lancashire.
28 July – United Kingdom – A passenger train is run into by a steam locomotive at , Kent, injuring about 30 people.
1846
20 January – United Kingdom – A bridge over the River Medway between and , Kent, England, collapses while a South Eastern Railway freight train is passing over it. The driver is killed.
9 July – United Kingdom – A Clarence Railway engine standing in a branch line of the Stockton and Darlington Railway suddenly began to move down the incline and collided with some waggons of another Clarence engine. Four men were crushed between the carriages and were severely injured. One died at the scene.
20 November – United Kingdom – During the construction of the Blackburn, Darwen and Bolton Railway, the boiler of ex-Stockton and Darlington Railway locomotive No. 18 Shildon explodes at , Lancashire.
23 November – United Kingdom – Elizabeth Coleman, aged eleven years, was killed on the Eastern Counties Railway. The deceased was, it appeared, endeavouring to cross the line at a point near the Roydon station where the Lockroad crosses the line on a level when she was struck by the buffer of a Cambridge train and killed upon the spot. The jury returned a verdict of "Accidental death."
1847
24 May – United Kingdom – Dee bridge disaster – Five people are killed and nine are injured when the carriages of a -to- train falls into the River Dee following the collapse of a bridge. One of the supporting cast-iron girders had cracked in the centre and given way. The locomotive and tender manage to reach the other side of the bridge, which was engineered by Robert Stephenson. The accident causes his reputation to be questioned. The collapse led to a re-evaluation of the use of cast iron in railway bridges; many bridges have to be demolished or reinforced.
28 June – United Kingdom – A North Union Railway locomotive suffers a boiler explosion, injuring one person.
1848
25 April – United Kingdom – The boiler of a North Midland Railway locomotive explodes at Normanton, Derbyshire, scalding three people.
20 May – United Kingdom – Six passengers are killed, and thirteen are injured at , Berkshire when a Great Western Railway express train runs into two wagons on the line. The horse-box and cattle van had been pushed onto the main line by two porters to free a wagon turntable. Although the locomotive was undamaged, the side of the leading carriage was torn out.
1849
Whitsuntide – United Kingdom – An East Lancashire Railway passenger train is in a rear-end collision with an excursion train. Despite efforts to protect its rear, another excursion train is in a rear-end collision with the passenger train.
27 June – United Kingdom – The boiler of Great Western Railway locomotive Goliah explodes whilst it is hauling a freight train on the South Devon Railway at Plympton, Devon. One person is killed.
1850s
1850
2 February – United Kingdom – The firebox of a York, Newcastle and Berwick Railway locomotive collapses whilst the locomotive is hauling a freight train near Darlington, County Durham. Two people are killed.
26 March – United Kingdom – The boiler of a London and North Western Railway locomotive explodes at Wolverton, Buckinghamshire due to tampering of the safety valves. One person is injured.
June – United Kingdom – The boiler of a Midland Railway locomotive explodes at Kegworth, Derbyshire.
1 August – United Kingdom – When three Scottish Central Railway excursion trains are scheduled to arrive in rapid succession at Cowlairs, Lanarkshire, the second one stops on a crossover and must reverse to clear it; but although time interval working is in use, no one goes back to protect it and the third train crashes into it, killing five people.
United Kingdom – A Great Western Railway excursion train collides with a horsebox that had escaped from a siding at , Wiltshire. Following this accident, The Great Western Railway provides trap points and scotch blocks at all sidings exiting on to main lines.
United Kingdom – A Midland Railway train is in a rear-end collision with an excursion train at station, Yorkshire because a signal is lit at night.
United Kingdom – The boiler of a York and North Midland Railway locomotive explodes at Staddlethorpe, Yorkshire, derailing the locomotive. Two people are injured.
1851
21 January – Germany – The was the first German rail accident with several fatalities and the worst rail accident at that time point. Three people died.
30 April – United Kingdom – Sutton Tunnel railway accident: A Birkenhead, Lancashire and Cheshire Junction Railway passenger train runs into the rear of another inside Sutton Tunnel, Cheshire. The train that was run into was pushing another in front of it; both had stalled. Six people are killed and "a great number" are injured.
6 June – United Kingdom – A London, Brighton and South Coast Railway train is derailed on a bridge between Brighton and Lewes by a sleeper placed across a rail, killing five people.
1852
12 July – United Kingdom – Burnley railway accident – A 35-coach school excursion train from Goole arrives at Burnley on the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway, where it is far too long for the platform track. The engines are detached and the train left coasting slowly downhill into a long siding. As the station is understaffed, two friends of the staff have been asked to help out. One of them briefly lets go of a set of weighted points, misrouting the train into the dead-end platform track, where it crashes into the buffers before it can be braked. Of 800 people on board, four are killed.
29 July – United Kingdom – On the London and North Western Railway, a locomotive is brought into Shrewsbury shed for a minor repair, but the steam is still engaged when the fire is dropped. After the engine is repaired and fired up, it is left unattended for 20 minutes at a shift change. It runs away onto the main line and later collides with a standing train at Donnington, Shropshire, killing one passenger.
3 August – United Kingdom – The ashpan of the locomotive falls off a Rugby-to-Birmingham train at Hampton on the London and North Western Railway, derailing a van and one coach, which collide with a train on the other track. Two passengers are killed and several injured.
September 25 – United Kingdom – the boiler of an Eastern Counties Railway locomotive explodes.
4 October – United Kingdom – A South Eastern Railway passenger train is derailed between and , East Sussex, England, when the formation is flooded and washed away. Both engine crew are injured.
25 November – United Kingdom – A Great Western Railway train hauled by locomotive Lynx is derailed at Gatcombe, Gloucestershire.
1853
6 January – United States – A train carrying President-elect Franklin Pierce, his wife Jane and their son Benjamin derailed and toppled off an embankment near Andover, MA. Franklin and Jane suffered minor injuries, but their son Benjamin was killed.
4 March – United States – A train carrying emigrants near Mount Union, Pennsylvania, is rear-ended by a mail train; boilers rupture, scalding seven people to death and having the highest death toll in the United States in that time. The engineer of the mail train was reportedly asleep when the collision occurred.
4 March – United Kingdom – A Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway train derails on a deteriorated section of track near Dixon Fold, killing the driver and five passengers.
6 March – United Kingdom – The boiler of a London and North Western Railway locomotive explodes at Longsight, Lancashire. Six people are killed, and the engine shed is severely damaged.
17 March – United Kingdom – The boiler of a London, Brighton and South Coast Railway locomotive explodes at , East Sussex.
25 April – United States – A collision near Chicago results in the deaths of 15.
6 May – United States – Norwalk rail accident – The first major American railroad bridge disaster occurs when a New Haven Railroad engineer neglects to check for an open swing bridge signal. The locomotive, four cars, and part of a fifth car run through the open bridge and plunge into the Norwalk River, Connecticut. Forty-six passengers are crushed to death or drowned, and about 30 others are severely injured.
9 May – United States – A cornfield meet in the New Jersey Meadowlands results in the deaths of two people. One of the engineers was not forewarned about the change in time schedule which resulted in this.
12 August – 1853 Providence and Worcester head-on collision – United States – Two Providence and Worcester Railroad passenger trains are in a head-on collision at Valley Falls, Rhode Island. Thirteen people are killed and 50 are injured. This is believed to be the earliest wreck photographed, with the daguerreotype taken by a Mr. L. Wright of Pawtucket forming the basis for an engraving a fortnight later in The Illustrated News of New York.
September – United Kingdom – An Eastern Counties Railway freight train comes to a halt near , Suffolk due to a locomotive failure. The driver of another freight train deliberately ignores a red signal and consequently his train is in a rear-end collision with the first train.
5 October – Ireland – 1853 Straffan rail accident – A Great Southern and Western Railway express passenger train fails south of , County Kildare due to a broken piston rod on the locomotive. The train is run into by a following freight train due to the failure of the guard to act to protect the line to the rear of the broken-down train. Eighteen people are killed.
United Kingdom – The boiler of a Midland Railway locomotive explodes near Bristol, Gloucestershire whilst the locomotive is hauling a freight train.
1854
24 August – United Kingdom – A South Eastern Railway excursion train is in a rear-end collision with a light engine at Windmill Bridge, Croydon, Surrey. Three passengers are killed.
27 October – Canada – Jeannette's Creek train wreck – A Great Western Railway passenger train runs into the rear of a gravel train at Baptiste Creek, Ontario. Fifty-two people are killed, and at least 48 people are injured.
1855
February-March – United Kingdom – On Monday 12 February 1855 large portions of the South Devon Railway sea wall were washed away. Despite repair work starting promptly four days later more of the sea wall and a long section of line were also washed away. Passengers were obliged to leave their trains and carry their luggage some distance to join another. A temporary viaduct was constructed by the resident engineer, Mr. Margery, and was in operation within a couple of weeks which allowed the through operation of coaches, pulled by hand and rope, although some nervous passengers still alighted and walked.
29 August – United States – A southbound Camden and Amboy Rail Road passenger train, backing up on a single track near Burlington, New Jersey, to make room for a northbound express, hit a horse-drawn carriage. The rearmost passenger car derailed, and the succeeding cars crashed into it, derailed, and plunged into a ditch. All four passenger cars were demolished. Twenty-four people died, and between 65 and 100 were injured.
1 November – United States – Gasconade Bridge train disaster – A bridge over the Gasconade River at Gasconade, Missouri collapses under a Pacific Railroad excursion train during the celebrations of the line's opening. Thirty-one people are killed, and hundreds are seriously injured.
12 September – United Kingdom – A light engine is dispatched from on the wrong line and is in a head-on collision with a South Eastern Railway passenger train. Four people are killed, and many are injured.
15 December – United States – The boiler of the New York Central Railroad locomotive Dewitt Clinton explodes, killing the engineer and fireman.
United Kingdom – A South Eastern Railway train is derailed at Bricklayers' Arms Junction, Surrey, when a pointsman moves a set of points under it.
1856
6 May – Panama – 1856 Panama Railroad accident- A train with over 500 passengers derailed near Aspinwall in Panama. Thirty to forty people were killed and 70 to 80 were injured.
29 May – Germany – The Jupiter locomotive crashed into the Potsdamer Havel during a test run due to a swing bridge that was not closed.
21 June – United Kingdom – A South Eastern Railway passenger train derails between and , Kent, killing the driver and injuring the fireman and a passenger.
17 July – United States – Great Train Wreck of 1856 – Two North Pennsylvania Railroad passenger trains are in a head-on collision at Camp Hill, Pennsylvania, including a train on an excursion from a Sunday school at St. Michael's Catholic Parish in Philadelphia. Fifty-nine people are killed in the crash and subsequent fire, with over 100 people injured, some of whom consequently die. The engineer of one of the trains commits suicide the same day, although he is later absolved of any responsibility.
10 August – Netherlands – Schiedam train accident
6 October – United Kingdom – Accident at Salisbury resulted in 2 deaths and 1 injury.
1857
12 March – Canada – Desjardins Canal disaster: A bridge over the Desjardins Canal collapses when the axle of a Great Western Railway passenger train from Toronto to Hamilton breaks as the train is passing across it. Fifty-nine people are killed by trauma or drowning after being thrown into the frozen canal.
27 June – United Kingdom – 1857 Lewisham rail crash: A South Eastern Railway passenger train runs into the rear of another at Lewisham, Kent due to an error by the signalman at , Kent. Eleven people are killed, and 30 are injured.
1858
6 May – United Kingdom – A passenger train from Plymouth on the just-opened Cornwall Railway derails just before the Grove Viaduct near St Germans and the engine and two cars plunged toward the water. Three railwaymen are killed.
11 May – United States – A bridge some from Utica, New York gave way when two trains, including a New York Central, express bound for Cincinnati, passed over it. Nine passengers died, including some who drowned, and fifty were injured.
15 May – United States – A Lafayette & Indianapolis Railroad train accident on a bridge over Potato Creek, about south-east of Lafayette near Colfax, Indiana. The engineer, Jacob Beitinger (Beidinger), the fireman, Patrick Maloney (Moloney), and conductor James W. Irwin were killed.
30 June – United Kingdom – A South Eastern Railway passenger train is derailed at , Kent. Three people are killed.
11 August – United Kingdom – A passenger train runs into the buffers ar station, Kent. Twenty people are injured.
23 August – United Kingdom – Round Oak rail accident – An Oxford, Worcester and Wolverhampton Railway passenger train becomes divided following a coupling failure. The rear portion runs away and collides with a following passenger train at station, Stourbridge, Worcestershire. Fourteen people are killed. There are 50 serious injuries and 170 minor injuries.
6 September – France – On the Chemin de fer de Paris à Saint-Germain, a 10-car atmospheric railway train is returning by gravity with about 300 festival-goers from Saint-Germain-en-Laye to Le Vésinet, where it will couple to a steam locomotive to continue to Paris. Due to a combination of errors, it runs away and crashes into the locomotive's tender. A crew member and two passengers are killed, and at least 40 people are injured.
1859
28 June – United States – South Bend train wreck – At South Bend, Indiana, the Springbrook Bridge collapses as a Michigan Southern Railroad express passenger train passes over it. The locomotive and two carriages smash into the mudbank below. Forty-two people are killed and 50 are injured.
August – United Kingdom – An axle of the engine of the London, Tilbury and Southend Railway fractures at Stanford-le-Hope, Essex. One male passenger is killed.
1860s
1860
20 February – United Kingdom – The tyre of an Eastern Counties Railway locomotive breaks as it hauls a passenger train through Tottenham station. The train is derailed, killing seven people.
16 May – United States – On the Florida, Atlantic and Gulf Central Railroad about west of Jacksonville, Florida, a train encountered a drove of cattle which threw the train off track. Lumber, logs trunks and passengers were "heaped up in almost inextricable confusion." Nearly every person on board was more or less injured. Three people were killed in the crash.
6 September – United Kingdom – Helmshore rail accident – A Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway excursion train becomes divided at Helmshore, Lancashire. Sixteen carriages run away and crash into the following train. Eleven people are killed.
26 September – United Kingdom – Bull bridge accident – A cast iron bridge collapses under a Midland Railway freight train at Bullbridge, Derbyshire.
16 November – United Kingdom – A London and North Western Railway mail train overruns signals and crashes into the rear of a cattle train at Atherstone, Warwickshire. Ten people are killed; mostly Irish drovers asleep in the brake van at the rear of the cattle train.
1861
January – United Kingdom – A London Chatham and Dover Railway passenger train was derailed at , Kent. One person was killed.
11 June – United Kingdom – Wootton bridge collapse: A cast iron bridge near Kenilworth, Warwickshire collapses under a London and North Western Railway freight train. Both crew of the locomotive are killed.
4 July – United Kingdom – As the westbound Irish Mail approaches Easenhall bridge, past Rugby, at about , its 2-2-2 LNWR Bloomer Class locomotive is completely destroyed in an explosion due to badly corroded boiler plates. Luckily no passengers are even injured, but of the railwaymen and postal crew on board, one is killed and three are injured.
25 August – United Kingdom – Clayton Tunnel rail crash: A London, Brighton and South Coast Railway excursion train crashes into the rear of another inside the Clayton Tunnel, West Sussex due to a combination of driver's, signalman's and operating errors. Twenty-three people are killed, and 176 are injured in what was then the deadliest railway accident in the United Kingdom.
29 August – United Kingdom – A South Durham and Lancashire Union Railway excursion train returning from Windermere to Darlington derails west of Bowes, injuring a number of passengers. The injured driver and fireman are trapped beneath the locomotive for several hours till rescued. The driver died on September 8, 1861, from his injuries.
2 September – United Kingdom – Kentish Town rail accident: A North London Railway excursion train collides with a London and North Western Railway freight train at Kentish Town, Middlesex due to a signalman's error. Sixteen people are killed, and 317 are injured.
3 September – United States – Platte Bridge Railroad Tragedy: A Hannibal and St. Joseph Railroad train is wrecked after bushwhackers sabotage the supports of a bridge over the Platte River in Missouri. At least seventeen people are killed, and about 100 are injured.
December – United Kingdom – A London, Chatham and Dover Railway train hauled by locomotive Eclipse is derailed at Teynham, Kent due to the elongation of the gap at a rail joint in cold weather.
1862
May – United Kingdom – A London, Chatham and Dover Railway passenger train is derailed at , Kent due to defective track. Three people are killed.
13 October – United Kingdom – Winchburgh rail crash – Two Edinburgh and Glasgow Railway passenger trains are in a head-on collision at Winchburgh, Linlithgowshire due to a pointsman's error. Fifteen people are killed and 35 are injured.
1863
19 February – United States – Chunky Creek train wreck: The Hercules on the Southern Rail Road crashes into the Chunky River in Newton County, Mississippi. The train was headed for Vicksburg where Confederate forces were in need of reinforcements. The Hercules derailed on a damaged bridge and fell into the cold, murky depths. At least 40 passengers were killed. Some victims were rescued by soldiers from the 1st Choctaw Battalion who were camped nearby.
1864
5 May – United Kingdom – At Colne on the Midland Railway, a 0-6-0 engine being prepared to work a goods train to Leeds suffers a boiler explosion, killing the driver and badly injuring the fireman. A woman is struck by a fragment in her home away.
9 May – United Kingdom – At Bishop's Road station on the Metropolitan Railway — a 0-6-0 locomotive borrowed from the Great Northern Railway suffers a boiler explosion. Nobody is killed but the station suffers major damage and injuries extend to a passenger in another train two tracks away.
29 June – Canada – St-Hilaire train disaster – An immigrant train fails to stop at a danger signal and attempts to cross an open swing bridge and falls into the Richelieu River at Beloeil, Quebec. Ninety-nine people are killed and 100 are injured. , this still stands as the rail accident with the largest death toll in Canada.
15 July – United States – Shohola train wreck – An Erie Railroad passenger train carrying Confederate prisoners-of-war is in a head-on collision with a coal train near Shohola Township, Pennsylvania due to a dispatcher's error. Between 60 and 72 people are killed (official toll is 65 killed).
16 August – United States – An Erie Railroad freight train runs into the rear of a passenger train between Turner's Station and Sloatsburg, New York. A third train runs into the wreckage. Seven people are killed.
21 September – United States – A Pennsylvania Railroad passenger train runs into the rear of a stopped freight train at Thompsontown, Pennsylvania. The wreckage then catches fire. At least six people are killed and thirteen are injured.
16 December – United Kingdom – A South Eastern Railway ballast train becomes divided inside Blackheath Tunnel, Kent. An express passenger train runs into the rear portion, killing five people, with two others dying later and many injured.
1865
12 May – United Kingdom – An accident occurred on the Irish North Western railway near Enniskillen. A goods train left Derry and ran off the rails. The engine driver, J. McCabe, and the stoker, C. Craven, were killed. Some bullocks in a waggon were also killed.'
7 June – United Kingdom – Rednal rail crash – A Great Western Railway excursion train is derailed at Rednal, Shropshire due to excessive speed on track under maintenance. Thirteen people are killed and 30 are injured.
9 June – United Kingdom – Staplehurst rail crash – A South Eastern Railway boat train is derailed on a bridge over the River Beult at Staplehurst, Kent after track workers misread a timetable and remove a rail. Ten people are killed, and 49 are injured. Author Charles Dickens is amongst the survivors.
1866
30 April – United Kingdom – A South Eastern Railway passenger train collides with some goods wagons at Caterham Junction, Surrey due to a signalman's error. Four people are killed.
10 June – United Kingdom – Welwyn Tunnel rail crash: A Great Northern Railway freight train is stopped in Welwyn North Tunnel due to a burst fire tube. A Midland Railway freight train following it in the same direction crashes into it, and a third freight train going the other way crashes into the wreckage. All three trains are totally destroyed by fire, but the only deaths are two of the crew members.
27 August – United States – A boiler explosion on the Petaluma and Haystack Railroad at Petaluma Station kills the engineer and three others and wrecks the railroad's only locomotive.
19 December – United Kingdom – During the construction of the new Smithfield Market building adjacent to an open-air section of the Metropolitan Railway in London, a girder falls onto a passing train and three passengers are killed. This is the first fatal accident on an underground train.
1867
29 June – United Kingdom – Warrington rail crash – A London and North Western Railway passenger train is in collision with a freight train at Walton Junction, Warrington, Cheshire due to a signalman's error. Eight people are killed and 70 are injured. Lack of interlocking between signals and points is a major contributory factor in the accident.
9 August – Ireland – A bridge collapses under a passenger train at Bray, County Wicklow. Four people are killed and twelve are injured.
18 December – United States – Angola Horror – The Buffalo-bound New York Express of the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern derails its last coach, and it plunges off a truss bridge into Big Sister Creek just after passing Angola, New York. The next car is also pulled from the track and rolls down the far embankment. Stoves set both coaches on fire and 49 are killed. The cars were relatively easy to derail because they were "compromise cars" designed to run on slightly different track gauges, a practice soon afterwards prohibited.
1868
1 February – United Kingdom – An embankment on the approach to the Caersws Railway Bridge on the Cambrian Railway is washed out by flooding, derailing a mail and goods train running from Shrewsbury to Aberystwyth. The two enginemen are killed.
20 August – United Kingdom – Abergele rail disaster: A London and North Western Railway freight train is being shunted at , Denbighshire. During shunting operations, six wagons run away downhill towards , where they collide with an express passenger train. Five of the wagons are carrying paraffin, which explodes and sets the wreck of the passenger train on fire. Thirty-three people are killed, the driver of the express is severely burned.
5 November – United Kingdom – Great Western Railway locomotive Rob Roy crashes into the rear of a cattle train at Awse Junction, near Newnham, Gloucestershire and is derailed.
1869
23 April – United States – Hollis, New York: A Long Island Rail Road passenger train is derailed by a broken rail. The rail curls into a "snakehead" and rips out the bottom of one of the cars. Six people are killed, and fourteen injured.
14 November – United States – San Leandro, California: An errant switchman and poor visibility due to fog led to a head-on collision between an eastbound passenger train from Oakland, with a sleeper car, on the Western Pacific Railroad and an Alameda-bound Alameda Railroad passenger train. Among the fourteen killed was Judge Alexander W. Baldwin of the U.S. District Court of Nevada.
1870s
1870
21 June – United Kingdom – Newark rail crash: The axle of a wagon of a Midland Railway freight train breaks at Newark, Nottinghamshire, derailing the train. The derailed wagons foul an adjacent line. An excursion train collides with the debris. Eighteen people are killed and 40 are injured.
14 September – United Kingdom – Tamworth rail crash: A London and North Western Railway mail train is diverted into a siding at station, Staffordshire due to a signalman's error. The train crashes through the buffers and ends up in the River Anker. Three people are killed.
26 November – United Kingdom – An express train crashed into a stationary freight train at Harrow and Wealdstone station on the London and North Western Railway, killing eight people.
6 December – United Kingdom – A collision between two North Eastern Railway trains at Brockley Whins claims five lives and injures 37 people. The cause is a pointsman's error made possible by the lack of interlocking between points and signals.
12 December – United Kingdom – Stairfoot rail accident: Due to errors while shunting, ten waggons from a Manchester, Sheffield and Lincolnshire Railway freight train run away and collide with a passenger train at , Yorkshire. Fifteen people are killed, and 59 are injured.
United Kingdom – A North Eastern Railway freight train overruns signals and is in collision with a London and North Western Railway mail train at St. Nicholas Crossing, Carlisle, Cumberland. Five people are killed, many more are injured. The driver of the North Eastern Railway train was intoxicated.
1871
6 February – United States – A freight train on the Hudson River Railroad, carrying both crude and refined oil, suffers a broken axle. Because the crew have not threaded the required rope for communication from caboose to locomotive, the engineer is unaware, and the train keeps moving until it derails at the Wappinger Creek drawbridge, New Hamburg, New York. They and the drawbridge tender try to warn the following Pacific Express passenger train, but they are not in time, and the collision and resulting fire kill 22 people.
9 August – United States – A bridge collapses under a Maine Central Railroad Company passenger train at Bangor, Maine. One person is killed and 30 are injured.
26 August – United States – Great Revere train wreck of 1871: A series of dispatching errors allow the Eastern Railroad's Portland Express to run into the rear of a stalled local train at Revere, Massachusetts. The wreckage catches fire; 29 people are killed and 57 are injured. Several prominent Boston citizens are killed, bringing much national publicity to the accident.
1872
2 October – United Kingdom – Kirtlebridge rail crash – A Caledonian Railway express passenger train collides with a freight train performing shunting operations at Kirtlebridge, Dumfriesshire. Twelve people are killed and fifteen are injured.
24 December – United States – Two passenger cars of a Pennsylvania Railroad passenger train fall off a bridge in Portland, New York due to a "broken flange on the tender". Thirty people are killed and at least eighteen are injured.
1873
30 March – United Kingdom – A Great Northern Railway excursion train collides with two carriages at Bourne, Lincolnshire. No one was seriously injured, but the carriages and crossing gates were destroyed.
19 April – United States – A passenger train is derailed at Meadow Brook, Rhode Island, near Wood River Junction, due to a bridge being washed away in a dam collapse. Nine passengers are killed.
6 May – Austria-Hungary – A passenger train is derailed at Budapest-Nyugati Railway Terminal. Twenty-six people are killed.
2 August – United Kingdom – Wigan rail crash – A London and North Western Railway passenger train derails at Wigan North Western station, possibly due to excessive speed over facing points. Thirteen people are killed and 30 are injured.
12 August – Italy – A Società per le strade ferrate romane passenger train in service between Rome and Florence derails near the town of Orte (Lazio) after hitting two cattle standing on the tracks. Two people are killed and more than 40 injured.
2 December – United Kingdom – At Menheniot on the Cornwall Railway, a porter-signalman named Pratt instructs a down goods train to proceed by calling out "Right away, Dick" to its guard, Richard Wills. Unfortunately, an up goods train is also at the station and its guard, Richard Scantlebury, thinks the instruction is for him; by the time Pratt realizes this, Scantlebury has already told his driver to start. Their train collides with another down goods before reaching St Germans, injuring several crewmen and killing one.
1874
27 January – United Kingdom – Bo'ness Junction rail crash – A North British Railway express passenger train collides with a freight train at Bo'ness Junction, Stirlingshire. Sixteen people are killed and 28 are injured.
10 September – United Kingdom – Thorpe rail accident – Two Great Eastern Railway passenger trains are in a head-on collision at Thorpe St. Andrew, Norfolk, due to irregular dispatching procedures. Twenty-five people are killed and more than 100 injured. The accident leads directly to the introduction of automatic control systems to manage traffic on single-track railways.
24 December – United Kingdom – Shipton-on-Cherwell train crash – A Great Western Railway passenger train is derailed by a fractured wheel at Shipton-on-Cherwell, Oxfordshire. Thirty-four people are killed, and 69 are injured. Poor communications and the lack of continuous brakes exacerbate the disaster.
1875
6 July – Chile – A bridge collapses beneath the overnight train between Valparaíso and Santiago in Chile, killing nine people.
28 August – United Kingdom – A passenger train overruns signals and is in a rear-end collision with an excursion train at Kildwick, Yorkshire. Seven people are killed and 39 are injured.
15 November – Sweden – Lagerlunda rail accident – Unclear signalling leads to a head-on-collision between two passenger trains near Lagerlunda, Östergötland. Nine people are killed.
18 November – United Kingdom – Two London, Chatham and Dover Railway trains collide at , London.
1876
21 January – United Kingdom – Abbots Ripton rail accident: A Great Northern Railway express passenger train passes a signal jammed in the clear position during a blizzard and is in a rear-end collision with a freight train at Abbots Ripton, Huntingdonshire, and a train in the other direction then collides with the wreckage. Thirteen passengers are killed and 59 people are injured.
14 April – United Kingdom – A Great Northern Railway express train runs into a mail train at Corby, Northamptonshire because signals are jammed in a clear position in a blizzard.
16 June – United States – A trestle bridge collapses under a Blue Ridge Railroad train bound from Belton, South Carolina, to Anderson Court House, South Carolina. All five people on board are killed.
7 August – United Kingdom – Radstock rail accident – A variety of errors lead to two Somerset and Dorset Joint Railway passenger trains being involved in a head-on collision at Radstock, Somerset. Fifteen passengers are killed.
23 December – United Kingdom – A Great Northern Railway express train overruns signals and crashes into a number of wagons at Arlesley Sidings, Bedfordshire. Six people are killed.
29 December – United States – Ashtabula River railroad disaster: A bridge collapses under a Lake Shore and Michigan Southern Railway passenger train at Ashtabula, Ohio. The train falls into the frozen creek below. A fire is started by the car stoves. Dozens of people are killed, but sources disagree as to how many—perhaps as many as 92. The famous hymn-writer Philip Bliss and his wife are believed to be amongst an estimated 19 to 25 unidentified victims.
1877
25 March – United Kingdom – An express passenger train is derailed at , Northumberland due to faulty track.
27 March – United States – A train on the Jackson, Lansing, and Saginaw Railroad, fatally injures one.
4 October – United States – A mixed train of the Pickering Valley Railroad falls from a washed-out embankment near Kimberton, Pennsylvania, killing seven and injuring dozens.
1878
11 January – United Kingdom – Great Northern Railway – The Flying Scotsman is in a collision with a freight train at Welwyn Garden City, Hertfordshire, after which a local passenger train collides with the wreckage.
21 May – United States – A Kansas Pacific R.R. Freight train is caught in a bridge washout at Kiowa Creek, Colorado; 3 killed.
31 August – United Kingdom – A London, Chatham and Dover Railway passenger train collides with goods wagons at , Kent due to errors by a shunter and the two guards of a freight train. Five people are killed.
8 October – United States – Wollaston disaster – A train in Quincy, Massachusetts carrying over 1,000 passengers runs over an open switch resulting a serious derailment.
1879
15 January – United Kingdom – Two hounds from the Pytchley Hunt were killed and a number injured while chasing a fox near the Kilsby Tunnel on the London and Birmingham Railway, when a train ran through the pack.
18 (or 25) January – Belgium – Two passengers and the engine driver were killed when the express train from Brussels to Lille and Calais left the line at Bassilly.
22 January – United Kingdom – A heavy goods train from Glasgow was travelling too fast on the Tay Rail Bridge and a number of carriages left the track when the guard applied the brakes. The same bridge would be the scene of a much worse accident less than a year later (see below).
22 January – United Kingdom – Three carriages left the line after a collision between trains from Farringdon Street and Aldersgate Street at Snow-Hill, on the London, Chatham and Dover Railway.
5 (or 12) February – United Kingdom – A cattle train ran into a ballast train near Widnes Junction on the London and North Western Railway. The driver and stoker jumped out as the cattle train engine ran down the embankment.
4 April – United Kingdom – A goods train ran off the Highland Railway line, near Perth, destroying of track.
17 May – United Kingdom – An express train from Glasgow came off the line when it collided with a goods train near Dunfermline railway station on the North British Railway. The driver of the express died.
13 June – United Kingdom – A train carrying show cattle from the Royal Cornwall Show was hit by a Plymouth-to-Penzance goods train at Truro railway station. One van was "smashed to pieces", there was one minor injury to the goods train driver, and none to the cattle.
26 July – United Kingdom – Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway. The 7:30 train for Warrington failed to stop and hit a Rainford train at Wigan Station. Several third-class carriages were knocked off the rails.
July/August – France – An accident between Nancy and Paris killed five people and injured eleven.
16 August – France – A passenger train and a goods train collided near Montséret killing fifteen and injuring thirty-six.
29 August – United Kingdom – The Scottish mail train derailed between Hendon and Mill Hill due to the track subsiding following heavy rain. The driver and fireman both severely injured.
24 September – United Kingdom – A Great Western Railway train from Plymouth to Tavistock derailed outside Marsh Mills railway station.
27 September – United Kingdom – London, Brighton and South Coast Railway B1 class 2-4-0 locomotive 174 Fratton suffered a boiler explosion at , East Sussex while hauling a passenger train. The accident was due to the incorrect setting of its safety valves. One person killed and two injured.
12 October – United Kingdom – The 10:10 am passenger train from Derby ran into seven empty carriages at Nottingham station, resulting in eight injured and considerable damage to the rolling stock.
1 December – United Kingdom – North Liverpool Extension Line. The train from Walton hit an engine at Brunswick Dock, Liverpool. One man killed and four injured.
28 December – United Kingdom – Tay Bridge disaster – The Tay Rail Bridge collapses in a violent storm while a North British Railway passenger train is crossing it. There were no survivors, with the total estimated at seventy-five lives lost, although the real total was fifty-nine. The subsequent investigation concludes that "the bridge was badly designed, badly constructed and badly maintained" and lays the major blame on the designer, Sir Thomas Bouch. William McGonagall produces his epic poem The Tay Bridge Disaster to commemorate the event. The disaster shocks engineers into creating an improved crossing both on the Tay, as well as the famous Forth Bridge.
See also
List of London Underground accidents
Rail transport
References
Sources
External links
Rail accidents 1880
19th-century railway accidents
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Università Iuav di Venezia
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Iuav University of Venice () is a university in Venice, Italy. It was founded in 1926 as the Istituto Universitario di Architettura di Venezia as one of the first Architecture schools in Italy. The university currently offers several undergraduate, graduate and higher education courses in Architecture, Urban Planning, Fashion, Arts, and Design.
It is a design-themed university focusing on the teaching, research, and practice of the design of living spaces and environments (buildings, cities, landscapes and territory) and in the design of everyday use objects, of fashion and of graphics. It has also a more recent courses in visual arts, theatre and performing arts, and multimedia events.
History
In 1926 Giovanni Bordiga and Guido Cirilli founded the Scuola Superiore di Arti, a branch of the Accademia di Belle Arti di Venezia. It was the second architecture school in Italy after that of Rome. In 1940 The Istituto Universitario di Architettura di Venezia was founded. In the year 1963-64 Iuav moved to Tolentini with 1000 students enrolled and later in 1970 Giovanni Astengo coordinates Italy's first course in Urban Planning in Preganziol, but University reform in 1981 as the Urban Planning becomes a degree programme at Ca' Tron. By the beginning of the 90s, particularly in the year 1993 12,000 students were enrolled in 3 degree programmes (Urban and Regional Planning, History and Conservation of Cultural Heritage, and Architecture).
By the academic year 2000/2001 the Institute became a university with 3 faculties:
Architecture
Regional Planning
Arts and Design
and in 2013 three new departments were opened:
Department of Architecture, Construction and Conservation
Department of Architecture and Arts
Department of Design and Planning in Complex Environments
In the academic year 2001/2002, in parallel with the 75th anniversary, the Istituto Universitario di Architettura di Venezia (Iuav) officially changed its name to Università Iuav di Venezia and while the four letters of "Iuav" were no longer an acronym, the university decided to retain the abbreviations and use it as the university's name.
In 2002, the Iuav organized an international competition "newlogo Iuav" for the design of the new institutional logo of the university. Internationally known designers, specialized in the design of brands and logos were invited to participate in the competition, seven of the ten graphic designers selected have joined the competition. The jury, composed of Giovanni Anceschi, Enrico Camplani, Marino Folin, Bob Norda, Sergio Polano, Leonardo Sonnoli, Pierpaolo Vetta, chose the logo designed by the French graphic designer Philippe Apeloig, rather than designing an abstract symbol or a figure based on existing motifs, he developed a logo based almost entirely on the four letters I, U, A, and V, arranged vertically, a simple but richly connoted design that aims to represent past, present and future. The new logo replaces the historic seal with the effigy of the lion of St. Mark, redesigned by Massimo Scolari, who for years had been the symbol of the Iuav.
The old Logo – seal and coat of arms – of the University consisted of the frontal image, closed in circular field, of the winged Lion of Saint Mark regent the open gospel with the inscription "Pax tibi Marce Evangelista mei", the idea was not exclusive to Iuav and was used by other Venetian institutions. What distinguished the version of Iuav university were the two circular crowns bearing the words "University Institute of Architecture of Venice" and " Firmitas, Utilitas, Venustas " words used by Vitruvius which was one of the early definitions of architecture, but the addition of two new faculties and the consequent transformation of the university from Istituto Universitario to Università Iuav Università degli Studi, già IUAV (which has changed to Università Iuav di Venezia ) made it possible to change the logo because the Iuav was no longer the Istituto Universitario and the Vitruvius's definition of architecture is no longer sufficient to represent the other two faculties that today with the faculty of Architecture make up the Iuav University.
However, currently the old logo is used as the University Seal to distinguish logo and seal but with one modification of the university name from "University Institute of Architecture of Venice" to "Iuav University of Venice".
Internationally renowned architects as Carlo Scarpa, Giuseppe Samonà, Manfredo Tafuri, Aldo Rossi, Giovanni Astengo, Giancarlo De Carlo, Gino Valle, Michele De Lucchi, Nanda Vigo, Alejandro Aravena, and Egle Renata Trincanato were part of the school's history as students and/or tutors. Also Notable scholars and professionals such as Le Corbusier, Louis Kahn, Frank Lloyd Wright and, more recently, Judith Clark, Richard Serra, and Fabrizio Barozzi have been hosted as visiting professors at Iuav and have taught and tutored students in Iuav through the years.
IUAV buildings and locations
Tolentini is the Headquarters of Università Iuav di Venezia. The Tolentini building complex is located near Piazzale Roma and comprises the Tolentini church convent complex and a few other neighbouring areas. In 1958, the Italian State, owner of the former convent, gave Iuav access to the building began construction work. The renovations of the whole complex took place between 1960 and 1965, project and work direction by the architect Daniele Calabi and the engineer Mario Bacci.
In 1985, the entrance area was transformed according to a project by Carlo Scarpa, work direction by architect Sergio Los, and structural calculation by the engineer Carlo Maschietto.
Palazzo Badoer In 1974, Iuav also bought the palace belonging to the Santa Caterina Sisters of Charity of Nevers. Construction work and adaptation of the palace to Department of Architecture began in April 1978. Palazzo Badoer has been the home to the Iuav School of Doctorate Studies since 2008.
Cotonificio veneziano History was inaugurated in 1883. In the previous year, a cotton spinning and production company was set up in Venice. Partially destroyed by a fire in 1916, the cotton mill (cotonificio) was rebuilt. About a thousand workers worked here: it remained operative until 1960, and then was abandoned for thirty years before restoration in the 1990s.Restored by the Venetian architecture studio of Gino Valle, the main building now houses an important part of the university: classrooms, the “Gino Valle” exhibit space, the “Archivio Progetti” (which includes a study room with nine consultation seats), the exhibition hall, a main office and a deposit. The exhibition room is permanently set up with an exhibition of models belonging to the collection of the “Archivio”, and it hosts temporary exhibits that display original documents from the archive funds. It is now the seat of “Archivio Progetti”, ArTec Archives on Techniques and Materials for Architecture and Industrial Design, infrastructure management, auditorium, “Gino Valle” exhibit space, Gradoni room, teaching activities.
Ca' Tron is the seat of exhibition spaces, and Ir.Ide research infrastructure. Was purchased by Iuav in 1972, and restored on a project by Architect L. Bellemo. Consolidation work, space reorganization, and space recovery were carried out for the new functions of the building. Two large salons, on the ground floor and on the first floor, offer students spaces to gather together. The palazzo is an exhibition venue for artistic events, available for both university and external users.
Mestre is the seat of LabSCo Construction Sciences Lab, FisTec Environmental Engineering Physics Lab. The headquarters of the Construction Sciences Lab, Environmental Engineering Physics Lab and TerraLab for Earth Sciences, inaugurated in 2003, is located in Mestre, on an area granted by the municipality to Venetian universities for the construction of a scientific development pole. The central core of the building consists of a “contrast structure” – a reinforced concrete grid of beams, developing underground – and a "bridge structure”, supported by two series of pillars. The building was conceived as a protection shell, lowered from above, for the virtually pre-existent central core. The interior space is modulated by natural light, penetrating from below and from above. Light enters from below – through a perimeter glazed window between the shell structure and the ground; and from above – through a series of smaller skylights crowning the greater central one. A vertical axis ideally connects the hypogeum structure to the light box of the large skylight, creating a symbolic space with industrial features. The two halves of the roof terrace, connected by an outer passage, define a cantilevered garden. The shell of the building is covered in a marble slab finishing. The skylights are lined with quartz zinc plates. A slight depression in the ground isolates the area of the new laboratory: this tank is made of Opus signinum, mixing scales from the same marble of the façade in the concrete mixture.
Campo della Lana is the seat of administration office, infrastructure management, financial and human resources offices, student service offices, another building is Casa del gondolier seat of Lama – laboratory for the analysis of antique materials while Magazzino 6 & Magazzino 7, Masieri, and Terese are seats of teaching activities.
Academics
Graduate programs
Iuav offers 4 bachelor's, 6 master's degree, and 1 PHD programmes covering the fields of architecture, design, fashion, visual arts, urban and regional planning and theatre. This in addition to 19 Postgraduate specialisation course and 7 advanced specialisation programs.
Bachelor's Degree Programs (All in Italian):
Bachelor of Architecture
Bachelor of Planning & Urban Design
Bachelor of Product, Visual Communication & Interior Design with 2 tracks (First is Interior Design and Second is Product and Visual Design)
Bachelor of Fashion Design & Multimedia Arts with 3 Tracks (First is Fashion Design, Second is Multimedia Arts, and Third is Fashion Communication and new media)
Master's degree Programs (Taught in Italian & English):
Master of Architecture (Taught in Italian)
Master of Architecture (Taught in English)
Master of Planning & Urban Design with two Tracks (First is Urban Planning for Transition (Taught in English) and Second is Planning and Urban Design for Transition (Taught in Italian)
Master of Product, Communication And Interior Design with 3 Tracks (Taught in Italian) (First is Interior Design, Second is Product Design, and Third is Communication Design)
Master of Fashion and Visual Arts with two Tracks (First is Visual Arts and Second is Fashion Design)(Taught in Italian)
Master of Theater & Performing Arts with two Tracks(Taught in Italian) (First is Theatrical and Choreographic Studies, Second is Performance and Gender Studies)
Iuav has 2 English taught Master's degree programmes, the first master's degree in English: the MA in architecture was launched in 2019, and in year 2021 the second English taught Master of Science in Urban Planning for Transition was introduced.
PhD research areas:
architectural composition
Design sciences
History of Architecture and urban planning
Innovation for building and cultural heritage
New technologies and information for the architecture, the city and the environment
Regional planning and public policy
Urbanism
Villard d’Honnecourt international doctorate in architecture
Visual and performing arts and fashion studies
Enrollment and staff
For 2021-2022 academic year, number of students enrollments are as per the following:
2361 students - Bachelor's degree programs
1454 students - Master's degree programs
64 students - Vecchio ordinamento degree programs
161 students - postgraduate specialisation courses
115 students - PhDs
106 as research fellows
173 outgoing and 143 incoming students in frame of exchange programs
526 professors and researchers, teaching assistants
250 administrative staff members
Library
The University has a library dedicated to architecture and other design disciplines in Italy. The Iuav library, located in Tolentini, is open to institutional users and, subject to authorization, also to the external public. It houses a wide and rare collection of volumes, databases and journals especially focusing on architecture, urban planning and the arts. For some years collections on design, fashion and theatre have been growing. Specific keynotes, handbooks and general publications to support the teaching of the University are available. Moreover, the library holdings include dissertations (since 1983), and some valuable items: the Daniela Palazzoli Special Collection; the Italo Zannier Special Collection, a remarkable collection of books and journals on the history of photography, owned by the popular photographer and critic, and the personal collections of the architects Mario Labò, Giovanni Sardi and Giorgio Wenter Marini, which include some antique books and publications of the first half of the 20th century, also it holds a considerable range of international magazines and books and is open till late evening.
The Università Iuav di Venezia Library System promotes cooperation and projects which aim to improve and develop the dissemination of information on the subjects of Architecture and Urban Planning, with agreements and membership of The National Library Service of Italy (Servizio Bibliotecario Nazionale– SBN), Archinet and Urbandata Associations and the University of Padua and the Ca' Foscari University of Venice phaidra Library System.
Iuav Library produces the most important Italian Architecture and Urban Planning Periodical Index in cooperation with the Italian Association of Architecture Libraries (Coordinamento Nazionale Biblioteche di Architettura - CNBA). More than 7.000 new records are added to the database every year. This catalogue and other bibliographic and full-text databases are also accessible to Iuav users from outside the University network with user ID. The discovery tool primo.iuav.it provides access to all the information resources mentioned above, as well as to the Projects Archive, the Map Collection and the Slide Collection catalogues and digitalized images.
Labs
The Labs constitute a research infrastructure supporting also the educational activities of various degree programs as well as the more in-depth analysis of specific topics for master theses and PhD dissertations. They support research and other work in the fields of building sciences, conservation and Archaeological science studies, structural analysis, building physics, environmental monitoring, representation, photography, topography, cartography, geographic information systems, material and components characterization.
The lab system offers tools and support for:
mechanical and thermos-physical testing of materials and structures
short and long-term static and dynamic structural monitoring
environmental monitoring and analysis
lighting and acoustical analysis, monitoring and design
archaeometry and conservation studies
surveys and representations of projects, buildings and areas
3D interactive models, digital animation, video, multimedia works
drawings, models, video animation and websites
geographic information systems
elaborating and archiving digital maps
archiving materials and components
document retrieval and research
photographic campaigns
Below is the list of the labs
ArTec Archives on Techniques and Materials for Architecture and Industrial Design
The lab collects and archives examples of materials, products and innovative building techniques for researcher, student and professional use.
CIRCE Cartography Lab
The lab operates and does research in the field of map-making and the representation of urban and regional phenomenon; it collects, retrieves, archives, processes and broadcasts its cartographic, photographic, aerial, satellite and surveying patrimony online and through information systems.
CIRCE Photogrammetry Lab
The lab focuses on the technical and scientific issues involved in the surveying and digital representation of architecture; it has considerable experience in surveying cities, geographical regions and objects (statues, molds, artefacts, stones) and in using tools and techniques including terrestrial topography, GPS, photogrammetry (close range and aerial), laser-scanning and image processing.
CIRCE Geographic Information Lab
The lab is active in the field of geographic information systems, using the major GIS software tools on the market and developing applications with Open Source tools; it designs and develops online services and makes it possible to download the university's cartographic and aerial photographic resources.
Me.La Multimedia Lab
The lab concentrates on analysing and experimenting with systems and methods for producing and representing what is created in the fields of visual arts, theatre and architecture; it works with entities involved in regional management and the protection and conservation of cultural heritage, as well as research institutes and industry at large.
Photo Lab
The lab works actively throughout the region on digital and analogical photographs for architectural reportage and documenting exhibitions and events; it supports studio and camera work for reproducing works of arts, models and documents; covers the entire range of photographic production, from digital shots to darkroom printing, from processing images to transferring data between different reproduction systems.
LAMA Lab for Analysing Materials of Antique Origin
The lab conducts research on the chemical-physical characterisation of stone and litoid materials used in buildings of art-historical interest and determines the phenomena of deterioration and alteration to which they are subject; does archaeometry studies to define the provenance and production techniques and/or workmanship of stone, litoid and ceramic products, as well as studies to help identify pictorial techniques in paintings and the characterisation, identification and behaviour of antique materials.
FisTec Building Physics Lab
The lab is active in various fields interested in applied physics in relation to the built environment: acoustics, lighting techniques, the thermophysics of buildings and materials, ambient comfort and interior environmental quality; it is also involved in environmental verifications for analysis and conservation in the field of architectural and cultural heritage.
LAR Project Support Lab
The lab's three divisions support individual works or urban scale projects throughout all phases of development and in the management of their eventual output: from conceptual drawings to realistic renderings, from virtual to physical rendition, from animation to film sequences, from online circulation to complex archiving.
LabSCo Construction Sciences Lab
The Lab began testing construction materials in the late 1940s and, in 1961, became Italy's official laboratory (Laboratorio Ufficiale della Repubblica italiana). It supports research and outside projects on issues regarding Law 1086/71 and for experiments leading to new patents; it is actively involved in quality control in companies manufacturing concrete and steel for reinforced concrete and prestressed concrete in Italy and abroad. LabSCo is currently a European leader in studies on full-scale structures.
Reputation and ranking
Foremost experts in the fields of architecture, planning, design and arts as well as artists are part of the university's history, including: Le Corbusier, Louis Kahn, Frank Lloyd Wright, Carlo Scarpa, Carlo Aymonino, Manfredo Tafuri, Vittorio Gregotti, Gino Valle, Aldo Rossi, Giovanni Astengo, Giancarlo De Carlo, Tadao Ando and Richard Serra.
Iuav has established agreements with important Italian and foreign cultural institutions, museums and universities such as La Biennale di Venezia, Teatro La Fenice, Palazzo Grassi, Musei Civici Veneziani, Triennale di Milano, Parsons School of Design, MIT, Illinois Institute of Technology, UNSW Sydney and Tongji University. Iuav students are involved with all of these institutions on a regular basis.
As of 2020 and According to QS World University Ranking, Università Iuav di Venezia is among the best 100 universities around the world in the field of Architecture, it gained around hundred position going from position 151-200 (2018) to that of 51-100 (2019 & 2020). An improvement of about 100 positions that places Iuav architecture courses among the best in the world and largely first in Italy for growth intensity. Since 2019, Iuav is among the best 150 universities around the world in the field of Art & Design on the report of QS World University Ranking for best Art & Design universities for the year 2019 & 2020.
Also, as one of the finest architecture universities in Europe, it was listed in Domus Magazine's Guide to Europe's Top 100 Schools of Architecture and Design selected across Europe.
Nationally, according to La Repubblica-CENSIS University Rankings (2017) Iuav was ranked 2nd after Polytechnic University of Milan(PoliMi) and followed by Polytechnic University of Turin(PoliTo) according to the classification and evaluation parameters of The Italian polytechnics. While in the 2020 La Repubblica-CENSIS ranking for Best Architecture Faculty 2019-2020 for the three-year degree courses, the Iuav (110 points) was in first place – first also in terms of career progression and international relations – followed by the University of Sassari (104.5 points) and Camerino (99.5 points). The Polytechnic of Turin and Milan are in fifth and sixth place respectively (95 and 94 points).
Notable alumni
Carlo Scarpa (Architect, 1906–1978)
Giancarlo De Carlo (Architect, Urban Planner, and Architectural Theorist, RIBA Royal Gold Medal winner(1993) 1919–2005)
Bruno Morassutti (Architect, 1920–2008)
Graziano Gasparini (Historian Architect, 1924–2019)
Roberto Gottardi (Italian-Cuban architect, 1927-2017)
Massimo Vignelli (Designer, 1931-2014)
Costantino Dardi (Architect, 1936–1991)
Guido Guidi (Photographer, 1941-)
Gino Finizio(Designer & Architect, 1941-)
Abbas Gharib(Architect, 1942-)
Mario Botta (Architect, 1943-)
Franco Stella (Architect, 1943)
Francesco Dal Co (Historian Architect, 1945-)
Milo Manara (Italian comic book writer and artist, 1945-)
Marco Frascari (Architect & Architectural Theorist, 1945-2013)
Maurizio Bolognini (Media Artist, 1952-)
Antonio Martinelli (Photographer, 1953–)
Stefano Boeri (Architect, 1956–)
Luigi Brugnaro (13th Mayor of Venice since 2015, 1963-)
Benedetta Tagliabue (Architect, 1963-)
Alejandro Aravena (Architect, Pritzker Architecture Prize winner(2016), 1963-)
Nicola Verlato (Italian painter, sculptor, architect and musician, 1965)
Davide Prete (Scluptor & Architect, 1974-)
Antonio Pavanello (Rugby Player, 1982-)
Ila Bêka (Architectural filmmaker and producer)
Rectors
Among the rectors who have taken place so far are:
Giovanni Bordiga (1926-1929)
Guido Cirilli (1929-1943)
Giuseppe Samonà (1943-1971)
Carlo Scarpa (1971-1974)
Carlo Aymonino (1974-1979)
Valeriano Pastor (1979-1982)
Paolo Ceccarelli (1982-1991)
Marino Folin (1991-2006)
Carlo Magnani (2006-2009)
Amerigo Restucci (2009-2015)
Alberto Ferlenga (2015-2021)
Benno Albrecht (2021-2027)
See also
Ca' Tron
List of Italian universities
References
External links
Official website
Architecture schools in Italy
Education in Venice
Universities and colleges established in 1926
1926 establishments in Italy
20th-century establishments in Venice
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The Long, Hot Summer
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The Long, Hot Summer is a 1958 American drama film starring Paul Newman, Joanne Woodward, Anthony Franciosa, and Orson Welles. It was directed by Martin Ritt, with a screenplay by Irving Ravetch and Harriet Frank Jr., based in part on three works by William Faulkner: the 1931 novella "Spotted Horses", the 1939 short story "Barn Burning" and the 1940 novel The Hamlet. The title is taken from The Hamlet, as Book Three is called "The Long Summer". Some characters, as well as tone, were inspired by Tennessee Williams' 1955 play, Cat on a Hot Tin Roof, a film adaptation of which – also starring Newman – was released five months later.
The plot follows the conflicts of the Varner family after ambitious drifter Ben Quick (Newman) arrives in their small Mississippi town. Will Varner (Welles), the patriarch, has doubts about his son, Jody (Franciosa) and sees Ben as a better choice to inherit his position. Will tries to push Ben and his daughter Clara (Woodward) into marriage.
Filmed in Clinton, Louisiana, the cast was composed mostly of former Actors Studio students, whom Ritt met while he was an assistant teacher to Elia Kazan. For the leading role, Warner Bros. loaned Newman to 20th Century Fox. The production was marked by conflicts between Welles and Ritt, which drew media attention. The music score was composed by Alex North and the title song, "The Long Hot Summer", written by North and Sammy Cahn, was performed by Jimmie Rodgers.
The film was well received by critics but did not score significant results at the box office. Its critical success revitalized Ritt's career, after his having been blacklisted during most of the 1950s. Newman won the Best Actor Award at the Cannes Film Festival.
Plot
Ben Quick is on trial for barn-burning, but since there is no evidence the judge just orders him to leave town. Ben hitches a ride to Frenchman's Bend, Mississippi, with two young women in a convertible, Clara Varner and her sister-in-law Eula. Clara's father, Will Varner, is the domineering owner of most of the town.
Will is away, but his only son, Eula's husband Jody, agrees to let Ben become a sharecropper on a vacant farm. When Will returns from a stay in the hospital, he is furious at Jody for hiring a notorious "barn burner", but soon begins to see in Ben a younger version of himself and comes to admire his ruthlessness and ambition, qualities that Jody lacks. Will is also disappointed that his 23-year-old daughter, Clara, has not married the man she has been seeing for five or six years: Alan Stewart, a genteel Southern "blue blood" and a mama's boy.
Will therefore schemes to push his daughter and Ben together. However, she is openly hostile to the crude upstart. Will is determined to have his bloodline go on, so he offers to make Ben wealthy if he marries Clara. Meanwhile, Minnie Littlejohn, Will's longtime mistress, is dissatisfied with their arrangement and wants to get married.
Jody becomes increasingly frustrated, seeing his position being undermined, and his marriage falters. After Ben sells some worthless wild horses for Will, he is rewarded with the job of clerk in Will's general store, alongside Jody. Will even invites him to live in the family mansion.
Jody pulls a gun on Ben and threatens to kill him. Ben talks his way out by telling Jody about buried Civil War-era treasure he has supposedly found on a property that Will gave him, a down payment to seal their bargain over Clara. Jody starts digging and finds a bag of coins. He is elated, thinking he might finally be able to escape his father's domination; he buys the land from Ben. Late that night, Will finds his son, still digging. After examining a coin, Will notices that it was minted in 1910. Jody is shattered.
Ben aggressively pursues Clara. She finally asks Alan what his intentions are, and he replies that he only wants to "help" her. Misinterpreting what Clara tells him, Will goes to congratulate Alan and his mother on the impending marriage, and is infuriated when he learns the truth. He returns home. A defeated Jody finds his father alone in their barn. Jody bolts the entrance and sets the barn on fire, but he cannot go through with it and releases Will. Will is touched by Jody's change of heart and calls him his "strong right arm." A Men from town assume Ben is the culprit and intend to lynch him, but Clara rescues him from the mob and drives him back to the plantation. Will defuses the situation by telling the lynch mob he accidentally started the fire.
Ben confesses to Clara that his father was a barn-burner, committing arson when offended, and that he has been falsely dogged by such accusations because of his father. Ben tells her he is leaving town, but Clara makes it clear she has fallen in love with him.
Cast
Paul Newman as Ben Quick. Newman met director Martin Ritt as a student at the Actors Studio, where Ritt was a teacher-assistant for Elia Kazan. Newman, who was under a contract with Warner Brothers, was loaned to 20th Century Fox for a fee of US$75,000. Meanwhile, his contract earned him US$17,500 for each ten-week shot. He traveled to Clinton, Louisiana, before the start of filming to study the mannerisms, accent and speech of the Southern men in order to create a proper characterization.
Orson Welles as Will Varner. The character was inspired by Big Daddy Pollitt from Tennessee Williams' play Cat on a Hot Tin Roof. Welles' presence on the film was marked by multiple conflicts with director Martin Ritt. He agreed to take the role due to a tax debt of US$150,000; he stated years later, "I hated making Long Hot Summer. I've seldom been as unhappy in a picture."
Director Martin Ritt met the three cast members listed below while they were students at the Actors Studio.
Joanne Woodward as Clara Varner. Woodward married Newman in 1958.
Anthony Franciosa as Jody Varner
Lee Remick as Eula Varner. Remick later admitted that during the shooting she was intimidated by Orson Welles on the set because of his "icon" status.
The supporting roles were played by:
Angela Lansbury as Minnie Littlejohn
Richard Anderson as Alan Stewart
Sarah Marshall as Agnes Stewart
Mabel Albertson as Elizabeth Stewart
J. Pat O'Malley as Ratliff
William "Bill" Walker as Lucius
Francis Sibley as the bass player in the band
Production
Development
Producer Jerry Wald hired former co-worker and Warner Brothers director Martin Ritt to shoot the adaptation of two William Faulkner novels based on a recommendation by script writer Irving Ravetch. Wald convinced the studio executives to pay US$50,000 for the rights for the novels The Sound and the Fury and The Hamlet. The first to be produced, The Hamlet, was renamed The Long Hot Summer to avoid confusion with William Shakespeare's play Hamlet. Ravetch and Harriet Frank, Jr. wrote the script, also adding fragments from Faulkner's short stories "Barn Burning" and "Spotted Horses". In the new script, the book's main character, Flem Snopes, and the rest of the Snopes family were removed. The plot was recentered on a minor character, Ben Quick, and the reconciliation of the Varner family. On their first important screenplay, Ravetch and Frank implemented their signature style, using the names of characters and a few details of the plot but significantly modifying the details of the story. The final product was heavily influenced by Tennessee Williams' play Cat on a Hot Tin Roof, resulting in an "erotically charged" story.
Locations
The film was shot in Clinton and Baton Rouge, Louisiana, in CinemaScope color, with a budget of US$1,645,000. A Southern Gothic story, Ritt decided to shoot it on location to capture the characteristics of the area, emphasizing the regional details. Ritt met leading actor Paul Newman while teaching at the Actors Studio. The rest of the main cast also consisted of former Actors Studio alumni, including Joanne Woodward, Anthony Franciosa and Lee Remick.
Casting
The film attracted attention for the appearance of Orson Welles as Will Varner, the patriarch of the family. 20th Century Fox wanted to avoid casting Welles because of his temperament, but the studio was persuaded by Ritt, who considered him the right actor for the role. The director and the actor had several marked differences during the shooting of the movie, which included problems with the interpretation of the lines, costume design and the position of Welles while shooting the scenes. At one point during the production, Welles informed Ritt that he did not want to memorize his lines, requesting instead that they be dubbed afterwards. Part of the cast was intimidated by Welles' temperamental attitude.
The conflicts between Welles and Ritt attracted media attention. Immediately after filming was completed, during an interview with Life, Welles explained that the cause of his behavior was that he did not know what kind of "monkeyshines" his co-stars would be or the "caprices" they would receive from him. He also stated that they overcame the differences and completed the film. Welles later wrote a letter to Ritt praising his work and apologizing for his interference during the making of the movie. Ritt replied, expounding his admiration for Welles. Despite the mutual apologies, during an interview in 1965, Ritt recalled an incident on the set. While the film was being shot, it was often stopped by bad weather. During a day suitable for shooting, he found Welles not ready for the scene, instead reading a newspaper in Spanish. Ritt decided to skip Welles's scene and shoot the next one. He attributed Welles' later cooperation to the incident, which Welles had found humiliating. Ritt thus earned the nickname "the Orson Tamer" throughout the Hollywood community.
Soundtrack
Alex North composed the film's score, which leaned toward a jazz style. "The Long Hot Summer" was the only song written by North to be used as the title track of a film. Composed in an AABA form, it was characterized by its lyricisms and its "tense dissonant" jazz-figures. The lyrics of the song were written by Sammy Cahn, while instrumental variations of the melody were used throughout the film, underlining the progression of the relationship between Ben and Clara. Recorded by Jimmie Rodgers, it was released by Roulette Records, reaching number 77 on Billboard'''s Top 100 Sides in June 1958. The orchestra was conducted by Lionel Newman.Billboard described the soundtrack as "a model of music use in a dramatic film". On another review, Billboard favored the album, stating that it "makes for good listening out of the cinematic context" and that the financial success of the soundtrack may have been propelled by Jimmie Rodgers' "smooth vocal treatment". The publication praised North's musical understanding of the deep South, and particularly praised the song "Eula", describing it as a "pure gem of sex-on-wax".
Release and reception
The movie opened on March 13, 1958, in several cities around the United States, including Los Angeles and San Francisco. It grossed $48,000 from four theaters in Los Angeles and $15,000 in San Francisco in its first week. It opened to good reviews but did not score a significant profit at the box office, grossing US$3,500,000.Billboard commended the acting as "first-rate" and "robust", with particular praise for Woodward, and also praised Ritt's direction. Meanwhile, The Reporter highlighted the film's similarities to the play Cat on a Hot Tin Roof and described the cast as "an impressive one", but remarked that the actors and characters "never seem to get together". The review called Welles "great" and "gusty", but described Woodward's participation as a "poker bluff".Time described Newman's performance as "mean and keen as a cackle-edge scythe". The publication also praised Woodward, stating her acting was delivered with "fire and grace not often seen in a movie queen", but decried Welles's acting as "scarcely an improvement" on his performance in his previous role, in Moby Dick. Variety praised the scriptwriters for the successful merging of the three Faulkner stories that inspired the film. The review also praised Martin Ritt, the camerawork by Joseph LaShelle, and the film's musical score. Cosmopolitan called the movie a "gutsy melodrama".
For The New York Times, critic Bosley Crowther noted Ravetch and Frank's "tight, word-cracking" script that featured fast-paced scenes with "slashing dialogue". The reviewer felt that the cast was "clicking nicely" until the story of the writers "plunged" from the dramatic scenes to "sheer story-telling make-believe", while Crowther concluded that it went from "superb" to a "senseless, flabby heap". The Los Angeles Times opened its review qualifying the movie as "provocative, evocative". While critic Phillip K. Scheuer failed to see the plot's relation to The Hamlet, he praised the work of writers Ravetch and Frank, as well as the "exacting direction" of Ritt. Scheuer perceived the southern accents of the cast and the use of redness on their make-up to be unauthentic, but he felt that the use of the Louisiana landscapes and the development of the characters gave the film a "comulative bite" and a "powerful persuader" that "you are there". The review described Welles' acting as "terrific" and as dominating of the plot, while it favored Newman, Woodward and the supporting cast. Closing the piece, Scheuer wrote that he could not "get the sense" of the ending, while it mentioned as "top credits" the contributions of North on the soundtrack and Lashelle's camerawork.The Miami Herald pointed that the story did not resemble Faulkner's work excepting his use of "lusty accessories". The reviewer implied that most moviegoers would be not familiar with the work of Faulkner, while he remarked that the film would be "perfectly satisfactory". The piece closed by again criticizing the producers that felt that "Louisiana looked more than Mississippi than Mississippi does", and the newspaper took it as an example of the "liberties" taken with Faulkner's work.The Memphis Press-Scimitar welcomed Welles' performance as "superb", while it also remarked the large difference between the original stories and the movie. Also in Memphis, The Commercial Appeal defined The Long, Hot Summer as a "sizzler", that showed a "superior" performance by Woodward, as well as a "stellar" cast. The piece determined that the "tempestuous, earthy" plotline would not be suitable for the "immature", rather for the "adult" that would find it to be a "dynamic drama" for the "swirling turbulence" of the Varner family and the "frank omnipresence of sex". The Austin American-Statesman considered that Welles represented "one of the picture's more entertaining features" that made the film "gripping", along with the "able performances" and "crisp dialogue".
For the New York Daily News, Kate Cameron gave The Long, Hot Summer four stars. She described the work of the writers in integrating Faulkner's three works as a "fascinating saga". Cameron called the cast "first rate", with a "smoothly and convincingly" direction by Ritt. The Chicago Tribune wrote that the movie had a "first rate" cast, praised the photography and defined the result as "engrossing entertainment". The Boston Globe defined the location as "authentic", while the reviewer felt that the plot "has bite" and its pace advanced as "a race horse". The newspaper hailed Woodward's interpretation of the character as "a polished perfection of understanding". The Cincinnati Enquirer'' opened stating that doubts regarding Woodward's acting "are put at rest" with the release that it called "adult theater".
Legacy
The film revived the career of Martin Ritt, who had been on the blacklist for most of the decade for alleged associations with communists.
Paul Newman's performance as Ben Quick brought him national fame, as well as the Best Actor Award at the Cannes Film Festival. During the production, Newman married co-star Woodward.
In 2002, the film was nominated for the American Film Institute's AFI's 100 Years...100 Passions list.
A television series of the same name aired between 1965 and 1966, featuring Dan O'Herlihy, Roy Thinnes, Nancy Malone, Lana Wood, Ruth Roman, and Edmond O'Brien. It was remade for television in 1985, featuring Jason Robards, Don Johnson, and Cybill Shepherd. This rendition received two Emmy nominations, for Outstanding Miniseries and Outstanding Art Direction for a Miniseries or a Special.
See also
List of American films of 1958
References
Bibliography
External links
1958 films
1958 drama films
1950s English-language films
20th Century Fox films
American drama films
CinemaScope films
Films adapted into television shows
Films based on American novels
Films based on multiple works
Films based on short fiction
Films based on works by William Faulkner
Films directed by Martin Ritt
Films produced by Jerry Wald
Films scored by Alex North
Films set in Mississippi
Films shot in Louisiana
Southern Gothic films
1950s American films
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The Da Vinci Code (video game)
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The Da Vinci Code is a 2006 adventure puzzle video game developed by The Collective and published by 2K for PlayStation 2, Xbox and Microsoft Windows. Although the game was released on the same day that the film of the same name opened in theaters, it is based directly on the 2003 novel by Dan Brown rather than the film. As such, the characters in the game do not resemble nor sound like their filmic counterparts.
The Da Vinci Code received mixed reviews across all platforms. Although some critics praised the game's fidelity to its source material, the majority criticized the graphics and basic gameplay, particularly the melee combat.
Gameplay
The Da Vinci Code is an action-adventure/puzzle game played from a third-person perspective. The aim of the game, as with both the book and the film, is to locate the Holy Grail. To achieve this goal, the player must gather clues, solve puzzles, and successfully evade or defeat enemies.
Players control both Robert Langdon and Sophie Neveu. Who the player controls during any given level is pre-determined; the player has no choice as to which character to use at any given time in the game. The differences between the two characters are purely for narrative purposes; in terms of gameplay, both characters have the same speed, strength and abilities, can use the same items, and share an inventory.
The majority of the gameplay involves one of three aspects; searching, melee combat and puzzles. When searching locations, the player moves the characters around in a 3D environment viewed from a third-person perspective. When an object or location which can be examined more closely is found, the game switches to first-person mode, and the player can investigate in more detail. At this time, clues can be discovered on the object, or more specific objects can be found within the location.
Melee combat is split into two phases. In the first phase, the player approaches an enemy and attempts to punch them, as with most beat 'em up games. If the player successfully hits the enemy, the game enters attack mode. If the player misses and is instead attacked themselves, the game enters defense mode. Both modes are identical insofar as the player must enter a sequence of button presses before the timer runs out. If they do so correctly, they will successfully attack or block the enemy. If they run out of time or press the wrong buttons, they will be attacked or blocked themselves. Players can also push enemies away and attempt to flee from combat, and they can attempt to avoid combat altogether by sneaking up behind enemies and knocking them out.
Plot
The game begins with Silas (voiced by Phil LaMarr) sitting in his chamber, tightening a spiked metal cilice around his leg. He then picks up a handgun and leaves. The game cuts to Robert Langdon (Robert Clotworthy), a Harvard professor of symbology in Paris for a lecture, arriving at the Louvre, where he has been asked to view a crime scene by Cpt. Bezu Fache (Enn Reitel). Jacques Saunière (Neil Ross), Langdon's friend and curator of the museum, has been murdered. In flashback, Silas is shown asking Saunière where something is. Saunière tells him, and Silas responds, "I believe you. The others told me the same," before shooting him.
In the museum, Fache shows Langdon that before he died, Saunière wrote a numeric cipher and a message, "O Draconian Devil! Oh Lame Saint!" in blacklight ink. At this point, Sophie Neveu (Jennifer Hale), a member of the cryptography department arrives, explaining the cipher is part of the Fibonacci sequence, although the numbers are out of order. She then secretly tells Langdon he is in danger, as Fache thinks he is the murderer. In the toilets, she reveals the police have planted a GPS tracking device on Langdon. Neveu tells him that also written in black light ink were the words "PS. Find Robert Langdon." She explains that Saunière was her grandfather and "PS" was his nickname for her; "Princess Sophie." She believes that Saunière included the numerical cipher in the message to insure her involvement in the case.
Langdon throws the GPS device onto a passing car, and most of the police leave the museum to follow. He and Neveu return to the body, and Langdon realizes the numbers are out of sequence to tell them that the letters are also out of sequence; the words are anagrams. He deciphers "Draconian Devil" as "Leonardo da Vinci" and "Oh Lame Saint" as "The Mona Lisa". As they head to the painting, Langdon speculates "PS" could also refer to the Priory of Sion. His theory is strengthened when Neveu remembers seeing the letters together with a fleur-de-lis when she was a child; "PS" combined with a fleur-de-lis is the coat of arms of the Priory. At the Mona Lisa, they find a substitution cipher written in black light ink on the glass around the painting. The clues lead them to Saunière's office, where they listen to a message in which Sister Sandrine of Saint-Sulpice tells Saunière "the floor is broken and the other three are dead." A window is heard smashing and a man says, "Your fate was sealed the moment you stood against Manus Dei." As they continue to follow clues left by Saunière, eventually Neveu concludes they must head to his chateau. She and Robert split up as she heads to the chateau and he heads to Saint-Sulpice.
Once there, he finds a monk attacking a young nun. He knocks the monk out, and the nun, Sister Marguerite (Jane Carr), tells him that Sandrine is dead, killed by Silas, who was looking for something that Sandrine refused to give him. He left moments before the monks arrived, who seemed to be trying to erase evidence of his actions. Langdon concludes the monks are members of Sanctus Umbra, a militant subgroup of Manus Dei. Langdon examines the broken floor at the base of the Gnomon of Saint-Sulpice and finds a stone tablet with Job 38:11 inscribed on it; "Hitherto shalt thou come but no further." He deduces that Silas was misled by Saunière and the others. He heads into the crypt, where he finds a list of Priory Grand Masters, discovering Saunière was the current Master.
Meanwhile, at the chateau, Neveu heads for Saunière's underground grotto. She evades both Silas and the police, and follows a series of clues to find a key with the address of the Depository Bank of Zurich. Meeting up with Langdon, they head to the bank, where they open Saunière's deposit box, finding a cryptex. They then head to Château Villette, the residence of Sir Leigh Teabing (Greg Ellis), Langdon's friend and one of the world's foremost experts on the Holy Grail. Teabing and Langdon explain to Neveu that the Grail is not a cup, but a reference to a woman. Looking at da Vinci's The Last Supper, Teabing explains the image of John is actually Mary Magdalene, to whom the historical Jesus was married. This marriage was suppressed by the early Church, who needed its followers to believe Jesus was divine. Teabing explains that the chalice that held the blood of Christ, the Holy Grail of legend, was Mary herself, as she was pregnant with Jesus' child. At this point, Silas arrives, revealing he murdered Saunière under the orders of "The Teacher." Langdon and Neveu incapacitate him, and with Teabing and his servant Remy (Andres Aguilar), they head to London, taking the unconscious Silas with them.
Landing at Biggin Hill, they head to Temple Church. Langdon and Teabing go inside, but in the courtyard, Neveu sees Remy betray them and send a gang of thugs in after them. Langdon wakes up in a dungeon, but manages to escape, and meets up with Neveu. He tells her Remy is holding Teabing hostage to use him as a bargaining chip for the cryptex. Inside the church, Remy and Silas confront Langdon and Neveu, who flee and head to Westminster Abbey, where Teabing is being held. Once there, they decide they must solve the cryptex to bargain for Teabing's life. Following a series of clues left by Saunière, they do so, but before they can open it, they are captured by Remy. He takes them to Teabing, who reveals himself to be The Teacher. He shoots Remy as he no longer needs him, and reveals Silas has just been arrested for the recent murders. He tells Langdon and Neveu the Priory was supposed to make public the contents of the cryptex on the eve of the New Millennium, but Saunière decided against it. As such, Teabing determined to reveal the documents himself. He asks Langdon and Neveu to join him in revealing the truth about Mary Magdalene, but they refuse and Langdon destroys the cryptex. Teabing is arrested as he laments the truth being lost forever.
However, Langdon had removed the document before destroying the device. Following the clue contained within, he and Neveu head to Rosslyn Chapel. There, they find a family tree for the Saint-Clair family, running back to the Merovingian dynasty. In a series of documents, they learn that when Sophie's family were killed in a car accident, newspaper reports said that all of the family were killed; mother, father, and two children. The reports also state the family's name was Saint-Clair. Langdon realizes the truth; Neveu survived the accident, and the Priory put out the story she was dead to protect her, as she is a living blood relative of Jesus. Neveu's grandmother then arrives, explaining the family changed its name for protection. She introduces Neveu to her brother, who also survived the crash; he came to Scotland whilst Neveu went to France with Saunière. Neveu's grandmother then tells Langdon that the grail is not in Rosslyn, it is in France. He realizes the clue in the cryptex didn't point to Rosslyn but to the Rose Line in Paris. He says goodbye to Neveu and heads to France, finally understanding the grail lies beneath the Louvre Pyramid.
Development
The game was announced on November 2, 2005, with Sony Pictures revealing The Collective were developing and 2K Games publishing, with plans for a simultaneous release with the upcoming film directed by Ron Howard. Sony also stated, however, that the game was based on the book, not the film. It was also announced that Charles Cecil, creator of the Broken Sword series, was working as a consultant on the puzzles in the game.
An 80% complete version of the game was shown to gaming websites in April 2006. The "Struggle System" melee combat mode was demonstrated, as were the various locations and the recreations of real works of art. It was also revealed the game would include levels and locations not featured in the novel, although it would adhere to Brown's overall plot. IGN's Douglass C. Perry wrote of the demo, "the game demoed well, with clean sharp graphics for the current gen systems, offering interesting dialog, and a premise that stands out from many other titles in the adventure genre. The linear, story-based title intrigued us with its focus on art and culture, but it backed the heady concepts up with smart puzzles, a fun grappling system, and good gameplay. Despite the rage for everything next-gen these days, The Da Vinci Code, a game that ordinarily would smack of movie-license dog food, instead is a refreshing re-thinking on the rather worn adventure genre." The game was also shown at E3 2006 in May.
Mobile phone adaptations
Announced a month before the main game was a two-part mobile phone adaptation of the novel, developed by Kayak Interactive. The first part, The Da Vinci Code: The Quest Begins, was released on April 14, 2006 prior to both the main game and the film. The adaptation took the form of an isometric puzzle game. The second part of the game was never made. Another mobile game, The Da Vinci Code 3D, was announced in April 2006 and released in May 2006. It was developed by Southend Interactive.
Music
The original music of The Da Vinci Code video game was composed by Winifred Phillips. The game's music was praised by several reviewers. Jeff Hall of the music review site ScreenSounds called it "a fine piece of contemporary action scoring." Jonathan Fildes of BBC News wrote, "the accompanying music lends a suitably ethereal atmosphere to proceedings." Juan Castro of IGN described it as "moody, atmospheric and decidedly creepy. It's the right kind of music for slow-paced puzzle solving." JP Hurh of Game Revolution wrote, "the ambient music is properly tense and sets the mood."
Reception
The Da Vinci Code received mixed reviews across all three platforms. The PlayStation 2 version holds an aggregate score of 54 out of 100 on Metacritic, based on forty-three reviews, the Xbox version 52 out of 100, based on thirty-four reviews, and the PC version 53 out of 100, based on twenty-five reviews.
IGN's Juan Castro gave the all versions a 4.5 out of 10, writing, "it borrows a riveting story of conspiracy and murder, yet gets bogged down by sloppy gameplay. It even has a few interesting mechanics here and there, but these feel underdeveloped and haphazardly thrown in." He was highly critical of the melee combat, and concluded "as a videogame, The Da Vinci Code captures a fraction of the intrigue from the best-selling novel. It weaves an interesting tale of conspiracy and corruption, but the gameplay simply doesn't back it up. It doesn't offer enough puzzle variety for serious adventure fans, and the combat will irritate or bore most action aficionados."
GameSpy's David Chapman scored the Xbox and PlayStation versions 2 out of 5. He was highly critical of the graphics; "the only thing stiffer than the acting is the character animations. The characters move with all the grace of a three-toed sloth." He praised the puzzles, but was critical of the combat system, and concluded "on the whole the game is a pretty bland and uninspiring attempt to cash in on a successful franchise. The game's poor presentation and frustrating combat system make the mystery behind The Da Vinci Code one that most gamers would be better off leaving unsolved."
Game Revolution's JP Hurh gave the PlayStation 2 and Xbox versions a D, citing a "multitude of glitches and unintuitive programming missteps. Odd tics include the game freezing when you try to use certain weapons, an essential clue being invisible and the inability to go through doors or interact with objects when you are carrying something." He was also highly critical of the enemy AI and the melee combat.
Eurogamer's James Lyon gave the PC version 5 out of 10. Like most critics, he was critical of the combat system, writing "the real problem with The Da Vinci Code is that it doesn't really know who to appeal to. The fighting and sneaking are so inharmoniously overlaid as to render them an irritating chore for those who just want to solve puzzles, yet they're also so poorly done that they're hard to put up with even if you did want them." He felt the game captured the tone of the novel well, but concluded "The Collective appears to have over-egged the pudding a little, putting far too much needless emphasis on repetitive and increasingly tedious action elements to the detriment of the already unpolished adventuring. In trying to fulfill the needs of what gamers want as well as Da Vinci Code fans, The Collective has ended up with a game that ultimately proves only half satisfying to either and great to none."
Most positively, GameSpots Greg Mueller enjoyed The Da Vinci Code as "a challenging and varied gameplay experience that will satisfy the amateur cryptographer in everyone". He praised the game's integrity to the novel, but, like most critics, was critical of the combat system. He concluded that "the biggest fault of The Da Vinci Code is the overall presentation. The voice actors sound completely flat and disinterested in the dialogue, the character animations are all jerky and unnatural looking, and there are even a few frustrating bugs that make the game feel unfinished."
Non video-game publications also gave the game a poor reception. BBC News' Jonathan Fildes referred to the PlayStation 2 version as a "frustrating movie tie-in, with endless cutscenes and patchy gameplay. At times it feels tedious, and at others like the ancient mystery is being played out in real time." He argued that "the vast majority of play involves aimlessly wandering around churches, art galleries and stately homes hoping to stumble across an object of interest." Charles Herold of The New York Times gave the game an average review and stated, "because I like puzzles, I enjoyed much of Da Vinci despite its flaws. But there are many of them, and the game's sloppy implementation can be seen in a number of questionable design decisions." Chris Dahlen of The A.V. Club was much less impressed, giving the game a C− and writing "the combat mechanism is an abomination." Matt Degen of the Detroit Free Press was one of the few critics who was impressed with the game, scoring it 3 out of 4, and stating, "You'll spend plenty of time cracking anagrams and other codes, and they aren't child's play, either. There's some combat, too, which, while feeling a little out of place, does provide for variation in the game."
Sales
The game was met with poor sales figures. In the UK, it debuted at #12 in the sales charts across all systems. It sold slightly better in its second week, climbing up to #8. The game sold less than 20,000 units.
References
2006 video games
2K games
Adventure games
Detective video games
Mobile games
PlayStation 2 games
Puzzle video games
Single-player video games
The Collective (company) games
The Da Vinci Code
Video games about police officers
Video games based on novels
Video games developed in the United States
Video games featuring female protagonists
Video games scored by Winifred Phillips
Video games set in France
Video games set in Switzerland
Video games set in the United Kingdom
Video games set in London
Windows games
Xbox games
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nationalities%20and%20regions%20of%20Spain
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Nationalities and regions of Spain
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Spain is a diverse country integrated by contrasting entities with varying economic and social structures, languages, and historical, political and cultural traditions. The Spanish constitution responds ambiguously to the claims of historic nationalities (such as the right of self-government) while proclaiming a common and indivisible homeland of all Spaniards.
The terms nationalities and historical nationalities, though never officially defined, refer to territories whose inhabitants have a strong historically constituted identity; or, more specifically, certain autonomous communities whose Statute of Autonomy—their basic institutional legislation—recognizes their historical and cultural identity.
In Spanish jurisprudence, the term nationality appears for the first time in the current constitution, approved in 1978 after much debate in the Spanish Parliament. Although it was explicitly understood that the term referred to Galicia, the Basque Country, and Catalonia, the constitution does not specify any communities by name. Between the strong centralist position inherited from Franco's regime and the nationalist position of the Galicians, Basques, and Catalans, a consensus developed around this term. It was applied in the respective Statutes of Autonomy once all nationalities and regions acceded to self-government or autonomy, and were constituted as autonomous communities.
Several of the writers of the current Spanish Constitution have said that the concept of nationality is synonymous with nation. However, the Spanish Constitutional Court has explicitly ruled against this interpretation.
Currently, the term "nationality" is used in reference to Aragon, Valencian Community, the Balearic Islands, the Canary Islands and Andalusia. The rest of the autonomous communities (Castile-La Mancha, Murcia, La Rioja, Extremadura) are defined as historical regions of Spain. Asturias, Cantabria, Castile and León are referred to as "historical communities". Navarre is defined as a chartered community in the re-institution of its medieval charters, and the Community of Madrid is defined as neither a nationality nor a region, but a community created in the nation's interest as the seat of the nation's capital. Catalonia, otherwise, is defined in its "estatut" as a nation. That recognition led the Constitutional Court of Spain to annul some of the points of the catalan statute that were declared unconstitutional. In addition, the court considered that the references made in the preamble of the Statute to Catalonia as a nation and to the national reality of Catalonia "lack legal effectiveness".
Historical background
The formation of Spain can be viewed as an alliance and progressive union of several peninsular kingdoms, and nationalist or regionalist tradition in Spain has historical roots in such beginnings. No serious attempt was made to centralise the administration until the reforms of the eighteenth century, to become a nation state.
By the beginning of the nineteenth century, though, the Spanish government had become strongly centralised, as was the case in certain other European nations. The State did not recognise the nation's regional diversity. Later during this same century, Catalonia and the Basque Country became rapidly industrialised and were areas of swift progress in establishing commercial capitalism. These changes occurred much more slowly in the rest of the country, which remained largely agricultural. Nationalistic sentiments began to grow in the more industrialized areas. Some writers of the time expressed their concepts of a Catalan or Basque fatherland, or even nationhood. These two nationalist movements had much in common, in that both arose in areas that enjoyed higher levels of prosperity and literacy, were the only areas in the country to develop modern industry, and each possessed a distinct and independent linguistic tradition. Activists worked to revive use of both the Catalan and the Basque languages, including publication of literature in these languages. A similar revival began of the Galician language. Scholars began to explore the histories of these regions, to tell their own founding stories: Catalonia rediscovered her prowess as a Mediterranean Medieval empire within the Crown of Aragon, and the Basque Country focused on the mystery of its origins.
Under medieval charters, both Catalonia and the Basque provinces had exercised a considerable level of independence, even in the period of Habsburg Spain; however, later Bourbon Spain such independence was lost and the Basque Country and Navarre exercised only fiscal autonomy. The larger economic development that occurred in these historically delimited ethnic communities enhanced the regions' own identities.
In the early twentieth century, nationalist discourse in Galicia, Catalonia and especially in the Basque country was infused with racialist elements, as these ethnicities defined themselves as distinct from the peoples of the center and south of Spain. With the growth of nationalistic sentiments, demands by these groups for self-government also grew. In some sectors, activists demanded outright independence.
The appearance of the so-called peripheral nationalism in the aforementioned regions of Spain occurred in a period when Spaniards began to look into their own concepts of nationhood. In the traditionalist view, religion had been integral to defining the Spanish nation, intrinsically and traditionally Catholic, and strongly monarchical. In a later, liberal view, sovereignty was considered to reside in the nation and to be expressed in the people, as opposed to the monarch. Some activists sought a uniform centralised State, while others preferred decentralization or republicanism.
Spain experimented with decentralisation during the First Spanish Republic (1873-1874), but social and political chaos, which had started even before the change of regime with a change of monarchical houses, led to its failure. At the beginning of the twentieth century, the two political discourses of Spanish nationalism, the traditional and the liberal, continued to be present and opposing, advocating for different political regimes. However, the appearance of peripheral nationalisms, namely the Basque and Catalan nationalistic movements, produced the unification of many Spanish nationalists as a counter-force, and Spanish nationalism became a dialectical struggle between the center and the periphery.
During the final stages of the turno pacífico, a staged pacific alternation of power between liberals and conservatives in the Spanish Parliament, Catalonia was granted a limited form of self-government. The Commonwealth of Catalonia () was established in 1913, with its own Regional Assembly. The Assembly drafted a Statute of Autonomy that was, however, rejected by the General Courts (the Spanish Parliament). The Commonwealth of Catalonia was dissolved during the dictatorship of Primo de Rivera in 1923.
In 1931, the Second Spanish Republic was established, and a new liberal constitution allowed the "regions" of Spain to attain self-government. It created the "autonomous region" as a first-order administrative division. Catalonia was the first to approve a Statute of Autonomy, later sanctioned by the Spanish Parliament. Its Generalitat, the Catalan institutions of government that had operated since medieval times until the early eighteenth century, was restored. The Basque Country and Galicia each sought autonomy in 1936, but only the Statute of Autonomy of the first was approved before the Spanish Civil War erupted.
After the war, Franco's regime (1939–1975) forcefully enforced centralism in an effort to establish and preserve the unity of the Spanish nation. His attempts to fight separatism with heavy-handed but sporadic repression and his oftentimes severe suppression of language and regional identities backfired: the demands for democracy became intertwined with demands for the recognition of a pluralistic vision of the Spanish nationhood.
After Franco died, Spain entered into a phase of transition towards democracy. All democratic groups were forced to face the Catalan, Basque and Galician question. On 11 September 1977, more than one million people marched in the streets of Barcelona (Catalonia) demanding "llibertat, amnistia i estatut d'autonomia", "liberty, amnesty and [a] Statute of Autonomy", creating the biggest demonstration in post-war Europe. A law was passed that allowed for the creation of pre-autonomías, "pre-autonomies" or provisional regional governments for all regions, the "historical nationalities" included. Catalonia was the first to be so constituted, and it again revived the Generalitat. The Basque Country quickly followed suit.
In the 1977 election to the first democratically elected Parliament since the times of the Republic, regional Catalan socialists (Socialists' Party of Catalonia) and Basque nationalists (Basque Nationalist Party) both won significant positions in representing their regions and their aspirations. This newly elected Parliament was entrusted to formulate a new constitution.
"Nationalities" in the constitution of 1978
The demands for the recognition of the distinctiveness of Catalonia, the Basque Country and Galicia, within the Spanish State became one of the most important challenges for the newly elected Parliament. In fact, the writing of the second article, in which the "nationalities and regions" of Spain were recognized, was the most hotly debated in the Parliament. Its acceptance was not smooth: the right vigorously opposed it, while the nationalists and the left firmly objected to leaving it out. The natural corollary to debating the term "nationalities" was debating the term "nation". At the end of the spectrum there were those who thought the term "nationalities" was unnecessary, or that there was only one "nation" and "nationality"—Spanish—while at the opposite end of the spectrum there were those who advocated for defining Spain as a plurinational State, that is, a State integrated by several nations. In the end, the second article was passed along with the term "nationalities" but firmly stressing the indivisible unity of the Spanish nation. It reads:
The article united two historical trends in Spain: centralism and federalism, and in the words of one of the seven fathers of the Constitution, Jordi Solé Tura it was "[...] an authentic point of encounter between different concepts of the Spanish nation [...] In it, two great notions of Spain merge." It aimed to give an answer to the nationalistic aspirations that had been silenced during the four decades of Franco's dictatorial regime.
The constitution itself did not define the term, despite the diverse meanings and interpretations that its proponents and opponents had—ranging from "an expression of historical and cultural identities [...] in the superior unity of Spain" (Landelino Lavilla, from the Union of the Democratic Centre), "communities with a prominent cultural, historical or political personality" (Rafael Arias-Salgado, from the Union of the Democratic Centre), all the way to making it equivalent to "nation", (Manuel Fraga from the People's Alliance, in stern opposition to the term "nationalities" precisely because of its alleged synonymity with "nation") or defining it as a "nation without a State [...] within the plurinational reality of Spain [...] as a Nation of nations" (Miguel Roca Junyent, from the Convergence and Union).
The particular meaning that the term "nationalities" was to acquire in Spanish politics, in reference to regions, created some confusion with the concept of "nationality" with regard to citizenship. The matter was especially confused when the latter was defined in the 11th article of the constitution. It was suggested that the term "nationality" be changed to "citizenship" in the 11th article, but it was considered that the terms nationality and citizenship are not completely synonymous, as it is common in other European legislations.
The Preamble to the constitution explicitly stated that it is the Nation's will to protect "all Spaniards and the peoples of Spain in the exercise of their human rights, cultures traditions, languages and institutions". This was a significant move, since for the "historical nationalities" part of their distinctiveness lies on their own regional languages. Furthermore, the nation became openly multilingual, declaring Castilian:that is, Spanish as the official language of the entire country, but declaring that the "other Spanish languages" will also be official in their respective autonomous communities. The third article ends up declaring that the "richness of the distinct linguistic modalities of Spain represent a patrimony which will be the object of special respect and protection."
The State of Autonomies
The constitution aimed to devolve self-government to both nationalities and regions, if the latter so desired, which were to be constituted as autonomous communities, yet making an implicit distinction between the two groups in the level of competencies that were to be devolved, and in the way they were to attain self-government. The three "historic nationalities" (Catalonia, Galicia and the Basque Country) were granted a simplified "fast-track" process, while the rest of the regions had to follow a specific set of requirements. Thus the process was purposely intended to be asymmetrical in nature. The autonomous communities were to be formed from the existing provinces, a division of the centralising regime of the early nineteenth century: an autonomous community could be created by a province or group of provinces with common historical, cultural and economical features. Yet, the outcome was not predictable; the constitution created a process for devolution, but it differed from other legislations in two main aspects. First, it did not specify the name or number of the autonomous communities that would integrate the Spanish nation, and secondly, the process was voluntary in nature: the regions themselves had the option of choosing to attain self-government or not. This unique process of territorial administration was called the "State of Autonomies". Though highly decentralised, this system is not a federation, in that there was still ambiguity with regards to the power attributed to the regions, even though they can still negotiate them with the central government.
While the constitution was still being drafted, there was a demonstration in Andalusia, which sought to be recognised as a "nationality" as well, and to be granted self-government also through a rapid process. This opened a phase that was dubbed in Spanish as "café para todos", "coffee for all", meaning that all regions would be "served the same": that all nationalities and regions would accede to self-government in roughly the same degree, if at different paces. Catalonia, the Basque Country and Galicia acceded to autonomy via the fast-track route established in the 151st article of the constitution, with all competencies granted, because in the past they had approved a Statute by referendum and they had already established a pre-autonomic provisional government. Andalusia began this process after a referendum in 1980. The other regions had the opportunity to accede to autonomy via the slower route established in the 143rd article, with a lower level of competencies, during a provisional period of five years. After this period, there was to be a progressive transference of competencies, with the aim of roughly equalizing all communities. One particular exception was granted to both the Basque Country and Navarre: their fueros or "medieval charters", which had granted them fiscal autonomy, were restored. Despite having a Basque-speaking minority, the province of Navarre chose not to join the soon-to-be formed autonomous community of the Basque Country. Instead, it followed a different route of devolution due to the reinstitution of the medieval charters, and is thus known as a "chartered community", as opposed to an "autonomous community".
Both the Basque Country and Navarre are considered "communities of chartered regime", meaning they have fiscal autonomy: they collect their own taxes and send a prearranged amount to the central government. The other communities are considered to be "common regime"; currently, they administer their own taxes only partially. The taxes collected from "common regime" communities are administered centrally and distributed among them all to achieve fiscal equalisation.
Current state of affairs
The "autonomic process", whereby the nationalities and regions would accede to autonomy, was partially concluded in 1983, when 17 autonomous communities covering the entire territory of Spain were created. (The process finally concluded with the creation of two autonomous cities in Northern Africa, Ceuta and Melilla.) All autonomous communities follow the provincial limits established in the 1833 territorial division of Spain: no province has been partitioned between communities. Moreover, many communities roughly coincide with the pre-provincial historical regions of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, which in turn reflected to some extent some of the historical medieval kingdoms or administrative regions of the past.
On the other hand, some autonomous communities are new creations. For example, autonomy was granted to Cantabria and La Rioja, both of which were historically part of Castile. Despite the lack of historical basis for both communities, and the fact that the Spanish government favored their integration in the larger Castile-León, the local population overwhelmingly supported the new entities. In Cantabria, one of the leading intellectual figures in 19th-century Spain, Marcelino Menéndez Pelayo, had already rejected a Castilian identity for his region as far back as 1877, instead favouring integration with its western neighbour, Asturias:
The province of Madrid was also separated from New Castile and constituted as an autonomous community. This was partly in recognition of Madrid's status as the capital of the nation, but also because it was originally excluded from the pre-autonomic agreements that created the community of Castile-La Mancha, to which it naturally belonged. Some peripheral nationalists still complain that the creation of many regions was an attempt to break down their own 'national unity' by a sort of gerrymandering, thus blurring the distinctiveness of their own nationalities.
As competencies were eventually transferred to all communities in roughly the same degree, some nationalists see little practical distinction between "nationality" and "region", regardless of how the autonomous community defines itself, a dilution that is welcomed by some political parties at the national level. In fact, other communities are also identified as "historical nationalities", including Andalusia, Aragon, the Balearic Islands, the Canary Islands, and the Valencian Community. Also, most communities that do not enjoy fiscal autonomy:the "common regime communities", typically tend to follow Catalonia's lead in their demands for more competencies or self-government. This has caused a movement for further recognition of the distinctiveness of the "historical nationalities" as "nations", often resuscitating the debate between "nationality" and "nation" or the concept of a "plurinational State".
In the Basque Country in 2003, the regional government proposed a plan whereby the autonomous community would become a "free associated State" of Spain, which was later rejected by the Spanish Parliament. In 2006, the Catalan Parliament, in approving a new Statute of Autonomy, chose to define Catalonia not as a "nationality" but explicitly as a "nation", by a large majority. Similar proposals were made in Andalusia. The Spanish Parliament, which must ratify all Statutes of Autonomy, removed the article that defined Catalonia as a "nation", but made a reference in the Preamble of the document to the "fact" that the Catalan Parliament had chosen to so define Catalonia, but that the constitution recognises her "national reality" as a "nationality". The existence of two chartered communities with fiscal autonomy has led to discontent in Catalonia, which demands the same privilege and transparency. It is one of the main net contributors of fiscal equalization to which only communities of common-regime are subject: it has a large fiscal deficit, whereas in Galicia and Andalusia, which are among the biggest net beneficiaries of such centrally managed funding, no such demand has been made.
The "nationalities" have also played a key role in national (or "State-wide") politics. On the few occasions where no major party has achieved an absolute majority in the Congress of Deputies, there have been agreements with the so-called "nationalist" (i.e. "regionalist" or "peripheral nationalist") parties present there. On these occasions, no coalitions for government have been made, but instead a minority government has been formed that receives support from the "nationalist" parties to approve the budget and other laws. This has sometimes led to further concessions being made to the peripheral nationalities.
The new framework of "autonomies" has served to legitimise the Spanish state even within the "nationalities", more so in Catalonia and Galicia than in the Basque Country. (Legitimacy is still a question amongst some Basque nationalists: the Basque Country was the only community where the Spanish Constitution in 1978 was not approved by the majority of its constituents in the national referendum.) In practical terms, the majority of the population has been satisfied with the framework of devolution since the restoration of democracy, even if some still aspire for further recognition of the distinctiveness of the nationalities or for the expansion of their self-government. In all three "historical nationalities", there is still a sizable minority, more so in Catalonia than in the Basque Country and Galicia, calling for the establishment of a true federal State in Spain or advocating for their right to self-determination and independence.
Since it began in 2008, the Spanish economic crisis has produced different reactions in the different communities. On the one hand, politicians in some communities that are not "nationalities", mostly governed by the centre-right Popular Party, are considering the return of some devolved powers back to the central government. On the other hand, in Catalonia, the strenuous fiscal situation and the severe austerity measures enacted by the regional government have caused great discontent in the population, many of whom view the "unfairness" of the large fiscal deficit as aggravating the situation. This, in turn, has led many who are not necessarily separatist but who are enraged by the financial deficit to support secession. In recent polls, support for independence has doubled from the mid-20% in 2008 to nearly 50% by September 2012, although support for independence drops to the mid-30% if more options are given in the poll, with nearly as many favoring the establishment of a true federal system in Spain. This surge in support for independence was evidenced during the celebration of the National Day of Catalonia on 11 September 2012, when about 600,000 to two million people marched on the streets of Barcelona rallying for independence, one of the largest demonstrations in Spanish history.
Following the rally, the president of Catalonia, Artur Mas, in a previously scheduled meeting with the prime minister of Spain, Mariano Rajoy, requested and was denied (on the basis of its purported unconstitutionality), a change in the taxation system in Catalonia that would have made it similar to that of the two communities of chartered regime. The week after the meeting, Mas called for the dissolution of the Catalan Parliament and for early elections to be held on 25 November 2012. Before its dissolution, the Catalan parliament approved a bill calling for the next legislature to allow Catalonia to exercise its right of self-determination by holding a "referendum or consultation" during the next four years in which the people would decide whether to become a new independent and sovereign State. This parliamentary decision was approved by a large majority of deputies: 84 voted affirmative, 21 voted negative and 25 abstained. The deputy prime minister of Spain, Soraya Sáenz de Santamaría, declared that the central government would exercise all "legal instruments" (current legislation requires the executive government or the Congress of Deputies to call for or sanction a binding referendum) to block any such attempt. The leaders of the opposition, in the Catalan Parliament, in the Cortes Generales, and from the Socialist Party, do not support Catalan secession, but instead favor changing the constitution to modify the current taxation system and to create a true federal system in Spain, to "better reflect the singularities" of Catalonia.
In December 2012, an opposing rally was organised by the Partido Popular and Ciutadans, which drew 30,000-160,000 people in one of Barcelona's main squares under a large flag of Spain and Catalonia.
See also
Andalusian nationalism, Basque nationalism, Castilian nationalism, Asturian nationalism, Leonese nationalism, Pancatalanism, Valencian nationalism, Aragonese nationalism, Canarian nationalism, Catalan nationalism and Galician nationalism
National and regional identity in Spain
Politics of Spain: The nationality debate
Political divisions of Spain
Portugal-Spain relations
Nation state
Explanatory notes
References
Decentralization
Geography of Spain
Politics of Spain
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4813972
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East%20Midlands%20English
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East Midlands English
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East Midlands English is a dialect, including local and social variations spoken in most parts of East Midlands England. It generally includes areas east of Watling Street (which separates it from West Midlands English), north of an isogloss separating it from variants of Southern English (e.g. Oxfordshire) and East Anglian English (e.g. Cambridgeshire), and south of another separating it from Northern English dialects (e.g. Yorkshire). This includes the counties of Derbyshire, Leicestershire, Lincolnshire, Nottinghamshire, Rutland and Northamptonshire. Dialects of northern Derbyshire, Nottinghamshire and Lincolnshire usually share similarities with Northern English dialects. Relative to other English dialects, there have been relatively few studies of East Midlands English.
Origins
The Eastern English Midlands were incorporated in the Norse-controlled Danelaw in the late 9th century by Ivar the Boneless. With their conquest, the county towns of the East Midlands counties were converted into fortified, Viking city-states, known as the Five Boroughs of the Danelaw. The region's dialect owes much of its grammar and vocabulary to the Nordic influences of its conquerors. For example, the East Midlands verb to scraight ('to cry') is thought to be derived from the Norse, skrike in modern Scandinavian, also meaning to cry.
The East Midlands dialect of Middle English which extended over a much larger area, as far south as Middlesex, is the precursor of modern English spoken today, which has descended from the early modern English of the early 16th century.
East Midlands dialects in literature
The novelist and East Midlander D. H. Lawrence was from the Nottinghamshire town of Eastwood and wrote in the Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire Coalfield dialects in several poems as well as in his more famous works such as Lady Chatterley's Lover and Sons and Lovers.
Though spoken less commonly today, the dialect of the East Midlands has been investigated in texts such as the Ey Up Mi Duck series of books (and an LP) by Richard Scollins and John Titford. These books were originally intended as a study of Derbyshire Dialect, particularly the distinctive speech of Ilkeston and the Erewash valley, but later editions acknowledge similarities in vocabulary and grammar which unite the East Midlands dialects and broadened their appeal to the region as a whole.
"Ey up" (often spelt ayup / eyup) is a greeting thought to be of Old Norse origin (se upp) used widely throughout the East Midlands, North Midlands, North Staffordshire and Yorkshire, and "m' duck" is thought to be derived from a respectful Anglo Saxon form of address, "Duka" (literally "duke"), and is unrelated to waterfowl. Non-natives of the East Midlands and North Staffordshire are often surprised to hear men greet each other as "m' duck".
Grammar
Those who speak traditional regional dialects are not trying unsuccessfully to speak Standard English. East Midlands English follows a series of distinct grammatical rules. Some examples follow below.
Formal address
Until the mid-20th century, it was not uncommon to hear the use of informal forms of address, thee and thou, as compared to the more formal you. Use of the informal form of address is now uncommon in modern speech.
Personal and possessive pronouns
Personal pronouns differ from standard English as follows:
Example: It eent theirn; it's ourn! (It isn't theirs; it's ours!)
Reflexive pronouns
Reflexive pronouns are characterised by the replacement of "self" with sen (from Middle English seluen)
Y'usen – Yourself
Mesen – Myself
Thisens – Themselves/Yourselves
Ussens – Ourselves
Example: We sh'll ay to do it ussens. (We shall have to do it ourselves.)
Vocabulary
Humorous texts, such as Nottingham As it is Spoke, have used their phonetically spelled words to deliberately confuse non-natives of the region.
Alrate yooth?Are you alright young man? Here, is a spelling designed to convey the phonological specification in the traditional dialect of , which is , and a slight diphthonging of .
Avya gorra wi'ya?Is the wife with you? (lit. "Have you got her with you?) The pronunciation with weak form is alleged to be more common in Nottingham and the South East Midlands; pronunciations with th-fronting in are alleged to be more common elsewhere. TH-fronting became a potential feature of the accents of the region in around 1960. The humorous spellings are designed to indicate H-dropping, the ’’Northern T-to-R rule’’ and , the non-Standard weakform of , which is common to many dialects in England.
'Int any onya any onya? Here is an example of Belper, Derbyshire dialect when asking a group of people if any of them have any matches with which to light a pipe. Hasn’t any of you, got any [matches] on you?
It's looking’ a bit black ower Bill's movver'sIt looks like rain. (lit. "It's looking a bit black over Bill's Mother's.") – a common, if somewhat old-fashioned, Midlands expression implying impending bad weather. The spelling chosen to indicate the phonological specification in the traditional dialect of : . The identity of Bill or where his mother’s house was located is open to question, although it is possibly derived from German emperor Wilhelm II.
Awont gooin t’worra!I wasn't going to, was I! , and are blend words designed to convey the phonological specification in the traditional dialect of , and .
A farnd im in cutI found him in the Canal, (lit. "I found him in the cut). Using the traditional and local word for Canal. Canals were originally referred to as "Cuts" because during the industrial revolution canals or highways for transportation of goods were literally "cut" into the landscape and allowed to fill with water.
Thez summat up wi’imI think he may be ill. (lit. "There's something up with him."). The spellings here chosen to indicate the ‘‘Northern’’ feature that is a monophthong, the non-Standard English word , which is historically found in many dialects across England (cf. its use by the London boatmen Gaffer and Riderhood in Our Mutual Friend and by the farmhands in Far from the Madding Crowd), the weakform of previously mentioned and H-dropping.
Yer norrayin no tuffees!You’re not having any sweets! (should not be taken to mean ‘toffees’ alone as in East Midlands dialect’ “tuffees” can mean all types of sweets). Humorous spellings here were chosen to indicate the Northern T-to-R rule and the phonological specification in the traditional dialect of , which is .
However, there are many words in use in the traditional East Midlands Dialect which do not appear in standard English. The short list below is by no means exhaustive. More comprehensive glossaries exist within texts such as Ey Up Mi Duck by Richard Scollins and John Titford.
naught nothing (homographic with the digit cypher, 0, and the (now only literary) naught of General English; is a traditional dialect phonological specification and is the regular development in General English).
aught anything (homographic with the now literary General English )
nesha weak person, or one who feels the cold. Found in many parts of England, cf. its use in Hardy.
belt-jobeasy job (used in certain coal-mining communities based on watching a conveyor belt)
causiepavement ("causey" is an older word from which 'causeway' is derived.)
coba bread roll (bap); (as verb) to throw
cob loafbaker's term used across the UK for a hemispherical loaf
cloutstrousers (, usually pronounced ); (as verb:) hits something or someone.
jitty/jettyalleyway.
twitchelalleyway. Typically (but not exclusively) alleyways providing access to the rear of terraced housing. Can also mean a path between gardens (E.g. allotments)
larup/laropto cover with (usually a thick substance)
mardy (or etymological marredy) grumpy, sulky (i.e. "She's a mardy one!")
mashto make a pot of tea (i.e. "I'll go n’mash tea.")
piggleto pick at a scab, spot or a skin irritation (i.e. "Stop piggling that scab!")
puddled/puddle-drunk intoxicated or stupid
putherto pour out uncontrollably usually of smoke, steam or dust
rammelrubbish/waste
scraight/scraitin'to cry/crying
sile rain heavily
snapin or snap lunch/food,tekken ta werk
snidered/snided/sniedcovered/infested, (DH Lawrence used the word 'Snied' in a description of an infestation of mice in Sons and Lovers.),
wazzerk/wassockfool (used across the East & West Midlands)
There are also word forms that occur in Standard English but which have additional meanings in some of the varieties considered here.
bonny In many dialects, this has the sense of ‘looking well’ often referring to a healthy plumpness. In Derby, Leicester and Nottingham, there still also exists a transferred sense of plump, robust, stout or overweight derived from this sense. Cf. Samuel Johnson's comment that ‘‘It seems to be used in general conversation for plump’’ as cited in NED Bonny 2 b as (J.).
(There is a yet older sense now only commonly used in Scots, Northern & some Midland dialects meaning 'beautiful' generally rather than of individuals having a pleasing embonpoint specifically.)
fast stuck, caught (i.e. "Who's got a finger fast?")
tuffeessweets, confectionery
badlyhungover/ill
croakerdoctor
croggiean (illegal) crossbar ride, "two-up" on the crossbar of a bicycle
duck's necksbottle of lemonade
fuddle an ad hoc buffet or Potluck
oakie ice cream (common in Leicestershire) see Hokey cokey
pota plaster cast
suckericed lolly
tabsears, also called lugholes
yack to yank:In Leicester and Leicestershire to throw as in 'yack it away' or 'yack it to me'
cos can you
The greeting 'now then' (as 'Nah theen') is still in use in Lincolnshire and North-East Derbyshire, used where other people might say "Hello". 'Nen mate' can also be heard instead of "now then mate".
People from Leicester are known in the popular holiday resort Skegness as "Chisits", due to their expression for "how much is it" when asking the price of goods in shops.
Phonology
East Midlands accents generally lack the trap–bath split, so that cast is pronounced rather than the pronunciation associated with most southern accents.
Most accents in the East Midlands lack the foot–strut split, with words containing like strut or but being pronounced with , without any distinction between putt and put.
East Midlands accents are generally non-rhotic, instead drawing out their vowels, resulting in the Midlands Drawl, which can to non-natives be mistaken for dry sarcasm.
The PRICE vowel has a very far back starting-point, and can be realised as .
Yod-dropping, as in East Anglia, can be found in some areas, for example new as , sounding like "noo".
H-dropping is common, in which is usually omitted from most words, while NG-coalescence is present in most of the East Midlands except in Derbyshire where is pronounced as .
In Lincolnshire, sounds like the u vowel of words like strut being realised as may be even shorter than in the North.
In Leicester, words with short vowels such as up and last have a northern pronunciation, whereas words with vowels such as down and road sound rather more like a south-eastern accent. The vowel sound at the end of words like border (and the name of the city) is also a distinctive feature.
Lincolnshire also has a marked north–south split in terms of accent. The north shares many features with Yorkshire, such as the open a sound in "car" and "park" or the replacement of take, make, and sake with tek, mek, and sek. The south of Lincolnshire is close to Received Pronunciation, although it still has a short Northern a in words such as bath.
Mixing of the words was and were when the other is used in Standard English.
In Northamptonshire, crossed by the north–south isogloss, residents of the north of the county have an accent similar to that of Leicestershire and those in the south an accent similar to rural Oxfordshire.
The town of Corby in northern Northamptonshire has an accent with some originally Scottish features, apparently due to immigration of Scottish steelworkers. It is common in Corby for the GOAT set of words to be pronounced with . This pronunciation is used across Scotland and most of Northern England, but Corby is alone in the Midlands in using it.
Dialect variations within the political region
Southern Northamptonshire
Northamptonshire is in the East Midlands region defined in the late 20th century, and has historically harboured its own dialect comparable to other forms of East Midlands English, particularly among the older generation. However, more recently its linguistic distinctiveness has significantly eroded due to influences from the western parts of East Anglia, the West Midlands, and the South as well as the 'Watford Gap isogloss', the demarcation line between southern and northern English accents.
The Danelaw split the present county into a Viking north and a Saxon south. This is quite plainly heard, with people in the south speaking more like people from Oxfordshire or Cambridgeshire and people in the north sounding more like people from Leicestershire.
Corbyite
Also of note is the anomalous dialect of Corbyite spoken around Corby in the north of Northamptonshire, which reflects the migration of large numbers of Scottish and Irish steelworkers to the town during the 20th century. The dialect is often compared to Glaswegian.
Derbyshire
The dialect of Coalville in Leicestershire is said to resemble that of Derbyshire because many of the Coalville miners came from there. Coalville's name is still almost exclusive pronounced as "Co-ville" by its inhabitants. Neighbouring pit villages such as Whitwick ("Whittick") share the Coalville inflection as a result of the same huge influx of Derbyshire miners.
The city of Derby, as well as boroughs in the vicinity of the city such as Amber Valley and Erewash share a common Derby dialect, which sounds largely similar to other East Midlands dialects such as Nottingham and Leicester. However, many other dialects in the county are influenced by neighbouring areas and cities. For example, the dialect of Glossop in the High Peak borough is largely similar to the North West's Manchester dialect due to its close geographical position to Greater Manchester (particularly in the Manchester Overspill estate of Gamesley), while that of Chesterfield and Bolsover share commonalities with the South Yorkshire dialect owing to their proximity to Sheffield and Doncaster. In addition, the dialect of the Derbyshire Dales is near identical to that of the bordering North Staffordshire, mimicking dialects in and around Stoke-on-Trent, as well as that of Crewe in Cheshire, North West England.
Lincolnshire and East Lincolnshire
Lincolnshire has long been an economically relatively homogeneous, less industrial more heavily agricultural county and is in part naturally separated by the River Trent divorcing its largest market town, Gainsborough, Torksey & the City of Lincoln from Nottinghamshire. East of the Lincolnshire Wolds, in the southern part of the county, the Lincolnshire dialect is closely linked to The Fens and East Anglia where East Anglian English is spoken, and, in the northern areas of the county, the local speech has characteristics in common with the speech of the East Riding of Yorkshire. This is largely due to the fact that the majority of the land area of Lincolnshire was surrounded by sea, the Humber, marshland, and the Wolds; these geographical circumstances permitted little linguistic interference from the East Midlands dialects until the nineteenth century when canal and rail routes penetrated the eastern heartland of the country.
Nottinghamshire
Minor variations still endure between Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire. Though all native speakers sound similar, there are noticeable differences between the accents of residents of, for example, Nottingham and Derby, or Mansfield and Bolsover which is pronounced locally as .
In North Nottinghamshire and North-East Derbyshire, the dialect is very similar to South Yorkshire, including the occasional use of the pronoun thou amongst older people. See Stephen Whyles's book A Scab is no Son of Mine for examples of speech of the Worksop area.
Counties in which East Midlands English is spoken
Cambridgeshire (Limited usage around Peterborough)
Derbyshire (Limited usage in northern areas such as High Peak, Chesterfield and Bolsover)
Leicestershire
Lincolnshire (except areas within the Yorkshire and the Humber region)
Nottinghamshire (Usage less frequent in Bassetlaw)
Northamptonshire
Rutland
Staffordshire (Limited usage around Burton-upon-Trent and Uttoxeter)
In popular culture
The children's writer Helen Cresswell came from Nottingham, lived in Eakring and some of her characters featured on television during the 1970s and 1980s, such as Lizzie Dripping and Polly Flint, have distinct East Midlands accents, otherwise rarely heard in national broadcast media at the time.
British actor Jack O'Connell has a distinct Derbyshire accent.
The character ‘Sylvie’ in the Disney+ Marvel series ‘Loki', played by Sophia Di Martino, has an East Midlands accent: “Di Martino's desire to represent underserved people led her to use her natural Nottingham accent on ‘Loki’.
Notes
References
Bibliography
Evans, Arthur Benoni (1881) Leicestershire Words, Phrases and Sayings; ed. by Sebastian Evans. London: Trübner for the English Dialect Society
Wright, Joseph (ed.) (1898–1905) The English Dialect Dictionary. 6 vols. Oxford University Press ("appendices include dialect words grouped by region")
Skeat, W. W. (ed.) (1874) "Derbyshire lead mining terms", by T. Houghton; 1681 ... "Derbyshire mining terms", by J. Mawe; 1802 [with other texts]. London: N. Trübner for the English Dialect Society
Mander, James (1824) The Derbyshire Miners' Glossary. Bakewell : Printed at the Minerva Press, for the author by G. Nall (High Peak and Wirksworth districts)
Pegge, Samuel (1896) Two Collections of Derbicisms; ed. by W. W. Skeat & T. Hallam. London: for the English Dialect Society by H. Frowde, Oxford University Press
Braber, N. (2014). 'The concept of identity in the East Midlands'. English Today 30: 3–10.
External links
Far-welter'd: the East Lincolnshire Dialect Society
Dialect words recorded in the Northamptonshire village of Sulgrave
Specimens of the Coalville dialect
Conversation in Coalville about accent, dialect and attitudes to language; BBC Voices; British Library
BBC information page on E. Midlands Dialect
Angelina Jolie baffles Holywood with 'ay up mi duck'
Dolly Parton says 'ay up mi duck' at book scheme launch
Dialect Poems from the English regions
Links to East Midlands dialect in literature
The Dialect Poems of D. H. Lawrence (Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire Coalfield)
Dialect in the East Midlands – BBC East Midlands
English, British
English language in England
Languages of the United Kingdom
Culture in Derbyshire
Leicestershire
Lincolnshire
Rutland
Culture in the East Midlands
Nottinghamshire
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gouthu%20Latchanna
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Gouthu Latchanna
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Sardar Gouthu Latchanna (16 August 1909 – 19 April 2006) was a veteran freedom fighter from India.
Personal life
Dr. Gouthu Latchanna was born in Baruva village of the Sompeta mandal, Srikakulam district in the state of Andhra Pradesh on 16 August 1909. He was the eighth child of Chittaiah, a Goud toddy tapper, and Rajamma. He married Yashodha Devi, who died in 1996.
He died at the age of 98 in Visakhapatnam on 19 April 2006 and is survived by his son Shyama Sunder Sivaji, who is MLA from Sompeta, and two daughters Jhansi and Sushila.
Freedom fighter and people's leader
He was a champion of farmers, backward classes, weaker sections and one of the most prominent leaders of his time. He was arrested at the age of 21 when he participated in the Salt Satyagraha at Palasa. Latchanna also participated in the Quit India Movement. He was conferred the title of sardar for his fearless fight against the British Raj.
He was the born leader of masses, freedom fighter and social reformer. Till Independence of India in 1947, he fought against British. After the end of British Raj, it was on political and social fronts for the sake of farmers, labourers, and the working class. He was also the member of Madras Trade Union Board. He was instrumental in bringing down the government of Prakasham Panthulu on the issues of prohibition.
Freedom fighter
He participated in swaraj movement right from age of 21 with Salt Satyagraha at Palasa, and subsequently was arrested in connection with salt-cotaurs raid at Naupada in April 1930. He was sent to Tekkali and Narasannapeta sub-jails in Srikakulam. After conviction, he was sent to Berhampur jail in Ganjam to undergo rigorous imprisonment for one month. After the Gandhi–Irwin Pact in 1931, he organized Satyagraha camp at Baruva and conducted picketing of toddy, liquor, and foreign cloth shops in Ichchapuram, Sompeta and Tekkali as permitted by the British Government as part of the Gandhi–Irwin Pact. In 1932, he participated in the civil disobedience movement by hoisting the Congress flag at Baruva, was beaten for violating prohibitory orders and was imprisoned in Rajahmundry central jail for six months.
In 1932, after getting released from Rajahmundry jail, having been inspired by Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi's "fast-unto-death" on the issue of untouchability, Latchanna organised "Harijan Seva Sangam" at Baruva. He started a night school in the harijan-cheri, agitated at the district level against untouchability, and took harijans to a drinking water well at Baruva. He and his colleagues were socially boycotted in response.
As a secretary of Andhra Rashtra Congree Committee, he organised a reception at Eluru for the soldiers of Azad Hind Fauz, revived by Subhas Chandra Bose. Latchanna participated in the Quit India Movement in 1942, which ultimately led to violent raids on the Kalingapatnam post office, armoury train derailment in his native village Baruva, no-tax campaign, and raids on srikakulam sub-collector offices. Then Madras government announced the prize of 10,000 rupees for whereabout information of Latchanna, failing to trace him, government issued orders for shoot-at-sight. While underground he was invited for the South Indian Congress leaders meeting at Madras. Latchanna and Killi Appala Naidu started proceeding to Madras. A message about this was sent by Andhra Congress dictator Sampath Kumar through Jayanthi Dharma Teja, which led to the arrest of Latchanna at Rajahmundry in 1943 while he was on his way to Madras. Latchanna was sentenced for one year for possessing seditious literature and sent to Alipuram camp jail while Killi Appala Naidu was sent as a detenue to Tanjavur central jail. Immediately after the release from Alipuram camp jail, he was re-arrested at the gate and sent to Cannanore central jail, Tanjavur central jail and then to Rayavellore jail. He was finally released from Rayavellore jail in October 1945.
Revolutionary influence
With imprisonment in Rajahmundry central jail aftermath the civil disobedience in 1932, he came in contact with revolutionists like Vijay Kumar Sinha (Bijoy Kumar Sinha) and Siva Verma who were life imprisoned in Lahore Conspiracy Case in connection with Bhagat Singh who were also imprisoned in the same block in which Latchanna was imprisoned. Siva Verma and B.J. Sinha were transferred from Cellular Jail to Rajahmundry central prison aftermath the fast-unto-death in demand for separate treatment for political prisoners. Latchanna along with Andhra colleagues like Anne Anjayya and Alluri Satyanarayanaraju used to have long discussions in prison about "Indian Republic Revolutionary Party" organization. They decided to start the similar revolutionary party in Andhra after their release. As Latchanna was released with 6 months conviction before his Andhra colleagues who were convicted for one year, he and his colleagues decided to meet again to start revolutionary party after release too. In the meantime, Latchanna went to Cuttack, Kharagpur, Tatanagar, and Calcutta to meet the "Indian Republic Revolutionary Party" leaders for joining their movement as promised to Siva Verma and B.K. Sinha. By the time he went, all the revolutionary party members were either arrested or went underground. During this time, he fell ill in Tatanagar and was brought back home by his brother from Tatanagar.
Leader for Kisans
Around 1932, after his return from Tatanagar to Baruva, Latchanna participated in the foot-march of Rythu-Rakshana call given by N. G. Ranga from Varanasi of parlakimide estate to Chatrapur. He organized estate wise "Zamindari Rythu" associations, organised indirect no-tax campaign, fought for the abolition of Zamindari system on the plea that Kisans were unable to pay the heavy land revenue levied.
In 1940, he organised All India Kisan Sabha at Palasa which were attended by Pullela Syama Sundara Rao, N. G. Ranga, Sahajanand Saraswati, and Indulal Yagnik. The committee took the long reception of tens and thousands of hill tribals and Kisans with an effigy of Zamindari system and got it burnt publicly. It was followed by public meeting of the All India Kisan Sabha violating the prohibitory orders of then Composite Madras government. Immediately, after the All India Kisan Sabha at Palasa, the "Mandasa Ryots" under the leadership of lady "Veeragunnamma" of Gudari Rajamanipuram, took out a procession with their bullock carts into the forest of the Mandasa Zamindari, cut trees and took them to their villages openly by driving away the estate forest guards. This led to the arrest of Kisans by police under subcollector of Srikakulam. Veeragunnamma died in aftermath police firing when she surrounded sub collector office for the release of Kisans. Latchanna along with Syama Sundara Rao visited Mandasa village to talk with sub collector, but were denied interview. Latchanna visited the village and opened a defence camp at Haripuram to prevent police harassment of farmers. When police were finding it difficult in preparing charge sheet against Kisans, Latchanna was interned at his native village, Baruva. In spite of intensive vigilance, Latchanna toured the villages during nights and exhorted public. This secret assistance forced district collector in ordering the detention of Latchanna, which he escaped by going underground. While underground, he fought the case and got the case struck down from sessions court.
Leader for weaker sections
In 1941 when Rangoon was bombarded during Second World War, Latchanna in spite of being underground, arranged "Burma refugee’s conference" at Narasannapeta, presided by N.G. Ranga to assist the Indian labourers in Burma who fled to their native land, India. As a result of this conference, the then Madras government was obliged to provide relief to the evacuees by constituting "Burma evacuees relief committee".
He was the founder and president of the Andhra State Unit of the Indian National Trade Union Congress, which he continued till 1955. He was the president of Shipyard Labor Union at Visakhapatnam and was instrumental in organizing strikes, getting pay scale hikes and introduction of service grades for the workers.
On the third day after his marriage, he was obliged to proceed to Rangoon to get the Indian labourers released who were in the concentration camps aftermath the assassination of Aung San.
Leader for backward castes
In 1948, he presided over first Andhra backward classes conference at Guntur and decided to achieve legitimate rights and privileges embodied in the Constitution of India covering reservations and directives for their social, economical, and education development. Consequently, he took statewide tours and organized district backward classes associations, which made him designated as champion of backward classes and was considered one of the prominent leaders of his time. In 1957 after the formation of united Andhra Pradesh, chief justice of Andhra Pradesh high court struck down the list of Other Backward Classes approved by government of Andhra Pradesh acting on a private complaint. Latchanna started a statewide agitation for the restoration of list of Other Backward Classes, a statutory obligation under the Articles 15(4) and 16(4) of the Constitution of India. List of Other Backward Classes were restored when Damodaram Sanjivayya became chief minister of Andhra Pradesh. High Court again struck down the list of Other Backward Classes for including Kapu community in the Other Backward Classes. Latchanna again, started statewide agitation and demanded the government of Andhra Pradesh to renew the publication of backward classes list by omitting Kapu. The case finally went to Supreme Court of India to be represented by advocate P. Shiv Shankar on behalf of government along with an advocate appointed by Latchanna on behalf of Andhra Pradesh backward classes association. Supreme Court of India gave a favourable judgement asking the government of Andhra Pradesh to publish the list of backward classes caste wise establishing their social and economical backwardness. In consequence, the Government of Andhra Pradesh appointed the "Ananta Raman Commission" which recommended the list of Backward Classes by dividing them into 4 groups as A, B, C & D.
After N. T. Rama Rao came to power in Andhra Pradesh, when he cancelled Backward Classes scholarship grants against his election manifesto including cancellations of licenses of the toddy tappers co-operative societies for public auctions, Latchanna took serious objection and did satyagraha on behalf of the backward classes students and toddy tappers co-operative societies for cancelling public auctions. During N. T. Rama Rao regime with statewide agitations, Latchanna was arrested more than 14 times forcing him to take fast-unto-death to accomplish the demands. After Nadendla Bhaskara Rao overthrown N. T. Rama Rao regime through coupe, Nadendla Bhaskara Rao fulfilled the demands of Latchanna.
From 1984, disgusted with opportunistic politics of different political parties, Latchanna mostly concentrated in raising awareness among oppressed classes using his monthly publication "Bahujana". He tried to join Bahujan Samaj Party under the leadership of Kanshiram for the upliftment of Schedule Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Backward Classes. He announced his joining in Bahujan Samaj Party in 1994 at Hyderabad, but couldn't join the Bahujan Samaj Party due to certain ideological differences which were against backward classes of Andhra Pradesh, as he felt, Kanshiram was trying to exploit backward classes for only votes.
Political life
He was member of Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly for 35 years from Sompeta constituency between 1948–83 and once member of Andhra Pradesh Legislative Council. Latchanna had won both the Lok Sabha and Assembly elections from Srikakulam district in 1967. But he resigned his Lok Sabha membership to facilitate the election of his political mentor late N.G. Ranga. He was first elected to Assembly in 1948 from Visakhapatnam on labour ticket and served as Minister for Agriculture and Labour. He left Congress party in 1951 and was arrested during emergency in 1975 imposed by then prime minister Smt. Indira Gandhi. He later joined Lok Dal party and then to Janata Dal party under the leadership of former prime ministers Charan Singh and Vishwanath Pratap Singh respectively.
He initially got elected as president of then Ganjam district Congress Committee. He became member of Andhra Rashtra Congress Committee and All India Congress Committee from 1934 to 1951. From 1946 to 1951, he was elected as joint secretary of Andhra Rashtra Congress Committee. As secretary of Andhra Congress Sevadal, he conducted Congress Sevadal Officer's Training Camp for both men and women at Palasa in Srikakulam.
During 1946 Madras assembly elections, he was denied congress ticket against the wishes of congress workers on the pretext of being violent when underground. Instead, Latchanna made Rokkam Rammurthy Naidu get the nomination and played a decisive role in getting him elected. When
Latchanna was in Rangoon, Babu Rajendra Prasad sent a telegram to Latchanna to file nomination for Visakhapatnam by-election from Indian National Congress in 1948. He was elected to Madras assembly defeating both communist and socialist candidates.
In 1951, he along with Tanguturi Prakasam and N.G. Ranga resigned Congress and organised Hyderabad State Praja Party which was further split into Krishikar Lok Party for peasants with N.G. Ranga as the president and Latchanna as the secretary. In 1952 first General elections of independent India, Latchanna got elected to Madras assembly along with 11 more members in the composite Visakhapatnam district on Krishikar Lok Party ticket by defeating congress candidate. He then became, the leader of Krishikar Lok Party in Madras assembly.
Agitation for Andhra statehood
Gouthu Latchanna was actively involved in the separate statehood for Andhra through separation from composite Madras from 1953. When government of India constituted a partition committee under C.M. Trivedi, he represented from Krishikar Lok Party, T. Viswanadham from Praja Party and Sanjeeva Reddy from Congress ultimately reached its climax with fast-unto-death sacrifice of Potti Sriramulu. On 1 October 1953 Andhra state was formed with Tanguturi Prakasam as chief minister who rejoined Congress from Praja Party. Latchanna from Krishikar Lok Party joined the cabinet of Tanguturi Prakasam on 11 November 1953 to get the working majority in assembly with Kurnool as capital. Latchanna resigned from Tanguturi Prakasam on issue of state capital in 1954.
Agitation for Toddy Tapper Cooperative Societies
In 1954, with the enactment of Prohibition Act, the excise department harassed lakhs of toddy tappers who were thrown out of employment. Latchanna organised and led the tappers satyagraha to secure rehabilitation for the unemployed tappers. More than 6000 toddy tappers court arrested and sent to jail. Yashodadevi, wife of
Latchanna did satyagraha in Guntur with 25,000 tappers. Finally, when Latchanna passed no-confidence motion against Tanguturi Prakasam government, the government fell leading to mid-term elections. Tanguturi Prakasam, however had offered a ministerial berth with full power, was categorically rejected by Latchanna. With mid-term elections on hand, prime minister and president of Congress, Jawaharlal Nehru convinced N. G. Ranga, president of Krishikar Lok Party to merge with Congress to fight Combined Communist party. That merger was categorically rejected by Latchanna. Finally when Jawaharlal Nehru agreed to rehabilitate toddy tappers with their conventional tapping on co-operative basis and written agreement offer to oppose Congress in Visakhapatnam district, merger of Krishikar Lok Party in Congress to create "United Congress Front" had materialised.
After mid-term elections, "United Congress Front" defeated communists successfully. Latchanna joined the cabinet of Bezawada Gopala Reddy.
Formation of Andhra Pradesh state
After Hyderabad State was annexed into the Indian union of states, Telugu speaking districts of Telangana were merged into Andhra state to be called Andhra Pradesh on 1 November 1956. Latchanna as the minister of former Andhra state, was the signatory of Gentlemen's agreement to safeguard the interests and prevent discrimination against Telangana in 1956. Owing to the personal differences with Neelam Sanjiva Reddy, he was not taken into cabinet in the newly formed Andhra Pradesh state.
Agitation for Telangana statehood
Latchanna took an active part in the agitation for the separate statehood of Telangana for which intensive Criminal Investigation Department team monitoring was initiated on him by the state along with Marri Chenna Reddy and Mallikarjun Goud. When the agitation took a serious and violent turn, prime minister of India, Indira Gandhi visited Hyderabad and succeeded in making Marri Chenna Reddy call off the agitation.
Later, Latchanna took active part in the creation of "Andhra Pradesh Democratic Front" along with Congress dissident Marri Chenna Reddy and socialist leader P.V.G.Raju. In 1958, when C. Rajagopalachari, president of Swatantra Party visited Hyderabad, Latchanna joined Swatantra Party by dissolving "Andhra Pradesh Democratic Front". Latchanna was taken into executive committee and parliamentary board of the Swatantra Party as vice-president in 1959. In 1962, Latchanna started state wise agitation against enactment of 100% enhancement of land revenue and filed a writ petition in high court of Andhra Pradesh leading to the declaration as null and void by the high court.
Swatantra Party and Democratic Front
In 1967 general elections, Swatantra Party won 27 MLAs and 3 Lok Sabha seats. 3 MLAs defected and 1 joined in as an associate member. Swatantra Party forged an alliance with "Jana Congress Party" to form "Democratic Front". This "Democratic Front" was recognized as official opposition party in state assembly led by, Latchanna. Latchanna got elected from both Sompeta assembly and Srikakulam parliamentary constituency on Swatantra Party ticket. As N.G. Ranga lost his election from Chittoor, Latchanna resigned Srikakulam parliamentary seat to make N.G. Ranga elected to Lok Sabha while Latchanna became the opposition leader in assembly of Andhra
Pradesh, as well as state president of Swatantra Party.
Latchanna, as opposition leader in assembly, launched statewide agitation for the withdrawal of
"Land Revenue Enhancement Act 1967" and for abolition of "Land Revenue" altogether. Swatantra party led by G. Latchanna along with P. Rajagopal Naidu and Bharati Devi in Andhra Pradesh state assembly opposed.
Land Ceiling Bill.
Additional Land Revenue Assessment Bill.
Agricultural Marketing Bill which makes selling of agriculture commodities by peasants as crime.
Imposition of compulsory levy of food grains
Controls on food grains
Banning of movement of food grains to and from Belt areas on the borders of neighboring states
Compulsory Levies on peasants for repairing water sources.
Collection of contributions and loans from poor peasants for the so-called plan schemes like defence funds and national savings schemes.
Inclusion of dry lands receiving water since 10 years under irrigation sources in their ayacut permanently and succeeded in making the government accept the proposal.
In regard to demand for the splitting up of Joint Pattas as and when peasants set up separate family units. They made the Government to come with a bill for the purpose and got it passed.
They fought for the distribution of non-arable lands to the landless poor.
They forced the government to agree to let Sugar crop factories elect their directors instead of nominating them.
They achieved the abolition of "Tol Gates" in Telangana.
They made the government agree to the payment of arrears to the Pattadars in Telangana for tapping toddy trees.
They pleaded for continuation of educational concessions to all the backward classes and also for their classification as per their caste.
Agitation for Jai Andhra Movement
In 1972, Latchanna took a leading role in the Jai Andhra movement started by students of Andhra University demanding the division of Andhra Pradesh into old Andhra state and Telangana state on the issue of "Mulkhi" rules. He was imprisoned in Mushirabad central jail and released in 1973.
Emergency in India
In 1975, following the State Emergency Indira Gandhi, Latchanna was arrested on the same night in Srikalahasti where he was attending Visakhapatnam central jail and was released in 1977 after the withdrawal of Emergency. Upon release, he went to New Delhi to attend all opposition parties conference convened and presided by Jaya Prakash Narayan, the founder of Janata Party.
In 1977 general elections, Latchanna was elected to the Andhra Pradesh assembly from Janata Party ticket and was recognised officially, as the opposition leader, as Janata Legislature Party was the main opposition party in the Andhra Pradesh assembly. After the demise of C. Rajagopalachari, Swatantra Party was merged into Bharatiya Lok Dal headed by Charan Singh. Latchanna was elected as the president of Andhra Pradesh state Lok Dal. Lok Dal candidates including Latchanna suffered with film actor N. T. Rama Rao wave of Telugu Desam Party in 1983 general elections. Latchanna lost the elections for the first time strangely not to Telugu Desam Party candidate, but instead to Congress candidate
Latchanna was elected to assembly continuously from 1952 till 1983 by losing once in 1983. During this time, he was elected to Legislative Council of Andhra Pradesh. During mid-term elections for Sompeta, Telugu Desam Party gave the ticket to Latchanna son, Gouthu Shyam Sunder Shivaji. Latchanna too filed the nomination as independent candidate, but withdrew in last with major differences between son and Latchanna. When Telugu Desam Party denied ticket to Gouthu Shivaji in 1989 elections, Latchanna supported his son as independent and got him elected
successfully.
Honour
Thotapalli Barrage has been named after him by the Andhra Pradesh Government.
Gouthu Latchanna Cultural Complex will be constructed by the Andhra Pradesh Government.
Sardar Gouthu Latchanna Pratibha Puraskaramulu, an award on his name to be given every year to bright and intelligent students by Sree Koundinya Seva Samiti
Sardar Gowthu Latchanna Kala Peetham, an award on his name to honour and recognise the arts.
In 1997, Andhra University of Visakhapatnam honoured him Doctorate.
In 1999, Nagarjuna University of Guntur honoured him with a Doctorate.
Statues for Sardar Gouthu Latchana.
Testimonials
– Atal Bihari Vajpayee, Former Prime Minister of India, New Delhi, 8 August 1998.
– P. V. Narasimha Rao, Former Prime Minister of India, New Delhi, 1992.
– Prof. N. G. Ranga.
Autobiography
Naa Jeevitam (Autobiography) in Telugu written by Gouthu Latchanna, 2001.
References
http://glow-india.org
https://web.archive.org/web/20071020181722/http://www.goudsinfo.com/famous-Gouthu.htm
“Latchanna was a people’s leader”
సర్దార్ గౌతు లచ్చన్న
Indian independence activists from Andhra Pradesh
Telugu politicians
1909 births
2006 deaths
Leaders of the Opposition in the Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly
People from Srikakulam district
Indians imprisoned during the Emergency (India)
People from Uttarandhra
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Believe%20%28Cher%20song%29
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Believe (Cher song)
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"Believe" is a song by the American singer and actress Cher from her 22nd studio album, Believe. It was released as the album's lead single on October 19, 1998, by Warner Bros. Records. After circulating for months, a demo written by Brian Higgins, Matthew Gray, Stuart McLennen and Timothy Powell, was submitted to Warner's chairman Rob Dickins, while he was scouting for songs to include on Cher's new album. Aside from the chorus, Dickins was not impressed by the track so he enlisted two more writers, Steve Torch and Paul Barry in order to complete it. Cher also later did some adjustments herself to the lyrics but did not get a songwriting credit. Recording took place at Dreamhouse Studio in West London, while production was in charge of Mark Taylor and Brian Rawling.
"Believe" is an upbeat dance-pop and electropop song and represents a complete musical departure from Cher's previous efforts. It featured a pioneering use of the audio processing software Auto-Tune to distort the singer's vocals, which was widely imitated and became known as the "Cher effect". The song's lyrics describe empowerment and self-sufficiency after a painful breakup. "Believe" has been met with appreciation ever since its release; music critics have praised, in particular, its production and catchiness, with some having deemed it as a highlight from the album. The song has been listed as one of Cher's most important releases. At the 42nd Annual Grammy Awards the song was nominated for Record of the Year and Best Dance Recording, winning the latter.
"Believe" was a commercial success worldwide, topping the record charts in over 23 countries and selling over 11 million copies; it is Cher's most successful single to date, and one of the best-selling singles in music history. "Believe" was the biggest-selling song of 1998 in the United Kingdom, and remains the highest-selling single by a solo female artist. In the United States, it was Cher's fifth number-one single on the Billboard Hot 100 chart, and it topped the Year-End Hot 100 singles of 1999. The accompanying music video (directed by Nigel Dick) was nominated for Best Dance Video at the 1999 MTV Video Music Awards.
Cher has performed the song on many occasions, including the 1999 Brit Awards, the Sanremo Music Festival, as well as on several talk shows and variety programs (in America and abroad). It has since become a fan favorite, and a staple in the setlist of her concert tours. "Believe" has been covered by numerous artists, and it's also been sung or referenced in several feature films and scripted TV shows. Scholars and academics noted the way in which Cher was able to re-invent herself, and yet stay true to her image, while still being able to release music that was fresh and contemporary amidst the more “teen pop”-based music of the period. They also credited the song for restoring Cher's social popularity and further cementing her position as a pop culture icon. "Believe" earned Cher a place in the Guinness Book of World Records, and Rolling Stone listed it among the "500 Greatest Songs of All Time".
Writing
A demo of "Believe", written by Brian Higgins, Matthew Gray, Stuart McLennen and Timothy Powell, circulated at Warner Records for months. According to producer Mark Taylor, "everyone loved the chorus but not the rest of the song". Warner chairman Rob Dickins asked the production house Dreamhouse to work on it; their goal was to make a dance record that would not alienate Cher fans. Two more writers, Steve Torch and Paul Barry, joined and completed a version that Dickens and Cher were happy with."
Though she is not credited as a songwriter, Cher said she contributed the lines 'I need time to move on, I need love to feel strong / 'Cause I've had time to think it through and maybe I'm too good for you". According to Cher, "I was singing [the song] in the bathtub, and it seemed to me the second verse was too whiny. It kind of pissed me off, so I changed it. I toughened it up a bit." In a 2023 interview, Cher later added on that, saying she wished she had asked for writing credits for the song.
Recording
"Believe" was recorded in mid-1998 in Kingston upon Thames, London, at the Dreamhouse studio operated by Metro Productions. It was assembled with Cubase VST on an early model Power Macintosh G3, with synthesizers including a Clavia Nord Rack and an Oberheim Matrix 1000. Cher's vocals were recorded on three TASCAM DA-88 digital audio recorders with a Neumann U67 microphone.
Cher's vocals were processed using the pitch correction software Auto-Tune. Auto-Tune was designed to be used subtly to correct sharp or flat notes in vocal performances; however, Taylor used extreme settings to create unnaturally rapid corrections, thereby removing portamento, the natural slide between pitches in singing. Taylor said it was "the most nerve-wracking part of the project", as he was not sure how Cher would react. She approved and insisted the effect remain when Warner wanted it removed.
In an attempt to protect their method, the producers initially claimed it was achieved using a vocoder. The effect was widely imitated and became known as the "Cher effect".
Composition
"Believe" is a eurodance, eurohouse, dance-pop and electropop song. It contains uncredited samples of "Prologue" & "Epilogue" performed by the Electric Light Orchestra. The track was recorded in the key of F major with a tempo of 133 beats per minute. The song follows a chord progression of F–C–Gm–B–F–Am7–Gm–Dm, and Cher's vocal range spans from the low note of F3 to the high note of C5.
Critical reception
Upon the release, Chuck Taylor from Billboard said that it is "the best darn thing that Cher has recorded in years". He added, "Some songs are so natural, so comfortably sung, that you wonder that somebody didn't think them up decades before. With this, you'll be whirling around the floor, tapping hard on the accelerator to "Believe," a simple ode to those feelings that we all search out and cling to. Cher is just a prize here; even her hardy detractors will be fighting the beat on this one." Music critic Robert Christgau highlighted "Believe" as the best song on the album. A reviewer from Entertainment Weekly described the song as "poptronica glaze, the soon-to-be club fave..." and noted Cher's voice as "unmistakable". Deborah Wilker from Knight Ridder said that "her electronically altered vocal" on "Believe" "is like nothing she's ever done."
Knight Ridder also described the song as "present-tense disco, with Cher an anthemic, Madonna manqué." New York Daily News described the song as a "club track so caffeinated, it not only microwaved her cold career to scorching-hot but gave dance music its biggest hit since the days of disco." They also noted the song's "killer hook and amazing beat." Neil Strauss from The New York Times wrote that "the verses are rich and bittersweet, with the added gimmick of breaking up Cher's voice through an effect that makes her sound robotic. And the choruses are catchy and uplifting, with Cher wailing, "Do you believe in life after love?" All of it bounces over a bed of 80s-style electronic pop. It is a song with a universal theme—a woman trying to convince herself that she can survive a breakup". Another editor, Jim Sullivan, noted the track as a "hooky, defiant, beat-fest of a song".
Retrospective response
In 2019, Bill Lamb from About.com declared it as a "perfect piece of dance-pop", including it in his list of "Top 10 Pop Songs of 1999". AllMusic editor Joe Viglione called "Believe" a "pop masterpiece, one of the few songs to be able to break through the impenetrable wall of late 1990s fragmented radio to permeate the consciousness of the world at large." Another editor, Michael Gallucci, gave a lukewarm review, writing that the Believe album is an "endless, and personality-free, thump session". Stopera and Galindo from BuzzFeed noted it as "iconic", featuring it in their "The 101 Greatest Dance Songs of the '90s" in 2017. Damon Albarn, frontman of the bands Blur and Gorillaz, called the song "brilliant".
In 2014, Tom Ewing from Freaky Trigger wrote that "Believe" "is a record in the "I Will Survive" mode of embattled romantic defiance – a song to make people who've lost out in love feel like they're the winners." He added that "it's remarkable that it took someone until 1998 to come up with "do you believe in life after love?", and perhaps even more remarkable that it wasn't Jim Steinman, but the genius of the song is how aggressive and righteous Cher makes it sound." Bob Waliszewski of Plugged In said that Cher "musters self-confidence to deal with a failed romance". In 2018, Dave Fawbert from ShortList described "Believe" as a "really great pop song with, as ever, an absolute powerhouse vocal performance from Cher".
Chart performance
The song, released as the album's lead single on October 19, 1998, peaked at number one in 21 countries worldwide. It debuted at number 99 on the Billboard Hot 100 on December 19, 1998. On January 23, 1999, it reached the top 40, and then topped the chart on March 13, making Cher—aged 52 at the time, the oldest female artist to achieve this feat (excluding Christmas/holiday-themed songs like Mariah Carey's "All I Want for Christmas Is You", in which Carey was 53 when her song last topped the chart.) Cher also set the record for the longest gap between number-one singles on the Hot 100; there was a gap of 33 years and 7 months between her singles "I Got You Babe" and "Believe" reaching number one. "Believe" was ranked as the number-one song of 1999 by Billboard on both the Billboard Hot 100 and Hot Dance Club Play charts, and became the biggest single of her entire career. "Believe" became Cher's 17th, and last, top-10 hit in the US.
In the United Kingdom, "Believe" debuted atop the UK Singles Chart on October 25, 1998—for the week ending October 31, 1998—during a week in which the top five singles were all new entries, a first for the chart (not counting the first ever chart). The song became Cher's fourth number one in the UK, and remained at the top of the chart for seven consecutive weeks. "Believe" was Britain's biggest-selling song of 1998, and won its writers three Ivor Novello Awards: Best Selling UK Single, Best Song Musically and Lyrically, and International Hit of the Year, respectively, at the 1999 ceremony. On July 30, 2021, "Believe" was certified Quadruple Platinum by the British Phonographic Industry. As of October 2017, the song has sold 1,830,000 copies in Britain, making it the biggest-selling song by a female artist on the UK Singles Chart. At 52 years old, Cher was the eldest female artist to top the UK charts, a record that has since been broken by Kate Bush, who was 63 when "Running Up That Hill" re-entered the charts and reached number one.
The success of the song not only expanded through each country's singles chart, but also most countries' dance charts. In the United States "Believe" spent 15 weeks on the U.S. Hot Dance Club Play chart, five of those weeks at number one, and 22 weeks on the European Hot Dance Charts. "Believe" also set a record in 1999 after spending 21 weeks in the top spot of the Billboard Hot Dance Singles Sales chart, it was still in the top ten even one year after its entry on the chart. On October 13, 2008, the song was voted number 10 on Australian VH1's Top 10 Number One Pop Songs countdown. "Believe" was nominated for Record of the Year and Best Dance Recording at 42nd Grammy Awards, the latter of which it won. Peter Rauhofer (Club 69) won the Grammy Award in 2000 for Best Remixer of the Year for his remix of Cher's "Believe".
Music video
The official music video for "Believe", directed by Nigel Dick, features Cher in a nightclub in a double role as a singer on stage while wearing a glowing headdress and as a supernatural being in a cage (with auto-tuned voice) surrounded by many people to whom she is giving advice. The video largely revolves around a woman who is in the club looking for her boyfriend and is heartbroken when she sees him with another woman. The version on The Very Best of Cher: The Video Hits Collection is slightly different from the previous version (the version that is also included on the Mallay Believe Bonus VCD) with additional scenes towards the end that were not in the original video. There are also two 'rough' versions of the video as the song was released in Europe before a video was completed. The first is a compilation of scenes from the videos of Cher's previous singles "One by One" and "Walking in Memphis" and the second includes a brief scene of the "Believe" video where Cher sings the chorus while the rest of the video is composed of scenes from "One by One".
Three official remix videos exist for this song. Two of the remix videos were created by Dan-O-Rama in 1999. Both follow different concepts from the original unmixed video. Instead of showing the significance of the lyrics the videos mostly show Cher with different colored backgrounds and people dancing. The two remixes used for these videos were the Almighty Definitive Mix and the Club 69 Phunk Club Mix. The third video entitled Wayne G. Remix was released by Warner Bros. and the concept is similar to the Club 69 Phunk Club Mix video.
Billboard music critic Chuck Taylor in March 1999 graded the video a "C", praising Cher's appearance and hairstyle but criticizing "an unnecessary subplot about a few kids stalking each other."
Live performances
Cher performed the song during the Do You Believe?, The Farewell Tour, Cher at the Colosseum and the Dressed to Kill Tour. While she would lip-sync the entire song on various television programs, she would only lip-sync the synthesized verses when performing on her Believe and Farewell tours, the Colosseum shows and on the 2002 edition of VH1 Divas Live. Since 1999, the song has been the encore to all of Cher's concerts until her 2014 Dressed to Kill Tour, where the encore is the ballad "I Hope You Find It", a second single from her 25th studio album Closer to the Truth. It returned as the encore at her Classic Cher (2017-2020) shows and stayed in that place for the Here We Go Again Tour (2018-2020) as well.
Legacy
VH1 placed "Believe" at number 60 in their list of 100 Greatest Dance Songs in 2000 and at number 74 in their list of 100 Greatest Songs of the 90s in 2007. In 2007, Rolling Stone placed "Believe" at No. 10 in their list of the "20 Most Annoying Songs" In 2020, British national newspaper The Guardian ranked "Believe" as the 83rd greatest UK number one. "Believe" was placed on the 2021 revised list of Rolling Stones "500 Greatest Songs of All Time".
In July 2020, a digital publication The Pudding carried out a study on the most iconic songs from the '90s and songs that are most known by Millennials and the people of Generation Z. "Believe" was the sixth song with the highest recognisability rate. In October 2023, Billboard ranked it among the "500 Best Pop Songs of All Time".
Accolades
(*) indicates the list is unordered.
Other versions
In May 2012 after successfully auditioning for The X Factor UK, Ella Henderson, then 16 years old, performed a ballad arrangement of "Believe" after the Bootcamp round, reducing guest judge Nicole Scherzinger to tears. The cover, which was based on Adam Lambert's version performed on American Idol in 2009, was so popular for its slow tempo, emotional interpretation that Henderson released an acoustic performance in 2013 on YouTube and performed it at the National Television Awards on January 23, 2013. Henderson also included a studio version of the cover on a deluxe edition of her debut album "Chapter One" as part of a pre-order EP "Chapter One Sessions".
In December 2018 Lambert performed his ballad version of "Believe" again in honor of Cher during the 41st annual Kennedy Center Honors; the performance was highly acclaimed, with Cher stating that she was "at a loss for words" and was moved to tears. On December 6, 2019, Lambert released a studio version of his version of "Believe" which reached number 23 on the Billboard Digital Song Sales chart on December 21, 2019.
Track listings
US maxi-CD single "Believe" (album version) – 3:59
"Believe" (Phat 'N' Phunky club mix) – 7:42
"Believe" (Club 69 Phunk club mix) – 8:55
"Believe" (Almighty Definitive Mix) – 7:36
"Believe" (Xenomania Mad Tim and the Mekon club mix) – 9:15
"Believe" (Club 69 Future Anthem Mix) – 9:20
"Believe" (Grip's Heartbroken Mix) – 9:12
"Believe" (Club 69 Future Anthem Dub) – 7:13
"Believe" (Club 69 Phunk Dub) – 7:04
"Believe" (Phat 'N' Phunky "After Luv" Dub) – 6:22
US 7-inch, CD and cassette single, UK cassette single "Believe" (album version) – 3:59
"Believe" (Xenomania Mix) – 4:20
European CD1 "Believe" – 3:58
"Believe" (Almighty Definitive Mix) – 7:35
"Believe" (Xenomania Mix) – 4:20
European CD2 "Believe" – 3:58
"Believe" (Grip's Heartbroken Mix) – 9:12
"Believe" (Club 69 Future Mix) – 6:50
European two-track CD single "Believe" – 3:58
"Believe" (Grip's Heartbroken Mix) – 9:12
Australian maxi-CD single'''
"Believe" (Phat 'N' Phunky club mix) – 7:44
"Believe" (Xenomania Mad Tim and the Mekon club mix) – 9:16
"Believe" (Club 69 Phunk club mix) – 6:50
"Believe" (Club 69 Future Anthem Mix) – 9:24
"Believe" (album version) – 3:58
Credits and personnel
Credits are adapted from the Believe'' album liner notes.
Cher – vocals
Mark Taylor – producer, arranger, programming, keyboards
Brian Rawling – production
Brian Higgins – composition
Stuart McLennen – composition
Paul Barry – composition
Steven Torch – composition
Matthew Gray – composition
Timothy Powell – composition
Gypsyland – background vocals, guitar
Robin Smith – arranger
Adam Phillips – additional guitars
Ryan Art – designer
Michael Lavine – cover art photographer
Rob Dickins – executive production
Charts
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Decade-end charts
All-time charts
Certifications and sales
Release history
See also
List of number-one singles in Australia during the 1990s
List of Ultratop 50 number-one hits of 1998 (Belgium)
List of Ultratop 40 number-one hits of 1999 (Belgium)
List of number-one singles of 1999 (Canada)
List of number-one hits of 1998 (Denmark)
List of number-one hits of 1999 (Denmark)
List of European number-one hits of 1998
List of European number-one hits of 1999
List of number-one singles of 1999 (France)
List of number-one hits of 1998 (Germany)
List of number-one hits of 1998 (Italy)
List of number-one hits of 1999 (Italy)
List of number-one singles of 1999 (Netherlands)
List of number-one singles of 1998 (Norway)
List of number-one singles of 1998 (Spain)
List of number-one singles of 1999 (Spain)
List of number-one singles of 2005 (Sweden)
List of number-one singles of the 1990s (Switzerland)
List of UK Singles Chart number ones of the 1990s
List of Billboard Hot 100 number-one singles of 1999
List of number-one dance singles of 1998 (U.S.)
List of number-one dance singles of 1999 (U.S.)
References
External links
About Cher on the official Cher site (mentions "Believe")
1998 singles
1998 songs
Billboard Hot 100 number-one singles
Cher songs
Dutch Top 40 number-one singles
European Hot 100 Singles number-one singles
Grammy Award for Best Dance Recording
Grammy Award for Best Remixed Recording, Non-Classical
Irish Singles Chart number-one singles
Music videos directed by Nigel Dick
Number-one singles in Australia
Number-one singles in Denmark
Number-one singles in Germany
Number-one singles in Greece
Number-one singles in Hungary
Number-one singles in Italy
Number-one singles in New Zealand
Number-one singles in Norway
Number-one singles in Scotland
Number-one singles in Spain
Number-one singles in Sweden
Number-one singles in Switzerland
RPM Top Singles number-one singles
SNEP Top Singles number-one singles
Song recordings produced by Brian Rawling
Song recordings produced by Mark Taylor (record producer)
Songs written by Brian Higgins (producer)
Songs written by Paul Barry (songwriter)
Songs written by Steve Torch
Songs written by Tim Powell (producer)
UK Singles Chart number-one singles
Ultratop 50 Singles (Flanders) number-one singles
Ultratop 50 Singles (Wallonia) number-one singles
Warner Records singles
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sindi%20Watts
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Sindi Watts
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Sindi Watts (also Parker) is a fictional character from the Australian soap opera Neighbours, played by Marisa Warrington. She made her first appearance during the episode broadcast on 19 July 2002. Sindi was initially a recurring character, before she was promoted to the regular cast. Her storylines often focused on her romantic relationships, including her affair with Rocco Cammeniti (Robert Forza) and marriage to Stuart Parker (Blair McDonough). She also attempted to break up Toadfish Rebecchi (Ryan Moloney) and Dee Bliss (Madeleine West), and briefly became a lapdancer to raise much needed money.
The character was written out in May 2005 and she departed on 26 August 2005. In January 2017, it was announced that Warrington had reprised her role, and Sindi returned on 7 February. She was revealed to be involved in a scam with Andrea Somers (Madeleine West). The following year saw the character make a brief appearance on 12 February 2018, before returning for a longer guest stint from 26 June until 2 August 2018.
Development
Characterisation
Warrington joined the cast in 2002 and she described her character as "one-part stalker, one-part lunatic." Warrington told the BBC that she enjoyed playing the "evil" Sindi that tried to break up Toadfish Rebecchi (Ryan Moloney) and Dee Bliss (Madeleine West). But she later admitted that she initially found her character annoying, stating "She rubbed people up the wrong way, and I didn't like her!" The writers changed Sindi's persona for her 2003 reintroduction. She became a lot nicer and more fun. Warrington said that Sindi was also more "dippy", adding "the current Sindi character is incredibly sweet and honest, she has a lot of good points."
Relationships
Jack Scully (Jay Bunyan) becomes interested in Sindi and he goes to Toadie for advice on how to win her over. However, Toadie is resentful of Jack, as he likes Sindi too. Toadie struggles to admit to himself that he has feelings for Sindi because he is in mourning for his late wife, Dee. Warrington explained the situation, "This is the point at which Toadie starts to become interested in Sindi, but just because he's not ready to reveal his feelings, he doesn't want anyone else to go after her either. There's a nice little love triangle that develops." Sindi and Toadie begin a brief relationship, but they break up because Toadie still loves Dee.
Sindi leaves town for a while, but when she returns she tells Lyn Scully (Janet Andrewartha) that she is in a relationship with a married man. She explains that she has been trying to stop it, but she has trouble going through with it. Lyn disapproves, but she supports Sindi. When Sindi's feelings for Toadie resurface, she decides to end her relationship with the man she calls "Tiny." It is then revealed that Sindi is having an affair with criminal Rocco Cammeniti (Robert Forza). Warrington admitted that Sindi's friends would be shocked to learn who she is dating. Toadie realises that he cares deeply for Sindi and she tries again to break off her relationship with Rocco. However, she is left stunned when Rocco tells her that he has left his wife and gives her an engagement ring. Warrington said, "Sindi can't admit to Rocco that she's in love with someone else, and she's also worried that something will happen to Toadie if she tells Rocco who she is in love with. So she uses the excuse that she doesn't want to be Rocco's secret 'other woman' anymore." However, Rocco then chooses that moment to give Sindi an engagement ring, which she has to accept. She later tells Toadie that she loves him and they agree to start their relationship again. Sindi finally manages to end her relationship with Rocco to start a new life with Toadie, but she is unaware that Rocco has hired someone to spy on her. Rocco is not happy when he is given photos of Sindi and Toadie together, and Warrington commented that he "goes a bit crazy" as he believes Sindi is his girl. When she was asked what it was like to date someone like Rocco, who is nearly twice her age, Warrington replied "Robert, who plays Rocco is a lovely guy, so it was fine. However, I must confess, when I was about 24 I briefly dated a man who was in his 40s and I have to say that it did look a bit wrong! He looked like my uncle!"
When her boyfriend, Stuart Parker (Blair McDonough), is left blind following a fire, Sindi turns to exotic dancing to raise money. Warrington explained that Sindi feel responsible for Stuart's condition because he went into the fire to rescue her. She also likes that he is now dependent on her, as she is a needy person and she loves him. Sindi has no choice but to return to her previous profession, as other career prospects are non-existent, but she keeps it a secret. Of this, Warrington told Inside Soap'''s Jason Herbison: "Sindi goes back to exotic dancing – something she always swore she would never do again. She hates it and is so ashamed that she doesn't tell anyone. But that's the kind of character Sindi is. She's a doormat!" At the end of a shift, Sindi is offered the chance to make more money by prostituting herself. Warrington said that although Sindi says no, she is tempted by the money. The character's resolve is tested when Stuart starts seeing colours and a specialist informs him that surgery would cost $50,000. Sindi knows how they can get the money and seriously considers turning to prostitution. Warrington said that Sindi wants to be with Stuart forever, so she knows that she would be doing it for their future.
Stuart and Sindi became engaged in 2005 and they begin planning for their wedding. However, Toadie becomes suspicious that something is wrong with Sindi and that she "may not be all she's cracked up to be." He confronts her at the wedding ceremony, but Stuart punches him and he and Sindi marry.
Departure
In May 2005, it was announced that Warrington's character would be written out of the show in a "surprise shake-up" of the cast. Actors Kevin Harrington (David Bishop) and Marcella Russo (Liljana Bishop) were also told their contracts were not being renewed, as producers sought actors to form a new family for the show. Warrington had 18 months left on her contract and expressed her disappointment at leaving the show, after she worked on making her character "more appealing" to conservative viewers.
Returns
On 24 January 2017, Daniel Kilkelly of Digital Spy announced that Warrington had reprised her role and would be returning to Neighbours for a guest stint from 7 February. Sindi's return was part of a storyline surrounding the reappearance of Dee Bliss. After arriving in Erinsborough, Sindi tells Toadie that she heard the news about Dee being alive, so she had to come and see for herself. Toadie's wife Sonya Rebecchi (Eve Morey) is suspicious of Sindi, and Morey stated "Sonya finds it all a bit strange – first there was Dee, now Sindi! Why have they both turned up now? Also Dee makes out that the two of them are friends, but from what Toadie has told Sonya, Dee and Sindi were definitely not mates!"
The woman claiming to be Dee is revealed to be a con artist named Andrea Somers (West), and it soon emerges that Sindi is her accomplice. Scenes between the two characters explained that Sindi met Andrea when they worked at a catering kitchen together and she told her that she looked like Dee Bliss. They then came up with a plan to claim money from the Bliss family estate, with Sindi asking for $20,000 in exchange for her help. Sindi later poses as Dee's saviour Emily on the phone to the police, leading her to increase her share of the money to $40,000.
Warrington reprised the role again, along with several other returning cast members, for a feature-length special episode, which first aired on 12 February 2018. The episode centres on a belated 21st birthday party for Toadie. As Toadie leaves his party, he is surprised to meet a "bitter" Sindi, who reveals that Andrea is back in Australia. She then gives Toadie a phone number for Andrea. Sindi returned for a guest stint from 26 June, until 2 August 2018.
Storylines
2002–2005
Sindi meets Darcy Tyler (Mark Raffety) at Lassiter's and there is an attraction between them. Darcy later treats Sindi's hurt ankle, but does not pursue anything further as he is dating her sister Penny (Andrea McEwan). Sindi seizes the opportunity to blackmail Darcy by threatening to tell Penny about his flirting with her unless he gives into her demands which include paying for clothes and shoes. Penny sees the pair together one day and as revenge reports Darcy to the medical board for having an affair with a patient. Sindi soon leaves Erinsborough. The following year, Sindi crosses paths with Darcy again and is used as a pawn in his game to drive a wedge between Toadfish Rebecchi and Dee Bliss, in order for Darcy to win Dee back. Sindi goes through with the plan by flirting with Toadie, but ends up falling for him for real. Darcy is annoyed, but Sindi threatens to expose his dubious dealings. When Sindi leaves an earring behind and goes to retrieve it from Toadie's house, she meets Dee, who assumes Sindi has moved in. Sindi tries to explain, but Dee leaves before she can.
Several months later, Sindi returns when Tim Collins (Ben Anderson), Toadie's colleague, hires her to work at their legal practice. Things are awkward at first, but Sindi settles in the job and she and Toadie remain amicable. As the amount of time they spend together increases, Sindi reveals she still loves Toadie, but he is not over Dee who drowned several months previously in a car crash on their wedding day. Sindi leaves once again.
Sindi returns as the director, producer and host of Making Mansions, a home make over show. She chooses the Scully family's house as the venue to be redesigned. Things do not work out as Sindi manages to insult her crew, prompting them to walk out on her. Luckily, several friends and neighbours help her and the work is eventually completed. Sindi becomes a resident herself of Ramsay Street when she lodges with Susan Kennedy (Jackie Woodburne). Toadie and Sindi begin a relationship, but not without obstacles including the revelation of Sindi's previous affair with Rocco Cammeniti and his refusal to let her go, which results in Toadie being kidnapped and ending up in a brief coma. Sindi is a strong support for Toadie when he briefly takes on guardianship of his cousin Stingray Timmins (Ben Nicholas), before Stingray moves in with Sindi and Susan. However, Toadie still struggles with the idea of commitment so soon after Dee's death, and during a low patch Sindi shares an unexpected kiss with Toadie's friend and housemate Stuart Parker (Blair McDonough). She confesses all to Toadie after he asks her to move into Number 30, and their relationship soon ends.
Sindi and Stuart are caught up in a bank raid and held hostage by gunmen. Although the situation is resolved peacefully, the trauma brings Sindi and Stuart together and they begin seeing each other in secret. The Lassiters complex is set on fire by Paul Robinson (Stefan Dennis), and Sindi becomes trapped inside Lou's Place. Stuart runs in to save her, but he too becomes trapped and passes out due to smoke inhalation. After the building collapses entirely, the firefighters are about to give up looking for them in the wreckage, until Sindi manages to call Toadie. She and Stuart are rescued, but Stuart is left blind. Toadie realises that Sindi is in love with Stuart, and reluctantly gives his blessing to the relationship. Sindi discovers that an operation to restore Stuart's sight will cost $50,000, and in desperation tries to raise the money by selling her body. Her only client, Gary Evans (Ian Scott) gives her the money after he loses a coin toss. Stuart refuses to accept the money after realising how it was obtained, and Sindi instead donates it to Harold Bishop (Ian Smith) for the Salvation Army. A guilty Paul later offers to pay for the operation from his charity, the Helen Daniels Trust fund, although neither Sindi or Stuart are aware of his involvement in the fire.
Sindi and Stuart are happy in their relationship for a while, before a run of odd events start happening around them. Sindi loses her job at All Her Magazine and she is later snubbed at a school reunion by her old classmates. Several of their friends and neighbours suffer mysterious accidents, including Susan, Liljana Bishop (Marcella Russo), and Janae Timmins (Eliza Taylor) - coincidentally all after upsetting Sindi in some way. Trent Hoffa, a colleague competing with Stuart for a promotion, is also run over by a mystery driver. In the meantime Sindi proposes to Stuart, and the two have a whirlwind engagement. Toadie links the numerous accidents with Sindi's increasingly bizarre behaviour, and worried for Stuart's safety, tries to halt the wedding ceremony. Stuart punches Toadie, and the wedding goes ahead, but Stuart realises the truth when he later sees an unhinged Sindi push Toadie down a flight of stairs.
Hospitalised, it emerges that Sindi has been suffering from paranoid delusions, and had received treatment in her teens after pushing schoolmate Kelly Weaver (Simone Ray) down some stairs, leaving her paralysed. A broken Sindi asks Stuart for an annulment, with her doctors advising that her obsession for a perfect married life was a trigger. Stuart refuses the annulment but agrees to a temporary break while she recovers, and she is transferred to a clinic in New South Wales. Almost a year later, Sindi agrees to join Stuart for a new start in Oakey as he leaves Ramsay Street.
2017–2018
Sindi and Stuart later divorce. While working in a kitchen, she meets Andrea Somers (also Madeleine West), and they concoct a plan where Andrea poses as her lookalike, the presumed dead Dee Bliss, to scam Toadie. She eventually returns to Erinsborough and tells Andrea she regrets her part in the scam, but demands her share of the money to be increased. Weeks later, Sindi returns to the news that Andrea has conned Toadie out of $100,000 and fled to London. Susan Kennedy (Jackie Woodburne) reads Sindi's texts and discovers Andrea's true identity. A panicked Sindi then leaves town.
Nearly a year later, Sindi returns to Erinsborough to give Toadie Andrea's phone number. Months later, Sindi brings Andrea's infant son Hugo Somers (John Turner) to Ramsay Street, and breaks the news that Toadie is Hugo's father. Gary Canning (Damien Richardson) gives Sindi a job at The Flametree Retreat. While returning to the retreat to make sure she locked up, Sindi is confronted by Jeremy Sluggett (Tamblyn Lord), who demands her keys so he can retrieve a bag of money from a drawer. Sindi manages to contact the police, and Jeremy knocks her unconscious as he escapes. While Amy is visiting Sindi, she tells her about a job offer as a sales manager in Sydney. Sindi is reluctant to accept as she wants to makes amends to Sonya and Toadie, but Sonya gives Sindi her blessing. Sindi comes to Ramsay Street to say her goodbyes and Toadie asks if she ever told Andrea about his first kiss with Dee, but Sindi tells him that she did not mention it.
Reception
When Sindi's cousin, Lana Crawford (Bridget Neval), came out to her, a Sydney Star Observer reporter called Sindi "sympathetic" and said her nice reaction to Lana's news was "good to see." A writer for the BBC's Neighbours website said Sindi's most notable moments were "Dating Toadie for money. Acting like a bogan to put Rocco off. The Making Mansions fiasco." Fergus Sheil of The Age said: "Sindi Watts knows that dishonesty, a meditation tape and a lavender wheat bag should be an integral part of any intimate relationship, and that's why we love her to bits." Billy Sloan of the Sunday Mail branded the character "disaster-prone". A TV Soap'' reporter branded Sindi a "slightly unhinged material girl" and said she took "drastic steps" during her time on the show.
Daniel Kilkelly from Digital Spy said "we always had a soft spot for Sindi in her hilarious Making Mansions days." Upon on her 2017 return, the reporter believed Sindi's life was "weirder than ever". Kilkelly profiled eight evil Sindi moments, observing that she has "never been shy when it comes to bending the rules for a fast buck." He added that trouble seemed to follow her around. Kilkelly also branded her a "comedy character", "bubbly blonde", "outrageous character" and "butter-spreading ladder fiend".
References
External links
Sindi Watts at BBC Online
Neighbours characters
Fictional bartenders
Fictional erotic dancers
Television characters introduced in 2002
Female characters in television
Female villains
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leon%20Sullivan
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Leon Sullivan
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Leon Howard Sullivan (October 16, 1922 – April 24, 2001) was a Baptist minister, a civil rights leader and social activist focusing on the creation of job training opportunities for African Americans, a longtime General Motors Board Member, and an anti-Apartheid activist. Sullivan died of leukemia in a Scottsdale, Arizona hospital at the age of 78.
Early life
Born to Charles and Helen Sullivan in Charleston, West Virginia, he was raised in a small house on a dirt alley called Washington Court--one of Charleston's poorest communities. His parents divorced when he was three years old and he grew up an only child. At the age of twelve, he tried to purchase a Coca-Cola in a drugstore on Capitol Street. The proprietor refused to sell him the drink saying: "Stand on your feet, boy. You can't sit here." This incident inspired Sullivan's lifetime pursuit of fighting racial prejudice.
Sullivan also attributed much of his early influence to his grandmother:
As a teenager, Sullivan — who as an adult stood 6 ft 5 in tall — attended Garnet High School, a school for African Americans in Charleston, West Virginia. He received both a basketball and a football scholarship to West Virginia State College where, in 1940, he was initiated into the Tau chapter of Kappa Alpha Psi fraternity. A foot injury that ended his athletic career and scholarships forced Sullivan to pay for the remainder of his college by working in a steel mill.
Baptist Minister
Sullivan became a Baptist minister in West Virginia at the age of 18. In 1943, Adam Clayton Powell, a noted black minister, visited West Virginia and convinced Sullivan to move to New York City where the latter attended the Union Theological Seminary (1943–45) and later Columbia University (Master's in Religion 1947). He also served as Powell's assistant minister at the Abyssinian Baptist Church. During this period, Sullivan met his wife Grace, a woman whom he referred to as "Amazing Grace." The couple would eventually have three children, Hope, Julie and Howard. One of Sullivan's greater achievements during his time in New York was the recruitment of a hundred colored men for the police force in Harlem with Mayor Fiorello LaGuardia's support and encouragement.
In 1945 Leon and Grace Sullivan moved to South Orange, New Jersey where Sullivan became pastor at the First Baptist Church. Five years later, the two moved to Philadelphia and Leon took on the role of pastor at the Zion Baptist Church. There, he became famously known as "the Lion of Zion".
Selective Patronage Movement
Sullivan took his first active role in the civil rights movement by helping to organize a march on Washington, D.C., in the early 1940s.
He believed that jobs were the key to improving African American lives. In 1958, he asked Philadelphia's largest companies to interview young blacks, and only two companies responded positively. Then, in collaboration with other ministers, Sullivan organized a boycott of various businesses which he referred to as "Selective Patronage." The slogan was "Don't buy where you don't work" and the boycott was extremely effective since blacks constituted about 20% of Philadelphia's population. Sullivan estimated the boycott produced thousands of jobs for African Americans in a period of four years. The New York Times featured the program with a front-page story, and later, Fortune magazine brought the program to greater public attention on a national scale. By 1962, the effectiveness of Sullivan's boycotts came to the attention of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. and the SCLC who persuaded Sullivan to share information with them on his success. The exchange led to SCLC's economic arm, Operation Breadbasket, in 1967, headed by Jesse Jackson.
Self-Help Movement
Sullivan's work was built on the principle of "self-help," which provided people with the tools to overcome barriers of poverty and oppression on their own. African-Americans had been excluded from training for better paying jobs. Sullivan realized that simply making jobs available was not enough and said,
In 1964, Sullivan founded Opportunities Industrialization Centers (OIC) of America in an abandoned jail house in North Philadelphia. The program took individuals with little hope and few prospects, offered them job training and instruction in life skills, and then helped place them into jobs. The movement quickly spread around the nation. With sixty affiliated programs in thirty states and the District of Columbia, OIC has grown into a movement, which has served over two million disadvantaged and under-skilled people. This approach also led to the formation of the Opportunities Industrialization Centers International (OICI) in 1969.
Around the same time, Sullivan established the Zion Investment Association (ZIA), a company which invested in and started new businesses. Sullivan also helped to establish more than 20 programs under the International Foundation for Education and Self-Help (IFESH) (now headed by his daughter Dr. Julie Helen Sullivan), including the Global Sullivan Principles initiative. Other IFESH programs include the African American Summit (now renamed the Leon H. Sullivan Summit), the Peoples Investment Fund for Africa, the Self-Help Investment Program, Teachers for Africa, and Schools for Africa. IFESH has placed teachers in Africa, trained African bankers, built schools, developed small businesses, disseminated books and school supplies, created literacy programs, distributed medicines to prevent river-blindness, and helped to combat the spread of HIV/AIDS.
10-36 Plan
Sullivan used the church to organize the black community, and to create a local economic base that would self-perpetuate. In 1962, during a sermon, he proposed his vision of self-help to the community through investment. "One day I preached a sermon at Zion about Jesus feeding the five thousand with a few loaves and a few fish", he recalls. "Everybody put in their little bit and you had enough to feed everybody, and a whole lot left over. So I said, that is what I am going to do with the church and the community. I said, I am going to ask 50 people to put $10 down for 36 months of loaves and fishes and see if we could accumulate resources enough to build something that we would own ourselves."
The 10-36 Plan was designed to create two legal entities between a split stretch of donation periods; "For the first 16 months of the subscription period, investors would contribute to the Zion Non-Profit Charitable Trust (ZNPCT), a Community Development Corporation (CDC) that would support education, scholarships for youth, health services and other programs aimed at social uplift. For the remaining 20 months of the subscription period, investors would make payments to a for-profit corporation, Progress Investment Associates (PIA), which would undertake income-generating projects. At the end of 36 months, subscribers would receive one share of common voting stock and would be entitled to participate in yearly shareholders meetings. As William Downes, the treasurer of the 10-36 Plan and the executive director of ZNPCT explains, the idea of the voting system was to encourage community involvement in the plan."
In Sullivan's philosophy, to cultivate the idea of "giving before receiving", the community would need to help the non-profit side of the program.
To see the 10-36 Plan as an investment, members of the community would need to understand basic economic concepts. Stockholders were warned not to expect immediate results from their investment. Their most immediate monetary benefit would be a tax deduction for their contributions to the nonprofit. In being a part of the Plan, stockholders and investors would need to trust the idea of making their money work for those that would come after them within their community. Rev. Sullivan's vision was to use the tools of the free enterprise system to foster something that is vital to community progress - a sense of ownership and a stake in the common good.
Funds accumulated rapidly under the 10-36 Plan, and were soon used to invest in numerous housing and economic development initiatives. In 1964, PIA made its first investment in an 8-unit apartment building in an all-white community. The rationale for buying this property was that it would help address a long-standing problem facing blacks - racial discrimination in housing. The leaders of the Progress Movement believed that money often has the power to speak louder than words in the struggle to improve race relations. One year after its first investment in housing, PIA built Zion Gardens, a middle-income garden apartment complex in North Philadelphia. The $1 million project was financed by using 10-36 funds to leverage a loan from the Federal Housing Administration and a grant from the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD).
While pursuing these development projects, Zion continued to build an equity base through the 10-36 Plan. In 1965, the plan was opened to new subscribers from Zion's congregation, and another 450 joined. Over the years, the Progress Movement has had great success with its strategy of using equity accumulated under the 10-36 Plan to leverage funds from public and private sources, including commercial banks and insurance companies.
Progress Plaza
After establishing the OIC in the mid-1960s, Zion's next major undertaking was the fulfillment of Rev. Sullivan's dream of building the nation's first black-owned and developed shopping center, to be named Progress Plaza. In addition to addressing his concern about the lack of black ownership of major businesses in America, the project would deal with the problem of unemployment in North Philadelphia by generating a substantial number of jobs. After convincing the city's Redevelopment Authority to donate land for the project, Rev. Sullivan set out to raise the capital needed to build the shopping center. "So I went to the chairman of the bank and I said, I want a construction loan", he recounts. "He said, well Reverend, you need some equity for something like this. Think about it and come back later in two, three or four years, and let's see what we can do." Rev. Sullivan was already prepared for that challenge, however. "Give me the sack", he told Zion's treasurer, William Downes. "I opened it up and $400,000 worth of equities came out", he describes. "The man's eye glasses fell off his eyes. He came around the table and took my hand and said, Reverend, we can work together." Rev. Sullivan's theory about the power of money to deal with persistent racial inequalities was proving to be correct. As he concludes:Progress Plaza, which is located on Broad Street, one of Philadelphia's main thoroughfares, was dedicated in 1968 before a crowd of 10,000 well-wishers. In some sense, the shopping center was the culmination of the Progress Movement's multiple goals. Because it was a major construction project, it created a large number of construction jobs for participants in the OIC program. Through an agreement negotiated with Progress Plaza's chain store tenants, the shopping center also made numerous management job opportunities available to African Americans. To fulfill another one of the Progress Movement's primary goals - to encourage the development of black-owned businesses - ZNPCT created an Entrepreneurial Training Center at Progress Plaza. With major funding from the Ford Foundation, the center was able to offer managerial and entrepreneurial skills training to hundreds of area residents. Today, over half of the 16 stores in Progress Plaza are black-owned businesses.
Another one of the Progress Movement's major goals was to address the social needs of North Philadelphia's community residents. To this end, ZNPCT built a comprehensive Human Services Center that centralizes essential services so that they are easily accessible to area residents. Zion's role was to develop the property and lease it at below-market rent to nonprofit and governmental entities whose programs fulfill ZNPCT's charitable mission. Located adjacent to Progress Plaza, the center currently houses a Social Security Administration office, an unemployment compensation office, a police training academy, and a health service center run by Temple University.
In the 1980s, Progress Plaza was taken over by Wendell Whitlock of Progress Investment Associates, who is now the chairman emeritus. In 2018, Progress Plaza celebrated its 50-year anniversary with commemorations from local politician Congressman Dwight Evans who was influenced by Leon Sullivan's thinking in his book "Build, Brother, Build."
Sullivan Principles as a response to apartheid
In 1971, Sullivan joined the General Motors Board of Directors and became the first African-American on the board of a major corporation. He went on to serve on General Motors' board for over 20 years. In 1977, Sullivan developed a code of conduct for companies operating in South Africa called the Sullivan Principles, as an alternative to complete disinvestment. As part of the board of directors at General Motors, Sullivan lobbied GM and other large corporations to voluntarily withdrawal from doing business in South Africa while the system of apartheid was still in effect.
In 1988, Sullivan retired from Zion Baptist Church. Sullivan was determined to provide a model of self-help and empowerment to the people of Africa. He began using his talent for bringing world leaders together to find solutions to international issues through the establishment of the International Foundation for Education and Self-Help (IFESH)
in order to establish and maintain programs and activities in the areas of agriculture, business and economic development, democracy and governance, education and health. These programs would in turn help governments in sub-Saharan Africa reduce poverty and unemployment and build civil societies. To further expand human rights and economic development to all communities, Sullivan created the Global Sullivan Principles of Social Responsibility in 1997. In 1999, the Global Sullivan Principles were issued at the United Nations. This expanded code calls for multinational companies to take an active role in the advancement of human rights and social justice. Then United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan had this to say about Sullivan's contributions:
Leon H. Sullivan Summit
Sullivan organized the first Summit in Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire in 1991 as a result of a number of requests and conversations he had with African leaders seeking an honest dialog among and between leaders of African countries and government officials and leaders from developed countries. Since then, the biennial Leon H. Sullivan Summit has brought together the world's political and business leaders, delegates representing national and international civil and multinational organizations, and members of academic institutions in order to focus attention and resources on Africa's economic and social development. Their mission was inspired by Rev. Leon H. Sullivan's belief that the development of Africa is a matter of global partnerships. It was particularly important to Rev. Sullivan that Africa's Diaspora and Friends of Africa are active participants in Africa's development.
The Leon H Sullivan Summit is now organized by the Leon H Sullivan Foundation, an organization dedicated to expanding Leon Sullivan's vision of empowering the underprivileged, which is headed by Leon Sullivan's daughter Hope Masters.
Awards and honors
Sullivan was the recipient of the following awards:
The Ten Outstanding Young Americans Award, 1955
The Afro-American Achievement Award, 1956
The Freedom Foundation Award, 1960
Life Magazine cited Sullivan as one of the 100 outstanding young adults in the United States, 1963
The Russwurm Award, 1963
The Philadelphia Bok Award, 1966
The William Penn Award, 1967
The Edwin T. Dahlberg Peace Award, 1968
The Spingarn Award by the NAACP, 1971
The Silver Buffalo Award by the Boy Scouts of America, 1971
The Award for Greatest Public Service Benefiting the Disadvantaged, an award given out annually by Jefferson Awards, 1975.
William L. Dawson Award (Phoenix Award), 1977
28th Laurel Wreath Awardee, 1979
The Common Wealth Award of Distinguished Service, 1986
The Four Freedoms Award by the Roosevelt Institute, 1987
The Presidential Medal of Freedom, the highest civilian award that the American government can give, by President George H. W. Bush, 1991
Harold Washington Award, (Phoenix Award), 1993Arsenio hall to get black caucus award. (1993, Sep 16). Los Angeles Sentinel.
The Bishop John T. Walker Distinguished Humanitarian Service Award by Africare, 1995
The Eleanor Roosevelt Award for Human Rights by President Bill Clinton, 1999
In August 2000, Charleston, West Virginia city leaders changed the name of Broad Street, near his boyhood home, to Leon Sullivan Way.
The Reverend Dr. Leon H. Sullivan International Arrivals Hall in Terminal A of Philadelphia International Airport was named in his honor in 2022.
During his lifetime he was also awarded honorary doctorate degrees from over 50 colleges and universities and served as a board member of General Motors, Mellon Bank and the Boy Scouts of America.
Books by Leon H. Sullivan
America is theirs: And other poems (1948)
Build Brother Build (1969)
Alternatives to Despair (1972)
Philosophy of a Giant (1979)
Moving Mountains: The Principles and Purposes of Leon Sullivan'' (1998)
References
External links
Rev. Leon H. Sullivan Official Website
The Leon H. Sullivan Foundation
Opportunities Industrialization Centers of America
Opportunities Industrialization Centers International
Leon Sullivan Health Care Center , nursing home in Seattle, Washington
Stuart A. Rose Manuscript, Archives, and Rare Book Library, Emory University: Leon Howard Sullivan papers, 1939-2001
Video and audio material
An Overview of the January 2001 PBS Documentary entitled " A Principled Man: Rev. Leon Sullivan."
President George H. W. Bush talking about Leon Sullivan
Leon Sullivan recounting the incident that inspired his lifelong pursuit of fighting racial prejudice
Julian Bond talking about the selective patronage movement
Kweisi Mfume talking about the Sullivan Principles in relation to South Africa
Leon Sullivan talking about the Global Sullivan Principles
Once in a While..., Rev. Leon H. Sullivan at Third African-African American Summit, Dakar (Senegal), May 1995
Highlights of the Third African-African American Summit, Dakar (Senegal), May 1995 (an AFRICAN CONNECTIONS documentary).
1922 births
2001 deaths
Religious leaders from Charleston, West Virginia
Activists for African-American civil rights
American anti-poverty advocates
Political activists from Pennsylvania
Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients
Deaths from leukemia
Deaths from cancer in Arizona
Spingarn Medal winners
African-American activists
African-American Baptist ministers
Recipients of the Four Freedoms Award
Columbia University alumni
West Virginia State University alumni
20th-century Baptist ministers from the United States
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University%20of%20Guelph%20Arboretum
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University of Guelph Arboretum
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The University of Guelph Arboretum was formally established in 1970 by the University of Guelph. The Arboretum aims to conserve biodiversity and connect people with nature through teaching, research, and community outreach. The 165 hectare space serves as an “outdoor learning resource,” a “living laboratory” and a “community resource”. The Arboretum is open all year round to the public from dawn to dusk, and admission is free. It is used for a wide array of purposes such as teaching, research, conservation, recreation, school programs, adult workshops, and walking tours. It is also a popular place for weddings and ceremonies. There are more than 40 collections of woody plants for academic and display purposes, as well as various display gardens, memorial plantings, and facilities.
The University of Guelph Arboretum is a member of the American Public Gardens Association and the Society for Ecological Restoration. These memberships and programs allow the Arboretum to work cooperatively towards a variety of biodiversity and conservation goals. Additionally, the Arboretum is one of the 38 Arbnet Level 4 accredited arboretums around the world. The Arboretum and University of Guelph sit on Dish with One Spoon territory, treaty lands of the Mississaugas of the Credit, and the Between the Lakes Treaty 3 lands. Continuing to care for the rich natural heritage of this land in a sustainable manner is part of the Arboretum's vision. It is visited by approximately 100,000 people annually.
History
The first collection of woody plants on campus was started by the Ontario Agricultural College in the 1880s. What is now the Arboretum was part of the “College Farm” and was used for test plot research and education. In 1964, during a period of rapid expansion, the Arboretum Study Committee was created, after several years of proposals and considerations regarding the need for a permanent arboretum on campus. Much of the site under consideration was part of an original 220-hectare land parcel purchased for the Ontario Agricultural College in 1873.
Since Guelph is located in a climatic zone significantly different from other Ontario arboreta in Ottawa (Dominion Arboretum) and Hamilton (Royal Botanical Gardens), it was seen as a site particularly valuable for research endeavours. The area developed into an established Arboretum by the 1980s, and included several specialised research and study areas, including rehabilitation of a gravel pit, woodlots, water features, framework plantings and natural wooded areas. The Arboretum was transferred to the Office of Research upon the completion of the 1986 plan - meant to refine the Arboretum's goals and objectives - and administratively returned to Ontario Agricultural College in 2003.
Geography and climate
The Third Edition of Canada's Plant Hardiness Zones based on 1981 to 2010 data, classifies Guelph as Zone 5b, based on seven variables relevant to plant growth. Guelph lies in the corresponding Extreme Minimum Temperature Zone 5b (-26.1°C to -23°C). Both zones are based on the approach used by the United States Department of Agriculture.
The climate in Guelph is classified as Dfb (humid continental, no dry season, warm summer) by the Köppen-Geiger system. The average annual temperature is 7.8 °C, and the average rainfall is 958 mm, with an average of 7-9 rainy days every month.
The Guelph Arboretum is located at , in close proximity to the confluence of the Speed and Eramosa rivers, and less than a kilometre from Hanlon Creek. The area's geology features sedimentary rock strata of the Silurian and Devonian ages. As a result of repeated glaciations, the rock is covered by a mantle of loose materials called drift which varies from a few inches to several hundred feet in thick. Surface deposits consist of outwash gravels and sands, dominated by grey-brown podzolic soils. The arboretum has 12.5 kilometres of trails over a span of 165 hectares, but they do not extend into the Arboretum's 40-hectare nature reserve, which is south of Stone Road East and not accessible to the public.
Biodiversity
The Arboretum lies within the portion of Guelph at the intersection of several ecosystems such as old growth forests, meadows, and wetlands. The Arboretum possesses an incredible amount of biodiversity despite its size, location within city limits, and adjacency to the populous University of Guelph main campus. The structural diversity of the Arboretum allows for a wide array of habitats. Its many species are spotted and recorded by visitors, students, and staff alike, and have been compiled into lists by category, shown below
287 Fungi and Slime Moulds
111 Lichens and Lichen-allied fungi
211 Birds
11 Amphibians
10 Reptiles
11 Fish
44 Mammals
159 Spiders
851 Moths
53 Butterflies
73 Rove Beetles
67 Dragonflies and Damselflies
60 Non-planted Shrubs, Trees, and Vines
187 Wildflowers and other plants
The Arboretum participates in several initiatives with a focus on ecosystem stewardship and conservation, such as
A gene bank to maintain genetic diversity of Ontario's endangered woody plants and inform landowners of their presence since 1979, and important today for informing ongoing legislative decisions for conservation. Over 30 species of rare woody plants are archived in the grounds and gene banks at The Arboretum, across both research plots and formal collection areas
The Elm recovery project since 1998, to combat the toll of Dutch Elm Disease on native elms. The goal of the program is to assist the recovery of white elm from the impacts of the disease by reintroducing genetically diverse populations of disease-tolerant elms to the Ontario landscape.
Participation in Cornell University's citizen-based Feederwatch program for bird data collection since 1986.
GIS data collection for the Ontario Tree Atlas Project to boost geographic knowledge of tree species in the province.
Collections
A collection is a planted grouping of plants based on taxonomic relationships, form or function. The Arboretum has more than 40 collections of native and introduced species with some 1,700 species of trees and shrubs, as well as many herbaceous species. The Arboretum's collections vary over time, and there are plans in place for many collections requiring alteration, upgrade, or renewal. Some collections involving larger plants that take longer to mature, such as the World of Trees, are well-developed and have been Arboretum staples for several decades.
The World of Trees
More than 400 species of trees and shrubs representing 158 genera and 67 different plant families are established in this 5-hectare World of Trees collection, the largest collection in the Arboretum by area. They are arranged in family groups situated along both flanks of the majority of the Ivey trail. Many of Ontario's native woody plants (including several rare species) are represented here along with their relatives from Europe or Asia. The World of Trees Collection offers a sampling of diversity found in the world's temperate regions, and is meant to display the wide variety of global tree species' evolutionary adaptations over hundreds of millions of years.
Native Trees of Ontario
The current Native Trees of Ontario Collection was originally based on a list of some 85 species native to the three forest regions of Ontario; the northern Boreal Forest, the Great lakes - St. Lawrence Forest (in which the Arboretum is found), and the Southern Deciduous Forest. The native species in the collection are those found historically in this region before the arrival of European settlers. Additionally, the collection contains some naturalized trees species that were brought from Europe and Asia by settlers and have invaded natural areas so as to now be found in many parts of the province. The original list was enhanced to include all species covered by the Tree Atlas project, and now includes 4 native woody plant species discovered in the last 30 years, as well as more than 35 exotic woody plant species naturalized in Ontario. A round trail winds around the perimeter of the collection, situated near the intersection of the World of Trees collection and the cultural gardens.
Rosaceae Collection
The Rosaceae collection represents a large family that spans from roses to crab apples to service berries. This collection includes the Frances Ball Rose Collection. This section of the grounds will be undergoing a multi-year renewal beginning in 2022.
Gardens
The Garden Project was initiated in 1995 with the development of the David G. Porter Memorial Japanese Garden. Two additional cultural and traditional gardens, the Italian Garden and the Edna and Frank C. Miller English Garden, have been developed at the University of Guelph Arboretum. The cultural gardens display classical garden forms. The Arboretum also has environmental demonstration gardens, such as the Gosling Wildlife Gardens, to demonstrate ecologically friendly methods and plant types for use in private home grounds or other landscapes. All of the Arboretum's gardens are important teaching areas as well as a foundation for research in various disciplines.
Gosling Wildlife Gardens
The Gosling Wildlife Gardens collection a six-garden plant collection supported by the Gosling Foundation since its inception in 1987, that displays a large variety of woody plants, fruit, grasses, herbs, perennials, and more. The six gardens provide food and various habitats for an array of wildlife, and promote positive human-nature interaction. Though several gardens have changed thematically and expanded over time, their designs retain an emphasis on approximating the size of urban/suburban backyards, which inspires visitors to attempt similar plantings at their homes. Today, the six gardens are: the Entrance Alvar garden, the Enhanced Lawn garden, the Permaculture garden, the Pollinator garden, the Native Plant garden, and the Collector's garden. The guiding principle of these gardens is to "educate, connect, and inspire visitors". Currently, the Gosling Wildlife Gardens are undergoing a multi-year revitalization project, featuring updates to the themes, plant collections, ponds, and other garden features.
David G. Porter Memorial Japanese Garden
The Japanese Garden was dedicated to the memory of David Porter in June 1995, by his wife Bobbi Porter. It was designed by landscape architect Christopher Campbell, who described it as "the great within the small". The garden contains woody and herbaceous plants that follow a specific Japanese theme, tailored with similar alternative species that find a southern Ontario climate suitable, and contains over 40 different species. Through beds of woolly thyme, the salutation gateway greets visitors. A Shou Sugi Ban fence has replaced the original Kenninji-Gaki bamboo fence, and a stone bridge takes visitors across a pool of water overlooked by vibrant red Japanese maples. Beyond the bridge is a small reflective teahouse structure designed to hold a tea ceremony called cha-no-yu. Across from the structure is a dry zen rock garden with decorative raked stones.
Edna and Frank C. Miller English Garden
The English Garden was dedicated in the memory of Edna and Frank Miller in September 1998, by their son Frank Miller. This garden demonstrates an English cottage gardening style. The garden includes a tall sheared European beech, hedge maple and white cedar hedge forming a symmetrical pattern of walls. Boxwood hedges circle two gardens: The Nancy and Dr. Anthony Caspers Perennial Gardens, while yew hedges outline the walkway around them Each perennial garden is packed with more than 30 flower species, combining to form a diverse medley of aroma and colour, and is therefore popular with pollinators.
The Italian Garden
The Italian Garden is formally structured with a strong principal axis oriented north-south and draws its inspiration from famous Italian Renaissance gardens such as those at the Villa Medici in Rome, Villa d'Este in Tivoli, Villa Lante in Bagnaia, Villa Aldobrandini in Frascati, and Villa Farnese in Caprarola. A view of a Rivers Purple Beech planted within the OAC '56 Park in The Garden is framed in the south opening of the sheared European beech hedge which encloses and defines the garden. Nestled within this hedge are classical statues and garden benches. At the center of the garden is a formal pool with fountain jets, edged by pebble inlaid pavers. Between the central pool and the tall beech hedge, are a ring of boxwood-edged flowerbeds containing lavender and sage species, accented by four European hornbeams. This garden's composition emphasizes balance and organized geometry.
The OAC'56 Park in the Garden
The OAC '56 Park in The Garden is a large lawn shaded by 20 specimen trees framed with a path, benches, and verge plantings. These trees were chosen for their form and leaf colour/texture. Their stately appearance helps provide The Park with an atmosphere suited to relaxing picnics and leisurely strolls. The Park in the Garden contains the Japanese, English, and Italian gardens listed above, interesting vistas, and paths connecting the areas. The garden's design is based on the late 19th-century idea of large, open public space as defined by the designer Frederick Law Olmsted.
Features and facilities
Natural areas
Victoria Woods
Victoria Woods is an old-growth hardwood forest made up of sugar maple, white ash, black cherry and beech. Varied topography in this area, which includes a pond, allows for a wide variety of woodland plants to grow here. Spring is an especially nice time to visit Victoria Woods to see many of these spring ephemeral plants blooming. High moisture content in this woodland's soils make it unsuitable for agriculture, which is a reason why its trees have never been cut.
Wild Goose Woods
Part of Wild Goose Woods is another old growth forest, and was once a White elm forest, with some of the stumps still present from the large trees that were wiped out by Dutch Elm Disease in the late 1960's. When the large elms died, small Freeman's maples that covered the forest floor got their chance and grew to the present forest around the boardwalk. In the late summer, fall and early winter, this area can be fairly dry, but in the late winter and spring, it is completely underwater
The Wall-Custance Memorial Forest
The Wall-Custance Memorial Forest is linked to the Wall-Custance Funeral Home and Chapel in Guelph. The Memorial Forest Trail (1.4 km) runs through this forest, parallel to the Ivey Trail, but farther to the northwest, and leads to the Ontario Horticultural Association Oak Grove. For each donation to the Wall-Custance Memorial Forest Program, a tree or shrub is planted in the Memorial Forest in either spring or fall, and since 1989, over 8500 trees and shrubs have been planted under the auspices of this program in memory of loved ones.
Facilities
O.A.C. Centennial Arboretum Centre
The O.A.C. Centennial Arboretum Centre was opened in 1974 to mark the 100th anniversary of the Ontario Agricultural College, and is the administrative headquarters of The Arboretum. Staying true to the vision of The Arboretum, Architect Raymond Moriyama designed The Arboretum Centre to blend into its surroundings to allow visitors' attention to be drawn to nature. The OAC Centennial Arboretum Centre is a versatile venue accommodating rentals for a wide range of occasions such as meetings, trade shows, conferences, weddings, anniversaries, fundraising events, banquets and fashion shows. The Arboretum centre features outdoor and indoor wheelchair ramps for greater accessibility.
J.C. Taylor Nature Centre
Opened in 1978, the J.C. Taylor Nature Centre is the site where tens of thousands of school children have learned about topics such as maple syrup, insects, pond life, wildlife gardening, feeder birds and forest habitats. Initially designed as a sugar shack complete with a maple syrup evaporator, it now houses classes and adult workshops.
R. J. Hilton Centre
The original structure was the Harrison Barn, part of the Ontario Agricultural College's research farm. The Harrison Barn resided on Arboretum grounds and was one of the first buildings used by Arboretum staff. In the early 1970s, the barn was demolished to build the Service Centre on its foundation, and was re-named in the 1980's in honour of inaugural director, Dr. R.J. Hilton's contributions to The Arboretum. Today, the R.J. Hilton Centre continues to serve as a hub for Arboretum horticultural staff, propagation greenhouse and nursery facilities.
Trails
Ivey Trail
The 1.1 km Ivey Trail is distinguished by white “IVEY” on the trail posts. It begins at the pedestrian entrance to The Arboretum and ends at the J.C. Taylor Nature Centre. Ivey trail features access to most of The Arboretum's other trail systems because it runs along the centre of The Arboretum, bisecting most of the area.
Trillium Trail
The Trillium Trail is a 2.0 km loop that passes through several plant collections and crosses many other Arboretum trails. This trail encircles the Maple collection, the Rotary Tree Grove, much of the World of Trees collection, the three cultural gardens, and the OAC Centennial Arboretum Centre. The trail is even accessible in the winter for cross-country skiers.
Acorn Trail
The Acorn Trail is the only major trail along the portion of the Arboretum northwest of College Avenue. It passes by the R.J. Hilton Centre, forming a figure-eight encircling the Linden collection and the Beech and Oak collection.
Col. John McCrae Trail
This trail connects Wild Goose Woods and Victoria Woods, passing through the Gravel Pit Rehabilitation Collection and along a century-old hedgerow.
Wild Goose trail
The Wild Goose trail consists of 1.5 km of boardwalks and dirt paths that meander through areas of marsh, forest, and swamp habitat.
The Victoria Woods trail
This circular trail meanders through the old-growth maple-beech forest of Victoria Woods and beside the Victoria Woods pond.
Offers
The Arboretum, administered through the Ontario Agricultural College at the University of Guelph, provides a variety of programs and workshops year-round and serves as a significant visitor attraction for the citizens of Guelph and Ontario. Whether individuals come for the scenery, a place to study or hold an event there are many things The Arboretum has to offer its visitors. When arriving at The Arboretum there are brochures available at the entrances (and throughout the grounds) for self-guided tours of the grounds.
Walks and tours
The Arboretum offers -hour group walks led by Arboretum Auxiliary Docents with a registration requirement. In the summer there are walks offered every Wednesday between June 1 – August 3. The walk begins at the J.C. Taylor Centre, commencing at 7 p.m. and ending at 8:30 p.m. Lastly there are Interpretative Tours which are led by Arboretum staff and are between 1–3 hours. The tour includes interpretations of the use of plants for horticultural or naturalization plantings. It is possible to customize the focus of your tour to be education based, natural history, wildlife or horticultural.
Workshops
Throughout the year there are a wide variety of workshops available at The Arboretum. Adult and family appropriate workshops on a variety of topics ranging from owls, mushrooms, shrubs to sketching nature, wildflower photography and garden design. The Arboretum website displays currently offered workshops
Donation and Dedication
A popular program is the Wall Custance Memorial Forest tree dedication. Donations are made to commemorate a life by having a tree planted into Memorial Forest. Individuals can also sponsor Century Pines and Spruces that were planted in 1907 by Canada's father of forestry, Edmund Zavitz. A plaque in your name or someone you love's honour will be placed at the base of the tree to add your own legacy to this awe-inspiring collection.
See also
List of botanical gardens in Canada
References
External links
Guelph Arboretum website
Guelph Arboretum Photos
University of Guelph
City of Guelph
University of Guelph
Protected areas of Wellington County, Ontario
Arboreta in Canada
Nature centres in Ontario
Geography of Guelph
Tourist attractions in Guelph
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20L.%20Owen
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Robert L. Owen
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Robert Latham Owen Jr. (February 2, 1856 – July 19, 1947) was one of the first two U.S. senators from Oklahoma. He served in the Senate between 1907 and 1925.
Born into affluent circumstances in antebellum Lynchburg, Virginia, the son of a railroad company president, Owen suffered an almost Dickensian reversal of fortune when his family was ruined financially by the Panic of 1873 and his father died while he was still in his teens.
Owen, who was part-Cherokee on his mother's side, responded by heading west to Indian Territory, where he built a new life as, in turn, a schoolteacher working with Cherokee orphans; a lawyer, administrator and journalist; a federal Indian agent; and the founder and first president of a community bank. Among the achievements that brought him to wider public notice, and helped pave the way for his election to the U.S. Senate in 1907 when Oklahoma (incorporating the former Indian Territory) achieved statehood, was his success as a lawyer in 1906 in winning a major court case on behalf of the Eastern Cherokees seeking compensation from the U.S. Government for eastern lands the Cherokees had lost at the time of the Indian removals.
A Democrat active in many progressive causes, including efforts to strengthen public control of government, and the fight against child labor, Owen is especially remembered as the Senate sponsor of the Glass-Owen Federal Reserve Act of 1913, which created the Federal Reserve System. In discussions at the time, he resisted a campaign to put the Federal Reserve formally under the control of the banking industry, and the 1913 Act emerged broadly in line with Owen's compromise proposal, creating a central Federal Reserve Board nominated by the Government alongside twelve regional Federal Reserve Banks dominated by the larger banks. Owen subsequently became highly critical of what he saw as the Federal Reserve's bias towards deflationary policies during the early 1920s and again in the early 1930s, which he attributed to excessive influence by the largest banks upon the Fed, and which he identified as largely responsible for causing the Great Depression: a minority view at the time, but one that has, in recent decades, gained wide acceptance among Conservative economists (having been popularized by Milton Friedman in the 1960s). In 1920 Owen unsuccessfully sought the Democratic Party's nomination for the presidency.
Early and family life
Owen was born in Lynchburg, Virginia, on February 2, 1856, the younger of two sons of Confederate Col. Robert L. Owen Sr. (1825–1873), a civil engineer and former surveyor who had become president of the Virginia and Tennessee Railroad, and his wife Narcissa Clark Chisholm Owen. His family attended an Episcopal Church in his youth.
Owen's paternal ancestors had emigrated from Wales, and the family had a record of public service as doctors and teachers. His grandfather, Dr. William Owen, and uncle, Dr. William Otway Owen Sr. (1820–1892), both practiced medicine in Lynchburg, and the latter served as surgeon-in-chief in charge of thirty hospitals in Lynchburg (which became a major wartime hospital center) throughout the Civil War. His father Robert Latham Owen Sr. served in the Virginia State Senate after the American Civil War.
During Owen's boyhood, the family lived in Lynchburg's best-known mansion, Point of Honor. Owen attended private schools in Lynchburg and in Baltimore, Maryland.
The American Civil War destroyed most of Virginia's railroads. In late 1867, Robert Latham Owen Sr. resigned his position as president of the Virginia and Tennessee Railway because he opposed a proposed railway consolidation led by the colorful and highly political former Confederate General (and future U.S. Senator, 1881–1887) William Mahone, who replaced him as president.
In June 1873, however, when Owen was 16, his father died a financially ruined man, due to the Panic of 1873, which struck the consolidating railroads especially hard. Writing in 1934, Owen described the family's hard times: "the value of my father's property was completely destroyed, and my mother, from a life of abundance, was suddenly compelled to earn her living by teaching music." With support from scholarships, initially obtained via his mother's contacts, but subsequently including the 1876 merit-based President's scholarship, Owen graduated in 1877 as valedictorian from Washington and Lee University. He also received the university's gold medal for debating prowess. His older brother, William Otway Owen Jr. (1854–1924), meanwhile, attended the Virginia Military Institute and the University of Virginia, and went on to a medical career with the U.S. Army, eventually retiring with the rank of colonel.
Owen's mother, Narcissa Chisholm Owen (1831–1911), was part Cherokee. She did much to foster her son's career, as well as becoming a distinguished painter. In 1907 she published memoirs about her life lived between Cherokee and mainstream U.S. societies, which have more recently attracted scholarly attention when republished in a critical edition in 2005. However, the precise extent of her (and thus his) Cherokee ancestry is unclear. Owen's listing on the Dawes Rolls, dating from around 1900, records him as 1/16 Cherokee by blood. However, Narcissa's memoirs (1907) self-describe her as 1/16 Cherokee, which if correct would imply that her son was 1/32 Cherokee. Some secondary sources describe Narcissa as 1/8th Cherokee The modern editor of Narcissa's memoirs speculates that Narcissa might have missed "one generation or possibly two" in her family tree; adjusting for this possibility might further dilute her Cherokee blood. However, Narcissa had been raised among Cherokees, and skillfully used her Cherokee heritage, colorfully describing her father, Thomas Chisholm (a leader of the "Old Settlers" who moved west before the Trail of Tears), as "the last hereditary war chief of the Western Cherokees." Narcissa also gave both her sons parallel Indian names derived from famous Cherokee chiefs: she named Robert Oconostota after a noted Cherokee chief of the late eighteenth century who was also, she claimed, her own great great uncle.
Early career in Oklahoma
On the advice of Col. William Penn Adair, a family friend, former Confederate Colonel and a leader among the Cherokees, Owen moved in 1879 to Salina in Indian Territory (now Salina, Oklahoma), where he was accepted as a member of the Cherokee Nation. He served during 1879-1880 as the principal teacher of the Cherokee Orphan Asylum. His mother joined him in 1880 and taught music for several years at the Cherokee Female Seminary.
Owen read law and was admitted to the bar in 1880. During 1881-1884 he served as secretary of the board of education of the Cherokee Nation, and worked on reorganizing the Cherokee school system. In parallel, he served in 1882, 1883 and 1884 as the president of the International Fair at Muscogee, IT, now Muscogee, Oklahoma (sometimes billed at the time as "the Indian Capital of the World"), the only fair held in Indian Territory at the time. He was owner and editor of the "Indian Chieftain" newspaper, based in present-day Vinita, Oklahoma, in 1884. In 1885, with a Democrat in the White House, Owen launched a successful lobbying campaign that saw him appointed as the federal Indian agent for the so-called Five Civilized Tribes, described by one student of his career as "the most important position to be held in Indian Territory". In the absence of a court system, Owen promoted the use of compulsory arbitration to settle thousands of civil cases between 1885 and 1889, when he assisted in the establishment of the first United States Court in Indian Territory. His mother served as his hostess until his marriage on New Year's Eve, 1889, to Daisy Deane Hester, with whom he had one daughter, Dorothea, born in 1894.
After the White House again changed hands in 1889, Owen left government service and organized the First National Bank of Muskogee in 1890, serving as its president for ten years. He later wrote that the bank's narrow survival of the Panic of 1893 was to influence his thinking about the need for fundamental reform in the US banking system:
This bank, like many other banks, lost fifty percent of its deposits within as many days because of the panic, which frightened people and caused them to withdraw their funds for hoarding throughout the United States and led creditors to strenuously press their debtors for settlement ... This panic demonstrated the complete instability of the financial system of America and the hazards which businessmen had to meet under a grossly defective banking system.
As a lawyer and lobbyist, Owen handled a number of significant cases dealing with Indian land issues. Most notably, in 1900 he took on a celebrated case on behalf of the Eastern Cherokees against the US Government, seeking compensation which the Cherokees claimed was due to them under a treaty of 1835 for eastern lands lost at the time of the Indian removals. In 1906, after six years, Owen won the case and obtained compensation of close to $5 million for the Eastern Cherokees. He was also successful in his handling of important cases for the Western Cherokees, Choctaws and Chickasaws.
Beyond his obvious drive and ambition, neither his legal nor his political career was to be hampered by Owen's physical presence. He was a tall man of erect bearing, who kept a full head of hair to the end of his life. One contemporary newspaper profile described him as looking "like a leading man in a society drama." The New York Times spoke of him on his arrival in the Senate as "the square-jawed, black eyed, lithe young man from the West" and continued that "The Senator's voice is his most impressive asset. Liquid and soft in quality when he is talking dispassionately, it is as harsh and rasping as a file when he is aroused."
By the time he launched his political career, the combination of Owen's lucrative legal and lobbying practice, sometimes controversial land deals, and business activities including investments in ranching, mining and oil, had made him a wealthy man.
Political career
Owen served as a member of the Democratic National Committee during 1892–1896. He helped promote passage of an act in 1901 to give citizenship to residents of Indian Territory. He subsequently played a leading role in the group that in 1905 organized the Sequoyah Constitutional Convention in pursuit of the admission of Indian Territory to the Union as the State of Sequoyah. Despite receiving overwhelming support in a referendum, the Sequoyah campaign ran—entirely predictably—into the opposition of President Theodore Roosevelt and many in Congress, and Indian Territory was combined with Oklahoma Territory to be admitted into the Union in 1907 as the state of Oklahoma.
Owen was active in a number of efforts to increase popular control of government. He was also a consistent supporter of Prohibition (it was common in late 19th and early 20th century America for supporters of Prohibition also to be supporters of popular control of government, and vice versa). He campaigned for women's suffrage (though it did not make it into Oklahoma's original statehood constitution). He also worked successfully to place the direct primary, the initiative and referendum, and the recall (a combination of measures sometimes described as the Oregon System) in Oklahoma's state constitution. He was a sometimes outspoken critic of corruption in politics. He was among the organizers of the National Popular Government League, and served as its president from 1913 until 1928.
By the time of statehood and the 1907 elections that accompanied it, local Democrats had managed to harness popular resentment of large corporate trusts to overturn the earlier Republican political dominance of Oklahoma Territory. In the words of a history of Oklahoma politics, "The November elections of 1907 made Oklahoma a Democratic state for half a century to come."
Owen himself first ran in a non-binding primary for U.S. Senator. The Democrats of Indian Territory recommended him to the voters as a "statesman, lawyer, businessman," and, significantly, "as an Indian." Owen took first place in the primary and was subsequently officially elected by the legislature as a Democrat to the United States Senate. As two senators were being elected simultaneously, Owen and Thomas Gore, the two men entered a lottery to determine which of them should serve the longer and which the shorter term before needing to run for re-election. Owen won the draw, and hence went on, as a member of the Senate's Class 2, to serve a first term of over five years, ending on March 4, 1913. Owen was elected United States Senate Democratic Conference Secretary on December 3, 1913, despite not being sworn in officially as a U.S. Senator until December 11.
Owen was to be re-elected in 1912, after defeating a serious primary challenge from former Governor Charles Haskell, and again (without serious challenge) in 1918. He served all told from December 11, 1907, to March 4, 1925. Owen reportedly maintained a mailing list of 300,000 names.
As a newly elected senator, Owen campaigned actively on behalf of William Jennings Bryan in the presidential election of 1908; the two men were to remain political allies for many years.
On his arrival in the Senate, Owen became the second senator at the time with acknowledged Native American ancestry, alongside Republican Senator (and future Vice-President of the United States) Charles Curtis of Kansas, whose maternal side was three-quarters' Native American, of ethnic Kaw, Osage and Pottawatomie ancestry. Curtis was the original author of the 1898 Curtis Act, which dissolved the tribal governments of the five civilized tribes, including the Cherokee, and promoted the allotment of formerly communal tribal lands to individuals, with a view to encouraging the assimilation of Indians into mainstream U.S. society and the market economy (though the bill was heavily amended in committee, to the point where Curtis himself had reservations about the legislation in its final form). (See also Other issues below).
Very shortly after Owen was elected to the Senate, his mother published her memoirs (replete with references to "my son, the United States Senator"). Narcissa's exploration of her own cultural identity as a part-Cherokee woman navigating mainstream U.S. society has recently attracted scholarly attention, and the memoirs were re-published by the University Press of Florida in a critical edition in 2005. In the words of the editor of the new edition:
[Narcissa] Owen's identity becomes fluid in the process of self-representation: both less noble and less savage than the dominant culture has constantly demanded, she is a Cherokee, southerner, Confederate, Christian, friend, family member, teacher, community organizer, tribal translator, socialite, trickster, mother, Indian queen, wife, social activist, healer, painter, storyteller, widow and gardener, to name just a few.
Banking issues and formation of the Federal Reserve
Owen entered the Senate at a time of heightened concern over the volatility of the U.S. financial system, as exemplified by the Panic of 1907, during which, in the absence of a central bank, J. Pierpont Morgan had felt obliged to intervene personally to lead a rescue of the U.S. financial and banking system. Owen had taken a close personal interest in financial sector issues since his days at the First National Bank of Muscogee. Inter alia, he had traveled to Europe in the summer of 1898 to study the operation of major European central banks, including meeting senior officials at the Bank of England and Germany's Reichsbank. He made banking issues the subject of a pugnacious maiden speech in the Senate, which—unusually—was interrupted extensively by senators such as Reed Smoot, Nelson Aldrich and Charles Curtis, who did not appreciate his attack on the power of the larger banks. During his early years in the Senate, Owen proposed a range of financial reforms, including several unsuccessful efforts to institute at the national level a system of insurance for bank deposits parallel to those operated in several states, including—from 1908 onward—Oklahoma (in the event, federal deposit insurance was not adopted until 1933).
The 1912 elections saw the Democrats take control of the White House and the Senate (they already held the House). Owen lobbied successfully for the creation of a new Senate Committee on Banking and Currency, and then became its first chairman (a position he was to retain throughout 1913–1919). In this capacity, and working with the administration of President Woodrow Wilson, Owen was to be the Senate sponsor of the Federal Reserve Act of 1913, also known as the Glass-Owen Act, which created the Federal Reserve System. A series of financial panics had convinced many that the United States needed an effective lender of last resort comparable to the central banks found in European countries and other advanced economies. Many, too, saw a need for what was then described as a more "elastic" currency. This concept had multiple dimensions, including: (i) a money supply that could respond over time to the development of the real economy, and (ii) given that the U.S. economy was still heavily dependent on agricultural production, monetary arrangements able to handle the seasonal bulge in demand for credit as the yearly harvest worked its way through the distribution system, without draining money from the industrial and commercial sectors of the economy. This said, many Americans retained an almost visceral fear of the concept of a central bank as such.
Informed debate at the time focused to a significant degree on issues of governance and control. In common with other congressional Progressives, Owen opposed a proposal from Senator Aldrich for a system explicitly controlled by the large banks. Owen countered, in the words of an early biographer, that "the remedy presented in the form of the 'Aldrich Plan of 1912' was not satisfactory because it provided for private control of what should be a great public utility banking system."
In the months following his election and subsequent assumption of office, President Wilson held meetings with the authors of three competing proposals for the Federal Reserve:
Rep. Carter Glass proposed a decentralized and private sector-dominated system, with a board made up primarily of private bankers, 20 or more regional reserve banks, and with currency a private bank liability. Glass, a southern Democrat with a marked antipathy to centralized power, intended his proposal to be differentiated from the (similarly private sector-dominated) Aldrich Plan largely by the absence of a central institution, but to Glass's horror, Wilson told him to add a central agency (in Wilson's own word, a "capstone") to his model.
U.S. Treasury Secretary William Gibbs McAdoo (soon to become Wilson's son-in-law) proposed the most centralized model, featuring a Government central bank within the Treasury Department, no regional reserve system, and currency a government liability.
Owen's own proposal, drafted with the assistance of the Republican economist (and former Assistant Secretary of the Treasury) A. Piatt Andrew, represented something of a middle way between the other two proposals. It included a national currency board appointed by the Government, eight regional reserve banks, and currency as a government liability. Owen's proposal received support from his Progressive ally, Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan, and the bill that Wilson sent to the Congress was closest to Owen's model.
During the ensuing months of tortuous debate, Owen failed to maintain effective control over his committee, whose deliberations tended to lag behind those of Glass's committee in the House. At one stage in August 1913, Owen even wavered publicly in his own support for a regional structure, before being brought back into line by Wilson personally. Owen's committee eventually split down the middle between Owen's own version of the bill and a more centralized alternative promoted by Senator Gilbert Hitchcock, a Nebraska Democrat who had become something of a political rival at state level of Owen's ally Bryan. To break the deadlock, the committee agreed to report out both bills to the full Senate, without a recommendation. Wilson, who had been maintaining a close watch over the legislation's progress, intervening when he considered it necessary, then ordered the Senate Democrats to meet in caucus to line the party up behind Owen's bill, making the vote a matter of party loyalty. On December 19, 1913, the Senate first defeated Hitchcock's bill by the narrow margin of 43–41, after which six Republicans joined all the Democrats to endorse Owen's bill by a more comfortable vote of 54–34.
The Federal Reserve Act was signed into law on December 23, 1913. As signed, the Act remained closer to Owen's plan than to any of the alternatives that had been discussed publicly. It provided for greater government involvement than the proposals of Aldrich and Glass, in particular in the appointment of the members of the central Federal Reserve Board, while putting bankers in each region in charge of the twelve (regional) Federal Reserve Banks.
The 1913 compromise left important issues to be settled after the Federal Reserve System actually began operations, including the exact nature of the relationship between the Federal Reserve Board and the Federal Reserve Banks, and how coordination was to be achieved between the different Federal Reserve Banks. A leading student of the history of the Federal Reserve has described the 1913 compromise as follows:
The Federal Reserve began operations ... as a peculiar hybrid, a partly public, partly private institution, intended to be independent of political influence with principal officers of the government on its supervisory board, endowed with central banking functions, but not a central bank. Each of the twelve semiautonomous reserve banks set its own discount rates, subject to the approval of the Federal Reserve Board in Washington, made its own policy decisions, and set its own standards for what was eligible for discounting.Owen's role in the difficult parliamentary politics of passing the Federal Reserve Act is discussed in Brown, pp. 244-248. Owen provides his own account in his book The Federal Reserve Act (1919).
Differences of view over the Federal Reserve's mandate began to become increasingly open in the aftermath of the First World War. In the words of a detailed study of Owen's role in shaping the Fed:
Owen and others viewed price stability and moderate interest rates as key objectives while most other early Fed leaders preferred to focus on maintaining the international gold standard and the strength of the banking system.
Owen became critical of what he viewed as the Federal Reserve's propensity during the early 1920s and again in the early 1930s to follow deflationary monetary policies. Writing in 1934, he stated that he had attempted in the Senate version of the Federal Reserve Bill to mandate the Federal Reserve to pursue a stable price level (i.e., avoiding both significant inflation and deflation), but that this provision had been struck out of the House version of the Bill (managed by Glass) due to what he described as "secret hostilities" — which he implied originated with the largest banks. He further recalled his opposition at the time to the deflationary policies pursued during 1920–1921.
Referring to the period from 1929 to 1933 he continued:
Again, under President Hoover, the contraction of credit took place on such a colossal scale as to force the dollar index (purchasing power) to 166. The consequence was universal bankruptcy, every bank in the United States being forced to suspend operations at the close of Hoover's services.
Owen's argument that the Federal Reserve's deflationary stance was largely responsible for causing the Great Depression would have been considered unorthodox at the time he made it. In more recent decades, however, such a view has come to be widely accepted, due in large part to the influence of the 1963 study A Monetary History of the United States by Milton Friedman and Anna J. Schwartz.
Beyond his work on the Federal Reserve Act, Owen helped to pass the Federal Farm Loan Act of 1916, which provided credit to small farmers through co-operatives.
Owen's role in the creation of the Federal Reserve is commemorated by Robert Latham Owen Park on the grounds of the Federal Reserve in Washington, D.C. (see photograph).
Committee chairmanships
Owen's chairmanship of the Committee on Banking and Currency through three Congresses, discussed in the section above, was his most prominent chairmanship by far. His other chairmanships were, by comparison, relatively mundane (if not obscure) in nature.
Committee on Indian Depredations, Sixty-second Congress (1911–1913). This committee had the narrow focus of overseeing claims under the Indian Depredation Act, which allowed for citizen claims against the federal government for crimes committed by Native Americans. Together with many other committees by then considered obsolete, the committee was to be wound up in 1921 under a major rationalization. The evidence suggests that Owen assumed the leadership of the committee briefly following the death of the original chairman in November 1912.
Committee on Pacific Railroads, Sixty-second Congress (1911–1913). This committee was appointed following an investigation into the finances of the Union Pacific Railroad, which was heavily indebted to the United States Government (it was first established as a select committee in 1889 and became a standing committee in 1893). This committee, too, was to be terminated in 1921.
Committee on Banking and Currency, Sixty-third through Sixty-fifth Congresses (1913–1919). See Banking issues and formation of the Federal Reserve above.
Committee on the Five Civilized Tribes of Indians, Sixty-sixth Congress (1919–1921). The Five Civilized Tribes is a term that historically was applied to the Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, and Seminole. All had a significant presence in Oklahoma. Owen was the last chairman of the committee, which was another of those wound up in 1921. Owen paid consistent attention throughout his time in the Senate to issues that affected Indian groups (both these five tribes and others), and was actively involved in debates over Indian land rights (see Other issues below) and Indian mineral rights cases, as well as disputes over membership in different Indian nations. It is not, however, clear that he made any special use of his chairmanship to promote significant new initiatives.
Beyond his chairmanships, Owen's committee assignments included service inter alia on: (i) Banking and Currency after the end of his chairmanship; (ii) Indian Affairs in all but the 64th Congress; and (iii) Appropriations from the 62nd through the 67th Congress.
Other issues
Although remembered primarily for his role in the establishment of the Federal Reserve, Owen worked on a wide range of other issues during his time in the Senate, many of which either reflected the policy agenda of the Progressive Movement or had a direct bearing on the interests of his constituents.
In 1908, he helped to pass the Removal of Restrictions Act, which lifted then-prevailing restrictions on the sale of many of the individual allotments of Indian land in Oklahoma, an issue on which he had run in 1907. This extended an earlier process of converting Indian lands from communal to individual ownership. These policies have long been controversial. Critics of converting Indian land from collective to individual tenure (and removing restrictions on its alienation) have argued that: (i) traditional tribal structures were thereby undermined, and (ii) many Indians were induced to part with their land rights on unfavorable terms. Owen countered that the restrictions were paternalistic in spirit, bureaucratically applied, ineffective in their stated goal of protecting Indians from exploitation, and an obstacle to economic development.
In common with Woodrow Wilson, Owen was a supporter of lowering tariffs. He made an exception for the oil industry, where he argued that protection was needed for small independent producers, such as those in his state, against the ability of Standard Oil to import large volumes of cheap Mexican oil. Standard Oil was one of several trusts that Owen opposed during the course of his public career. He sought unsuccessfully to strengthen the Sherman Anti-Trust Act. In 1916, he attacked what he described as the "Lumber Trust," which he said had bribed members of the Illinois legislature to elect William Lorimer to the Senate in 1909 (Lorimer's election had been overturned in 1912 due to evidence of "corrupt methods" including vote-buying), and had, Owen said, subsequently retaliated against Owen himself for his role in exposing the Lorimer scandal by funding efforts to defeat his own re-election. Owen made several unsuccessful efforts to mandate effective disclosure of corporate campaign contributions in the interests of open government. He was a supporter of the Sixteenth Amendment, passed by the Congress in 1909, which allowed the Congress to levy an income tax without apportioning it among the states or basing it on census results; a federal income tax was required inter alia to make up for the revenues lost to the federal government by reductions in tariff rates.
In the Senate, Owen continued his work in support of greater popular control of government. He made repeated attempts, starting in 1907, to propose a constitutional amendment providing for the direct public election of U.S. Senators, in place of election by state legislatures, until the Senate passed the Seventeenth Amendment to this effect in 1911. He also continued his strong support for extending the franchise to women (while opposing an amendment that would have restricted the franchise to whites only), until the successful passage in 1919 of the Nineteenth Amendment. He made several unsuccessful attempts to have the initiative and referendum adopted at federal level. He also campaigned unsuccessfully for the election and recall of federal judges, and to prevent federal courts from declaring acts of Congress unconstitutional, a power which, he argued, they had assumed illegally. He was likewise unsuccessful in his efforts to make it easier to amend the Constitution
In 1911, Republicans were blocking the admission of Arizona to statehood, while planning to admit New Mexico. Their declared grounds for opposing statehood for Arizona were that Arizona's constitution included the initiative, the referendum and the right of recall—the "Oregon System" of enhanced public sovereignty that Owen had long supported. It was, however, also generally expected that Arizona would return two Democrats to the Senate, while New Mexico was expected to favor Republicans. Owen filibustered the Senate for twelve hours until he had forced a Senate vote on the joint admission of both states. During the course of his filibuster, a message was brought to him that, if he would come to the President (Taft), a sincere effort would be made to reach an accommodation over Arizona. Owen responded "Present my compliments to the President, and advise him that at present I am engaged in addressing the Presidents of the United States."
From 1910 onwards, with the encouragement of his brother William, a medical doctor who served for many years with the U.S. Army, Owen campaigned unsuccessfully for the establishment of a cabinet-level Department of Health within the Federal Government. He promoted information on the achievements of Dr. Walter Reed and the Yellow Fever Commission, in part to demonstrate the potential of systematically organized programs in the field of public health. His efforts to create a cabinet-level Department of Education, initiated in 1917, similarly failed to achieve success during his own lifetime. A combined Department of Health, Education and Welfare was eventually added to the cabinet under President Eisenhower in April 1953.
Owen was actively involved in efforts to outlaw child labor. He served as co-sponsor of the Keating-Owen Act of 1916, aimed at prohibiting the sale in interstate commerce of goods manufactured with child labor in the United States. In 1918, the Act was struck down as unconstitutional by a five-to-four decision of the Supreme Court in Hammer v. Dagenhart, evincing a noted dissent by Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes. Following the Court's decision, Owen initially made an unsuccessful attempt to pass the legislation again with limited modification. In the event, the Congress responded to the Court's decision with the Child Labor Tax Law of 1919, which would have taxed products from child labor (and which in turn was declared unconstitutional in 1922 by an 8 to 1 vote in Bailey v. Drexel Furniture Co.). In 1924, the Congress sought to amend the Constitution to give itself the power to regulate child labor. Finally, in 1941, after Owen's retirement from active political life, a unanimous Supreme Court in United States v. Darby Lumber Co. overruled the 1918 decision (in the process endorsing and going beyond the principles set forth in Holmes's dissent) and ruled that the Commerce Clause gave Congress the right to regulate conditions of employment.
Owen was a close ally of President Wilson over American involvement in World War I. In 1920 he withheld his support from the campaign for renomination of his fellow-Democratic Senator from Oklahoma, Thomas Gore, over Gore's repeated criticisms of Wilson's positions on the war and the peace. Gore was then defeated in the Democratic primary by Rep. Scott Ferris, who, however, went on to lose in the general election to Republican John W. Harreld (Gore eventually returned to the Senate following re-election in 1930).
Owen worked unsuccessfully after the war to salvage Wilson's hopes for U.S. participation in the League of Nations. In January 1920, at a time when the ailing Wilson himself refused to countenance any U.S. reservations to the league's Covenant, and the influential Republican Senator Henry Cabot Lodge refused to accept membership without reservations, Owen issued a call for bipartisan compromise. A small group from both parties (including Lodge) then made substantial progress towards agreement, against Wilson's intense opposition. However, when the "irreconcilable" anti-League Senator William Borah learnt of the bipartisan discussions, he pressured Lodge into pulling out.
Owen was concerned about the prospects for international economic recovery after the war. In November 1919, he wrote to Wilson warning that the gold standard had temporarily broken down, and urging the President to convene an International Exchange Conference to address the problem; he also emphasized the importance, in the post-war period, of the United States helping the European countries to obtain credit via the marketing of their securities. Owen made unsuccessful attempts in the early post-war years to promote the establishment of a Foreign Finance Corporation (and/or a Federal Reserve Foreign Bank) to help expand credit for international trade.
Campaign for Presidency and final years in politics
Owen launched a run for the Presidency in Oklahoma on May 19, 1919, and undertook a tour of several states, seeking support, in the spring of 1920. He published a number of books during this period, publicizing his involvement in the passage of the Federal Reserve Act and his views on a variety of economic and foreign policy issues (see Works by Robert Latham Owen below). Owen received some indications of support from his fellow-Progressive and long-time ally, the party's three-time standard-bearer William Jennings Bryan, who joined him on his campaign visits to some of the Western states, but Bryan's support for Owen was lukewarm, his influence in the party was past his peak, and he placed much of his focus in 1920 on promoting the cause of prohibition, the main theme of his eventual speech at the convention. Bryan declined to run for the nomination himself for multiple reasons — his health was problematic (he described himself to one journalist as "at the end of life") and he expected the Democrats to go down to defeat — though he privately left open the possibility of accepting the nomination in exceptional circumstances. Owen, for his part, gained few significant endorsements.
By the time of the 1920 Democratic National Convention in San Francisco, whatever Owen's own ambitions, his candidacy had a "favorite son" appearance to it. He received 33 votes on the first ballot, which increased to 41 on the twentieth ballot. His support came primarily from his own state, together with some votes from Nebraska (Bryan's adopted state). On the fortieth ballot he again received 33 votes, putting him in fourth place. The Oklahoma delegates remained loyal until on the forty-fourth ballot Owen released them so as to ensure a unanimous vote for the Party's nominee Governor of Ohio James M. Cox. The chronicler of Owen's senatorial career relates that "efforts to secure Owen's consent to accept the nomination for vice-president failed," but any such efforts do not appear to have originated with the Party's nominee, who was decisive in his preference for Franklin Delano Roosevelt as his running mate. The Cox-Roosevelt slate went down to defeat by a landslide.
Owen's later views on international affairs did not escape controversy. Though initially a firm supporter of the Treaty of Versailles, including its assertion of German responsibility for the outbreak of World War I, during 1923 his views changed radically under the influence of "revisionist" studies, including the publication of extensive (though incomplete) materials from the diplomatic archives of the pre-War Tsarist Russian Foreign Office. He made a major speech in the Senate on 18 December 1923 attributing primary responsibility for the war to France and (especially) Russia rather than Germany. Owen hoped that a public revisiting of the issue of war guilt might encourage reversal of some of the penal clauses imposed on Germany under the Versailles settlement, and pave the way to reconciliation between Germany and France, but his attempts to promote a Senate investigation of the war guilt question were narrowly defeated, largely along party lines — with many of his fellow Democrats concerned not to undermine the reputation of Woodrow Wilson — while an expert report prepared by the Legislative Research Service of the Library of Congress, though broadly supportive of Owen's arguments, was in the event never published as it was considered unlikely to obtain the support of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee. In 1926, following his retirement from the Senate, Owen was to publish a book advancing his revisionist thesis, under the title: The Russian Imperial Conspiracy, 1892-1914: The Most Gigantic Intrigue of all Time.
Owen wrote of the convictions underlying his efforts on the war guilt issue:
The Germans did not will the war. It was forced on them by the Russian Imperialists ... The German, Russian, French, Belgian and allied peoples became alike the sorrowful victims ... The happiness and future peace of the world require the reconciliation of the German and French people.The extent to which Owen's position on the origins of the war had changed can be exemplified by comparing The Russian Imperial Conspiracy to a pamphlet he had published in 1919, under the title Where is God in the European War? He wrote there (pp. 15-16): "The war was unavoidable when the power to prepare for war became vested in the hands of a Kaiser who had the vanity, the ambition, and the folly to believe he could successfully conquer the world, and the insolence and wickedness to attempt it, and a subservient people to follow and support his foolish ambition".
This said, some have seen Owen's preoccupation with the war guilt question as, at least to some degree, symptomatic of a growing detachment on his part from current U.S. political issues following the Democrats' loss of the 1920 elections. On the domestic front, the Harding administration's "return to normalcy" offered little scope for further advances on Owen's Progressive agenda; in international affairs, the post-1920 turn of U.S. policy towards isolationism and protectionism also ran counter to his long-held principles.
In February 1924, Owen announced that he would not run for re-election, and on March 4, 1925, at the age of 69, he retired from the Senate. Owen did not campaign for the presidency in 1924, though when the Democratic Convention of that year reached its hundredth indecisive ballot, some 20 delegates cast their votes for him.
A leading student of Owen's political career sums up his overall assessment as follows:
If Owen failed to live up to the expectations of his own ambition, he was in any case an industrious and productive United States senator of the first order.
Later life and death
On Owen's retirement, the Democratic Party failed to retain his seat in the Senate. This reflected a split in the party over the candidacy of former Oklahoma Governor Jack C. Walton, who had been impeached and removed from office as governor in November 1923, over accusations (inter alia) that he had acted unconstitutionally in suspending habeas corpus in the face of race riots fanned by the Ku Klux Klan. Although Walton won the nomination, largely on an anti-Klan platform, many local Democratic leaders, including Owen, declined to support his candidacy, and the seat was won in a landslide by the Republican candidate, William B. Pine. The seat reverted to Democratic control in 1930 when Thomas Gore was re-elected to the Senate.
After his retirement from the Senate, Owen initially practiced law and undertook lobbying in Washington, D.C. In 1923, he formally adopted his only grandchild, who took the name Robert Latham Owen III. In the 1928 Presidential election, Owen felt unable to support his party's nominee Al Smith, due to Smith's strong anti-prohibition position and his connections to Tammany Hall; to his subsequent deep regret, he became the first prominent Democrat to endorse the candidacy of Republican Herbert Hoover. He returned to the Democratic fold in 1932 to give a strong endorsement to Franklin Delano Roosevelt.
In retirement, Owen worked on a personal proposal to develop and promote a universal alphabet based on phonetic principles. He was inducted into the Oklahoma Hall of Fame in 1941. In his later years Owen was functionally blind. His wife predeceased him in 1946, and he died in Washington of complications from prostate surgery on July 19, 1947. He was buried in Spring Hill Cemetery, Lynchburg, Virginia, near his beloved mother and other family members. Carter Glass, his fellow sponsor of the Glass-Owen Federal Reserve Act, with whom Owen had experienced a frequently strained relationship, lies nearby.
Works
This list focuses on Owen's book-length works, and excludes shorter pieces such as his prolific journalism or reprints of individual speeches:
The Code of the Peoples' Rule: Compilation of Various Statutes, Etc. Relating to the People's Rule System of Government. Washington DC, Government Printing Office, 1910.
The Covenant of the League of Nations: What It Proposes and What It Does Not Propose. Washington DC, Government Printing Office, 1919.
The Federal Reserve Act. New York, The Century Co., 1919.
Foreign Exchange. New York, The Century Co., 1919.
"Foreword" (dated October 29, 1934) to Money Creators by Gertrude M. Coogan, Chicago, Sound Money Press, 1935.
The Russian Imperial Conspiracy, 1892–1914: The Most Gigantic Intrigue of all Time. First edition, 1926, privately printed. Second edition, 1927, published by Albert and Charles Boni, New York.
Where Is God in the European War? New York, The Century Co., 1919.
Yellow Fever; a Compilation of Various Publications: Results of the Work of Maj. Walter Reed, Medical Corps, United States Army, and the Yellow Fever Commission. Washington DC, Government Printing Office, 1911.
A recording of Owen delivering a speech, dating from 1920, may be heard on the Library of Congress website at: http://frontiers.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/nfor:@field(DOCID+@range(90000067+90000068)).
There is an archive of Owen's papers at the Library of Congress. There are smaller collections, largely covering the period after his retirement from the Senate, at the University of Oklahoma's Carl Albert Center (see link below) and at the Federal Reserve.
Robert L. Owen Collection at the Carl Albert Center, and digitized and available on FRASER
Statements and Speeches of Robert L. Owen, 1908–1924, extracted from the Papers of Robert L. Owen held at the Carl Albert Center and digitized by FRASER.
See also
List of Native Americans in the United States Congress
Notes
Further reading
Dictionary of American Biography
Oklahoma Historical Society's Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture, accessed on 12/11/10 at: http://digital.library.okstate.edu/encyclopedia/entries/o/ow003.html
Belcher, Wyatt W. "The Political Leadership of Robert L. Owen." The Chronicles of Oklahoma, 31 (Winter 1953–1954).
Brandon, Stephen. "'Mother Of U.S. Senator An Indian Queen': Cultural Challenge and Appropriation in The Memoirs of Narcissa Owen, 1831–1907". Studies in American Indian Literatures, Series 2, Volume 13, Number 2 & 3, Summer/Fall 2001.
Brown, Kenny. "A Progressive From Oklahoma: Senator Robert Latham Owen Jr." The Chronicles of Oklahoma 62 (Fall 1984): 232–265.
Keso, Edward Elmer. The Senatorial Career of Robert Latham Owen. Gardenvale (Canada), Garden City Press, 1938.
Owen, Narcissa Chisholm. Memoirs of Narcissa Owen, 1831-1907. Washington DC, apparently self-published, . Republished in a critical edition as: A Cherokee Woman's America: Memoirs of Narcissa Owen, 1831–1907. Edited by Karen L. Kilcup. Gainesville, University Press of Florida, 2005.
Todd, Ted. "On Robert Latham Owen." TEN magazine, Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City, Fall 2007, accessed on 12/23/10 at: https://web.archive.org/web/20110717045758/http://www.kansascityfed.org/publicat/TEN/pdf/Fall2007/Fall07About.RobertOwen.pdf
Wilkerson, Chad R. "Senator Robert Latham Owen of Oklahoma and the Federal Reserve's Formative Years." Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City, Economic Review (forthcoming). Accessed on 10/3/13 at: http://www.kansascityfed.org/publicat/econrev/pdf/13q3Wilkerson.pdf
External links
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1856 births
1947 deaths
Politicians from Lynchburg, Virginia
People of Indian Territory
American people of Welsh descent
Cherokee Nation members of the United States Senate
Cherokee Nation politicians
Native American members of the United States Congress
Democratic Party United States senators from Oklahoma
Candidates in the 1920 United States presidential election
20th-century American politicians
People from Salina, Oklahoma
Progressive Era in the United States
19th-century American lawyers
Washington and Lee University alumni
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Highway%201%20%28Israel%E2%80%93Palestine%29
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Highway 1 (Israel–Palestine)
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Highway 1 (, Kvish Ahat; ) is the main highway in Israel, connecting Tel Aviv and Jerusalem, and continuing eastwards to the Jordan Valley in the West Bank.
Highway
Tel Aviv to Jerusalem
The coastal plain and Judean foothills
The route begins as a six-lane freeway as it splits off from the Ayalon Highway (Highway 20) just north of the Kibbutz Galuyot Interchange in Tel Aviv at an elevation of 16 meters above sea level travelling due south-southeast following the course of the Ayalon Stream. It then turns southeast, continuing past the 70 meter high Hiriya landfill, intersects Highway 4 and Route 412 and passes the Tel Aviv toll express lanes and park-and-ride facility. Israel Railways maintains tracks along the median of the highway along this section. A separate express toll lane runs along the three westbound lanes between Ben Gurion and Kibbutz Galuyot interchanges.
The road then makes an S-curve as it passes Ben Gurion International Airport and crosses north of the Ayalon Stream. Continuing south-southeast, the road intersects with Highway 40, the cutoff to Route 443 East and Highway 6 (Trans Israel Highway) North where it narrows to four lanes and rises to an elevation of 93 meters at Ben Shemen. Passing Ben Shemen, the highway descends slightly as it turns south-by-west, running concurrently for with Highway 6 providing access to Highway 6 South.
Leaving the Highway 6 concurrency, the road again turns south-southeast, travelling through the Ayalon Valley where it once again widens to six lanes and intersects with Highway 431 just south of Modi'in. At this point, Israel's longest bridge, part of the Tel Aviv-Jerusalem High-Speed Railway, can be seen in the valley to the north. The road crosses the Ayalon Stream and ascends to 250 meters as it briefly crosses the Green Line (the 1949 Armistice Line) for and back again at Latrun. The road then travels briefly alongside the Ilan Stream, approaching Sha'ar HaGai (The Valley Gate) at 300 meters above sea level. At the Sha'ar HaGai Interchange, an Ottoman caravanserai is visible on the south side of the highway.
Ascent to Jerusalem
Passing through Sha'ar HaGai, Highway 1 begins a pronounced ascent through the Judean Mountains at a point between the Mishlatim Ridge to the north and the Shayarot Ridge and the famous Burma Road to the south. Along this section, abandoned rusted military vehicles have been preserved along the sides of the road to commemorate the efforts of the armoured supply convoys that attempted to break through the siege of Jerusalem during 1948 Palestine war. Past Shoresh, the road reaches an elevation of 715 meters along the northern ridge of the Kisalon Valley at Kiryat Ye'arim (Telz-Stone). It then descends to 610 meters as it passes Abu Gosh while crossing the Kisalon Stream at Ein Hemed, and then again ascends, reaching 680 meters as it enters the Harel Tunnels, bypassing Mount Ma'oz and Castel National Park at Mevaseret Zion. At this point, the road descends to 610 meters, where it passes on the Motza bridge over the Sorek Stream and Valley, bypassing Motza.
Through Jerusalem
Now within the municipal limits of Jerusalem, the road continues northeast and begins the final ascent to the city. On the northern slopes below Har HaMenuchot, the road splits at Sha'ar Moriah Interchange, completed in 2007. Before 2007, Highway 1 continued its ascent via Ben Gurion Boulevard, negotiating three wide curves and three tight curves ending at the historic western entrance to Jerusalem at the beginning of Jaffa Road. Since that time, the road, as numbered now, descends from the interchange into the Valley of Cedars (Emek HaArazim).
In the Valley of Cedars, the road known as Jerusalem Road 9 passes through tunnels under a hill on the north side of the Sorek Stream. It then crosses the Green Line next to Ramot at an elevation of 630 meters as it intersects with Route 436 and Highway 50 (Begin Boulevard) at Yigael Yadin Interchange, becoming a four-lane divided highway with traffic-light controlled junctions. Travelling due east, the road, also called Yigael Yadin Boulevard, passes Har Hotzvim and Ramat Shlomo, ascending to its highest elevation of 815 meters as it intersects with the heavily congested Sha'ar Mizrach Junction (East Gate) at Shu'afat and French Hill. At this point, the road crosses the tracks of the Jerusalem Light Rail and intersects with Highway 60, marking the watershed of the Judean Mountains.
Passing Sha'ar Mizrah, the road is called Derech Ma'ale Adumim. The greenery typical of the western side of the watershed is replaced by the eastern side's stark mountain-desert shades of beige. The road turns southward and begins descending, passing the Shu'afat refugee camp and the Al-Issawiya neighbourhood. At this point, a new road alongside and separated from Highway 1 has been built that will become a connecting route between Ramallah and Bethlehem. Passing the At-Tur neighbourhood, the highway leaves Jerusalem at the Zeitim Security Checkpoint. After this point, the road is open to green (Palestinian) license plates.
Jerusalem to the Jordan Valley
Turning eastward after the checkpoint, Highway 1 descends steeply to 375 meters as it passes the Adumim Interchange with Route 417 providing access to Ma'ale Adumim, al-Eizariya and Abu Dis, joining the historic Jericho Road. The road turns east by northeast, continuing its descent, passing E1 (Jerusalem), Mishor Adumim and Route 437 at 250 meters. Levelling out for the next and occasionally rising in elevation, the road passes the Nahal Og Nature Reserve (Wadi Mukhalik), intersects with the Allon Road (Route 458) and the famous Khan Al-Ahmar, a caravanserai associated with the New Testament story of the Good Samaritan.
Descending again, the road briefly turns due south as it passes Mitzpe Yeriho. Turning southeast, though travellers can stop at a scenic overlook at Sea Level (0 meters), the view of the Jordan Valley at this precise point is mostly obstructed because of the surrounding mountains. The attraction for tourists is to be photographed in front of the sea level sign and, for a price, sitting atop a colourfully decorated camel. The road then turns eastward and descends below sea level passing the entrance road to Nabi Musa, a pilgrimage site where Muslims believe Moses is buried. At 230 meters below sea level, the road passes Jericho Junction, providing access to Vered Yeriho and Jericho. Passing Beit HaArava, Highway 1 ends at Beit HaArava Junction with Highway 90 at an elevation of 325 meters below sea level.
History
The section between Latrun and Jerusalem roughly follows an ancient path connecting Jaffa and Jerusalem. At the entrance to Jerusalem, the steep and winding rise was known as Ma'aleh HaRoma'im (Romans' Ascent), covering a path rising in altitude. The Jaffa–Jerusalem road was initially made accessible for wheeled vehicles by the Ottomans in 1867 and since then served as the main highway to Jerusalem, favoured over more topographically convenient routes such as Route 443. The largest bell for the church of the Augusta Victoria complex, built between 1907 and 1910, weighed six tonnes and required that the road be widened and paved.
In 1948, the Latrun section of the highway was taken over by Jordan, and traffic was diverted to a new route called "Derekh Ha'Gvura" (Road of Bravery), which is now part of Highways 44 and 38. In 1965, the old highway was widened to four lanes between Sha'ar HaGai and Jerusalem. After the Six-Day War, the Latrun section was reopened, and an interchange was built at Mevaseret Zion(Harel Interchange). During the 1970s, a bypass was built around the village of Abu Ghosh, including the construction of Hemed Interchange.
The coastal plain and Judean foothills
In 1978, a new section opened, connecting former Road 10 (the Tel Aviv – Ben Gurion Airport road) with Sha'ar HaGai. The new section formed the third freeway in the country, after Highways 2 and 4. Although it is about longer than the old road (now Highway 44 and Route 424), it is much faster. One of the first passengers on this section was Egyptian President Anwar Sadat during his historic visit to Israel in 1977. This section briefly crosses over the Green Line near Latrun.
The section between Ganot Interchange and Ben Shemen Interchange was widened to six lanes in 1998. During the construction of Highway 6 (1999–2003), the Ben Shemen Interchange was rebuilt, and a new interchange was built near the village of Kfar Daniel. The Daniel Interchange is a straight, eight-lane segment where Highways 1 and 6 run concurrently, providing 1-west to 6-north and 1-east to 6-south high-speed interchange.
Anava Interchange opened on February 4, 2009, together with the eastern section of Route 431. It is a complex interchange and the first complete freeway to freeway interchange in the country, connecting all eight directions between the two freeways without the use of traffic lights.
To relieve congestion at the entrance to Tel Aviv, a high-occupancy toll lane was built as a Build-Operate-Transfer project. The project included additional lanes between Ben Gurion Airport and Kibutz Galuyot Interchange and a large park and ride facility east of Shapirim Interchange. Shapir Engineering started the construction of the park-and-ride facility in August 2007, and the project was completed in 2010.
Ascent to Jerusalem
Motza interchange opened in 1990, and the Sha'ar HaGai Interchange opened in 1995. In 1998, the eastbound left turn to Abu Ghosh, Ma'ale HaHamisha and Kiryat Anavim was closed. Finally, in 2002, Shoresh Interchange opened, eliminating the last left turn on the highway between Tel Aviv and Jerusalem. At this point, the Sha'ar HaGai–Jerusalem section was fully grade separated. However, the road did not meet freeway standards due to narrow shoulders, dangerous turns and difficult slopes, and the speed limit on this section was .
Upgrading this section with additional lanes and gentler curves was approved by the Committee on National Projects after many years of opposition from ecological groups and local governmental authorities. Also, according to this plan, the uni-directional Kiryat Ye'arim Interchange was rebuilt to allow access to eastbound traffic, a tunnel was built under the Castel Mountain (HarEl) with more efficient entry and exit ramps and a long bridge was built to straighten the dangerous Motza curve. The soil extracted from the tunnel was used to widen the Shoresh–Sha'ar HaGai section, raising the road by five meters to straighten the curves and widen the road from four to six lanes with wider shoulders.
Opposition on ecological grounds to the Sha'ar HaGai-Shoresh section that passes through a sensitive nature reserve has been addressed by the inclusion of a 70-meter wide eco-bridge as part of the plan. Additionally, the quality of life issues raised by the leaders of the nearby communities were all rejected.
By February 2012, the National Roads Authority published requests for tender (invitation for bids) for the Sha'ar HaGai-Shoresh section and the HarEl Tunnel to be implemented as design–build projects. By January 2014 extensive infrastructure works were taking place along the entire project's route. They were completed in late 2017 at a total cost of approximately NIS 2.5 billion.
Jerusalem to the Jordan Valley
The British first built the section of the highway east of Jerusalem in the 1920s along the path of an ancient road to the Dead Sea. This section was under Jordanian control between 1948 and 1967 and renewed access to this road, which is known as the "Jericho Road" () or the Adummim Ascent (), was famously noted alongside the reunification of Jerusalem in the famous Israeli song, Jerusalem of Gold.
In the late 1980s, a new road was built north of Jericho Road, between French Hill neighbourhood in northern Jerusalem and the town of Ma'ale Adummim. This section was improved by 1995 when it was widened, and a new interchange was built at Ma'ale Adummim. A bypass of this section, designed to relieve congestion at Sha'ar Mizrah Junction, opened in 2002, connecting the highway through two 2-lane tunnels under Mount Scopus towards the Hebrew University, Bar-Ilan Street and central Jerusalem. As part of this project, the new HaZeitim interchange was built at the foot of the Mount of Olives.
The section between Ma'ale Adummim and Jericho was widened to four lanes in the early 2010s.
Through Jerusalem
The sections west and east of Jerusalem are linked by an expressway segment running north of the city centre. Known internally as Yigael Yadin road or 'Jerusalem Road 9', the stretch has divided lanes but includes several at-grade intersections alongside its interchanges.
In 2001 Moriah, the Jerusalem Development Company started building a bypass of the city's oft-congested western entrance, designated as 'Jerusalem Road 9'. Before it was built, travellers from the west of Jerusalem who wished to reach the Dead Sea, or vice versa, had no better option than to drive through congested city streets. The road was intended to improve traffic flow in Ramot and nearby neighbourhoods.
The road descends from the purpose-built Sha'ar Moriah Interchange to allow continuous separate grade access to Yigael Yadin Interchange and the northern and eastern continuation of Highway 1. Passing through Emek HaArazim (Valley of Cedars), it includes two 400-meter tunnels (one for eastbound traffic and one for westbound), four bridges over the Sorek stream and two new interchanges.
While the highway was scheduled for completion in early 2005, work was slowed to a near halt between 2003 and 2006, and completion was postponed for over two years. The opening, planned for May 21, 2007, was postponed another two months due to Moriah's failure to complete the required environmental mitigation. Permission to open the road was granted on condition that the company and Jerusalem municipality guarantee completion of environmental mitigation after the opening. Road 9 opened on July 25, 2007 and constitutes part of Highway 1.
In October, 2014, Jerusalem Road 9 was officially renamed "Derech Yitzhak Shamir" after Israel's 7th Prime Minister.
Development plans
Israel Railways has built a new high-speed rail line between Tel Aviv and Jerusalem. This line crosses the highway at three points: over a viaduct east of Ben Gurion Airport, in a tunnel at Anava Interchange and another tunnel at the western entrance to Jerusalem.
In late 2021, construction began on a new interchange that will provide additional access to Ben Gurion Airport from Highway 1. It will significantly reduce the distance vehicles must travel to access the airport's main terminal from the direction of Tel Aviv and other points north and west of the airport.
A plan to add lanes and reconfigure the highway between Tel Aviv and the Shapirim interchange will be carried out as part of the four-tracking project of the Tel Aviv-Lod railway expected to take place in the mid-2020s decade.
An interchange at Ramat Shlomo is currently under construction. Once completed, it will replace the current signalized intersection. It is also designed to provide an additional route to the Har Hotzvim High-Tech area. Moriya is also planning to build a tunnel at Sha'ar Mizrah Junction. This tunnel will allow east-west traffic to bypass the current signalized intersections and provide direct access to Jerusalem's northeastern neighbourhoods. Once these two projects are completed, there will be only one at-grade intersection left along the highway between Tel Aviv and Adummim, at Isawiya.
Highway 16
Just as Jerusalem Road 9 provided traffic relief to motorists headed to northern and eastern Jerusalem by bypassing the main western entrance to the city, an additional project to alleviate the bottleneck in the western entrance consists of the construction of Highway 16. This would create another entrance to Jerusalem and provide direct access to central and southern Jerusalem from the west. The planned road would connect Highway 1 at the new Motza Interchange to Jerusalem's Highway 50 (Begin Boulevard) at Givat Mordechai Interchange. The road would travel mostly through a series of tunnels under the west Jerusalem neighbourhoods of Har Nof and Yefeh Nof and the parking lots of Shaare Zedek Medical Center with an intermediate Nahal Revida Interchange leading to Givat Shaul. The project will cost approximately NIS 1.5 billion and was originally expected to be completed by the end of 2018. The plan had to pass stiff resistance on ecological grounds due to the above ground section at Nahal Revida located in the Jerusalem Forest. After many delays, the contract for construction was finally awarded in August 2018, with construction expected to take place from 2019 through 2023.
Interchanges
Hazardous road
28.5 km of highway 1 had been declared as a red road by the Israeli police in 2015.
References
External links
Highway 9 on Moriah website
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Huron Central Railway
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The Huron Central Railway is a railway operating in northern Ontario, Canada. It is operated by Genesee & Wyoming Canada, the Canadian subsidiary of Genesee & Wyoming.
The Huron Central Railway was established in July 1997 to operate a route leased from the Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR) between Sudbury and Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario. The lease agreements encompass all but of
track at the Sudbury end of the line, known within the CPR as the Webbwood Subdivision, as well as the Domtar Spur, which branches
southwest from the Webbwood Sub at McKerrow. The CPR retains running rights over about of track at the east end of the Webbwood Subdivision, and the HCRY has running rights all the way into Sudbury.
Coil steel manufactured by Algoma Steel in Sault Ste. Marie and freight from the Domtar paper mill at Espanola account for 80% of freight traffic, although pulpwood, chemicals used by the steel industry, slab steel, paper, and miscellaneous goods are also carried. In 2008, the railway handled 16,000 carloads a year, though carloadings have decreased in subsequent years.
The route has variable topography and parallels Ontario Highway 17 for much of its length.
History
Canadian Pacific
Origins and route
One of the terms of British Columbia entering into the Canadian Confederation in 1871 was the construction of a transcontinental railway connecting it with the original eastern Canadian provinces of Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia; this would result in a route through the largely-uncolonized Prairies, including the restive province of Manitoba, which had only recently been the site of the Red River Rebellion in 1869–70. Around the same time, amid fears of American expansionism north of the 49th parallel and border tensions resulting from the Fenian raids, American companies such as the St Paul, Minneapolis and Manitoba Railroad were pushing northward to connect Manitoba with the American Midwest and promoting cross-border trade along a north–south axis. One of the notable promoters of this effort was the Canadian-American railway industrialist James J. Hill, known as the "Empire Builder" and namesake of the modern-day Amtrak Empire Builder passenger train. Hill was the general manager of the St Paul, Minneapolis and Manitoba Railroad, and in 1880 became part of the Montreal-based five-man syndicate who were awarded the transcontinental railway contract by the Canadian federal government under John A. Macdonald's Conservatives, and subsequently formed the Canadian Pacific Railway Company. Railway construction had already been ongoing at the time under the previous Liberal government of Alexander Mackenzie, managed by the federal Department of Public Works and led by the renowned Scottish-Canadian engineer Sandford Fleming, who was dismissed in 1880 and replaced by Collingwood Schreiber as chief engineer on the project. Under Fleming's direction, the symbolic "first spike" had been driven at Fort William (now part of Thunder Bay) in 1875, and construction had commenced with the goal of connecting Winnipeg with the Lake Superior Lakehead in Northwestern Ontario.
Exploratory surveys had been conducted as early as 1871 along two prospective mainline routes connecting the Lakehead with the east: a direct inland route through the rugged terrain of the Canadian Shield (proposed by Sandford Fleming), and a "water route" which would use steamships to connect the Lakehead with a port on the north shore of Lake Huron, and then continue on via rail. The latter would pass through the newly formed Algoma District, paralleling the historic voyageur route through the North Channel of Lake Huron and connecting a number of pre-existing points or transportation corridors with the east:
Sault Ste. Marie, which originated as a historic indigenous settlement populated predominantly by Ojibwe people
Bruce Mines, which was settled in a copper rush in 1846
Thessalon, which was historically inhabited by First Nations people, appeared on French maps as early as 1670, and was settled by Europeans as a lumber mill town in the 1870s
Blind River, which originated in 1789 as a North West Company fur trading post at the mouth of the Mississagi River
Spragge, the place of a meeting between Samuel de Champlain and local Ojibwe people, which developed into a mill town named Cook's Mills by 1882
The Spanish River, a historic canoe route to the interior (with the CPR route bypassing the Fort La Cloche trading post near its mouth)
Slightly to the north of the Hudson's Bay Company trading post at Whitefish Lake, which was established in 1824 at a key portage route near the Vermilion River and which marked a point along Salter's Meridian
Additionally, by passing largely to the north of the La Cloche Mountains, which divide the interior from the Lake Huron shoreline, the railway's route would pass through fertile lands with agricultural potential that were noted as early as the 1847 and 1848 surveys by the Scottish geologist and explorer Alexander Murray.
Construction of the line
Ultimately, Canadian Pacific would construct lines along both the northern inland and the southern lakeshore routes. At first, however, the company decided in favour of the southern route for its mainline, where the water route through Lake Superior was set to begin, and which was more accessible through existing means of transportation. This was supported by James Hill, as a line through Sault Ste. Marie into the United States would benefit his St Paul, Minneapolis and Manitoba Railroad, and open up the possibility of a joint Canadian-American transcontinental mainline through the Midwest. It was also initially the more practical, as the CPR was being faced with the challenge of transporting construction materials to the Lakehead to complete the line through the Prairies. This was done initially with steamships, which had already been operating on the Great Lakes for decades. By 1881, a line had been surveyed westward to Algoma Mills, where temporary port facilities were built out of expediency rather than using existing facilities at Sault Ste. Marie.
Construction work on the section began in 1882 under the supervision of CPR engineer Harry Abbott, but went slowly as crews carved a route through the rugged La Cloche Mountains; by the end of 1882, all had been graded, but only of track had been laid. It was completed in 1884, but was considered below standard by the CPR, with bridges constructed from local timbers rather than the steel necessary to support heavy freight. This was intended to be the temporary western terminus of CPR line from Montreal, but construction on the eastern portion of the line north of Lake Nipissing had proceeded extremely slowly under engineer James Worthington, and only reached the Vermilion River by the end of 1883, in the process passing through a concentrated pocket of Jesuit missionary activity which would coalesce into the parish of Sainte-Anne-des-Pins. Worthington also placed a junction and construction camp at a place nearby, which he named Sudbury.
Race to the Soo
The CPR was not the only company pursuing a link between Southern and Eastern Ontario and Sault Ste. Marie. Another interested party was the Midland Railway of Canada, a conglomerate formed out of smaller lines around Central Ontario. A shell company named the Ontario Sault Ste. Marie Railway was incorporated in 1881, and a line was surveyed for it. The Midland Railway, however, was insolvent and involved in a set of complex structural maneuvers which would eventually result in its amalgamation with the Grand Trunk Railway in 1893, putting the Midland in a poor position for further construction and dooming the new line to being a paper railway.
Also in 1881, the Northern Railway of Canada was going through its own complex reorganization, which would result in the incorporation of the Northern, North-Western, and Sault Ste. Marie Railway, which was to reach Sault Ste. Marie via North Bay through an extension of the Northern's existing line, which terminated at Gravenhurst. Construction began within several years, but the project lagged, and the line only reached Callander, just south of North Bay in 1886. Financing issues for the line caused a public scandal, and the goal of reaching Sault Ste. Marie was abandoned. Instead, Nipissing Junction was created as the new terminus, joining it with the Canadian Pacific line just southeast of North Bay, and the whole line was renamed to the Northern and Pacific Junction Railway. The Northern Railway of Canada collapsed soon after, and it was merged into the Grand Trunk Railway, which had, through agents and proxies, been involved in the operations of both it and the Midland Railway for some time. The Grand Trunk, seeing Canadian Pacific as its new rival following its own acquisition of the Great Western Railway in 1882, acquired numerous railways around this time and "depleted its treasury" in an unsuccessful bid to keep Canadian Pacific out of Ontario. Ultimately, the line as it was built would later come under Canadian National ownership and most recently forms part of the CN Newmarket Subdivision.
A change of course
Significantly, in 1883 and 1884 there had been a sea change at the CPR: an increasingly bitter James Hill resigned from the company, and became a major opponent of the company and its future president, William Cornelius Van Horne. On 1 May 1884, Worthington also resigned from the company after a disagreement with Van Horne and was replaced with Abbott as supervising engineer on the remaining eastern section of the mainline. In preparation for the opening of the new terminus at Algoma Mills, three steamships, the Alberta, Algoma, and Athabaska, had been built in 1883 by Charles Connell and Company of Glasgow. These ships began service in May 1884 from Owen Sound to Port Arthur, pending the opening of the line. By the end of 1884, however, this new mainline section had been suddenly downgraded to a branch line thereafter known as the Algoma Branch. Surveying and construction began on a new mainline route starting from the junction at Sudbury along a new route around this time.
During blasting and excavation along the new mainline a short distance to the north of Sudbury, high concentrations of nickel-copper ore were discovered by Thomas Flanagan, a blacksmith working for the CPR, at the site of what would become the Murray Mine. Organized copper mining had occurred on the north shore since at least as early as the foundation of Bruce Mines in 1846. The use of copper by First Nations people had been documented by Samuel de Champlain in the early 17th century, and there is significant archaeological evidence of copper working by the Mississippian people among others, who largely sourced their copper from the Great Lakes region. The western Great Lakes were the epicentre of the Old Copper Complex as early as 4000 BCE, with evidence of indigenous copper mining on Isle Royale from around this time. Geophysically, the presence of magnetic anomalies around the Sudbury Basin had been noted by Alexander Murray in his 1847–48 surveys. As well, in the course of charting his north–south meridian, Albert Salter observed "severe compass needle deflections" about north of the Hudson's Bay Company trading post at Whitefish Lake. This drew little attention at the time, as the Sudbury area was located well inland and composed of rough terrain, and was less desirable than locations such as Bruce Mines or in Michigan's Copper Country. Within several years after the official discovery, however, mining activity had increased significantly in the Sudbury Basin, mostly by small companies which struggled with limitations in mining and smelting technology of the time. Nevertheless, this development would ultimately shift the economic focus of the region away from Sault Ste. Marie and toward Sudbury.
With the new mainline still under construction, the Algoma Branch went disused until 1888, when it was brought up to standard and finally extended to Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario, with a symbolic "meeting in the middle" of eastbound and westbound trains at Whitefish in 1889. Around the same time, the CPR acquired the financially struggling Minneapolis, St. Paul and Sault Ste. Marie Railroad (MStP&SSM) through intermediaries. The MStP&SSM line had been extended up to Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan, and it and the CPR had jointly funded the construction of the Sault Ste. Marie International Railroad Bridge in 1887. This would provide a connection point with American railways in the Midwest, access to Sault Ste. Marie's industries, and the opportunity to open up the North Shore of Lake Huron to increased European settlement and natural resource extraction. Much like in other areas of Canada, townships were quickly surveyed and lots sold either to natural resource interests or to prospective settlers, including Québécois, Scots, and Finns. New or refounded settlements, concentrated heavily toward the east end of the line near Sudbury, sprung up along the line, including:
Copper Cliff, which was officially founded in 1901 as a company town
Naughton, which was founded in 1887 with the relocation of the Whitefish Lake Hudson's Bay Company post northward to be closer to the line
Whitefish
Victoria Mines, which developed around a mine site located north of the line along a specially-constructed spur
Worthington, which developed around the Worthington Mine, staked out when Charles Francis Crean discovered copper traces when examining track ballast along the line
Turbine, formed in 1890 as a decentralized farming community around the junction between the main Algoma Branch and the spur line leading north toward the High Falls hydroelectric power dam
High Falls, a company town formed in 1904–5 around the nearby Huronian Power Company dam
Nairn, originally known as Nelson and grew informally in the 1890s as a CPR town until it became a lumber mill town
McKerrow, originally known as Stanley Junction in 1908 and later Espanola Station, formed around a junction station with the spur line diverging from the Algoma Branch south to Espanola
Espanola, formed as a lumber mill town next to the Spanish River as a company town of the Spanish River Pulp and Paper Company
Webbwood, formed in the mid-1880s as the main CPR divisional town along the line
Massey, where a town coalesced around the CPR station within an existing decentralized farming community
Walford, a CPR town formed within an existing decentralized farming community
Spanish, originally known as Spanish River Station, which formed around the CPR line as a commercial centre in a mining and logging area
Serpent River First Nation's Cutler Station area formed
In its first few decades, the line saw traffic primarily from the mining and logging industries, as well as local farmers in the Beaver Lake area exporting milk to dairies in Copper Cliff and Sudbury for processing. It also saw passenger traffic, including express trains connecting Sault Ste. Marie, Sudbury, and Toronto; notably, in 1910 an express train derailed while crossing the Spanish River near the town of Nairn, resulting in scores of deaths and going on record as one of the worst railway disasters in Canadian history.
Algoma Eastern line
The competing Algoma Eastern Railway was built in 1914 by the Sault Ste. Marie-based Lake Superior Corporation, which served a more primarily industrial corridor largely north of the CPR line in the east, though it did operate some passenger services. During the Great Depression, a number of dairy farms in the area were permanently shut down and mining and lumber operations reduced to skeletons or mothballed entirely. This drastically reduced traffic along both lines, and Canadian Pacific bought the Algoma Eastern line from the financially distressed Lake Superior Corporation. Over the next several decades, the Algoma Eastern line and rolling stock were gradually integrated into Canadian Pacific's operations and the Algoma Eastern name was retired. Much of the Algoma Eastern line was abandoned, and remaining portions were incorporated into the CPR Algoma Branch, which by that point had been reorganized as the Thessalon and Webbwood Subdivisions of the CPR, but was still known less formally as the "Soo Line". The decline along the eastern portion of the line was exacerbated by the Worthington mine disaster in 1927, when a mine shaft collapse destroyed a portion of the town of Worthington along with approximately of Canadian Pacific track, forcing the railway to permanently relocate its line around the crater left by the collapse as well as briefly rerouting its traffic along the Algoma Eastern line.
Highway development
Starting in the 1920s, efforts were made to build a modern highway connecting Sudbury with Sault Ste. Marie. This route had been surveyed along with the rail line in the late 19th century, and was displayed on some maps as the "Trunk Road", which a number of pioneer roads and industrial access roads connected onto. It also incorporated portions of old trails and portage routes, such as the one running parallel to the Serpent River. This road was largely unusable in certain seasons, and for decades the only way to cross the Spanish River aside from the train bridge was a local ferry service run out of Nairn. This situation would change during the Great Depression as government public works funding was made available for unemployed labourers to work in road construction, and it became easier for modern automobiles to travel through the area, especially after the highway was paved in 1931. This route became known as the "Soo Highway" and for several decades it was the primary highway connecting Sudbury with Sault Ste. Marie. During the 1950s, however, the Ontario provincial government began work on a new route running largely to the south of the Soo Highway, which would become Ontario Highway 17. This permanently shifted traffic away from communities near the CPR line like Turbine, High Falls, and Worthington, which quickly became ghost towns after experiencing a brief postwar economic revival due to the presence of the Soo Highway.
Factors such as this, as well as the arrival of Greyhound coach services, depressed passenger ridership and non-industrial freight along the line. Additionally, due to the lack of a north-south CPR corridor paralleling the Algoma Central Railway (which had been built by the Lake Superior Corporation and was later acquired by the Canadian National Railway, or CN), the line was never used for through passenger services to Northwestern Ontario and Western Canada, as the CPR transcontinental mainline to the north was used instead. Passenger service was drastically cut in the 1960s and almost every remaining station was demolished by Canadian Pacific in the 1970s and 1980s, and the line never experienced the nationalization of passenger rail services under Via Rail starting in 1977. Toward the end of the 20th century, the line became almost exclusively an industrial freight railway, serving a handful of high-volume customers such as the Espanola pulp and paper mill, the Nairn lumber mill and Essar Steel Algoma in Sault Ste. Marie.
Huron Central
With traffic declining, in 1997, Canadian Pacific leased the line to the Huron Central Railway, Inc., a subsidiary of Genesee & Wyoming.
The railway had been asking the provincial government since 2006 for funding to improve track conditions, and in April 2009, Genesee & Wyoming warned that, due to the ever-deteriorating track and the resulting increased operational costs, it would be forced to shut down the railway, unless the provincial government would provide money with which to undertake the necessary upgrades. On June 15, 2009, Genesee & Wyoming announced that the railway's operations would be discontinued by October and that 45 people would be laid off. Due to the economic downturn, it suffered a significant reduction in carload volume (down by almost 50% from the previous year) which rendered the line insolvent.
This announcement, however, triggered a series of negotiations between the HCRY, the City of Sault Ste. Marie, Essar Steel Algoma, and Domtar in order to keep the rail line open. A temporary agreement was reached which provided $15.9 million to cover operating expenses and maintain service until August 15, 2010.
On September 24, 2010, $33 million in funding was announced for the rehabilitation of the railway, with the provincial and federal governments each contributing $15 million and Genesee & Wyoming making up the remaining $3 million. Work began on August 10, 2011, with contracts going to Swift Contractors for tie replacement and track surfacing and M'Anishnabek Industries (a joint venture between B&M Metals of Sudbury and Serpent River First Nation) for ballast distribution. Work continues through summer 2012.
In May 2018, G&W announced that operations would cease by the end of 2018, citing a lack of provincial funding. Temporary funding was secured, but in October 2019, G&W announced the line would close in early 2020.
In early 2020, it was announced that G&W itself was being sold to Brookfield Infrastructure Partners and GIC Private Limited, the latter of which is the country of Singapore's sovereign wealth fund. Not long after this, in February, the closure of the Huron Central was officially postponed pending the possibility of further bailouts from the provincial and federal governments.
With no further government funds, G&W announced in September 2020 that the railway would be shut down on December 18, filing official notice to do so. In October, layoff notices were issued to all 43 railway employees, to take effect after the end of operations. It was announced on December 11, 2020, that due to on going negotiations with the Canadian federal government and the province of Ontario, that the deadline to close the line would be extended to June 30, 2021. All present employees with lay off notices, have had their notices rescinded for the time being.
G&W rescinded its plans to end its operation of the Huron Central Railway in the end of May 2021, following agreements with the provincial and federal governments to support the company via Transport Canada's National Trade Corridors Fund.
Derailments
The most notable derailment on the line, the 1910 Spanish River derailment, occurred when the line was still operated by Canadian Pacific. A westbound Soo Express passenger train derailed while crossing the Spanish River bridge near Nairn, causing the deaths of 44 passengers and crew.
On April 14, 2014, three locomotives and one flatcar were derailed likely due to collapsing infrastructure at milepoint 30 (about 3 km from Nairn Centre). There were no injuries; however, the spilled diesel from the locomotives required the issue of a drinking water advisory for the small community. The locomotives that derailed were QGRY 800, QGRY 3800, and HCRY 3011. QGRY 800 made it over the washout and sat upright with its rear truck off the tracks, QGRY 3800 ended up off the track and rolled onto its side, while HCRY 3011 remained upright, but sitting on its fuel tank at a 90° to the track with its rear truck hanging by the electrical cables.
In June 2015, 15 cars left the tracks near Worthington. On November 1, 2015, 13 cars jumped the tracks near Spanish. There were no dangerous goods and no injuries.
Locomotive Roster
Several locomotives lettered for affiliate Quebec-Gatineau Railway also populate the roster.
See also
Genesee & Wyoming
Algoma Eastern Railway
Soo Line Railroad
List of Ontario railways
Rail transport in Ontario
References
Citations
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
Official website
Ontario railways
Genesee & Wyoming
Rail transport in Greater Sudbury
Rail transport in Sudbury District
Rail transport in Algoma District
Rail transport in Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario
Railway lines opened in 1997
1997 establishments in Ontario
Standard gauge railways in Canada
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History and use of instant-runoff voting
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Instant-runoff voting (IRV) is a voting method used in single-seat elections with more than two candidates. Instead of voting only for a single candidate, voters in IRV elections can rank the candidates in order of preference. Ballots are initially counted for each elector's top choice, losing candidates are eliminated, and ballots for losing candidates are redistributed until one candidate is the top remaining choice of a majority of the voters. When the field is reduced to two, it has become an "instant runoff" that allows a comparison of the top two candidates head-to-head.
IRV more commonly known outside the US as the alternative vote or preferential voting, was devised around 1870 by the US architect W. R. Ware. Today it is in use at a national level to elect the Australian House of Representatives, the National Parliament of Papua New Guinea, the President of Ireland and President of India. In Australia it is also used for elections to the legislative assemblies (lower houses) of all states and territories except Tasmania and the Australian Capital Territory, and for the Tasmanian Legislative Council (upper house).
IRV is also used in a number of municipal elections in Australia, the United States, United Kingdom and New Zealand. Because of its relationship to the Single Transferable Vote (STV) system, IRV is used for by-elections and elections with only a single winner (such as elections for the President of Ireland) in some jurisdictions that use STV for ordinary parliamentary elections, such as the Republic of Ireland and Scotland.
IRV is known by different names in the various countries in which it is used. It is also known as the 'Alternative Vote', 'Ranked Choice Voting', and 'Preferential Voting', although IRV is only one of many ranked (or preferential) voting systems.
History
This method was considered by Condorcet as early as 1788, though only to condemn it, for its ability to eliminate a candidate preferred by a majority of voters.
Instant-runoff voting is based on the Single Transferable Vote electoral system, developed by Hill in 1819, Hare in 1857, and Andrae in 1855. Unlike IRV, the Single Transferable Vote was designed as a form of proportional representation involving multi-seat constituencies, and today STV is used in a number of countries, including Australia, the Republic of Ireland and Malta.
It is also known as Ware's method, after William Robert Ware, the founder of the schools of architecture at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and Columbia University, who, while describing the Single Transferable Vote system in 1871, mentioned that it could also be used for single-winner elections. IRV was adopted for the Australian House of Representatives in 1918 and has been used to elect the President of Ireland since the office came into being in 1937. It was introduced in Fiji in 1999 and in Papua New Guinea in 2007.
Use by country
Australia
IRV (in Australia called preferential voting) was introduced for House of Representatives elections in Australia after the Swan by-election in October 1918, when the conservative Country Party, representing small farmers, split the non-Labor vote in conservative country areas, allowing Labor candidates to win on a first-past-the-post vote then in place. The conservative Nationalist government of Billy Hughes introduced preferential voting to enable the Coalition parties to field candidates in the same electorates without putting Coalition seats at risk. It was first used at the Corangamite by-election on 14 December 1918, and nationwide at the 1919 election. Preferential voting continued to benefit the Coalition until the 1990 election, when for the first time the Labor Bob Hawke government obtained a net benefit from preferential voting.
Ballot papers are marked with the order of preferences: 1, 2, 3, etc. Counting of the ballot papers proceeds and when no candidate receives more than 50% of the first preference vote (candidates with a number one), the candidate with the fewest first preference votes is eliminated and that candidate's votes are distributed to the remaining candidates. The process continues until a candidate accumulates 50% plus one vote, or a simple majority. Counting will continue to finality, which results in what is referred to as the two-party preferred vote, which expresses the electorate's voting preference equivalent to a 2-person election of the two most popular candidates. Most council (local government) elections also use the method, as do the lower house elections of four states (New South Wales, South Australia, Victoria and Western Australia), the sole house of one state (Queensland) and one territory (the Northern Territory) and the upper house of one other state (Tasmania).
A study of the 2007 federal election found that every House of Representatives electorate had at least four candidates, and the average number of candidates was seven. 76 candidates depended on preferences to win, which represented more than half of the 150 winners.
Preferential voting is used for most state and local elections in Australia, but sometimes with optional preferential voting where voters are allowed to limit their number of rankings. The Australian Senate, the upper houses of four states (New South Wales, South Australia, Victoria and Western Australia), the lower house of one state (Tasmania) and the sole house of the Australian Capital Territory, use the single transferable vote.
Canada
Under the name 'preferential' or 'elimination ballot' or alternative vote, IRV was used in the British Columbia's general elections of 1952 and 1953. IRV was brought in by the governing coalition consisting of the Liberal and Conservative parties to gain advantage over the rising CCF. But the election did not work out as the coalition partners expected.
Provincially, British Columbia used a mixture of voting methods to elect their members of the Legislative Assembly (MLAs): single-member districts using first-past-the-post and multi-member districts using through block voting. Elections in BC from the province's creation until the 1990 election were held under a mix of multi-member and single-member districts, with district types often being changed back and forth from one election to the next. Through almost all of BC's history, seats were filled by plurality elections. The only exceptions were the 1952 and 1953 elections where Instant-runoff voting was used.
Through the 1940s, the province was governed by a coalition of the British Columbia Conservative Party (the Conservatives) and the British Columbia Liberal Party (the Liberals). Neither party had sufficient electoral support to form government alone, and the coalition allowed these parties to keep the left-of-centre Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) out of power.
By the 1950s, the coalition had begun to fall apart, resulting in the Conservatives and Liberals having to run for office separately under their own party banners. However, to try to prevent the CCF from being elected, one of the last acts of the coalition government was to introduce the alternative voting system (known today in the US as instant-runoff voting), which was implemented for the 1952 general election. IRV was brought in even in multi-seat districts by the innovation that each seat would be filled by a separate contests, two or even three separate ballots and contests in a district.
In each contest in a district, rather than voting for one candidate by marking an "X" on the ballot, an elector ranked the candidates running in the contest by placing numbers next to their names on the ballot. (They could rank as few or as many candidates as they desired.) The candidate marked with a 1 received the vote in the first count. In the first count, if a candidate received a majority of first preferences marked by voters, that candidate was declared elected with no vote transfers being conducted. If not, the candidate with the fewest votes was dropped and the candidate's ballots were re-allocated to the remaining candidates based on the second choices marked on the ballots. This procedure was repeated again and again if necessary until a candidate received a majority of votes.
The result of using this voting method (plus completely different voting behavior by many BC voters) was the unexpected election of enough MLAs of the British Columbia Social Credit Party (the SoCreds), to form a minority government, with the CCF forming the official opposition. The BC Liberals were reduced to six members in the Legislature. The Conservatives (who changed their party name to the "Progressive Conservatives" in tandem with their federal counterparts) were reduced to four.
The SoCred minority government lasted only nine months before losing a vote in the Legislature and an election having to be called. Alternative voting was again employed in this general election. The result this time was a SoCred majority.
After this second IRV election, the SoCreds abolished the preferential voting system and returned the province to the province's traditional mixed system of block voting in multiple-member constituencies and FPTP contests in single-member districts. The change-back benefited the government party by creating large numbers of wasted votes and a wide possibility for gerrymandering. Finally in the 1980s, this unfair system was discarded due to wide criticism, and the province adopted a consistent system of FPTP in single-seat districts. In the next election many CCF supporters chose the relatively unknown Social Credit Party, a minor party that had never held any seats in the British Columbia legislature, as their second choice. The Social Credit Party achieved an upset victory in the 1952 election, winning 19 seats in the 48-member legislature to 18 for the CCF, 6 for the Liberals and 4 for the Conservatives. The Socreds formed a short-lived minority government until the 1953 election, in which they won a majority of seats (28 of 48). After the 1953 election, the Liberal and renamed Progressive Conservative Parties were reduced to third parties in the province, and first-past-the-post was reinstated by the government.
IRV was also used for provincial elections in Alberta (1926–1955 in rural districts), and Manitoba (1927–1953) outside Winnipeg (excluding St. Boniface in 1949 and 1953). IRV was also used in provincial by-elections in these two provinces between 1924 and 1955.
IRV has never been used for federal elections.
IRV was used in city elections in Lethbridge from 1913 to 1927.
IRV was used to elect mayors in city elections when STV was used to elect city councillors. STV/IRV was used in 20 Canadian cites during the 20th Century.
IRV is used for certain party and private elections in Canada, including such large-scale elections at the Canadian Wheat Board, the 2006 Progressive Conservative Association of Alberta leadership election, where it has generated high turnout, and the 2011 British Columbia Liberal Party leadership election. The Liberal Party of Canada had adopted IRV with a national primary for its leadership elections.
In 2014, the Province of Ontario announced that municipalities would have the option to use IRV for local elections starting in 2018, and authorizing legislation was passed in 2016. London, Ontario became the first city to use ranked choice voting in 2018, and Cambridge and Kingston will join in 2022.
Instant-runoff voting is used in whole or in part to elect the leaders of the three largest federal political parties in Canada: the Liberal Party of Canada, the Conservative Party of Canada, and the New Democratic Party, albeit the New Democratic Party uses a mixture of IRV and exhaustive voting, allowing each member to choose one format or the other for their vote (as was used in their 2017 leadership election). In 2013, members of the Liberal Party of Canada elected Justin Trudeau as party leader through IRV in a national leadership election. The Conservative Party used IRV (where each of the party's 338 riding associations are weighted equally, regardless of how many members voted in each riding) to elect Erin O'Toole as party leader in 2020, Andrew Scheer in 2017, and Stephen Harper in 2004.
The Green Party of Canada also elects their leader through IRV.
Czech Republic
IRV is used to elect leaders of the Green party.
Hong Kong
IRV is used to elect a small number of functional constituencies of the Legislative Council of Hong Kong, all of which have very small electorates.
India
IRV is used in numerous electoral college environments, including the election of the President of India by the members of the Parliament of India and of the Vidhan Sabhas – the state legislatures. The election is held with IRV, which in the Indian Constitution (Article 55) is called single transferable vote.
Ireland
All public elections in the Republic of Ireland are described as using the single transferable vote, or "proportional representation by the means of the single transferable vote". In the case of single-winner elections STV reduces to IRV, although neither "instant runoff voting" nor "alternative vote" is a commonly used name in Ireland. All constituencies for Dáil, Seanad, MEP, and local elections are multi-member (STV). Single-winner (IRV) elections include: all presidential elections; single-vacancy
Dáil by-elections; all Seanad by-elections; and three of the seven Údarás na Gaeltachta constituencies (1999–2012). The Dáil elects a Taoiseach (prime minister) by majority motion, but since 2016 elects its Ceann Comhairle (speaker) by IRV ballot. Local authorities elect their (chairperson) by exhaustive ballot, "non-instant" runoff voting. The Local Government Act 2019 provides for steps towards introducing directly elected mayors; the government's detailed proposal document implies IRV would be used to elect them. Referendums in Ireland currently require a binary yes/no question; in 2018 the Citizens' Assembly recommended allowing multiple-choice referendums with the result determined via IRV.
While most elections in the Republic of Ireland use the single transferable vote (STV), in single-winner contests this reduces to IRV. This is the case in all Presidential elections and Seanad panel by-elections, and most Dáil by-elections In the rare event of multiple simultaneous vacancies in a single Dáil constituency, a single STV by-election may be held; for Seanad panels, multiple IRV by-elections are held.
New Zealand
The single transferable vote (STV), a multi-seat variation of IRV, is used for all district health board elections. Starting in 2004, several New Zealand cities and local authorities began to use STV for their elections—including the nation's second largest city and capital Wellington and its fifth largest city Dunedin Where electing a mayor directly, these cities used instant runoff voting. In 2007, for example, Wellington's mayor Kerry Prendergast defeated her 10 rivals on the 9th round of counting. Other contested IRV races have included the 2010 Dunedin mayoral election and 2010 Wellington City mayoral election.
In the 1992 referendum on the voting method to elect members of the New Zealand House of Representatives, the alternative vote was one of the four alternative methods available (alongside MMP, STV and SM). It came third of the alternative methods (ahead of SM) with 6.6% of the vote. IRV, under the name preferential vote, was one of the four alternative methods choices presented in the 2011 voting method referendum, but the referendum resulted in New Zealanders choosing to keep their proportional method of representation instead, while IRV came last with 8.34%.
As of September 2013, seven authorities are elected with STV: Dunedin City Council, Greater Wellington Council, Kapiti Coast District Council, Marlborough District Council, Palmerston North City Council, Porirua City Council, and Wellington City Council. Wellington upheld STV in a 2008 ballot measure. Multi-member wards in these cities use STV.
The New Zealand Labour Party in 2013 was using IRV to pick a new party leader.
IRV (again under the name preferential vote) was used on the initial ballot of the 2015–2016 New Zealand flag referendums for voters to rank their preferences about the five new flag options.
Papua New Guinea
A form of IRV has been used to elect members of parliament since last plurality voting election in 2002. Called "limited preferential voting" because voters are limited to ranking three candidates, the system has been credited with reducing election violence in a highly fractured political system. IRV has been used since 2003 for the national parliament election, where voters are limited to ranking three candidates.
United Kingdom
IRV is currently used in the United Kingdom for by-elections to the Northern Ireland Assembly and to local assemblies in Scotland, both of which use the single transferable vote method of proportional representation in regularly scheduled elections. It is used in its contingent vote form (also called the supplementary vote), for all direct elections for mayor in England, including in London. It is used to fill vacancies within the House of Lords, to elect the leaders of the Liberal Democrats and the Labour Party and for many private elections, including for Chancellor of Oxford University and rectorial elections at the University of Edinburgh. IRV was the electoral method available to select a replacement MEP by election for the Northern Ireland constituency of the European parliament, however now a party can co-opt a replacement without the need for a by-election.
IRV has been debated vigorously in the country since the early 20th century. In 1917, for example, the Speaker's Conference advocated the adoption of IRV for 358 of the 569 constituencies in the UK, and STV for the rest; its intention was that STV would be used in densely populated urban areas but, in order to keep constituencies from being too large, IRV would be used in more sparsely populated rural areas. Although the House of Commons voted in favour of the proposals five times, the House of Lords rejected it until the nationwide effort was ultimately abandoned in parliament.
In 1921 the Government of Ireland Act established two home rule parliaments in Ireland–the Parliament of Northern Ireland and the Parliament of Southern Ireland–and while STV was used for regular elections to these bodies, IRV was used for by-elections. This combination of IRV and STV has been used in what is now the Republic of Ireland ever since. The Northern Ireland Parliament continued to use the combination until the late 1920s when it switched to the 'first past the post' plurality system. However, STV for regular elections, and IRV for by-elections, has been reintroduced and used there to elect devolved assemblies since the 1970s.
IRV is usually referred to in the UK as the 'Alternative Vote' or 'AV'. In 1998 the Jenkins Commission, charged by the government with suggesting an alternative system to plurality, devised a new system called the Alternative Vote Plus (AV+) for elections to the British Parliament. This involved a combination of party-list proportional representation and single seat constituencies elected under IRV. However no action has been taken on the Commission's report.
In March 2009 the government announced that it would run an inquiry into the use of IRV at future general elections, and in February 2010 the House of Commons voted to hold a national referendum on AV. The government's term expired before this legislation was approved, but in July 2010, newly elected Deputy Prime Minister Nick Clegg announced a referendum on AV, subsequently held on 5 May 2011. The proposal would have affected the way in which Members of Parliament are elected to the British House of Commons at Westminster. It was only the second national referendum ever to be held within the United Kingdom and the result of the referendum was a decisive rejection of the adoption of the alternative vote by a margin of 67.9% to 32.1% of voters on a national turnout of 42%.
United States
Since 1912, IRV has been adopted and repealed in various United States jurisdictions.
Between 1912 and 1930, limited forms of RCV (typically with only two rankings) were implemented, with 24 cities using proportional RCV before repeal in some areas (Florida, Indiana, Maryland, Minnesota, and Wisconsin) Proportional RCV has been used continuously in Cambridge, Massachusetts since 1941.
Since 2002, IRV has been adopted by more than a dozen cities, with some adoptions pending implementation.
Jurisdictions that have implemented and then repealed IRV include Ann Arbor, Michigan (1974–1976); Pierce County, Washington (2006–2009); Burlington, Vermont (2005–2010); Aspen, Colorado (2007–2010); and in North Carolina (2006–2013).
As of October 2022, American cities and counties currently using IRV to elect at least one office included New York City, New York; Minneapolis, Minnesota; Oakland, California; St. Paul, Minnesota; Bloomington, Minnesota; Bloomington, Minnesota; St. Louis Park, Minnesota; San Francisco, California; Takoma Park, Maryland; Berkeley, California; San Leandro, California; Benton County, Oregon; Corvallis, Oregon; Portland, Maine; Cambridge, Massachusetts; Easthampton, Massachusetts; Eastpointe, Michigan; Santa Fe, New Mexico; Las Cruces, New Mexico; Basalt, Colorado; and Telluride, Colorado.
San Francisco's system of IRV was challenged in federal court, but a unanimous panel of the US Court of Appeals for the 9th Circuit upheld San Francisco's IRV law, finding that the plaintiff failed to establish that the City's chosen electoral system was unconstitutional.
Private organizations in the U.S. that use IRV include the Hugo Awards for science fiction, the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences in selection of the Oscar for Best Picture, and more than fifty colleges and universities for student elections.
Maine became the first U.S. state to approve IRV for its primary and general elections for governor, U.S. Senate, U.S. House and state legislature in a 2016 referendum. The state supreme court ruled this method of voting was unconstitutional for state general elections, but this ruling did not affect primary and federal elections. The state legislature attempted to repeal IRV for all elections unless the state constitution was amended, but this repeal was put on hold by a people's veto petition. The June 2018 primary election both used IRV to determine party candidates and Maine Question 1 passed, which blocked the repeal. Democrat Jared Golden became the first congressional candidate in the United States to win a general election as a result of IRV, defeating incumbent Republican Bruce Poliquin in second round balloting for Maine's 2nd congressional district in 2018. In the future, IRV will also be used for primary elections for federal elections and only primary elections for state offices. A bill passed in August 2019 will make Maine the first state to use IRV in presidential general elections in 2020, but use in presidential primaries has been delayed until 2024. The state of Alaska adopted RCV in 2020 with first use in 2022. It is used for all state and federal general elections. All uses except presidential election use the “top four” form, with an open primary advancing 4 candidates to the general election with RCV.
Six states planned to use RCV in the 2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries: Alaska, Hawaii, Kansas, and Wyoming for all voters; Iowa and Nevada for absentee voters. Rather than eliminating candidates until a single winner is chosen, voters' choices would be reallocated until all remaining candidates have at least 15%, the threshold to receive delegates to the convention.
Elections conducted under IRV
Countries and regions
Federal provinces or states
Municipalities
See also
History and use of the Single Transferable Vote
Irish presidential election
Footnotes
References
Instant-runoff voting
History and use of electoral systems
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human%20genetic%20variation
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Human genetic variation
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Human genetic variation is the genetic differences in and among populations. There may be multiple variants of any given gene in the human population (alleles), a situation called polymorphism.
No two humans are genetically identical. Even monozygotic twins (who develop from one zygote) have infrequent genetic differences due to mutations occurring during development and gene copy-number variation. Differences between individuals, even closely related individuals, are the key to techniques such as genetic fingerprinting.
The human genome has a total length of approximately 3.2 billion base pairs (bp) across 46 chromosomes of DNA as well as slightly under 17,000 bp DNA in cellular mitochondria. In 2015, the typical difference between an individual's genome and the reference genome was estimated at 20 million base pairs (or 0.6% of the total). As of 2017, there were a total of 324 million known variants from sequenced human genomes.
Comparatively speaking, humans are a genetically homogeneous species. Although a small number of genetic variants are found more frequently in certain geographic regions or in people with ancestry from those regions, this variation accounts for a small portion (~15%) of human genome variability. The majority of variation exists within the members of each human population. For comparison, rhesus macaques exhibit 2.5-fold greater DNA sequence diversity compared to humans.
The lack of discontinuities in genetic distances between human populations, absence of discrete branches in the human species, and striking homogeneity of human beings globally, imply that there is no scientific basis for inferring races or subspecies in humans, and for most traits, there is much more variation within populations than between them.
Despite this, modern genetic studies have found substantial average genetic differences across human populations in traits such as skin colour, bodily dimensions, lactose and starch digestion, high altitude adaptions, and predisposition to developing particular diseases. The greatest diversity is found within and among populations in Africa, and gradually declines with increasing distance from the African continent, consistent with the Out of Africa theory of human origins.
The study of human genetic variation has evolutionary significance and medical applications. It can help scientists reconstruct and understand patterns of past human migration. In medicine, study of human genetic variation may be important because some disease-causing alleles occur more often in certain population groups. For instance, the mutation for sickle-cell anemia is more often found in people with ancestry from certain sub-Saharan African, south European, Arabian, and Indian populations, due to the evolutionary pressure from mosquitos carrying malaria in these regions.
New findings show that each human has on average 60 new mutations compared to their parents.
Causes of variation
Causes of differences between individuals include independent assortment, the exchange of genes (crossing over and recombination) during reproduction (through meiosis) and various mutational events.
There are at least three reasons why genetic variation exists between populations. Natural selection may confer an adaptive advantage to individuals in a specific environment if an allele provides a competitive advantage. Alleles under selection are likely to occur only in those geographic regions where they confer an advantage. A second important process is genetic drift, which is the effect of random changes in the gene pool, under conditions where most mutations are neutral (that is, they do not appear to have any positive or negative selective effect on the organism). Finally, small migrant populations have statistical differences – called the founder effect – from the overall populations where they originated; when these migrants settle new areas, their descendant population typically differs from their population of origin: different genes predominate and it is less genetically diverse.
In humans, the main cause is genetic drift. Serial founder effects and past small population size (increasing the likelihood of genetic drift) may have had an important influence in neutral differences between populations. The second main cause of genetic variation is due to the high degree of neutrality of most mutations. A small, but significant number of genes appear to have undergone recent natural selection, and these selective pressures are sometimes specific to one region.
Measures of variation
Genetic variation among humans occurs on many scales, from gross alterations in the human karyotype to single nucleotide changes. Chromosome abnormalities are detected in 1 of 160 live human births. Apart from sex chromosome disorders, most cases of aneuploidy result in death of the developing fetus (miscarriage); the most common extra autosomal chromosomes among live births are 21, 18 and 13.
Nucleotide diversity is the average proportion of nucleotides that differ between two individuals. As of 2004, the human nucleotide diversity was estimated to be 0.1% to 0.4% of base pairs. In 2015, the 1000 Genomes Project, which sequenced one thousand individuals from 26 human populations, found that "a typical [individual] genome differs from the reference human genome at 4.1 million to 5.0 million sites … affecting 20 million bases of sequence"; the latter figure corresponds to 0.6% of total number of base pairs. Nearly all (>99.9%) of these sites are small differences, either single nucleotide polymorphisms or brief insertions or deletions (indels) in the genetic sequence, but structural variations account for a greater number of base-pairs than the SNPs and indels.
, the Single Nucleotide Polymorphism Database (dbSNP), which lists SNP and other variants, listed 324 million variants found in sequenced human genomes.
Single nucleotide polymorphisms
A single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) is a difference in a single nucleotide between members of one species that occurs in at least 1% of the population. The 2,504 individuals characterized by the 1000 Genomes Project had 84.7 million SNPs among them. SNPs are the most common type of sequence variation, estimated in 1998 to account for 90% of all sequence variants. Other sequence variations are single base exchanges, deletions and insertions. SNPs occur on average about every 100 to 300 bases and so are the major source of heterogeneity.
A functional, or non-synonymous, SNP is one that affects some factor such as gene splicing or messenger RNA, and so causes a phenotypic difference between members of the species. About 3% to 5% of human SNPs are functional (see International HapMap Project). Neutral, or synonymous SNPs are still useful as genetic markers in genome-wide association studies, because of their sheer number and the stable inheritance over generations.
A coding SNP is one that occurs inside a gene. There are 105 Human Reference SNPs that result in premature stop codons in 103 genes. This corresponds to 0.5% of coding SNPs. They occur due to segmental duplication in the genome. These SNPs result in loss of protein, yet all these SNP alleles are common and are not purified in negative selection.
Structural variation
Structural variation is the variation in structure of an organism's chromosome. Structural variations, such as copy-number variation and deletions, inversions, insertions and duplications, account for much more human genetic variation than single nucleotide diversity. This was concluded in 2007 from analysis of the diploid full sequences of the genomes of two humans: Craig Venter and James D. Watson. This added to the two haploid sequences which were amalgamations of sequences from many individuals, published by the Human Genome Project and Celera Genomics respectively.
According to the 1000 Genomes Project, a typical human has 2,100 to 2,500 structural variations, which include approximately 1,000 large deletions, 160 copy-number variants, 915 Alu insertions, 128 L1 insertions, 51 SVA insertions, 4 NUMTs, and 10 inversions.
Copy number variation
A copy-number variation (CNV) is a difference in the genome due to deleting or duplicating large regions of DNA on some chromosome. It is estimated that 0.4% of the genomes of unrelated humans differ with respect to copy number. When copy number variation is included, human-to-human genetic variation is estimated to be at least 0.5% (99.5% similarity). Copy number variations are inherited but can also arise during development.
A visual map with the regions with high genomic variation of the modern-human reference assembly relatively to a
Neanderthal of 50k has been built by Pratas et al.
Epigenetics
Epigenetic variation is variation in the chemical tags that attach to DNA and affect how genes get read. The tags, "called epigenetic markings, act as switches that control how genes can be read." At some alleles, the epigenetic state of the DNA, and associated phenotype, can be inherited across generations of individuals.
Genetic variability
Genetic variability is a measure of the tendency of individual genotypes in a population to vary (become different) from one another. Variability is different from genetic diversity, which is the amount of variation seen in a particular population. The variability of a trait is how much that trait tends to vary in response to environmental and genetic influences.
Clines
In biology, a cline is a continuum of species, populations, varieties, or forms of organisms that exhibit gradual phenotypic and/or genetic differences over a geographical area, typically as a result of environmental heterogeneity. In the scientific study of human genetic variation, a gene cline can be rigorously defined and subjected to quantitative metrics.
Haplogroups
In the study of molecular evolution, a haplogroup is a group of similar haplotypes that share a common ancestor with a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) mutation. The study of haplogroups provides information about ancestral origins dating back thousands of years.
The most commonly studied human haplogroups are Y-chromosome (Y-DNA) haplogroups and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplogroups, both of which can be used to define genetic populations. Y-DNA is passed solely along the patrilineal line, from father to son, while mtDNA is passed down the matrilineal line, from mother to both daughter or son. The Y-DNA and mtDNA may change by chance mutation at each generation.
Variable number tandem repeats
A variable number tandem repeat (VNTR) is the variation of length of a tandem repeat. A tandem repeat is the adjacent repetition of a short nucleotide sequence. Tandem repeats exist on many chromosomes, and their length varies between individuals. Each variant acts as an inherited allele, so they are used for personal or parental identification. Their analysis is useful in genetics and biology research, forensics, and DNA fingerprinting.
Short tandem repeats (about 5 base pairs) are called microsatellites, while longer ones are called minisatellites.
History and geographic distribution
Recent African origin of modern humans
The recent African origin of modern humans paradigm assumes the dispersal of non-African populations of anatomically modern humans after 70,000 years ago. Dispersal within Africa occurred significantly earlier, at least 130,000 years ago. The "out of Africa" theory originates in the 19th century, as a tentative suggestion in Charles Darwin's Descent of Man, but remained speculative until the 1980s when it was supported by the study of present-day mitochondrial DNA, combined with evidence from physical anthropology of archaic specimens.
According to a 2000 study of Y-chromosome sequence variation, human Y-chromosomes trace ancestry to Africa, and the descendants of the derived lineage left Africa and eventually were replaced by archaic human Y-chromosomes in Eurasia. The study also shows that a minority of contemporary populations in East Africa and the Khoisan are the descendants of the most ancestral patrilineages of anatomically modern humans that left Africa 35,000 to 89,000 years ago. Other evidence supporting the theory is that variations in skull measurements decrease with distance from Africa at the same rate as the decrease in genetic diversity. Human genetic diversity decreases in native populations with migratory distance from Africa, and this is thought to be due to bottlenecks during human migration, which are events that temporarily reduce population size.
A 2009 genetic clustering study, which genotyped 1327 polymorphic markers in various African populations, identified six ancestral clusters. The clustering corresponded closely with ethnicity, culture and language. A 2018 whole genome sequencing study of the world's populations observed similar clusters among the populations in Africa. At K=9, distinct ancestral components defined the Afroasiatic-speaking populations inhabiting North Africa and Northeast Africa; the Nilo-Saharan-speaking populations in Northeast Africa and East Africa; the Ari populations in Northeast Africa; the Niger-Congo-speaking populations in West-Central Africa, West Africa, East Africa and Southern Africa; the Pygmy populations in Central Africa; and the Khoisan populations in Southern Africa.
In May 2023, scientists reported, based on genetic studies, a more complicated pathway of human evolution than previously understood. According to the studies, humans evolved from different places and times in Africa, instead of from a single location and period of time.
Population genetics
Because of the common ancestry of all humans, only a small number of variants have large differences in frequency between populations. However, some rare variants in the world's human population are much more frequent in at least one population (more than 5%).
It is commonly assumed that early humans left Africa, and thus must have passed through a population bottleneck before their African-Eurasian divergence around 100,000 years ago (ca. 3,000 generations). The rapid expansion of a previously small population has two important effects on the distribution of genetic variation. First, the so-called founder effect occurs when founder populations bring only a subset of the genetic variation from their ancestral population. Second, as founders become more geographically separated, the probability that two individuals from different founder populations will mate becomes smaller. The effect of this assortative mating is to reduce gene flow between geographical groups and to increase the genetic distance between groups.
The expansion of humans from Africa affected the distribution of genetic variation in two other ways. First, smaller (founder) populations experience greater genetic drift because of increased fluctuations in neutral polymorphisms. Second, new polymorphisms that arose in one group were less likely to be transmitted to other groups as gene flow was restricted.
Populations in Africa tend to have lower amounts of linkage disequilibrium than do populations outside Africa, partly because of the larger size of human populations in Africa over the course of human history and partly because the number of modern humans who left Africa to colonize the rest of the world appears to have been relatively low. In contrast, populations that have undergone dramatic size reductions or rapid expansions in the past and populations formed by the mixture of previously separate ancestral groups can have unusually high levels of linkage disequilibrium
Distribution of variation
The distribution of genetic variants within and among human populations are impossible to describe succinctly because of the difficulty of defining a "population," the clinal nature of variation, and heterogeneity across the genome (Long and Kittles 2003). In general, however, an average of 85% of genetic variation exists within local populations, ~7% is between local populations within the same continent, and ~8% of variation occurs between large groups living on different continents. The recent African origin theory for humans would predict that in Africa there exists a great deal more diversity than elsewhere and that diversity should decrease the further from Africa a population is sampled.
Phenotypic variation
Sub-Saharan Africa has the most human genetic diversity and the same has been shown to hold true for phenotypic variation in skull form. Phenotype is connected to genotype through gene expression. Genetic diversity decreases smoothly with migratory distance from that region, which many scientists believe to be the origin of modern humans, and that decrease is mirrored by a decrease in phenotypic variation. Skull measurements are an example of a physical attribute whose within-population variation decreases with distance from Africa.
The distribution of many physical traits resembles the distribution of genetic variation within and between human populations (American Association of Physical Anthropologists 1996; Keita and Kittles 1997). For example, ~90% of the variation in human head shapes occurs within continental groups, and ~10% separates groups, with a greater variability of head shape among individuals with recent African ancestors (Relethford 2002).
A prominent exception to the common distribution of physical characteristics within and among groups is skin color. Approximately 10% of the variance in skin color occurs within groups, and ~90% occurs between groups (Relethford 2002). This distribution of skin color and its geographic patterning – with people whose ancestors lived predominantly near the equator having darker skin than those with ancestors who lived predominantly in higher latitudes – indicate that this attribute has been under strong selective pressure. Darker skin appears to be strongly selected for in equatorial regions to prevent sunburn, skin cancer, the photolysis of folate, and damage to sweat glands.
Understanding how genetic diversity in the human population impacts various levels of gene expression is an active area of research. While earlier studies focused on the relationship between DNA variation and RNA expression, more recent efforts are characterizing the genetic control of various aspects of gene expression including chromatin states, translation, and protein levels. A study published in 2007 found that 25% of genes showed different levels of gene expression between populations of European and Asian descent. The primary cause of this difference in gene expression was thought to be SNPs in gene regulatory regions of DNA. Another study published in 2007 found that approximately 83% of genes were expressed at different levels among individuals and about 17% between populations of European and African descent.
Wright's fixation index as measure of variation
The population geneticist Sewall Wright developed the fixation index (often abbreviated to FST) as a way of measuring genetic differences between populations. This statistic is often used in taxonomy to compare differences between any two given populations by measuring the genetic differences among and between populations for individual genes, or for many genes simultaneously. It is often stated that the fixation index for humans is about 0.15. This translates to an estimated 85% of the variation measured in the overall human population is found within individuals of the same population, and about 15% of the variation occurs between populations. These estimates imply that any two individuals from different populations may be more similar to each other than either is to a member of their own group.
"The shared evolutionary history of living humans has resulted in a high relatedness among all living people, as indicated for example by the very low fixation index (FST) among living human populations." Richard Lewontin, who affirmed these ratios, thus concluded neither "race" nor "subspecies" were appropriate or useful ways to describe human populations.
Wright himself believed that values >0.25 represent very great genetic variation and that an FST of 0.15–0.25 represented great variation. However, about 5% of human variation occurs between populations within continents, therefore FST values between continental groups of humans (or races) of as low as 0.1 (or possibly lower) have been found in some studies, suggesting more moderate levels of genetic variation. Graves (1996) has countered that FST should not be used as a marker of subspecies status, as the statistic is used to measure the degree of differentiation between populations, although see also Wright (1978).
Jeffrey Long and Rick Kittles give a long critique of the application of FST to human populations in their 2003 paper "Human Genetic Diversity and the Nonexistence of Biological Races". They find that the figure of 85% is misleading because it implies that all human populations contain on average 85% of all genetic diversity. They argue the underlying statistical model incorrectly assumes equal and independent histories of variation for each large human population. A more realistic approach is to understand that some human groups are parental to other groups and that these groups represent paraphyletic groups to their descent groups. For example, under the recent African origin theory the human population in Africa is paraphyletic to all other human groups because it represents the ancestral group from which all non-African populations derive, but more than that, non-African groups only derive from a small non-representative sample of this African population. This means that all non-African groups are more closely related to each other and to some African groups (probably east Africans) than they are to others, and further that the migration out of Africa represented a genetic bottleneck, with much of the diversity that existed in Africa not being carried out of Africa by the emigrating groups. Under this scenario, human populations do not have equal amounts of local variability, but rather diminished amounts of diversity the further from Africa any population lives. Long and Kittles find that rather than 85% of human genetic diversity existing in all human populations, about 100% of human diversity exists in a single African population, whereas only about 70% of human genetic diversity exists in a population derived from New Guinea. Long and Kittles argued that this still produces a global human population that is genetically homogeneous compared to other mammalian populations.
Archaic admixture
Anatomically modern humans interbred with Neanderthals during the Middle Paleolithic. In May 2010, the Neanderthal Genome Project presented genetic evidence that interbreeding took place and that a small but significant portion, around 2–4%, of Neanderthal admixture is present in the DNA of modern Eurasians and Oceanians, and nearly absent in sub-Saharan African populations.
Between 4% and 6% of the genome of Melanesians (represented by the Papua New Guinean and Bougainville Islander) appears to derive from Denisovans – a previously unknown hominin which is more closely related to Neanderthals than to Sapiens. It was possibly introduced during the early migration of the ancestors of Melanesians into Southeast Asia. This history of interaction suggests that Denisovans once ranged widely over eastern Asia.
Thus, Melanesians emerge as one of the most archaic-admixed populations, having Denisovan/Neanderthal-related admixture of ~8%.
In a study published in 2013, Jeffrey Wall from University of California studied whole sequence-genome data and found higher rates of introgression in Asians compared to Europeans. Hammer et al. tested the hypothesis that contemporary African genomes have signatures of gene flow with archaic human ancestors and found evidence of archaic admixture in the genomes of some African groups, suggesting that modest amounts of gene flow were widespread throughout time and space during the evolution of anatomically modern humans.
A study published in 2020 found that the Yoruba and Mende populations of West Africa derive between 2% and 19% of their genome from an as-yet unidentified archaic hominin population that likely diverged before the split of modern humans and the ancestors of Neanderthals and Denisovans, potentially making these groups the most archaic-admixed human populations identified yet.
Categorization of the world population
New data on human genetic variation has reignited the debate about a possible biological basis for categorization of humans into races. Most of the controversy surrounds the question of how to interpret the genetic data and whether conclusions based on it are sound. Some researchers argue that self-identified race can be used as an indicator of geographic ancestry for certain health risks and medications.
Although the genetic differences among human groups are relatively small, these differences in certain genes such as duffy, ABCC11, SLC24A5, called ancestry-informative markers (AIMs) nevertheless can be used to reliably situate many individuals within broad, geographically based groupings. For example, computer analyses of hundreds of polymorphic loci sampled in globally distributed populations have revealed the existence of genetic clustering that roughly is associated with groups that historically have occupied large continental and subcontinental regions (Rosenberg et al. 2002; Bamshad et al. 2003).
Some commentators have argued that these patterns of variation provide a biological justification for the use of traditional racial categories. They argue that the continental clusterings correspond roughly with the division of human beings into sub-Saharan Africans; Europeans, Western Asians, Central Asians, Southern Asians and Northern Africans; Eastern Asians, Southeast Asians, Polynesians and Native Americans; and other inhabitants of Oceania (Melanesians, Micronesians & Australian Aborigines) (Risch et al. 2002). Other observers disagree, saying that the same data undercut traditional notions of racial groups (King and Motulsky 2002; Calafell 2003; Tishkoff and Kidd 2004). They point out, for example, that major populations considered races or subgroups within races do not necessarily form their own clusters.
Racial categories are also undermined by findings that genetic variants which are limited to one region tend to be rare within that region, variants that are common within a region tend to be shared across the globe, and most differences between individuals, whether they come from the same region or different regions, are due to global variants. No genetic variants have been found which are fixed within a continent or major region and found nowhere else.
Furthermore, because human genetic variation is clinal, many individuals affiliate with two or more continental groups. Thus, the genetically based "biogeographical ancestry" assigned to any given person generally will be broadly distributed and will be accompanied by sizable uncertainties (Pfaff et al. 2004).
In many parts of the world, groups have mixed in such a way that many individuals have relatively recent ancestors from widely separated regions. Although genetic analyses of large numbers of loci can produce estimates of the percentage of a person's ancestors coming from various continental populations (Shriver et al. 2003; Bamshad et al. 2004), these estimates may assume a false distinctiveness of the parental populations, since human groups have exchanged mates from local to continental scales throughout history (Cavalli-Sforza et al. 1994; Hoerder 2002). Even with large numbers of markers, information for estimating admixture proportions of individuals or groups is limited, and estimates typically will have wide confidence intervals (Pfaff et al. 2004).
Genetic clustering
Genetic data can be used to infer population structure and assign individuals to groups that often correspond with their self-identified geographical ancestry. Jorde and Wooding (2004) argued that "Analysis of many loci now yields reasonably accurate estimates of genetic similarity among individuals, rather than populations. Clustering of individuals is correlated with geographic origin or ancestry." However, identification by geographic origin may quickly break down when considering historical ancestry shared between individuals back in time.
An analysis of autosomal SNP data from the International HapMap Project (Phase II) and CEPH Human Genome Diversity Panel samples was published in 2009.
The study of 53 populations taken from the HapMap and CEPH data (1138 unrelated individuals) suggested that natural selection may shape the human genome much more slowly than previously thought, with factors such as migration within and among continents more heavily influencing the distribution of genetic variations.
A similar study published in 2010 found strong genome-wide evidence for selection due to changes in ecoregion, diet, and subsistence
particularly in connection with polar ecoregions, with foraging, and with a diet rich in roots and tubers. In a 2016 study, principal component analysis of genome-wide data was capable of recovering previously-known targets for positive selection (without prior definition of populations) as well as a number of new candidate genes.
Forensic anthropology
Forensic anthropologists can assess the ancestry of skeletal remains by analyzing skeletal morphology as well as using genetic and chemical markers, when possible. While these assessments are never certain, the accuracy of skeletal morphology analyses in determining true ancestry has been estimated at 90%.
Gene flow and admixture
Gene flow between two populations reduces the average genetic distance between the populations, only totally isolated human populations experience no gene flow and most populations have continuous gene flow with other neighboring populations which create the clinal distribution observed for most genetic variation. When gene flow takes place between well-differentiated genetic populations the result is referred to as "genetic admixture".
Admixture mapping is a technique used to study how genetic variants cause differences in disease rates between population. Recent admixture populations that trace their ancestry to multiple continents are well suited for identifying genes for traits and diseases that differ in prevalence between parental populations. African-American populations have been the focus of numerous population genetic and admixture mapping studies, including studies of complex genetic traits such as white cell count, body-mass index, prostate cancer and renal disease.
An analysis of phenotypic and genetic variation including skin color and socio-economic status was carried out in the population of Cape Verde which has a well documented history of contact between Europeans and Africans. The studies showed that pattern of admixture in this population has been sex-biased (involving mostly matings between European men and African women) and there is a significant interaction between socioeconomic status and skin color, independent of ancestry. Another study shows an increased risk of graft-versus-host disease complications after transplantation due to genetic variants in human leukocyte antigen (HLA) and non-HLA proteins.
Health
Differences in allele frequencies contribute to group differences in the incidence of some monogenic diseases, and they may contribute to differences in the incidence of some common diseases. For the monogenic diseases, the frequency of causative alleles usually correlates best with ancestry, whether familial (for example, Ellis–Van Creveld syndrome among the Pennsylvania Amish), ethnic (Tay–Sachs disease among Ashkenazi Jewish populations), or geographical (hemoglobinopathies among people with ancestors who lived in malarial regions). To the extent that ancestry corresponds with racial or ethnic groups or subgroups, the incidence of monogenic diseases can differ between groups categorized by race or ethnicity, and health-care professionals typically take these patterns into account in making diagnoses.
Even with common diseases involving numerous genetic variants and environmental factors, investigators point to evidence suggesting the involvement of differentially distributed alleles with small to moderate effects. Frequently cited examples include hypertension (Douglas et al. 1996), diabetes (Gower et al. 2003), obesity (Fernandez et al. 2003), and prostate cancer (Platz et al. 2000). However, in none of these cases has allelic variation in a susceptibility gene been shown to account for a significant fraction of the difference in disease prevalence among groups, and the role of genetic factors in generating these differences remains uncertain (Mountain and Risch 2004).
Some other variations on the other hand are beneficial to human, as they prevent certain diseases and increase the chance to adapt to the environment. For example, mutation in CCR5 gene that protects against AIDS. CCR5 gene is absent on the surface of cell due to mutation. Without CCR5 gene on the surface, there is nothing for HIV viruses to grab on and bind into. Therefore, the mutation on CCR5 gene decreases the chance of an individual's risk with AIDS. The mutation in CCR5 is also quite common in certain areas, with more than 14% of the population carry the mutation in Europe and about 6–10% in Asia and North Africa.
Apart from mutations, many genes that may have aided humans in ancient times plague humans today. For example, it is suspected that genes that allow humans to more efficiently process food are those that make people susceptible to obesity and diabetes today.
Neil Risch of Stanford University has proposed that self-identified race/ethnic group could be a valid means of categorization in the US for public health and policy considerations. A 2002 paper by Noah Rosenberg's group makes a similar claim: "The structure of human populations is relevant in various epidemiological contexts. As a result of variation in frequencies of both genetic and nongenetic risk factors, rates of disease and of such phenotypes as adverse drug response vary across populations. Further, information about a patient's population of origin might provide health care practitioners with information about risk when direct causes of disease are unknown." However, in 2018 Noah Rosenberg released a study arguing against genetically essentialist ideas of health disparities between populations stating environmental variants are a more likely cause
Genome projects
Human genome projects are scientific endeavors that determine or study the structure of the human genome. The Human Genome Project was a landmark genome project.
See also
Archaeogenetics
Chimera (genetics)
Genealogical DNA test
Human evolutionary genetics
Isolation by distance
Multiregional hypothesis
Neurodiversity
Race and genetics
Recent single origin hypothesis
Y-chromosome haplogroups in populations of the world
Regional
1000 Genomes Project
African admixture in Europe
Genetic history of Europe
Genetic history of indigenous peoples of the Americas
Genetic history of South Asia
Genetic history of the British Isles
Projects
Human Variome Project
References
Further reading
reprint-zip
External links
Human Genome Variation Society
Human population genetics
Biological anthropology
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Race and society
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Social interpretations of race regard the common categorizations of people into different races. Race is often culturally understood to be rigid categories (Black, White, Pasifika, Asian, Latino, etc) in which people can be classified based on biological markers or physical traits such as skin colour or facial features. This rigid definition of race is no longer accepted by scientific communities. Instead, the concept of 'race' is viewed as a social construct. This means, in simple terms, that it is a human invention and not a biological fact. The concept of 'race' has developed over time in order to accommodate different societies' needs of organising themselves as separate from the 'other' (globalization and colonization have caused conceptions of race to be generally consolidated). The 'other' was usually viewed as inferior and, as such, was assigned worse qualities. Our current idea of race was developed primarily during the the Enlightenment, in which scientists attempted to define racial boundaries, but their cultural biases ultimately impacted their findings and reproduced the prejudices that still exist in our society today.
Social interpretation of physical variation
Incongruities of racial classifications
The biological anthropologist Jonathan Marks (1995) argued that even as the idea of "race" was becoming a powerful organizing principle in many societies, the shortcomings of the concept were apparent. In the Old World, the gradual transition in appearances from one racial group to adjacent racial groups emphasized that "one variety of mankind does so sensibly pass into the other, that you cannot mark out the limits between them," as Blumenbach observed in his writings on human variation. In parts of the Americas, the situation was somewhat different. The immigrants to the New World came largely from widely separated regions of the Old World—western and northern Europe, western Africa, and, later, eastern Asia and southern and eastern Europe. In the Americas, the immigrant populations began to mix among themselves and with the indigenous inhabitants of the continent. In the United States, for example, most people who self-identify as African American have some European ancestors—in one analysis of genetic markers that have differing frequencies between continents, European ancestry ranged from an estimated 7% for a sample of Jamaicans to ~23% for a sample of African Americans from New Orleans. In a survey of college students who self-identified as white in a northeastern U.S. university, the west African and Native American genetic contribution were 0.7% and 3.2%.
In the United States, social and legal conventions developed over time that forced individuals of mixed ancestry into simplified racial categories. An example is the "one-drop rule" implemented in some state laws that treated anyone with a single known African American ancestor as black. The decennial censuses conducted since 1790 in the United States also created an incentive to establish racial categories and fit people into those categories. In other countries in the Americas, where mixing among groups was more extensive, social non racial categories have tended to be more numerous and fluid, with people moving into or out of categories on the basis of a combination of socioeconomic status, social class, ancestry.
Efforts to sort the increasingly mixed population of the United States into discrete racial categories generated many difficulties. Additionally, efforts to track mixing between census racial groups led to a proliferation of categories (such as mulatto and octoroon) and "blood quantum" distinctions that became increasingly untethered from self-reported ancestry. A person's racial identity can change over time. One study found differences between self-ascribed race and Veterans Affairs administrative data.
Race as a social construct and populationism
The notion of a biological basis for race originally emerged through speculations surrounding the "blood purity" of Jews during the Spanish Inquisition, eventually translating to a general association of one's biology with their social and personal characteristics. In the 19th century, this recurring ideology was intensified in the development of the racial sciences, eugenics and ethnology, which meant to further categorize groups of humans in terms of biological superiority or inferiority. While the field of racial sciences, also known as scientific racism, has expired in history, these antiquated conceptions of race have persisted throughout the 21st century. (See also: Historical origins of racial classification)
Contrary to popular belief that the division of the human species based on physical variations is natural, there exists no clear, reliable distinctions that bind people to such groupings. According to the American Anthropological Association, "Evidence from the analysis of genetics (e.g., DNA) indicates that most physical variation, about 94%, lies within so-called racial groups. Conventional geographic "racial" groupings differ from one another only in about 6% of their genes." While there is a biological basis for differences in human phenotypes, most notably in skin color, the genetic variability of humans is found not amongst, but rather within racial groups – meaning the perceived level of dissimilarity amongst the species has virtually no biological basis. Genetic diversity has characterized human survival, rendering the idea of a "pure" ancestry as obsolete. Under this interpretation, race is conceptualized through a lens of artificiality, rather than through the skeleton of a scientific discovery. As a result, scholars have begun to broaden discourses of race by defining it as a social construct and exploring the historical contexts that led to its inception and persistence in contemporary society.
Most historians, anthropologists, and sociologists describe human races as a social construct, preferring instead the term population or ancestry, which can be given a clear operational definition. Even those who reject the formal concept of race, however, still use the word race in day-to-day speech. This may either be a matter of semantics, or an effect of an underlying cultural significance of race in racist societies. Regardless of the name, a working concept of sub-species grouping can be useful, because in the absence of cheap and widespread genetic tests, various race-linked gene mutations (see Cystic fibrosis, Lactose intolerance, Tay–Sachs disease and Sickle cell anemia) are difficult to address without recourse to a category between "individual" and "species". As genetic tests for such conditions become cheaper, and as detailed haplotype maps and SNP databases become available, identifiers of race should diminish. Also, increasing interracial marriage is reducing the predictive power of race. For example, babies born with Tay–Sachs disease in North America are not only or primarily Ashkenazi Jews, despite stereotypes to contrary; French Canadians, Louisiana Cajuns, and Irish-Americans also see high rates of the disease.
Michael Brooks, the author of “The Race Delusion” suggests that race is not determined biographically or genetically, but that it is socially constructed. He explains that nearly all scientists in the field of race, nationality, and ethnicity will confirm that race is a social construct. It has more to do with how people identify rather than genetics. He then goes on to explain how “black” and “white” have different meanings in other cultures. People in the United States tend to label themselves black if they have ancestors that are from Africa, but when you are in Brazil, you are not black if you have European ancestry. DNA shows that the human population is a result of populations that have moved across the world, splitting up and interbreeding. Even with this science to back up this concept, society has yet to believe and accept it. No one is born with the knowledge of race, the split between races and the decision to treat others differently based on skin color is completely learned and accepted by society.
Experts in the fields of genetics, law, and sociology have offered their opinions on the subject. Audrey Smedley and Brian D. Smedley of Virginia Commonwealth University Institute of Medicine discuss the anthropological and historical perspectives on ethnicity, culture, and race. They define culture as the habits acquired by a society. Smedley states "Ethnicity and culture are related phenomena and bear no intrinsic connection to human biological variations or race" (Smedley 17). The authors state using physical characteristics to define an ethnic identity is inaccurate. The variation of humans has actually decreased over time since, as the author states, "Immigration, intermating, intermarriage, and reproduction have led to increasing physical heterogeneity of peoples in many areas of the world" (Smedley 18). They referred to other experts and their research, pointing out that humans are 99% alike. That one percent is caused by natural genetic variation, and has nothing to do with the ethnic group of the subject. Racial classification in the United States started in the 1700s with three ethnically distinct groups. These groups were the white Europeans, Native Americans, and Africans. The concept of race was skewed around these times because of the social implications of belonging to one group or another. The view that one race is biologically different from another rose out of society's grasp for power and authority over other ethnic groups. This did not only happen in the United States but around the world as well. Society created race to create hierarchies in which the majority would prosper most.
Another group of experts in sociology has written on this topic. Guang Guo, Yilan Fu, Yi Li, Kathleen Mullan Harris of the University of North Carolina department of sociology as well as Hedwig Lee (University of Washington Seattle), Tianji Cai (University of Macau) comment on remarks made by one expert. The debate is over DNA differences, or lack thereof, between different races. The research in the original article they are referring to uses different methods of DNA testing between distinct ethnic groups and compares them to other groups. Small differences were found, but those were not based on race. They were from biological differences caused from the region in which the people live. They describe that the small differences cannot be fully explained because the understanding of migration, intermarriage, and ancestry is unreliable at the individual level. Race cannot be related to ancestry based on the research on which they are commenting. They conclude that the idea of "races as biologically distinct peoples with differential abilities and behaviors has long been discredited by the scientific community" (2338).
One more expert in the field has given her opinion. Ann Morning of the New York University Department of Sociology, and member of the American Sociological Association, discusses the role of biology in the social construction of race. She examines the relationship between genes and race and the social construction of social race clusters. Morning states that everyone is assigned to a racial group because of their physical characteristics. She identifies through her research the existence of DNA population clusters. She states that society would want to characterize these clusters as races. Society characterizes race as a set of physical characteristics. The clusters though have an overlap in physical characteristics and thus cannot be counted as a race by society or by science. Morning concludes that "Not only can constructivist theory accommodate or explain the occasional alignment of social classifications and genetic estimates that Shiao et al.'s model hypothesizes, but empirical research on human genetics is far from claiming—let alone demonstrating—that statistically inferred clusters are the equivalent of races" (Morning 203). Only using ethnic groups to map a genome is entirely inaccurate, instead every individual must be viewed as having their own wholly unique genome (unique in the 1%, not the 99% all humans share).
Ian Haney López, the John H. Boalt Professor of Law at the University of California, Berkeley explains ways race is a social construct. He uses examples from history of how race was socially constructed and interpreted. One such example was of the Hudgins v. Wright case. A slave woman sued for her freedom and the freedom of her two children on the basis that her grandmother was Native American. The race of the Wright had to be socially proven, and neither side could present enough evidence. Since the slave owner Hudgins bore the burden of proof, Wright and her children gained their freedom. López uses this example to show the power of race in society. Human fate, he argues, still depends upon ancestry and appearance. Race is a powerful force in everyday life. These races are not determined by biology though, they are created by society to keep power with the majority. He describes that there are not any genetic characteristics that all blacks have that non-whites do not possess and vice versa. He uses the example of Mexican. It truly is a nationality, yet it has become a catch-all for all Hispanic nationalities. This simplification is wrong, López argues, for it is not only inaccurate but it tends to treat all "Mexicans" as below fervent Americans. He describes that "More recently, genetic testing has made it clear the close connections all humans share, as well as the futility of explaining those differences that do exist in terms of racially relevant gene codes" (Lopez 199–200). Those differences clearly have no basis in ethnicity, so race is completely socially constructed.
Some argue it is preferable when considering biological relations to think in terms of populations, and when considering cultural relations to think in terms of ethnicity, rather than of race.
These developments had important consequences. For example, some scientists developed the notion of "population" to take the place of race. It is argued that this substitution is not simply a matter of exchanging one word for another.
This view does not deny that there are physical differences among peoples; it simply claims that the historical conceptions of "race" are not particularly useful in accounting for these differences scientifically. In particular, it is claimed that:
knowing someone's "race" does not provide comprehensive predictive information about biological characteristics, and only absolutely predicts those traits that have been selected to define the racial categories, e.g. knowing a person's skin color, which is generally acknowledged to be one of the markers of race (or taken as a defining characteristic of race), does not allow good predictions of a person's blood type to be made.
in general, the worldwide distribution of human phenotypes exhibits gradual trends of difference across geographic zones, not the categorical differences of race; in particular, there are many peoples (like the San of S. W. Africa, or the people of northern India) who have phenotypes that do not neatly fit into the standard race categories.
focusing on race has historically led not only to seemingly insoluble disputes about classification (e.g. are the Japanese a distinct race, a mixture of races, or part of the East Asian race? and what about the Ainu?) but has also exposed disagreement about the criteria for making decisions—the selection of phenotypic traits seemed arbitrary.
Neven Sesardic has argued that such arguments are unsupported by empirical evidence and politically motivated. Arguing that races are not completely discrete biologically is a straw man argument. He argues "racial recognition is not actually based on a single trait (like skin color) but rather on a number of characteristics that are to a certain extent concordant and that jointly make the classification not only possible but fairly reliable as well". Forensic anthropologists can classify a person's race with an accuracy close to 100% using only skeletal remains if they take into consideration several characteristics at the same time. A.W.F. Edwards has argued similarly regarding genetic differences in "Human genetic diversity: Lewontin's fallacy".
Race in biomedicine
There is an active debate among biomedical researchers about the meaning and importance of race in their research. The primary impetus for considering race in biomedical research is the possibility of improving the prevention and treatment of diseases by predicting hard-to-ascertain factors on the basis of more easily ascertained characteristics. The most well-known examples of genetically determined disorders that vary in incidence between ethnic groups would be sickle cell disease and thalassemia among black and Mediterranean populations respectively and Tay–Sachs disease among people of Ashkenazi Jewish descent. Some fear that the use of racial labels in biomedical research runs the risk of unintentionally exacerbating health disparities, so they suggest alternatives to the use of racial taxonomies.
Case studies in the social construction of race
Race in the United States
In the United States since its early history, Native Americans, African-Americans and European-Americans were classified as belonging to different races. For nearly three centuries, the criteria for membership in these groups were similar, comprising a person's appearance, his fraction of known non-White ancestry, and his social circle. But the criteria for membership in these races diverged in the late 19th century. During Reconstruction, increasing numbers of Americans began to consider anyone with "one drop" of "Black blood" to be Black. By the early 20th century, this notion of invisible blackness was made statutory in many states and widely adopted nationwide. In contrast, Amerindians continue to be defined by a certain percentage of "Indian blood" (called blood quantum) due in large part to American slavery ethics.
Race definitions in the United States
The concept of race as used by the Census Bureau reflects self-identification by people according to the race or races with which they most closely identify. These categories are sociopolitical constructs and should not be interpreted as being scientific or anthropological in nature. They change from one census to another, and the racial categories include both racial and national-origin groups.
Race in Brazil
Compared to 19th-century United States, 20th-century Brazil was characterized by a relative absence of sharply defined racial groups. This pattern reflects a different history and different social relations. Basically, race in Brazil was recognized as the difference between ancestry (which determines genotype) and phenotypic differences. Racial identity was not governed by a rigid descent rule. A Brazilian child was never automatically identified with the racial type of one or both parents, nor were there only two categories to choose from. Over a dozen racial categories are recognized in conformity with the combinations of hair color, hair texture, eye color, and skin color. These types grade into each other like the colors of the spectrum, and no one category stands significantly isolated from the rest. That is, race referred to appearance, not heredity.
Through this system of racial identification, parents and children and even brothers and sisters were frequently accepted as representatives of opposite racial types. In a fishing village in the state of Bahia, an investigator showed 100 people pictures of three sisters and they were asked to identify the races of each. In only six responses were the sisters identified by the same racial term. Fourteen responses used a different term for each sister. In another experiment nine portraits were shown to a hundred people. Forty different racial types were elicited. It was found, in addition, that a given Brazilian might be called by as many as thirteen different terms by other members of the community. These terms are spread out across practically the entire spectrum of theoretical racial types. A further consequence of the absence of a descent rule was that Brazilians apparently not only disagreed about the racial identity of specific individuals, but they also seemed to be in disagreement about the abstract meaning of the racial terms as defined by words and phrases. For example, 40% of a sample ranked moreno claro as a lighter type than mulato claro, while 60% reversed this order. A further note of confusion is that one person might employ different racial terms to describe the same person over a short time span. The choice of which racial description to use may vary according to both the personal relationships and moods of the individuals involved. The Brazilian census lists one's race according to the preference of the person being interviewed. As a consequence, hundreds of races appeared in the census results, ranging from blue (which is blacker than the usual black) to pink (which is whiter than the usual white).
However, Brazilians are not so naïve to ignore one's racial origins just because of his (or her) better social status. An interesting example of this phenomenon has occurred recently, when the famous football (soccer) player Ronaldo declared publicly that he considered himself as White, thus linking racism to a form or another of class conflict. This caused a series of ironic notes on newspapers, which pointed out that he should have been proud of his African origin (which is obviously noticeable), a fact that must have made life for him (and for his ancestors) more difficult, so, being a successful personality was, in spite of that, a victory for him. What occurs in Brazil that differentiates it largely from the US or South Africa, for example, is that black or mixed-race people are, in fact, more accepted in social circles if they have more education, or have a successful life (a euphemism for "having a better salary"). As a consequence, inter-racial marriages are more common, and more accepted, among highly educated Afro-Brazilians than lower-educated ones.
So, although the identification of a person by race is far more fluid and flexible in Brazil than in the U.S., there still are racial stereotypes and prejudices. African features have been considered less desirable; Blacks have been considered socially inferior, and Whites superior. These white supremacist values were a legacy of European colonization and the slave-based plantation system. The complexity of racial classifications in Brazil is reflective of the extent of miscegenation in Brazilian society, which remains highly, but not strictly, stratified along color lines. Henceforth, Brazil's desired image as a perfect "post-racist" country, composed of the "cosmic race" celebrated in 1925 by José Vasconcelos, must be met with caution, as sociologist Gilberto Freyre demonstrated in 1933 in Casa Grande e Senzala.
Race in politics and ethics
Michel Foucault argued the popular historical and political use of a non-essentialist notion of "race" used in the "race struggle" discourse during the 1688 Glorious Revolution and under Louis XIV's end of reign. In Foucault's view, this discourse developed in two different directions: Marxism, which seized the notion and transformed it into "class struggle" discourse, and racists, biologists and eugenicists, who paved the way for 20th century "state racism".
During the Enlightenment, racial classifications were used to justify enslavement of those deemed to be of "inferior", non-White races, and thus supposedly best fitted for lives of toil under White supervision. These classifications made the distance between races seem nearly as broad as that between species, easing unsettling questions about the appropriateness of such treatment of humans. The practice was at the time generally accepted by both scientific and lay communities.
Arthur Gobineau's An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races (1853–1855) was one of the milestones in the new racist discourse, along with Vacher de Lapouge's "anthroposociology" and Johann Gottfried Herder (1744–1803), who applied race to nationalist theory to develop militant ethnic nationalism. They posited the historical existence of national races such as German and French, branching from basal races supposed to have existed for millennia, such as the Aryan race, and believed political boundaries should mirror these supposed racial ones.
Later, one of Hitler's favorite sayings was, "Politics is applied biology". Hitler's ideas of racial purity led to unprecedented atrocities in Europe. Since then, ethnic cleansing has occurred in Cambodia, the Balkans, Sudan, and Rwanda. In one sense, ethnic cleansing is another name for the tribal warfare and mass murder that has afflicted human society for ages.
Racial inequality has been a concern of United States politicians and legislators since the country's founding. In the 19th century most White Americans (including abolitionists) explained racial inequality as an inevitable consequence of biological differences. Since the mid-20th century, political and civic leaders as well as scientists have debated to what extent racial inequality is cultural in origin. Some argue that current inequalities between Blacks and Whites are primarily cultural and historical, the result of past and present racism, slavery and segregation, and could be redressed through such programs as affirmative action and Head Start. Others work to reduce tax funding of remedial programs for minorities. They have based their advocacy on aptitude test data that, according to them, shows that racial ability differences are biological in origin and cannot be leveled even by intensive educational efforts. In electoral politics, many more ethnic minorities have won important offices in Western nations than in earlier times, although the highest offices tend to remain in the hands of Whites.
In his famous Letter from Birmingham Jail, Martin Luther King Jr. observed:
History is the long and tragic story of the fact that privileged groups seldom give up their privileges voluntarily. Individuals may see the moral light and voluntarily give up their unjust posture; but as Reinhold Niebuhr has reminded us, groups are more immoral than individuals.
King's hope, expressed in his I Have a Dream speech, was that the civil rights struggle would one day produce a society where people were not "judged by the color of their skin, but by the content of their character".
Because of the identification of the concept of race with political oppression, many natural and social scientists today are wary of using the word "race" to refer to human variation, but instead use less emotive words such as "population" and "ethnicity". Some, however, argue that the concept of race, whatever the term used, is nevertheless of continuing utility and validity in scientific research.
Race in law enforcement
In an attempt to provide general descriptions that may facilitate the job of law enforcement officers seeking to apprehend suspects, the United States FBI employs the term "race" to summarize the general appearance (skin color, hair texture, eye shape, and other such easily noticed characteristics) of individuals whom they are attempting to apprehend. From the perspective of law enforcement officers, a description needs to capture the features that stand out most clearly in the perception within the given society.
Thus, in the UK, Scotland Yard use a classification based on the ethnic composition of British society: W1 (White British), W2 (White Irish), W9 (Other White); M1 (White and black Caribbean), M2 (White and black African), M3 (White and Asian), M9 (Any other mixed background); A1 (Asian-Indian), A2 (Asian-Pakistani), A3 (Asian-Bangladeshi), A9 (Any other Asian background); B1 (Black Caribbean), B2 (Black African), B3 (Any other black background); O1 (Chinese), O9 (Any other).
In the United States, the practice of racial profiling has been ruled to be both unconstitutional and also to constitute a violation of civil rights. There also an ongoing debate on the relationship between race and crime regarding the disproportional representation of certain minorities in all stages of the criminal justice system.
There are many studies that have proved the reality of racial profiling. A huge study published in May 2020 of 95 million traffic stops between 2011 and 2018 shows that it was more common for black people to be pulled over and searched after a stop than whites even though white people were more likely to be found with illicit drugs. Another study found that in Travis County, Texas, despite black people comprising only around 9 percent of the population, they made up about 30 percent of police arrests for possessing less than a gram of illicit drugs, even though surveys consistently show that black and white people use illicit drugs at the same rate. Despite statistics and data that show that black people do not actually possess drugs more than white people, they are still targeted more by the police than white people which is largely due to the social construction of race.
Studies in racial taxonomy based on DNA cluster analysis has led law enforcement to pursue suspects based on their racial classification as derived from their DNA evidence left at the crime scene. DNA analysis has been successful in helping police determine the race of both victims and perpetrators.
This classification is called "biogeographical ancestry".
See also
Acculturation
Colonial mentality
Colonialism
Colorism
Creolization
Cultural assimilation
Cultural cringe
Cultural identity
Enculturation
Ethnocide
Globalization
Intercultural competence
Language shift
Paper Bag Party
Passing (racial identity)
Race of the future
Racialism
Racialization
Self-fulfilling prophecy
Syncretism
Westernization
Footnotes
Other references
Bernstein, David E. (2022) Classified: The untold story of racial classification in America. Bombardier Books, NY.
Cornell S, Hartmann D (1998) Ethnicity and race: making identities in a changing world. Pine Forge Press, Thousand Oaks, CA
Dikötter F (1992) The discourse of race in modern China. Stanford University Press, Stanford
Goldenberg DM (2003) The curse of ham: race and slavery in early Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Princeton University Press, Princeton
Huxley J, Haddon AC (1936) We Europeans: a survey of racial problems. Harper, New York
Isaac B (2004) The invention of racism in classical antiquity. Princeton University Press, Princeton
Brooks, Michael. (June 2019). “The Race Delusion” NewStatesman.
“We Are Repeating The Discrimination Experiment Every Day, Says Educator Jane Elliott”. 8 July 2020. Retrieved 29 November 2020.
Pierson, E., Simoiu, C., Overgoor, J. et al. “A large-scale analysis of racial disparities in police stops across the United States.” Nat Hum Behav 4, 736–745 (2020).
“Ending the War on Drugs in Travis County”. February 2020. Retrieved 28 November 2020.
Kinship and descent
Social constructionism
Social inequality
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Donkey%20Kong%20characters
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List of Donkey Kong characters
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is a series of video games published by Nintendo since 1981 and created by game designer Shigeru Miyamoto.
Donkey Kong and Mario have both had the roles of protagonist and antagonist in the series. Other characters have included other Kongs, the crocodilian villain King K. Rool, and supporting animal characters. This article only lists the characters that have appeared in titles that include "Kong" or "DK".
Kongs
Kongs are a group of various primates (particularly apes and monkeys) that live on Donkey Kong Island. The Kong Family (also known as the Kong Klan and the DK Crew) is a group led by Donkey Kong comprising his family and friends. They have numerous non-Kong allies who appear throughout the series, and are commonly antagonized by the Kremling Krew, who steal their valuables (and sometimes kidnap members of the Kong family) to further their nefarious goals.
Donkey Kong's family
Donkey Kong (original)/Cranky Kong
Game appearances
Donkey Kong, also known as DK, is a male gorilla. The first character named Donkey Kong is introduced in the original 1981 arcade game as the computer-controlled antagonist who abducts Pauline. The player must take the role of Mario and rescue her. Donkey Kong is held captive by Mario in Donkey Kong Jr. In Donkey Kong 3, he terrorises a greenhouse. In the Game & Watch game Donkey Kong Hockey, he served as a playable character for the first time.
In 1994's Donkey Kong Country, a new, different-looking Donkey Kong was introduced, said to be the grandson of the original arcade character, who is now the elderly (also known as Donkey Kong Sr.) a grumpy elderly gorilla, known for his scathing fourth wall-breaking commentary. He has appeared as Cranky Kong in a number of Donkey Kong games, primarily as a boastful adviser to Donkey Kong and his various simian friends (in-game and in the instruction manuals), as well as running minigames and tutorials. His main purpose in Donkey Kong Country is to distribute helpful hints about the game's many stages to the modern Donkey Kong and his sidekick Diddy Kong whenever they drop by his cabin. Donkey Kong Country 2 saw him play a similar role, although this time the player would have to provide enough banana coins to buy specific hints. In Donkey Kong Country 3: Dixie Kong's Double Trouble!, he is the player's opponent in a throwing mini game at Swanky's Sideshow; in the GBA versions of Donkey Kong Country 2 and Donkey Kong Country 3, he hosts several minigames, and is briefly playable in the Dojo minigame of the latter. Donkey Kong 64 sees Cranky deal out potions that grant each of the five playable Kongs special abilities and can be purchased at Cranky's Lab. He also hosts the Jetpac game, and will grant the player access to it in exchange for 15 Banana Medals. Cranky has also made cameo appearances in Super Smash Bros. Melee, Super Smash Bros. Brawl, Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Super Smash Bros. Ultimate on the Jungle Japes stage, as well as appearing in Donkey Konga and its sequels. He made appearances dispensing tips in DK: King of Swing and DK: Jungle Climber. He is playable in Donkey Kong Barrel Blast. In Donkey Kong Country Returns and its 3DS remake, he runs various shops that sell items and helps the player by giving hints and tips when they leave his shop. In Donkey Kong Country: Tropical Freeze, Cranky becomes playable in the main campaign of a Donkey Kong platformer for the first time. His moveset is based around his cane, which allows him to bounce on spikes.
Characteristics
The original Donkey Kong is a large, enraged gorilla, which Miyamoto said was "nothing too evil or repulsive", and Mario's pet. Miyamoto has also named "Beauty and the Beast" and the 1933 film King Kong as influences for the character. The name was derived by Miyamoto from "stubborn ape": Miyamoto used "donkey" to convey "stubborn" in English; while "Kong" was simply to imply him being a "large ape."
Donkey Kong Country portrays Cranky as the original Donkey Kong character featured in the 1981 arcade game. The character retains his stubborn nature and has become an aged, sharp-minded, and disparaging video game veteran who throughout the games distributes advice and useful items. 64 portrays him as an alchemist. He is currently voiced by Takashi Nagasako. As his name implies, Cranky is perpetually bitter about many things and complains about them to anyone who gives him even the slightest acknowledgment. He is mostly angry about the state of modern video games, once going so far as to complain about how many bits and bytes are used up to simply animate his swinging beard. Every time he sees any such thing he seems to fondly recall his heyday in which he was an 8-bit character.
In other media
The Saturday Supercade is the character's first role in a television series. In it, Donkey Kong (voiced by Soupy Sales) has escaped from the circus and Mario (voiced by Peter Cullen) and Pauline (voiced by Judy Strangis) are chasing the ape. As with the original game, Donkey Kong will often grab Pauline and Mario has to save her.
Cranky was a regular on the Donkey Kong Country animated series. He is still as bitter as in the games, but without his fourth wall-breaking comments. His cabin is where the Crystal Coconut, a mystical artifact that predicted DK would become the future ruler of Kongo Bongo Island (as DK Island was called on the series), is kept. Often, Cranky mixes potions, somewhat prefiguring his Donkey Kong 64 role. He was voiced by Aron Tager, and by Ryūsei Nakao in the Japanese dub of the TV series.
A 2007 documentary, The King of Kong: A Fistful of Quarters, chronicles the competitive following for the arcade version of Donkey Kong.
The original arcade version of Donkey Kong is the last villain of the 2015 film Pixels.
Cranky Kong appears in the animated film The Super Mario Bros. Movie, voiced by Fred Armisen. In the film, he is depicted as the ruler of the Jungle Kingdom and leader of the Kong Army. Like in Donkey Kong 64, he is depicted as Donkey Kong's father instead of his grandfather. He is also shown to be very disaponted with Donkey Kong as a person.
Donkey Kong Jr.
also known as DK Jr. or simply Junior, is the protagonist of the 1982 arcade game of the same name and the son of the original Donkey Kong. Junior wears a white singlet with a red letter "J" on it. His objective in the game is to save his father, who was locked by Mario in a cage. He returns in the 1994 Game Boy game Donkey Kong, where he teams up with his father, who has kidnapped Pauline, against Mario. Junior also appeared as a playable character in Super Mario Kart, but was absent in later installments until he returned in the "Super Mario Kart Tour" in Mario Kart Tour, he also appeared in the Virtual Boy game Mario's Tennis, and as a hidden character in the Nintendo 64 version of the similarly named Mario Tennis. He also has his own educational video game for the Nintendo Entertainment System: Donkey Kong Jr. Math. Other appearances by Junior include the Game & Watch games Donkey Kong Jr. (in wide-screen, tabletop and panorama versions) and Donkey Kong II, as well as the Game & Watch Gallery series compilations for Game Boy. He also appears as the physical appearance of the transformed king of World 4 in the Super NES and Game Boy Advance versions of Super Mario Bros. 3. Donkey Kong Junior had his own segment in the first season of Saturday Supercade and was voiced by Frank Welker. Like his father, he had his own cereal brand in the 1980s.
Donkey Kong Jr. Math features a character with pink fur named "Junior (II)". This character's nature as metafictional or otherwise is not stated.
Shortly before the release of Donkey Kong 64 in 1999, Leigh Loveday, the writer of Donkey Kong Country 2, stated that, as far as he knew, the modern Donkey Kong who appears in Donkey Kong Country onward is a grown-up version of Junior himself. Cranky Kong refers to Donkey Kong as his son in Donkey Kong 64 and in the manual. However, the manual for Donkey Kong Country, the manual for Donkey Kong Land, and Donkey Kong Country 2: Diddy's Kong Quest state that Cranky is the original Donkey Kong and grandfather of the game's titular character. More recently, Super Smash Bros. Brawl, Super Smash Bros. Ultimate, Donkey Kong Country Returns, Donkey Kong Country: Tropical Freeze and Gregg Mayles of Rare have stated that the current Donkey Kong is the original Donkey Kong's grandson. In the 2023 Super Mario Bros. film adaptation, Donkey Kong is stated as being Cranky's son.
The character Diddy Kong was going to be an updated version of Donkey Kong Junior, but Nintendo did not like this idea, suggesting either to give him his old look or make him a new character. Rare chose the latter and Diddy Kong was made.
Donkey Kong (modern)
The new, redesigned Donkey Kong introduced as the main player character in 1994's Donkey Kong Country was said to be the grandson of the original arcade character, who was now the elderly Cranky Kong, Cranky having relinquished his name to him. However, in Donkey Kong 64, Cranky repeatedly refers to the current Donkey Kong as his son (he was senile in that game). This was reverted to the original grandson relationship in subsequent games such as the Game Boy Advance versions of Donkey Kong Country and Donkey Kong Country 2: Diddy's Kong Quest, Super Smash Bros. Brawl, and Donkey Kong Country Returns. In Yoshi's Island DS, Mario and DK are both babies and two of the Seven Star Children. While Candy Kong is his girlfriend, in the manual for Mario vs. Donkey Kong 2: March of the Minis, he is described as falling in love with Pauline at first sight.
The modern Donkey Kong is used for the antagonist role typical of the original Donkey Kong in the Mario vs. Donkey Kong series and a playable character in many Mario spin-off games
Donkey Kong appears in the animated film The Super Mario Bros. Movie, voiced by Seth Rogen. In November of 2021, there were reports that stated Illumination had begun development on a Donkey Kong spin-off film, with Rogen set to reprise his role.
Diddy Kong
Diddy Kong, also known as Diddy, is a young male spider monkey, the secondary main protagonist of the Donkey Kong franchise, Donkey Kong's sidekick and best friend. His first appearance was Donkey Kong Country. In the game's storyline, Donkey Kong requested for him to protect their Banana Hoard overnight, while he takes a nap. While guarding the bananas, Diddy was captured by the Kremlings and sealed in a barrel afterwards. Having heard the news, Donkey Kong sets off on his adventure, frees Diddy, and they both confront King K. Rool. The duo manage to defeat him, and recover their stolen bananas along the way.
In Donkey Kong Country 2: Diddy's Kong Quest, Donkey Kong has been kidnapped by Kaptain K. Rool, and Diddy must team up with Dixie Kong to save him. After rescuing DK and defeating K. Rool, K. Rool retreats to his secret island, the Lost World. The Kongs defeat K. Rool a second time, knocking him into Crocodile Isle's generator, which explodes. The Kongs escape the island and witness its destruction.
Later on, both Diddy and DK get captured in Donkey Kong Country 3: Dixie Kong's Double Trouble!, and the newly named Baron K. Roolenstein uses them as a power source for KAOS, a giant robot to spy on Dixie and Kiddy Kong's adventure in rescuing the apes. Diddy and Donkey Kong are eventually freed by Dixie and Kiddy.
King K. Rool returns in Donkey Kong 64; he gets his minions to imprison Donkey Kong's friends, with Diddy being one of them. He attempts to steal the Banana Hoard again. As soon as Diddy is freed from his imprisonment, he can collect red bananas, red coins, play his electric guitar, charge at foes or objects, fly in his barrel jet pack, and shoot peanuts from his guns.
Diddy Kong also appeared in Donkey Kong Country Returns, its 3DS remake and Donkey Kong Country: Tropical Freeze. He is one of the main characters of the television series adaptation. He has many roles in the Mario games, including basketball, kart racing and many more.
Wrinkly Kong
is an elderly gorilla and the wife of Cranky Kong. Wrinkly first appeared in the game Donkey Kong Country 2: Diddy's Kong Quest for the SNES, where she ran Kong Kollege. She gave the player advice and allowed the player to save their game. She appeared again in Donkey Kong Land 2, and again in Donkey Kong Country 3: Dixie Kong's Double Trouble!. This time, she resided in 'Wrinkly's Save Cave', where the player could both save their game and deposit Banana Birds, which were found throughout the game. This concept remained sans birds in Donkey Kong Land III, where she resided in 'Wrinkly Refuge'. In the Game Boy Advance version of Donkey Kong Country 3, Wrinkly was portrayed as a spiritual follower of the Banana Birds.
Wrinkly next appeared in Donkey Kong 64. She has apparently died at some point after Donkey Kong Country 3 as she is now a ghost. Every world lobby in the game, with the exception of Hideout Helm, featured five doors with Wrinkly's face on them; each door presented a hint for the level that applied to the Kong that corresponded to the door color (yellow for Donkey Kong, red for Diddy Kong, blue for Lanky Kong, purple for Tiny Kong, and green for Chunky Kong). When the player begins meeting her in Donkey Kong 64, she says, "Don't be afraid of me, young ones! It's only me, Wrinkly Kong" and then she gives the player advice on how to win a Golden Banana on the corresponding level.
Her first playable appearance was in DK: King of Swing and would later return for DK: Jungle Climber, and as an unlockable character in Donkey Kong Barrel Blast. She was voiced by Miho Yamada. She also appears as a trophy in Super Smash Bros. Brawl and Super Smash Bros. for Wii U.
Dixie Kong's family
Dixie Kong
is a young female chimpanzee or monkey with a prehensile ponytail. Her first appearance is Donkey Kong Country 2: Diddy's Kong Quest where she and Diddy Kong partner as "inseparable friends" to rescue DK. Cranky refers to her as "that girlfriend of his". She was also playable in Donkey Kong Land 2.
Dixie later was the protagonist of Donkey Kong Country 3: Dixie Kong's Double Trouble! and Donkey Kong Land III, with Kiddy Kong as her sidekick. While she did not return in Donkey Kong 64, her sister, Tiny Kong, served as her replacement.
Her next playable appearance was in Donkey Konga 2 on the GameCube, a bongo rhythm game. She appeared once again in the Japan-only Donkey Konga 3. She is also a playable character in DK: King of Swing for the Game Boy Advance, Diddy Kong Racing DS and DK: Jungle Climber for the Nintendo DS, Donkey Kong Barrel Blast for the Wii.
Dixie Kong is also available as a playable character in Mario Superstar Baseball, this was also Dixie Kong's debut in the Mario franchise. Her next appearance in a Mario game was in Mario Hoops 3-on-3. She later appeared in Mario Super Sluggers. Additionally, she made her debut appearance in the Mario Kart series in Mario Kart Tour for mobile phones.
After 6 years of not appearing in games since Mario Super Sluggers, she returned in Donkey Kong Country: Tropical Freeze for the Wii U and Nintendo Switch.
Dixie appears in the Donkey Kong Country TV series, where she was voiced by actress Louise Vallance. She is currently voiced by Kahoru Sasajima.
Kiddy Kong
Kiddy Kong, known as in Japan, is a large toddler primate that was introduced in Donkey Kong Country 3: Dixie Kong's Double Trouble! as Dixie's cousin. Later online errata described him as age three and Dixie's "little cousin". as well as the younger brother of Chunky Kong. Their mission is to solve a series of mysteries in the Northern Kremisphere and find their missing friends Donkey Kong and Diddy Kong. His abilities include water skipping, being able to roll farther to make longer than average jumps, and throwing Dixie high out of normal jump reach, with Dixie being able to throw him and guide his fall to break platforms and unveil hidden secrets.
Kiddy Kong is also playable in Donkey Kong Land III, where he joins Dixie in her quest to prove herself worthy by finding the fabled Lost World before DK, Diddy, and the Kremlings. He does not appear in Donkey Kong 64, but is mentioned in the manual as being the baby brother of Chunky Kong. He appeared as a racer in the trailer for the cancelled Donkey Kong Racing. He has not made any physical appearances in games not developed by Rare, the other two being Chunky Kong and Swanky Kong. In Super Smash Bros. Ultimate, he appears as part of Dixie Kong's upgraded collectible "spirit".
Tiny Kong
is a young, female chimpanzee who first appeared in Donkey Kong 64. She has blonde hair with pigtails. She is Dixie Kong's younger sister and is a cousin to Chunky Kong and Kiddy Kong, as stated in the manual for Donkey Kong 64.
In Donkey Kong 64, her clothing is a beanie hat, blue overalls, a white T-Shirt, and white shoes. She is freed by Diddy Kong in the 'Angry Aztec' level in the building near Candy's Music Shop. Her weapon is the Feather Crossbow and her instrument is the 'Saxophone Slam'. The Potion enables her to perform 'Mini-Monkey', 'Pony-Tail Twirl', and 'Monkey-Port'. She can shrink when she jumps into her special barrel, allowing her access to areas other Kongs cannot go. She can do a helicopter-spin, equivalent to Dixie's, to slow down her descent. Out of all the Golden Bananas collected, Tiny gets 6 in the main DK Isles.
Tiny was one of the confirmed characters in Donkey Kong Racing for the GameCube with Donkey Kong, Diddy, Kiddy, and Taj the Genie, but the game was canceled as Microsoft purchased Rare in September 2002.
She makes a cameo appearance in the Game Boy Advance ports of the Super NES games Donkey Kong Country 2: Diddy's Kong Quest and Donkey Kong Country 3: Dixie Kong's Double Trouble!. In Donkey Kong Country 2, Diddy, Dixie, or both must rescue her from the Zingers in a mini-game called Kongnapped, in which the objective is to rescue six of her in order to win. In Donkey Kong Country 3, she appears in one of Funky's Motorboat challenges. These two games are the only games where she is not a playable character.
In her spin-off debut, Diddy Kong Racing DS, she seems to have grown more mature, being both taller and more physically developed than her sister, Dixie. Her clothing now consists of a beanie hat, sweat pants, a midriff-revealing spaghetti-strap top, sandals and fur wristbands, as well as earrings that she did not wear in the previous games. She is one of the first eight playable characters. Her acceleration and handling are slightly below average, and she has a medium top speed.
Donkey Kong Barrel Blast is the first game on the Wii that she appears in. She is unlocked by completing Sapphire Mode on a Rookie Setting as one of the Kongs. She was voiced by Kahoru Sasajima.
Tiny Kong is also available as a playable character in Mario Super Sluggers, her debut in the Mario franchise.
She later makes a cameo appearance in Super Smash Bros. Ultimate as a Spirit using her artwork from Donkey Kong 64.
Chunky Kong
is a large gorilla weighing 2,000 pounds and is one of the playable Kongs in the game Donkey Kong 64 where he is the largest of the playable Kongs. Chunky is the older brother of Kiddy Kong and cousin of Dixie Kong and Tiny Kong. He is freed by Lanky in the level Frantic Factory. Before he is freed, he indicates that he does not like heights. Despite his brawny build, he acts somewhat cowardly and childish and lacks some intelligence, indicated by his speaking in third-person broken English. During the attract mode to Donkey Kong 64, all the Kongs are shown in the manner of a hip hop video. Chunky Kong is dressed in a flare-legged disco outfit with an afro hairstyle, but immediately realizes this is out of style (or out of place for rap) and runs off, immediately returning wearing more appropriate clothes. When in the spotlight on the character select screen, he panics and asks the player to choose his cousin Tiny. His weapon is the 'Pineapple Launcher', and his instrument is the 'Triangle Trample'. The potion enables him to perform 'Hunky Chunky', turning gigantic, 'Primate Punch', unleashing a very powerful punch that can smash down some doors and walls, and 'Gorilla-Gone', temporarily turning him invisible. He can carry boulders and other heavy items that the other Kongs cannot. It is Chunky, with a combination of the 'Hunky Chunky' and 'Primate Punch' abilities, who ultimately defeats K. Rool in the last boxing match in Donkey Kong 64.
He makes a brief cameo appearance in the Game Boy Advance remake of Donkey Kong Country 3 in the third challenge of Funky's Rentals, where he is one of the Kongs that he has to be rescued from the Kremlings' kidnapping, along with other characters such as Candy, Tiny and Cranky Kong.
In Donkey Kong Barrel Blast, his weapon called the 'Pineapple Launcher' is an item that can be obtained in an item balloon and follows the player ahead of him until it hits them.
He appears as a sticker in Super Smash Bros. Brawl. In Super Smash Bros. Ultimate, he appears as a Spirit using his artwork from Donkey Kong 64.
Other gorillas
Candy Kong
is a female gorilla and Donkey Kong's girlfriend. Candy Kong first appeared in Donkey Kong Country providing save point stations throughout the game. Her second appearance was in Donkey Kong 64; Candy was redesigned, now wearing a bikini and some sneakers.
She also makes a brief appearance in DK: King of Swing, and is seen cheering on the player characters. She wears a pink bikini top and short shorts, and her torso was redesigned (this appearance has remained in subsequent games). In the GBC and GBA remakes of Donkey Kong Country Candy runs challenges and a dance studio respectively. She also makes brief cameo appearances in the GBA remakes of Donkey Kong Country 2: Diddy's Kong Quest and Donkey Kong Country 3: Dixie Kong's Double Trouble!.
In the Game Boy Advance remake of Donkey Kong Country 2 she appears as a model and assistant on Swanky Kong's quiz show, and she wore a purple dress.
She also made a brief appearance in Donkey Kong Barrel Blast in the mode Candy's Challenges and allowed the players to collect up to a total of 1,000 bananas and to win the tracks in first place. She and Swanky Kong are the only two protagonist Kongs who have yet to become playable. She was going to be one of the playable characters in Diddy Kong Pilot, replacing Redneck Kong, but that game was cancelled after Microsoft Game Studios bought Rare.
In a 1995 manga from Comic BomBom, Mario sees Candy wearing a swimsuit and a mask concealing her species, and is infatuated by her.
Candy was also a regular on the Donkey Kong Country animated series, voiced by Joy Tanner. Instead of being blonde as seen in the games, she has fiery red hair. She works at a barrel factory run by "Bluster Kong", her boss. This version of Candy also has a very quick temper.
She was voiced by Satsuki Tsuzumi in video games.
Funky Kong
is a cool surfer and mechanic gorilla. Initially, he allows the Kongs to go back to worlds they have previously completed. However, in Donkey Kong Country 3: Dixie Kong's Double Trouble!, he takes on a different role as a vehicle merchant, allowing Dixie Kong and Kiddy Kong to reach new worlds in the game. In Donkey Kong 64, Funky has switched jobs yet again to become the ammunitions expert of the group, his business seeming to suggest an army surplus store. He supplies various weapons and upgrades to the Kongs, donning camouflage clothing, goggles and a large rocket on his back (which is revealed near the end of the game to contain a giant boot) in favor of his old board shorts and sunglasses. He takes back on his surfer appearance in later games. He is also a playable character in Donkey Kong Barrel Blast, as well as in multiplayer modes of Donkey Konga 3, DK: King of Swing and DK: Jungle Climber. He is currently voiced by Toshihide Tsuchiya.
Funky is also a regular on the Donkey Kong Country animated series, where he was voiced by Damon D'Oliveira. One difference is that the cartoon version of Funky has tan fur as opposed to the brown fur his video game portrayal has. He was also given a Jamaican accent. Like in the games, Funky is keen on surfing and runs his own airline service. He often talks about karma and is the best dancer on the island. Funky is not fond of adventuring or fighting the Kremlings, nor is he keen on doing very much work; he often tries to take the easier way out of a situation, or just leave it up to DK and Diddy.
Funky resurfaces in Donkey Kong Country: Tropical Freeze as the keeper of the Fly and Buy shops, thus taking over the role of shopkeeper from Cranky Kong, who instead becomes a playable character. In the Nintendo Switch enhanced port of Tropical Freeze, Funky also serves as a playable character, headlining the eponymous "Funky Mode" exclusive to that port. In Funky Mode, characters can play as Funky Kong, who has extra health and other perks such as double-jumping and standing on spikes without taking damage. Players can switch between Donkey Kong and Funky while playing in Funky Mode, but Donkey Kong and his partner will both have added health. A save file cannot be changed out of Funky Mode once it has been started.
Outside of the Donkey Kong games, Funky also appears as an unlockable heavyweight character in Mario Kart Wii. He is widely considered to be the best character in the game, due to his speed bonus statistic. His next appearance in a Mario game was in Mario Super Sluggers for the Wii, where he was a playable character along with the other Donkey Kong characters. Funky uses his surfboard as a bat in the game. In Super Smash Bros. Ultimate, he runs a shop in the game's story mode and can be unlocked as a spirit. Additionally, he appears as a playable character in Mario Kart Tour and Mario Kart 8 Deluxe as a part of the game's Booster Course Pass.
Swanky Kong
is a gorilla and an entrepreneur. He first appears as the game show hosts a TV show called "Swanky's Bonus Bonanza" in Donkey Kong Country 2: Diddy's Kong Quest in which Diddy and Dixie must answer questions about the game correctly to win extra lives. The questions range from easy ones such as enemies and worlds featured in the game to more difficult ones such as objects in the background of levels.
After Crocodile Isle is destroyed in Donkey Kong Country 2, Swanky runs "Swanky's Sideshow" in the Northern Kremisphere of Donkey Kong Country 3: Dixie Kong's Double Trouble!. Swanky gives Bear Coins and Banana Bunches as rewards for winning. In Donkey Kong Country 2, he wears a blue oversized jacket and has an afro hair style. In Donkey Kong Country 3, he wears a white long-sleeved shirt, a gold vest, a bowler hat, black pants, black and white shoes, and has a diamond-topped cane.
In the Game Boy Advance version of Donkey Kong Country 2, Swanky's role remains the same except that he now has Candy as his assistant. Upon completing all of his quizzes, Swanky will reward the player with a photo of himself to add to the scrapbook. In the GBA version of Donkey Kong Country 3 (his last appearance), Swanky sports his Donkey Kong Country 2 look and now runs "Swanky's Dash", a virtual reality game where stars are collected as Dixie (as Kiddy is too young to play). If enough stars are collected, Swanky will give the player Bear Coins, Banana Bunches, and Extra Life Balloons. Swanky Kong, like Candy Kong, has never been a playable character. Also, he has not made any physical appearances in games not developed by Rare, the other two being Kiddy Kong and Chunky Kong. His relationship to the Kong Family is unknown.
He also makes a brief cameo appearance in The Super Mario Bros. Movie, where he presumably dies in a go-kart crash caused by a banana peel.
Orangutans
Manky Kong
In Donkey Kong Country, enemy orangutans known as Manky Kong appear. They attack the protagonists by throwing barrels. The game's manual describes the Manky Kongs as "Kong reject orangutans."
Lanky Kong
is a buffoonish orangutan who is a distant cousin to the Kong family. Lanky's first appearance was in Donkey Kong 64 as one of the game's five playable Kongs. He is freed by Donkey Kong in the 'Angry Aztec' level in the Llama's Temple. His weapon is the 'Grape Shooter', his instrument is the 'Trombone Tremor', and the potion enables him to perform 'OrangStand', where he walks on his hands to climb steep slopes, 'Baboon Balloon', which allows him to inflate himself to reach higher areas, and 'OrangSprint', which allows him to run fast on his hands. In the level 'Gloomy Galleon', he can transform into Enguarde the Swordfish when he enters the Enguarde Crate. Lanky Kong is known for his lack of style and grace, as well as his funny face.
Lanky appears in his spin-off debut Donkey Kong Barrel Blast (2007) as one of the unlockable characters, which marks his last physical appearance. He was voiced by Kentaro Tone.
The likeness of Lanky Kong appears as a trophy in Super Smash Bros. Brawl and Super Smash Bros. for Wii U, as well as a collectible Spirit in Super Smash Bros. Ultimate.
Fruit Kingdom Kings
The Fruit Kingdom Kings are a group of Kongs from Donkey Kong Jungle Beat who rule their respective territories in the Fruit Kingdoms and have invaded Donkey Kong's home turf. DK must battle these Kongs by using conventional fighting methods, like punching and kicking.
Ghastly King
Ghastly King, the head of the group, is a giant, shadowy Kong-like figure who serves as the ruler of the Fruit Kingdoms. It is implied that he put a spell on the other Evil Kings in order to defeat DK. After Ghastly King is defeated, DK becomes the new ruler of the Fruit Kingdoms and Dread Kong, Karate Kong, Ninja Kong, and Sumo Kong accept his leadership and congratulate him.
Dread Kong
Dread Kong is the ruler of the Banana Kingdom who sports dreadlocks and uses punch attacks. He is the weakest of the four Kongs controlled by Ghastly King.
After appearing in Jungle Beat, Dread Kong reappears in Donkey Kong Jungle Fever and Donkey Kong Banana Kingdom, the two medal games based on Jungle Beat.
Karate Kong
Karate Kong is the ruler of the Pineapple Kingdom who is an expert at karate.
After appearing in Jungle Beat, Karate Kong reappears in Jungle Fever and Banana Kingdom. He also appears as a Spirit in Super Smash Bros. Ultimate. His Spirit is represented by Ryu from the Street Fighter series.
Ninja Kong
Ninja Kong is the ruler of the Durian Kingdom who is a practitioner of ninjitsu.
After appearing in Jungle Beat, Ninja Kong reappears in Jungle Fever and Banana Kingdom. In Super Smash Bros. Ultimate, Ninja Kong appears as a Spirit that is embodied by Donkey Kong.
Sumo Kong
Sumo Kong is the ruler of the Star Fruit Kingdom who is an expert sumo wrestler. He is the largest and strongest of the four Kongs controlled by Ghastly King.
After appearing in Jungle Beat, Sumo Kong reappears in Jungle Fever and Banana Kingdom.
Humans
Mario
, originally known as , appeared as the player character in Donkey Kong. He was the antagonist in Donkey Kong Jr., and further appeared as playable in Donkey Kong Hockey.
He returns as a platforming protagonist in Mario vs. Donkey Kong and is ostensibly the one controlling the Mini-Mario toys in its sequels.
Pauline
, originally known as , was created by Shigeru Miyamoto and other developers for the 1981 arcade game Donkey Kong. She also appeared in the 1994 Game Boy game of the same name as well as Mario vs. Donkey Kong 2: March of the Minis and its sequels. Pauline is the earliest example of a female with a speaking role in a video game, and is cited as a famous example of a damsel in distress in fiction. In 2017, Super Mario Odyssey marked her debut in the Super Mario series, serving as the mayor of New Donk City. Since then, she has appeared in several other Mario titles.
Stanley
, sometimes called Stanley the Bugman, is an exterminator and the protagonist of Donkey Kong 3. Stanley has only made one other prominent appearance as the protagonist of the Game & Watch game Greenhouse, in which he sprays worms attacking his plants. Greenhouse was re-released in Game & Watch Gallery 3, but the modern version stars Yoshi instead. Stanley also appears in Donkey Kong 3 microgames in both WarioWare: Twisted! and WarioWare: Touched! and a trophy of him can be obtained in the game Super Smash Bros. Melee. He also appeared in the Saturday Supercade cartoon.
Kremlings
are an advanced crocodilian species native to Crocodile Isle. Examples of Kremlings include Kritter, which demonstrate a variety of behaviours and ability to use tools, Klaptrap, which is small and quadrupedal, and Krockhead, which is more primitive and always submerged in swamps or lava. They come in many sizes, varieties, and colors. The Kremlings live on Crocodile Isle, and as typical of crocodiles, favour swamps. All of their names begin with the letter K, with the exception of Skidda and Bazuka from Donkey Kong Country 3.
Historically, the Kremling population lived in the Lost World where it reveals all their past and protecting their power source that was kept secret for time ago. The relationship with piracy is traditional since Kremling Kuthroats which was formed by evil old Kremlings and are no alive anymore. Long ago, the Kremlings fought on Kremean War against Brigadier Bazooka and his squadron. The Kremling Krew ascension turned the Kremlings into tough soldiers where they became technologically adept.
The Kremling Krew is a powerful organization of evil Kremlings, led by King K. Rool, that antagonize the Kongs. This group is composed of commanders (Klump, Kasplat and Kalypso), strong bodyguards (Krusha, Kudgel and Klubba) and troops (Kritters and Klaptraps). Many different animal species (birds, mammals, insects, fish, other reptiles, etc.) reinforce K. Rool and his army. When Crocodile Isle is destroyed, the organization comes into crisis, with Kremling remnants building several bases in the Northern Kremisphere until they are regrouped by KAOS (which is K. Rool acting in the shadows).
All the Kremlings are part of the Kremling Krew that antagonizes the Kongs with exception of K. Lumsy, who opens up levels for the Kongs in Donkey Kong 64.
The Kremlings were originally conceived for a game called Jonny Blastoff and the Kremling Armada, an unreleased point & click adventure game that predated Donkey Kong Country.
King K. Rool
King K. Rool is a hot-tempered, authoritarian and baleful green Kremling who is the main antagonist of many Donkey Kong games and has been Donkey Kong and Diddy Kong's archenemy ever since Donkey Kong Country. His name is a pun on the word cruel. He is an unhinged pirate who builds various sophisticated inventions and is constantly switching personae. The despotic king of Kremlings, he constantly antagonizes the Kongs, referring to them as "filthy apes", "monkey brains" and "ludicrous lemurs" as well as frequently stealing Donkey Kong's banana hoard. His most distinguishing features are the tic in his left eye, his red cape, his gold crown and wrist bands, and his yellow belly or alternatively golden armor with an outie navel. His tail seems to change size or disappear completely between appearances. While overweight, K. Rool has huge muscles in his arms and he has proven to have enormous brute strength that matches (perhaps surpasses) both Donkey Kong and Chunky Kong in power. K. Lumsy is his younger brother.
While K. Rool's crown-and-cape look has been his typical appearance since Donkey Kong Country, he takes on alternate disguises and personalities to battle the Kongs in other games:
He is the pirate Kaptain K. Rool who kidnaps and imprisons Donkey Kong in Donkey Kong Country 2.
He later takes the alias of the mad scientist Baron K. Roolenstein who tries to take over the Northern Kremisphere in Donkey Kong Country 3. While doing so, he creates a distraction of a machine called KAOS to observe the Kongs' progress throughout the game.
He is the boxer King "Krusha" K. Rool in Donkey Kong 64. This game also features Gloomy Galleon, which features a sunken ship bearing pictures of his previous alias Kaptain K. Rool. It is unknown whether or not this is "Gangplank Galleon", the ship in Donkey Kong Country 2.
In the TV series, he is the main antagonist and is portrayed as somewhat pompous with a Posh accent.
He is voiced by Chris Sutherland in Donkey Kong games, Benedict Campbell in the Donkey Kong Country animated series, Jūrōta Kosugi in the Japanese adaptation of the show, and by Toshihide Tsuchiya in other video games.
K. Rool also appeared in Mario Super Sluggers (his first appearance in a Mario game) as an unlockable character along with DK, Diddy, and Funky, as well as one of his Kritters. He uses his magical sceptre as a bat.
In Super Smash Bros. Melee and Super Smash Bros. Brawl, K. Rool appeared as a collectible trophy. A Mii Fighter costume based on K. Rool's design appears in Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U as downloadable content. K. Rool made his long-awaited debut as a playable Super Smash Bros. fighter in Super Smash Bros. Ultimate.
Klump
are large, rotund members of the Kremling Krew and appear as King K. Rool's second-in-command in various Donkey Kong games.Donkey Kong 64 Instruction Booklet, Nintendo, 1999, p. 5 Leading the Kremling Krew army in Donkey Kong Country, a Klump is ordered by K. Rool to steal the Banana Hoard from underneath Donkey Kong's Treehouse, which was being protected by Diddy Kong. After Klump knocks out Diddy with his "enormous bulk", he instructs the Kremlings to stuff Diddy in a barrel and take off with the bananas.Donkey Kong Country Player's Guide, Nintendo, 1994, p. 88 Klump's main outfit is a green military helmet with three yellow chevrons, a green belt with five pockets, and black boots with white shoelaces. Due to their helmets, they are invincible to Diddy's jump; however, Diddy can defeat them with his cartwheel attack, or by throwing a barrel at them. Unlike Diddy, all of DK's attacks can defeat them in a single hit.
According to the manual for Donkey Kong Country 2: Diddy's Kong Quest, the Klumps appear as their pirate alter-ego Kannon. In this game, they wear earrings, a large belt, pirate boots, a black eye patch and a large black hat with a human skull and crossbones. They are armed with a cannon that allows them shoot barrels and "Kannonballs" (forward or downward). Without their helmets, Klumps are now vulnerable to Diddy and Dixie Kong's attacks.
In Donkey Kong 64, Klumps reappear and are depicted as much larger enemies with a pink coloration. They attack by throwing green unripe Orange Grenades at the Kongs, and the only way to defeat them is by using a shockwave attack or by throwing an Orange Grenade of the Kongs' own. When defeated, they give out a salute and fall over. In the game's introduction sequence, a Klump is ordered by King K. Rool to distract Donkey Kong by stealing the Golden Bananas and kidnapping the Kong Family so that K. Rool can repair his Blast-O-Matic weapon.
A single Klump appears as a playable character in Donkey Kong Barrel Blast. Klump now wears a bucket on his head, and has a brown skin coloration. He shares stats with his rival Lanky Kong. Klump was slated to appear as a playable character in another racing game, the second iteration of Diddy Kong Pilot, which redone as Banjo-Pilot after Rare was acquired by Microsoft. He was replaced with Klungo.
In the Donkey Kong Country animated series, Klump serves as King K. Rool's second-in-command and is referred to as General Klump, voiced by Adrian Truss, and by Keiichi Sonobe in the Japanese dub. Originally depicted with a tough military-like exterior, Klump actually has quite the soft side to his personality, as seen by him befriending Dixie Kong in the episode "Klump's Lumps". His skin color is also different compared to the games, with him sporting varying shades of green between seasons.
Krusha
are blue Kremlings known for their supreme strength. Due to their strength, only Donkey Kong can defeat them in Donkey Kong Country and Donkey Kong Land. They appear in 2 in pirate gear as Krunchas'''. Like the previous game, they cannot be defeated with regular attacks, and attempting to attack them will result in Kruncha becoming enraged. They can only be defeated with an animal friend, a crate, a barrel or with Diddy and Dixie teaming-up. Krunchas also appear unchanged in Donkey Kong Country 2s pseudo-sequel Donkey Kong Land 2. Krushas do not appear in Donkey Kong Country 3: Dixie Kong's Double Trouble!, but similar enemies known as Krumples appear in their place.
Krusha appears as a secret playable multiplayer character in Donkey Kong 64. He has an orange grenade launcher, and he has a sliding ability, similar to Tiny Kong. Similar enemies known as Kasplats appear in the main game. While Krusha does not appear in Donkey Kong Barrel Blast, a similar blue skinned character by the name Kludge does appear. In the US version of Super Smash Bros. Brawl, Krunchas and Krumples are mentioned in Kludge's trophy description.
In the Donkey Kong Country animated series, Krusha appears as King K. Rool's bodyguard, voiced by Len Carlson.
Kalypso
is a female member of the Kremlings. She appears in Donkey Kong Barrel Blast where she serves as Tiny Kong's rival.
Kritter
are common enemies in the Donkey Kong franchise and are the main foot soldiers of the Kremling Krew. In the first Donkey Kong Country game, they are usually seen either walking or jumping. Kritters known as Krash appear riding minecarts in the minecart stages. As their name suggests, they are hazards that try to crash into the player.
As with most of the Kremlings in Donkey Kong Country 2: Diddy's Kong Quest, Kritters are dressed as pirates and outfitted with peg legs. Those who walk are named Klomp and have one peg, while the jumpers are named Kaboing and have two. The Kritters in Donkey Kong Country 3: Dixie Kong's Double Trouble! lack clothing. The walkers are called Kobble and the jumpers named Koil bounce on their spring-loaded tails.
A single leather jacket-wearing Kritter known as Krunch appears as a playable character in Diddy Kong Racing. In Donkey Kong 64, Kritters are redesigned and appear sporting similar leather jackets to Krunch, as well as belt buckles with skulls on them. Two specific Kritters are seen piloting K.Rool's Mechanical Island, chasing after one of the Kongs, and serving as referees during the final battle. Krashes also reappeared in Donkey Kong 64, but they were redesigned to be much more muscular, wielding clubs to smack the Kongs with. Skeletal and robotic variants of Kritters also appear in Donkey Kong 64.
In DK: King of Swing, Kritters appear as enemies in the main game mode and as a playable character in the game's multiplayer mode. King of Swing would mark the debut of their current muscular design. Kritters appear mostly unchanged in the game's sequel, DK: Jungle Climber. A single Kritter appears as racer in Donkey Kong Barrel Blast, sharing the same balanced stats as his rival Donkey Kong.
They would make their Mario franchise debut as spectators in Mario Power Tennis. In the Mario Strikers series, a Kritter serves as a goalie for each team. A Robo-Kritter serves as the goalie for a robotic team in Super Mario Strikers. In Mario Super Sluggers, Kritters appear as playable characters and members of the DK Wilds team.
Kritters appeared as trophies in Super Smash Bros. Brawl, Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Super Smash Bros. for Wii U, as well as stickers in Brawl. They also appeared as enemies in the 3DS exclusive Smash Run mode, with Green Kritters attacking by biting three times in a row, while Blue Kritters attack by spinning around furiously with their claws.
They also appear in the Donkey Kong Country animated series as King K. Rool's soldiers.
Klaptrap
or Klap Traps are recurring enemies in the Donkey Kong games. They closely resemble the enemy known as Snapjaw from the arcade game Donkey Kong Jr. They appear as small crocodiles with large mouths and come in a variety of colors, but most commonly blue. Similar enemies known as Klampons and Krimps appear in Donkey Kong Country 2: Diddy's Kong Quest and Donkey Kong Country 3: Dixie Kong's Double Trouble! respectively.
Klaptraps would appear as stage hazards and as a collectable trophy in Super Smash Bros. Melee, they would reprise their role as stage hazards in future games in the Super Smash Bros. series, as well as becoming Assist Trophies in Super Smash Bros Ultimate. They would also appear as hazards and enemies in certain Mario spin-offs, such as Mario Power Tennis, Mario Superstar Baseball and Mario Party 7.
Klaptraps also appear in the Donkey Kong Country animated series. A large Klaptrap known as Jr. Klap Trap or simply Jr. appears as a minor character in the TV series, voiced by Ron Rubin.
Recurring baddies
Animals and other enemies called "baddies" appear throughout the franchise.
Oil Drum - In the original game, Country, Land, and Mario vs Donkey Kong 2: March of the Minis, Oil Drums produce fire and enemies that can harm the player character. Country also features an Oil Drum boss named Dumb Drum.
Nitpicker - NitpickersInstruction manual for Atari 7800 port of Donkey Kong Jr. or simply "Birds" appear in Donkey Kong Jr., Donkey Kong Jr. Math, Donkey Kong for Game Boy, March of the Minis, and Minis March Again.
Snapjaw - Snapjaws are anthropomorphic metal foothold traps with a powerful bite first appearing as vine-climbing enemies in Donkey Kong Junior. In Captain N: The Game Master, they have the outer appearance of piranhas, which carries into their appearance in Country 2. The character (spelled "Snap Jaw") appears in a past setting in Yoshi’s Island DS, climbing vines and only featuring in stages with Baby DK. Klaptrap is visually similar to the original incarnation of Snapjaw.
Gnawty - Gnawty is a beaver that appears in Donkey Kong Country, Donkey Kong Land, Donkey Kong 64 and Banjo-Kazooie. Very Gnawty and Really Gnawty are bosses. Analogous rat enemies Neek and Sneek appear in the rest of Rare's Donkey Kong platformers.
Army - Army is an armadillo that appears in Donkey Kong Country, Donkey Kong Land, and as a boss in Donkey Kong 64.
Necky - Neckies are vultures that appear in Country, Land, Country 2, Land 2, King of Swing, Jungle Climber and Barrel Blast. Master Necky, Master Necky Snr., Krow, and Kreepy Krow are bosses.
Zinger - Zingers are hornets from a large and complex hive on Crocodile Isle. They appear in Country, Land, Country 2, Land 2, and 64. Their monarchs are the bosses Queen B and King Zing.
Introduced in Diddy Kong Racing
Diddy Kong Racing (1997) for the Nintendo 64 introduced several characters to the Donkey Kong franchise, some of which have appeared in other games by Rare. While Nintendo lost intellectual property rights to some of them in 2002, estranging them from Donkey Kong, they reappear in the Nintendo DS remake Diddy Kong Racing DS in 2007, except Banjo and Conker, who were replaced by Dixie and Tiny.
Timber - Timber is a tiger whose parents go on holiday to Donkey Kong Island and leave him in charge of their home, Timber's Island, prompting Timber and his friends to organize a race. This is interrupted when a sinister intergalactic pig-wizard named Wizpig arrives at Timber's Island and attempts to take it over after having conquered his own planet. Timber hires a team of eight racers: Diddy Kong, Conker, Banjo, Krunch, Tiptup T.T., Pipsy, and Bumper to defeat Wizpig. Timber later establishes a hip-hop career. Timber was originally intended to be the main protagonist of a fourth entry of the R.C. Pro-Am series, titled Pro-Am 64. Miyamoto suggested adding Diddy Kong to the game and making him the main character.
Drumstick - Drumstick, a rooster and the best racer on Timber's island, is transformed into a frog by Wizpig's magic. After Wizpig is defeated, Drumstick is turned back into a rooster and unlocked as a racer.
Conker - Conker the Squirrel debuted in Diddy Kong Racing as a promotion for his future titles. After the release of Conker's Pocket Tales (1999) for Game Boy Color, his previously announced N64 game was retooled for an older audience. Rare reimagined Conker as a fourth-wall breaking alcoholic armed with guns and knives. The game, Conker's Bad Fur Day, was released in 2001. In 2002, Microsoft acquired Rare, causing Nintendo to lose the rights to the character. In a later exegesis in reference to Diddy Kong Racing, Conker states that "Things were different back then, you know, I was different - it goes without saying that you wouldn't catch me hanging out with any of those freaks these days."
Banjo - Banjo is a bear recruited by Diddy. Banjo made his debut as a playable character as part of the cast of Diddy Kong Racing. Banjo-Kazooie was released in 1998 and followed by several further Banjo-Kazooie games. Microsoft acquired the Banjo franchise in 2002 as part of Rare. In 2019, Banjo and his friend Kazooie were revealed as part of the first Fighter Pass for Super Smash Bros. Ultimate in a trailer set at Donkey Kong's treehouse, acknowledging Banjo's origins in the Kongs' world.
Krunch - Krunch is a Kremling and Diddy's enemy, who follows after him. The rights to Krunch were kept by Nintendo in the Microsoft acquisition.
Tiptup - Tiptup is a turtle with a nervous personality who lives on Timber's Island. Tiptup reappears in Banjo-Kazooie inside "Tanktup's Shell" in Bubblegloop Swamp with his own choir. Tiptup can also be found in Banjo-Tooie in the Turtle View Cave in Jolly Roger's Lagoon. He states that he has nineteen daughters; Banjo-Tooie depicts the birth of his first son. Tiptup also makes a cameo appearance in Banjo-Pilot, where he can be found in Clanker's River.
T.T. - T.T. is a living stopwatch who lives on Timber's Island and is in charge of the race courses.
Pipsy - Pipsy is a mouse who lives on Timber's Island. The design of Pipsy was originally intended for the main character of a game called Astro Mouse, which was cancelled. This character was redesigned by Kevin Bayliss and included in Diddy Kong Racing as Pipsy.
Bumper - Bumper is a badger who lives on Timber's Island. In May 2012, Bumper is serving time in prison. He later makes parole, and is superficially remorseful for his actions.
Taj - Taj is an Indian elephant-like genie residing on the island who aids Diddy and his friends. He is a playable racer in Diddy Kong Racing DS.
Tricky - Tricky is a Triceratops who is one of Timber's Island's four guardians. He is the first boss in Diddy Kong Racing. A character named Prince Tricky in Star Fox Adventures was originally intended to be the same character as the Tricky in Diddy Kong Racing. Nintendo now owns the rights to the Prince Tricky incarnation of the character.
Wizpig - The extraterrestrial wizard Wizpig is the main antagonist in Diddy Kong Racing. He is a giant pig from the planet Future Fun Land who seeks to conquer an island Wizpig turns the island's four guardians (Tricky the Triceratops, Bluey the Walrus, Bubbler the Octopus and Smokey the Dragon) into his henchmen. Ultimately, the rocket he rides on malfunctions and launches him to the moon. However, an additional cutscene reveals Wizpig's spaceship flying through the sky, unscathed. He is a playable racer in Diddy Kong Racing DS.
Tiki Tak Tribe
The Tiki Tak Tribe are a primitive group of evil Tikis resembling musical instruments who are the antagonists in Donkey Kong Country Returns and its 3DS remake. Emerging from a volcanic eruption at the start of the game, the higher-ranking members of the Tiki Tak Tribe use hypnosis-inducing music on the animals of Donkey Kong Island (namely elephants, giraffes, zebras, and squirrels) and steal bananas, even from Donkey Kong, forcing him to retrieve the hoard with the help of Diddy Kong. The Tiki Tak Tribe's hypnotic music does not work on DK or Diddy.
Tiki Tong
The tribe is led by Tiki Tong, a gigantic bongo-like Tiki with a wooden crown, red eyes, demonic horns, a large mouth, and a carved nose, who hides out in the tribe's tower base at the top of the volcano from whence they came. Before the final battle against Tiki Tong, it is revealed that the Tikis use bananas as an energy source; Tiki Tong generates a pair of hands by consuming bananas and spewing the juice onto the boss Tiki minions.
Krazy KalimbaKrazy Kalimba is first member of the Tiki Tak Tribe seen in the game and the most prominent in the game's advertising, being a small Tiki with red and blue paint and a crown of wooden tines on his head evocative of the keys of his namesake, the kalimba. He unsuccessfully tries to hypnotize Donkey Kong with his music before getting pummeled and knocked out of DK's treehouse into the jungle. When later confronted, Kalimba hypnotizes and takes control of the monster Mugly to fight DK and Diddy, only to be defeated and punched into the distance once more.
The Maraca Gang
The Maraca Gang are a trio of otherwise unnamed Tiki bosses who resemble feather-adorned maracas. Donkey Kong and Diddy encounter them in the game's beach level, where they hypnotize and possess a trio of pirate crabs known as the Scurvy Crew to fight the two Kongs, but ultimately to no avail.
Gong-OhGong-Oh is the third Tiki boss, resembling a wooden slab bearing a metal gong with a sun emblem on it and hands resembling percussion mallets. Appearing in the ruins, he hypnotizes and possesses a large egg in a golden cauldron which hatches into a red bomb-dropping bird named Stu to fight Donkey Kong and Diddy, who defeat them using Stu's own bombs.
Banjo BottomBanjo Bottom is the fourth Tiki boss, resembling a banjo adorned with gold feathers. He leads a crew of mole miners in transporting bananas across the island, and when confronted by the Kongs, he forces the train hauling them to depart immediately, hypnotizing and possessing the moles' boss Mole Miner Max to fight back.
Wacky PipesWacky Pipes is the fifth Tiki boss, being a wooden sphere adorned with ropes, green, blue, and gold feathers, and three flute-like pipes protruding from his head. He lurks up in the treetops of the island's forest, and upon seeing Donkey Kong and Diddy infiltrating his base, he hypnotizes and possesses a large plant-like caterpillar with electric powers named Mangoruby in an ill-fated attempt to fight them.
XyloboneXylobone is the sixth Tiki boss, resembling a xylophone made up of bones with mallet hands like Gong-Oh. Upon Donkey Kong and Diddy's arrival to his part of the cliffs, he disembarks from one of the Tiki Tak Tribe's airships to hypnotize and possess the monster Thugly, an armored and fiery counterpart to Mugly, to try and deal with them.
CordianCordian is the seventh and final Tiki boss outside of Tiki Tong, who has the bellows of an accordion topped by an orange feather on his head. He runs the factory near the Tiki Tak Tribe's tower, where he oversees the creation of more Tikis by means of filling empty wooden husks with mashed-up bananas. When confronted by Donkey Kong and Diddy, he hypnotizes and possesses Colonel Pluck, a chicken controlling the Stompybot 3000 mech being used for smashing bananas, to try and stop them.
Tiki GoonsTiki Goons are the most common members of the Tiki Tak Tribe. They make a cameo appearance in Mario Kart 7 on the track DK Jungle where they attack players and make them drop coins. They reappear in Mario Kart 8 and Mario Kart 8 Deluxe, performing the same function. Several different Tikis appear as collectible trophies in Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U, as well as a group 'Tiki Tak Tribe' Spirit in Super Smash Bros. Ultimate.
Snowmads
The Snowmads are a group of hegemonic and aggressive arctic animals that are the main antagonists of Donkey Kong Country: Tropical Freeze. They are a group of Vikings that have invaded Donkey Kong Island. Most of the Snowmads wear horned helmets on their heads. Their invasion prompts Donkey Kong, Diddy Kong, Dixie Kong, and Cranky Kong to band together in order to reclaim Donkey Kong Island. In Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U, several members of the Snowmad army appear as collectible trophies.
Lord FredrikLord Fredrik, the Snowmad King is a large obese anthropomorphic walrus who uses his enchanted blowing horn to throw the entire island into a state of perpetual winter. He appears as a Spirit in Super Smash Bros. Ultimate that is embodied by King K. Rool.
Lord Fredrik's name in European French is Sire Frighorrifik (corruption of "frigorifique," meaning "refrigerated"), in German Seine Frostigkeit König Qual ("His Frostiness King Torment"), in Italian Renaldo, il re dei Ghiacci Reynold ("the King of Ices"), and in Spanish Frigorico I, el Rey Morsario ("Frigorico I, the Corsair-Walrus King"). Frigorico here is a portmanteau of frigo, meaning "fridge," and the given name Frederico. Morsario is a play on morsa, meaning "walrus," and corsario, meaning "corsair.
Support characters
Animal FriendsAnimal Friends, also known as the Animal Buddies, Amicable Animals, and Jungle Buddies, are friendly animals who the Kongs can ride, transform into, or have perform various tasks. Among the known animal friends are:
Rambi - An Indian rhinoceros who originated in Donkey Kong Country, where he can ram through enemies and walls. Rambi is also featured in Land, Country 2, Land 2, 64, Barrel Blast, Returns and Tropical Freeze. Baby rhinos strongly resembling Rambi called RamRams appear in Mario vs. Donkey Kong. In Mario Kart DS, Donkey Kong's first exclusive kart, the Rambi Rider, has Rambi's head on it.
Expresso - A sneaker-wearing ostrich who originated in Country and can run fast. He can also fly for a short amount of time. Expresso is also featured in Land and a minigame in the Game Boy Advance re-release of Country 2.
Winky - A frog who appears in Donkey Kong Country and can jump higher than the Kongs and defeat more types of enemies with his jump attacks.
Enguarde - A swordfish with a thrust attack who appears in all of Rare's Donkey Kong platformers except Land, also appearing in Barrel Blast and Tropical Freeze.
Squawks - A parrot who appears in all of Rare's Donkey Kong platformers except Land. In these games, except Country, he can carry Kongs through the air. In Country and 64 he carries a spotlight to increase visibility in dark levels. In the second and third entries in the Country and Land series, he can spit crackers, which can defeat most enemies. Squawks appears as a usable item in Barrel Blast, Returns, and Tropical Freeze.
Squitter - A sneaker-wearing spider who originated in Country 2. His abilities include shooting webs that defeat enemies and enemy projectiles, and creating web platforms to walk on to cross gaps and avoid hazards. Squitter was also featured in Land 2, Country 3, and Land III.
Rattly - A rattlesnake who originated in Country 2. Rattly can coil up and bounce high, and the Kongs can also ride him.
Clapper - A seal who originated in Country 2. His arctic breath can cool and freeze water.
Glimmer - A bioluminescent anglerfish who originated in Country 2. Like Squawks in the previous DKC game, it can shine a spotlight to increase visibility in dark underwater levels.
Quawks - A parrot who originated in Country 2. He is a blue counterpart of Squawks that cannot spit eggs or fly upwards, being only able to carry the Kongs in a slow descent while avoiding obstacles. He reappears in Country 3 where he is now dark purple and gains the ability to fly anywhere and pick up and throw barrels. Quawks is also featured as a usable item in Barrel Blast.
Ellie - An African elephant who originated in Country 3. She can carry barrels and squirt water that she sucks up. Ellie is afraid of mice like so the Kongs must have her pick up a barrel and toss it at the mice to eliminate them. In later games, Ellie does not have a fear of mice.
Parry - A pheasant-like Parallel Bird who originated in Country 3. Once found, he flies above wherever the players go, collecting out-of-reach objects. He can also defeat certain enemies, such as "Booty Birds", but is vulnerable to others like the mechanical "Buzzes".
Lightfish - A tadpole-like fish that originated in DK64. It has a light that shines when the Kongs are in the shipwrecks in Gloomy Galleon.
Hoofer - A wildebeest who originated in Jungle Beat. Like Rambi, Hoofer can ram into barriers and enemies.
Orco - An orca who originated in Jungle Beat. Like Enguarde, Orco can smash through underwater barriers and enemies.
Professor Chops - (referred to as Tutorial Pig in Returns) is a pig who appears in Returns and Tropical Freeze. He serves as a middle-gate to save Donkey Kong's progress in a level. If DK loses most of his lives, the professor offers his help to complete the level. Also, he gives tips and tricks while Donkey Kong is near an obstacle as well as giving tips to the Kongs.
Whale - An unnamed sperm whale who originated in Returns. It only appeared in the level "Blowhole Bound" where Donkey Kong and Diddy Kong free it from an anchor and it gives them a ride along the shores of Donkey Kong Island.
Tawks - A red parrot who originated in the Nintendo Switch version of Tropical Freeze. He replaces Funky Kong at Funky's Fly 'n' Buy whenever he is journeying with the other Kongs.
Brothers Bear
The Brothers Bear are a race of anthropomorphic bears who live in the Northern Kremisphere in Donkey Kong Country 3: Dixie Kong's Double Trouble! There are 15 of them located throughout the Northern Kremisphere. In order of appearance:
Bazaar - Bazaar is a brown bear who runs a general store in the Northern Kremisphere. He has the most dialogue out of the Brothers Bear. He mentions having met Link once.
Barnacle - Barnacle is a grizzly bear that lives on an island in the middle of Lake Orangatanga. He is a former scuba diver. In the GBA version, he was moved to Pacifica.
Brash - Brash is a boastful brown bear that lives in Kremwood Forest. He is an athlete who is at his happiest when he is undefeated in a sport.
Blunder - Blunder is a grizzly bear that lives in a booth (library in the GBA remake) within Kremwood Forest. In his rude ramblings, he often lets clues slip to where the Lost World of Krematoa can be found.
Bramble - Bramble is a brown bear that lives in a cabin near Cotton Top Cove. He is a botanist who has an interest in plants and flowers.
Blue - Blue is a blue bear who lives in a beach house in Cotton Top Cove. He has a sad personality, especially when he claims that no one came to his birthday party. The Kongs manage to give him a birthday present that Blizzard has them deliver.
Brigadier Bazooka - Brigadier Bazooka is a grizzly bear who lives in his barracks on Mekanos Island. He is an old war veteran who fought in the Kremean War. His prized possession is a huge cannon named Big Bessie.
Blizzard - Blizzard is a polar bear (in the Game Boy Advance remake, he's a grizzly bear) who lives in a base camp at the top of K3 and is best friends with Blue.
Barter - Barter is a brown bear who lives in his shop near K3.
Benny - Benny is a polar bear who operates one of the chairlifts at Razor Ridge. He is the twin brother of Björn.
Björn - Björn is a polar bear who operates one of the chairlifts at Razor Ridge. He is the twin brother of Benny.
Baffle - Baffle is a brown bear who lives in his code room in KAOS Kore.
Boomer - Boomer is a grizzly bear who lives in his bomb shelter in Krematoa. He is a demolition expert and only collects Bonus coins.
Bear - Bear is a black bear who is exclusive to Donkey Kong Land III. He runs a Sheepy Shop in each location.
Bachelor - Bachelor is a brown bear who is exclusive to the Game Boy Advance version of Donkey Kong Country 3 and lives on an island at the center of Lake Orangatanga.
Snide the WeaselSnide is a weasel who originated in Donkey Kong 64. He was once King K. Rool's chief technician who had invented the Blast-O-Matic and other devices that the Kremlings have used. King K. Rool fired him due to a paranoia that Snide was going to betray him. Snide moved to Donkey Kong Isle where he set up his headquarters. He aids the Kongs by giving them blueprints to the Kremling devices.
Troff and ScoffTroff the Pig and Scoff the Hippopotamus' are animals who originated in Donkey Kong 64''. When Scoff is fed a specific amount of bananas, he will lift Troff to reach the key to the boss door.
Playable characters in the Donkey Kong series
See also
List of Mario characters
List of Super Smash Bros. characters
Notes
References
Donkey Kong Characters
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexualization
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Sexualization
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Sexualization (sexualisation in British English) is the emphasis of the sexual nature of a behavior or person. Sexualization is linked to sexual objectification, treating a person solely as an object of sexual desire. According to the American Psychological Association, sexualization occurs when "individuals are regarded as sex objects and evaluated in terms of their physical characteristics and sexiness." "In study after study, findings have indicated that women more often than men are portrayed in a sexual manner (e.g., dressed in revealing clothing, with bodily postures or facial expressions that imply sexual readiness) and are objectified (e.g., used as a decorative object, or as body parts rather than a whole person). In addition, a narrow (and unrealistic) standard of physical beauty is heavily emphasized. These are the models of femininity presented for young girls to study and emulate."
Culture and media
Sexualization has been a subject of debate for academics who work in media and cultural studies. Frederick Attenborough states the term has not been used simply to label what is seen as a social problem, but to indicate the much broader and varied set of ways in which sex has become more visible in media and culture. These include;
the widespread discussion of sexual values, practices and identities in the media; the growth of sexual media of all kinds; for example, erotica, slash fiction, sexual self-help books and the many genres of pornography; the emergence of new forms of sexual experience, for example instant message or avatar sex made possible by developments in technology; a public concern with the breakdown of consensus about regulations for defining and dealing with obscenity; the prevalence of scandals, controversies and panics around sex in the media.
According to the Media Education Foundation's documentary Killing Us Softly 4: Advertising's Image of Women, the sexualization of girls in media and the ways women are portrayed in the dominant culture are detrimental to the development of young girls as they are developing their identities and understanding themselves as sexual beings.
The terms "pornification" and "pornographication" have also been used to describe the way that aesthetics that were previously associated with pornography have become part of popular culture, and that mainstream media texts and other cultural practices "citing pornographic styles, gestures and aesthetics" have become more prominent. This process, which Brian McNair has described as a "pornographication of the mainstream". has developed alongside an expansion of the cultural realm of pornography or "pornosphere" which itself has become more accessible to a much wider variety of audiences. According to McNair, both developments can be set in the context of a wider shift towards a "striptease culture" which has disrupted the boundaries between public and private discourse in late modern Western culture, and which is evident more generally in cultural trends which privilege lifestyle, reality, interactivity, self-revelation and public intimacy.
Criticism
The Australian writers, Catharine Lumby and Kath Albury (2010) have suggested that sexualization is "a debate that has been simmering for almost a decade" and concerns about sex and the media are far from new. Much of the recent writing on sexualization has been the subject of criticism that because of the way that it draws on "one-sided, selective, overly simplifying, generalizing, and negatively toned" evidence and is "saturated in the languages of concern and regulation". In these writings and the widespread press coverage that they have attracted, critics state that the term is often used as "a non-sequitur causing everything from girls flirting with older men to child sex trafficking" They believe that the arguments often ignore feminist work on media, gender and the body and present a very conservative and negative view of sex in which only monogamous heterosexual sexuality is regarded as normal. They say that the arguments tend to neglect any historical understanding of the way sex has been represented and regulated, and they often ignore both theoretical and empirical work on the relationship between sex and media, culture and technology.
The way society shapes ones personal interest is presented in a book review of Girls Gone Skank by Patrice Oppliger, Amanda Mills states that "consequently, girls are socialized to participate in their own abuse by becoming avid consumers of and altering their behavior to reflect sexually exploitative images and goods." The belief that women are powerful and fully capable as men is stated in the text "Uses of the Erotic: The Erotic As Power" by Audre Lorde stating that the suppression of the erotic of women has led them feeling superior to men "the superficially, erotic had been encouraged as a sign of female inferiority on the other hand women have been made to suffer and to feel opposed contemptible and suspect by virtue of its existence".
Effects on children
Children and adolescents spend more time engaging with media than any other age group. This is a time in their life that they are more susceptible to information that they receive. Children are getting sex education from the media, little kids are exposed to sexualized images and more information than ever before in human history but are not able to process the information, they are not developmentally ready to process it, and this impacts their development and behavior.
Sexualization of young girls in the media and infantilization of women creates an environment where it becomes more acceptable to view children as "seductive and sexy". It makes having healthy sexual relationships more difficult for people and creates sexist attitudes.
Some cultural critics have postulated that over recent decades children have evidenced a level of sexual knowledge or sexual behaviour inappropriate for their age group.
Australia
In 2006, an Australian report called Corporate paedophilia: sexualisation of children in Australia was published. The Australian report summarises its conclusion as follows:
Images of sexualised children are becoming increasingly common in advertising and marketing material. Children who appear aged 12 years and under are dressed, posed and made up in the same way as sexy adult models. Children that appear on magazines are seen older than they really are because of the sexualised clothes they are given to pose in. "Corporate paedophilia" is a metaphor used to describe advertising and marketing that sexualises children in these ways.
European Union
In 2012 a draft report a European Parliament resolution gave the following definition of sexualization: [S]exualisation consists of an instrumental approach to a person by perceiving that person as an object for sexual use disregarding the person’s dignity and personality traits, with the person’s worth being measured in terms of the level of sexual attractiveness; sexualisation also involves the imposition of the sexuality of adult persons on girls, who are emotionally, psychologically and physically unprepared for this at their particular stage of development; sexualisation not being the normal, healthy, biological development
of the sexuality of a person, conditioned by the individual process of development and taking place at the appropriate time for each particular individual
Scotland
However, in 2010, the Scottish Executive released a report titled External research on sexualised goods aimed at children. The report considers the drawbacks of the United States and Australian reviews, concluding:
The Scottish review also notes that:
It also notes that previous coverage "rests on moral assumptions … that are not adequately explained or justified."
United Kingdom
The report 'Letting Children Be Children', also known as the Bailey Review, is a report commissioned by the UK government on the subject of the commercialisation and sexualisation of childhood.
United States
As early as 1997, reports found that sexualization of younger children is becoming more common in advertisements.
The causes of this premature sexualization include portrayals in the media of sex and related issues, especially in media aimed at children; the lack of parental oversight and discipline; access to adult culture via the internet; and the lack of comprehensive school sex education programs.
In 2007, the American Psychological Association (APA) first published Report of the APA Task Force on the Sexualization of Girls, which has had periodic updates. The report looked at the cognitive and emotional consequences of sexualization and the consequences for mental and physical health, and impact on development of a healthy sexual self-image. The report considers that a person is sexualized in the following situations:
A person's value comes only from his or her sexual appeal or sexual behavior, to the exclusion of other characteristics;
A person is held to a standard that equates physical attractiveness (narrowly defined) with being sexy;
A person is sexually objectified—that is, made into a thing for others' sexual use, rather than seen as a person with the capacity for independent action and decision making; and/or
Sexuality is inappropriately imposed upon a person.
Research has linked the sexualization of young girls to negative consequences for girls and society as a whole, finding that the viewing of sexually objectifying material can contribute to body dissatisfaction, eating disorders, low self-esteem, depression, and depressive affect. Medical and social science researchers generally deployed "sexualization" to refer to a liminal zone between sexual abuse and normal family life, in which the child's relationship with their parents was characterized by an "excessive", improper sexuality, even though no recognizable forms of abuse had occurred. The American Psychological Association also argues that the sexualization of young girls contributes to sexist attitudes within society and a societal tolerance of sexual violence as well as that consumerism and globalization have led to the sexualization of girls occurring across all advanced economies, in media and advertisements, to clothing and toys marketed for young girls.
The APA cites the following as advertising techniques that contribute to the sexualization of girls:
Including girls in ads with sexualized women wearing matching clothing or posed seductively.
Dressing girls up to look like adult women.
Dressing women down to look like young girls.
The employment of youthful celebrity adolescents in highly sexual ways to promote or endorse products.
The APA additionally further references the teen magazine market by citing a study by Roberts et al that found that "47% of 8- to 18-year-old [girls] reported having read at least 5 minutes of a magazine the previous day."
A majority of these magazines focused on a theme of presenting oneself as sexually desirable to men, a practice which is called "costuming for seduction" in a study by Duffy and Gotcher.
Studies have found that thinking about the body and comparing it to sexualized cultural ideals may disrupt a girl's mental concentration, and a girl's sexualization or objectification may undermine her confidence in and comfort with her own body, leading to emotional and self-image problems, such as shame and anxiety.
Research has linked sexualization with three of the most common mental health problems diagnosed in girls and women: eating disorders, low self-esteem, and depression or depressed mood.
Research suggests that the sexualization of girls has negative consequences on girls' ability to develop a healthy sexual self-image.
In 2012, an American study found that self-sexualization was common among 6–9-year-old girls. Girls overwhelmingly chose the sexualized doll over the non-sexualized doll for their ideal self and as popular. However other factors, such as how often mothers talked to their children about what is going on in television shows and maternal religiosity, reduced those odds. Surprisingly, the mere quantity of girls' media consumption (television and movies) was unrelated to their self-sexualization for the most part; rather, maternal self-objectification and maternal religiosity moderated its effects.
A result of the sexualization of girls in the media is that young girls are "learning how to view themselves as sex objects". When girls fail to meet the thin ideal and dominant culture's standard of beauty they can develop anxieties. Sexualization is problematic for young children who are developing their sexual identity as they may think that turning themselves into sex objects is empowering and related to having sexual agency.
Products for children
Some commercial products seen as promoting the sexualization of children have drawn considerable media attention:
Bratz Baby Dolls marketed at 6-year-old girls that feature sexualized clothing, like fishnet stockings, feather boas, and miniskirts
Highly sexualized and gendered Halloween costumes marketed at young girls, such as the "sexy firefighter", a costume that consists of a tight fitted mini dress and high heeled boots.
Girls aged 10 and 11 wearing thongs in primary school.
Clothing such T-shirts being marketed for young children in preschool and elementary school with printed slogans like "So Many Boys So Little Time"
Padded bras on bikinis aimed at seven-year-old girls. Some people regard training bras similarly. However, there is also evidence that with the mean age of puberty declining in Western cultures, a higher percentage of preteen girls will have enough breast development to justify wearing a functional brassier than ever before.
The Scottish Executive report surveyed 32 High street UK retailers and found that many of the larger chains, including Tesco, Debenhams, JJ Sports, and Marks & Spencer did not offer sexualized goods aimed at children. The report noted that overall prevalence was limited but this was based on a very narrow research brief. Whilst this shows that not all High street retailers were aiming products deemed sexualized by the researchers, the research cannot be taken out of context and used to say that there is not an issue of sexualization.
Effects on women of color
The sexualization of women of color is different from the sexualization of white women. The media plays a significant role in this sexualization. "The media are likely to have powerful effects if the information is presented persistently, consistently, and corroborated among forms. As a media affect, stereotypes rely on the repetition to perpetuate and sustain them." According to Celine Parrenas Shimizu, "To see race is to see sex, and vice versa."
African American women
Many scholars trace the sexualization of African American women back to slavery, where certain stereotypes were invented as a way to dehumanize African American women. These stereotypes include the Jezebel, seen as a light skin overly sexual African American woman with no control over her desires; the Mammy, an African American woman who was asexual in nature and whose sole purpose was to cook for a white family; the Sapphire, first shown on the Radio/Television show Amos n' Andy, she was a loud, crude, jealous woman, who took joy in emasculating men. These stereotypes have carried over to the way young African American girls view themselves and how society views them. The Jezebel stereotype, in particular, has reemerged in the form of hip-hop video vixens. These images seen in music videos have two effects: they influence how black women are viewed in society and they also shape how African American women view themselves.
"Representations of African-American girlhood in the media and popular culture suggest that African-American girls face a different set of rules when it comes to sex, innocence, and blame", the consequences of the sexualization of African American girls can be seen through the 2004 trial of R. Kelly. The immediate response from the public cleared R. Kelly of any wrongdoing while subsequently blaming the young girl for her abuse. One respondent to a Village Voice article claimed that she wasn't disturbed by the video because in her words, "It wasn't like she was new to the act. [She--the respondent] heard she [the victim] worked it like most of [her] 30 something-year-old friends have yet to learn how to do". This desensitization is directly linked to a music industry—and subsequent fans—who value the artist over their potential victims.” Instead of being correctly labeled as victims these women are instead turned into "groupies, hoochies, and chickenheads". One of the jurors on the R. Kelly case noted that he believed the defense because her body "appeared to developed". Sika A. Dagbovie-Mullins acknowledged that "this harmful and skewed reasoning reflects a national troubling tendency to view black adolescent females as sexually savvy and therefore responsible themselves for the sexualization and exploitation of their bodies".
Dagbovie-Mullins introduced new problems in regards to the sexualization of Black girls, completely dichotomous to the sexualization of Black girls is the infantilization of Black women. Both of these problems are caused by denying the agency of African American women. Both the infantilization of African American women and the sexualization of young girls are about looking at African American women purely through the lens of their sexuality, without regard to their agency. There is a link between the images of a submissive woman being portrayed by a girl and a willingness for people to believe that young African American girls can give consent. This is a narrative that is supported by the sexy school girl image portrayed in media. The image girls off the illusion of being unavailable—both from a moral and legal standpoint—while at the same time being available. "Music, music videos, and images play a pivotal role in the messages individuals hear and see. These messages can be positive or negative, and they can influence how consumers and producers respond to and interrogate them critically, socially, physically, and emotionally".
The images portrayed "in both African American and mainstream American culture reinforce the lenses through which the everyday experiences and ideal for adolescent African American women are viewed". Shows like the Flavor of Love which rely on the stereotype of the Black pimp and the submissive women, where Flavor Flav strip women of their real name and gives them nicknames such as "Thing 1" and "Thing 2" showcase the denial of the agency of Black women. This denial of agency makes it easier for people to see them as little more than sex symbols. Infantilizing them and stripping them of all things that make them individuals creates a culture in which Black women are no longer seen as people, but objects used for individual male pleasure. Making it easier to side with men when Black women accuse them of assault because Black Women can't be assaulted when all they want is sex.
Along with a deflated sense of self-worth, these stereotypes can also influence African American girls—notably poor ones—that their sense of worth and an escape from poverty can be found through their sexualization. The more modern version of the Jezebel—a black woman who is highly sexual and materialistic—may also have the most importance to inner-city Black girls, "The sexual links to poverty and its relevance to survival are clear. Their lives have been called ‘ghetto fabulous,’ where they are socially embedded in a culture of poverty, yet have the economic means to procure middle-class goods".
Even women are guilty of the sexualization, Nicki Minaj who made the phrase "Barbie Bitch" popular and raps about how she only "fuck[s] with ballers" draw on stereotypes such as the gold digger in order to promote her brand. While the "Bad Bitch Barbie" character was developed out of a history of over-sexualizing the bodies of Black women, it has also been used as a way of Black women to reconquer their sexuality. No longer is it men using their bodies for the enjoyment of other men, but it is they themselves who are showcasing their features as a way of uplifting who they are. Hence, duality is created within hip-hop culture the sexualization of Black women is still being seen, but with the emergence of female artists, we also see an emergence of a counter-culture reclaiming the sexuality of Black Women as their own. While are the same time the "Bad Bitch Barbie" still creates unrealistic images for black girls to compare themselves to. By reclaiming the sexuality that was robbed of them by men, they have introduced a new problem of body dimorphism as Black girls face the pressures to recreate themselves in the images being presented.
In an NPR interview with Professor Herbert Samuels at LaGuardia Community College in New York and Professor Mireille Miller-Young at UC Santa Barbara, they talk about sexual stereotypes of black bodies in America and how even in sex work, already a dangerous job, black women are treated much worse than their counterparts due to the effects of their over-sexualization and objectification in society. Black women's bodies are either invisible or hypervisible. In the 1800s, a South African woman named Sarah Baartman was known as "Hottentot Venus" and her body was paraded around in London and Paris where they looked at her exotic features such as large breasts and behind. Her features were deemed lesser and over sexual.
Asian women
The image of Asian women in Hollywood cinema is directly linked to sexuality as essential to any imagining about the roles they play as well as her actual appearance in popular culture. Asian female fatale's hypersexualized subjection is derived from her sexual behavior that is considered as natural to her particular race and culture. Two types of Asian stereotypes that are commonly found in media are the Lotus Flower and the Dragon Lady. The Lotus Flower archetype is the "self-sacrificing, servile, and suicidal Asian woman." The dragon lady archetype is the opposite of the lotus flower, a "self-abnegating Asian woman…[who] uses her 'Oriental' femininity, associated with seduction and danger to trap white men on behalf of conniving Asian males." According to film-maker and film scholar, Celine Shimizu, "The figure of the Asian American femme fatale signifies a particular deathly seduction. She attracts with her soft, unthreatening, and servile femininity while concealing her hard, dangerous, and domineering nature."
Latina women
Latina characters that embody the "hot Latina" stereotype in film and television are marked by easily identifiable behavioral characteristics such as "'addictively romantic, sensual, sexual and even exotically dangerous', self-sacrificing, dependent, powerless, sexually naive, childlike, pampered, and irresponsible".
Stereotypical Latina physical characteristics include "red lips, big bottoms, large hips, voluptuous bosoms, and small waists" and "high heels, huge hoop earrings, seductive clothing." Within the "hot Latina" stereotype lies three categories of representation:
The Cantina Girl, the Faithful, self-sacrificing señorita, and the vamp. The Cantina Girl markers are "'great sexual allure', teasing, dancing, and 'behaving in an alluring fashion.'"
The faithful, self-sacrificing Señorita starts out as a good girl and turns bad by the end. The Señorita, in an attempt to save her Anglo love interest, utilizes her body to protect him from violence.
The Vamp representation "uses her intellectual and devious sexual wiles to get what she wants." The media represents Latinas "as either [a] hot-blooded spitfire" or "[a] dutiful mother".
The sexual implications of the "hot-blooded" Latina has become an overgeneralized representation of Latin people. This has led many to see the Latin people as "what is morally wrong" with the United States. Some believe it to be wrong simply because the interpretation of this culture seems to go against white, Western culture. Culturally, the Latina is expected to dress "as a proper señorita" in order to be respected as a woman which conflicts with the Western ideals that a girl is sexual if she dresses "too 'mature' for [her] age".
Even in the business world this stereotype continues; "tight skirts and jingling bracelets [are misinterpreted] as a come-on". This sexualization can also be linked to certain stereotypical jobs. The image of the Latina woman often is not in the business world but in the domestic. The sexualization of Latina women sexualizes the positions that they are expected to occupy. Domestic servants, maids, and waitresses are the typical "media-engendered" roles that make it difficult for Latinas to gain "upward mobility" despite the fact that many hold PhDs.
Dominican women
In the Dominican Republic, women are frequently stereotyped as sultry and sexual as the reputation of Dominican sex workers grows. Many poor women have resorted to sex work because the demand is high and the hours and pay are often dictated by the workers themselves. White European and American men "exoticize dark-skinned 'native' bodies" because "they can buy sex for cut-rate prices". This overgeneralizing of the sexuality of Dominican women can also carry back to the women's homes. Even "women who...worked in Europe have become suspect..." even if they had a legal job. They have become "exports" instead of people because of their sexualization.
Native American women
Starting from the time of white colonization of Native American land, some Native American women have been referred to as "squaw." "The 'squaw' [stereotype] is the dirty, subservient, and abused tribal female who is also haggard, violent, and eager to torture tribal captives." Another stereotype is the beautiful Indian princess who leaves her tribe and culture behind to marry a white man.
See also
Child sexuality
Sexualism
Bratz
Kogal
Miss Bimbo
Rape culture
Sexual objectification
Pornographication
Social impact of thong underwear
Sexualization in the video games industry
Pornified
Female Chauvinist Pigs: Women and the Rise of Raunch Culture
Notes
References
Further reading
Books
A guide for parents on girls' body image and other issues.
Looks at media messages and suggests that it promotes early maturation and sexualisation of pre-adolescent girls.
A review of what Levy regards as a highly sexualized American culture in which women are objectified, objectify one another, and are encouraged to objectify themselves.
Looks at sex in contemporary culture and the impact it has on young girls.
Pamela Paul discusses the impact of ready access to pornography on Americans.
Argues that pornography has become a mainstream part of American culture.
Journals
Pdf.
Reports
Online resources
Feminism and society
Women in society
Women's rights legislation
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Dead%20Like%20Me%20characters
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List of Dead Like Me characters
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This is a list of the characters from the Showtime comedy-drama series Dead Like Me.
George Lass
Georgia L. "George" Lass (Ellen Muth) (1985–2003) is the youngest Reaper (both physically and chronologically) in the club. She is the protagonist of the series, and also performs the function of narrator. As a child, she is portrayed by Talia Ranger.
George was born in 1985 and raised at Beatrice Lane (in the Seattle metropolitan area) by her parents, Joy and Clancy Lass. When George was a young child, she had a very close relationship with her father. Every Sunday morning she and Clancy would eat breakfast at a local diner. However, as she grew older, George distanced herself from both her parents, becoming increasingly insolent and obstinate. The birth of her little sister, Reggie, caused George to feel neglected, creating a rift between her and Joy. George's habit of ignoring Reggie lasted until her death.
At least twice in her childhood George was shown to be able to see Gravelings. In the first instance she was pushed into a public swimming pool by another girl who wanted to impress a mean clique. Two Gravelings had removed a grate at the bottom of the pool, toward which George was sinking, but one of the Gravelings appeared to argue with the other about something, and they retreated, allowing George to be rescued by lifeguards. The second instance was on a Halloween, when George confronted a serial killer about why he did not hand out candy in the traditional way (instead leaving a dish full on his steps). When looking into his house, George saw a Graveling behind the man.
According to her mother, George's maturity level and intellect quickly outpaced that of her friends, leaving her alone throughout high school. George repeatedly mentions that she had no boyfriends and partook in no sexual activities in her lifetime, blatantly ignoring men who flirted with her.
George began college but only lasted to midterm, after which she dropped out and sought a job from Happy Time Temporary Services. Delores Herbig purposefully found George the least pleasant job she could find after George insulted her authority and seniority.
On June 27, 2003 (at the age of 18) during the lunch break of her first day of work, George was struck by a zero-G toilet seat dislodged from the de-orbiting Soviet space station Mir, and killed.
Before her death, George characterizes herself as uninterested in everything, in order to ward off disappointment; by her understanding, interest led to expectations, which then led to disappointment once those expectations were cut short.
After George is killed, she is met by Rube Sofer and Betty Rohmer (her own Reaper having disappeared). Unlike many of her future "reaps", George suffers from mild hysteria upon realizing she is dead. Since she is here to stay, Rube breaks many guidelines associated with reaping, taking her to her autopsy and allowing her to attend her own funeral. Once her corpse (or what is left of it) is properly interred, she becomes officially undead ("Un-George") and gains a new physical body and different appearance to all non-Reapers (portrayed by Laura Boddington in the TV series, and Jennifer Rae Westley in the later film). More than anything else, seeing her new appearance "freaks" her out the most.
George assumes the name Mildred "Millie" Hagen and seeks employment from Happy Time once again. Since her appearance has changed to facilitate her reaping, she has a fresh start and this time impresses Delores, who hires her to work at Happy Time itself.
In a deleted scene on the DVD, it is shown how an entire industry staffed by reapers has arisen to create new identities for newly assigned undead. She is provided with all necessary documentation to prove she is Mildred Hagen.
Millie soon becomes one of Delores's friends and (arguably) most favorite employees. In order to make her reaping appointments, she frequently uses the excuses of Alcoholics Anonymous meetings, drug rehabilitation, and gynecology appointments, all of which unintentionally further Delores's sympathy for her.
George begins to form a friendship with the aloof Betty, but the relationship is cut short by Betty's departure. She keeps track of her old family's life, sometimes driving by, placing silent calls, or leaving things on their doorstep. Nonetheless, Rube very solidly takes on the role of "the paternal one" (as George puts it). In addition, Delores takes on many of the responsibilities of a mother, Mason grows increasingly closer as a sort of brother, and Daisy becomes George's closest thing to a best friend.
In the tradition of the Reapers, George's new home – a small one-bedroom apartment – is that of one of her reaps. When Daisy arrives however it is too small, and Mason soon swaps his much larger house for theirs. In addition, George gains a pet frog (Mr. Blinky) and a red Mustang convertible from her reaps.
After falling for Trip Hesburgh, reaping his father and crashing the funeral, George has sex with Trip, thereby losing her virginity. She feels conflicted by the experience, and soon afterwards discovers that Trip has abandoned her.
When the Ray Summers Graveling begins threatening Daisy and Mason, George catches him and reaps his soul, which results in his disintegration.
George enjoys coffee, chocolate milkshakes, waffles, and oatmeal with raisins. Unlike the other Reapers (who have been dead for decades), she still has qualms with her fate as one of the undead.
Five years after her "death", George is still reaping souls while working at Happy Time under her "living" name Millie Hagen. Her de facto mentor, Rube, has moved to the Great Beyond after "getting his lights" (a term among reapers where the deceased see an image of a setting that appeals to them before they move on to the afterlife). Shortly after, she encounters her sister Reggie and reveals her identity to her, but later remembers Rube's advice and realizes that this connection to the past is not going well. After talking Reggie out of killing herself, George admits that Rube was right all along. She says goodbye to Reggie, presumably for the last time, as Joy and Reggie have both showed interest in relocating.
After Rube's replacement is disposed of by incineration, due to his underhanded and potentially dangerous methods, it is implied that George, to her surprise and dismay, is awarded the task of head reaper.
Rube Sofer
Reuben John Sofer (Mandy Patinkin) is the leader of the club. He is laid-back and unemotional, but easily takes offense at interruptions into his daily routine (such as problems with Mason or poorly cooked meals). From the very first time he met George, Rube referred to her as "peanut", the nickname he called his daughter Rosie Sofer. As seen on an envelope, Rube's last name was originally "Stofer" but this was later changed to "Sofer".
Ante mortem
Rube was born, of Jewish descent, in or about 1875 and lived in Englewood, New Jersey. By his wife Lucy Sonia Sofer (née Debrowski), who was twenty-five years his junior, he had one child, Rose Anne. Though details of Rube's past are scant, a records clerk who is assisting him in finding his daughter comes across a "Wanted" poster of Rube stating that he is a bank robber; it is probable that this led to his death. Frequent references suggest that leaving his family is an act Rube has regretted ever since.
In one flashback, Rube is shown readying a pistol and accidentally awakening his daughter. After quickly hiding the pistol in a newspaper, he approaches Rose's bedside and tells her that he is going to get something that her mother needed. Upon asking her father when he would return, Rube replied, "Soon," and sang her a lullaby to help her go back to sleep.
In the 21st century, Rube goes to the dead letter department at the post office to pick up an eighty-year-old returned letter. This letter was addressed to Rose Sofer and contained a large stack of aged hundred-dollar and fifty-dollar bills. The source of the money is not shown, but it may be related to the robbery. Rube states that he mailed the package after he died.
Post mortem
Rube is the "foreman" of the group of grim reapers at the center of the series. He gets the list of who is to die, when and where, from an unnamed shadowy individual and then transfers the first initial and last name of the person, where they are to die, and their estimated time of death (ETD) to a Post-it note and assigns them to the Reapers. He enjoys eating and cooking.
Although he comes off as gruff and aloof, he actually cares for his team like a father, and is particularly fond of George Lass, the newest "recruit" to his small team of Reapers.
He claims to have reaped Amelia Earhart. Rube gets irritated at fellow Reaper Mason's antics and frequently calls him a "fuck-up." However, he suspects that Mason is smarter than he seems. A skilled shell game operator, Rube once taught Mason techniques from the game, which he used to sell a line of kitchen appliances. The disappearance of Betty Rohmer, a Reaper with whom he worked since her own death in 1926, disturbed him greatly. He hates computer keyboards, claiming they are too fragile as compared to typewriters, and avoids using them, and by extension computers, whenever possible.
One of the more mysterious of the Reapers featured on Dead Like Me, his full name was not revealed until the episode "Death Defying". His date of death was never made explicit, but implied to be the earliest of the known reapers, save recurring ex-colleague Penny. Mason jokes in "Rites of Passage", "Rube's so fucking old, he reaped Jesus." In "Ghost Story" George thinks Rube probably reaped Houdini, even though in that episode Rube indicates he believes the stage name is one word, "Houdini" rather than "Harry Houdini".
In a major character arc during the second season, he was greatly upset when he discovered that a package of money that he had sent after his death to his daughter and wife in 1927 was never delivered, and embarked upon a quest to find out why. While he searched public record archives, during which he found the death certificate for his wife, he discovered a wanted poster that indicated he was a bank robber. His daughter's birth certificate describes his wife as being of Czechoslovakian origin and 24 years old at the time of his daughter's birth, maiden name being Lucy Sonia Debrowski. Rube's full name is revealed here, as well as his stated occupation of salesman and that he was 49 years old at her birth. His daughter's full name is Rose Anne Sofer. Their address was 243 Georgian Lane. Lucy's death certificate was discovered but not shown, but her gravestone shows that her year of birth was 1901 and her date of death was 1941, consistent with the age given on her daughter's birth certificate.
His daughter Rosie was born on 19 March 1925, according to her birth certificate in "Death Defying" (but in 1922 according to her gravestone in "Haunted") and lived at a nursing home until her death in 2004. Fellow reaper Penny (Yeardley Smith) (who died on the Titanic, referred to as a "boating accident") led Rube to Rosie, so Rube could be with her when she died. When Rube sat with her in the garden of the nursing home, Rosie recognized Rube as her father.
Five years after George becomes a member of his group of reapers, Rube unexpectedly disappears the same day Der Waffle Haus is burned down. The other members found this strange, but eventually assumed that he had "got his lights" and moved on to the afterlife.
Mason
Ken Mason (Callum Blue) (1939–1966) claims he was born at a rock and roll concert behind a stack of amplifiers and died drilling a hole in his own head seeking a permanent high. Mason is originally from London (he reaped Rolling Stones guitarist Brian Jones in 1969) and was transferred to his present location some time ago. He is the only Reaper besides George whose doppelgänger has been depicted, by Canadian actor Jacob Chaos.
Mason collects money from the dead, steals from the living, deals, smuggles and uses drugs. He was an alcoholic and drug addict before he died, and though on at least one occasion he attempted to become sober, has continued these habits in response to the pressures of his job. He is attracted to Daisy, and is often protective of her. He became jealous when she became attracted to another man called Ray (Eric McCormack), whom Mason felt was dangerous; Mason eventually killed him in self-defense while trying to protect her. While he is drawn to attractive females, his feelings for Daisy seem to run much deeper. Mason said "I love you" to George on episode 13 and even kissed her, but that was probably because he was drunk. He has an edgy relationship with Rube; they dislike, but tolerate each other. Rube has on more than one occasion referred to Mason as an "idiot" or a "fuck-up", but Mason seems to at least want to gain Rube's approval.
Mason is the only one among the group of reapers who was visibly pleased that Rube has moved along and is no longer part of the team.
Roxy Harvey
Roxanne "Roxy" Harvey (Jasmine Guy) invented leg warmers in 1982, and was then strangled with them by a jealous friend. She apparently has a very difficult time coming to terms with her own death, so with Rube's encouragement she marks the 21st anniversary of the event by burning her former possessions. Roxy and George are the only Reapers of the group with day jobs. She used to be a meter maid for the city, but entered the police academy at the beginning of the second season.
She is a cynical, no-nonsense woman with respect to both reaping and her day job and carried a handgun to intimidate people that she tickets to keep their arguments over parking tickets short. She is the only Reaper on the series shown to use her powers in anger, when she temporarily removed the soul of a particularly rude motorist. The man subsequently started a religion around her, much to Rube's dismay (The man reverted to his usual enraged self when Roxy gripped his testicles). She sometimes cannot sleep because of nightmares. Rube considers Roxy to be his "second in command" and left her in charge when he went away to locate his daughter's whereabouts. Assigned to investigate the disappearance of Ray Summers, Roxy concluded that Daisy and Mason had something to do with it, but she chose to cover for them, claiming that Ray, who had a police record, ran off to Portland, Oregon.
She is the most recent Reaper after George but is more mature than Daisy and Mason, who died at an earlier age than Roxy. Over time, George and Roxy develop a near-friendship as George acquires a greater sense of responsibility, impressing Roxy given her own police duties.
Daisy Adair
Daisy Adair (Laura Harris) died by asphyxiation and smoke inhalation in Marietta, Georgia on December 13, 1938, in a fire on the set of Gone with the Wind (confirmed in the series finale, "Haunted"). She is an actress who frequently tells stories of her alleged sexual escapades with actors and celebrities including Charlie Chaplin, Bing Crosby, Douglas Fairbanks, Errol Flynn, Clark Gable, Cary Grant, William Holden, Tyrone Power, and Babe Ruth (also confirmed in the series finale). She claims to be one of the Greenwich "Adairs". Daisy was transferred from SoHo in New York City to join the group after Betty disappeared. Later on it is revealed that she was kicked out of New York for swindling the families of the recently deceased. Rube and several members of the Plague Division posed as police officers to break up her first con in Seattle, after which Rube told her he would not tolerate her doing this while working for him.
Behind her bravado, however, she is lonely, an insight most clearly revealed in an episode where her final thoughts before death were recorded as being "Why has no one ever loved me?". Her loose work ethic irks Rube greatly, though he never punishes her for it.
Daisy and George first become enemies when Daisy takes over for Betty, whom George liked immensely. Daisy then forces herself into George's apartment and even kicks her out of her own bed. Slowly, George realizes Daisy's demeanor is a front and warms to her slightly. Daisy responds by toning down her arrogant behavior. The two become friends by the end of the series, especially after Mason gives them his house to stay in.
Daisy and Mason have a rocky relationship because he is madly in love with her but her insecurities, expressed through sexuality, interfere with any type of loving relationship. Mason goes so far as to buy Daisy an engagement ring after she reveals to him that she long ago accepted that she would never get married, and though she refused to wear the ring on her hand, she kept it on a necklace for the remainder of the series. It is implied that she continues to have feelings for Mason, but the extent is never known.
In the episode "Be Still My Heart," Daisy reacts badly to the death of a woman at the hands of a man who is tired of having her as a mistress. Visibly shaken by the events, Daisy implicates the murderer and then leaves the victim's soul behind at the scene, infuriating Roxy. Daisy ends the episode and explains her bizarre behavior by asking Mason, "Did I ever tell you I had a sister?" This may imply that a similar situation happened to Daisy's sister.
Daisy met Ray Summers in the episode "Death Defying" and began dating him. In the episode "Forget Me Not", Daisy ended their relationship and Ray turned nasty, grabbing her by the throat and slamming her into the wall. Mason killed Ray in Daisy's defense. Mason was extremely upset by his actions and by the fact that "there's no Post-It", i.e. Ray was not scheduled to die then. To Mason's horror, a Graveling emerges from Ray's body, and Daisy says that she has seen that happen before. Mason buries Ray's body in the backyard. The Ray Graveling appears to retain some of Ray's personality or memories, as it hangs around Daisy and George's house and appears angry at Daisy, who begins drinking because of her feelings of guilt over his death. It even accompanies Daisy on one of her reaps, causing the unscheduled death of an innocent bystander. When the Ray Graveling menaces a sleeping Mason, George, who is unafraid of it, reaps the Graveling, who then disintegrates into dust. This Graveling was lighter in color than other Gravelings. The police search for Ray, but Roxy covers for Mason and Daisy as she understands something is wrong. Daisy is played by Sarah Wynter in the 2009 Direct to DVD movie Dead Like Me: Life After Death. Harris and Wynter previously portrayed sisters in the second season of the show 24.
Betty Rhomer
Betty Rhomer (Rebecca Gayheart) died by jumping off a cliff into a river without realizing its height. She was a spunky woman who "can't sit still for very long", and disappeared after following a soul into his great beyond, not long after befriending George. Her disappearance into the great beyond was never fully explained in the series, as it appears to go against the rules for a reaper to "gain their lights". Her character was written out and replaced with Daisy at the direction of MGM due to the actress's real-life legal problems and their apparent discomfort of her role as a reaper. On November 27, 2001, Gayheart pleaded no contest to vehicular manslaughter. She was sentenced to three years of probation, a one-year suspension of her license, a $2,800 fine, and 750 hours of community service. The parents of the boy filed a wrongful death lawsuit, which was settled out of court.
She was known for sometimes using 1920s phrases. She had conversations with George about using aliases in the past. Her trademark was taking a Polaroid photo of the people whose souls she took while saying "Happy Thoughts!", and classifying those people by personality type. In the same way, George later classified Betty as "mysterious and reassuring".
Betty's gravestone shows the year of her death as 1926. In the episode "Curious George", we see Betty robbing her own grave and removing from the finger of her corpse a ring. In the episode "Reaping Havoc", George sees the ring and tells Betty she likes it. Betty replies, "I saw it in the Village in 1927; my boy bought it for me", a recollection at odds with her tombstone date.
George's family
Joy Lass
Joy Lass (Cynthia Stevenson), born 1961, is George's mother. Described by George as a Virgo and a career legal secretary who enjoys ice skating and John Grisham novels, Joy is organized, neurotic, and a bit foul-mouthed. She hates the word "moist" because she thinks it sounds pornographic and is afraid of balloons. George observed that her mother's name is an ironic misnomer, noting, "Who had the nerve to name you 'Joy'?"
The aftermath of George's death was made worse for Joy by her husband's infidelity and her difficulty communicating with her remaining daughter. She eventually divorces Clancy; the terms of the divorce apparently left Joy with sole ownership and possession of the family residence at 3851 Beatrice Lane (the location of which is revealed in the first-season episode "Nighthawks").
Joy also confided to George (as Millie) that she does not think she was a very good mother. Unable to afford the childhood home of Georgia and Reggie, Joy began scouting with Reggie for other accommodations—as a result of which she met and began dating Angelo.
Her ex-husband, however, had been recently dumped by the woman with whom he cheated and, upon realizing Joy was dating, set out to sabotage his ex-wife's romantic plans. Clancy confessed in a later episode he missed her and the life he had with his family.
Joy is very disturbed by Reggie's fixation over George's death, and starts to worry about Reggie's sanity. In "Forget Me Not", she applied for job placement through Happy Time, where her résumé states that she was a history major at college with a business minor, worked for two law firms, and knows Gregg shorthand and medical shorthand.
Five years after George's death, Joy's disposition has made a significant change. Her neurotic nature and strict housekeeping requirements seem to have toned down. She has written a book based on her personal loss and counsels parents of deceased children.
Clancy Lass
Clancy Lass (Greg Kean), born c. 1960, is George's father and a Cancer. He is a tenured professor of English at the University of Washington. In "Pilot", George notes that he hugs another man for a long time which was part of a scrapped plot-line in which he was homosexual.
George becomes friends with a student, Charlotte, after a reap at the college where her father teaches, and unwittingly encourages Charlotte to meet Clancy outside of class. They later begin an affair. Charlotte dumped him before "Be Still My Heart".
He has vaguely implied wanting to come back to Joy in Season 2, but she rejected this overture.
Five years after George's death, Clancy has moved far away from his ex-wife and surviving daughter and had started a new family.
Reggie Lass
Regina "Reggie" Lass (Britt McKillip), born c. 1992, is George's younger sister, largely ignored by George before her death. Like George, she is intelligent and well-read, but rather difficult and emotionally complex. After George's death, Reggie developed a fixation with the way her sister died. She collected toilet seats and put them in a tree. After passing this stage, she grows distant from her mother, and is in danger of becoming even more disaffected with life than her late sister.
Reggie is opposed to Joy's decision to sell the family home: she told prospective buyers, "George visits me here" — which is, in fact, true as she has spotted George (as Millie) spying on the house from time to time. Despite her stressed relationship with her mother, she is very protective of her and scared away one potential suitor by claiming that George was murdered in her own home. In "Ashes To Ashes", she experimented with the Goth lifestyle, adopting the nickname "Spider". When J.F. the frog was left on her doorstep following the death of her dog J.D., she became convinced (correctly) that George was responsible. She used to believe that George was a ghost, but has abandoned that notion (or pretends to have). Even though she is unsure of George's whereabouts, she (again, correctly) believes George is still "living" somehow, and in "Haunted", her beliefs were apparently confirmed when she saw George face-to-face. At the end of season 2, she appeared to have been gradually warming up to her mother, Joy.
In the Dead Like Me film, Reggie is now a 16-year-old and has a better relationship with her mother. She is socially awkward and insecure, but secretly dates a popular high-school athlete who appears to be more in love with Reggie than his public girlfriend, but they only see each other in secret. After the boy is hospitalized following a severe car accident, she runs into George (appearing as Millie) multiple times. She thinks George is stalking her and confronts her, but instead finds out this strange, mysterious woman is in fact, her sister. During this time, George and Reggie begin to bond and be the sisters they were not when George was alive. Later, she wants to move in with the dead George, who demurs, calling it ill-advised. After George reaps Reggie's boyfriend, Reggie attempts to kill herself. After George stops her, Reggie realizes she should stop seeing George. Accepting that, she visits George's grave one more time, before urging Joy to move to a new location. Joy suggests they go on a vacation. Reggie is last seen staring out the window of the car as she and her mother leave for vacation. She sees George parked near the house, smiling at her as they drive by.
Phyllis
Phyllis (Barbara Barrie). "Grandma Phyl", Joy's mother, is constantly at odds with Joy, who considers Phyllis selfish. Where Joy is a compulsive, worrying, neat-freak, Phyllis is laid-back, worry-free, and seems to live day-to-day. She practices Buddhism. She participated in the various progressive movements during the 1960s at the expense, Joy believes, of her responsibilities, her husband, and daughter. Reggie appears to be fascinated by her, and Phyllis was apparently very close to George. Phyllis and Joy have a confrontational relationship. Joy felt abandoned by her mother as a child and resents Phyllis' disinterest in providing a stable home life.
Happy Time
Delores Herbig
Delores Herbig (Christine Willes) "as in 'her big brown eyes'" (or as George once said "as in 'her big fat ass'" and "her big strange heart"). Delores is George's boss at Happy Time. She is highly obsessive-compulsive, which manifests in her dedication to propriety, correctness, and rules, and her artificial perkiness, which she believes to be the "right" attitude and tries very hard to maintain. She disliked George, but she displays a high appreciation for "Millie", both professionally and emotionally, and even goes so far as to model George's personnel file after her after Joy requests a copy. She occasionally mentions things from her past, such as having a cocaine habit in the 1980s, having her tattoos removed, and having restraining orders against her, which contrast with her current personality. She runs a webcam show from her apartment called Getting Things Done with Delores. She seems very happy and positive but is in fact quite sad and lonely, and is looking for a long-term relationship via online dating.
In the Dead Like Me film, Delores is still George's boss. Delores's perky veneer finally breaks down at the death of her beloved cat, Murray.
Crystal
Crystal Smith (Crystal Dahl). Crystal is the receptionist at Happy Time, also known as Jane Smith. She can be very strange, and George initially finds her intimidating when she stares frequently at George and anyone else for long periods and she often refuses interaction, though the two eventually establish a rapport. She has a lookalike boyfriend at Happy Time (also played by Crystal Dahl). How much she knows about George and the other Reapers is never fully revealed in the series. After seeing Millie and possibly recognizing her as George (due to its being Halloween) she looked up files regarding George, after Mason and "Millie" had left, but she finds that the files are unavailable. She has a closet full of Post-its which she steals from work. In "Vacation", she actually helped the Reapers complete some long overdue Reaper-related paperwork, but gave no indication to them whether she understood exactly what it was all about. Her Happy Time file shows that she speaks Spanish, French, Russian and Swahili, and that she served with the Special Forces in Southeast Asia.
Misty
Misty Favreaux (Meghan Black). Misty is a co-worker of George's at Happy Time, known for her promiscuity. She said she works 35 hours a week, spends 34 of those hours thinking about sex, and the other hour having it. According to her confidential Happy Time file, she attended the Wheeling School of the Arts where she was voted the most popular student. She claims to have two children, Sassoon and Jordache, and to be married in Louisiana and possibly Kansas. The same actress played a bank teller in the pilot episode, though this character is not Misty.
Other living
Angus Cook
Angus Cook (John Kapelos). Angus Cook appeared the episodes "My Room" and "A Cook" as a line cook who had fallen into tough times because of a pyramid scheme where he lost everything. He disliked criticism about the food he prepared and passed this philosophy along to Rube, who reaped him and subsequently took over in the kitchen. Angus' spirit remained to coach Rube in the kitchen and pass along his philosophy that the cook should not bow to the demands of the customer. When Rube accepted this, only then did Angus pass on.
Kiffany
Kiffany (Patricia Idlette). Kiffany is the Reapers' regular waitress at Der Waffle Haus, and meets the odd goings on among the Reapers (bizarre conversations about death; Roxy shooting Mason in the foot; Mason committing a "lewd act" with a coconut slice) with extraordinary sang-froid. She has shown sympathetic interest in the characters, but never pries. She described Rube as a special customer, perhaps because he gives a $2 tip on a $7 breakfast. She seems to like George, as she gave her free oatmeal for her patience ("Hurry"). In the episode "Always", she banned Mason from Der Waffle Haus for stealing tips, relenting after he apologized and giving him money. She has evidently worked there for some time, as she knows Penny, another Reaper. Kiffany claims to have psychic powers (although she doesn't go out of her way to tell people about it). She reads palms, and in a Season Two deleted scene, became visibly upset upon examining George's lifeline, refusing to discuss it with her even after George begged her to. Being the Reapers' server since the first season, she has indicated she knows that Rube's group has unusual secrets. In the episode "Haunted", Kiffany doesn't seem fazed by the fact that the Reapers appear as they were when they were alive.
Trip Hesburgh
Thomas "Trip" Hesburgh III (Robin Dunne). Journalist; George's first serious relationship. George found herself liking Trip a great deal, and became extremely upset when she thought that Trip was her reap, Thomas Hesburgh Jr, though it was soon revealed that Trip was Thomas Hesburgh III and she was supposed to reap Trip's father instead. He seems very unhappy despite being raised in a wealthy family, and seems tired of the social superficialities of his wealthy upbringing. He is often nagged by his older sister Ashley. He became George's first lover and called her his girlfriend, but it is uncertain whether any sort of relationship will actually develop. After spending the night with George, he never called or sought her out again, sending George into a rage. He and Ashley know George by her real name (rather than by her Millie alias), a revelation which Mason chides her for (although all the other reapers introduce themselves to the living with their real names throughout the series).
Angelo
Angelo (Peter Williams). Angelo owns a loft apartment that Joy and Reggie looked at in "In Escrow", and is briefly Joy's love interest. He is smooth-talking, urbane, and artistically talented. He somehow knew that the Lass dog was a golden retriever without ever having been told.
Ray Summers
Ray Summers (Eric McCormack) d. 2004. Ray was a reality television producer who struck up a romantic relationship with Daisy when she met him during an assignment in "Death Defying". He came off as extremely obnoxious and overbearing and was disliked by Rube, George, and especially Mason. Ray disliked Mason, identifying him as a rival for Daisy's affections. He was manipulative and abusive towards Daisy. Unknown to Daisy, Ray had a criminal record that included assault and fraud charges. He was killed by Mason when he attacked Daisy. Mason claimed, "The first [hit] was in self defense, but the next three were a bit murderous." Ray's soul became a Graveling after his death, and stayed near Daisy, causing her to sink into depression because of her feelings of guilt over Ray's death. The Ray Graveling was particularly malevolent, following Daisy to one of her reaps and causing the unscheduled death of an innocent bystander, which affected Daisy even more. In "Always", the Ray Graveling was reaped by George, turning into dust and disintegrating.
Charlotte
Charlotte (A. J. Cook). Charlotte is a university student. She and George met in "Sunday Mornings", after Mason saved her from being raped. They became friends, and she took George to her course on the sonnets taught by George's father, Clancy. She begins a relationship with Clancy, but breaks up with him (off camera) sometime before the episode "Be Still My Heart".
Other undead
Charlie
Charlie, the pet Reaper (Spencer Achtymichuk) (1988–1997) was hit by a drunk driver. A young boy, Charlie appeared three times to reap pets, one of which was George's family's dog. He encountered both George and Reggie. Reggie attempted to befriend him, while George asked him where he lived, and gave him some money when he replied "just here and there". Charlie is one of the few Reapers who regularly refer to George as "Toilet Seat Girl", much to her annoyance. A young girl is portrayed as being another pet Reaper in Dead Like Me: Life After Death.
Penny
Penny (Yeardley Smith) died 1912 in the Titanic disaster, after which she developed a dislike of ice (even in beverages). Penny used to be a member of Rube's group in "External Influences", and now works for "Natural Causes", based upon how reapers are assigned to their division (see The Lawn Bowlers), it is logical to assume she either drowned or died from hypothermia (though hypothermia is more likely). She first appeared in "Forget Me Not" when George had a reap at the hospital. In "Always", she showed Rube the Post-It for his daughter Rosie, and allowed him to accompany her to the nursing home where Rosie stayed, giving him a few minutes to visit his daughter before her death. She seems to get on well with Kiffany (who does not seem to comment on the fact she hasn't aged) and also seems well liked by Roxy and Mason. She had not previously met Daisy or George. Her usual drink is iced tea without the ice.
Plague Division
Pete and Company. Pete and two other unnamed male reapers were seen in the episode "Unfinished Business". Pete is a police detective and the other two are beat cops. According to Pete, they have nothing but time on their hands as they work in the "Plague Division". Pete and his friends give Rube a hand to break up Daisy's séance scam in the aforementioned episode, getting shot several times by Rube. A humorous conversation about what sort of bullets hurt the most follows.
The Lawn Bowlers. On the deleted scenes section of the First Season DVD (and later shown on Scifi Channel during their run), Mason and George are in a park, and notice several members of the Plague Division involved in a game of lawn bowling. During this scene, Mason explains how reapers are assigned to their division; since the lawn bowlers died of the Plague, they are assigned to the Plague Division. However, they've been out of work for the last 600 years, since no one dies from Plague anymore. George suggests that some other disease may come up, such as Ebola, when the bowlers notice a squirrel approach a pair of picnickers. Mason tells George they're expressing interest because squirrels were carriers of the Plague and thought if one of the picnickers was bit, there could be a new outbreak.
The unnamed person
This nameless, silent individual, seen mostly at the opening and closing of Rube's elevator door, delivers to him the names of those about to die in a manila envelope. In one episode it is seen as an actual shadow, and the envelope only became corporeal when it slid across the threshold of Rube's apartment. This person or being's identity and rank in death's hierarchy have never been revealed. Rube has attempted to coax this person into revealing him/her/itself by cooking it a traditional Italian meal and is usually respectful of its visits, only picking up the envelope after it has walked away from his door. On one occasion, however, Rube followed the shadow toward the elevator, complaining about Angus Cook at Der Waffel Haus, whom Rube had befriended, being on the list. When Betty Rohmer jumped after a soul into the afterlife, Rube left a post-it on the door asking the person, "What happened to her?", though it is unknown if he ever received an answer.
Animals
J.D.
J.D., d. 2004. One of George's reaps left behind J.D., a Golden Retriever in "A Cook". George agreed to take care of the dog and tried to keep him, but soon passed him on to her family. Reggie decided that J.D. stands for "Just Dog". He seemed fond of Clancy. In "Last Call", he was killed by a car, after Charlie had reaped his soul.
Mr. Blinky
J.F. formerly known as Mr. Frog and Mr. Blinky by his original owner, is a yellow frog that belonged to George's first reap, a young girl, and which apparently followed George home. Following the death of J.D., George secretly left the frog with Reggie, who dubbed it J.F. for "Just Frog" and is convinced the frog came from George. The frog, along with other frog imagery, has been used from time to time to symbolize the cycle of life and death, a recurring motif responding to George's tale about the origins of death, from the beginning of the pilot episode.
Murray
Murray is Delores Herbig's aging cat. He requires dialysis three times a week, and has bladder problems. Despite the nuisances of his aging, Delores loves him greatly and is distraught in an episode where he falls ill. This is the episode where George first meets Charlie, realizing what he is from the Post-It in his comic book. She warns Delores not to let him touch Murray; Charlie reaps a rabbit instead, telling Delores that he thinks Murray will be just fine.
Murray dies in the Dead Like Me movie, and ashes reported to be his are blasted into space. The urn actually contains the ashes of Cameron Kane; whether it contains Murray's ashes as well is unclear.
References
Dead Like Me
Dead Like Me
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stan%20Douglas
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Stan Douglas
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Stan Douglas (born October 11, 1960) is an artist based in Vancouver, British Columbia.
Douglas' film and video installations, photography and work in television frequently touch on the history of literature, cinema and music, while examining the "failed utopia" of modernism and obsolete technologies.
He has exhibited internationally, including Documenta IX, 1992, Documenta X, 1997, Documenta XI, 2002 and the Venice Biennale in 1990, 2001, 2005 and 2019. Douglas was chosen to represent Canada in the 2021 Venice Biennale.
Art collector Friedrich Christian Flick, in the foreword to the Stan Douglas monograph, describes Douglas as "a critical analysis of our social reality. Samuel Beckett and Marcel Proust, E.T.A. Hoffmann and the Brothers Grimm, blues and free jazz, television and Hollywood, Karl Marx and Sigmund Freud haunt the uncanny montages of the Canadian artist."
Background
Stan Douglas was born in 1960 in Vancouver, where he currently lives and works. Educated at the Emily Carr University of Art and Design in Vancouver, Douglas has exhibited widely since his first solo show in 1981. Among numerous group exhibitions, Douglas was included in the 1995 Carnegie International, the 1995 Whitney Biennial, the 1997 Skulptur Projekte Münster and Documenta X in Kassel. In 2007, Douglas was the recipient of the inaugural Hnatyshyn Foundation Visual Arts Award, a $25,000 prize for excellence in Canadian visual arts presented by Gerda Hnatyshyn president and chair of the board of The Hnatyshyn Foundation. In 2008 he was awarded the Bell Award in Video Art. Douglas is represented by David Zwirner, New York and Victoria Miro Gallery, London. A survey of his recent work, Stan Douglas: Mise en scène, traveled Europe from 2013 until the end of 2015. Between 2004 and 2006 he was a professor at Universität der Künste Berlin and since 2009 has been a member of the Core Faculty in the Graduate Art Department of Art Center College of Design.
Themes
Modernism
Douglas' work reflects the technical and social aspects of mass media, and since the late 1980s has been influenced by the work of Samuel Beckett. Also of concern is both modernism as a theoretical concept and modernity as it has affected North American urbanism since World War II. In using what art historian Hal Foster describes as the "outmoded genre" of cinema, Douglas' interest in "failed utopias and obsolete technologies" allows for the creation of a "new medium out of the remnants of old forms." Douglas' preoccupation with failed utopias and the obsolete is not about a redemption of "these past events, but [a way] to reconsider them: to understand why these utopian moments did not fulfill themselves, what larger forces kept a local moment a minor moment: and what was valuable there — what might still be useful today."
Politics and race
Douglas' work only touches on race directly in a few instances, such as the short video I'm Not Gary (1991). This interpretation of race is important, as the brief narrative involves a white man mistaking a black man for a different black man named Gary, for writer Lisa Coulthard, this is part of a larger investigation of racism as part of imperialism and cultural invisibility. For Coulthard, the lack of mention of race in works that feature only white performers troubles any racial reading of Douglas' work.
In a great deal of Douglas' works, class rather than race is the key element. Having grown up in a largely white middle-class neighbourhood in Vancouver, race was only an issue of invisibility rather than civil rights for Douglas.
Jazz and blues
Although race as a theme is often not a central or obvious concern of Douglas, his own identity as a Black-Canadian is often addressed through his use of music and in particular, musical idioms associated with African-American culture, such as blues and jazz. In particular, Douglas points to the cultural prejudices which associate the "primitive" with black music, while the European musical tradition is positioned as "high culture". This binary between primitive and civilized is further complicated when considering jazz and its position as both "race music" but also highly cultured and in particular the European embracing of jazz as high art.
An early work, Deux Devises (1983), presents a projection of text, the lyrics of 19th century composer Charles Gounod's song "O ma belle, ma rebelle." A recording of Robert Johnson's "Preaching Blues" is played, with accompanying images of Douglas phonetically mouthing the words to the song, out of sync with the recording. The pairing of the safe salon music of Gounod, and the raw sounds of Johnson, points to the typical prejudice which validates and promotes the supposed seriousness of European music. Where Johnson's words are anguished, Gounod's are safe and comfortable.
Douglas' use of jazz is a more direct response to complex attitudes towards African-American music. Exhibited for the first time at documenta 9 in 1992, Hors-champs (meaning "off-screen") is a video installation that addresses the political context of free jazz in the 1960s, as an extension of black consciousness and is one of his few works to directly address race.
Four American musicians, George E. Lewis (trombone), Douglas Ewart (saxophone), Kent Carter (bass) and Oliver Johnson (drums) who lived in France during the free jazz period in the 1960s, improvise Albert Ayler's 1965 composition "Spirits Rejoice.". Free jazz often found a larger audience in Europe and was associated with politics and in particular in France where it was utilized by the French Communist Party during May 1968.
The music is in four parts, a gospel melody, an attenuated call and response, a heraldic fanfare and "La Marseillaise." Shot in the style of 1960s French television program and using period technology, the work is projected onto a screen, verso and recto. On one side is the "broadcast" version, a montage taken from two cameras, what would be chosen to be transmitted to the home audience. The other side shows the raw footage, the images not meant for public viewing, what was edited out. The two sides of the screen present a complete document of the performance, one in which the viewer must negotiate, depicting the "authorized" version but also the conditions of its production. What is being emphasized is a contrast between the banality of television and the radical programming that was featured at the time.
Luanda-Kinshasa runs for more than six hours. Its title points directly to the origins and history of jazz in Africa. Marking the first time the artist has filmed on location in New York, however, the setting is a reimagined Manhattan milieu in the 1970s, namely the CBS 30th Street Studio. Featuring a band of professional musicians improvising together, Luanda-Kinshasa is the documentation of a fictitious recording at the famed studio. Although Douglas plants subtle period details in clothes, wall posters and cigarette brands, all attention is on the band — which includes among its 10 instrumentalists the Senegalese drummer Abdou Mboup, the Indian tabla player Nitin Mitta, and the American drummer Kimberly Thompson — and on the music being made.
Cinema
As a Vancouver artist getting his start in the 1980s and using lens-based media, Stan Douglas is often associated with the Vancouver School of photoconceptualism. His use of video and film, in addition to photography, as well as his specific interests in cinematic history, forms and spatial concerns set him apart from peers such as Jeff Wall.
Douglas has reworked films such as Alfred Hitchcock's Marnie (1964), Dario Argento's Suspiria (1977) and Orson Welles's Journey into Fear (1943) exploring "the parameters, functions and limits of cinematic adaptation." His works reference the originals but also distance the newer works through manipulation of the texts, often employing loops and editing techniques to "defamiliarize" the originals
Subject to a Film: Marnie is a re-creation of the robbery scene from Hitchcock's 1964 film. In his 1995 Art in America review Tom Eccles describes the work as "creating the effect of a recurring nightmare" as the titular character, rather than escaping is "caught in the film loop, forever trapped within the confines of the office." Douglas updates the office
with computers replacing typewriters and carpet for '50s linoleum. This version is shot in black and white, which gives it the feel of a recollected experience, and Douglas has slowed the action, bringing Marnie's inherent voyeurism into focus. One can almost sense the craning neck of the filmmaker. Marnie's well-rehearsed actions of walking to the washroom, returning to the desk and turning the safe's combination dial are carefully played out – but as her gloved hand runs through the combination, the film cuts back to the opening shot, panning out to a general view of the office where the workers once again prepare to leave for the day.
Inconsolable Memories (2005) is based on Tomas Gutierrez Alea's film Memorias del subdesarrollo (Memories of Underdevelopment) from 1968, updated to include references to the Mariel boatlift of 1980. Douglas's installation consists of a 16mm projection with a photographic series of contemporary Havana, Cuba. The film is looped and when presented as an installation the film and photographs create a sense of repetition, a common feature of Douglas' work. Rather than strictly working from Alea's film in the manner Douglas worked from Hitchcock's Marnie, Inconsolable Memories plays with the layers of its various sources (Cuba in the 1960s, the 1980s and the present). Some of the photographs reference the locations used in the original Alea film tying together the themes of history and memory. At issue is the utopian promise of the Cuban revolution and its decline, and as well, the parallel Cold War events of the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962 (examined in Alea's film) and the boatlift of 1980.
Samuel Beckett
Douglas has long been interested in the work of Samuel Beckett. In 1988 he curated Samuel Beckett: Teleplays, eight Beckett works for film and television. In 1991, Douglas produced Monodramas a series of short videos for television broadcasting, based on his studies of Beckett's teleplays. Developed for television, these 30- to 60-second video works were broadcast nightly in British Columbia in 1992 for three weeks. The short narratives "mimic television's editing techniques" and when the videos were aired during the regular commercial breaks, viewers called the station to ask what was being sold. Douglas' first project for television, Television Spots (1987–88) consisted of twelve were broadcast in Saskatoon and Ottawa during regular programming and featured short, banal scenes in open-ended narratives. An early video work, Mime (the second part of Deux Devises, 1983) consisted of a close-up of Douglas' mouth in the shape of phonemes, which are then edited to sync up with the song "Preachin' Blues" by Robert Johnson. Douglas was not aware of Beckett's own work Not I, a disembodied mouth in a black screen. In a lecture given at YYZ Artists' Outlet in Toronto, Douglas commented that the choice of a blues song was
a fairly personal one, derived in a way from my experience of being black in a predominantly white culture, having very little contact with black American culture, but at the same time being expected to represent that to people-both to people who were antagonistically racist and to liberal types. So what you have is my image not quite synching up or relating to a very archetypal black figure, Robert Johnson.
Douglas began to study Beckett's works and his next video work Panoramic Rotunda (1985) came from misremembering a line from Beckett's Fizzle No. 7. The repetition and seemingly endless loops of the same narrative in Win, Place or Show recalls Beckett's use of repetition to point to but also undermine the "sameness" of reality. The absurdity of the forever repeating narrative, of the two protagonists in an endless loop, always the same words but from different points of reference is an allusion to Vladimir and Estragon in Waiting for Godot.
Works
Early works 1983–1991
Stan Douglas' works from the 1980s are concerned with obsolete media and their aesthetics. Lost time is a continuous element in his works. The installation Overture (1986) uses footage of a train journey through the Rocky Mountains shot between 1899 and 1901. The soundtrack consists of Vancouver writer Gerald Creede reading Douglas's reworking of various sentences taken from the opening section of Marcel Proust's A la recherche de temps perdu. For writer Peter Culley, writing about two of Douglas' works in 1986,
Douglas situates Overture in the historical moment that the beginnings of film share with the end of the novel, when Proust's faith in the tantalizing structures of his great predecessors, Balzac and Wagner, was being undermined by the perceptive discontinuities that film helped to bring about.
In Onomatopoeia (1985–1986), a screen hangs over spot-lit upright player piano. The piano plays bars from Beethoven's Piano Sonata No. 32, Opus 111. Triggered by punctuations on the piano scroll, images of an empty textile factory are projected above the piano. The perforated scrolls that were used to programme weaving into fabric patterns, echo the player piano scrolls. The images are of a textile mill near the artist's home and specifically that section of the mill employing the punch cards that determine the different patterns of weave design. The punch cards are part of the same type of technology as the player piano, which to Culley "sets up a simultaneity of subject which the work immediately begins to subvert; image and music constantly move in and out of precise synchronization, keeping the audience at a constant level of anxious anticipation."
Douglas's Monodramas are ten 30- to 60-second videos from 1991, conceived as interventions into commercial television, broadcast nightly in British Columbia for three weeks in 1992. These short narratives, set in bleak suburban locations, mimic television's editing techniques, with plots dealing often mundane situations and with a slight twist at the end. The segment "I'm Not Gary" is set in a nondescript industrial strip. A white man passes a second man who is black, calling out to him "Gary?" and is visibly irritated at not being acknowledged. Finally, the second man turns to him, replying, "I'm not Gary." For writer Lisa Coulthard, race is the interpretive framework, because for the white man in the video, "his interlocutor is simply a black man, interchangeable with any other for example and clearly interchangeable with Gary."
Installations
A key element in a number of Douglas' installations is the use of time and in particular, an investigation into slowed-down time or stillness. His 1995 installation Der Sandmann, based on E.T.A. Hoffmann's original 1816 short story and Sigmund Freud's 1919 essay "The Uncanny", consists of a double projection where the film is literally split down the middle and reassembled so the two sides are slightly out of sync. This creates a "temporal gap", disrupting the sense of unity so crucial to modernism, so that "everything is deferred and delayed."
Douglas' 1998 installation Win, Place or Show is shot in the style of the late-1960s CBC drama The Client, noted for its gritty style, long takes and lack of establishing shots. Set in 1950s Vancouver in the Strathcona redevelopment, the installation explores the modernist notion of urban renewal with the demolition of existing architecture in favour of grids of apartment blocks. Two men share a dormitory room on a rainy day off from their blue-collar jobs. The conversation flares up during a discussion of the day's horse races and the 6 minute filmed loop is repeated from different angles on a split screen, each cycle presenting ever-changing configurations of point-of-view. The takes are edited together in real time by a computer during the exhibition, generating an almost endless series of montages.
His 2014 interactive installation, Circa 1948 was co-produced by the National Film Board of Canada, and premiered in April at the Tribeca Film Festival's Storyscapes section. Douglas also created the stage play Helen Lawrence, which shares graphics, story and characters with Circa 1948.
Venice Biennale
The National Gallery of Canada chose Douglas to represent Canada in the 2021 Venice Biennale. Douglas has exhibited at the Venice Biennale previously, most recently in 2019 where he debuted the work the two-channel video installation Doppelgänger (2019), "set in an alternate present in which a solitary astronaut and her other-world counterpart each arrives 'home' to find that everything is the reverse of what she once knew. Enacted simultaneously on two screens, the work's structure suggested the possibility of coexisting experiences and realities." The jury, including National Gallery director Sasha Suda and chief curator Kitty Scott, picked Douglas citing "the relevance of his work to the global debates taking place in Venice."
Catalogues
Douglas, Stan and Philip Monk. Stan Douglas. Cologne: Friedrich Christian Flick Collection and DuMont, 2006.
Douglas, Stan and Michael Turner. Journey into fear. London: Serpentine Gallery, 2002.
Douglas, Stan and Reid Shier, ed. Stan Douglas: Every Building on 100 West Hastings. Vancouver: Arsenal Pulp Press, Contemporary Art Gallery, 2002.
Douglas, Stan, Boris Groys, Isabel Zürcher, Peter Pakesch and Terence Dick. Stan Douglas: Le Détroit. Basel: Kunsthalle Basel, 2001.
Douglas, Stan. Stan Douglas. Toronto: Macdonald Stewart Art Centre, 1994.
Douglas, Stan and Christine VanAssche. Stan Douglas. Paris: Centre Georges Pompidou, 1993.
Fischer, Barbara and Stan Douglas. Perspective 87: Stan Douglas. Toronto: Art Gallery of Ontario, 1987.
Solo exhibitions
Serpentine Gallery, London (2002)
Kestner Gesellschaft, Hanover (2004)
Studio Museum in Harlem, New York (2005)
Staatsgalerie Stuttgart and Württembergischer Kunstverein, Stuttgart (2007)
The Power Plant, Toronto (2011)
Minneapolis Institute of Arts, Minnesota (2012)
Fruitmarket Gallery, Edinburgh (2014–2015)
Irish Museum of Modern Art, Dublin (2015)
Awards
2007: Hnatyshyn Foundation Visual Arts Award
2008: Bell Award in Video Art
2012: Infinity Award for Art from the International Center of Photography, New York
2013: Scotiabank Photography Award
2016: Hasselblad Award
2019: Audain Prize for the Visual Arts
Permanent collections
Art Gallery of Ontario, Toronto
Centre Georges Pompidou, Paris
Israel Museum, Jerusalem
Museum of Contemporary Art, Chicago
Museum of Modern Art, New York
National Gallery of Canada, Ottawa
San Francisco Museum of Modern Art
Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York
Tate Gallery, London
Vancouver Art Gallery
Walker Art Center, Minneapolis, Minnesota
References
Notes
Primary sources
Beckett, Samuel, Stan Douglas, Linda Ben-Zvi and Clark Coolidge. Samuel Beckett: Teleplays, Vancouver Art Gallery, October 1 to December 3, 1988. Vancouver: Vancouver Art Gallery, 1988.
Douglas, Stan and Ariane (CON) Beyn. Secession: Secession. Cologne: Verlag der Buchhandlung Walther Konig, 2008.
Secondary sources
Bizzocchi, Jim. "The Aesthetics of the Ambient Video Experience." fibreculture: internet, theory, criticism and research. Issue 11.
Brockington, Horace. "Logical Anonymity: Lorna Simpson, Steve McQueen, Stan Douglas." International Review of African American Art 15 No. 3 (1998): 20–29.
Birnbaum, Daniel. "Time and Trauma." Lier en Boog Volume 17 (2002): 155–192.
Crichlow, Warren. "Stan Douglas and the Aesthetic Critique of Urban Decline." Cultural Studies ←→ Critical Methodologies Volume 3, Number 1 (2003): 8-21.
Dercon, Chris. "Gleaning the Future from the Gallery Floor." Senses of Cinema. Issue No. 28 (Sept-Oct 2003).
Eagleton, Terry and Séamus Kealy. 18: Beckett. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2006.
Foster, Hal. Design and Crime and other Diatribes. London: Verso: 2002.
Gale, Peggy. "Stan Douglas: Evening and others." VIDEO Re/VIEW: The (best) Source for Critical Writings on Canadian Artists' Video. Eds. Peggy Gale and Lisa Steele. Toronto: Art Metropole, 1996.
Jäger, Joachim, Gabriele Knapstein, Stan Douglas and Anette Husch. Beyond Cinema: The Art of Projection: Films, Videos And Installations From 1963 to 2005. Ostfildern, Germany: Hatje Cantz, 2007.
Krajewsk, Michael. "Stan Douglas, 15 September 2007 — 6 January 2008, Staatsgalerie & Wurttembergischer". Map Magazine. Issue 12 (Winter 2007).
Milroy, Sarah. "These artists know how to rock." Globe & Mail (Nov 6, 2003): p. R5-7.
Walls, Rachel. "Stan Douglas's performance of contested space in Vancouver's Downtown Eastside." Space, Place and Landscape: a Postgraduate Workshop 13 July 2007. Edited by Hannah Neate and Joanna Pready. Landscape, Space, Place, Research Group, University of Nottingham.
Watson, Scott, Diana Thater, Stan Douglas and Carol J. Clover. Stan Douglas. London: Phaidon, 1998.
General
Lee, John and Karla Zimmerman. Vancouver: City Guide. Lonely Planet, 2008.
External links
Stan Douglas - David Zwirner
Tate Collection
1960 births
Living people
Artists from Vancouver
Black Canadian filmmakers
Black Canadian artists
Canadian photographers
Canadian contemporary artists
Canadian installation artists
Canadian video artists
Film directors from Vancouver
Emily Carr University of Art and Design alumni
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20House%20of%20the%20Dead
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The House of the Dead
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The House of the Dead, also referred to as Curien Mansion, is a horror-themed light gun shooter video game franchise created by Sega in 1996. Originally released in arcades, it utilizes a light gun on the platform, but can be played with standard controllers on consoles and a mouse or keyboard on home computers. For the PlayStation Network releases of III and 4, they can also be played using the PlayStation Move controller.
There are six House of the Dead games originating in a first-person light gun rail shooter format. The main series all have common traits including special agents pairing up to take on hordes of biologically engineered undead (referred to as 'creatures' in the wider series and as 'mutants' in Overkill). The games are divided into chapters, each of which culminates in a boss battle against usually massive, terrifying creatures. The bosses in the first four games as well as the sixth are all named after the Major Arcana of occult tarot.
Gameplay elements differ among the different games in the series, with each having different characters, firearms, and types of enemies. In many of the games, there are branching paths (determined by one's actions) and unlockable bonuses, along with different endings based on one's performances.
Several spin-offs to the mainstream storyline have also been produced, including a virtual pinball game, an English tutorial and a typing tutorial — as well as a film trilogy. In addition, select enemy characters appearing in the first two games were adapted into fully articulated action figures by Palisades Toys, which canceled the second toy line before street release due to limited returns from the first series.
The House of the Dead has been, along with Resident Evil, credited with popularizing zombie video games as well as re-popularizing the zombie in mainstream popular culture from the late 1990s onwards, leading to renewed interest in zombie films during the 2000s.
Gameplay
The core gameplay mechanic of games in The House of the Dead series is the on-rails shooting. The player must clear each area of enemies before advancing to the next area. The first two installments featured pistols, the third featured a shotgun, the fourth and Scarlet Dawn featured a submachine gun. Overkill features different firearms which can be changed to the players' liking. The instructions on the cabinets note that a head shot is the most effective way to kill zombies.
Successful clearing will result in boss battles. Before most battles, the game will show what the bosses' weak point is. Final bosses have no identifiable weak point. If the boss is shot enough times, it will recoil; otherwise, it will take one of the player's lives. In most of the games, the bosses are named after Major Arcana cards. They are also classified by 'types', which are shown as either a number or (more rarely) a Greek letter.
There are also some different branching paths in the games, that are usually accessed by shooting a door or an object and sometimes when a civilian is killed.
The first two The House of the Dead games featured civilians. If the player successfully rescued civilians from the zombies, the civilian would sometimes reward the player with an extra life. The fourth did not feature civilians. In the third game, occasionally the player's partner would get in trouble and the player would be rewarded if he or she saved the partner's life. Players can also obtain extra lives by shooting boxes, crates, vases and destructible scenery. Scarlet Dawn once again features the civilians from the first two games, alongside the partner rescue mechanics from the third game, alongside new mechanics such as weapon switching and quick time events.
All mainline games have multiple endings, depending on how well the player did in terms of civilians rescued, shooting percentage, score, and lives left. Every main game except the last one has a "bad" ending, usually involving one of the characters transforming into a zombie. In the first game, the character turning was Sophie Richards. 2 is Goldman, III is Daniel Curien and 4 is, once again, Goldman.
Main series
{{Timeline of release years
| title =
| subtitle = Main entries in bold
| align =
| compressempty =
| range1 = 1996–
| range1_color = #d40404 #000
| 1996 = The House of the Dead
| 1998 = The House of the Dead 2
| 1999a = The Typing of the Dead
| 1999b = Zombie Revenge
| 2002a = The Pinball of the Dead
| 2002b = The House of the Dead III
| 2005 = The House of the Dead 4
| 2006 = The House of the Dead 4 Special
| 2007 = The Typing of the Dead 2
| 2008 = English of the Dead
| 2009a = The House of the Dead: Overkill
| 2009b = The House of the Dead EX
| 2011 = The House of the Dead: Overkill: Extended Cut
| 2013 = The Typing of the Dead: Overkill
| 2018 = House of the Dead: Scarlet Dawn| 2022 = The House of the Dead: Remake
}}
The House of the Dead (1996)
On December 18, 1998, the insane and disillusioned Dr. Curien plans to mobilize his armies of undead against the unsuspecting populace. AMS agents Thomas Rogan and "G" are dispatched to his mansion to stop Curien's evil plan and rescue Rogan's future wife, Sophie Richards.
The House of the Dead: Remake (2022)
In 2021, a remake based on the first game titled The House of the Dead: Remake by Forever Entertainment for Nintendo Switch was announced. In December 2021, it was announced the game's release would be delayed to Spring of 2022. The game was eventually released for the Switch on April 7, 2022, with PlayStation 4, Xbox One, and PC versions releasing on April 28, 2022.
The House of the Dead 2 (1998)
On February 26, 2000, business magnate and scientist Caleb Goldman reveals himself to be the mastermind of the 1998 Curien Mansion case and claims responsibility. Goldman initiates an undead outbreak on an unnamed Italian city while his "Emperor" project develops. Two AMS agents named James Taylor and Gary Stewart are sent in order to stop Goldman.
The House of the Dead III (2002)
In the post-apocalyptic world of 2019, Thomas Rogan and his team of commandos infiltrate the EFI Research Facility in hopes of finding the source of the planet's collapse. Losing contact with him, his daughter, Lisa Rogan, and his former partner, "G", set out on a search and recover mission, unaware that what awaits them has ties to the distant past and the very genesis of the undead horde. Daniel Curien, son of the late Dr. Curien, later teams up with Lisa to help complete the rest of the mission.
The House of the Dead 4 (2005)
In the year 2003, veteran AMS agent James Taylor (from The House of the Dead 2) and newcomer Kate Green are investigating the Goldman Incident of 2000. Following a sudden earthquake, they are shocked to discover that the undead from three years prior have returned, seemingly unharmed, and locked in a lab, but they soon break out and wreak havoc once again. Intent on preventing a nuclear disaster, they must once again cross paths with the seemingly deceased Goldman.
The House of the Dead 4 Special (2006)
Set shortly after the end of The House of the Dead 4, AMS agent Kate Green joins forces with fellow AMS agent "G" in order to destroy the "source" of the outbreak.
House of the Dead: Scarlet Dawn (2018)
On January 14, 2018, Sega announced House of the Dead: Scarlet Dawn for arcades.
On December 6, 2006, three years after the events of The House of the Dead 4, Kate Green joins forces with Ryan Taylor - the brother of her late partner, James Taylor - on an undercover mission in a dinner event within Scarecrow Manor, until the mysterious manager unleashes his army of creatures upon the dinner guests, and soon the world.
Future
In September 2019, director Takashi Oda revealed during an interview with Sega Interactive that he wants to produce three more games for the series as well as a House of the Dead first-person shooter if there is enough demand.
Spin-offs
The Typing of the Dead (1999)The Typing of the Dead is a revision of The House of the Dead 2 that replaces the game's light guns with QWERTY keyboards. Enemies are defeated by quickly typing out words that appear on the screen, and introduces a variety of challenges. Although designed to improve typing skills, the game has been lauded by critics for its humor and originality. The game was released for arcades, Dreamcast and PC, while a revised version was released for the PlayStation 2 only in Japan.
Zombie Revenge (1999)Zombie Revenge is a beat 'em up title that was released in arcades and the Dreamcast. After a zombie outbreak devastates the city, AMS agents Stick Breitling, Linda Rotta and Rikiya Busujima are sent to eliminate the threat using their guns, fists and a variety of other weapons, while uncovering the truth behind the mysterious Zed. The game makes numerous references to the series on which it is based, including the Curien Mansion from The House of the Dead serving as the final stage. Also, some of the zombie noises were recycled from the first House of the Dead game.
The Pinball of the Dead (2002)The Pinball of the Dead is a pinball game released for the Game Boy Advance. Tables, bosses and enemy designs are derived from The House of the Dead 2.
The Typing of the Dead 2 (2007)
Similar to its predecessor, The Typing of the Dead 2 is a revision of The House of the Dead III while retaining the typing gameplay elements of the previous title. It was only released in Japan for the PC.
English of the Dead (2008)
Released in Japan exclusively for the Nintendo DS, the game is designed to help Japanese speakers improve their English language skills. Playing similar to the Typing of the Dead games, enemies are defeated when Japanese words shown on-screen are translated into English. The game makes use of the DS touch screen and speakers.
The House of the Dead: Overkill (2009)
In 1991 Agent G, on his first assignment, is sent to investigate mysterious disappearances in Louisiana and runs afoul with homicide detective Isaac Washington. They encounter hordes of mutants in Bayou County, forcing them to team up in order to survive, and find the outbreak linked to local sugar plantation owner Papa Caeser, whom Isaac is pursuing to avenge the death of his father. The pair chase him through numerous locales throughout Bayou County and unearth a far deeper conspiracy than they initially thought.
The House of the Dead EX (2009)The House of the Dead EX is a more casual spin-off to the main games and adds a more humorous twist to the series. Players play either as Zobio or Zobiko, a pair of young zombies in love, who seek to escape from captivity. As opposed to the general gameplay of the series, EX's levels are made up of a series of minigames. Sections are split up into various paths, some of which use the lightgun, such as shooting apples, and others which use a foot pedal on the machine, such as stomping on spiders. The goal of each level is to fulfil a quota within the time limit, indicated by long hands reaching towards each other. It runs on the Lindbergh arcade system and is also the first game in the series to use a pedal. The game was slated for release in December 2008, but was released later in 2009.
The Typing of the Dead: Overkill (2013)
Released for PC via Steam, The Typing of the Dead: Overkill is the second sequel of the original spin-off game, The Typing of the Dead. Unlike previous installments, there is no arcade version of this game, though it does come with a mouse-based version of The House of the Dead: Overkill Extended Cut. Like its predecessors, the game replaces the usual rail-shooter gameplay with typing gameplay elements, this time with a modified The House of the Dead: Overkill engine.
Darts of the Dead (2017)Darts of the Dead is a unreleased darts game themed around House of the Dead on the DARTSLIVE2 platform. The title was trademarked by SEGA in September 2017, and showcased on the DARTSLIVEvideo YouTube channel in October, but since then nothing has come of the title's release to the general public.
Compilations
The House of the Dead 2 & 3 Return (2008)The House of the Dead 2 & 3 Return is a re-release of The House of the Dead 2 and III for the Wii. It is largely the same as the originals, except for minor changes. A new melee attack can be used to defend oneself and the game is Wii Zapper compatible.
Film adaptations
In 2003, the first film, directed by Uwe Boll and produced by Brightlight Pictures, was released. Given a limited theatrical release with the intent of becoming a cult film, it served as a loose prequel to the game, but received very poor reviews and little box office return.
In 2004, a sequel to the first film was greenlit but direct-to-DVD. The previous director was unable to direct the sequel, due to commitments to his other films, and Michael Hurst was chosen to take his place. The sequel is closer to its source, featuring AMS agents going to a school to stop a zombie outbreak from spreading. The story of the film was based on the 1996 original video game. However, the film was also poorly received.
Another sequel was announced. Mindfire Entertainment co-founder Mark Altman has stated in discussions that "It's a completely different approach to the material than the first two films." It was also stated that it may not be called House of the Dead 3 as Sega wasn't releasing the latest installment on home consoles." Eventually, Mindfire Entertainment released Dead and Deader starring Dean Cain and the House of the Dead name was not attached.
In Walt Disney Animation Studios' 52nd animated feature-length film, Wreck-It Ralph, hatchet-wielding zombie based on Cyril appears alongside numerous other video game villains in the villains' support group Bad-Anon. The zombie tries to reassure Wreck-It Ralph that labels won't make him happy and that good or bad, he must love himself for who he is.
In December 2016, Variety reported that Stories International and Circle of Confusion will produce a new House of the Dead film.
Legacy
Appearances in other games
The House of the Dead appears as one of the mini-games in the EyeToy game, Sega Superstars, in which players move their body to attack zombies.
The series is represented in Sega Superstars Tennis, where the mansion is a playable court and there is a minigame in which players must aim their shots to fend off a horde of oncoming zombies. In this game, the series is referred to as Curien Mansion instead of The House of the Dead because the series is banned in Germany.
Again represented as Curien Mansion, the series is represented in Sonic & Sega All-Stars Racing with three race tracks, and the riders duo Zobio and Zobiko (only Zobio on the Nintendo DS) from The House of the Dead: EX. During their All-Star move, Zobio drinks a magic potion which makes him grow in size and he then slams his opponents with his strength while Zobiko rides him.
A racetrack appears in Sonic & All-Stars Racing Transformed, with zombies and various monsters making appearances. Zobio and Zobiko make cameo appearances in the stage as well. Once again, the series is called Curien Mansion.
Zombie Revenges Rikiya Busujima appears in Project X Zone with references made to The House of the Dead.
Dr. Curien, Agent G, Thomas Rogan, and Ebitan appeared as playable characters in the mobile RPG spinoff title SEGA Heroes.
SEGA Heroes is the only crossover/spinoff featuring The House of the Dead that does not refer to it as Curien Mansion.
Cultural impact
According to Kim Newman in the book Nightmare Movies (2011), the "zombie revival began in the Far East" during the late 1990s, largely inspired by the Japanese zombie games Resident Evil and The House of the Dead. The success of these two 1996 zombie games inspired a wave of Asian zombie films, such as Bio Zombie (1998) and Versus (2000), for example. The zombie revival which began in the Far East eventually went global following the worldwide success of Japanese zombie games such as Resident Evil and The House of the Dead. Their success led to a wave of Western zombie films during the 2000s, such as 28 Days Later (2002) and Shaun of the Dead (2004), for example. In 2013, George Romero said it was the video games Resident Evil and House of the Dead "more than anything else" that popularised his zombie concept in mainstream popular culture.The House of the Dead has also been credited with introducing a new type of zombie distinct from Romero's classic slow zombie: the fast running zombie. After first appearing in The House of the Dead, they became popular in zombie films and video games during the 2000s, including the Resident Evil games and films, The House of the Dead film adaptation, and the films 28 Days Later (2002) and Dawn of the Dead'' (2004).
References
External links
Sega's official Japanese website
Light gun games
Video games about genetic engineering
Rail shooters
Sega Games franchises
Video games adapted into films
Video game franchises
Video games about zombies
Video game franchises introduced in 1996
Eco-terrorism in fiction
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black%20Hand%20%28character%29
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Black Hand (character)
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Black Hand (William Derek Hand) is a supervillain and a recurring foe to Green Lantern.
Publication history
Black Hand first appeared in Green Lantern vol. 2 #29 (June 1964) and was created by John Broome and Gil Kane. The character's name is a tribute to DC writer and Batman co-creator Bill Finger, on whom the character was based.
Fictional character biography
William Hand is born an inventive genius; developing a penchant for speaking in extremely old clichés later in life. William's family, the Hands, are renowned in Coastville (a suburb of Coast City, California); however, he grows to dislike them early in life. He feels the best way to distance himself from them, especially his three brothers (David, Peter and Joe), is to start a life of crime. After extensive study, he becomes an expert criminal and evades police at every turn. Eventually, his criminal behavior escalates into becoming a costumed supervillain, dubbing himself "Black Hand" (an inside joke he conceives that refers to his status as the "black sheep" of the Hand family).
In preparation for an inevitable battle with the Coast City-based Green Lantern (Hal Jordan), Hand makes his most noteworthy invention. The device he creates is able to absorb the residue of a Green Lantern power ring's energy from any object that it touches. Once fueled by this energy, his device can then be used much the same way as a Green Lantern ring. In one crime spree, he uses his device to persuade the general public the items he has stolen have, in fact, never been touched. Hand also tends to break the fourth wall, speaking directly to the reader about his plans to confront Hal Jordan.
For a while, he retires from a life of crime and attempts to run an adult theatre. This new lease on life is ended abruptly by Guy Gardner and his girlfriend Ice. Black Hand develops a phobia of super-heroes. While trying to reorganize his life into more peaceful pursuits, he encounters Justice League members at the World Trade Center restaurant and has a mental breakdown.
Shortly before the events of Green Lantern: Rebirth, Black Hand's device locates a spare power ring that Green Arrow holds in case of emergency. Hand tries to claim the ring for himself, but is stopped by Green Arrow and Hal Jordan (who is serving as the current Spectre). As Hand attempts to wield the power ring, the emerald archer pins the villain's hand to the wall with an arrow and the Spectre turns his hand to coal, remarking that now "he can live up to his name". Missing his right hand and insane from the trauma, Hand flees. After hearing of Hal Jordan's resurrection, he decides to live in the rebuilt Coast City to stay close to his foe. While on board an airplane, he is targeted and abducted by the Kroloteans, a race of mysterious German-speaking aliens that are akin to the gremlins of myth. They perform experiments that enhance his powers, and abandon him in a public park.
He is seen in the Infinite Crisis mini-series as a member of Alexander Luthor, Jr.'s Secret Society of Super Villains and one of several heroes and villains observed by Kal-L and Superboy-Prime.
Infinite Crisis origin
Black Hand origin was rewritten in the Secret Origin storyline of Green Lantern, and further enhanced in the Blackest Night storyline.
In his updated origin, William Hand's parents run a coroner's office and funeral home, the logo of which is the same symbol William eventually adopts at the beginning of his criminal career. While still a young boy, Hand is shown as having a severe preoccupation with death and the dead that includes implied necrophilic tendencies. No particular trauma or event seems to have inspired this; even as a toddler, William is deeply fascinated by death and dead people, calling them "pretty". It is implied that his first kiss was with a corpse. At first William tries to control his urges by engaging in taxidermy, but his hobby becomes a source of concern after he kills the family dog in pursuit of his favored pastime. From this point forward William is sent to various psychologists for the remainder of his life with the Hand family. William simply shrugs off every attempt to "cure" him, learning how to hide the most prurient manifestations of his necrophilia and accept the role of the "black sheep".
As part of his newly written background, his energy-absorbing weapon is now portrayed as being built by Atrocitus, a fervent enemy of the Guardians of the Universe. Atrocitus comes to Earth looking for the being who will coordinate the events that come to be known as the Blackest Night; that being is revealed to be William Hand. Atrocitus locates and attacks Hand, believing the black power literally lies within his body. Atrocitus is stopped by Green Lanterns Hal Jordan and Sinestro, while Hand (encouraged by a strange voice) pockets the weapon and flees the scene. He is later seen breaking into a hospital morgue, trying to steal one of the corpses there. When he is confronted by a security guard, he uses the weapon to kill him, after which saying to himself that the dead was 'good'.
The mysterious voice that tells Hand to steal Atrocitus' weapon for himself traps him under its thrall, influencing him into resenting the Green Lanterns. He believes that as they are beacons of light, they upset the perfect balance of darkness and death. Trying to extinguish the light of willpower but unwilling to fight Green Lantern as an in 'a suit and a tie', Hand sews himself a costume using a family cadaver pouch and begins calling himself "Black Hand". Jordan apparently never connects William and his energy-absorbing weapon to his earlier fight with Atrocitus. Never revealing his weapon's true origin, Black Hand continues to fight him over the years, retreating to a desecrated grave after each failure.
Blackest Night
While being transported to prison, Black Hand experienced a sudden power surge that killed his guards and began having visions of the dead planet Ryut and the Black Power Battery.
After the visions he roams the desert, hearing "Death" calling to him. It instructs him to reclaim all the souls it has lost in the DC Universe, including Superman and Hal Jordan. Black Hand returns to his family's house, kills his two brothers, his mother, his father, and then finally commits suicide. While these events unfold, the Guardian Scar arrives at the Hand house. She pronounces that the self-sacrifice "pleases him" and regurgitates the first Black power ring, which reanimated Black Hand. She reveals that Hand is the physical embodiment of death, in the same manner that Ion is for willpower, Parallax is for fear, and the Predator is for love. Hand then announces that he will use his new power to finally extinguish the light.
Black Hand later spies on Hal Jordan and the Flash as they pay their respects at the unmarked grave of Batman. After the two heroes depart, Black Hand digs up Batman's corpse and, speaking his own oath, begins the process of recruiting the deceased hero. While holding Bruce Wayne's skull, Black Hand tells the mysterious force behind the Black Lanterns (residing in Sector 666) that no one escapes death. He is later seen after Black Lanterns Elongated Man and Sue Dibny kill Carter Hall and Kendra Saunders. Hand enters the room and proclaims that Hawkman and Hawkgirl will not escape death this time. Two black rings fly out of Batman's skull and Hand commands the two fallen heroes, by name, to rise. Black Hand is also present when the Spectre is taken over by a black ring, gloating to the assembled magic users (such as Blue Devil and Zatanna) that their powers are useless against his "lord's" might.
When the Black Lantern's power levels finally reach one hundred percent, the Black Power Battery teleports itself to the outskirts of Coast City, right on top of the Hand Mortuary. Black Hand watches in delight as Nekron finally rises, and more black rings recruit the bodies of the people who perished when Coast City was destroyed.
When Barry Allen attempts to attack Nekron, Black Hand steps in, using Batman's skull as an "emotional tether" to weaken the heroes, inspiring such an intense emotional reaction that Nekron is able to release a new wave of black rings to 'recruit' the resurrected, such as Superman, Wonder Woman and Green Arrow; Jordan and Allen only just escape the same fate when Allen takes them both two seconds into the future to disrupt the rings' connection to them The Black Lantern Corps are ultimately defeated when the White Entity is used to convert several Black Lanterns into White Lanterns before bringing Black Hand back to life when a white ring attaches to him, reviving him and forcing him to regurgitate several white rings, freeing the Anti-Monitor and destroying Nekron's physical form due to Hand serving as Nekron's tether to this plane of existence. He is later seen held in captivity by the Indigo Tribe, chained to the tribe's trademark power staff.
From Blackest Night #2, a back-up feature entitled "The Book of the Black: The Burned-In Thoughts of William Hand" is shown, chronicling Black Hand's childhood memories, and his own personal opinions regarding each of the seven colors of the Emotional spectrum. In the end, his thoughts of the Indigo Tribe turn out to be a scream after his capture, hoping to be released from the Tribe's captivity; but much of the text is in the Tribe's language, thereby remaining indecipherable, except for a few names and four translated phrases.
Brightest Day
Black Hand is later revealed to be in an unknown location on Earth somewhat trapped inside of Proselyte, the compassion entity, as the members of the Indigo Tribe gather around them.
When Indigo-1 and Black Hand confront Hal Jordan, Barry Allen, Sinestro, Saint Walker and Larfleeze, Black Hand explains that the ring has 'cured' him of William Hand's sickness. This prompts the others to realize that, with their rings, the Indigo Tribe cannot feel any emotion besides compassion. Hal implies that given Hand's role in the Blackest Night, other Indigo Tribe members may have committed evil deeds in the past. Although the Indigo Tribe offer to take the remaining emotional entities into protective custody, Hal rejects the offer, concluding that he cannot trust them in the search for the entities with this new information. Then the being responsible for abducting the emotional entities appears with Parallax, proclaiming that any who feel emotion cannot be trusted.
The New 52
Black Hand confronted the currently-imprisoned Hal Jordan on the Indigo Tribe homeworld, the Tribe having abducted Hal and Sinestro (who is now a Green Lantern once again) with the intention of converting Sinestro into one of the tribe. With his ring depowered, Hal tricked Black Hand into manifesting the green energy of willpower and using him as a battery to recharge Hal's ring; however, the charge was still limited compared to what the ring would have been capable of if recharged normally. Black Hand is freed when guardian Natromo destroys the Indigo Central Power Battery. When the battery is restored, Black Hand's indigo ring tries to reach him, but Black Hand kills himself rather than return to the Indigo Tribe. A Black Power Ring later emerges from his corpse, reviving him as a Black Lantern. Following his reanimation, he returns to Earth and murders everyone in a Chinese food restaurant and then raises his family from the dead to "have dinner" with him. He lays out his plan to kill and reanimate as many people as possible, reanimating his victims as undead murderers. Meanwhile, Sinestro takes Hal Jordan to the Book of the Black to reveal the plan of the Guardians of the Universe to replace the Green Lanterns Corps; as he opens the Book, Sinestro and Hal Jordan are sucked into it and drawn to Black Hand. Although Hal and Sinestro are able to destroy Black Hand's makeshift army of reanimated corpses by detonating Sinestro's old yellow power battery, they are unaware that Black Hand has witnessed a new prophecy in the Book of the Black: Hal Jordan will become the greatest Black Lantern. After trying to reanimate Hal's father, Black Hand is on the verge of being defeated by both Hal Jordan and Sinestro. The Guardians intervene, charging him up - which apparently grants him enough power to kill both his adversaries - before teleporting him in the Chamber of Shadows for unknown purposes "until he is needed".
When Black Hand was imprisoned in the Chamber of Shadows, he reanimated the elder Oan (who was killed by the Guardians) for information about where the Guardians have put him in, but is only told that the First Lantern is a danger for the universe. Later, Green Lanterns Simon Baz and B'dg are sucked into the Book of Black and drawn to Black Hand. When they began battling Black Hand, he sends Simon to the Dead Zone where Hal and Sinestro are trapped. Green Lantern B'dg and the elder Oans subdue him to use his black ring to open a door to the Dead Zone to rescue Simon, but Sinestro unintentionally went with him, while Black Hand has vanished into the Dead Zone. Hal soon makes the ultimate sacrifice by killing himself to harness the power of the black ring, escape the Dead Zone, and stop the First Lantern Volthoom. When the power ring turns Hal into a Black Lantern, Black Hand's body disintegrates into dust.
Some time later, a black ring was able to revive Black Hand back on Earth once again, albeit in a slightly vulnerable state. Yet with the heroes of the world missing or dead, Black Hand wandered through the city as it is engulfed in riots, raising up dead people as zombies. Blaming Hal Jordan for all that happened to him, he finally makes his vendetta against the Green Lantern a lot more personal as he goes to the place where Hal's father, Martin Jordan, is buried and raises him and all the corpses in the cemetery. Black Hand removes one of his own hands and takes one of Martin's hand in its place, hoping to kill Hal Jordan with his father's own hand.
Following the Forever Evil storyline, Black Hand raises a dead circus and raises the dead crowds to watch the stunt performers die. Hal Jordan interferes, but is not here to fight him and asks to ally themselves against the New Gods of New Genesis. Hal Jordan explains that New Genesis has stolen the entire Power rings for a weapon as the Life Equation for their pursuit. Black Hand agrees to aid him and sends the dead people to return to their graves. In the battle, Black Hand unleashes the spirits of the fallen Green Lanterns to the ensuing battle against the New Genesis soldiers that occurs near the Source Wall. Black Hand stops the battle as the New Genesis soldiers surrounded them. He smirks to see the Source Wall was a mass grave. Black Hand reanimates the grave of the Source Wall to attack the New Genesis soldiers. Black Hand then enters the Boom Tube to invade New Genesis' homeworld. Suddenly, Black Hand's powers were being effected with the horde of the Source Wall that are being subsequently resurrected by the leader of New Genesis, Highfather, and his misuse of the Life Equation and his arms were being turned to stone. He blames Hal for his plight and fled to deep space via the Boom Tube.
In the aftermath, Black Hand was unable to raise the dead due to effects of the Source Wall. Black Hand arrives on an alien planet, turning everything he touched to stone. Black Hand becomes lonely when Hal arrives to confront him but Black Hand still blaming Hal for his plight, attacks the rogue Green Lantern, but using his power Gauntlet, Hal manages to defeat him as Black Hand's stone touch is ineffective against it. Hal returns to the Source Wall with Black Hand and asks Relic, who had been studying the Source Wall, to find a way to undo Black Hand's power effects from the Source Wall. Relic reveals that there is something outward of the Source Wall that it can consume of any stone material to return to its origin. When Black Hand is awake and attacks them, but he is getting hit back with a huge grappling hook sending him to the Source Wall by Hal's colleagues on the spaceship. Black Hand is not through, but the Source Wall dragged him to it and he tried to reach out as the Source Wall consumes Black Hand.
Rebirth
Black Hand was eventually released from the Source Wall when the latter was broken as was seen back on Earth where he built the Dark Church of the Black Hand, a cult that worships Death. They began kidnapping children in Opal City which eventually drew the attention of the Flash. Barry would track the cult just in time to prevent them from summoning Nekron by sacrificing one of the missing kids. He then easily defeated and delivered Black Hand to Iron Heights.
Powers and abilities
Energy device
Black Hand possesses a device that can manipulate the energy of Green Lantern power rings. It can obtain this energy by directly draining it from a ring or through the residue a power ring gives off. Like power rings, however, the device needs to replenish its energy on a regular basis to operate. Hand usually recharges his device during battles with Green Lanterns and has been shown to use it to help him locate nearby power rings. The device was recently revealed as being Atrocitus' creation, though it was previously assumed that he invented it himself. In Secret Origin, this device was quoted as being a cosmic divining rod, designed by Atrocitus to locate William Hand and defend himself against Green Lantern interference.
Black power ring
After his suicide, Black Hand is reanimated by Scar when she releases the first Black power ring, making him the first Black Lantern. Reanimated by the ring, the head injury he inflicts upon himself during his suicide is erased, restoring his body to a working state. When the first Black power rings choose wearers, they present themselves to the deceased without a charge. The rings (which constantly ask for "flesh") are recharged by killing living beings and removing their hearts; each heart restores .01 percent power to every ring in the Corps. Black Lanterns are also able to read the emotions of the living as a colored aura that correlates to the emotional spectrum (red for rage, violet for love, etc.).
Indigo power ring
After he had been restored to life, Black Hand is converted to the Indigo Tribe whose power ring allows Black Hand to perceive compassion in others and to force compassion onto those who feel none. Indigo light has the ability to heal individuals with great empathy and to expose people to pain that they have inflicted on other people. Indigo Power Rings can teleport their users and others over intergalactic distances. This ability utilizes a great deal of power from an indigo power ring, and Indigo Tribe members try to use it sparingly. Eventually he loses this ability and starts wearing a black ring again.
Other versions
Flashpoint
In the alternate timeline of the Flashpoint storyline, William Hand is killed by Atrocitus to unleash Nekron in the process.
In other media
Video games
Black Hand appears in DC Universe Online, voiced by Gray Haddock.
Black Hand appears as a playable character in Lego Batman 3: Beyond Gotham, voiced by Liam O'Brien.
References
External links
Black Hand at the DC Database
Black Hand gallery at Comic-Vine
DC Comics male supervillains
Fictional engineers
Fictional amputees
Fictional suicides
Comics characters introduced in 1964
Fictional mass murderers
DC Comics undead characters
Characters created by Gil Kane
Characters created by John Broome
Fictional characters who break the fourth wall
Fictional personifications of death
Fictional characters with death or rebirth abilities
Fictional characters with absorption or parasitic abilities
Undead supervillains
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4820101
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabinessence
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Cabinessence
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"Cabinessence" (also typeset as "Cabin Essence") is a song by the American rock band the Beach Boys from their 1969 album 20/20 and their unfinished Smile project. Written by Brian Wilson and Van Dyke Parks, Wilson described the song as a "rock and roll waltz" about railroads, while Parks offered that the pair were attempting to write a song that would end on "a freeze frame of the Union Pacific Railroad". The instrumentation includes banjo, cello, dobro, bouzouki, fuzz-tone bass, trumpet, accordion, and percussion that was arranged to sound like the pounding of rail spikes.
During the initial recording for the song, in late 1966, Parks was called in to the studio to settle a dispute from Mike Love over the lyrics, which Love felt may have contained references to drug culture, something he did not wish to be associated with. Although Parks refused to explain the song to Love, he sang the lines despite his reservations. Parks subsequently disassociated himself from the project, leaving "Cabinessence" unfinished until November 1968, when Wilson's bandmates overdubbed additional vocals onto the recording. It was then included as the closing track on 20/20. Wilson later remade "Cabinessence" as a solo artist for his 2004 album Brian Wilson Presents Smile.
"Cabinessence" remains one of the central pieces of the Smile mythos. In 2011, Mojo issued "Cabinessence" as a single, backed with "Wonderful", to promote the forthcoming release of The Smile Sessions. In 2012, the magazine ranked it the 11th-greatest Beach Boys song, deeming it "Smile in microcosm" and a "misunderstood masterpiece". Biographer Jon Stebbins said that its "demonic chanting" exemplified "some of the most haunting, manic, evil-sounding music the Beach Boys ever made".
Background
"Cabinessence" (originally conceived as "Cabin Essence") was written by Brian Wilson and guest lyricist Van Dyke Parks for the Beach Boys' (never-finished) album Smile. Parks told biographer Steven Gaines that he and Wilson had been "trying to write a song that would end on a freeze frame of the Union Pacific Railroad—the guys come together and have their picture taken." In 1990, Wilson wrote, "All my life I've been fascinated by waltzes. By this album I rolled around to doin' what I call a rock and roll waltz with 'Cabin Essence.'"
In April 1969, former band associate Michael Vosse penned an article for Fusion magazine in which he discussed the Smile album. In the article, he mentioned that "Cabinessence" evolved from two different songs called "Who Ran the Iron Horse" and "Home on the Range". According to Vosse, "Home on the Range" "was about this Chinese cat working on the railroad; it had the 'crow' line in it. And another song, 'Bicycle Rider,' was to be integrated with it." On "Who Ran the Iron Horse", "[Brian] had a very definite visual image in mind of a train in motion, and suddenly he stopped in the middle of the song with the 'Grand Coolie' refrain." Vosse also said that Dennis Wilson was originally going to sing "Cabinessence" alone, "and sound like a funky cat up in the mountains somewhere singing to a chick by a fireplace; very simple—and that's all there was to it."
Vosse quoted Wilson's explanation of the song, "Uhm ... This song's about the railroads ... and I wondered what the perspective was of the guy who drove the spike ... those Chinese labormen working on the railroad ... like they'd be hitting the thing ... but looking off, too, and kind of noticing a crow flying overhead ... the Oriental mind going on a different track."
Lyrics
Content
"Cabinessence" is about the arrival of railroads. Journalist Peter Doggett described the song as "trying (among other things) to evoke the essence of life in the cabins for the American pioneers." Clarifying the song's historical references, Parks said:
Dennis Wilson sang a vocal line for the song's second chorus. He later stated, "I got off so much on doing that. It's mixed way down in the track, and it’s syncopated all the way through. Right there is my biggest turn-on." The passage was: "Truck-driving man, do what you can. / High-tail your load off the road, out of night-life. / It's a gas, man. I don’t believe I gotta grieve. / In and out of luck with a buck and a booth. / Catching on to the truth, in the vast past, the last gasp. / In the land, in the dust, trust that you must catch as catch can."
The end of the song features the couplet "Over and over the crow cries uncover the cornfield / Over and over the thresher and hovers the wheatfield". In a 1995 interview, Parks commented, "I have no idea what those words mean. I was perhaps thinking of Van Gogh's wheat field or an idealized agrarian environment. Maybe I meant nothing, but I was trying to follow Brian Wilson's vision at that time." Journalist Domenic Priore felt that the song "sums up the Western portions of Smile by crossing continents in music".
Artwork
Artist Frank Holmes, who designed the Smile cover artwork, created an illustration that was inspired by the song's lyrics: "Lost and found you still remain there". Along with several other drawings, it was planned to be included within a booklet packaged with the Smile LP. Holmes shared a summary of his design choices in Priore's 2005 book Smile: The Story of Brian Wilson's Lost Masterpiece:
Unused lyrics
Parks wrote additional lyrics that were not used in the song. They were:
Composition
"Cabinessence" has an A/B/A/B/C formal structure. The track begins with a 40-second section called "Home on the Range", with the accompaniment involving piano, banjo, bass, flute, harmonica, and backing vocals singing an ascending "doing" melody. Musician Mark Johnson referred to the banjo as "traditionally the Great American folk instrument" and likened its use in the song to "part of the soundtrack to a lost Twilight Zone episode".
The next section, "Who Ran the Iron Horse?", contains a more rapturous combination of drums, fuzz bass, cello, and backing vocals. Biographer Jon Stebbins said that the "demonic chanting" exemplified "some of the most haunting, manic, evil-sounding music the Beach Boys ever made". Percussion was arranged to evoke the sound of workers assembling train tracks. PopMatters contributor Thomas Britt noted that the song "contains silences that separate the separate movements of the song, allowing the listener to temporarily reset expectations for the next section."
"Home on the Range" and "Who Ran the Iron Horse?" repeat once and are then followed by "Grand Coolee Dam", which involves the chant "over and over the crow cries uncover the cornfield / over and over the thresher and hovers the wheatfield". This section incorporates a stringed instrument played like a sarod, an instrument associated with Hindustani music. According to journalist Nick Kent, the song "juxtaposed both highly-advanced Western and Eastern musical references" with an "oriental presence".
Speaking about the song, Al Jardine remembered "a lot of challenging vocal exercises and movements in that one. But we enjoyed those challenges." On page 203 of Priore's 1995 book Look! Listen! Vibrate! Smile!, the Wondermints' Darian Sahanaja scrawled a cartoon bubble phrase above a photo of Carl Wilson that joked of the song, "‘So! You expect us to play half-note triplets in 3/4 time and still keep up with your harmonies ON STAGE … DO YA?!?!?!’"
Recording
Smile sessions
Wilson produced "Cabinessence" in the same modular fashion as "Good Vibrations". Instrumental tracking for the "Home on the Range" section was recorded on October 3, 1966 at Gold Star Studios with engineer Larry Levine. A vocal and instrumental session for "Home On the Range" was taped on October 11 at Western Studio. Carl also overdubbed guitar on "Home on the Range" at this session. The next day, Brian produced the "Grand Coulee Dam" section at Columbia studio. In 1990, Wilson wrote, "The night I cut the instrumental part of ['Cabinessence'] no one could believe that a waltz could rock that hard. I had the 6-string bass player play electric fuzz tones. This got it goin' good. I was sure that I had recorded the most rockin' waltz ever recorded."
On December 6, further vocal overdubs were tracked at Columbia for "Cabinessence", a session that included the recording of Mike Love's singing on "The Grand Coulee Dam". Love did not understand the lyrics "over and over the crow cries uncover the cornfield" and thought that the song may have contained references to drug culture, something that he did not wish to be associated with. He took to characterizing Parks' lyrics as "acid alliteration".
To settle this dispute, Brian telephoned Parks and asked him to come to the studio. Prior to this meeting, the only Beach Boy besides Brian that Parks had interacted with was Dennis, who approved the lyrics, and Parks expected that the rest of the band would similarly approve. Upon arrival to the studio, Parks refused to explain the song to Love and responded by simply stating he did not know the meaning of the lyric. When Parks was interviewed for the 1976 television special The Beach Boys: It's OK!, he characterized the song as part of an "American Gothic"-style piece and remembered, "I said [to Mike], 'I don't know what these lyrics are about. They aren't important, throw them away.'"
According to biographer Peter Ames Carlin, Parks had been unwilling to be drawn into an argument over the quality of his work. Love reflected that Parks did not appear insulted by his questioning, but speculated that Parks may have feigned ignorance of the song's meaning "just because I was there in his face." In another interview from 2004, Parks said that he had been "physically afraid" of Love, "because Brian had confided to me what Mike had done to him", but did not elaborate further. In a 2013 interview, Parks surmised, "I don't think the crows created a problem at all. I think the music created the problem for Mike, and it was perfectly understandable that he was terribly jealous of me, as it became evident that he wanted my job [as Brian's lyricist]. And I did not want a job that somebody else wanted."
Love sang the line despite his reservations. On December 27, 1966, further vocals were recorded at Western for the "Who Ran the Iron Horse" section. By April 1967, Parks had withdrawn from the project, which was shelved soon thereafter. He later cited the "Cabinessence" dispute as the moment when "the whole house of cards began tumbling down".
20/20 sessions
On November 20, 1968, "Cabinessence" was given additional vocal overdubs by Carl and Dennis Wilson at Capitol Studios for the group's forthcoming album 20/20. According to Carlin, Brian was opposed to the inclusion of the track and did not participate on the track with the rest of the band. Engineer Stephen Desper commented that "Cabinessence" was "finished, more or less, with Brian's guidance through Carl." Mixing for the song was completed on November 22.
20/20 was issued by Capitol in February 1969 with "Cabinessence" as the album's closing track. Biographer David Leaf wrote that there were reportedly "twenty-five different mixes and combinations" of "Cabinessence" that had been pressed on acetate discs before the group settled on the version they released. In his Fusion article, Vosse claimed that the 20/20 recording was "new, because before his ear operation about a year ago, Brian could not hear in stereo." However, Wilson's surgery had actually failed to restore his hearing, and the only new contents on the 20/20 track were the vocal overdubs from Carl and Dennis.
Critical reception
According to ethnomusicologist David Toop, when 20/20 was released, the inclusion of "Cabinessence" was "the biggest thrill" for "true fans" of Beach Boys, even though "it didn't make a lot of sense" as the album's closing track. In his contemporary review of the 20/20 album, Rolling Stones Arthur Schmidt wrote that the song was "one of the finest things Brian has ever done ... The totally orchestrated cacophony was an innovation in rock when they used it in Smiley Smile, and is still done here better than anywhere else. Piano imitates ukulele, and the solo vocal is gentle, but brilliant." An uncredited writer from Hit Parader opined that "Cabinessence" was a "highly imaginative mini-rock symphony ... with complex orchestral arrangements built around complex vocal arrangements. ... an incredible dynamic piece of music without the cleverness of 'Good Vibrations'."
Retrospectively, academic John Covach wrote that although the song "seems lyrically disorganized and more episodic than even the alternate version of 'Heroes and Villains' ... it does have that aura of manic brilliance that characterized Brian's work before the collapse of Smile". Taylor Parkes of The Quietus wrote that although Wilson and Parks' original concept for the song "proved somewhat overambitious ... instead we got the final section of 'Cabin Essence', one of the most beautiful and deeply evocative pieces of music we're ever likely to hear; the next best thing." In Johnson's belief, the song could be viewed as "an exploration a la John Steinbeck of what American music's function really is. To simply fill a room, while we go about our days and nights."
In 2012, Mojo ranked it number 11 in the magazine's list of the greatest Beach Boys songs. Its entry stated, "Cabinessence is Smile in microcosm. Vast in scope, unprecedented in its ambition and as much an unsolved sonic riddle as the album it had been written for, this was the misunderstood masterpiece that caused Mike Love to crack and the project to flounder."
Legacy
In the early 1990s, producer Terry Melcher invited Parks to play synthesizer on the group's album Summer in Paradise (1992). When Parks arrived at Melcher's home in Monterey, he found Love meditating in the living room. As Parks recalled in a 1995 interview, "For the first time in 30 years, he was able to ask me directly, once again, 'What do those lyrics -- Over and over the crow flies, uncover the cornfield -- mean?' And I was able to tell him, once again, 'I don't know.'" Afterward, Love joined Parks on his flight back to Los Angeles. "We had a nice chat and he insisted that he wanted to split the cost of the flight with me, so he gave me a card with his number on it. The next morning, I called to discover it was a disconnected number. And that was the last time I saw Mike Love."
In 2001, after joining Brian's supporting band, Darian Sahanaja lobbied for "Cabinessence" to be performed at the "All-Star Tribute to Brian Wilson" concert held at Radio City Music Hall, however, the song was not played due to its complexity. It was later included in Wilson's concert setlists, in medley with "Wonderful", and then for Brian Wilson Presents Smile (2004).
Writing his 2006 biography of Wilson, Peter Ames Carlin wrote that the "Cabinessence" lyric dispute between Love and Parks "has long become a central piece of the Smile legend, both because it marked a turning point in the album’s progress and because it resonates with so much psychological and cultural subtext." In a 2012 interview, Parks stated that, when people asked him for his thoughts on the release of The Smile Sessions, "I tell them with how happy I am to see the lads finally eat that crow over the cornfield."
Personnel
Per band archivist Craig Slowinski.
The Beach Boys
Al Jardine – vocals ("doing-doing", chorus, and tag)
Bruce Johnston – vocals (chorus and tag)
Mike Love – vocals (lead, chorus, and tag)
Brian Wilson – vocals ("doing-doing", chorus, and tag)
Carl Wilson – vocals ("doing-doing", lead, chorus, and tag), acoustic guitar
Dennis Wilson – vocals ("Truck Drivin' Man", chorus, and tag)
Guest
Van Dyke Parks – upright piano
Session musicians (later known as "the Wrecking Crew")
Jimmy Bond, Jr. – upright bass
James Burton – dobro
Jesse Ehrlich – cello
Armand Kaproff – cello
Carl Fortina – accordion
Jim Gordon – tambourine with a stick (chorus), "bell goodies" (tag)
Carol Kaye – banjo
Jay Migliori – flute
Oliver Mitchell – trumpet
Tommy Morgan – harmonica, bass harmonica (chorus)
Bill Pitman – Danelectro fuzz bass (chorus)
Lyle Ritz – upright bass
Tommy Tedesco – acoustic guitar, bouzouki (tag)
Notes
References
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
‘Smile’ – My First 25 Years : Cabin Essence, lost and found…
‘Smile’ – My First 25 Years : Cabinessence, uncovering the cornfield…
‘Smile’ – My First 25 Years : Canibessence, doobie doo or not doobie…
1969 songs
The Beach Boys songs
Brian Wilson songs
Songs written by Brian Wilson
Songs written by Van Dyke Parks
Song recordings produced by Brian Wilson
Capitol Records singles
Songs about trains
Songs about cannabis
Songs based on American history
2011 singles
Musical compositions completed by others
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death%20of%20Subhas%20Chandra%20Bose
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Death of Subhas Chandra Bose
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Indian nationalist leader Subhas Chandra Bose died on 18 August 1945 from third-degree burns sustained after the bomber in which he was being transported as a guest of Lieutenant General Tsunamasa Shidei of the Imperial Japanese Kwantung Army crashed upon take off from the airport in Taihoku, Japanese-occupied Formosa, now Taipei, Taiwan. The chief pilot, copilot, and General Shidei were instantly killed.
Bose, who had become soaked in gasoline before exiting the burning bomber, was transported to the Nanmon Military Hospital south of Taihoku, where his extensive upper-body burns were treated for six hours by the chief-surgeon Dr Taneyoshi Yoshimi, two other doctors Dr Truruta and Dr Ishii, and half a dozen technical staff and nurses. Bose went into a coma and died between 9 PM and 10 PM Taihoku time. Bose's chief-of-staff, Col. Habib ur Rahman, who had travelled with him, and who lay nearby with severe burns, recovered. Ten years later he testified at an inquiry commission on Bose's death, the burn marks on his arms conspicuously visible. General Shidei's descendants commemorate his death every year at the Renkōji Temple in Tokyo, where Bose's ashes are also deposited.
Many among Subhas Chandra Bose's supporters, especially in Bengal, refused at the time and have refused since to believe either the fact or the circumstances of his death. Conspiracy theories appeared within hours of his death and have persisted since then, keeping alive various martial myths about Bose.
Death
Last months with the Indian National Army
During the last week of April 1945, Subhas Chandra Bose along with his senior Indian National Army (INA) officers, several hundred enlisted INA men, and nearly a hundred women from the INA's Rani of Jhansi Regiment left Rangoon by road for Moulmein in Burma. Accompanied by Lieutenant General Saburo Isoda, the head of the Japanese-INA liaison organization Hikari Kikan, their Japanese military convoy was able to reach the right bank of the Sittang river, albeit slowly. (See map 1.) However, very few vehicles were able to cross the river because of American strafing runs. Bose and his party walked the remaining to Moulmein over the next week. Moulmein then was the terminus of the Death Railway, constructed earlier by British, Australian, and Dutch prisoners of war, linking Burma to Siam (now Thailand). At Moulmein, Bose's group was also joined by 500 men from the X-regiment, INA's first guerrilla regiment, who arrived from a different location in Lower Burma.
A year and a half earlier, 16,000 INA men and 100 women had entered Burma from Malaya. Now, less than one tenth that number left the country, arriving in Bangkok during the first week of May. The remaining nine tenths were either killed in action, died from malnutrition or injuries after the battles of Imphal and Kohima. Others were captured by the British, turned themselves in, or simply disappeared. Bose stayed in Bangkok for a month, where soon after his arrival he heard the news of Germany's surrender on May8. Bose spent the next two months between June and July 1945 in Singapore, and in both places attempted to raise funds for billeting his soldiers or rehabilitating them if they chose to return to civilian life, which most of the women did. In his nightly radio broadcasts, Bose spoke with increasing virulence against Gandhi, who had been released from jail in 1944, and was engaged in talks with British administrators, envoys and Muslim League leaders. Some senior INA officers began to feel frustrated or disillusioned with Bose and to prepare quietly for the arrival of the British and its consequences.
During the first two weeks of August 1945, events began to unfold rapidly. With the British threatening to invade Malaya and with daily American aerial bombings, Bose's presence in Singapore became riskier by the day. His chief of staff J. R. Bhonsle suggested that he prepare to leave Singapore. On 3August 1945, Bose received a cable from General Isoda advising him to urgently evacuate to Saigon in Japanese-controlled French Indochina (now Vietnam). On 10August, Bose learnt that the Soviet Union had entered the war and invaded Manchuria. At the same time he heard about the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Finally, on 16August, after being informed of the unconditional surrender of Japan, Bose decided to leave for Saigon along with a handful of his aides.
Last days and journeys
Reliable strands of historical narrative about Bose's last days are united up to this point. However, they separate briefly for the period between 16 August, when Bose received news of Japan's surrender in Singapore, and shortly after noon on 17 August, when Bose and his party arrived at Saigon airport from Saigon city to board a plane. (See map 2.)
In one version, Bose flew out from Singapore to Saigon, stopping briefly in Bangkok, on the 16th. Soon after arriving in Saigon, he visited Field Marshal Hisaichi Terauchi, head of the Japanese forces in Southeast Asia, and requested him to arrange a flight to the Soviet Union. Although until the day before, the Soviet Union had been a belligerent of Japan, it was also seen, at least by Bose, as increasingly anti-British, and, consequently, a possible base of his future operations against the British Raj. Terauchi, in turn, cabled Japan's Imperial General Headquarters (IGHQ) in Tokyo for permission, which was quickly denied. In the words of historian Joyce Chapman Lebra, the IGHQ felt that it "would be unfair of Bose to write off Japan and go over to Soviet Union after receiving so much help from Japan. Terauchi added in talking with Bose that it would be unreasonable for him to take a step which was opposed by the Japanese." Privately, however, Terauchi still felt sympathy for Bose—one that had been formed during their two-year-long association. He somehow managed to arrange room for Bose on a flight leaving Saigon on the morning of 17 August 1945 bound for Tokyo, but stopping en route in Dairen, Manchuria—which was still Japanese-occupied, but toward which the Soviet army was fast approaching—where Bose was to have disembarked and to have awaited his fate at the hand of the Soviets.
In another version, Bose left Singapore with his party on the 16th and stopped en route in Bangkok, surprising INA officer in-charge there, J. R. Bhonsle, who quickly made arrangements for Bose's overnight stay. Word of Bose's arrival, however, got out, and soon local members of the Indian Independence League (IIL), the INA, and the Thai Indian business community turned up at the hotel. According to historian Peter Ward Fay, Bose "sat up half the night holding court—and in the morning flew on to Saigon, this time accompanied by General Isoda ..." Arriving in Saigon, late in the morning, there was little time to visit Field Marshal Terauchi, who was in Dalat in the Central Highlands of French Indo-China, an hour away by plane. Consequently, Isoda himself, without consulting with higher ups, arranged room for Bose on a flight leaving around noon.
In the third sketchier version, Bose left Singapore on the 17th. According to historian Christopher Bayly and Tim Harper, "On 17 August he issued a final order of the day, dissolving the INA with the words, 'The roads to Delhi are many and Delhi still remains our goal.' He then flew out to China via French Indo-China. If all else failed he wanted to become a prisoner of the Soviets: 'They are the only ones who will resist the British. My fate is with them'."
Around noon on 17 August, the strands again reunite. At Saigon airport, a Mitsubishi Ki-21 heavy bomber, of the type code named Sally by the Allies, was waiting for Bose and his party. In addition to Bose, the INA group comprised Colonel Habibur Rahman, his secretary; S. A. Ayer, a member of his cabinet; Major Abid Hasan, his old associate who had made the hazardous submarine journey from Germany to Sumatra in 1943; and three others. To their dismay, they learned upon arrival that there was room for only one INA passenger. Bose complained, and the beleaguered General Isoda gave in and hurriedly arranged for a second seat. Bose chose Habibur Rahman to accompany him. It was understood that the others in the INA party would follow him on later flights. There was further delay at Saigon airport. According to historian Joyce Chapman Lebra, "a gift of treasure contributed by local Indians was presented to Bose as he was about to board the plane. The two heavy strong-boxes added overweight to the plane's full load." Sometime between noon and 2 PM, the twin-engine plane took off with 12 or 13 people aboard: a crew of three or four, a group of Japanese army and air force officers, including Lieutenant-General Tsunamasa Shidei, the Vice Chief of Staff of the Japanese Kwantung Army, which although fast retreating in Manchuria still held the Manchurian peninsula, and Bose and Rahman. Bose was sitting a little to the rear of the portside wing; the bomber, under normal circumstances, carried a crew of five.
That these flights were possible a few days after Japan's surrender was the result of a lack of clarity about what had occurred. Although Japan had unconditionally surrendered, when Emperor Hirohito had made his announcement over the radio, he had used formal Japanese, not entirely intelligible to ordinary people and, instead of using the word "surrender" (in Japanese), had mentioned only "abiding by the terms of the Potsdam Declaration." Consequently, many people, especially in Japanese-occupied territories, were unsure if anything had significantly changed, allowing a window of a few days for the Japanese air force to continue flying. Although the Japanese and Bose were tight lipped about the destination of the bomber, it was widely assumed by Bose's staff left behind in Saigon that the plane was bound for Dairen on the Manchurian peninsula, which, as stated above, was still under Japanese control. Bose had been talking for over a year about the importance of making contact with the communists, both Russian and Chinese. In 1944, he had asked a minister in his cabinet, Anand Mohan Sahay to travel to Tokyo for the purposes of making contact with the Soviet ambassador, Jacob Malik. However, after consulting the Japanese foreign minister Mamoru Shigemitsu, Sahay decided against it. In May 1945, Sahay had again written to Shigemitsu requesting him to contact Soviet authorities on behalf of Bose; again the reply had been in the negative. Bose had been continually querying General Isoda for over a year about the Japanese army's readiness in Manchuria. After the war, the Japanese confirmed to the British investigators and later Indian commissions of inquiry, that plane was indeed bound for Dairen, and that fellow passenger General Shidea of the Kwantung Army, was to have disembarked with Bose in Dairen and to have served as the main liaison and negotiator for Bose's transfer into Soviet controlled territory in Manchuria.
The plane had flown north. By the time it was near the northern coast of French Indo-China, darkness had begun to close in, and the pilot decided to make an unscheduled stop in Tourane (now Da Nang, Vietnam). The passengers stayed overnight at a hotel, and the crew, worried that the plane was overloaded, shed some 500 pounds of equipment and luggage, and also refueled the plane. Before dawn the next morning, the group flew out again, this time east to Taihoku, Formosa (now Taipei, Taiwan), which was a scheduled stop, arriving there around noon on 18 August 1945. During the two-hour stop in Taihoku, the plane was again refueled, while the passengers ate lunch. The chief pilot and the ground engineer, and Major Kono, seemed concerned about the portside engine, and, once all the passengers were on board, the engine was tested by repeatedly throttling up and down. The concerns allayed, the plane finally took off, in different accounts, as early as 2 PM, and as late as 2:30 PM, watched by ground engineers.
Death in plane crash
Just as the bomber was leaving the standard path taken by aircraft during take-off, the passengers inside heard a loud sound, similar to an engine backfiring. Airport mechanics saw something fall out of the plane. It was the portside engine, or a part of it, and the propeller. The plane swung wildly to the right and plummeted, crashing, breaking into two, and exploding into flames. Inside, the chief pilot, copilot and General Shidea were instantly killed. Rahman was stunned, passing out briefly, and Bose, although conscious and not fatally hurt, was soaked in gasoline. When Rahman came to, he and Bose attempted to leave by the rear door but found it blocked by the luggage. They then decided to run through the flames and exit from the front. The ground staff, now approaching the plane, saw two people staggering towards them, one of whom had become a human torch. The human torch turned out to be Bose, whose gasoline-soaked clothes had instantly ignited. Rahman and a few others managed to smother the flames, but also noticed that Bose's face and head appeared badly burned. According to Joyce Chapman Lebra, "A truck which served as ambulance rushed Bose and the other passengers to the Nanmon Military Hospital south of Taihoku." The airport personnel called Dr. Taneyoshi Yoshimi, the surgeon-in-charge at the hospital at around 3 PM. Bose was conscious and mostly coherent when they reached the hospital, and for some time thereafter. Bose was naked, except for a blanket wrapped around him, and Dr. Yoshimi immediately saw evidence of third-degree burns on many parts of the body, especially on his chest, doubting very much that he would live. Dr. Yoshimi promptly began to treat Bose and was assisted by Dr. Tsuruta. According to historian Leonard A. Gordon, who interviewed all the hospital personnel later: Soon, in spite of the treatment, Bose went into a coma. He died a few hours later, between 9 and 10 PM.
Bose's body was cremated in the main Taihoku crematorium two days later, 20 August 1945. On 23 August 1945, the Japanese news agency Domei announced the death of Bose and Shidea. On 7 September a Japanese officer, Lieutenant Tatsuo Hayashida, carried Bose's ashes to Tokyo, and the following morning they were handed to the president of the Tokyo Indian Independence League, Rama Murti. On 14 September a memorial service was held for Bose in Tokyo and a few days later the ashes were turned over to the priest of the Renkōji Temple of Nichiren Buddhism in Tokyo. There they have remained ever since.
Among the INA personnel, there was widespread disbelief, shock, and trauma. Most affected were the young Tamil Indians from Malaya and Singapore, men and women, who comprised the bulk of the civilians who had enlisted in the INA. The professional soldiers in the INA, most of whom were Punjabis, faced an uncertain future, with many fatalistically expecting reprisals from the British. In India the Indian National Congress's official line was succinctly expressed in a letter Mahatma Gandhi wrote to Rajkumari Amrit Kaur. Said Gandhi, "Subhas Bose has died well. He was undoubtedly a patriot, though misguided." Many congressmen had not forgiven Bose for quarreling with Gandhi and for collaborating with what they considered was Japanese fascism. The Indian soldiers in the British Indian army, some two and a half million of whom had fought during the Second World War, were conflicted about the INA. Some saw the INA as traitors and wanted them punished; others felt more sympathetic. The British Raj, though never seriously threatened by the INA, was to try 300 INA officers for treason in the INA trials, but was to eventually backtrack in the face of its own end.
Legends of Bose's survival
Immediate post-war legends
Subhas Chandra Bose's exploits had become legendary long before his physical death in August 1945. From the time he had escaped house arrest in Calcutta in 1940, rumours had been rife in India about whether or not he was alive, and if the latter, where he was and what he was doing. His appearance in faraway Germany in 1941 created a sense of mystery about his activities. With Congress leaders in jail in the wake of the Quit India Resolution in August 1942 and the Indian public starved for political news, Bose's radio broadcasts from Berlin charting radical plans for India's liberation during a time when the star of Germany was still rising and that of Britain was at its lowest, made him an object of adulation among many in India and southeast Asia. During his two years in Germany, according to historian Romain Hayes, "If Bose gradually obtained respect in Berlin, in Tokyo he earned fervent admiration and was seen very much as an 'Indian samurai'." Thus it was that when Bose appeared in Southeast Asia in July 1943, brought mysteriously on German and Japanese submarines, he was already a figure of mythical size and reach.
After Bose's death, Bose's other lieutenants, who were to have accompanied him to Manchuria, but were left behind in Saigon, never saw a body. There were no photographs taken of the injured or deceased Bose, neither was a death certificate issued. According to historian Leonard A. Gordon,
For these two reasons, when news of Bose's death was reported, many in the INA refused to believe it and were able to transmit their disbelief to a wider public. The source of the widespread skepticism in the INA might have been Bose's senior officer J. R. Bhonsle. When a Japanese delegation, which included General Isoda, visited Bhonsle on 19 August 1945 to break the news and offer condolences, he responded by telling Isoda that Bose had not died, rather his disappearance has been covered up. Even Mohandas Gandhi swiftly said that he was skeptical about the air crash, but changed his mind after meeting the Indian survivor Habibur Rahman. As in 1940, before long, in 1945, rumours were rife about what had happened to Bose, whether he was in Soviet-held Manchuria, a prisoner of the Soviet army, or whether he had gone into hiding with the cooperation of the Soviet army. Lakshmi Swaminathan, of the all-female Rani of Jhansi regiment of the INA, later Lakshmi Sahgal, said in spring 1946 that she thought Bose was in China. Many rumours spoke of Bose preparing for his final march on Delhi. This was the time when Bose began to be sighted by people, one sighter claiming "he had met Bose in a third-class compartment of the Bombay express on a Thursday."
Enduring legends
In the 1950s, stories appeared in which Bose had become a sadhu, or Hindu renunciant. The best-known and most intricate of the renunciant tales of Subhas Bose, and one which, according to historian Leonard A. Gordon, may "properly be called a myth," was told in the early 1960s. Some associates of Bose, from two decades before, had formed an organization, the "Subhasbadi Janata", to promote this story in which Bose was now the chief sadhu of an ashram (or hermitage) in Shaulmari (also Shoulmari) in North Bengal. The Janata brought out published material, including several newspapers and magazines. Of these, some were long lived and some short, but all, by their number, attempted to create the illusion of the story's newsworthiness. The chief sadhu himself vigorously denied being Bose. Several intimates of Bose, including some politicians, who met with the sadhu, supported the denials. Even so, the Subhasbadi Janata was able to create an elaborate chronology of Bose's post-war activities.
According to this chronology, after his return to India, Bose returned to the vocation of his youth: he became a Hindu renunciant. He attended unseen Gandhi's cremation in Delhi in early February 1948; walked across and around India several times; became a yogi at a Shiva temple in Bareilly in north central India from 1956 to 1959; became a practitioner of herbal medicine and effected several cures, including one of tuberculosis; and established the Shaulmari Ashram in 1959, taking the religious name Srimat Saradanandaji. Bose, moreover, was engaged in tapasya, or meditation, to free the world, his goals having been broadened, after his first goal—freeing India—was achieved. His attempt to do so, however, and to assume his true identity, was being thwarted jointly by political parties, newspapers, the Indian government, even foreign governments.
Others stories appeared, spun by the Janata and by others. Bose was still in the Soviet Union or the People's Republic of China; attended the Indian prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru's cremation in 1964, but, this time, neglecting to disallow a Janata-published newspaper to photograph him; and gave notice to the Janata of his return to Calcutta, for which several much publicized rallies were organized. Bose did not appear. The Janata eventually broke up, its reputation marred by successive non-appearances of its protagonist. The real sadhu of Shaulmari, who continued to deny he was Bose, died in 1977. It was also claimed that Nikita Khrushchev had reportedly told an interpreter during his New Delhi visit that Bose could be produced within 45 days if Nehru wished.
Still other stories or hoaxes—elucidated with conspiracies and accompanied with fake photographs—of the now-aging Bose being in the Soviet Union or China had traction well into the early 80s. Bose was seen in a photograph taken in Beijing, inexplicably parading with the Chinese Red Army. Bose was said to be in a Soviet Gulag. The Soviet leadership was said to be blackmailing Nehru, and later, Indira Gandhi, with the threat of releasing Bose. An Indian member of parliament, Samar Guha, released in 1979 what he claimed was a contemporaneous photograph of Bose. This turned out to have been doctored, comprising one-half Bose and one-half his elder brother Sarat Chandra Bose. Guha also charged Nehru with having had knowledge of Bose's incarceration in the Soviet Union even in the 1950s, a charge Guha recanted after he was sued.
For the remainder of the century and into the next, the renunciant legends continued to appear. Most prominently, a retired judge, who had been appointed by the Indian Government in 1999 to undertake an enquiry into Bose's death, brought public notice to another sannyasi or renunciant, "Gumnami Baba," also known by his religious name, "Bhagwanji," who was said to have lived in the town of Faizabad in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. According to historian Sugata Bose,
Earlier, in 1977, summing up the extant Bose legends, historian Joyce Chapman Lebra had written,
Perspectives on durability of legends
According to historians Christopher Bayly and Tim Harper:
Amid all this, Joyce Chapman Lebra, wrote in 2008:
Inquiries
Figgess Report 1946
Confronted with rumours about Bose, which had begun to spread within days of his death, the Supreme Allied Command, South-east Asia, under Mountbatten, tasked Colonel (later Sir) John Figgess, an intelligence officer, with investigating Bose's death. Figgess's report, submitted on 25 July 1946, however, was confidential, being work done in Indian Political Intelligence (IPI), a partially secret branch of the Government of India. Figgess was interviewed in the 1980s by Leonard A. Gordon and confirmed writing the report. In 1997, the British Government made most of the IPI files available for public viewing in the India Office Records of the British Library. However, the Figgess report was not among them. A photocopy of the Figess report was soon anonymously donated for public viewing to the British Library in the European manuscripts collection, as Eur. MSS. c 785. Good candidates for the donor, according to Leonard Gordon, are Figgess himself, who had died in 1997, or more likely another British intelligence officer in wartime India, Hugh Toye, the author of a book ().
The crucial paragraph in the Figgess report (by Colonel John Figgess, Indian Political Intelligence, 25 July 1946,) is:
The remaining four pages of the Figgess report contain interviews with two survivors of the plane crash, Lt. Cols. Nonogaki and Sakai, with Dr. Yoshimi, who treated Bose in the hospital and with others involved in post-death arrangements. In 1979, Leonard Gordon himself interviewed "Lt. Cols. Nonogaki and Sakai, and, (in addition, plane-crash survivor) Major Kono; Dr. Yoshimi ...; the Japanese orderly who sat in the room through these treatments; and the Japanese officer, Lt. Hayashita, who carried Bose's ashes from the crematorium in Taipei to Japan."
The Figgess report and Leonard Gordon's investigations confirm four facts:
The crash near Taihoku airport on 18 August 1945 of a plane on which Subhas Chandra Bose was a passenger;
Bose's death in the nearby military hospital on the same day;
Bose's cremation in Taihoku; and
transfer of Bose's ashes to Tokyo.
Shah Nawaz Committee 1956
With the goal of quelling the rumours about what happened to Subhas Chandra Bose after mid-August 1945, the Government of India in 1956 appointed a three-man committee headed by Shah Nawaz Khan. Khan was at the time a Member of Parliament as well as a former Lieutenant Colonel in the Indian National Army and the best-known defendant in the INA Trials of a decade before. The other members of the committee were S. N. Maitra, ICS, who was nominated by the Government of West Bengal, and Suresh Chandra Bose, an elder brother of Bose. The committee is referred to as the "Shah Nawaj Committee" or the "Netaji Inquiry Committee."
From April to July 1956, the committee interviewed 67 witnesses in India, Japan, Thailand, and Vietnam. In particular, the committee interviewed all the survivors of the plane crash, some of whom had scars on their bodies from burns. The committee interviewed Dr. Yoshimi, the surgeon at the Taihoku Military Hospital who treated Bose in his last hours. It also interviewed Bose's Indian companion on the flight, Habib ur Rahman, who, after the partition, had moved to Pakistan and had burn scars from the plane crash. Although there were minor discrepancies here and there in the evidence, the first two members of the committee, Khan and Maitra, concluded that Bose had died in the plane crash in Taihoku on 18 August 1945.
Bose's brother, Suresh Chandra Bose, however, after having signed off on the initial conclusions, declined to sign the final report. He, moreover, wrote a dissenting note in which he claimed that the other members and staff of the Shah Nawaz Committee had deliberately withheld some crucial evidence from him, that the committee had been directed by Jawaharlal Nehru to infer death by plane crash, and that the other committee members, along with Bengal's chief minister B. C. Roy, had pressured him bluntly to sign the conclusions of their final report.
According to historian Leonard A. Gordon,
Khosla Commission 1970
In 1977, two decades after the Shah Nawaz committee had reported its findings, historian Joyce Chapman Lebra wrote about Suresh Chandra Bose's dissenting note: "Whatever Mr Bose's motives in issuing his minority report, he has helped to perpetuate until the present the faith that Subhas Chandra Bose still lives." In fact, during the early 1960s, the rumours about Subhas Bose's extant forms only increased.
In 1970, the Government of India appointed a new commission to enquire into the "disappearance" of Bose. With a view to heading off more minority reports, this time it was a "one-man commission." The single investigator was G. D. Khosla, a retired chief justice of the Punjab High Court. As Justice Khosla had other duties, he submitted his report only in 1974.
Justice Khosla, who brought his legal background to bear on the issue in a methodical fashion, not only concurred with the earlier reports of Figess and the Shah Nawaz Committee on the main facts of Bose's death, but also evaluated the alternative explanations of Bose's disappearance and the motives of those promoting stories of Netaji sightings. Historian Leonard A. Gordon writes:
Mukherjee Commission 2005
In 1999, following a court order, the Indian government appointed retired Supreme Court judge Manoj Kumar Mukherjee to probe the death of Bose. The commission perused hundreds of files on Bose's death drawn from several countries and visited Japan, Russia and Taiwan. Although oral accounts were in favour of the plane crash, the commission concluded that those accounts could not be relied upon and that there was a secret plan to ensure Bose's safe passage to the USSR with the knowledge of Japanese authorities and Habibur Rahman. It though failed to make any progress about Bose's activities, after the staged crash. The commission also concluded that the ashes kept at the Renkoji temple (which supposedly contain skeletal remains) reported to be Bose's, were of Ichiro Okura, a Japanese soldier who died of cardiac arrest but asked for a DNA test. It also determined Gumnami Baba to be different from Subhas Bose in light of a DNA profiling test.
The Mukherjee Commission submitted its report to on 8 November 2005 after 3 extensions and it was tabled in the Indian Parliament on 17 May 2006. The Indian Government rejected the findings of the commission.
Key findings of the report (esp. about their rejection of the plane-crash-theory) have been criticized and the report contains other glaring inaccuracies. Sugata Bose notes that Mukherjee himself admitted to harbouring a preconceived notion about Bose being alive and living as an ascetic. He also blames the commission for entertaining the most preposterous and fanciful of all stories, thus adding to the confusion and for failing to distinguish between the highly probable and utterly impossible. Gordon notes that the report had failed to list all of the people who were interviewed by the committee (including him) and that it mis-listed and mis-titled many of the books, used as sources.
Japanese government report 1956, declassified September 2016
An investigative report by Japanese government titled "Investigation on the cause of death and other matters of the late Subhas Chandra Bose" was declassified on 1 September 2016. It concluded that Bose died in a plane crash in Taiwan on 18 August 1945. The report was completed in January 1956 and was handed over to the Indian embassy in Tokyo, but was not made public for more than 60 years as it was classified. According to the report, just after takeoff a propeller blade on the airplane in which Bose was traveling broke off and the engine fell off the plane, which then crashed and burst into flames. When Bose exited it his clothes caught fire and he was severely burned. He was admitted to hospital, and although he was conscious and able to carry on a conversation for some time he died several hours later.
References
Explanatory notes
Quotes
Citations
Sources
Further reading
Bose, Subhas Chandra
Conspiracy theories in India
Subhas Chandra Bose
Aviation accidents and incidents in 1945
Aviation accidents and incidents in Taiwan
1945 in Taiwan
Death conspiracy theories
1945 disasters in Taiwan
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary%20of%20patent%20law%20terms
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Glossary of patent law terms
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This is a list of legal terms relating to patents and patent law. A patent is not a right to practice or use the invention claimed therein, but a territorial right to exclude others from commercially exploiting the invention, granted to an inventor or his successor in rights in exchange to a public disclosure of the invention.
A
Abandonment
The reply of an applicant to an office action must be made within a prescribed time limit. If no reply is received within the time period, the application may be considered, depending on the jurisdiction, as abandoned or deemed to be withdrawn, and, therefore, no longer pending.
Allowance
A patent is "allowed" when the patent office examiners have determined that the patent application meets the necessary criteria of novelty, non-obviousness, feasibility, and usefulness. The applicants are notified of this certification, and that the patent office is ready to grant the patent once certain fees are paid and paperwork filed by the inventors or assignees. The term is used in the U.S. and some other countries. Few allowed patents are not subsequently granted.
Annuity fee
A fee to be paid to maintain a patent or a patent application in force. Also called "maintenance fee" or "renewal fee".
Application
An application for a patent, or patent application, is a request by a person or company to the competent authority (usually a patent office) to grant him a patent. By extension, a patent application also refers to the content of the document which that person or company filed to initiate the application process. This document usually contains a description of the invention and at least one claim used to define the sought scope of protection.
Arrow declaration
A declaration sought from a court that a product to be launched was old or obvious at a particular date, so that the product cannot be affected by a later granted patent, which would also either lack novelty or inventive step.
Assignor estoppel
In United States patent law, an equitable estoppel barring a patent's seller (assignor) from attacking the patent's validity if he/she is found to have infringed that patent later.
Auslegeschrift
In outdated German patent law, the second reading, or publication, of a patent application.
Author’s certificate
A form of inventor's recognition formerly available in the Soviet Union and a number of Socialist countries. Also called "inventor's certificate".
B
Biogen sufficiency
U.K. law concept according to which, if "the extent of the monopoly claimed [in a patent] exceeds the technical contribution to the art made by the invention as described in the specification", the patent may be revoked on the ground of insufficiency of disclosure. The concept stems from the decision Biogen v. Medeva, issued by the House of Lords on 31 October 1996.
Bolar exemption
See research exemption.
Branching off
Under German patent law, a procedure consisting in deriving a utility model (German: Gebrauchsmuster) from a pending patent application. Also called "derivation". The corresponding German term is Abzweigung.
C
Catch and release
The practice of a patent holding company buying a patent, offering a license to its members and then selling or donating the patent after a certain period of time.
Chapter I
In the Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT), "Chapter I" refers to the prosecution procedure when no demand under is made. The states selected under Chapter I by the applicant are called "designated States".
Chapter II
In the PCT, "Chapter II" refers to the prosecution procedure when a demand under is made. An international preliminary examination is conducted in this case. The demand indicates the Contracting State or States in which the applicant intends to use the results of the international preliminary examination ("elected States").
Claim
A noun phrase defining the extent of the protection conferred by a patent, or the extent of protection sought in a patent application.
Claim chart
A chart often used in the context of patent litigation for analyzing and presenting information regarding a patent claim vis-à-vis an allegedly infringing product or method.
Claim construction
The process of interpreting or explaining the meaning of the terms in a patent claim, especially in the context of patent infringement.
Clearance search and opinion
A search done on issued patents or on pending patent applications to determine if a product or process infringes any of the claims of the issued patents or pending patent applications. These searches and opinions are also called freedom-to-operate searches and opinions. See Patent infringement.
Common general knowledge
A legal concept used notably when assessing whether an invention involves an inventive step, whether the disclosure of the invention is sufficiently clear and complete for a skilled person in the art to be able to carry out the invention, and whether the subject-matter of a prior art disclosure is enabling. The common general knowledge "is the common knowledge in the field to which the invention relates." The information "must be generally known and generally regarded as a good basis for further action by the bulk of those engaged in that art before it becomes part of their common stock of knowledge relating to the art, and so part of the common general knowledge."
Regarding the inventive step assessment, "[if] information is part of the common general knowledge then it forms part of the stock of knowledge which will inform and guide the skilled person's approach to the problem from the outset. It may, for example, affect the steps it will be obvious for him to take, including the nature and extent of any literature search."
Under European practice, "the common general knowledge of the person skilled in the art is, as a general rule, established on the basis of encyclopaedias, textbooks and the like". Exceptionally however, common general knowledge may also be established on the basis of the content of patent specifications "and in particular when a series of patent specifications provides a consistent picture that a particular technical procedure was generally known and belonged to the common general knowledge in the art at the relevant date".
Compulsory license
Using compulsory licenses, a government may force a patent proprietor to grant use to the state or others. Usually, the holder does receive some royalties, either set by law or determined through some form of arbitration.
Continuation-in-part application
Under United States law, a type of continuing application in which the applicant adds subject-matter not disclosed in the parent application, but repeats substantial portion of the parent's specification, and shares at least one inventor with the parent application. See continuing patent application.
Continuing application
In United States law, an active patent application, prior to final action, may give rise to additional applications for additional claims carrying the priority date of the original application. With the move to published applications, this has become a common way of producing submarine patents.
Contribution approach
Under European patent practice, a legal approach, now abandoned by the European Patent Office (EPO), for assessing whether an invention was patentable. The approach consisted in establishing whether the "contribution to the art" made by the invention was only in a field excluded from patentability by and, if so, the application could be refused. The EPO now applies the sometimes named "any hardware" or "any technical means" approach, notably formulated in EPO Board of Appeal decisions T 258/03 (Auction Method/Hitachi) and T 424/03 (Microsoft).
Contributory infringement
A form of indirect infringement.
Co-pending applications
Two or more patent applications are said to be co-pending, or copending, if they are both pending before the patent office and have been filed by the same applicant.
D
DAS (Digital Access Service)
A system for exchanging priority documents electronically. Also referred to as "WIPO DAS".
Declaration of non-infringement
A declaration obtained from a court that one's actions do not infringe a particular patent. An action for a declaration of non-infringement may be brought before a court as a preventive measure prior to being sued by a patent proprietor, for example if an infringement suit is believed to be imminent.
Defensive patenting
A practice consisting in "obtaining patents to stake [one's] claim to an area of technology in hopes of preventing other companies from suing them." See also defensive patent aggregation.
Defensive publication
A publication intended to prevent the grant of a patent to a competitor by placing information in the public domain.
Defensive termination
An implicit cross license where the licensor can terminate a patent license if the licensee turns around and sues the licensor for infringing a patent.
Demand letter
A letter sent to a company "seeking royalties and threatening legal action for patent infringement." Also called a "threat letter".
Demand under Chapter II
A request to subject an international application to an international preliminary examination under Chapter II of the Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT).
Dependent claim
A claim comprising all the features of another claim.
Design around
The act of developing an alternative apparatus or method (which may in itself also be a patentable invention), that does not infringe upon an issued patent. Also used as a noun.
Designated office
Under the Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT), a national patent office of or acting for a State designated by the applicant under Chapter I of the PCT. See also "Chapter I" above.
Disclaimer
In a claim, words identifying subject-matter that is not claimed or, by extension, an amendment consisting in limiting a claim by introducing therein a negative technical feature.
Divided infringement
In U.S. patent law, a form of patent infringement liability that occurs when multiple actors are involved in carrying out the claimed infringement of a method patent and no single accused infringer has performed all of the steps of the method.
Divisional patent application
A type of patent application which contains matter from a previously-filed application. Also referred to simply as "divisional application".
Doctrine of equivalents
A legal rule that allows a court to hold a party liable for patent infringement even though the infringing device or process does not fall within the literal scope of a patent claim, but nevertheless is equivalent to the claimed invention.
Double patenting
The protection of one single invention by two patents usually owned by the same proprietor.
Druckexemplar
At the European Patent Office, the application documents serving as the basis for the publication of the granted patent.
E
Elected office
Under the Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT), a national patent office of or acting for a State elected by the applicant under Chapter II of the PCT. See also "Chapter II" above.
Embodiment
In a patent or patent application, "a specific combination of features or a specific mode of carrying out the invention, by contrast to a more abstract definition of features which can be carried out in more than one way."
Essential patent
A patent claiming an invention that is required to implement a given industry standard.
Evergreening
Various legal, business and technological strategies by which patentees extend or attempt to extend the patent protection for their products.
Exhaustion of rights
A legal concept according to which intellectual property (IP) rights, such as patent rights, in a product are exhausted by its sale. The concept of national exhaustion (exhaustion by sale in the domestic market), which is recognized in most countries around the world, is distinguished from the concept of regional or international exhaustion (exhaustion by sale in the domestic market), which is recognized in some countries but not in others.
Examination support document
According to USPTO patent rules, the examination support document (ESD) is a document submitted by an applicant that lists prior art and identifies how the prior art applies to the claims in a pending patent application.
F
Fair, reasonable, and non-discriminatory licensing
A type of licensing typically used during standardisation processes. Also abbreviated "FRAND".
Field-of-use limitation
A provision in a patent license that limits the scope of what the patent owner authorizes a manufacturing licensee (that is, a licensee that manufactures a patented product or performs a patented process) to do in relation to the patent, by specifying a defined field of permissible operation or specifying fields from which the licensee is excluded.
File wrapper
The special folder type holding a U.S. patent application. The "file wrapper" was a large three section binder that interlineated to close into one large "wrapper." These paper File wrappers were fully digitized as of June 3, 2003 and are now called Image File Wrappers (IFW).
Filing date
The filing date of a patent application is the date the patent application was filed in one or more patent offices, i.e. the date on which that application is legally accepted at the patent office. That date is typically the date on which the documents are deposited at the office, but may be later if there are defects in the documents. See also Priority right.
In the United States, if a patent application is mailed to the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) by Express Mail, Post Office to Addressee, then the date the application was deposited in the post office is the filing date.
First sale doctrine
See Exhaustion of rights.
First to file
A legal concept in which the right to a patent for an invention is determined by the first person to file for a patent to protect that invention, cf. First to invent.
First to invent
A legal concept in which the right to a patent for an invention is determined by the first person to make that invention, cf. First to file.
Flash of genius
A test for patentability formerly used by the United States Federal Courts.
Foreign filing license
An authorization granted by a governmental authority to an applicant to apply for a patent in a country outside its own country. See also Patent application#Security issues.
Formstein defence
A defense against an alleged infringement by equivalents, wherein the alleged infringer claims that the embodiment alleged to be equivalent (to the subject-matter claimed in the patent) is not patentable and therefore the doctrine of equivalents does not apply.
Freedom-to-operate
A freedom-to-operate search is a search aimed at establishing whether a product or process is covered by patent rights, including patent and patent applications. If it does, commercially exploiting the product or process may lead to patent infringement. Freedom-to-operate analyses and opinions are aimed at determining the risk of patent infringement in that respect. These searches and opinions are also called clearance searches and opinions.
Further medical use
See Second medical use.
G
Gebrauchsmuster
A utility model in German and Austrian laws.
Gillette defense
A defense in patent litigation. More precisely, this is "the argument in infringement proceedings (...) that the defendant's product implements prior art technology, such that any patent which it infringes must be invalid."
I
Independent claim
A claim that does not comprise the features of any other claim.
Indirect infringement
When a patent is infringed by some party other than the one actually directly engaged in the infringement of the invention, but the original party is the cause of the infringement. For instance, when a third party supplies a product which is intended to be used, or can only be reasonably used or worked upon to make the device claimed in a patent. In some jurisdictions, forms of indirect infringements include "contributory infringement" and "induced infringement".
Induced infringement
A form of indirect infringement.
Industrial applicability
A requirement of many patent systems, requiring that an invention be capable of industrial applicability in order for a patent to be granted for that invention.
Industrial property
One of two subsets of intellectual property (the other being copyright). It takes a range of forms, including patents for inventions, industrial designs, trademarks, service marks, layout-designs of integrated circuits, commercial names and designations, geographical indications and protection against unfair competition.
Information disclosure statement
In United States patent law, a submission of relevant background art or information to the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) by an applicant for a patent during patent prosecution.
Infringement
See Patent infringement.
Injunction gap
In German patent law, a time gap that often results from the German bifurcated system (i.e., infringement and validity of patents are decided by different courts), when the decision on infringement is reached before the decision on validity.
Innovation patent
A type of patent in some countries used for inventions that have a short commercial life or that offers a comparatively small advance over existing technology. It often has a shorter term of protection, for example 8 years instead of 20 in Australia. See also utility model and petty patent.
Interference proceeding
Under U.S. patent law, proceedings to decide who is entitled to the grant of a patent for an invention.
Intermediate generalisation
At the European Patent Office (EPO), an amendment to a claim resulting in "an undisclosed combination of selected features lying somewhere between an originally broad disclosure and a more limited specific disclosure".
International application
A patent application filed under the Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT). Also called "PCT application".
International phase
The period of time from the filing of a PCT application to the entry into national phases.
International preliminary examination report (IPER)
An examination report prepared under the Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT).
Invalidity opinion
An invalidity opinion, also called "validity opinion", is a legal opinion provided by an attorney on how a court might rule on the validity of an issued patent. Invalidity opinions are often sought prior to patent litigation. See Patent infringement.
Invention disclosure
A confidential document written by a scientist or engineer for use by a company's patent department, or by an external patent attorney, to determine whether patent protection should be sought for the described invention.
Invention promotion firm
A firm providing services to inventors to help them develop or market their inventions.
Inventive step
A patentability requirement according to which an invention should be sufficiently inventive, i.e. non-obvious, in order to be patented.
Inventor
The actual devisor of an invention that is the subject of a patent. The inventor's employer is not the inventor. More than one inventor can be named on a patent.
Inventor's certificate
A form of recognition granted by communist states to inventors. "It does not grant to the inventor the exclusive right to use the invention or to preclude others from doing so but, rather, signifies that the invention is state property." See also author’s certificate.
K
Kind code
A code including a letter and often a digit, indicating a kind of patent document (e.g., published application or granted patent).
Kokai
A published, unexamined Japanese patent application.
Kokoku
An examined and approved Japanese patent application.
L
Large entity
In United States patent law, one of the available applicant's status, along with the "small entity" status and the "micro entity" status.
Letters patent
An old term for a patent, sometimes used in reference to a bound formal copy of a patent provided by the USPTO to the inventor upon a patent's issue.
License
A contract wherein a party (the "licensor") grants to another party (the "licensee") the authorization to use an invention which is subject to a patent, generally in exchange of a financial compensation, the royalties.
M
Machine-or-transformation test
A criterion in United States patent law, according to which a claimed process is patent-eligible (under § 101) if: (1) it is tied to a particular machine or apparatus, or (2) it transforms a particular article into a different state or thing. See also: in re Bilski.
Maintenance fee
A fee to be paid to maintain a patent or a patent application in force. Also called "annuity fee" or "renewal fee".
Markman hearing
A pre-trial hearing in the United States court system during which a judge hears testimony from both parties on the appropriate meanings of the relevant key words used in the claims of a patent, the infringement of which is alleged by the plaintiff.
Markush structure
A representation of a chemical structure covering a group of chemical compounds. Markush structures are commonly used in patent claims. A claim comprising a Markush structure is called "Markush claim".
McKesson Reference
In United States patent law, an Information Disclosure Statement (IDS) reference to a communication with a patenting authority (e.g. office action response, or notice of allowance) in a related patent application. Based on the McKesson v. Bridge Medical decision where inequitable conduct was found where the applicant failed to notify the USPTO of such references. See also Inequitable conduct.
Marlow Reference
In United States patent law, an IDS reference to a court document (e.g. memorandum opinion, or a court order) pertaining to a litigation involving an application or a related patent/application. Based on the Marlow Industries, Inc. v. Igloo Products Corp. decision where the court found that the applicant had a duty to notify the USPTO of such references. See also Inequitable conduct.
Method
In United States patent law, a patent may notably claim a process or method. The claim gives right to exclude performance of the process or method, regardless of the equipment or technology used to do so.
Micro entity status
See "Small entity status" below.
N
National phase
The prosecution phase wherein an international application filed under the Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT) becomes subject to examination at a national level. In the United States, the term national stage is used instead—see .
Non-obviousness
A patentability requirement according to which an invention should not be obvious to a "person having ordinary skill in the art", in order to be patented.
Non-patent literature
Any technical document that is neither a patent nor a patent application and that is submitted by a party—such as an applicant, an opponent, or a third party—or cited by an examiner during patent prosecution. The non-patent literature includes especially scientific papers used as prior art to show that an invention claimed in a patent or patent application was known or obvious before the filing of the application. Also abbreviated "NPL".
Non-provisional patent application
A United States patent application that is not a provisional application. The term arose in 1995 to distinguish what were at the time "normal" patent applications from the newly established provisional applications. A complete non-provisional application differs from a provisional in that a non-provisional must contain at least one claim and is to be examined. A non-provisional application may also claim priority to a prior filed application, which is not permitted with provisional applications.
Novelty
A patentability requirement according to which an invention is not patentable if it was already known before the date of filing.
Nullity action
Lawsuit initiated by a party requesting a patent to be declared invalid, i.e. to be revoked. Also called "revocation action".
O
Objective technical problem
In the so-called "problem-solution approach" applied by the European Patent Office (EPO) to assess whether a claimed invention involves an inventive step (), the problem that the notional skilled person is tasked with solving. If the skilled person, starting from the closest prior art and faced with the objective technical problem, would have arrived, without exercising any inventive skill, at the claimed invention, then the claimed invention is regarded as being obvious, i.e. the claimed invention does not involve an inventive step.
Office action
A formal report from a Patent Office examiner to an inventor or attorney detailing which claims in a patent application were allowed for later issue (publication) in a patent and which claims were rejected. The examiner gives reasons for allowance or rejection.
On-sale bar
A concept of U.S. law in which the grant of a patent is prevented if the invention that is the subject of the patent application was on sale more than one year prior to the priority date.
Opposition proceeding
Proceedings in which a third party opposes the grant of a patent in an attempt to prevent that grant, or have the patent revoked. Opposition proceedings may be pre- or post-grant.
P
Patent
A territorial right to prevent others from commercially exploiting an invention, granted to an inventor or the inventor's successor in rights in exchange for the public disclosure of the invention. A patent is regarded as a specific type of intellectual property right, and is granted for a limited period of time, the term of the patent.
Patent ambush
A patent ambush occurs when a member of a standard-setting organization withholds information, during participation in development and setting a standard, about a patent that the member or the member's company owns, has pending, or intends to file, which is relevant to the standard, and subsequently the company asserts that a patent is infringed by use of the standard as adopted.
Patent Application Locating and Monitoring System (PALM)
The Patent Application Locating and Monitoring System (PALM) is used to support the Reexamination process inside the USPTO. Reexamination is the examination of a granted patent, which can result in the revocation of that patent. The PALM system is used with both Image File Wrappers and paper File Wrappers. See Manual of Patent Examination and Procedure, Section 2235.
Patent caveat
Formerly, in United States patent law, a legal document filed with the United States Patent Office. Caveats were discontinued in 1909. A caveat was like a patent application with a description of an invention and drawings, but without claims. It was an official notice of intention to file a patent application at a later date.
Patent classification
Classification of patents in technological areas for convenient retrieval during prior art searches.
Patent drawing
Technical drawing in a patent application, that illustrates the invention. It may be required by law to be in a particular form.
Patent family
A group of patents related by a common priority claim.
Patent flooding
Patenting every possible way of doing something.
Patent infringement
Commercially exploiting a patented invention without permission of the patentee.
Patent misuse
In United States patent law, an affirmative defense used in patent litigation after the defendant has been found to have infringed a patent.
Patent model
A miniature model that shows how an invention works.
Patent monetization
The generation of revenue or the attempt to generate revenue by a person or company by selling or licensing the patents it owns.
Patent pending
A warning that a patent application has been filed for an invention integrated in a product. The warning indicates that the applicant(s) may be entitled to some rights even if a patent has not been granted yet, or that the applicant(s) will be entitled to some rights once a patent is granted.
Patent pool
A consortium of at least two companies agreeing to cross-license patents and other IP rights relating to a particular technology.
Patent portfolio
A collection of patents owned by a single entity, such as an individual or corporation.
Patent specification
See specification.
Patent thicket
A dense web of overlapping intellectual property rights that a company must navigate through in order to commercialize new technology.
Patent troll
A person or company who enforces patent rights against accused infringers in an attempt to collect licensing fees, but does not manufacture products or supply services based upon the patents in question. Also called a patent assertion entity (PAE) or non practicing entity (NPE).
Patent watch
A process for monitoring newly issued patents on a periodic basis to see if any of these patents might be of interest.
Patentability
A set of substantive requirements for a patent to be granted. An invention satisfying these requirements is said to be patentable.
Patentability opinion
An opinion as to whether an invention might be patentable. Such an opinion may be established by a patent attorney to assist an inventor or company into deciding whether to file a patent application.
Patentable subject matter
Patent systems exclude certain areas from the grant of patents. Material not so excluded is known as patentable subject matter.
Patentee
One to whom a patent was granted. Also called "patent holder", "patent proprietor", or "patent right holder".
Pay-for-delay
A deal under which a company holding a patent on a drug pays a generic manufacturer to delay its launch of a cheap copy of the drug.
PCT application
A patent application filed under the Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT). Also called "international application".
PCT Direct
A procedural scheme launched in 2014 by the European Patent Office (EPO). The scheme consists in allowing an applicant filing a PCT application claiming priority from an earlier application already searched by the EPO to reply –at the time of filing the PCT application– to any objections raised in the search opinion drawn up for the priority application.
Person having ordinary skill in the art
A notional person having typical knowledge of a particular field or art, used such as to assess whether an invention is nonobvious or whether the specification of the patent enables one to practice what is claimed.
Petition to make special
A United States patent law procedure that requests the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office to accelerate a patent's prosecution, based on a showing that certain conditions are met. For example, if the inventor is old or sick, or the field of invention is a favored area of science that significantly enriches people's lives, The U.S. PTO may allow such a petition.
Petty patent
Phrase sometimes used to refer to utility models and Gebrauchsmuster, which are specific forms of patents for inventions usually granted for a shorter term, i.e. mostly 6 or 10 years instead of 20 years. In some jurisdictions, the patentability criteria applicable to petty patents are less stringent than those applicable to 20-year patents. See also innovation patent.
PHOSITA
In the United States, an abbreviation for "person having ordinary skill in the art".
Piracy
Pejorative term. Generally refers to the willful infringement of a patent. May also be applied to the vigorous enforcement of a patent.
Pre-grant Publication
Pre-grant Publication (PGpub) is the procedure under 35 U.S.C. Section 122(b) requiring the publication of most United States patent applications 18 months after their filing dates. This procedure was first enacted in the 1999 American Inventors Protection Act.
Preliminary injunction
An injunction issued by a court prior to a final determination of the merits of a legal case, in order to restrain a party from going ahead with a course of conduct or compelling a party to continue with a course of conduct until the case has been decided. In patent law, a preliminary injunction typically allows a patent to be enforced against an infringer prior to a final decision on the merits, i.e. while the infringement proceedings are pending. Depending on the jurisdiction, a number of requirements may have to be met for the court to grant a preliminary injunction, such as: urgency (to prevent imminent harm to the patentee's business), clear infringement, and a sufficient likelihood that the patent is valid.
Prior art
Material publicly available prior to the priority date of an application which may anticipate the subject of and prevent the grant of a patent.
Priority date
See priority right.
Priority period
The "period of 12 months starting from the filing date of the earlier (or earliest if there is more than one) [patent] application whose priority is claimed in" a subsequent patent application. See also priority right.
Priority right
A right to benefit from the filing date of an earlier application in a subsequent application. Claiming a priority right means that the filing date of the earlier application, i.e. the "priority date", rather than the actual date of filing of the subsequent application, will be used as the decisive date for assessing patentability of the invention claimed in the subsequent application.
Problem-solution approach
Under the case law and practice of the European Patent Office (EPO), a systematic approach to assess whether an invention involves an inventive step. Also called "problem and solution approach".
Prosecution history estoppel
In certain states, most notably the United States, actions during prosecution can estop a party from certain later actions or assertions.
Provisional application
In United States patent law, a legal document filed in the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) that establishes an early filing date, but which does not mature into an issued patent unless the applicant files a regular patent application within one year. See also Non-provisional patent application.
Provisional (patent) rights or provisional protection
The rights conferred to a published patent application, i.e. the rights conferred before the patent is granted. See also U.S. patent law, 35 USC 154(d). Under the European Patent Convention,
"for the period of provisional protection, between the moment of publication of the patent application and the moment of the publication of the patent grant, requires Member States to ensure that the applicant can claim compensation reasonable in the circumstances from any person who has used the invention in their territory. Following publication of the mention of the patent grant, full compensation of any losses suffered may be claimed, depending also on whether the infringer knew or should have known that he or she was infringing."
R
Reading a claim
The process of establishing patent infringement involves "reading" a claim onto the technology of interest. If all of the claim's elements are found in the technology, the claim is said to "read on" the technology; if a single element from the claim is missing from the technology, the claim does not literally read on the technology and the technology does not infringe the patent with respect to that claim. Also, the process of contesting or invalidating a patent can involve showing that the claim reads on prior art, i.e., the claim's elements are found in the prior art.
Reasonable and non-discriminatory licensing
A type of licensing typically used during standardisation processes. Also abbreviated "RAND".
Reduction to practice
In United States patent law, making or performing an invention (actual reduction to practice) or filing a patent application describing how to make and use an invention (constructive reduction to practice). Important for determining which party is "first to invent".
Reexamination
The examination of a granted patent, which can result in the revocation of that patent.
Regional patent
A single patent covering a set of countries. As of 2012, the only true regional patent covering more than two countries appears to be the OAPI patent. The European patent, the Eurasian patent, and the ARIPO patent each effectively lead, once granted, to a bundle of national patents for which there might be separate translation requirements (for example in the European Patent Convention), maintenance fees, durations of protection (for example with ARIPO) and separate jurisdiction exist (a patent invalidated in one country might still be valid in others). The unitary patent for Switzerland and Liechtenstein can also be regarded as a regional patent with a truly unitary effect. See also unitary patent.
Regional phase
The prosecution phase wherein an international application filed under the Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT) becomes subject to examination at a regional level. There are four regional patent treaties: the European Patent Convention, the Eurasian Patent Convention, the Bangui Agreement (see African Intellectual Property Organization or OAPI), and the Harare Protocol (see African Regional Intellectual Property Organization or ARIPO). See also National phase.
Registration patent
A type of patent that takes effect, even if the substantial requirements (e.g. regarding novelty) have not been fulfilled. The Belgian, Dutch and French patents are examples of registration patents.
Reissue patent
A U.S. patent that is reissued by the USPTO after the patentee filed an application for reissue, because the originally issued patent was regarded as defective.
Rejection
In the United States, to have patent claims "rejected" in a patent application means that the subject matter as claimed is considered by the patent examiner to be unpatentable. A final Office action based on rejection of claims is subject to review by the Board of Patent Appeals and Interferences (BPAI). cf Objections, supra.
Request for continued examination
In the United States, a request by an applicant for continued prosecution after the patent office has issued a "final" rejection or after prosecution "on the merits" has been closed (for example by a Notice of Allowance (NOA)).
Research exemption
In some legislations, an exemption to the rights conferred by patents, pursuant to which performing research and tests for preparing regulatory approval does not constitute infringement for a limited term before the end of patent term.
Restitutio in integrum
In the European Patent Convention, a means of redress following a loss of right due to the non-observance of a time limit in spite of all due care.
Revocation action
Lawsuit initiated by a party requesting a patent to be declared invalid, i.e. to be revoked. Also called "nullity action".
S
Sandor Obviousness
In United States patent law, an obviousness rejection based on a single reference. Generally a case for an obviousness rejection requires the examiner to rely on 2 or more references. Sandor Obviousness stems from Ex Parte Sandor Nagy where the examiner relied on only a single reference to reject the claims at issue. Ultimately the case was remanded on appeal back to the examiner.
Search report
A report established by a patent office, which mentions documents which may be taken into consideration in deciding whether the invention to which a patent application relates is patentable.
Second medical use
The patenting of a particular medical use of a molecule (or more generally product or composition), wherein a first particular use of a molecule is already known and, therefore, wherein the novel and inventive aspect lies solely in the second use of the molecule. Also known as further medical use.
Selection invention
An invention consisting in the selection of individual elements, sub-sets, or sub-ranges, within a larger, known set or range. A selection patent is a patent granted on a selection invention.
Selection patent
See selection invention.
Shop right
In U.S. patent law, an implied license under which a firm may use a patented invention, invented by an employee who was working within the scope of their employment, using the firms' equipment, or inventing at the firms' expense.
Skilled person (in the art)
See person having ordinary skill in the art.
Small entity status
In United States patent law, a status allowing small businesses, independent inventors, and nonprofit organizations to file a patent application and maintain an issued patent for a reduced fee. An entity that does not qualify for small entity status is charged double the fees charged small entities.
Changes to US patent law in December 2012 created a sub-category of Small Entity Status called "Micro Entity Status" for inventors who qualify for Small Entity Status, but also have a gross income less than a certain amount, and have assigned their patent(s) to their employer which is an institution of higher education.
Software patent
A patent in the field of computer software. Some types of inventions in the field of software are legally considered non-patentable subject-matter, depending on the jurisdiction. See also software patents under the European Patent Convention, under TRIPs Agreement, under United Kingdom patent law, under United States patent law, computer programs and the Patent Cooperation Treaty, software patent debate.
Specification
The specification, or patent specification, may either refer to the description of a patent or patent application, which is the meaning prevalent in the U.S., or to the complete patent as granted, which is meaning prevalent in Europe.
State of the art
A synonym for prior art.
Statutory Invention Registration
A procedure governed by MPEP Sections 1100 et al. in which a patent applicant could request a public filing of their application. Usually, this was used when the applicant felt a patent was no longer possible during the application period. It may now be obsolete due to the 1999 America Inventors Protection Act which required publication of U.S. applications in 18 months unless an exception applied.
Submarine patent
A patent first published and granted long after the original application was filed.
Sufficiency of disclosure
An important requirement to be met by a patent in order to be validly granted. According to this requirement, an invention must be described in the application or patent in a sufficiently clear and complete manner to enable the person skilled in the art to carry out the invention.
Supplementary international search
A prior art search performed for an international (PCT) application in addition to the main international search provided for under the Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT). The supplementary international search (SIS) is carried out by another International Searching Authority (ISA) than the ISA that carries out the main international search.
Supplementary protection certificate
A sui generis right notably available for medicinal and plant protection products. The right comes into force after the corresponding patent expires and, for medicinal and plant protection products, has a maximum term (i.e., lifetime) of 5 years.
Swear back of a reference
A procedure under U.S. patent law whereby an inventor can get a patent even if the invention has become public before the patent application was filed. Also "Swear behind a reference" or "Antedate" a reference. See 35 USC Section 102.
T
Technical character
A condition for an invention to be considered patentable under the case law and practice of the European Patent Office (EPO). Namely, an invention must notably have a technical character to be patentable. See for example Software patents under the European Patent Convention.
Term of patent
The maximum period during which it can be maintained in force.
Transfer
An operation by which ownership of a patent or patent application changes (for instance as a result of a financial transaction).
Transitional phrase
In United States patent law, a phrase that links the preamble of a patent claim to the specific elements set forth in the claim which define what the invention itself actually is. The transitional phrase acts as a limitation on the claim, indicating whether a similar device, method, or composition infringes the patent if it contains more or fewer elements than the claim in the patent.
U
Unified Patent Court
A common patent court open for participation of all member states of the European Union, and established by the "Agreement on a Unified Patent Court", which is provisionally applicable since January 19, 2022.
Unitary patent
A patent having a unitary effect throughout the territories of more than one country. The proposed unitary patent in the European Union, also called "European patent with unitary effect", is the most well-known unitary patent. Other unitary patents are the unitary patent in Switzerland and Liechtenstein and the OAPI patent. See also regional patent.
Unity of invention
A requirement that a patent application can relate only to one invention (or to a group of inventions so linked as to form a single general inventive concept, see for instance Unity of invention under the European Patent Convention).
Utility
A patentability requirement mainly used to prevent the patenting of inoperative devices such as perpetual motion machines.
Utility model
An intellectual property right which is very similar to the patent, but usually has a shorter term (often 6 or 10 years) and may have less stringent patentability requirements. See also petty patent and innovation patent.
Utility patent
Phrase sometimes used, primarily in the US, to distinguish the primary meaning of the term "patent" from other types of patents, such as design patents and plant patents. See also: Patent#Definition.
V
Validity opinion
A validity opinion, also called "invalidity opinion", is a legal opinion provided by an attorney on how a court might rule on the validity of an issued patent. Validity opinions are often sought prior to patent litigation. See Patent infringement.
X
X-Patent
Patent issued by the United States Patent and Trademark Office between July 1790 (when the first U.S. patent was issued) and July 1836.
See also
List of patent case law
List of people associated with patent law
References
External links
Glossary at the Deutsches Patent- und Markenamt (DPMA), (German Patent and Trade Mark Office)
Glossary at the European Patent Office (EPO)
Glossary of patent terms at the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO)
PCT (Patent Cooperation Treaty) Glossary at the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)
"Definitions"
Glossary of patent related terms at the Trilateral Co-operation web site
Patent law terms
Glossary
Wikipedia glossaries using subheadings
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4821028
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89ric-Emmanuel%20Schmitt
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Éric-Emmanuel Schmitt
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Eric-Emmanuel Schmitt (; born 28 March 1960) is a Franco-Belgian playwright, short story writer and novelist, as well as a film director. His plays have been staged in over fifty countries all over the world.
Life
Early years
Eric-Emmanuel Schmitt's parents were teachers of physical education and sport, and his father later became a physiotherapist and masseur in paediatric hospitals. He was also a French boxing champion while his mother was a medal-winning runner. His grandfather was an artisan jeweller.
The "Classiques & Contemporains" edition of La Nuit de Valognes (Don Juan on Trial) claims that Schmitt depicts himself as a rebellious teenager who detested received wisdom and was sometimes prone to violent outbursts. According to Schmitt, however, it was philosophy that saved him and taught him to be himself and to feel that he was free.
One day, his mother took him to the Théâtre des Célestins to see a performance of Edmond Rostand's Cyrano de Bergerac starring Jean Marais. Her son was moved to tears and the seeds of his passion for the theatre were sown. After the show, he told his mother that he wanted to "be like the man on the poster"; his mother thought he meant the actor, Jean Marais, but he replied: "No!" and read out the name on the poster "Edmond Rostand".
He then began to write. Later, he would say: "At sixteen, I realised (or decided) that I was a writer, and I wrote, produced and acted in my first plays at high school." To improve his style, he threw himself with frenzied zeal into exercises of pastiche and re-writing, especially Molière.
Education
After preparatory classes at the Lycée du Parc for France's elite universities, Schmitt passed the entrance exam to the École normale supérieure. He was a student there between 1980 and 1985, leaving with the top French teaching qualification in philosophy (agrégé de philosophie). In 1987, he was awarded the degree of PhD for his thesis "Diderot and Metaphysics" at the Paris-Sorbonne University, which was published in 1997 with the title "Diderot or the Philosophy of Seduction".
He has lived in Brussels since 2002 and obtained Belgian citizenship in 2008.
Career
Schmitt spent his military service teaching at the Saint-Cyr Military Academy, afterwards spending two years as a student teaching assistant at the University of Besançon. He went on to teach at the high school in Cherbourg before being appointed lecturer at the University of Chambéry, where he taught for four years.
On the night of 4 February 1989, he became separated from his companions during an expedition to the Ahaggar Desert and, in the vast expanses of the Sahara, he underwent a spiritual experience that was nothing short of a divine revelation. In that instant, he says that his mind was filled with the words "Everything is justified". Schmitt believes that it was that extraordinary experience that enabled him to break into writing. He describes it in his novel Night of Fire (La Nuit de Feu), published in September 2015.
During the 1990s, his plays brought him rapid success in several countries. Don Juan on Trial was the first to be performed in September 1991 at Espace 44 in Nantes. His next play, The Visitor, won three prizes at the Molière Award Ceremony in 1994. It was then that he decided to devote himself entirely to writing, and he gave up his lecturing position at the University of Chambéry.
In 1996, Enigma Variations received its first performance, starring Alain Delon and Francis Huster in the lead roles. In 1998, his play, Frédérick or Crime Boulevard (Frédérick ou le boulevard du crime), opened simultaneously in France and Germany, with Jean-Paul Belmondo acting in the original production at the Théâtre Marigny. In 2001, Mr Ibrahim and the Flowers of the Koran (M. Ibrahim et les Fleurs du Coran) was both staged and published in France and Germany. In 2004, the book sold over 250,000 copies in France and 300,000 in Germany.
Schmitt has also written three one-act plays for humanitarian causes. Francis Huster played the devil in The Devil's School (L'École du diable), which Schmitt wrote for an Amnesty International evening. One Thousand and One Nights was written for the "Culture Changes Life" campaign (La culture ça change la vie) organised by the French charity The People's Aid (Secours populaire).
In the early 2000s, he wrote several novels and short stories. Published in 2000, The Gospel According to Pilate, a novel about Jesus Christ told from the point of view of Pilate, won critical acclaim and massive sales. The next year, he produced another novel about a contentious historical figure: The Alternative Hypothesis (La Part de l'autre) is an alternate history in which the young Adolf Hitler is in 1908 accepted into the Academy of Fine Art in Vienna, setting him on the path to become a recognized painter; what follows changes the course of history for the entire world. He then wrote a whimsical and satirical version of the Faust myth, When I was a Work of Art (Lorsque j'étais une oeuvre d'art – 2002).
The tales that comprise his Cycle de l'Invisible have delighted readers and audiences in the French-speaking world and beyond, both on stage and in the bookshops. Milarepa deals with Buddhism, Mr Ibrahim and the Flowers of the Koran deals with Sufism, Oscar and the Lady in Pink ( – 2002) with Christianity, Noah's Child (L'Enfant de Noé – 2004) with Judaism, The Sumo wrestler Who Could Not Get Fat (Le Sumo qui ne pouvait pas grossir – 2009) with Zen Buddhism, and The Ten Children Madam Ming Never Had (Les Dix Enfants que madame Ming n'a jamais eus – 2012) deals with Confucianism. They are read by millions of readers of all generations.
Keen to explore new modes of expression, Schmitt wrote a work of autofiction, My Life with Mozart (Ma Vie avec Mozart), which was published in eight different countries from South Korea to Norway. This composition of music and words can also be performed by actors and instrumentalists. In the same vein as the first film he wrote and directed, Schmitt published a collection of short stories, Odette Toulemonde and other stories, a celebration of women and their quest for happiness. Odette Toulemonde has toured Europe as both a book and a film. The Dreamer of Ostend (La Rêveuse d'Ostende), a lyrical tribute to the power of the imagination, followed in 2007, while a third collection appeared in 2010: Concerto to the Memory of an Angel (Concerto à la mémoire d'un ange), four stories that deal with the theme of redemption and which won the "Prix Goncourt de la Nouvelle". A fourth collection, Two Gentlemen of Brussels (Les Deux Messieurs de Bruxelles – 2012), explores the theme of invisible love, while a fifth, The Revenge of Forgiveness (La Vengeance du Pardon) (2017) concerns forgiveness. These collections are unique for the way in which, like a novel, each has a beginning, a middle and an end, each volume exploring a specific issue over several stories.
Returning to the novel in 2008 with the publication of Ulysses from Baghdad, Eric-Emmanuel Schmitt again revealed his talent for being a "chameleon story-teller" (as described by Fabienne Pascaud in the magazine Télérama) in a tale about a man who undertakes a journey such as millions make in search of a safe place to go: the story of a stowaway. A contemporary picaresque saga about the human condition, the novel ponders the question: are borders the stronghold of our identities or the last bastion of our illusions?
A keen amateur musician with a passion for Mozart, Schmitt has made his mark in the world of opera with a translation into French of two of Mozart's works: The Marriage of Figaro and Don Giovanni. He has also composed music and produced a CD.
These days, he continues to write fiction and plays but focuses on writing screenplays. Odette Toulemonde (2007), a film about happiness starring Catherine Frot and Albert Dupontel, was followed by a screen adaptation of Oscar and the Lady in Pink (2009), with Michèle Laroque, Max von Sydow, Amira Casar and Mylène Demongeot in the lead roles.
Schmitt is one of the most widely read and performed contemporary French-language authors in the world. His works have been translated into 45 languages and staged in over 50 countries. His plays are constantly being put on in new productions and revivals in both national and private theatres throughout the world and are now part of contemporary repertoire.
In January 2012, Eric-Emmanuel Schmitt announced that he was taking over as director of the Théâtre Rive Gauche in association with the producer and actor, Bruno Metzger. Following a period of renovation and refurbishment, the Théâtre Rive Gauche opened its doors in September 2012 and now hosts contemporary productions.
On Saturday 9 June 2012, the Royal Belgian Academy of French Language and Literature awarded Eric-Emmanuel Schmitt Seat 33 (foreign literary member) replacing Hubert Nyssen; Seat 33 was once occupied by Anna de Noailles, Colette and Jean Cocteau. The public session and reception was held on 25 May 2013.
In 2015, he published Night of Fire, an account of the revelation he experienced in the Ahaggar Desert in 1989 and which turned the former atheist into a believer. He now declares himself to be an "agnostic who believes". In answer to the question "Does God exist?" he replies, "I don't know but I think so."
In 2016 Eric-Emmanuel Schmitt was unanimously elected by his peers member of the jury of the Prix Goncourt, he occupies Edmonde Charles-Roux's cover and published a detective novel about violence and the sacred, The Man Who Could See Through Faces (L'Homme qui voyait à travers les visages).
In the spring of 2017, he talked publicly about his childhood and adolescence in When I Grow Up, I'm Going to be a Child (Plus tard, je serai un enfant), a book of interviews produced by Catherine Lalanne.
Other activities
In 2016, Schmitt was a commentator at the Rio Olympic Games alongside Patrick Montel, Alexandre Boyon, Stéphane Diagana and Nelson Monfort on France Télévisions.
Awards
1994
(Paris), Molière Award for the Best Show in an Independent Theatre for Le Visiteur (The Visitor).
(Paris), Molière Author Award and Molière Award for the Best Newcomer for Le Visiteur.
1995
, University of Artois first novel award for La Secte des égoïstes (The Sect of the Egoists)
1996
(Paris), two Molière Award nominations for Variations énigmatiques (Enigma Variations).
1997
, Cologne City Theatre Prize for Le Libertin (The Libertine).
, six Molière Award nominations for Le Libertin.
1998
, Balzac Academy Prize and two Molière Award nominations for Frederick ou le Boulevard du Crime (Frederick, or The Boulevard of Crime).
2000
, seven Molière Award nominations for Hôtel des deux mondes (Between Worlds).
2000/2001
, appointed Chevalier de l'ordre des Arts et des Lettres (Knight of the Order of Arts and Letters).
2001
, Elle Magazine Readers' Prize for L'Evangile selon Pilate (The Gospel According to Pilate). The novel was nominated for several literary prizes in the same year.
, Grand Prix du Théâtre de l'Académie française (French Academy Theatre Prize) for his literary output in its entirety.
2004
, Readers' Prize of the Society of Authors and Literature from Lyon and the Rhône-Alpes.
, Jean-Bernard Prize from the French Academy of Medicine for (Oscar and the Lady in Pink).
, Chronos Prize for .
, Lire Magazine conducted a survey of French citizens to find out which "books changed their lives". was cited along with the Bible, The Three Musketeers and The Little Prince.
, Deutscher Bücherpreis – Publikumspreis (Audience Choice in the German Book Awards) for his novella Mr Ibrahim and the Flowers of the Koran.
, Die Quadriga Prize for "his humanity and the wisdom which his humour brings people".
2005
, Chronos Prize for .
, nomination for the Molière Best Actor Award for L'Evangile selon Pilate.
, Rotary Prize for L'Enfant de Noé (Noah's Child).
2006
, Foreigners' Prize awarded by the Scriptores Christiani (Christian Writers) for Milarepa; Oscar and the Lady in Pink, Mr Ibrahim and the Flowers of the Koran; and The Visitor.
2009
, Meung-sur-Loire for Ulysse Bagdad (Ulysses from Baghdad), prix des Grands Espaces.
, Italy, Scrivere per Amore Prize, for La Rêveuse d'Ostende (The Woman with the Bouquet).
2010
, France, Goncourt Short Story Prize for Concerto à la mémoire d'un ange (Concerto to the Memory of an Angel).
, Russia, The Reading Petersburg Prize for his work in its entirety.
2012
, Spain, Ola de Oro Prize for his film Oscar et la Dame rose.
, France, Agrippa-d'Aubigné Prize, awarded by the Lions Club for his book La Femme au miroir (Three Women in a Mirror).
, France, Grand Prix Ardua 2012, awarded by the Regional Society of Aquitaine Graduates.
2013
, Ukraine, received a medal for his contribution to cultural and artistic development (the most prestigious Ukrainian cultural award).
2014
, Poland, Reading Ambassador Prize, awarded by the Polish Book Institute.
2016
, Belgium 21 July 2016, he was made Commander of the Order of the Crown by King Philippe of Belgium.
, Canada, 22 November 2016, received an honorary doctorate from the University of Sherbrooke.
2017
, France, Paris-Lyon Group Literary Prize.
Bibliography
Novels
The Sect of the Egoists ("La Secte des égoïstes", 1994)
The Gospel According to Pilate ("L'Évangile selon Pilate", 2000), Grand prix des lectrices de Elle
The Alternative Hypothesis ("La part de l'autre", 2001)
When I Was a Work of Art ("Lorsque j'étais une oeuvre d'art", 2002)
My Life with Mozart ("Ma vie avec Mozart", 2005)
Ulysses from Baghdad ("Ulysse from Bagdad", 2008)
("La Femme au miroir", 2011)
("Les Perroquets de la place d'Arezzo", 2013)
("L'Élixir d'amour", 2014)
("Le poison d'amour", 2014)
("La nuit de feu", 2015)
("L'Homme qui voyait à travers les visages", 2016)
Narratives
The Cycle of the Invisible ("Le Cycle de l'invisible")
Milarepa ("Milarepa", 1997)
Monsieur Ibrahim and the Flowers of the Koran ("Monsieur Ibrahim et les fleurs du Coran", 2001)
Oscar and the Lady in Pink ("Oscar et la Dame rose", 2002)
Noah's Child ("L'enfant de Noé", 2003)
The Sumo Wrestler Who Could Not Gain Weight ("Le Sumo qui ne pouvait pas grossir", 2009)
Ten Children Ms. Ming Never Had ("Les Dix Enfants que madame Ming n'a jamais eus", 2012)
("Madame Pylinska et le Secret de Chopin", 2018)
("Félix et la source invisible", 2019)
Short stories
The Most Beautiful Book in the World ("Odette Toulemonde et autres histoires", 2006)
The Woman with the Booklet ("La Rêveuse d'Ostende", 2007)
Concerto in Memory of an Angel ("Concerto à la mémoire d'un ange, 2010)
Two Gentlemen of Brussels ("Les Deux Messieurs de Bruxelles, 2012)
Invisible Love (2014)
Autobiography
My Life with Mozart ("Ma vie avec Mozart", 2005)
Essays
Diderot or the Philosophy of Seduction ("Diderot ou la philosophie de la séduction", 1997)
Theater plays
Don Juan on Trial ("La nuit de Valognes", 1991)
The Visitor ("Le Visiteur", 1993)
Golden Joe ("Golden Joe", 1995)
Enigma Variations ("Variations énigmatiques", 1996)
The Libertine ("Le Libertin", 1997)
Frederick or the Crime Boulevard ("Frédérick ou le Boulevard du Crime", 1998)
The Devil's School ("L'École du diable", 1999)
Between Worlds ("Hôtel des deux mondes", 1999)
The Gag ("Le Bâillon", 2000)
One Thousand and One Days ("Mille et un jours", 2001)
Partners in crime ("Petits crimes conjugaux", 2004)
Sentimental Tectonics ("La tectonique des sentiments", 2008)
("Le Bossu", 2008) -- from a novel by Paul Féval)
("Milady", 2010)
("Kiki van Beethoven", 2010)
("Le Journal d'Anne Frank", 2012) -- from The Diary of Anne Frank
("Un homme trop facile", 2013)
("The Guitrys", 2013)
("La trahison d'Einstein", 2014)
("Georges et Georges", 2014)
("Si on recommençait", 2014)
("Le joueur d'échecs", 2014) -- from The Royal Game by Stefan Zweig
("L'Élixir d'amour, 2015)
("Hibernatus, 2015)
("Vingt-quatres heures de la vie d'une femme, 2015) from Twenty-Four Hours in the Life of a Woman by Stefan Zweig
("Libres sont les papillons, 2016) from Butterflies are Free by Leonard Gershe
Opera translations
Les Noces de Figaro
Don Giovanni
Selected filmography
Oscar and the Lady in Pink (2009) - also director
Odette Toulemonde (2006) - also director
Monsieur Ibrahim (2003)
The Libertine (2000)
References
Notes
External links
Wolfe, Graham. "Making the Real Appear: Schmitt’s Enigma Variations as a ‘Traversal of the Fantasy’." Mosaic: A Journal for the Interdisciplinary Study of Literature 46.2 (2013). 147-162.
1960 births
Living people
20th-century French dramatists and playwrights
21st-century French dramatists and playwrights
20th-century French novelists
21st-century French novelists
École Normale Supérieure alumni
People from Sainte-Foy-lès-Lyon
French male novelists
Prix Goncourt de la nouvelle recipients
Belgian writers in French
Roman Catholic writers
Chevaliers of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres
Commanders of the Order of the Crown (Belgium)
Members of the Académie royale de langue et de littérature françaises de Belgique
20th-century French male writers
21st-century French male writers
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4821140
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jordan%20University%20of%20Science%20and%20Technology
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Jordan University of Science and Technology
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The Jordan University of Science and Technology ( Jami'at Al-Ulum wa Al-Tiknolojia Al-Urdunia), often abbreviated JUST, is a public technological university located on the outskirts of Irbid, at Ar Ramtha in northern Jordan. The university comprises twelve faculties that offer a spectrum of undergraduate and higher study programs, in addition to King Abdullah University Hospital which is a tertiary teaching hospital affiliated with JUST and located within its campus.
History
Having its roots at Yarmouk University in Irbid, a royal decree was issued in 1986 to establish JUST, which emerged as an independent university on September 1, 1986. JUST detached five faculties from Yarmouk University to form its academic nucleus. These faculties were: Faculty of Medicine, Faculty of Dentistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Faculty of Nursing and Faculty of Engineering. Consecutively added to these faculties were the Faculty of Science and Arts, Faculty of Medical Applied Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Computer and Information Technology, and the Faculty of Agriculture.
Started with 110 faculty members, JUST in 2018 hosted 985 academic faculty members, of which 249 were full professors. A total of 2,300 students enrolled in 1986, but as of the academic year 2017/2018, 22634 undergraduate and 2213 postgraduate students were enrolled at the university, representing 51 nationalities. The university granted 5177 Bachelor and Master Degrees in the academic year 2017/2018, with a total of over 77,000 graduates since establishment.
University Presidents
Prof. Kamel Ajlouni (1986–1995)
Prof. Saad Hijazi (1995–2003)
Prof. Wajih Owais (2003–2010)
Prof. Abdullah Al-Malkawi (2010–2014)
Prof. Mahmoud Alsheyab (2015–2016)
Prof. Omar Al-Jarrah (2016–2018)
Prof. Saeb Khresat (2018– 2021)
Prof. Khalid El-Salem (2021-date)
Campus
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The university campus is located in Ar Ramtha, 70 km north of Amman, the capital, and 20 km east of Irbid. It covers an area of approximately 11,000 dunums (11 km2). The main campus is surrounded by a green cover of 5,000 dunums. In addition to academic buildings and the JUST Library, the campus includes the university farm, 12 auditoriums, a concert hall, fine arts galleries and museums, as well as athletic facilities including a 7000-seat soccer stadium, a multipurpose indoor arena, a swimming pool, a squash court, and a gym.
The university campus is divided into two sections. The Medical Faculties Complex is located at the northern part of the university and houses the faculties of Dentistry, Medicine, Nursing, Applied Medical Sciences, Pharmacy and Science and Arts. The Engineering Faculties Complex is located at the southern part of the university and includes the faculties of Agriculture, Computer and Information Technology, Engineering, Architecture and Design and Veterinary Medicine. Buses shuttle students from one complex to the other.
There are two libraries in JUST, one in the Engineering Faculties Complex and the other is in the Medical Faculties Complex. The two-floor library at the Medical Faculties Complex contains 115,000 books, and 45,000 volumes of back issues of periodicals, which makes it the main library at the university. At the present time, a third library is being constructed in the area between the Engineering Faculties Complex and the Medical Faculties Complex which is larger in size than both existing libraries.
There are three restaurants for students; one in each main campus, and one located near the soccer stadium.
Every department has a computer laboratory for the students to use. There are also two open labs one in each campus and six additional labs, which are available for the graduate and undergraduate computer science students and students who are taking related courses at the PH building located at the Medicine Faculties Building. The campus is covered by a wireless internet connection (WLAN).
King Abdullah University Hospital
Named after the first king of modern Jordan, Abdullah I bin al-Hussein, the King Abdullah University Hospital (KAUH) is the largest hospital in northern Jordan, serving approximately one million inhabitants of the Irbid, Ajloun, Jerash, and Mafraq governorates. It is also the teaching hospital affiliated with Jordan University of Science and Technology, located within the campus adjacent to the university's Medical Faculties Complex. The hospital is staffed with full-time physicians and surgeons who are faculty members of the JUST Faculty of Medicine, in addition to many others from the Ministry of Health, and the Royal Medical Services (RMS). The overall area of various hospital buildings is 95583m², in addition to a double story car park of 9000m² area. The hospital has a bed capacity of 683 which can be increased to 800 beds in an emergency situation.
Structurally, the hospital is composed of a 15-storey high-rise building, in which all hospital beds are located, and a 3-story low-rise buildings in which patient clinics, diagnostic and other services are located. The hospital is connected to various health science faculties via the ground floor of the low-rise building. The hospital includes the departments of General Surgery, Special Surgery, Emergency Department, Pediatrics, Obstetrics and Gynecology, Internal Medicine and Dermatology, Cardiac Center, Diagnostic X-Ray, Pathology and Laboratory, Endoscopy Unit, Physical Therapy and Rehabilitation, Physiology Function Test, Neuroscience, Nursing and Information System Department.
Academics
Jordan University of Science and Technology is home to twelve faculties. The medium of teaching at the university; lectures, exams, and tuition, are primarily in English language, with Arabic being used mainly to facilitate student understanding as the greater majority of students are of Arab background.
Medical Faculties Complex
A group of building in the northern part of the university comprising the faculties of Medicine, Dentistry, Pharmacy, Nursing, Applied Medical Sciences, and Science and Arts.
Medicine
The JUST Faculty of Medicine, the second medical school in Jordan, was established in Yarmouk University at the northern city of Irbid in 1984; the faculty then branched out into Jordan University of Science and Technology in 1986. The faculty is closely associated with King Abdullah University Hospital, the teaching hospital where postgraduate students undergo their residencies.
As the faculty's main teaching hospital, KAUH provide students with the opportunity to attend lectures, tutorials, clinics, ward rounds, and surgeries. Medical students graduating from JUST are widely renowned for their achievements in the United States Medical Licensing Examination (USMLE), gaining postgraduate positions in well-known global institutions. Furthermore, the Faculty of Medicine has been an active participant in medical research and has hosted numerous international events and conferences, with focus on subjects in relation to myocardial protection and research, pediatrics, anesthesia, and internal medicine. As of September 2011, the faculty will be hosting the Fellow of the Royal College of Pathologists (FRC Path) Part 1 written exams in all Pathology specialties, which will enable Jordanian and Arab Pathologists to sit the exam outside the UK.
Nature of the Medical Program
The Faculty of Medicine awards the Bachelor of Medicine and Surgery (MBBS) after completion of six years comprising three years of medical sciences and three clinical years. Students are admitted to medicine based solely on their grade point average in their high school national general exam (Tawjihi); there are neither entrance interviews nor psychometric exams. The cutoff average used for admissions into medicine is the highest among all the other disciplines offered by universities. For example, the cutoff average used over the past five years has been: 94.9 (2005), 96.3 (2006), 97 (2007), 96.8 (2008), and 97.7 (2009). Although in the minority, the faculty of medicine accepts students from Israel, Palestine, Syria, Arab states of the Persian Gulf, Malaysia, and other countries. Tuition is significantly higher for the foreign students. Initially, the faculty at JUST accepted 50 students into the program, but that number has grown to more than 200 in recent years.
During the first year and a half of their program, students are taught basic science in a traditional format. In an integrated
module fashion, the next year and half is devoted to studying nine body systems: cardiovascular, respiratory, hematopoietic, digestive, endocrine, musculoskeletal, neuroscience 1 and 2, and reproductive and urinary. Towards the end of the third year students begin direct contact with patients in hospital settings. The last three years are spent in supervised inpatient and outpatient settings to develop their diagnostic and treatment competencies; the clinical years begin fully at the beginning of year 4 where students rotate through various areas of general clinical medicine. Year 5 continues this pattern focusing more on specialized areas of medicine and surgery. In total, students are required to complete 257 hours of classes divided among compulsory and elective courses. After completion of their 6th year, students are required to complete internship (imtiaz), which is a one-year term in general practice for which they are not compensated for.
Evaluations are based primarily on written exams (marks are based on two midterms and one end of term exam) and percentage grades appear on transcripts. Practical exams are solely based on an objective structured clinical examination (OSCE) type of standardized exams. In the final year, the school of medicine invites external examiners (from the United States, Britain, among others) to participate in student evaluations and to benefit from the experience of others.
Residency
Students looking to specialize can apply for residency programs after completion of imtiaz (internship). Most residency programs are four years in length, but notable exceptions include neurosurgery (6 years), general surgery (5 years), orthopedic surgery (5 years), and urology (5 years). Residency programs are divided into two broad groups: major and minor specialties. Major programs include internal medicine, pediatrics, obstetrics and gynecology, while the rest are considered minor. This division reflects the number of available seats and thus the competitiveness of each specialty. Faculty of Medicine
Dentistry
The Faculty of Dentistry at Jordan University of Science and Technology was founded by a royal decree on 16 September 1983 and the first group of students was admitted in the academic year 1984/1985. The faculty offers facilities for undergraduate and postgraduate training and is developing programs for all professionals in dentistry who wish to continue their education and obtain further qualifications. Faculty of Dentistry
Pharmacy
The Faculty of Pharmacy, the first in Jordan, was established as a department of the Faculty of Medical Sciences at Yarmouk University by a royal decree in 1979. The rapid growth and development of the department led to the transformation of the department into an independent faculty on September 19, 1983. Three years later -in September 1986– the Faculty of Pharmacy became affiliated with JUST. Faculty of Pharmacy
Nursing
The Faculty of Nursing was established in 1983 with only 2 faculty members and 23 students. It currently consists of 23 PhD, and 22 Masters prepared faculty members (Adult, Maternal Child, Community & Midwifery) placed in the four departments of the faculty; this body is supported by 27 MSN or BSN qualified clinical trainers. Faculty of Nursing
Applied Medical Sciences
The Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences was established in 2000, and was housed in several makeshift facilities. It was created to educate allied health professionals to fill crucial shortages in the health care needs of the people in Jordan. The faculty has since become a dynamic and vital member of the university health team. The faculty also has a number of sponsored students who are pursuing graduate studies leading to M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in various majors at well-known universities in the US, UK, and Australia. Upon graduation, they will join the faculty. Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences
Science and Arts
The Faculty of Science and Arts was established by a decree from the Council of Higher Education on January 26, 1987. It commenced its duties as of September 1, 1987. The faculty, one of the oldest and largest at the university, holds seven departments and a program of forensic science, offers both bachelor's and master's degrees and gives students the chance to choose from a plethora of disciplines that employ several pedagogical approaches involving classroom instruction, independent research, student-as-teacher approach, and internships or practical experience. Faculty of Science and Arts
Engineering Faculties Complex
This is a group of buildings in the southern part of the university housing the faculties of Engineering, Agriculture, Information Technology, Architecture and Design, Veterinary Medicine, and Graduate Studies.
Engineering
The Faculty of Engineering is the largest faculty in the university, with its 61 research and teaching labs. It comprises the departments of Biomedical Engineering, Aeronautical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Civil Engineering, Electrical Engineering, Industrial Engineering, Mechanical Engineering power and mechatronics, and Nuclear Engineering. The Faculty takes part and is accredited by the United States Engineering Accreditation Commission (EAC) of (ABET).
Agriculture
The Faculty of Agriculture was established by a royal decree on October 2, 1985. Study began at the faculty in 1989/1990 with 71 students, to grow into over 1100 students in the academic year 2006/2007, including 100 graduate students. The faculty began with only nine faculty members upon its establishment. Currently, the number has increased into 48 faculty members in four academic departments.
Information Technology
The Faculty of Information Technology was established in 2000. The Faculty consists of five departments: Computer Engineering, Computer Science, Computer Information System, Software Engineering, and Network Engineering.
Architecture and Design
The Faculty of Architecture and Design awards both bachelor's degrees and master's degrees and comprises the departments of architecture and urban planning. It participates yearly in the Arab Architectural Graduation Project Exhibition, which started as Bilad Al Sham Graduation Project Exhibition.
Veterinary Medicine
The Faculty of Veterinary Medicine was established at JUST in 1990 as a response to the national objective of improving animal health and productivity by increasing their efficiency and thereby reducing the cost of animal production. It is the only Faculty of Veterinary Medicine in Jordan. It also houses a Veterinary Health Center (VHC), which serves the purpose of clinical training for students and provides veterinary services to the public. The faculty is a research and a consultative center, in addition to its basic function in promoting and sustaining high standards of undergraduate and postgraduate programs. The faculty is an active member of the Arab Association of Veterinary Medical Faculties and it houses its office.
Graduate Studies
The Faculty of Graduate Studies provides advanced studies in different fields including Medicine, Applied Medical Sciences, Science, Nursing, Dentistry, Pharmacy, Veterinary Medicine, Agriculture, Engineering and Computer Technology. The faculty is entrusted with setting the rules and regulations pertinent to graduate programs and degrees and pursuing the implementation of these regulations.
Each faculty is best known with a color:
Research
Since its establishment, JUST has given its utmost priority to academic research. In this vein, the Deanship of Research commenced its activities at the early stages of the university establishment during the academic year 1986/1987. Research, basic and applied, is amongst the principal priorities of the university. Training and supervision in research methodology, especially for postgraduate students, is reinforced by several research centers, such as the Queen Rania Center for Environmental Science and Technology, Consultative Center for Science and Technology, Energy Center, Pharmaceutical Research Center, Princess Haya Biotechnology Center, and the Agricultural Center for Research & Production.
Research funding has steadily grown since the establishment of JUST in 1986, and an average of 200 research projects are sponsored and funded each year. As testimony to this development, JUST was ranked as the top research university in Jordan, and amongst the top 3% universities in the Islamic world, according to a study carried out by the Ankara-based Statistical, Economic and Social Research and Training Center for Islamic Countries (SESRTCIC).
Nature Journal has reported Jordan as having the highest number of researchers in research and development per million people among all the 57 countries members of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC). In Jordan there are 2,000 researchers per million people, while the average among the members of OIC is 500 researchers per million people. This means that the number of researchers per population in Jordan, is higher than Italy, Israel and Greece and just close to the number in United Kingdom and Ireland.
The Deanship of Research at JUST is the administrative and technical body that facilitates, regulates and observes the processes concerning research. It works in a collaborative and complementary manner with other faculties and administrative bodies of the university. Any research on humans should be approved by the Institutional Research Board (IRB) and any research on animals should be approved by the university Animal Care and Use Committee (ACUC) before being funded. Deanship of Research
Nuclear Science and Technology Center
In consistence with Jordan's efforts to develop and use nuclear energy for peaceful purposes and lessen its dependence on fossil fuel, and in co-ordinance with the Department of Nuclear Engineering of JUST, a nuclear research reactor, the first in the country, has been set to be built in the university campus which will serve as an integral part of the nuclear technology infrastructure of Jordan.
The five-megawatt (MW) nuclear research reactor, which was inaugurated in December 2016, will become the focal point for a Nuclear Science and Technology Center (NSTC) in JUST, playing the primary role in educating and training the upcoming generations of nuclear engineers and scientists, and providing irradiation services in support of the Jordanian industrial, agricultural and health/medical infrastructures.
The nuclear research reactor center will include radioisotope production and training facilities, future expansion of the center will include a fuel fabrication plant, as well as radioactive waste and cold neutron facilities. The reactor, which will be upgradeable to 10MW, will facilitate the training of nuclear operators and technicians as well as advanced nuclear research in neutron sciences and the commercial production of radioisotopes, it will also allow for practical experience for Jordanians in nuclear energy, reactor physics, radiochemistry and radiation protection. The research reactor is considered by Jordan Atomic Energy Commission (JAEC) officials to be an important precursor to Jordan's first nuclear power plant, a 750–1,000MW Generation III reactor to be built in an area in Mafraq 40 kilometers northeast of Amman and 15 kilometers away from the Hashemite University.
Library
The library collection comprises 115,000 books, and 45,000 volumes of periodicals back issues. In organizing its collection, the Library adopts the Library of Congress Classification Scheme, and uses the Anglo-American Cataloging Rules (AACR2) and the International Standard of Bibliographic Description (ISBD).
The total floor area of the library is estimated as 12.500 square meters, and it can accommodate 2.500 visitors at the same time due to the large area that the library has.
To cope with the new technologies in the field of library and information science, the library started in 1993 to offer retrieved information services through a good number of necessary databases, which are published on CD-ROM or online (WAN) subscriptions.
There are two libraries in JUST, one in the Engineering Faculties Complex and the other is in the Medical Faculties Complex. While both libraries give the students an appropriate and suitable place for reading and studying, the two-floor library at the Medical Faculties Complex is relatively larger, also contains 115,000 books, and 45,000 volumes of back issues of periodicals, which makes it the main library at the university. At the present time, a third library is being built in the area between the two complexes and is larger in size than both existing libraries and is set to become the largest library in the Middle East.
Publications
The university issues a quarterly journal called the Jordan Journal of Civil Engineering (JJCE). The journal is internationally peer-reviewed. Subjects covered include applications of civil rehabilatations, structural control, smart materials, earthquake engineering, geotechnical engineering and soil/rock mechanics, dam engineering, traffic and transportation engineering, water and environmental engineering, construction management and project planning, surveying and mapping, and infrastructures engineering, as well as numerical and analytical methods.
The Deanship of Research is responsible for the funding of research publications by staff members and students, as well as managing the Jordan Journal of Civil Engineering.
Student Newspaper
Just for Just, is an electronic newspaper initiated by the students of the university.
Students
A students' union is elected annually to represent the students. Student clubs that are responsible for organizing various events throughout the academic year. Of the most prominent of these clubs are the Medical Club, Great Arab Revolt Club, Media Club, Science Club, International student Club, Chess Club, and Culture Club.
International community
The number of international students at JUST continues to rise; in the academic year 2005/2006, more than 3,500 students of 48 nationalities came from outside Jordan. As of the academic year 2009/2010, the university had 5,415 international students from 61 different nationalities, rendering it the most cultural-diverse university in Jordan. The International Student Office (ISO) was established in 2005 and is supervised directly by the president. Highly qualified coordinators and staff provide cultural, social and legal consultation, field trips, social events, and meetings with the president. An International Community Fair takes place annually at the university with the aim of encouraging and promoting cross-cultural communication and diversity in the workplace.
Housing
On-campus housing
The first building was established in 1993. Due to increasing demand, the number of buildings was gradually raised to eight fully occupied buildings. Each building consists of four floors, the ground floor included. Each floor consists of two major wards, each of which contains eleven rooms, in addition to an adequate number of bathrooms and showers associated with each ward. Each building offers three types of rooms.
Health care and insurance
Health care is available to all students, the cost of which is included in the semester fees. It covers 100% of most services offered by the University Health Centers, including King Abdullah University Hospital (KAUH) and the JUST Health Center (HC). The university provides free life insurance coverage to all students. JUST Health Center (HC) in Irbid was established in 1983 to provide medical care to students, faculty and staff. It is also a teaching center for the residency program of family medicine.
Faculty
Kamel Ajlouni, endocrinologist and university president from 1986 to 1995.
International affiliations
Association of Arab Universities (AArU)
International Association of Universities (IAU)
Federation of the Universities of the Islamic World (FUIW)
Mediterranean Universities Union (UNIMED)
Royal Norwegian Commission
IKIP/Malaysia
International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA)
World Health Organization (WHO)
Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA)
EU
International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (ICGEB)
UNESCO
Alexander von Humboldt Foundation/Germany
International Centre for Theoretical Physics/Italy
German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD)
The British Council/ODA
The French Mission for Agriculture and Water (Fulbright)
Cisco Systems
Boscan International
Microsoft
IBM
Photo gallery
See also
List of Islamic educational institutions
References
External links
Jordan University of Science and Technology
Educational institutions established in 1986
Scientific organisations based in Jordan
Science and technology in Jordan
Research institutes in Jordan
1986 establishments in Jordan
Universities in Jordan
Irbid Governorate
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Lindy%20Hop
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History of Lindy Hop
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The history of Lindy Hop begins in the African American communities of Harlem, New York during the late 1920s in conjunction with swing jazz. Lindy Hop is closely related to earlier African American vernacular dances but quickly gained its own fame through dancers in films, performances, competitions, and professional dance troupes. It became especially popular in the 1930s with the upsurge of aerials. The popularity of Lindy Hop declined after World War II, and it converted to other forms of dancing, but it never disappeared during the decades between the 1940s and the 1980s until European and American dancers revived it starting from the beginning of the 1980s.
Early influences (1900s–1920s)
Lindy Hop combined a number of dances popular in the United States in the 1920s and earlier, many of which developed in African American communities. Just as jazz music emerged as a dominant art form that could absorb and integrate other forms of music, Lindy Hop could absorb and integrate other forms of dance. This hybridity is characteristic of vernacular dances, in which forms and steps are adapted and developed to suit the social and cultural needs of its participants in everyday spaces. Therefore, Lindy Hop was not originally the creative or economic project of formal dance academies or institutions.
Lindy Hop's genealogy can be seen in the ideological themes, social uses, and steps that it has absorbed during its development. For many Lindy Hop historians, the Charleston is Lindy Hop's most influential predecessor, and Lindy Hop's basic footwork and timing reflects that of the Charleston. The transition from Charleston to Lindy Hop was facilitated by the Breakaway, a partner dance which introduced the 'Swing out' and 'open position' of dances such as the Texas Tommy to the 'closed position' and footwork of partnered Charleston. As jazz music in the late 1920s changed, so did jazz dances, including the Lindy Hop. The swung note of swinging jazz encouraged dancers to introduce a 'delay' in their timing which influenced the execution of footwork and approaches to tempo within Charleston and Breakaway.
Classic era (1927 to 1936)
Harlem and Its Renaissance
The Savoy Ballroom was the first integrated ballroom in the country, and the New York Renaissance of the 1920s raised the profile of African American vernacular culture in white communities within the United States, particularly in New York City. The popularity of African American dance and music fed what became a fascination with the somewhat illicit nature of the ghetto area. In 1937, white patronage in the area brought much-needed income to the bars, clubs, and theaters of Harlem, as well as work for black artists in a city increasingly belabored by economic depression.
Upper and middle class white audiences were exposed to Harlem's working class entertainment, at first through white audiences attending black venues and shows in Harlem, but later through traveling shows, popular music, and cinema. This prompted a mainstream thirst for "black" cultural forms. However, by the time dances such as the Lindy Hop reached mainstream white audiences, they had often been reworked by white teachers and film studios to accord with the aesthetics and social values of white mainstream America. White dancers in Hollywood films played pivotal roles in popularizing Lindy Hop.
Harlem's increasing popularity as an entertainment district, as well as a vibrant creative center for African Americans in the 1920s and 1930s, brought about the creation and popularization of Lindy Hop, both in social dance spaces and on the stage.
Origin of the Lindy Hop
In one account it is argued that, in the slang of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, a 'Lindy' was a young woman. There exists an unsubstantiated claim that the word "hop" was documented as early as 1913 as a term for swing dancing and was also, apparently, a term used by early Texas Tommy dancers to describe the basic move for their dance.
In a more influential, but inaccurate account, however, popular legend has it that dancer "Shorty" George Snowden renamed the breakaway dance as the Lindy Hop in a dance contest. In this version, Snowden was one of the 24 couples that competed in a negro dance marathon that began on June 17, 1928 at the Manhattan Casino, a ballroom that was located at 8th Avenue and 155th Street in Harlem.
During the contest "as he remembers it - Snowden decided to do a breakaway, that is, fling his partner out and improvise a few solo steps of his own. In the midst of the monotony of the marathon, the effect was electric, and even the musicians came to life...Fox Movietone News arrived to cover the marathon and decided to take a close-up of Shorty's feet" and an interviewer then asked him, "What are you doing with your feet?" Snowden, "without stopping, replied 'The Lindy'".
Research has shown that Snowden's account of the naming of the Lindy Hop in the Rockland Palace (the Manhattan Casino which was renamed at the time of the marathon) is likely not true because the term 'lindy hop' in connection with the Harlem Lindy Hop was used for the first time in public in September 1928, which is more than two months after Snowden and his partner Mattie Purnell supposedly named the dance in the dance marathon. The time gap between the dance marathon and the first use of the term in public does not make sense if Snowden really named the dance in the dance marathon.
As there does not exist proper evidence for the naming of the Lindy Hop, there exists evidence for inventing the Lindy Hop in the dance marathon in which Snowden and Purnell participated and devised the basic principle of the Lindy Hop.
Whether Snowden intended it or not, Lindy Hop was associated with Charles Lindbergh's transatlantic airplane flight, completed in 1927. "Lindy" was the aviator's nickname. The reporter interviewing Snowden apparently tied the name to Charles Lindbergh to gain publicity and further his story. While Lindbergh's trans-Atlantic flight may or may not have inspired the name "Lindy Hop", the association between the aviator, George Snowden and the dance continues in Lindy Hop folklore. Te Roy Williams and His Orchestra recorded the song "Lindbergh Hop," written by Ted Nixon and Elmer Snowden, on May 25, 1927. The Memphis Jug Band on 9/13/1928 recorded "Lindberg Hop (Overseas stomp)," written by Jab Jones and Will Shade.
Often referred to as the "first generation" of Lindy Hop, dancers such as George Snowden, Leroy "Stretch" Jones, Twistmouth George and Edith Matthews inspired many other dancers and troupes (including Frankie Manning) to take up Lindy Hop. Twistmouth George and Matthews are credited with inventing the "twist" that characterises the first few steps of the follower's footwork in the Swingout. By the end of the classic era Lindy Hop was danced across Harlem in ballrooms, night clubs, cabaret clubs, rent parties, apartments, and street parties — almost anywhere people came together with music to dance.
Aerials era (1935 to 1941)
In 1935 Lindy Hop—with swing music—had become increasingly popular throughout America, attributable in part to the success of musicians such as Artie Shaw, Benny Goodman, Count Basie, Cab Calloway, and Chick Webb.
Ballrooms across the United States hosted the big bands of the day, with Chick Webb leading one of the most popular at the Savoy Ballroom. It was with his orchestra that the teenage Ella Fitzgerald first gained fame. These ballrooms continued a national tradition of sponsoring contests where dancers invented, tested and displayed new steps for prizes. At first banning lindy hoppers because they took more space than other dancers and often kicked nearby couples, the Savoy eventually relented and welcomed them as an attraction for other guests. As the 'Home of Happy Feet', the Savoy became the hottest ballroom in New York City, if not the world.
The first air steps
Head bouncer at the Savoy Herbert "Whitey" White (an African American man nicknamed for a white streak in his hair) managed a team of local dancers that included George Snowden. White arranged for dancers to perform at professional engagements, including parties and shows, all over the city and country. George Snowden's absence from the ballroom with these performances gave a new generation of dancers the opportunity to shine, Frankie Manning among them. With the most popular dancers returning to the Savoy between engagements, rivalries soon developed between different groups, particularly between Shorty George and his friends and newer dancers such as Manning. These rivalries were often played out in formal competitions between groups.
Since the beginning of jazz dance, acrobatics were an essential part of vernacular dance, commonly known as flash dancers who toured with bands across United States during the first part of the 20th century. The first generation of Savoy Lindy Hoppers, George Snowden's generation, introduced the early versions of air steps and acrobatics to the Lindy Hop by the very beginning of the 1930s.
Savoy Lindy Hopper Frankie Manning has claimed that he devised the first air step in the Lindy Hop. This story, however, is inaccurate. It is more accurate to say that his first air step in the Lindy Hop likely helped to develop the spectacular air step routines which Manning's generation of Savoy Lindy Hoppers, the second generation, perfected.
Manning went on to dance extensively with one of the most influential Lindy Hop troupes, the Whitey's Lindy Hoppers (also known as Whitey's Lindy Maniacs, Whyte's Hopping Maniacs, The Harlem Congaroos, The Hot Chocolates, and other names). The troupe was based at the Savoy and managed by White. They performed around the world from 1935 to 1942 at private parties and in stage shows and films; contributing to the spread of Lindy across America.
Dean Collins and Hollywood
Lindy Hop's movement into the American and international mainstream is largely attributed to four factors: Hollywood films, dance studios and instructors such as Arthur Murray, touring dance troupes, and ordinary people (e.g., American troops in WWII bringing Lindy Hop to new countries). One of key figures in Lindy Hop's move to Hollywood was Dean Collins.
Dean Collins, learned Lindy Hop from his Jewish sisters in New Jersey and the Savoy Ballroom and became a high-profile dancer of this style on the west coast of the United States, appearing in a number of Hollywood films, such as Hellzapoppin'.
Pre-World War II
America was a turbulent time for many groups in the country, including the painful legacy of slavery, the KKK, and the oppressive era of the media and Hollywood. Jim Crow and the complexities of vaudeville and blackface were also significant issues.
Additionally, we must not forget the atrocities of the Holocaust, as well as the rise of the pro-Nazi German American Bund, which influenced millions of Americans with their ideologies. Furthermore, it is distressing to note that the United States was sending Jewish refugees back to Europe, where many faced the horrifying fates, due to the prevalent racism within the country.
The Swingjugend, young rebels in Nazi Germany, defied the regime's cultural restrictions by embracing banned swing music and wearing zoot suits. They organized secret gatherings to listen, dance, and express their longing for freedom. The Swingjugend's defiance challenged the Nazi ideology, leading to persecution and arrests.
World War II era (1941 to 1945)
During the beginning of World War II, Japanese-Americans and other groups were unjustly interned in camps. Despite this, Japanese-Americans formed swing bands, bringing solace and community to fellow detainees. These bands played lively music, including swing and big band tunes, lifting spirits in the camps. Through performances and dances, they provided moments of joy and escape from the hardships of internment.
In 1943, Life magazine featured Lindy Hop on its cover and called it "America's National Folk Dance". Lindy Hop/Jitterbug was a popular dance used by the media as a military recruitment tool. Places like the Hollywood Canteen were featured in films to capitalize on these dance popularity, attracting individuals and promoting enlistment. The energetic rhythms and exhilarating movements of Lindy Hop/Jitterbug symbolized patriotism and camaraderie, generating excitement and a sense of adventure in joining the military. By showcasing these dances at venues such as the Hollywood Canteen, the media effectively instilled a spirit of unity and support for the troops, contributing to the war effort and shaping the cultural landscape of that era.
Betty Davis, one of the owners of the venue, insisted on the full integration of race and sex at the Hollywood Canteen, even when most other military canteens and USO venues strictly practiced segregation. Initially, her policy was rejected, but she leveraged her influence by threatening to quit unless it was implemented. However, in practice, visitors still tended to socialize along racial lines, and servicewomen were often confined to the upstairs balcony area.During the war many top performers were called to military service, including many Lindy Hoppers and musicians. Lindy hop became a wartime recreation, with dancers developing as the most well-known and common faces in popular musical films. Frankie Manning and other members of the Whitey's Lindy Hoppers were drafted, prompting the disbanding of the group. Norma Miller would go on to Southern California where she would perform at the clubs off Central Ave from 1943-46. It was during this time that balboa, swing, and shag dancers mention going to these clubs with their African-American friends, who were in such films as Cabin in the Sky. One such club, Club Alabam, where Norma worked, even hosted an annual drag contest.
In 1943, the Zoot Suit Riots occurred, incited by a series of racially motivated attacks targeting Mexican-American and other youths, particularly those who were jazz-loving enthusiasts wearing zoot suits. The riots primarily took place in Los Angeles, California, and involved clashes between servicemen, primarily white sailors and soldiers, and young Mexican-Americans. The tensions escalated due to a combination of social, cultural, and economic factors, as well as racial prejudice. The Zoot Suit Riots have since been recognized as a significant event in the history of civil rights and racial relations in the United States.
In 1944, due to continued involvement in World War II, the United States levied a 30 percent federal excise tax against "dancing" nightclubs. Although the tax was later reduced to 20 percent, "No Dancing Allowed" signs went up all over the country.
Post-war era (1945 to 1984)
After the Second World War, music changed. Jazz clubs, burdened by new taxes and legislation limiting venues' ability to employ musicians and dancers or host dancing, employed only smaller bands and filled dance floors with tables. Musicians, immersed in the new world of bebop and cool jazz wanted patrons to pay attention and listen, not dance. The rise of rock and roll and bebop in the 1950s saw a further decline in the popularity of jazz for dancing, and Lindy Hop slipped from the public eye, replaced by Rock and Roll dancing, East Coast Swing, West Coast Swing and other dances.
Revival era (1980s)
Lindy Hop was revived in the 1980s by dancers in New York City, California, Stockholm, and the United Kingdom. Each group independently searched for original Lindy Hop dancers and, for those who lived outside of New York City, traveled to New York City to work with them. Al Minns, Pepsi Bethel, Frankie Manning and Norma Miller came out of retirement and toured the world teaching Lindy Hop, later to be joined by dancers such as George and Sugar Sullivan.
British revival
Louise "Mama Lou" Parks was a hostess at the Savoy Ballroom who promised Charles Buchanan that she would continue holding the Lindy Hop portion of the Harvest Moon Ball dance competition after the Savoy Ballroom closed. She helped preserve the dance by teaching the performance and competition aspects to a new generation of dancers, and in doing so, helped a generation from getting in trouble with the law. After Parks contacted Wolfgang Steuer of the World Rock 'N' Roll Federation in Germany about sponsoring the winners of her Harvest Moon Ball at their international swing dance competition, she started to become more well known in Europe and caught the attention of the British TV company London Weekend Television. "In 1981 they paid for one of Mama Lou's events to be re-staged at Small's Paradise Club on 7th Avenue in Harlem."
The program aired in late 1982 on the arts program The South Bank Show and featured Parks, her Traditional Jazz Dance Company, and the Lindy Hop. The TV show sparked so much interest in the dance that Mama Lou Parks and her Traditional Jazz Dance Company toured the UK in 1983 and 1984. Terry Monaghan and Warren Heyes met each other at her workshops in London in 1983. Afterwards, they decided to form the British dance company The Lindy Hop Jivers, later renamed to the Jiving Lindy Hoppers.
In March 1985, the Jiving Lindy Hoppers (Warren Heyes, Terry Monaghan, Ryan Francois, Claudia Gintersdorfer, and Lesley Owen) travelled to New York City on their first research visit. Their goal was primarily to meet Al Minns but when they arrived, they learned that he was in hospital and not expected to live much longer. (Al Minns died on 24 April 1985.) Through Mama Lou Parks, they met Alfred "Pepsi" Bethel and trained with him for two weeks in New York City followed by another week in London. While in NY, they also met two former members of Whitey's Lindy Hoppers, Frankie Manning and Norma Miller, dance historians Mura Dehn, Sally Sommer, and Ernie Smith, as well as dance enthusiasts that had just formed the New York Swing Dance Society in 1985. During the 1980s, the Jiving Lindy Hoppers were instrumental in spreading Lindy Hop throughout the UK by teaching and performing at shows, festivals and on TV. In January 1984, the Jiving Lindy Hoppers started teaching Lindy Hop in London. After the first few classes, Ryan Francois joined the classes and later that year became a member of the Jiving Lindy Hoppers. During the 1990s, he was considered one of the most talented modern Lindy Hoppers and travelled internationally to teach and perform the Lindy Hop with his dance company, Zoots and Spangles Authentic Jazz Dance Company (formed in 1986) formed with two other dancers who also left The Jiving Lindyhoppers troupe to form Zoots and Spangles. On 31 October 1987, Simon Erland, a sculptor and dance enthusiast, started Jitterbugs London with Ryan Francoise, the first European Lindy Hop and Swing club to run weekly events with classes that began the social Lindyhop revival. Ryan's troupe Zoots and Spangles were an integral part of the club and performed there regularly as well as in stage shows which grew the popular awareness of the dance. Jitterbugs and Zoots were the real catalyst for the Lindyhop revival in the 1980s and 1990s. Ryan Francois and Julie Oram taught Lindy Hop classes followed by DJed music from the 1930s, 1940s and 1950s. Sing Lim, "an extra enthusiastic and energetic dancer", became good friends with Ryan and Julie and in 1991, she started to help run Jitterbugs. Sing Lim taught the dance classes when Ryan and Julie were out of town performing for Zoots and Spangles, as well as helped advertise and promote the club. When Sing Lim returned to Singapore in 1994, she started Jitterbugs Swingapore and helped spread Lindy Hop to Singapore, Australia, and Japan, as well as parts of the U.S.
In 1986, Simon Selmon started taking Lindy Hop classes from Warren Heyes, his previous rock and roll dance instructor who had now converted to Lindy Hop. The dance classes inspired Simon Selmon to travel to New York City later that year, where he met Margaret Batiuchok, one of the founders of the New York Swing Dance Society. Upon his return to London, he started the London Swing Dance Society in a similar manner to the New York Swing Dance Society. Later, Simon Selmon travelled throughout Europe, America, and Japan teaching Lindy Hop.
American revival
In 1981, Al Minns was rediscovered by Sandra Cameron and Larry Schulz during a Louise "Mama Lou" Parks event. They invited him to teach at Sandra's dance studio, the Sandra Cameron Dance Center (SCDC). Another instrumental figure was Paul Grecki, who also worked with Al and later with Frankie Manning at the studio. Minns joined the dance center and began a swing program there in 1982. Frankie Manning joined the Center in 1985.
Californian dancers Erin Stevens and Steven Mitchell flew to New York City to take classes with him in 1983 and 1984. When Al Minns died in 1985, they learned about Frankie Manning through Bob Crease, a board member of the New York Swing Dance Society. They visited Frankie Manning in 1986 and are credited with convincing him to begin instructing Lindy Hop. Erin Stevens and Steven Mitchell helped spread Lindy Hop to California and other locations within the US. With Frankie Manning out of retirement, he continued where Al Minns left off at the Sandra Cameron Dance Center. Eventually the demand for his dance instruction increased and Frankie Manning started to travel and teach worldwide spreading his joy of Lindy Hop.
Swedish revival
Three Swedish dancers who later formed an influential performance and teaching group called The Rhythm Hot Shots traveled to New York City in April 1984 in search of Al Minns, one of Whitey's Lindy Hoppers. They invited Al Minns to Stockholm, where he held a dance workshop in 1984 for the newly created Swedish Swing Society. When Al Minns died in 1985, they asked Frankie Manning to come to Sweden. The Swedish Swing Society and The Rhythm Hot Shots helped spread Lindy Hop throughout Sweden and the rest of the world, partly through the Herräng Dance Camp held every summer since 1982 in the town of Herräng.
Neo-swing era (1990s)
After Frankie Manning won a Tony Award in 1989 for his choreography in the musical Black and Blue, the popularity of neo-swing during the swing revival stimulated mainstream interest in the dance. Hollywood and music artists drew inspiration from the iconic Savoy Ballroom and Smalls Paradise of the 1930s and 1940s, as well as from the admiration of popular musicians like Cab Calloway, and actresses like Dorothy Jean Dandridge.
In 1992, Frankie Manning choreographed the dance sequence for the movie Malcolm X, featuring swing dancing. Aladdin, also released that year, included a swing number. In 1993, the movie Swing Kids showcased swing dancing as a form of youth resistance to the Nazi party in Germany. The Jungle Book and The Mask, released in 1994, incorporated swing elements, along with the cult hit movie Swingers in 1996. However, the song "Zoot Suit Riot" by Cherry Poppin' Daddies, which gained popularity in 1997, truly added to the craze. The "Khaki Swing" television commercials for Gap, featuring swing dancing, further fueled the neo-swing trend in 1998. Additionally, the film Blast from the Past (1999) featured the song “Mr. Zoot Suit.”
During this era, there was a swing revival as many artists transition from rock, punk rock, rockabilly jump blues and ska rhythms with blazing horns and flamboyant presentation into a reinterpretation of swinging jazz themes and classic songs
Bands and clubs dedicated to neo-swing emerged in major cities across the United States, and the genre's influence spread internationally. Swing dancers, inspired by films, advertisements, and bands, adopted the style, donning elaborate zoot suits and accessories, echoing past fashion trends.
However, as Lindy Hop has its roots in the Black communities of Harlem, the mainstream adoption by predominantly white enthusiasts raised concerns about cultural appropriation. It is essential to acknowledge the dance's history and pay tribute to its pioneers in order to foster a respectful appreciation. By recognizing its origins and honoring the contributions of African American communities, we can ensure cultural understanding and inclusivity within the swing community.
Revivalist Lindy Hoppers, including the Jiving Lindy Hoppers, Sandra Cameron Dance Center, the New York Swing Dance Society, Rhythm Hot Shots, Sylvia Sykes, and Erin Stevens, played a crucial role in the resurgence of swing. They had the unique opportunity to learn from the Original Savoy dancers and share their knowledge by offering Lindy Hop classes to young people who were interested.
The neo-swing era then popularized the dance, with these revivalists conducting extensive research, learning from the past, and bringing swing back into the spotlight. Their efforts reintroduced swing to the general public, creating a strong and popular foundation that has ensured the continuation of this art form well into the 21st century.
See also
Lindy Hop today
Notes
The dance marathon at the Manhattan Casino was specifically for "Negro" dancers. George Snowden and his partner Mattie Purnell won "all the prizes for fancy stepping and other competitions" on June 20, 1928, during the third evening of competition. On June 27, The New York Times reported that Aurelia Ida Hallback and Bernard Paul, a couple in the dance marathon, had planned to marry on Friday, June 29. They were going to withdraw from the competition until the promoter, John Lavaro, said that a minister would be provided if they were still in the competition on their intended wedding date. The couple decided to marry while still dancing in the marathon and their wedding was recorded by FOX Movietone News in "MVTN C 4980: Couple Dance on Way to Get Marriage License". Four couples remained when the dance marathon was forced by the Health Commissioner to end after 16 days, on July 3. The eight finalists were awarded an equal portion of the $1000 prize at the Savoy Ballroom on Friday, July 6, 1928.
References
Further reading
DeFrantz, Thomas. Dancing Many Drums: Excavations in African American Dance. Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press, 2001. .
Emery, Lynne Fauley. Black Dance in the United States from 1619 to 1970. California: National Press Books, 1972. .
Friedland, LeeEllen. "Social Commentary in African-American Movement Performance." Human Action Signs in Cultural Context: The Visible and the Invisible in Movement and Dance. Ed. Brenda Farnell. London: Scarecrow Press, 1995. 136 - 57.
Gottschild, Brenda Dixon. Digging the Africanist Presence in American Performance. Connecticut and London: Greenwood Press, 1996. .
Hazzard-Gordon, Katrina. Jookin': The Rise of Social Dance Formations in African-American Culture. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1990. .
Jackson, Jonathan David. "Improvisation in African-American Vernacular Dancing." Dance Research Journal 33.2 (2001/2002): 40–53.
Malone, Jacqui. Steppin' on the Blues: The Visible Rhythms of African American Dance. Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1996. .
Szwed, John F., and Morton Marks. "The Afro-American Transformation of European Set Dances and Dance Suites." Dance Research Journal 20.1 (1988): 29 – 36.
Lindy Hop
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sari%2C%20Iran
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Sari, Iran
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Sari ( ); also romanized as Sārī), also known as Shahr-e-Tajan and Shari-e-Tajan, is a city in the Central District of Sari County, Mazandaran province, Iran, and serves as both capital of the province, county and district. Sari was the former capital of Iran for a short period and is in the north of the country, between the northern slopes of the Alborz Mountains and southern coast of the Caspian Sea. Sari is the largest and most populous city of Mazandaran.
Geography
The coastline north of Sari fronts onto the Mazandaran Sea; north-east of the city lies Neka.
Qa'emshahr (formerly known as Shahi) is to its south-west, Juybar is to its north-west,
and Kiasar, Damghan, and Semnan are cities located to the south.
Climate
Sari has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen: Cfa, Trewartha: Cf) that borders on a Mediterranean climate (Csa). Winters are cool and rainy whilst summers are hot and humid. Sari's 2005–2006 statistical weather information, in comparison with that of other Mazandaran cities, shows that Sari has an average climate, but it is somewhat sunnier and has more spring rain. However, recent rainfall in Sari has declined.
History
Early history
Excavations in the Hutto cave present evidence for the existence of settlements around Sari as far back as the 70th millennium BCE.
The Muslim historian Hamdollah Mostowfi attributes the foundation of Sari to king Tahmoures Divband of the Pishdadian Dynasty. Ferdowsi mentions the name of the city in Shahnameh, at the time of Fereydun and Manuchehr, when Manuchehr is returning to Fereydun's capital, Tamisheh in Mazandaran, after the victory over Salm and Tur:
the city's name was also Zadracarta in 658 B.C to 225 A.D.
Coming from this and other similar evidence in the Shahnameh, native people of Sari have a folklore that the city was populated when the blacksmith Kaveh (a native of the city) revolted against the tyranny of Zahak. After that success, Fereydun of Pishdadi (from Tamishan) feeling indebted to Kaveh, chose this city so as to live near him until his death. For this reason, when Touraj and Salam murdered Iraj (son of Fereydun), they buried him here.
Espahbod Tous-e Nouzar (great-grandson of Fereydun) systematically founded it to remain as family monument. Sari may be synonymous with the city of Zadracarta (Persian: Sadrakarta) mentioned by Ancient Greek sources as early as the 6th century BCE (Achaemenid dynasty). However, other sources suggest that modern Gorgan is located closer to, or on, the site of Zadracarta.
According to Arrian, this was the largest city of Hyrcania. The term means "the yellow city" and it was given to it because of the great number of orange, lemon, and other fruit trees that grew in the outskirts of that city. Hence it is by D'Anville, Rochette, and other geographers, identified Saru, which Pietro Della Valle says in his "Travels" means "the yellow city". It is probable that Zadracarta and Saru are the same with the Syringis of Polybius, taken from Arsaces II by Antiochus the Great, in his vain attempt to reunite the revolted provinces of Hyrcania and Parthia to the Syrian crown. Han Way, who visited Saru in 1734, makes mention of four ancient Magian temples as still standing then, built in the form of several rotundas, each thirty feet in diameter, and about 120 in height. However Sir William Ouseley, who had travelled to the site in 1811, has speculated that these to be masses of brick masonry of the Mohammedan age. Out of four, one of the rotunda is still standing since the rest were overturned by an earthquake. This and other remains of similar buildings, bear the names of Fereydun, Salm, Tur, and other mythical figures, whose celebrity had been established about 2000 years prior to their erection. One of them Avas called the tomb of Kaus, and was supposed to contain the ashes of Cyrus the Great. Sir William Ouseley thinks it was that of Kabus, or Kaus, the son of Washmakin, who governed Mazanderan in the fourth century of the Hejira. It was at Saru that the ashes of the youthful hero, Sohraub, were deposited by his father, Roostum, after he had unwittingly slayed Sohrab in a hand-to-hand battle. Saru is celebrated for its abundance of gardens, which emit a pleasing fragrance in the vernal and summer months. An oriental proverb declares that the "gates of paradise derive sweetness from the air of Sari and the flowers of Eden receive their fragrance from its soil". The city was again a regional capital in the Sassanid dynasty era.
Capital of Tabaristan local rulers
In the seventh century, Farrukhan the Great of the Dabuyid dynasty reconstructed the city, and because his son's name was "Saruyeh", he called it by this name. Sari once again became the capital of Tabaristan during that century (Amol was the capital previously ).
After invasions by the successors of Mongols, Timur of Uzbeks, Turcoman, and Tatars the city lost its high status and was periodically burnt to ashes.
Safavid-Qajar era
Because Shah Abbas I's mother was from Behshahr (Ashraf), he founded Farahabad as his alternate capital of Persia in the north of the city and created the gardens in Ashraf. Mazandaran alongside neighboring Gilan were subsequently settled during Abbas' reign by large numbers of Georgians, Circassians, Armenians and other peoples of the Caucasus, whose descendants still live across Mazandaran. Still many towns, villages and neighbourhoods in Mazandaran bear the name "Gorji" (i.e. Georgian) in them, although most of the Georgians are already assimilated into the mainstream Mazanderanis.
After the Safavid dynasty fell and until the rise of Agha Mohammad Khan to power there, is no evidence of any notable events in Sari.
Early 20th century
Major developments took place after the Qajar dynasty. During the reign of Reza Shah Pahlavi, the face of the town was changed drastically. Sari Rail Station and most of the streets and governmental buildings date from that era. During World War II the Soviet army occupied the city, but left it after the war.
About Sari
The Clock Tower, in the Clock Square (Meydan-e-Sa'at) located in downtown Sari, attracts visitors and has become a local landmark. Mohammad Ali Hamidi built the clock tower in 1930. Sari also contains the tombs of the Muslim cleric leaders Yahya and Zayn Al-Abedin, Emamzade-ye Abbas, and Shazdeh Hussein the architecture of which are from the 15th century.
Economy
The economy of Sari is based on food production such as milled rice, dairy products, canned meat and cookies. Sari is a major citrus fruits producer, especially oranges, tangerines and lemons. Oil seeds such as soybean and grape being cultivated in vast lands around villages for producing of vegetable ghee and cooking oil. During the 1950s to 1970s, a factory of MM company was the city's largest industrial complex and one of the country's biggest vegetable oil producers. After the 1979 revolution, the company was nationalized but got bankrupt and closed later on. Other sources of the economy include, but are not limited to, paper, wood, fabrics and construction materials. Mazandaran Wood and Paper Industries, the biggest factory of its kind in the middle east, is situated in a 2000-acre ground on Semnan Road. Mazpaper is presently producing more than 20% of country's paper requirements and is a major economical entity not only for the city but also for the province. The MWPI's major subsidiary is the NEKA CHOUB Co., that is manufacturing plywood and chipboard.
The city is served by Refah Chain Stores Co., Iran Hyper Star, Isfahan City Center, Shahrvand Chain Stores Inc., Ofoq Kourosh chain store.
City districts
Sari's major districts are:
Mirzazamani, Azad Goleh, Bagher Abad, Booali & Posht-e-Hotel (both located in Pasdaran Blvd.), Barbari Mahalleh, Bazaar-e Nargesiyeh,
Bazaar-e Rooz, Chenar-Bon, Gol-Afshan, Golma, Kooy-e Azadi,
Kooy-e DadGostari, Kooy-e Daneshgah, Kooy-e Djahad, Kooy-e
Golha, Kooy-e-Karmandan, Kooy-e Mahyar, Kooy-e MirSarorozeh,
Kooy-e Qelich, Lesani, Mehdi-Abad, Na'l-Bandan,
No-Tekiyeh, Peyvandi, Pir Tekiyeh, Pol-e Gardan, Posht-e Nim-e
Shaban, Posht-e Zendan, Rahband-e Dokhaniyat, Dokhaniyat, Kooy-e Etehad, Rahband-e
Sangtarashan, Sang, Sari Kenar, Sarvineh Bagh, Seyyed AlShohada,
Shafa, Shahband, Shazdeh Hossein, Shekar Abad, Tabarestan,
Tavakkoli, Torki Mahalleh, Torkmen Mahalleh, etc.
Previous districts
Sari's old city structure changed in the first Pahlavi era. New avenues and streets in the city center date from that period. In the Qajar dynasty, Sari's neighborhoods included:
Afghoun Mahalleh, Bahar Abad, Balouchi Kheyl, Balouchi
Mahalleh, Birameter (Bahram-Ottor), Chaleh Bagh, Dar Masdjed,
Isfahouni Mahalleh, Kohneh Baq Shah, Kurd Mahalleh, Mir Mashad Mahalleh, Mir Sar Rozeh, Na'l Bandan, Naqareh Khaneh, Ossanlou Mahalleh, Paay-e Chenar, QelichLi Mahalleh, Sabzeh Meydan, Shazdeh Hossein, Shepesh Koshan, Shishehgar Mahalleh.
Population
The population density of some neighborhoods in downtown (for example: Mirzazamani, Peyvandi, Sang) is greater than 20,000 per square kilometer. Note that before 1950, the population of the city during the summer was less than in winter. This influenced estimations, such that an estimate done in summer might be inaccurate.
1808 = 21,000 est.
1827 = 19,000 est.
1832 = 20,000 est.
1850 = 15,000 est.
1856 = 9,000 est.
1872 = 15,500 est.
1874 = 16,000 est.
1883 = 16,100 est.
1905 = 25,000 est.
1923 = 35,000 est.
1956 = 26,278 cen.
1966 = 44,547 cen.
1976 = 70,753 cen.
1986 = 141,020 cen.
1996 = 195,882 cen.
At the 2006 National Census, its population was 259,084 in 71,522 households. The following census in 2011 counted 296,417 people in 90,798 households. The latest census in 2016 showed a population of 309,820 people in 101,932 households.
People and culture
Most Sari people speak the Mazandarani language Tabari as a mother tongue; however, Persian is the most common language spoken in Iran and the lingua franca.
Zoroastrians from Sari who fled to India in the 10th century founded there a city which they named "Navu Sari" (English: "New Sari"), a name which was by now shortened to Navsari; the town is still a center of the Zoroastrian Parsi community of India.
Transport
Arriving
By air
Sari is served by Dasht-e Naz International Airport, which is located in the north-eastern part of the city. List of arrival and departure flights can be found in the Airport's website.
By train
The city is connected to Gorgan and Tehran by the Shomal Railway route. That is a major branch of Iran's Railroad.
By boat
The port of Amir Abad is located on the southern coast of the Caspian Sea.
By car
Local highways have been well developed after the Iran–Iraq War.
road 22 connects Sari to several cities in the province such as Qaemshahr, Neka and Babol, as well as major cities outside the province such as Gorgan and Mashhad.
By bus
There are five bus terminals, but one, Terminal-e Dowlat, is the most used. The others serve cities that are located within 150 kilometers from Sari: Gorgan, Nowshahr, Chaloos, and Kiyasar are within this range.
* indicates that destination is actually nearer than the figure shown
Getting around
The layout of the city renders occasional use of taxis. There is a wide choice of taxi systems including limousines, wireless radio taxis, airport or rail station taxis, and telephone taxis. City buses are also common because they connect Sari's suburbs to the center of city, providing a low cost and convenient means of transportation to and from the town for people living in those neighborhoods. Although Sari is considered a safe city for pedestrians even at night, nevertheless care should be taken when walking around.
Outdoors
Places of interest in the area include:
Farah Abad Coast
Gohar Baran Coast
Dehkadeh Aramesh Tourist Village
Tajan River Park
Melal park (It is located on the western side of Tajan River. Melal Park has a Biking track and an Artificial Island)
Zare' Forest Park
Salardareh Forest Park
Dasht-E-Naaz National Park
Pol-e-Gardan hiking trail
Nemashoun Lake
Lak-Dasht Lake
Soleyman-Tangeh Lake (A dam lake 45km Southwest of Sari)
Bam-e-Shahr Hill (Offers a great panoramic view of the city)
Qor-Maraz (Natural spa, Neka)
Jamaloddin kola (Damaneh kohe shahdezh)
Colleges and universities
In the course of history, Sari was once one of the most cultured cities in the history of Iran. The scientific knowledge of Saravis were noted throughout history and recorded by Pietro Della Valle and other visitors. Today, the universities are as follows:
University of Agricultural Science and Natural Resources
Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences (MazUMS)
University of Natural Science
Islamic Azad University of Sari
Imam Mohammad Bagher University of Technology
Sarian University of Art & Architecture
Payam-e-Noor University
University of Tech & Engineering (Khalil Moqadam)
University of Tarbiyat-e Moallem
Sama Technology Faculty of Azad University
Rouzbehan University
Science and Research Branch Islamic azad university
Hadaf University
Sports facilities
Many sport complexes are in Sari, including:
Jahan-Pahlavan Takhti Sports Complex, located on Farhang Street;
Hashemi-Nassab Sports Complex, located on the railway side of the autobahn;
Montazeri Sports complex, located in Shahband neighborhood.
Sari's Mottaqi football stadium is one of the oldest sports field in the country but nowadays it is seldom used in major soccer matches.
Wrestling
Sari is the birthplace of several wrestlers and athletes. Notable wrestlers from Sari include Asgari Mohammadian, Majid Torkan and Morad Mohammadi. The town was the host and scene of 2006 Wrestling World Cup Competitions.
Cultural attractions
Although Sari is the most important cultural place in the north of Iran, earthquakes and other causes destroyed most of its cultural heritage and ancient monuments. Still, Sari has been described as Safa City (City of Curvet). Notable are Famous Houses such as Kolbadi House and Amir Divan House (Ramedani House); also the Resket Tower from the House of Karen era and the Farahabad Palace Complex from the Safavid era and historical Sari Central Mosque and tomb tower Imamzadeh Abbas.
Arts and culture
Khosrow Sinai (born 19 January 1941 in Sari) a renowned film director of the country was the first Iranian film director to win an international prize after the Islamic revolution in Iran. He is also known as an Iranian scholar and has been awarded the prestigious Knight's Cross of the Order of Merit of the Republic of Poland.
Music
Seyed Abdolhossein Mokhtabad-Amrei (born 1966 in Sari) is an Iranian composer and singer of Persian Classical music.
He received his vocal training under supervision of renowned and legendary maestros and since his professional debut inاارا 1991, has performed numerous concerts in Iran and abroad, including most European Countries, South East Asia and Northern America "Canada & United States" and produced more than 20 sets of music albums.
Authors and poets
Sari has raised many authors and poets. Mina Assadi is probably the most famous one. She was born and raised in Sari but then moved to Tehran to study journalism and work as a journalist at newspapers like Kayhan. Today Mina Assadi lives in exile in Stockholm, Sweden.
Mohsen Emadi (born 29 October 1976 in Sari) is another Persian poet and translator.
Religious sites
Emamzadeh Yahya (son of Imam Moosa-ibn Jafar)
Emamzadeh Abbas (son of Imam Moosa-ibn Jafar)
Emamzadeh Abdollah, Koula
Masjed-e-Jaame' Mosque (constructed before Islam by Zoroastrians, where many important kings and heroes of Persia such as Iraj, Tur, Salm, Fereydun, Sohrab (son of Rostam) that Ferdowsi recalls them in shahnameh are buried near this place).
Emam-Sajjad Mosque (formerly Shah-Qazi, initially was called Marqad-'Ala-Adolleh School but Rostam Shah Qazi reconstructed it in 1169 and renamed it to Shah-Qazi during the Qaznavi era)
Haaj Mostafa Khan Mosque (Sourteci)
Reza Khan Mosque (Hozeh Elmiyeh)
Molla-Majd-Addin Place
Shazdeh-Hossein Place
Pahneh-Kalla Place
Notable people
Mohammad Salih al-Mazandarani (1086) - author
Ibn Shahr Ashub - medieval jurist
Farrukhan the Great - king
Ali-Akbar Davar (1867-1937) - politician
Ehsanollah Khan Dustdar (1884-1939) - politician
Hossein Ghods-Nakhai (1911-1977) - diplomat
Ehsan Tabari (1917-1989) - politician
Al-Marzuban - author
Javad Saeed (1924-1979) - politician
Hassan Rahnavardi (b. 1927) - weightlifter and physician
Khosrow Sinai (b. 1940) - film director
Mohammad Donyavi (b. 1942) - singer and musician
Mina Assadi (b. 1943) - poet
Reza Allamehzadeh (b. 1943) - film director
Elaheh Koulaei (b. 1956) - politician
Hossein Mesgar Saravi (b. 1957) - football player
Maryam Mojtahedzadeh (b. 1957) - nurse educator
Ali Kordan (1958-2009) - politician
Askari Mohammadian (b. 1963) - wrestler
Farshid Moussavi (b. 1965) - architect
Majid Torkan (b. 1965) - wrestler
Abdolhossein Mokhtabad (b. 1966) - singer
Zinat Pirzadeh (b. 1967) - actress, writer, comedian
Ali Nazari Juybari (b. 1967) - football administrator
Seyed Abolhassan Mokhtabad (b. 1970) - journalist
Mohsen Emadi (b. 1976) - poet
Ebrahim Taghipour (b. 1976) - football player
Saba Kamali (b. 1976) - actor
Morad Mohammadi (b. 1980) - wrestler
Mohammad Taghavi (b. 1980) - football coach
Behdad Esfahbod (b. 1982) - software engineer
Sam Dastyari (b. 1983) - Australian politician
Hossein Rajabian (b. 1984) - Filmmaker- Photographer- Writer
Rouhollah Arab (b. 1984) - football player
Sheys Rezaei (b. 1984) - football player
Mehdi Momeni (b. 1985) - football player
Abbas Dabbaghi (b. 1987) - wrestler
Mohammad Reza Barari (b. 1988) - weightlifter
Hanieh Rostamian (b.1998) - sports shooter pistol
Taha Mortazavi (b. 1988) - futsal player
Mehdi Rajabian (b. 1989) - singer
Mohammad Abbaszadeh (b. 1990) - football player
Ramin Rezaeian (b. 1991) - football player
Omid Alishah (b. 1992) - football player
Mohammad Hossein Mohammadian (b. 1992) - wrestler
Mohsen Karimi (b. 1994) - football player
Mohammad Karimi (b.1996) - football player
Saeid Sadeghi (b.1994)-football player
Danial Esmaeilifar (b.1993) - football player
Saman Fallah (b.2001) - football player
Sister cities
Najaf
Gomel
Astrakhan
Ancona
Mezdeh
See also
Nav Sari (New Sari), city in Gujarat, India, traditionally named so by Parsis
References
About Sari, Author: Dr. Hussein Eslami, Year: 1995, Special Municipal Research & Cultural Center for Sari
Sari, My Lovely City, Author: Ali Hessami, Year: 2006, 23965 Sari Primary Library
External links
Sārī in Encyclopædia Britannica
Cities in Mazandaran Province
Iranian provincial capitals
Populated places on the Caspian Sea
Populated coastal places in Iran
Archaeological sites in Iran
Former capitals of Iran
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Beard%20%28artist%29
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John Beard (artist)
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John Beard (born 1943) is a Welsh artist and painter born in Aberdare, Wales, now based in Sydney, Lisbon and London.
Recognition
In 2006, Beard won the Art Gallery of New South Wales Wynne Prize for Landscape painting, and, in 2007, he won the Art Gallery of New South Wales Archibald Prize for Portraiture.
Collections
Artbank Australia, Australia
Arts Council of Great Britain, England
Art Gallery of New South Wales, Australia
Art Gallery of Western Australia, Australia
Bibliothèque Nationale de France Paris, France
Buckinghamshire Education Authority, England
Canberra National Convention Centre, Australia
Centro do Arte Moderna da Fundacao Calouste Gulbenkian, Portugal
Curtin University, Perth, Australia
Gold Coast City Art Gallery, Brisbane, Australia
The Irving Deal Collection of Contemporary Drawings, Dallas, Texas, USA
The Kedumba Collection of Contemporary Australian Drawings, NSW Australia.
Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia
Mount Gambia Regional Gallery, Mount Gambia, Australia
Mobil corporation, Australia
Murdoch University, Sydney, Australia
National Gallery of Australia, Canberra, Australia
National Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne, Australia
National Library of Wales, United Kingdom
New England Regional Art Museum, Armidale, Australia
New Parliament House Collection, Canberra, Australia
Oxford University, England
Kunsthalle Darmstadt, Germany
Queensland Art Gallery, Brisbane, Australia
Robert Holmes a Court Collection, Perth, Australia
Royal College of Art, London, England
Rural and Industries Bank, Australia
Sarjeant Gallery, Wanganui, New Zealand
Shell Corporation, Australia
State Bank of New South Wales, Australia
State Library, Perth Cultural Centre, Australia
S.G.I.O. Australia
Sydney University, Australia
Tate Gallery, London, England
University of Melbourne (Victorian College of the Arts), Australia
University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
University of the Northern Territory, Darwin, Australia
University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia
Woolongong Regional Gallery, Australia
Awards and fellowships
2007 Archibald Prize, Art Gallery of NSW
2006 Wynne Prize (Landscape), Art Gallery of NSW
1994 Australia Council, Award to Assist Series of Solo Exhibitions in Europe.
1989 Australia Council Major Fellowship, Visual Arts & Craft Board.
1984 West Australia Invitation Art Award, Fremantle Art Gallery.
1983 Pegasus Art Award, Art Gallery of Western Australia.
1965 British Arts Council International Prize and Commission, Aberdare Public Library Mural, Wales.
1962 Welsh National Arts Scholarship.
Reviews, articles and essays
Arnold, Ken 'Head On: Art with the Brain in Mind', Exhibition catalogue, Science Museum, London. 2002
Angeloro, Dom Headlands, Solo exhibition Liverpool Street Gallery, Sydney, Australia, Sydney Morning Herald, Critics Picks, May 2004.
Bann, Stephen Prelude, John Beard monograph published 2011.
Barker, Penelope Australian Artist Solos at the Tate, Solo-Exhibition, Tate Gallery St Ives, England, Article, State of the Arts Magazine, Australia, April–August 1998.
Beard, John To Infinity and Beyond! Contemporary Australian Art, Commissioned article for ARCO, Madrid <masdearte.com> 2002.
Beard, John Notes for Walkabout and Aisle 2000 – rewritten 2005.
Beard, John A note on the portrait of the artist Hilarie Mais 2005
Beard, John Artist's Notes: The Head-Self Portrait in Context. 2006
Bond, Anthony Form-Image-Sign, The Art Gallery of Western Australia, Perth, Essay, 1984.
Bond, Anthony Visual Odyssey Eastward, Macquarie Galleries Bulletin, Sydney, Vol. 5 no. 1, Article, January 1985.
Bond, Anthony Mindscapes, Art Gallery of New South Wales, Sydney, Catalogue Essay,1989.
Bond, Anthony John Beard greets the Sphinx. John Beard monograph published 2011.
Brampton, Robin John Beard – One Exhibition, Two Continents, Tate Gallery St Ives, England and Art Gallery of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia, The Times & Echo, St. Ives, England, Article, 18 September 1998.
Brampton, Robin John Beard – Tate Gallery St Ives, England, The Times & Echo, St. Ives, England, December 1998.
Brennan, Betsy Art of Darkness, Sydney, Australia, Profile, Vogue Living July–August 2004
Bromfield, David Solo Exhibition – Delaney Galleries, Perth, The West Australian, Review, 1991
Bunyan, Marcus After Image, solo exhibition John Buckley Gallery, Melbourne Australia. Review, Art Blart Blog 2009.
Carlos, Isabel Paisagem : Regresso Ao Furturo, John Beard and James Welling (Solo Exhibition- Galeria Luis Serpa), Expresso 14 January 1995.
Carlos, Isabel John Beard – Solo Exhibition, Galeria Luis Serpa, Lisbon, Portugal, FLASH ART, Review, May–June 1995.
Carver, Toni Tate Triumphant with John Wells and John Beard, Tate Gallery St.Ives England, Times and Echo, Review, 15 May 1998
Catalano, Gary Solo Exhibition-Realities Gallery, Melbourne, The AGE, Review, 4 December 1985.
Catalano, Gary Solo Exhibition-Realities Gallery, Melbourne, The AGE, Review, 31 October 1990.
Chanin, Eileen Contemporary Australian Painting Australian Original, A Sense of Place, Article, Sydney, 1990.
Cinco Dias, Ed. Solo Exhibition – Afinsa Almirante Galeria de Arte, Madrid, Cinco Dias, Review, 22 May 1992.
Cooke, Rachel Australia – Review, The Observer newspaper, 22 September 2013
Davis, Wendy After Image, John Beard at Tate Gallery St Ives (England), Monument, Feature, Issue 30, Sydney, June/July 1999.
Deschka-Hoek, Katharina Der verschwindende Mensch Gesichtlos- die Ästhetik des Diffusen / Faceless- the aesthetics of Diffusion, ReviewRhein-Main-Zeitung, 17 October 2009
Desmond, Michael Six Drawings by John Beard, Catalogue for The Sixth Drawing Biennale, Drill Hall Gallery, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia 2006.
Drury, Nevil John Beard, New Art II, Craftsman House, Sydney, Freature, 1988.
Drury, Nevil Images 1, Contemporary Australian Painting, Craftsman House, Sydney, Feature, 1992.
Dutkiewicz, Adam Solo Exhibition – BMG Galleries, Adelaide, The Advertiser, Review, 1 June 1994.
Eccles, Jeremy Book Review, John Beard Monograph, Eyeline Magazine, July 2012
Eds. Independente Encapuchados, Adraga II, Solo Exhibition, Festival of Capuchos, Costa da Caprica, Portugal, O Independente, Preview, 16 June 1995.
Escribano, Maria Solo Exhibition – Afinsa Almirante Galeria de Arte, Madrid, Nuevo Estillo, Preview, June 1992.
Evans, Louise Solo Exhibition – William Jackson Gallery, London, Australian Associated Press, Article, March 1993.
Faure-Walker, J. Artscribe, No. 43, London, Review, 1984.
Fern, Lynette Solo Exhibition – Macquarie Galleries, Sydney, The Sydney Morning Herald, Review, 11 October 1992.
Gibson, Robin Painting the Century, 101 Portrait Masterpieces 1900–2000, John Beard, Wanganui Heads 1998, National Portrait Gallery, London, Catalogue, 2000.
Goddard, Julian Western Australia Outer Sight (Outer Mind), Xpress, New York, Special Edition, Article, 1984.
Greenberg, Sarah Solo Exhibition – Tate Gallery St Ives, England, The International Art Newspaper, Review, Vol. IX, No. 82., June 1998.
Gries, Reinhold "Menschenbilder in diffusem Licht" Faceless – the aesthetics of Diffusion, Review Offenback Post, 22 October 2009
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See also
Art Gallery of NSW
References
External links
John Beard website
Wynne Landscape Prize 2006, Archibald Prize 2007
Art Gallery of New South Wales website
John Beard, Liverpool Street Gallery, Sydney, Australia
John Beard at Australian Art
1943 births
British expatriates in Portugal
Modern painters
20th-century Welsh painters
20th-century Welsh male artists
21st-century Welsh painters
21st-century Welsh male artists
Alumni of Swansea University
Alumni of the University of London
Alumni of the Royal College of Art
Living people
Archibald Prize winners
Wynne Prize winners
Archibald Prize finalists
Welsh male painters
British expatriates in Australia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sto%20Para%20Pente
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Sto Para Pente
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Sto Para Pente (Greek: ; English: In the Nick of Time) was a popular Greek comedy-drama television series which was broadcast on Mega Channel for two seasons, from September 27, 2005 until June 18, 2007.
The script was written by Giorgos Kapoutzidis, who had also written the successful Greek TV series, Savvatogenimenes, that aired on that same network for the 2003-2004 season. The director was Antonis Aggelopoulos. Being an instant critical and popular success, Sto Para Pente was the biggest television hit of both the 2005-2006 and the 2006-2007 seasons and is regarded as one of the most famed and successful shows in Greek television history. The series was originally supposed to include only one season (26 episodes, each lasting approximately 45 minutes) but its immense popularity resulted to a second season consisting of 23 more episodes. The first episode of Season 2 aired on October 2, 2006. Despite early, widespread calls for the creation of a third season, Kapoutzidis made it clear that the second would be the last season of the show.
The highly anticipated series finale attracted an audience of nearly 3 million viewers (a rating of 66.0%), making this 70-minute-long special episode the third most watched episode of any television series ever in Greece since ratings began. "Sto Para Pente" also met great success abroad within Greek diaspora communities.
The plot revolved around five seemingly unrelated people who happened to be present at the death of a former minister in a malfunctioning elevator of a luxurious hotel in central Athens. The dying minister begged them with his final words to find out who did this to him by researching a forgotten crime that took place decades before in Thessaloniki. The five characters soon discovered that the minister was actually poisoned. Without a clue on what course of action to follow, they decide to team up, which leads them to a long series of incredible adventures. What they were unaware of at the beginning, however, was that they were actually dealing with some of the most powerful criminals in Greece. What is more, after an alarming number of coincidences made them realize that nothing had happened as randomly as it seemed to in the beginning.
Title
The title literally translates to "at five [minutes] to", a Greek expression that means "In the nick of time". It serves as a pun, referencing the five protagonists, as well as the fact that they manage to escape from their predicaments at the very last moments.
The number five gains further significance later in the show, as it revealed that the main antagonists are a team of five villains, each positioned within one of the five powers: a politician (legislative power), a senior police officer (executive power), a lawyer whose father is a judge (judicial power), a journalist (Fourth Estate) and an ordinary citizen (the people). In the final episode of the series (season 2, episode 23), it is revealed that the group of five was intentionally put together by their guardian angel Amalia, who was herself part of a group of five friends.
Season 1 (2005-2006) summary
Thirty years before the events of the series take place, a mysterious group (which is later revealed to include five men who went on to become wealthy and powerful) murdered a young woman after raping her. The murderers managed to get away with it by manipulating events so that a scapegoat was imprisoned instead. They went on to eliminate anyone who tried to uncover the truth. One of these people include former Minister Evaggelos Stavrianidis, who is eventually murdered after attending a reception at a luxurious hotel in central Athens. The goal was to murder Stavrianidis by a slow-acting poison, the effects of which resemble those of a heart attack so that Stavrianidis would die alone in his house. This plan is foiled when Stavrianidis dies inside the broken-down elevator of the hotel, with five unrelated people bearing witness to his final moments, in which he tells them he was murdered and that the police can't be trusted.
The five soon get to know each other and decide to go after the people who murdered Stavrianidis. After rescuing Stavrianidis' secretary from the enemies, they find about a known female fashionist that is in contract with the murderers. After trying to learn more by contracting the woman, they are lured and trapped by the man in black and his henchman, who capture the five and tie them up in a totally abandoned place, setting a time bomb to explode in an hour and to eventually kill them. Although about a quarter before the bomb explodes, they are rescued by Amalia, Theopoula and Sofia (Spyros' grandma), who appear there randomly and unexpectedly. When they are free, they continue their searches to extract justice. What brings them together, is that they have all lost someone very close to them in the past, and believe that bringing justice to this other murder will help avenge their loved ones' deaths. They soon find out that all their loved ones died in the same airplane disaster 14 years ago (December 2, 1991), which makes their connection even stronger.
Later on, the five discover that the late Minister was, in his youth, the prosecutor in the trial of the man falsely accused of the young woman's murder. After the man's conviction, Stavrianidis came to realize the prisoner's innocence and set out to undo his false judgment. Not being able to expose the crime to the authorities (30 years had since passed and thus the statute of limitations had run out), Stavrianidis attempted to capture the real culprits by exposing an economic scandal regarding an off-shore company that the murderers used for money laundering.
The five continue their investigations, which lead them to a man named Konstantinos Kastelis, who tells them that he killed the young woman (in the second season it was revealed that Kastelis, along with other four men, attacked and killed her in 1975). The five realize that the man sent in prison was innocent. The leader of the enemies, realizing that now the five know who killed the young woman, murders Kastelis with a silenced 9mm. He also murders a woman that witnessed the event in Kastelis' house.
The leader of the criminals, who seems to be a powerful and influential figure, finds out about the five. Though he does not know their identities or motives, he feels he is in danger of being exposed. Even more frustrated, however, is the leader's chief henchman, who is determined to eliminate them, and who is simply known as "the bad guy" or "the guy in black" by the five. The five always manage to escape his traps in the nick of time (a reference to the show's title) in ways he never seems able to predict.
The first episode begins with the five tied to the railroad tracks trying to escape just as soon as a train comes hurling down the tracks and towards them. They are saved "at the nick of time" by the mysterious and beautiful Amalia, who has pulled the passengers emergency train brake, thinking that her luggage has just fallen out of the window. Just after the opening credits in this episode, the story begins and viewers are informed that the whole story takes place 12 months before the train scene.
At the end of the first season, the five discover the scapegoat named Gerasimos Venetopoulos, the man that was put in jail for the murder of the young woman. He now is free, and lives in a village near Lamia. They go there to learn more information from him, although the man in black and his assistant follow them in a pearl ford Mondeo. When the five arrive in the village, Fotis goes inside Venetopoulos' house, but before he learns more, the man in black shoots and kills Venetopoulos in front of the eyes of Fotis. After this, the whole team except Spyros start running to escape. When Spyros arrives, he and the whole team get captured by the enemies, who tie them up to the railroad tracks, and the whole train scene from the first episode is repeated, and finally Amalia rescues them. When they are free, it is revealed that the mysterious leader of the bad guys is revealed to the viewers (but not the characters) to be the leader of a major (fictional) political party that has narrowly won the parliamentary elections, making him the new prime minister of Greece. During the whole season his face was never shown on camera and viewers knew him only by his raspy, menacing voice.
The last episode was shown at June 5, 2006, and was viewed by the 58% of the Greek viewers.
Season 2 (2006-2007) summary
The five move from clue to clue, with the men in black constantly on their heels. A fact-finding trip to Mykonos directs them to a reporter that covered the murder case and had expressed his doubts on the court's ruling. Unfortunately, the men in black have him abducted and an impostor lures the five into a trap. Three of them are captured and while the other two manage to rescue their friends by offering to trade the bad guy's assistant, who they had accidentally captured themselves. The journalist goes into hiding, but not before divulging to them the identity of one of the five murderers: a media mogul in charge of Greece's largest media network, Dimosthenis Politis. More evidence lead to the mastermind behind the entire case: the new prime minister of Greece, Aris Pavrinos. After the five finally confront Politis and more overwhelming evidence comes to light (from Politis' father), Politis dies of a heart attack in Dahlia's hotel suite.
As the five try to find clues that will reveal the identity of the remaining two murderers, they get help from an old familiar face, who tells them that the person they are looking for is one of Athens' most powerful lawyers, Yiannis Delikaris. They get Aggela to pose as a law graduate looking for work experience, in order to get access to Delikaris's office. However, Delikaris, knows their identities and intentions and sets his own trap. Spyros' instinct makes him realize that the five are in danger and convinces the others to confront Delikaris. They follow him from his house, but unfortunately suffer a car accident while on a high speed pursuit of Delikaris, that results in all of them being in a coma. In the meantime, Delikaris with help from Pavrinos, manages to escape to South America. It was never revealed as to where he had escaped to.
The five, while in a coma, have a near-death experience in which they visit a place between Heaven and Earth and see some of their dead loved ones. Zoumboulia's husband, Aggela's father, Fotis' mother and Spyros' parents are there and give them some insight on why they were brought together. Dahlia is the only one not to have a loved one there and to be ignored by the people on the 'other side'.
When the five come out of the coma, they do not remember the near-death experience. Their relatives decide to split them up in order to keep them safe and out of trouble, hoping that after a while the situation will cool off and they will give up on their investigations. Eventually they are allowed to go and see a movie together, but while there they bump into Delikaris's secretary who reveals to them the name of the fifth murderer. He is called Dimitris or Takis for short. She also provides them with another clue: the murdered girl from Thessaloniki had a sister who currently lives in Athens.
The five decide that in order to proceed in their investigations they need to somehow eliminate the man in black and his friend/assistant. They decide to put secret camera's in his house. To manage this, they come up with an ingenious plan devised by Fotis with the help of Sophia and Theopoula. At the same time, secretly from Dahlia, Alexis reveals to Aggela, Zoumboulia, Fotis and Spyros, that Dahlia's late father, Velissarios Hatzialexandrou, was behind the plane crash that killed their loved ones and that he also orchestrated several other similar plane crashes with the view to acquire the airline companies involved at rock bottom prices. Alexis swears Dahlia's friends to secrecy since he believes that this revelation will crush her. Although at first the 4 seem unable to handle such a revelation, awkwardly pushing clueless Dahlia away, in the end they realize that their friendship is the most important thing and that Dahlia's dismissal of the value of money is proof that nothing can come between them. After reuniting, they finally visit the murder victim's sister (Katerina Limnioti) who entrusts them with a copy of her murdered brother's archive, which was the same as Stavrianidis' archive, but she and her husband (Christos Limniotis) seem to ignore the existence of any person called "Dimitris/Takis" who should have known Eleftheria (the murdered girl) and should have been the fifth member of the murderers group. The name "Takis" is a diminutive of either Greek name "Dimitris" or "Christos". The protagonists, helped by the secretary of Yiannis Delikaris, thought that "Takis" was coming from "Dimitris" ignoring the chance of mistake. In the meantime, the "chief" bad guy (who is the country's prime minister) finds out everything about the identities of the members, excluding Dahlia, and uses scare tactics to throw them off the case. While threatening Spyro's family over the phone, Dahlia speaks up, informing the prime minister that she is part of the case, and that she can do more harm to him with her power than he can to her friends. The five decide that Dahlia confront him in person, which is something that will have a detrimental effect on him. Pavrinos commits suicide when at the same time the man in black finds the five and is prepared to kill them, the police arrives and arrests both him and his assistant.
The finale
In the 70 minute series finale, the five, having eliminated their strongest enemy, put together the final missing pieces of the puzzle by discovering the identity of the fifth murderer, who turns out to be the murder victim's brother in-law. Although they are now ready to reveal everything to the public and gain all the fame and recognition entailed, after Dahlia voices refusal to gain fame again, they finally decide that it is their "journey", their experiences and their friendship that counts the most and that anything beyond that is useless. Thus, they leave all the joy of being in the spotlight to Fotis' vain cousin Frida who, after revealing all the information about the murders and the economic scandals, becomes a celebrity overnight, rocketing "teleBOAS" ratings from 0.03% to 96%. The rest of the finale deals with the personal lives of the five heroes, focusing on the "goodbyes" each of them had to say. These scenes were filled with bittersweet and rather sentimental moments which were received with controversial reactions by the viewers, who were used to the light-hearted comedy style of the series (which, however, was not being dramatic and sentimental for the first time, as it had also had other dramatic scenes throughout its previous 48 episodes)
The biggest revelation of the finale was the explanation of the role and history of Amalia's character. Although the viewers had long suspected "what" she was, as it was frequently hinted, especially during the second season, it was only in the finale that a full explanation of her story was given. Being the narrator of the whole series, Amalia (who suspiciously used a funny rural accent when interacting with the heroes of the story, but dropped the accent when narrating) had stated on the very first episode of the series "...As for who I am, let's say it is too soon to find out". After that she kept appearing in the role of the "deus ex machina" whenever the five heroes were in serious trouble. Although her interventions at the most crucial moments and her subsequent disappearance after the end of each adventure were obviously suspicious, the heroes never seemed to wonder why this was happening and who she really was. As the series progressed, it became more and more conspicuous that she was related to something supernatural. This was confirmed in the series finale, when it was revealed that Amalia was actually a stewardess on the same plane as the relatives of the five heroes, and she was now an angel, sent to help the five to restore justice, but also (and maybe most importantly) to form a group of close friends, similar to her own group of friends, whom she had to leave behind when she died.
Cast and characters
The "Five":
Smaragda Karydi as Dahlia Hatzialexandrou: one of the wealthiest people in the world. She lived in seclusion for years and found close friendship with the other four. In the airplane accident, she lost her love interest and chauffeur Mr. Stergiou.
Elissavet Konstantinidou as Zoumboulia Abatzidou: A widow who came to live in Athens to care for her infant grandson and to live with her co-mother-in-law Marlene Dorkofiki. In the aeroplane accident, she lost her husband Charalabos Abatzidis.
Giorgos Kapoutzidis as Spyros Deloglou: A withdrawn young man, studying accounting during the first season, who lives with his grandmother a boring life albeit for his grandmother and her friend leading a hyperactive life, which he finds exhausting. In the aeroplane accident, he lost his parent Eustratios and Dimitra Deloglou.
Argiris Aggelou as Fotis Voulinos: A young boy who often comes at odds with his cousin, who is constantly trying to build a career despite her lacking the talent. They work together on the same TV network owned by Fotis' father. In the aeroplane accident, he lost his mother and two-year-old sister.
Aggeliki Labri as Aggela Ioakimidou. There aren't any exact details for Aggela's family except for the fact that at some point in her teens she misbehaved and did something that made her relatives to consider enrolling her in some sort of behaviour-correcting institution. Once she overheard that she left home to live on her own by the time she was 14 years old, constantly changing jobs and locations. Her father was in the plane during the accident.
Other main characters:
Zeta Makripoulia as Amalia Antonopoulou (and narrator). The stewardess killed in the plane accident along with the entire crew and passengers including the relatives of Zoumboulia, Spyros, Fotis and Angela and Dahlia's lover. It is implied during the last episode that she also lost some sort of relative since there was a passenger who had the same surname as she had. After that, she became Spyros' (and the rest of the gang) guardian angel and helps them to find the murderers. She appears as the granddaughter of an old woman, the neighbour of Spyros. Before her death, she was a married woman and member of another gang of five. Finally, after the death of Spyros' grandmother Sophia she reveals who she is and leaves them forever.
Irene Koumarianou as Sophia Baxevani, Spyros' grandmother (deceased). Spyros' grandmother. She brought Spyros up after the death of his parents. Spyros takes to care of her and never leaves her alone. Her best friend is Theopoula and with her she often follows the five without their knowledge, helping them when able. She died after the end of the adventures and like Amalia, she became a guardian angel.
Efi Papatheodorou as Theopoula Tzini ("genie"), Sophia's neighbour and best friend (deceased)
Michalis Marinos as Alexis Stergiou, Dahlia's financial adviser
Popi Christodoulou as Martha and Ritsa, Dahlia's twin maidservants
Pavlos Orkopoulos as Thomas Voulinos, Fotis' father and owner of TeleBOAS
Melina Kyriakopoulou as Frida Papaparaskeva, Fotis' cousin and TeleBOAS news anchor, reporter, singer, dancer, writer, director, producer etc.
Eleni Krita as Marilena ("Marinella") Dorkofiki, Zoumboulia's co-mother-in-law
Dimitris Petropoulos as Aris Pavrinos (anonymous "chief bad guy" during the first season, later revealed to be the Prime Minister) (deceased)
Gerasimos Michelis as Andreas Kalogirou, ("the man in black" an agent that was part of many criminal activities, often used as a hit man/assassin. He undertook the case of finding and silencing anyone who's still searching for the case, hired by Aris Pavrinos.)
Patrikios Kosti as Nikos Kalathas ("the tall guy" friend (and often partner in the business) of Kalogirou.)
Secondary characters":
Katerina Theochari as Garoufalia ("the short one") Tzini, Theopoula's daughter-in-law
Iosif Iosifidis as Avraam Letzos (1st season)
Petroula Hristou as Anna Ampatzidou, Zoumboulia's daughter, a physician
Thanasis Tsekouras as Vasilis Tzinis, Theopoula's son
Anestis Katountis as police officer Anastasios Tzoumanis
Guest appearances:
Alkis Panagiotidis as former minister Evagelos Stavrianidis (episodes 1,2) (deceased)
Valia Yannarou as Elena (episodes 2-5)
Thodoris Anthopoulos as Timos (episodes 1, 5-7)
Isidoros Stamoulis as Lefteris (episodes 6,7)
Sofia Vogiatzaki as Zanna Ioannou (episodes 8-11)
Antonis Karustinos as "bad guy #3" (episodes 18-20) (deceased)
Anastasis Kolovos as Argyris (episodes 18-20) (deceased)
Marianna Loukaki as Dina (episodes 15-17, 33)
Antonis Babounis as Konstantinos Kastelis (episodes 21,22) (deceased)
Vicky Vanita as Fotini Koutsioumari (episodes 21,22) (deceased)
Giorgos Kimoulis as Gerasimos Venetopoulos (episode 26) (deceased)
Mimi Denissi as herself (episode 34)
Nikos Nikolaou as Dimosthenis Politis (episodes 31-35) (deceased)
Vagelis Ploios as Aristidis Politis (episodes 34,35) (deceased)
Nikos Arvanitis as Giannis Delikaris (episodes 40-42)
Lina Eksarxou as Elli (episodes 41-43)
Stratis Ampanoudis as Isidoros Drougos (episodes 39,47,49)
Niki Hatzidou as Katerina Aslanoglou-Limnioti (episodes 45, 47-49)
Giorgos Kotanidis as Hristos Limniotis (episodes 48, 49)
Vaso Goulielmaki as Zoe Papadogianni (episode 49)
Panos Hatzikoutselis as Ralph "Postlethwaite-or-something" (episode 49)
Mania Bousboura journalist (various episodes)
Liana Kaneli as herself (episode 49)
The "Five" Characters
Midway through the first season, it becomes apparent that the five have all lost loved ones on the same fatal plane crash. This brings the revelation that the five may be tied together by a higher force trying to make things right. They were also together in an old newspaper photograph at the airport after the tragedy.
Dahlia Hatzialexandrou
(Smaragda Karidi): The heiress of an immense fortune, she lost her chauffeur and lover in the plane crash. She is one of the richest women in the world, if not the richest. This resulted in her suffering from depression and she ended up living for many years in her opulent, isolated mansion in Ekali, one of Athens' wealthiest suburbs, watching telenovelas and soap operas all day long. Her long-time isolation has cut her off the outside world and has rendered her totally incapable of comprehending basic aspects of everyday life (such as colloquial expressions, or the mere value of money). Having disappeared for two decades (as she was a young adult at the time of the crash), her face and status remained incognito from the media and the public. She carries huge amounts of large-denomination Euro banknotes in her purse, to which she dismissingly refers as the purple ones (€500), the yellow ones (€200) or, rarely, the green ones (€100), and attempts to use them to buy chewing gum, dog food or cookies, with little success since she is unacquainted with the concept of change. The positive aspect of this is that she thinks of the "five's" mission as a fun game, rather than a very dangerous affair that could cost them their lives. Her lover's son, Alexis, is secretly in love with her. He is her personal financial adviser, and successfully manages the vast inheritance that Dahlia would otherwise be unable to manage herself.
Zoumboulia "Zoumbi" Abatzidou
(Elissavet Konstantinidou): Coming from a village in Northern Greece, the widow Zoumboulia lost her husband, Charalambos, in the crash. Her physician daughter married the son of a wealthy and snobby Athenian, Marilena Dorkofiki (Zoumboulia cannot pronounce her name correctly; she calls her "Marinella" after the famous Greek singer) and Zoumboulia moved to Athens to take care of her baby grandson, since her daughter and son in-law have temporarily moved to Boston. She often gets into serious confrontations with Marilena, who feels anything but delighted with Zoumboulia's presence. Her weird name is a cause of many misunderstandings and makes other people call her simply "Lia" or "Zoumbie". When in danger, she often resorts to religion and when agitated, she emits a high-pitched "iiiii" sound, slaps her lap and sometimes faints. She tends to drift off in long, nostalgic tales about her life in the village and the rural habits of her many friends there, who always have outlandish, descriptive nicknames (Maria the mad, John the lame, Fotini the shoemaker's daughter, etc.). Like Dahlia's, Zoumboulia's name comes from a flower, zoumbouli being a colloquial name for the hyacinth.
Spyros Deloglou
(Giorgos Kapoutzidis): A geeky university student with no social life. He lost his parents Eustathios and Dimitra in the plane disaster and lives with his grandmother Sophia. Sophia has become best friends with Theopoula, their wacky and extremely weird neighbor. Theopoula and Sophia share the same passion for adventure and new experiences (including learning to play the drums and wanting to take part in a bungee jumping contest). All this madness drives the already neurotic Spyros almost crazy. Spyros is confirmed to be the first and only canonically asexual character to ever appear in greek tv.
Fotis Voulinos
(Argyris Aggelou): An aspiring journalist at TeleBOAS, a two-bit TV station (a parody of real Greek local TV channels) owned by his father, Thomas. He lost his mother Alexandra and baby sister Kyriaki in the plane crash and along with his longtime rival, his conceited cousin Frida, presents pretty much all of the channel's pathetic shows. He styles himself as the MacGyver of the group. He has a distinctive hairstyle similar to that of Tintin and tends to engage in imaginary detective work that usually bears little relationship with reality.
Angeliki "Aggela" Ioakeimidou
(Aggeliki Labri): A brash tomboy who lost her father Apostolos in the plane crash, Aggela came to Athens in search of a job and an independent life far from her native countryside. She is the boldest of the five and carries a major chip on her shoulder. She has a kind heart, but her attitude and tendency to speak her mind has a side-effect: she can never keep friends or jobs for long and usually her first day on a job is also her last. When not hunting down bad guys (her favorite activity), she brings out her artistic nature by working part-time acting at a downtown theater, with controversial results. Aggela is considered by many greek queer fans of the show important lesbian represantion due to her gender non conforming behaviour and Kapoutzidis' deliberate decision to not give her a male love interest.
Other significant characters
Sophia (Irene Koumarianou): Spyros' grandmother, a septuagenarian with a vitality, open-mindedness and intellectual curiosity that belies her age. She has lovingly brought up her grandson after his parents were killed, and now that he is an adult, she is determined to live all the life experiences that were denied to her before. She dies peacefully at the end, and Spyros finds out that she had been suffering from leukemia, but had been hiding it from everyone.
Theopoula (Efi Papatheodorou): Grandma Sophia's neighbor and closest friend. Apparently suffering from senility due to multiple strokes, she has flashes of astounding insight and lucidity and is willing to follow Sophia in learning French, going to evening school, vacationing in Paris and Mykonos, befriend transvestites and flirt with young, attractive men. She hates her daughter-in-law for being short and dreams of getting rid of her so that her son can finally marry a tall woman.
Amalia (Zeta Makripoulia): The angelic, seemingly dumb blonde who often knows far too much for her apparent naivety and is capable of superhuman feats that appear to be inexplicable. She sports a heavy provincial accent that contrasts with her beautiful, model-like appearance. The startling truth about her identity is revealed in the series finale.
Marilena (Eleni Krita): A rich, snobbish woman of aristocratic descent, who had been married eight times previously and spends her days playing cards, meditating, discussing fashion and interior decoration, and gossiping with her equally snobbish friends. When her son and his wife, Zoumboulia's daughter, move to Boston on business for a while, Zoumboulia moves into her house to help take care of their baby grandson. Predictably, Zoumboulia's no-nonsense country manners and speech clash with Marilena's haughty big-city ways. Unwilling to become a full-time grandmother herself, Marilena has to accommodate Zoumboulia for the duration. Over time their mutual antipathy turns to fondness and finally, although their children divorce amicably, they decide that they are best friends and decide to live close by and take part in their grandson's upbringing.
Andreas Kalogirou: a dangerous man and assassin hired by the main villain of the series to kill several people who stand on his way. He was the one responsible for the poisoning of Stavrianidis which kickstarted the events of the series and he has attempted to murder the five protagonists several times with no success. Little is known about Andreas outside of his association with Pavrinos. The main five mostly refer to him as "the man in black" even after they learn his identity. He is usually followed by his friend and partner in crime Nikos Kalathas. Throughout the series Andreas seems to be afraid of Pavrinos who lashes out at him in anger whenever something doesn't go according to plan or the five heroes uncover any more clues against him. In the finale he is on the phone with Pavrinos when the latter commits suicide and then gets arrested and sent to prison for his multiple crimes.
Style of the series
The series is based on a "punchline quotes" structure. While the main plot is unveiled, the characters tend to say funny and original quotes, each one characterizing their personality. At the beginning, the series was mostly comedic in mood but in the latter episodes it became increasingly dramatic, adventurous and suspenseful. Most episodes ended in dramatic cliffhangers. Some have characterised some of the show's punchlines during dramatic and suspenseful parts as dark comedy.
It was the first Greek series in history to present characteristics of cult television shows: An enormous and dedicated fanbase of youngsters and adults alike have created fan sites and forums discussing the punchlines, mysteries and plot twists of the show. It is jokingly rumoured that the series was so popular that it led to over half the population of Greece adopting an ADSL broadband connection.
Awards and nominations
At the Greek television awards "Prosopa" (Faces) for seasons 2005-2006 and 2006-2007 the show was nominated for 30 categories and received 14 awards (being the highest award-winning series in Greek television ever).
Soundtrack
The opening credits song "Imoun Aggelos tou Charlie" ("I was one of Charlie's Angels") was originally written in the early 80's by Dimitris Iatropoulos and Renato Favilli, and was performed by Danae Favilli. After the show's success, it became a hit and was re-released as a soundtrack. An English language version of the song ("My Uncle's name was Charlie") played only once in the opening credits of the first episode of season 2.
Commercials
The characters of the show appeared in many commercials, most popular those of TIM and Carrefour. The five appeared in two major TIM commercials. The two grandmothers Theopoula and Sofia appeared in a couple of Carrefour commercials as well as Smaragda Karidi's character Dahlia along with her twin maidservants Martha and Ritsa (whose aprons have their names stamped on, so that Dahlia can tell them apart). Karidi also appeared in a few Hellenic Seaways spots as herself, although there are references to her popular character Dahlia.
External links
Mega Channel original programming
Greek-language television shows
2005 Greek television series debuts
2007 Greek television series endings
2000s Greek television series
Greek comedy television series
Greek drama television series
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Night%20attack%20at%20T%C3%A2rgovi%C8%99te
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Night attack at Târgoviște
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The night attack at Târgoviște () was a battle fought between forces of prince Vlad III of Wallachia, and sultan Mehmed II of the Ottoman Empire on Thursday, 17 June 1462. The battle started after Mehmed II, who already had tense relations with Vlad, discovered his alliance with Hungary's king Matthias Corvinus and ordered his forces to ambush him. Vlad foiled the attack and invaded Bulgaria. In response, Mehmed raised a great army with the objective to conquer Wallachia. The two leaders fought a series of skirmishes, the most notable one being the conflict where Vlad attacked the Turkish camp in the night in an attempt to kill Mehmed. The assassination attempt failed and Mehmed marched to the Wallachian capital of Târgoviște, where he found a few men with cannons. After leaving the capital, Mehmed discovered 23,844 impaled Turks whom Vlad had killed during his invasion of Bulgaria. The number is mentioned by Vlad himself in a letter to Matthias Corvinus. The sultan and his troops then sailed to Brăila and burned it to the ground before retreating to Adrianople. Mehmed's forces returned home with many captured slaves, horses, and cattle.
Background
After the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire in 1453, Mehmed set his sights on other campaigns. In Anatolia, the Greek Empire of Trebizond was still resisting the Ottomans, and to the East the White Sheep Turkomans of Uzun Hasan, together with other smaller states, threatened the Ottomans. In the West, Skanderbeg in Albania continued to trouble the Sultan, while Bosnia was sometimes reluctant in paying the jizya. Wallachia controlled the left bank of the Danube, and Mehmed wanted to have control over the river, as naval attacks could be launched against his empire all the way from the Holy Roman Empire. On 26 September 1459, Pope Pius II called for a new crusade against the Ottomans and on January 14, 1460, at the Congress of Mantua, the Pope proclaimed the official crusade that was to last for three years. His plan, however, failed and the only European leader that showed enthusiasm for the crusade was Vlad Țepeș, whom the Pope held in high regard. Because of a lack of enthusiasm shown by Europeans for the crusade, Mehmed took the opportunity to take an offensive stand. Later that same year (1460), he captured the last independent Serbian city, Smederevo, and in 1461, he convinced the Greek despot of Morea to give up his stronghold; soon thereafter, its capital, Mistra, and Corinth followed suit and surrendered themselves without struggle.
Vlad Țepeș's only ally, Mihály Szilágyi, was captured in 1460 by the Turks while traversing Bulgaria. Szilágyi's men were tortured to death, while Szilágyi was sawed in half. Later that year, Mehmed sent envoys to Vlad to urge him to pay the delayed jizya. Vlad Țepeș provoked Mehmed by having the envoys killed and in a letter dated 10 September 1460, addressed to the Transylvanian Saxons of Kronstadt (today: Brașov), he warned them of Mehmed's invasion plans and asked for their support. Vlad Țepeș had not paid the annual jizya of 10,000 ducats since 1459. In addition to this, Mehmed asked him for 1,000 boys that were to be trained as janissaries. Vlad Țepeș refused the demand, and the Turks crossed the Danube and started to do their own recruiting, to which Vlad reacted by capturing the Turks and impaling them. The conflict continued until 1461, when Mehmed asked the Prince to come to Constantinople and negotiate with him.
At the end of November 1461, Vlad Țepeș wrote to Mehmed that he could not afford to pay the jizya, as his war against the Saxons of Transylvania had emptied his resources, and that he could not leave Wallachia and risk having the Hungarian king take over his domains. He further promised to send the Sultan plenty of gold when he could afford to and that he would go to Constantinople if the Sultan would send him a pasha to rule over Wallachia in his absence. Meanwhile, the Sultan received intelligence reports that revealed Vlad's alliance with Hungarian king, Matthias Corvinus. He sent the bey of Nicopolis, Hamza Pasha, to stage a diplomatic meeting with Vlad at Giurgiu, but with orders to ambush him there; and thereafter, take him to Constantinople. Vlad was forewarned about the ambush and planned to set an ambush of his own. Hamza brought with him 1,000 cavalry and when passing through a narrow pass north of Giurgiu, Vlad launched a surprise-attack. The Wallachians had the Turks surrounded and fired with their handgunners until the entire expedition-force was killed. Historians credit Vlad Țepeș as one of the first European crusaders to use gunpowder in a "deadly artistic way". In a letter to Corvinus, dated 11 February 1462, he wrote that Hamza Pasha was captured close to the former Wallachian fortress of Giurgiu. He then disguised himself as a Turk and advanced with his cavalry towards the fortress where he ordered the guards in Turkish to have the gates open. This they did and Vlad Țepeș attacked and destroyed the fortress. In his next move, he went on a campaign and slaughtered enemy soldiers and population that might have sympathized with the Turks; first in southern Wallachia, then, in Bulgaria by crossing the frozen Danube. While in Bulgaria, he divided his army into several smaller groups and covered "some 800 kilometers in two weeks", as they killed over 23,000 Turks. In a letter to Corvinus, dated 11 February 1462, he stated:
I have killed peasants men and women, old and young, who lived at Oblucitza and Novoselo, where the Danube flows into the sea, up to Rahova, which is located near Chilia, from the lower Danube up to such places as Samovit and Ghighen. We killed 23,884 Turks without counting those whom we burned in homes or the Turks whose heads were cut by our soldiers...Thus, your highness, you must know that I have broken the peace with him (Sultan Mehmet II).
The Christian Bulgarians were spared and many of them were settled in Wallachia. His precise numbers were counted as such: At Giurgiu there were 6,414 victims; at Eni Sala, 1,350; at Durostor 6,840; at Orsova, 343; at Hârsova, 840; at Marotin, 210; at Turtucaia, 630; at Turnu, Batin, and Novograd, 384; at Sistov, 410; at Nicopolis and Ghighen, 1,138; at Rahova, 1,460. When hearing about the devastation, Mehmed—who was busy besieging a fortress in Corinth—sent his grand vizier, Mahmud, with an army of 18,000 to destroy the Wallachian port of Brăila. Vlad Țepeș turned back and defeated the army, and according to the Historia Turchesca of Giovanni Maria Angiolello, sometimes attributed to an Italian chronicler Donado da Lezze, only 8,000 Turks survived. Vlad Țepeș's campaign was celebrated among the Saxon cities of Transylvania, the Italian states, and the Pope. A Venetian envoy, upon hearing about the news at the court of Corvinus on 4 March , expressed great joy and said that the whole of Christianity should celebrate Vlad Țepeș's successful campaign. An English pilgrim to the Holy Land, William Wey, passing through the island of Rhodes while on his way home, wrote that "the military men of Rhodes, upon hearing of Vlad Țepeș's campaign, had Te Deum sung in praise and honour of God who had granted such victories....The lord mayor of Rhodes convened his brother soldiers and the whole citizenry feasted on fruit and wine." The Genoese from Caffa thanked Vlad Țepeș, for his campaign had saved them from an attack of some 300 ships that the sultan planned to send against them. Many Turks were now frightened of Vlad and left the European side of their empire and moved into Anatolia. Mehmed, when hearing about the events, abandoned his siege at Corinth and decided to go against Vlad Țepeș himself.
Preparations for war
The Turks
Mehmed sent messengers in all directions to assemble an army, "which in numbers and armaments must have been equal to that which he had employed on the siege of Constantinople." On 26 April or 17 May 1462, the sultan moved with his army from Constantinople with the objective of conquering Wallachia. The Sultan himself wrote in a letter addressed to one of his grand viziers, that he took 150,000 men with him. The Greek historian Laonikos Chalkokondyles wrote of Mehmed's army as "huge, second in size only to the one that this sultan had led against Constantinople." He estimated the force at 250,000, while the Turkish historian Tursun Bey mentioned 300,000. The same numbers were put by an anonymous Italian chronicle found in Verona, believed to have been written by a certain merchant named Cristoforo Schiappa. A letter of a Leonardo Tocco to Francesco I Sforza, duke of Milan, wrote that Mehmed had recruited 400,000 men from Rumelia and Anatolia, with 40,000 being constructors of bridges armed with axes. A smaller estimate of the size of the Turkish forces was made by the Venetian envoy at Buda, Tommasi, who mentioned a regular force of 60,000 and some 30,000 irregulars. These consisted of the janissaries (the elite slave troops); infantry soldiers; sipâhis (the feudal cavalry); saiales (the sacrificial units composed of slaves who would win their freedom if they survived); Akinji (the archers); silahdârs (the custodians of the sultan's weapons who also protected the flanks); azabs (the pikemen); beshlis (who handled the firearms) and the sultan's personal bodyguards. Vlad's half-brother, Radu the Handsome, who willingly served the sultan, commanded 4,000 horsemen. In addition to this, the Turks brought with them 120 cannon, engineers and workers that would build roads and bridges, priests of Islam (ulema) and muezzin, who called the troops to prayer, astrologers who consulted Mehmed and helped him make military decisions; and women "reserved for the night pleasures of the men." Chalcocondyles reported that the Danube shipowners were paid 300,000 gold pieces to transport the army. In addition to this, the Ottomans used their own fleet that consisted of 25 triremes and 150 smaller vessels.
The Wallachians
Vlad Țepeș asked the Hungarian king for assistance. He received no support despite promises made by Corvinus and instead called for a mobilization that included "not only men of military age, but also of women and of children from the age of twelve up; and included Gypsy slave contingents." Various sources mention the strength of his army to be between 22,000 and 30,900, with the most popular accepted number set at 30,000. The letter of Leonardo Tocco which put the numbers of the Turkish army at an exaggerated strength of 400,000, exaggerated also the Wallachian strength which was estimated at 200,000. The majority of the army consisted of peasants and shepherds, while the boyars on horseback—who were few in numbers—were armed with lances, swords, and daggers and wore chainmail as armour. Vlad's personal guard consisted of mercenaries from many countries and some Gypsies. Before battle, it is believed that Vlad told his men that "it would be better that those who think of death should not follow me".
Battle
The Turks first tried to disembark at Vidin, but were pushed back by an archery attack. On 4 June, a contingent of janissaries landed in the night, at Turnu Severin, where 300 of them died from Wallachian attacks. The Serbian-born janissary, Konstantin Mihailović, recounted their encounter with Vlad Țepeș:
When night began to fall, we climbed into our boats and floated down the Danube and crossed over to the other side several miles below the place where Vlad's army was stationed. There we dug ourselves trenches, so that cavalry could not harm us. After that we crossed back over to the other side and transported other janissaries over the Danube, and when the entire infantry had crossed over, then we prepared and set out gradually against Vlad's army, together with the artillery and other equipment that we had brought with us. Having halted, we set up the cannon, but not in time to stop three hundred janissaries from being killed ... Seeing that our side was greatly weakening, we defended ourselves with the 120 guns which we had brought over and fired so often that we repelled the prince's army and greatly strengthened our position ... Vlad, seeing that he could not prevent the crossing, withdrew. After that the emperor crossed the Danube with his entire army and gave us 30,000 coins to be distributed among us.
The Ottoman army managed to advance as Vlad Țepeș instituted a policy of scorched earth, poisoned the waters, and also created marshes by diverting the waters of small rivers. Traps were created by the digging of pits, and then covered with timber and leaves. The population and animals were evacuated to the mountains and as Mehmed advanced for seven days, his army suffered from fatigue as "he found no man, nor any significant animal, and nothing to eat or drink." Vlad adopted guerrilla tactics as his cavalry made several hit-and-run attacks. He would also send ill people suffering from lethal diseases, such as leprosy, tuberculosis—and in more significant numbers—those who suffered from the bubonic plague, to intermix with the Turks and infect them. The bubonic plague managed to spread in the Ottoman army. The Ottoman fleet launched a few minor attacks on Brăila and Chilia, but without being able to do much damage, as Vlad Țepeș had destroyed most of the ports in Bulgaria. Chalkokondyles writes that the Sultan managed to capture a Wallachian soldier and at first tried to bribe him for information; when that didn't work, he threatened him with torture, to no avail. Mehmed was said to have commended the soldier by saying, "if your master had many soldiers like yourself, in a short time he could conquer the world!"
The Turks continued with their advance towards Târgoviște, after failing to capture the fortress of Bucharest and the fortified island of Snagov. On 17 June, when the Turks camped south of the capital, Vlad Țepeș launched his night attack with 24,000, or possibly with only 7,000 to 10,000 horsemen. Chalkokondyles retells the story that, before making his attack, Vlad went freely into the Turkish camp disguised as a Turk, and wandered around to find the location of the Sultan's tent and learn about his organization. The anonymous Italian chronicle of Verona mentions that Mehmed had disallowed his soldiers to exit their tents during the night, as to not cause panic in case of an attack. The chronicle goes on explaining that Vlad Țepeș, being aware of Mehmed's strategy, had decided for an attack in the night, knowing how to proceed in his offensive when the enemy soldiers would have to remain in their tents. The skirmish would last from "three hours after sunset until four the next morning" and would cause great confusion in the Ottoman camp. The Wallachians made noise from their buglers and illuminated the battle with their torches; and in that night, they launched not one, but several attacks. Documents differ on the exact result of the skirmish: some sources say that the Wallachians slaughtered a great number of Turks, while others say the Ottoman losses were minimal. Many horses and camels were, however, killed. Some chronicles blame a Wallachian boyar named Galeș, who supposedly led a simultaneous attack on the Turks with a second army, for not being brave enough to cause the expected devastation on the enemy. Vlad Țepeș himself aimed for the tent of the sultan, as he routed the Asian cavalry, but mistakenly went for the tent of the two grand viziers Ishak Pasha and Mahmud Pasha.
A Wallachian point of view of the events was recorded by the papal legate, Niccolò Modrussa, years later at the court of Buda when Vlad was being imprisoned by Corvinus. It is said to have been told by a Wallachian veteran:
The sultan besieged him and discovered him in a certain mountain where the Wallachian was supported by the natural strength of the place. There Vlad had hidden himself along with 24,000 of his men who had willingly followed him. When Vlad realized that he would either perish from hunger or fall into the hands of the very cruel enemy, and considering both eventualities unworthy of brave men, he dared commit an act worthy of being remembered: calling his men together and explaining the situation to them, he easily persuaded them to enter the enemy camp. He divided the men so that either they should die bravely in battle with glory and honor or else, should destiny prove favorable to them, they should avenge themselves against the enemy in an exceptional matter. So, making use of some Turkish prisoners, who had been caught at twilight when they were wandering about imprudently, at nightfall Vlad penetrated into the Turkish camp with part of his troops, all the way up the fortifications. And during the entire night he sped like lightning in every direction and caused great slaughter, so much so that, had the other commander to whom he had entrusted his remaining forces been equally brave, or had the Turks not fully obeyed the repeated orders from the sultan not to abandon their garrisons, the Wallachian undoubtedly would have gained the greatest and most brilliant victory. But the other commander (a boyar named Galeș) did not dare attack the camp from the other side as had been agreed upon....Vlad carried out an incredible massacre without losing many men in such a major encounter, though many were wounded. He abandoned the enemy camp before daybreak and returned to the same mountain from which he had come. No one dared pursue him, since he had caused such terror and turmoil. I learned by questioning those who had participated in this battle that the sultan lost all confidence in the situation. During that night the sultan abandoned the camp and fled in a shameful manner. And he would have continued to this way, had he not been reprimanded by his friends and brought back, almost against his will.
The janissaries, under the command of Mihaloğlu Ali Bey, pursued the Wallachians and killed 1,000–2,000 of them. According to the chronicle of the Venetan bailo at the Porte, Domenico Balbi, the total casualties for the conflict are numbered as 5,000 for the Wallachian side and 15,000 for the Ottomans. Even though the morale of the sultan and his army was low, Mehmed decided to besiege the capital, but instead found it deserted with its gates wide open. The Turkish army entered the capital and for half an hour, the army marched on the road that was bordered by some 20,000 impaled Ottomans. There, they found the rotten corpse of Hamza Pasha impaled on the highest stake, to symbolize his 'high ranking'. Other sources say that the city was defended by the soldiers, while the impaled corpses lay outside the city-walls for a distance of 60 miles. Chalkokondyles, when remarking the reaction of the sultan, wrote: "The sultan was seized with amazement and said that it was not possible to deprive of his country a man who had done such great deeds, who had such a diabolical understanding of how to govern his realm and its people. And he said that a man who had done such things was worth much."
Mehmed ordered for a deep trench to be dug out around the Turkish encampment in order to prevent enemy penetration and the following day (22 June), the Turks retreated. A few days later, Vlad's cousin, Stephen III of Moldavia, who wanted to retake Akkerman and Chilia, decided to launch an attack on the latter. The Wallachians rushed to the scene with 7,000 men and managed to defend the town, while wounding Stephen in his foot by artillery fire. On June 29, the Sultan reached Brăila, which he burned down, and then sailed to Adrianople, where they arrived on 11 July. On 12 July, the Turks called for a celebration for their "Great victory" over Vlad Țepeș. The Turks had enslaved many of the local inhabitants, which they marched on their way south together with 200,000 cattle and horses.
Popular culture
French writer Victor Hugo wrote about the conflict in his poem La Légende des siècles (The Legend of the Centuries).
The film Bram Stoker's Dracula begins in 1462 with the Ottoman invasion of Wallachia; a night battle (ostensibly this attack) takes place, ending with Vlad Țepeș's victory.
The Big Finish Productions audio drama Son of the Dragon depicts the battle from the perspective of the Fifth Doctor and his companions.
The 2014 film Dracula Untold includes an altered rendition of this attack, in which Dracula blocks the sun with black clouds instead of the battle occurring at night.
In the video game Age of Empires II: The Forgotten, this attack is showcased in one of the final Dracula campaigns. After killing several Ottoman troops and suffering losses of his own, Dracula calls off the attack because he realizes Mehmed II fled the camp before the attack began.
The TV series Rise of Empires: Ottoman depicts this battle in episodes 5 and 6 of its second season.
See also
Ottoman wars in Europe
Notes
Footnotes
References
Babinger, Franz, Mehmed the Conqueror and his time, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, 1992.
Florescu, Radu R.; McNally, Raymond T., Dracula: Prince of many faces – His life and his times, Little, Brown and Company, Boston, MA, 1989.
Geringer, Joseph, Staggering the Turks, Crimelibrary.com.
Pippidi, Andrei, Noi Izvoare Italiene despre Vlad Ţepeş şi Ştefan cel Mare, Studies and Materials of Medium History XX/2002
Stoicescu, Nicolae, Vlad Ţepeş, Bucharest, 1979
Andreescu, Ștefan, Vlad Țepeș (Dracula): între legendă și adevăr istoric, Editura Enciclopedică, 1998,
1462 in Europe
1462 in the Ottoman Empire
Battles involving Wallachia
Battles involving the Ottoman Empire
Battles of Mehmed the Conqueror
Conflicts in 1462
Night attack at Târgoviște
Night battles
Night attack at Târgoviște
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese%20Martyrs
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Vietnamese Martyrs
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Vietnamese Martyrs (; ) or Saint Andrew Dung-Lac and Companions (), also known as the Martyrs of Annam, Martyrs of Tonkin and Cochinchina, Martyrs of Indochina, are saints on the General Roman Calendar who were canonized by Pope John Paul II. On June 19, 1988, thousands of Overseas Vietnamese worldwide gathered at the Vatican for the Celebration of the Canonization of 117 Vietnamese Martyrs, an event chaired by Monsignor Trần Văn Hoài. Their memorial is on November 24 (although several of these saints have another memorial, having been beatified and on the calendar prior to the canonization of the group).
History
The Vatican estimates the number of Vietnamese martyrs at between 130,000 and 300,000. John Paul II decided to canonize both those whose names are known and unknown, giving them a single feast day.
The Vietnamese Martyrs fall into several groupings, those of the Dominican and Jesuit missionary era of the 18th century and those killed in the politically inspired persecutions of the 19th century. A representative sample of only 117 martyrs—including 96 Vietnamese, 11 Spanish Dominicans, and ten French members of the Paris Foreign Missions Society (Missions Etrangères de Paris (MEP))—were beatified on four separate occasions: 64 by Pope Leo XIII on May 27, 1900; eight by Pope Pius X on May 20, 1906; 20 by Pope Pius X on May 2, 1909; and 25 by Pope Pius XII on April 29, 1951. All 117 of these Vietnamese Martyrs were canonized on June 19, 1988. A young Vietnamese Martyr, Andrew of Phú Yên, was beatified in March 2000, by Pope John Paul II.
The tortures these individuals underwent are considered by the Vatican to be among the worst in the history of Christian martyrdom. The torturers hacked off limbs joint by joint, tore flesh with red hot tongs, and used drugs to enslave the minds of the victims. Christians at the time were branded on the face with the words "tả đạo" (, lit. "Left (Sinister) religion") and families and villages which subscribed to Christianity were obliterated.
The letters and example of Théophane Vénard inspired the young Saint Thérèse of Lisieux to volunteer for the Carmelite nunnery at Hanoi, though she ultimately contracted tuberculosis and could not go. In 1865 Vénard's body was transferred to his Congregation's church in Paris, but his head remains in Vietnam.
There are several Catholic parishes in the United States, Canada, and elsewhere dedicated to the Martyrs of Vietnam (Holy Martyrs of Vietnam Parishes), one of which is located in Arlington, Texas, in the Dallas-Fort Worth area. Others can be found in Houston and Austin, Texas, Denver, Seattle, San Antonio, Arlington, Virginia; Richmond, Virginia; and Norcross, Georgia. There are also churches named after individual saints, such as St. Philippe Minh Church in Saint Boniface, Manitoba.
The Nguyễn Campaign against Catholicism in the 19th century
The Catholic Church in Vietnam was devastated during the Tây Sơn rebellion in the late 18th century. During the turmoil, the missions revived, however, as a result of cooperation between the French Vicar Apostolic Pigneaux de Behaine and Nguyen Anh. After Nguyen's victory in 1802, in gratitude to assistance received, he ensured protection to missionary activities. However, only a few years into the new emperor's reign, there was growing antipathy among officials against Catholicism and missionaries reported that it was purely for political reasons that their presence was tolerated. Tolerance continued until the death of the emperor and the new emperor Minh Mang succeeding to the throne in 1820.
Converts began to be harassed without official edicts in the late 1820s, by local governments. In 1831, the emperor passed new laws on regulations for religious groupings in Viet Nam, and Catholicism was then officially prohibited. In 1832, the first act occurred in a largely Catholic village near Hue, with the entire community being incarcerated and sent into exile in Cambodia. In January 1833, a new kingdom-wide edict was passed calling on Vietnamese subjects to reject the religion of Jesus and required suspected Catholics to demonstrate their renunciation by walking on a wooden cross. Actual violence against Catholics, however, did not occur until the Lê Văn Khôi revolt.
During the rebellion, a young French missionary priest named Joseph Marchand was living in sickness in the rebel Gia Dinh citadel. In October 1833, an officer of the emperor reported to the court that a foreign Christian religious leader was present in the citadel. This news was used to justify the edicts against Catholicism, and led to the first executions of missionaries in over 40 years. The first executed was named Francois Gagelin. Marchand was captured and executed as a "rebel leader" in 1835, he was put to death by "slicing". Further repressive measures were introduced in the wake of this episode in 1836. Prior to 1836, village heads had only to simply report to local mandarins about how their subjects had recanted Catholicism; after 1836, officials could visit villages and force all the villagers to line up one by one to trample on a cross and if a community was suspected of harbouring a missionary, militia could block off the village gates and perform a rigorous search; if a missionary was found, collective punishment could be meted out to the entire community.
Missionaries and Catholic communities were able to sometimes escape this through bribery of officials; they were also sometimes victims of extortion attempts by people who demanded money under the threat that they would report the villages and missionaries to the authorities. The missionary Father Pierre Duclos said:
with gold bars murder and theft blossom among honest people.
The court became more aware of the problem of the failure to enforce the laws and applied greater pressure on its officials to act; officials that failed to act or those tho who were seen to be acting too slowly were demoted or removed from office (and sometimes were given severe corporal punishment), while those who attacked and killed the Christians could receive promotion or other rewards. Lower officials or younger family members of officials were sometimes tasked with secretly going through villages to report on hidden missionaries or Catholics that had not apostasized.
The first missionary arrested during this (and later executed) was the priest Jean-Charles Cornay in 1837. A military campaign was conducted in Nam Dinh after letters were discovered in a shipwrecked vessel bound for Macao. Quang Tri and Quang Binh officials captured several priests along with the French missionary Bishop Pierre Dumoulin-Borie in 1838 (who was executed). The court translator, Francois Jaccard, a Catholic who had been kept as a prisoner for years and was extremely valuable to the court, was executed in late 1838; the official who was tasked with this execution, however, was almost immediately dismissed.
A priest, Father Ignatius Delgado, was captured in the village of Can Lao (Nam Định Province), put in a cage on public display for ridicule and abuse, and died of hunger and exposure while waiting for execution; the officer and soldiers that captured him were greatly rewarded (about 3 kg of silver was distributed out to all of them), as were the villagers that had helped to turn him over to the authorities. The bishop Dominic Henares was found in Giao Thuy district of Nam Dinh (later executed); the villagers and soldiers that participated in his arrest were also greatly rewarded (about 3 kg of silver distributed). The priest, Father Joseph Fernandez, and a local priest, Nguyen Ba Tuan, were captured in Kim Song, Nam Dinh; the provincial officials were promoted, the peasants who turned them over were given about 3 kg of silver and other rewards were distributed. In July 1838, a demoted governor attempting to win back his place did so successfully by capturing the priest Father Dang Dinh Vien in Yen Dung, Bac Ninh province. (Vien was executed). In 1839, the same official captured two more priests: Father Dinh Viet Du and Father Nguyen Van Xuyen (also both executed).
In Nhu Ly near Hue, an elderly Catholic doctor named Simon Hoa was captured and executed. He had been sheltering a missionary named Charles Delamotte, whom the villagers had pleaded with him to send away. The village was also supposed to erect a shrine for the state-cult, which the doctor also opposed. His status and age protected him from being arrested until 1840, when he was put on trial and the judge pleaded (due to his status in Vietnamese society as both an elder and a doctor) with him to publicly recant; when he refused he was publicly executed.
A peculiar episode occurred in late 1839, when a village in Quang Ngai province called Phuoc Lam was victimized by four men who extorted cash from the villagers under threat of reporting the Christian presence to the authorities. The governor of the province had a Catholic nephew who told him about what happened, and the governor then found the four men (caught smoking opium) and had two executed as well as two exiled. When a Catholic lay leader then came to the governor to offer their gratitude (thus perhaps exposing what the governor had done), the governor told him that those who had come to die for their religion should now prepare themselves and leave something for their wives and children; when news of the whole episode came out, the governor was removed from office for incompetence.
Many officials preferred to avoid execution because of the threat to social order and harmony it represented, and resorted to use of threats or torture in order to force Catholics to recant. Many villagers were executed alongside priests according to mission reports. The emperor died in 1841, and this offered respite for Catholics. However, some persecution still continued after the new emperor took office. Catholic villages were forced to build shrines to the state cult. The missionary Father Pierre Duclos (quoted above) died in prison in after being captured on the Saigon river in June 1846. The boat he was traveling in, unfortunately contained the money that was set for the annual bribes of various officials (up to 1/3 of the annual donated French mission budget for Cochinchina was officially allocated to 'special needs') in order to prevent more arrests and persecutions of the converts; therefore, after his arrest, the officials then began wide searches and cracked down on the Catholic communities in their jurisdictions. The amount of money that the French mission societies were able to raise made the missionaries a lucrative target for officials that wanted cash, which could even surpass what the imperial court was offering in rewards. This created a cycle of extortion and bribery which lasted for years.
List of Vietnamese Martyrs
Those whose names are known are listed below:
Please keep in mind that these are the anglicized versions of their names
Andrew Dũng-Lạc Andrew Dung-Lac An Tran, Vietnamese priest
Andrew Thong Kim Nguyen, layman
Andrew Trong Van Tran, layman and soldier
Andrew Tuong Manh Nguyen, layman
Anthony Dich Tien Nguyen, layman
Anthony Quynh Huu Nguyen, layman and doctor
Agnes Thanh-De Thi Le, laywoman
Augustin Schoeffler, MEP, French priest
Augustine Huy Viet Phan, layman and soldier
Augustine Moi Van Nguyen, layman
Bernard Vũ Văn Duệ, Vietnamese priest
Celement Ignatius Delgado Y, OP, Spanish bishop
Dominic Cam Van Nguyen, Vietnamese priest
Dominic Dat Dinh, layman and soldier
Dominic Hanh Van Nguyen, OP, Vietnamese priest
Dominic Henares Minh, Spanish bishop
Dominic Huyen Van Tran, layman and fisherman
Dominic Kham Trong Pham, layman and local judge
Dominic Mau Duc Dinh, Vietnamese priest
Dominic Mao Duc Nguyen, layman
Dominic Nhi Duc Nguyen, layman
Dominic Ninh Duy Tran, layman
Dominic Nguyen Huy Nguyen, layman
Dominic Toai Van Tran, layman and fisherman
Dominic Trach-Doai Duc Vu, OP, Vietnamese priest
Dominic Tuoc Dinh Vu, OP, Vietnamese priest
Dominic Uy Van Bui, catechist
Dominic Xuyen Van Nguyen, OP, Vietnamese priest
Emmanuel Phung Van Le, layman
Emmanuel Trieu Van Nguyen, Vietnamese priest
Francis Chieu Van Do, catechist
Francis Gil de Frederich Te, OP, Spanish priest
Francis Isidore Gagelin Kinh, MEP, French priest
Francis Jaccard Phan, MEP, French priest
Francis Trung Van Tran, layman and military officer
Francis Xavier Can Nguyen, catechist
Francis Xavier Mau Trong Ha, catechist
Hyacinth Casteñeda Gia, OP, Spanish priest
James Nam Mai Do, Vietnamese priest
Jerome Hermosilla Vong, OP, Spanish bishop
John Charles Cornay Tan, MEP, French priest
John Dat Viet Doan, Vietnamese priest
John Hoan Trinh Doan, Vietnamese priest
John Louis Bonnard Huong, MEP, French priest
John Baptist Con Ngoc Tran, layman
John Baptist Thanh Van Dinh, catechist
Joseph Mary Díaz Sanjurjo An, OP, Spanish bishop
Joseph Canh Luong Hoang, layman and doctor
Joseph Fernandez Hien, OP, Spanish priest
Joseph Hien Quang Do, Vietnamese priest
Joseph Khang Duy Nguyen, catechist
Joseph Luu Van Nguyen, layman
Joseph Marchand Du, MEP, French priest
Joseph Nghi-Kim Dinh Nguyen, Vietnamese priest
Joseph Thi Dang Le, layman and military officer
Joseph Uyen Dinh Nguyen, Vietnamese priest
Joseph Vien Dinh Dang, Vietnamese priest
Joseph Ta Trong Pham, layman and governor
Joseph Tuc Quang Pham, layman
Joseph Tuan Van Tran, OP, Vietnamese priest
Joseph Tuan Van Tran, layman
Lawrence Ngon Viet Pham, layman and soldier
Lawrence Huong Van Nguyen, Vietnamese priest
Luke Loan Ba Vu, Vietnamese priest
Luke Thin Trong Pham, layman and governor
Martin Tho Ngoc Tran, layman
Martin Thinh Duc Ta, Vietnamese priest
Matthew Alonzo Leciniana Dau, OP, Spanish priest
Matthew Phuong-Dac Van Nguyen, layman
Matthew Gam Van Le, layman and merchant
Melchior García Sampedro Xuyen, OP, Spanish bishop
Michael Hy Dinh Ho, layman and court mandarin
Michael My Huy Nguyen, layman
Nicholas The Duc Bui, layman and soldier
Paul Buong Viet Tong, layman and military officer
Paul Duong-Dong Van Vu, layman
Paul Hanh Van Tran, layman
Paul Khoan Khac Pham, Vietnamese priest
Paul Loc Van Le, Vietnamese priest
Paul My Van Nguyen, catechist
Paul Ngan Nguyen, Vietnamese priest
Paul Tinh Bao Le, Vietnamese priest
Peter Almató Binh, OP, Spanish priest
Peter Thuan Van Dinh, layman
Peter Dung Van Dinh, layman
Peter Da Huu Phan, layman and carpenter
Peter Dumoulin-Borie Cao, MEP, French bishop
Peter Duong Van Truong, catechist
Peter Francis Néron Bac, MEP, French priest
Peter Hieu Van Nguyen, catechist
Peter Khanh Hoang, Vietnamese priest
Peter Khoa Dang Vu, Vietnamese priest
Peter Luu Van Nguyen, Vietnamese priest
Peter Qui Cong Doan, Vietnamese priest
Peter Thi Van Truong, Vietnamese priest
Peter Truat Van Vu, catechist
Peter Tu Van Nguyen, OP, Vietnamese priest
Peter Tu Khac Nguyen, catechist
Peter Tuan Ba Nguyen, Vietnamese priest
Peter Tuy Le, Vietnamese priest
Peter Van Van Doan/John Baptist Van Van Bach, catechist
Philip Minh Van Phan, Vietnamese priest
Simon Hoa Dac Phan, layman and doctor
Stephen Theodore Cuenot The, MEP, French bishop
Stephen Vinh Van Nguyen, layman
Theophanes Vénard Ven, MEP, French priest
Thomas De Van Nguyen, layman
Thomas Du Viet Dinh, Vietnamese priest
Thomas Thien Van Tran, seminarian
Thomas Toan Dinh Dao, catechist
Thomas Khuong Tuc Ngo, Vietnamese priest
Valentine Berriochoa Vinh, OP, Spanish bishop
Vincent Phạm Hiếu Liêm (Vicente Liêm de la Paz), OP, Vietnamese priest
Vincent Duong Van Pham, layman
Vincent Diem The Nguyen, Vietnamese priest
Vincent Tuong Manh Nguyen, layman and local judge
Vincent Yen Do, OP, Vietnamese priest
Causes being promoted
Andrew of Phú Yên, Jesuit missionary
François Xavier Truong Buu Diep
Marcel Nguyễn Tân Văn, C.Ss.R., Servant of God
Phanxicô Xaviê Nguyễn Văn Thuận, Cardinal
See also
Roman Catholicism in Vietnam
Vietnamese Martyrs, patron saint archive
Notes
References
Les Missions Etrangères. Trois siecles et demi d'histoire et d'aventure en Asie, Editions Perrin, 2008,
St. Andrew Dung-Lac & Martyrs, by Father Robert F. McNamara, Saints Alive and All God's Children Copyright 1980–2010 Rev. Robert F. McNamara and St. Thomas the Apostle Church.
Vietnamese Martyr Teaches Quiet Lessons, by Judy Ball, an AmericanCatholic.org Web site from the Franciscans and St. Anthony Messenger Press.
External links
"Saints and Blesseds of Vietnam" at GCatholic
Canonizations by Pope John Paul II
Catholic martyrs
Executed Vietnamese people
History of Catholicism in Vietnam
Lists of Christian martyrs
Lists of saints
Martyrs
Martyred groups
Beatifications by Pope Leo XIII
Beatifications by Pope Pius X
Beatifications by Pope Pius XII
Victims of anti-Catholic violence in Vietnam
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vegetables%20%28song%29
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Vegetables (song)
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"Vegetables" (early versions spelled as "Vega-Tables") is a song by American rock band the Beach Boys from their 1967 album Smiley Smile and their unfinished Smile project. Written by Brian Wilson and Van Dyke Parks, the song was conceived by Wilson as a tongue-in-cheek promotion of organic food. Another reported inspiration for the song was a humorous comment Wilson heard about the effect of marijuana turning him and his friends into a "vegetative" state.
"Vegetables" was one of the last songs recorded for Smile, with most of the original sessions held in April 1967. Paul McCartney of the Beatles is rumored to be on the recording, but while many witnesses support that he contributed chewed celery noises at one of these April sessions, researchers failed to uncover any audio evidence that would confirm his presence on any surviving recording of the song.
In February 1967, Wilson had announced that he would issue "Vegetables" as the lead single from Smile, which exacerbated tensions with Parks, who had felt that the song was one of their weaker efforts. Parks soon withdrew from the project, and Smile was scrapped. "Vegetables" was then largely rerecorded in June with an arrangement consisting of the group's vocals, electric bass, organ, chomped vegetables, and air blown into water bottles. Months later, the band reworked one of its outtakes into a new a cappella song, "Mama Says", that was released as the closing track on their 1967 album Wild Honey.
Wilson rerecorded "Vegetables" with an arrangement closer to what he had originally envisioned for the song on his 2004 album Brian Wilson Presents Smile. New edits of the song that approximate the original Smile version were also created for the compilations Good Vibrations: Thirty Years of the Beach Boys (1993) and The Smile Sessions (2011).
Background and inspiration
"Vegetables" was composed by Brian Wilson in 1966 and first recorded during the aborted Smile sessions. The song was based on Wilson's reported health obsession at the time. In a 1967 article, Wilson said, "I want to turn people on to vegetables, good natural food, organic food. Health is an important element in spiritual enlightenment. But I do not want to be pompous about it, so we will engage in a satirical approach." Parks said that the song was more specifically inspired by the radio evangelist Curtis Howe Springer, whom "Brian had a great fascination with".
The Saturday Evening Post writer Jules Siegel said that while using marijuana with Wilson and the "Beach Boys marijuana-consumption squad" Michael Vosse mused at how violence in their "vegetative" state could not be achieved, provoking laughter and further discussion of being a vegetable. Siegel said that this encounter was what inspired Wilson to write the song.
Although it is not definitely known to be true, "Vega-Tables" is generally believed to fulfill the Earth part of "The Elements" suite that Brian envisioned for Smile. One of the illustrations created for the album included "Vega-Tables" as part of "The Elements", however, a preliminary track list from December 1966 indicated "The Elements" and "Vega-Tables" as separate tracks.
The "Vega-Tables" spelling may have been inspired by the Vejtables, a group who opened for the Beach Boys at a concert on January 1, 1966.
Composition and lyrics
"Vegetables" is in the key of E major. The main chord progression of verses is I-IV-I. Musicologist Philip Lambert notes this progression as a recurring element throughout Smile, with other songs such as "Wind Chimes" and "The Elements: Fire" also utilizing it.
While the subject matter was conceived by Wilson, the lyrics were written by his collaborator Van Dyke Parks, who incorporated wordplay and absurdist imagery into the song. An earlier recording. sometimes referred to as the "cornucopia" version, features an additional discarded verse: "Tripped on a cornucopia / Stripped the stalk green and I hope ya / Like me the most of all / My favorite vegetable".
Some versions of "Vegetables" feature an additional interpolated section after the verses involving Barbershop-style vocal harmonies sung by the Beach Boys. The lyrics are "Mom and Dad say/sleep a lot, eat a lot / brush 'em like crazy / run a lot, do a lot / never be lazy". This section was considered for inclusion on "Heroes and Villains" under the subheaders "Do a Lot" or "Sleep a Lot" in January 1967, prior to the recording of the rest of "Vegetables".
Artwork
Artist Frank Holmes, who designed the Smile cover artwork, created an illustration that was inspired by the song's lyrics, "The Elements" / "My Vega-Tables". Along with several other drawings, they were planned to be included within a booklet packaged with the Smile LP. In 2005, Holmes shared a background summary of his design choices:
Smile recording history
October 1966 – January 1967 sessions
The Beach Boys recorded the most rudimentary version of "Vegetables", a demo with different lyrics and a different vocal arrangement, on or around October 17, 1966. Band archivist Craig Slowinski suggests that the session may have taken place on this day, however the exact date is unknown. This demo contained the unused "cornucopia" verse.
On November 4, Wilson produced a session dedicated to capturing a "humorous" situation featuring himself, Parks, Danny Hutton, Vosse, and a man named Bob. Towards the end of the exercise, the group plays a rhythm on bongos while chanting "Where's my beets and carrots" and "I've got a big bag of vegetables". On November 16, Wilson produced another humor session, this time dedicated to recording mock disagreements between Vosse and session drummer Hal Blaine. The latter play-acts as a man that is irate at Vosse for trespassing into his garden. It later turns into a serious conversation between Blaine, Vosse, and Wilson about the planetary alignments. Wilson completes the session by having his own mock disagreement with Blaine. Badman writes, "At one point, it is believed that these recordings will somehow figure into the 'Vegetables' track itself."
The first major session dedicated to tracking any part of "Vegetables" took place on January 3, 1967. However, at this time, part of the song had been configured as a section of "Heroes and Villains" and logged with the title "Do a Lot". Material recorded this day did not become part of the finished song. During the session, Wilson can be heard saying to his bandmates before a take, "If there's not anymore cooperation of this, I'm splitting, I mean it. We better get back into the groove, you know?"
March – April 1967 sessions
In February 1967, Wilson announced that "Vega-Tables" would be the lead single from Smile. At this time, the Beach Boys had engaged themselves in litigation against Capitol, and to taunt the record company, Wilson staged a mock promotion of the "Vega-Tables" by holding a photoshoot at the Los Angeles Farmers Market, where he posed in front of a fruit and vegetable stand. The location was at Fairfax Avenue and 3rd Street, only feet away from where Wilson opened a health food store, the Radiant Radish, two years later.
According to David Anderle, formerly the head of Brother Records, creative differences between Parks and Wilson had escalated since February. Parks was against having the song as the album's lead single, commenting, "[I didn't want] 'Vega-Tables' to be given too much emphasis. For Smile, that celebrated collaboration, to be dependent on a commercial release of 'Vega-Tables' as a single, was to me tremendously ill-advised, wherever it came from."
On March 2, after a session for "Heroes and Villains", their partnership was temporarily dissolved. A recording session for "Vega-Tables" vocals was held the next day, but further session dates, scheduled on March 28 and 30, were cancelled. Parks returned to the project after March 31.
The band spent at least eight studio dates recording "Vega-Tables" before embarking on a U.S. tour on April 14. Parks' last recorded appearance on the album's sessions was for a "Vega-Tables" date on April 14, after which he withdrew from the project. Wilson then took a four-week break from the studio. On April 29, band publicist Derek Taylor reported that the single, backed with "Wonderful", would soon be released. He described it as "a light and lyrical, day to day, green grocery song on which Al Jardine sings a most vigorous lead."
McCartney visit
During the April 10 vocal session at Sound Recorders, which also saw work on "Wonderful" and "Child Is Father of the Man", Paul McCartney of the Beatles joined the Beach Boys in the studio for several hours. Asked about his involvement in a 2001 interview, McCartney said he had no memory of the session, where he was said to have chomped vegetables. In a 2016 Q&A given for his website, he offered a specific recollection:
Jardine said, "I remember waiting for long periods of time between takes to get to the next section or verse. Brian [seemed to have] lost track of the session. Paul would come on the talkback and say something like "'Good take, Al.'" KROQ DJ Rodney Bingenheimer was also present, as he remembered, "We were in a booth, and we were supposed to shout out the names of vegetables. I was a young, punk kid at the time, and I shouted out 'TV dinners!' I didn't know..." Wilson's then-wife Marilyn recalled, "Brian had some fresh vegetables out, for the mood. He sprinkled salt all over the console table near the mixing board and started dipping celery into the salt and chomping on it. Paul followed his lead and picked up the celery and did the same thing. It was priceless to see this."
It is unclear if any record of McCartney's performance has survived, as his presence cannot be verified on existing session tapes. Craig Slowinski, who assembled the sessionography included with The Smile Sessions box set, stated: "I was ready to credit Sir Paul with 'veggie munching' [...] but since no tapes were found with his voice or reference to him, we figured I'd better not. Too hard to say that any veggie munching on his part remained on tape through the final stages of production." Sessions co-producer Mark Linett said, "Unless Paul is being very quiet, there’s no evidence that he’s a part of the chomping. And there’s quite a lot of discussion going on while that particular track is being recorded."
After the "Vega-Tables" session, McCartney performed his song "She's Leaving Home" on piano for Wilson and his wife. Wilson said: "We both just cried. It was beautiful." In turn, he performed "Wonderful" on piano for McCartney. Beatles roadie Mal Evans wrote about singing the traditional "On Top of Old Smokey" with McCartney and Wilson, but was not impressed by Wilson's avant-garde attitude to music: "Brian then put a damper on the spontaneity of the whole affair by walking in with a tray of water-filled glasses, trying to arrange it into some sort of session." In a January 1968 interview, Wilson stated of the McCartney episode, "It was a little uptight and we really didn't seem to hit it off. It didn't really flow. [...] It didn't really go too good."
Smiley Smile recording history
The Smile album was reported scrapped on May 5, 1967. Starting on June 3, "Vega-Tables" was rerecorded for the new album Smiley Smile, where it was respelled "Vegetables" and reworked as a kind of campfire song. Apart from its coda (recorded in April 1967), the track was remade entirely from scratch. Wilson played the electric bass on this version and added organ overdubs to the final section of the song.
According to Al Jardine, "I remember telling Brian, 'We’ve got to do something different on this thing.' What the hell, it was four in the morning. I filled some water bottles, tuned it to the key of the song and blew air into the bottles. What you hear sounds like an old organ."
"Vegetables" was mixed to mono on June 3, 1967. A recording for "You're with Me Tonight", held on June 6, was logged as a "Vega-Tables" session.
Release and reception
"Vegetables" was issued on September 18, 1967 as the second track on Smiley Smile. Melody Maker reviewed that "Vegetables" was among the "childish and pointless" songs that made Smiley Smile a "tragedy". A more positive review in Record Mirror complimented the vocal performances and speculated that the song could be released as a single by the group in the future.
Reviewing the song in AllMusic, Matthew Greenwald called it a "great example of the collaboration of Brian Wilson's and Van Dyke Parks' sense of comedy and psychedelic whimsy.", also noting it as among the strangest songs of the group's career. Music critic Ritchie Unterberger described it as an example of the "low-key psychedelic weirdness" present throughout Smiley Smile. Lambert wrote that the song heralded a "radically new artistic sensibility" for the group relative to Pet Sounds and Smile. David Leaf, writing in 1990, described the song as marking a new phase in Wilson's development as a musician.
The Smiley Smile rendition of the song was listed by Mojo as the Beach Boys' 47th greatest song, with the Mojo staff describing it as "endearingly daft", and praising the group's vocal harmonies and the "stripped back" arrangement. In 2015, the French edition of Rolling Stone named "Vegetables" the Beach Boys' 38th greatest song.
"Mama Says"
In 1967, the song was revisited for the last time as the closing track "Mama Says" on Wild Honey (1967). This version consisted of an extended re-recording of the unused "Do or Lot" or "Sleep a Lot" module. It was the first time a track with thematic links to Smile was used to close a later Beach Boys album, a practice that the band repeated with "Cabinessence" on 20/20 (1969), "Cool, Cool Water" on Sunflower (1970), and "Surf's Up" on Surf's Up (1971).
Parks' songwriting credit was not honored, and instead Mike Love was listed as the song's only co-writer. Wilson's 2016 memoir, I Am Brian Wilson, makes note of this as an example of what he perceived as Love's questionable songwriting credits, but does not disclose a reason why he himself did not credit Parks.
Alternate releases
In 1993, a composite version from the Smile sessions was given its first official release, under its original title "Vega-Tables", along with a slew of other Smile material, on the Good Vibrations boxset.
In 2001, some recordings related to the song were released on the rarities compilation Hawthorne, CA.
In 2011, many more composite versions were made available on The Smile Sessions.
In 2013, a 1993 live performance of the song was released on the compilation Made in California with Carl Wilson and Al Jardine on lead vocals.
Cover versions
1968 – Jan and Dean (under the name Laughing Gravy) on a single released in 1968 and later under Jan and Dean on their 1971 Jan & Dean Anthology Album and in 1974 on their Gotta Take That One Last Ride album. The version on Gotta Take That One Last Ride contains additional instrumental and vocal overdubs by Brian Wilson and American Spring in 1973.}
1991 – Sink, Vega-Tables
2001 – "Receptacle for the Respectable" from the album Rings Around the World by Super Furry Animals also features Paul McCartney chewing celery and carrots.
Personnel
The details in this section are adapted from The Smile Sessions liner notes, which includes a sessionography compiled by band archivist Craig Slowinski. and from Keith Badman
The Smile Sessions edit
The Beach Boys
Al Jardine – lead, backing and harmony vocals, miscellaneous percussion and sound effects, vegetable chomping, whistling (uncertain credit)
Mike Love – backing and harmony vocals, laughter, vegetable chomping
Brian Wilson – backing and harmony vocals, laughter, grand piano, miscellaneous percussion and sound effects, vegetable chomping, detuned grand piano, electric harpsichord, whistling (uncertain credit)
Carl Wilson – backing and harmony vocals, laughter, miscellaneous percussion and sound effects, vegetable chomping, Fender bass, overdubbed ukulele
Dennis Wilson – backing and harmony vocals, laughter, miscellaneous percussion and sound effects, vegetable chomping, thump percussion, overdubbed drum, xylophone, rattling percussion
Session musicians
Arnold Belnick – violin
Samuel Boghossian – viola
Chuck Berghofer – overdubbed upright bass (verses)
Joseph DiFiore – viola
Joseph DiTullio – cello
Jim Gordon – hi-hat, castanet, cups
Raymond Kelley – cello
William Kurasch – violin
Nick Pellico – vibraphone
Bill Pitman – tenor ukulele (Danelectro bass on early takes)
Ray Pohlman – Fender bass (fade)
Lyle Ritz – upright bass (fade)
Partial sessionography
Likely October 17, 1966 - Columbia ["Cornucopia"] (discarded demo)
Brian Wilson – grand piano, lead vocals, backing vocals & laughter
Mike Love - lead vocals, backing vocals & laughter
Dennis Wilson - backing vocals & laughter
Carl Wilson - backing vocals & laughter
Al Jardine - backing vocals & laughter
Bruce Johnston - backing vocals & laughter
Marilyn Wilson - backing vocals & laughter
Diane Rovell - backing vocals & laughter
November 11, 1966 - Western ["Promo"] (this session produced a Vegetables-themed spoken-word skit primarily featuring Brian Wilson and Hal Blaine, likely intended for incorporation into the final track)
Brian Wilson - spoken word
Hal Blaine - spoken word
Michael Vosse - spoken word
January 3, 1967 – Columbia ["Do a Lot"] (discarded recording)
Brian Wilson – group vocals, upright piano, overdubbed grand piano, overdubbed whistling (uncertain credit)
Dennis Wilson - group vocals, overdubbed thumb percussion (uncertain credit)
Carl Wilson - group vocals
Mike Love - group vocals
Al Jardine - group vocals
Bruce Johnston - group vocals
April 4, 1967 – Sound Recorders ["Verse"] (this session produced the master take for the verse)
Brian Wilson – grand piano, backing and harmony vocals, laughter
Al Jardine - backing and harmony vocals, laughter
Dennis Wilson - backing and harmony vocals, laughter
Carl Wilson - backing and harmony vocals, laughter
Mike Love - backing and harmony vocals, laughter
April 6, 1967 – Sound Recorders ["Verse"] (this session produced the bass track and sound effects overdubs for the verse)
Chuck Berghofer – overdubbed upright bass
Brian Wilson - miscellaneous percussion and sound effects
Carl Wilson - miscellaneous percussion and sound effects
Al Jardine - miscellaneous percussion and sound effects
April 7, 1967 – Columbia ["Sleep a Lot"] (this session produced the "sleep a lot" section)
Brian Wilson – vocals, detuned grand piano
Dennis Wilson - vocals, thump percussion
Carl Wilson - vocals
Mike Love - vocals
Al Jardine - vocals
April 10, 1967 – Sound Recorders ["Verse"] (this session produced the verse lead vocal and sound effect overdubs)
Al Jardine - double-tracked lead vocals, overdubbed veggie chomping
Brian Wilson – overdubbed veggie chomping
Dennis Wilson - overdubbed veggie chomping
Carl Wilson - overdubbed veggie chomping
Mike Love - overdubbed veggie chomping
April 11, 1967 – Sound Recorders ["Chorus 1" and "2nd Chorus"] (this session produced the first and second chorus)
Brian Wilson – electric harpsichord, group vocals, whistling (2nd Chorus, uncertain credit)
Carl Wilson – fender bass, group vocals
Dennis Wilson – group vocals, xylophone, overdubbed drum (Chorus 1), rattling percussion (2nd Chorus)
Mike Love - group vocals, bass vocals (2nd Chorus)
Al Jardine - group vocals, bass vocals (2nd Chorus) whistling (2nd Chorus, uncertain credit)
April 12, 1967 – Gold Star ["Fade"] (this session produced the fade)
Bill Pitman - tenor ukulele (Danelectro bass with fuzztone on earlier takes)
Ray Polhman - Fender bass, overdubbed high Fender bass
Lyle Ritz - upright bass (arco)
Jim Gordon - hi-hat, castanet, and cups (drums and bongos on earlier takes)
Nick Pellico - vibes
Arnold Belnick - violin
William Kurasch - violin
Samuel Boghossian - viola
Joseph DiFiore - viola
Joseph DiTullio - cello
Raymond Kelley - cello
Brian Wilson - conductor (upright piano on earlier takes)
April 12, 1967 – Sound Recorders ["Fade" and "Insert (Part 4)"] (these sessions produced the insert preceding the fade and the vocals on the fade)
Brian Wilson - grand piano, vocals (Insert Part 4), backing vocals (Fade)
Carl Wilson - vocals (Insert Part 4), backing vocals, overdubbed ukulele (Fade)
Mike Love - vocals (Insert Part 4), bass vocals (Fade)
Al Jardine - vocals (Insert Part 4), scat lead vocals (Fade)
April 13, 1967 – Sound Recorders ["Fade"] (this session produced Brian's overdubbed falsetto vocal on the fade)
Brian Wilson - overdubbed wordless falsetto vocals
April 14, 1967 – Sound Recorders ["Ballad Insert"] (this session produced the ballad insert used as part of the song's outro)
Brian Wilson - lead vocals, stacked backing vocals, grand piano
June 3, 5-7 1967 – Western Recorders (new modules attempted for the song as the first sessions for Smiley Smile)
Al Jardine - vocals
Brian Wilson – vocals, electric bass, overdubbed organ
Dennis Wilson - vocals
Carl Wilson - vocals
Mike Love - vocals
Lyle Ritz - upright bass
June 15, 1967 – Bel Air (final vocals recorded for the song)
Al Jardine - vocals
Brian Wilson – vocals
Dennis Wilson - vocals
Carl Wilson - vocals
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
1967 songs
The Beach Boys songs
Brian Wilson songs
Songs written by Brian Wilson
Songs written by Van Dyke Parks
Song recordings produced by Brian Wilson
Song recordings produced by the Beach Boys
Jan and Dean songs
Songs about plants
Satirical songs
Paul McCartney
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20drive-in%20theatres%20in%20Australia
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List of drive-in theatres in Australia
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Drive-in theatres (also known as drive-in cinemas or just drive-ins) were once very popular in Australia. Although considered an American invention, there is evidence of outdoor cinemas in Western Australia where some patrons attended in their cars as far back as 1938, and it is possible that these facilities may even predate the first American-style drive-in theatre.
History
The first American-style drive-in theatre to open in Australia was the Skyline in the Melbourne suburb of Burwood on 18 February 1954. It was the first of 330 drive-in theatres that would open across Australia.
Many have since closed with the large amounts of land taken up by drive-ins being sold off to build houses or shopping centres, although in recent years a number of drive-in theatres have reopened or expanded the number of screens available.
In the 1990s, the Coburg Drive-in Theatre in Melbourne was expanded to three screens, as was the Dromana Drive-in Theatre. In more recent times the former Dandenong Panoramic Drive-in, in Victoria, has been reopened as the Lunar Drive-in Theatre and now has four screens making it Australia's largest drive-in theatre with the most screen choice.
In 2002 the Rodeo Drive-in at Mareeba, near Cairns, re-opened, with the Tivoli Drive-in near Ipswich re-opening in 2008.
Dromana Drive In is the longest continually running in Australia. It was opened in 1961 and has never closed.
The longest running Drive In Theatres in Western Australia that is still open today is located in Dongara. This opened in 1967 and still operates every summer, the projector has been upgraded to digital to show the latest movies.
Along with a few metropolitan operations, there are a number of drive-in theatres serving remote communities such as Jericho in Queensland.
By state and territory
The remaining drive-ins provide a glimpse of what was a very popular pastime in the 1950s and 1960s. The following is a listing of Australia's remaining open drive-in theatres. It includes portable operations in which patrons can either drive or sit down to see a movie outdoors.
Australian Capital Territory
The ACT had two drive-in theatres, the Starlight in Watson (opened in January 1957 and closed in 1993), which has now been redeveloped for medium-density housing, and the Sundown at Narrabundah (opened in 1968 and closed in 1984), which is now a motel and private housing village.
On 2 February 2018, the Southern Cross Drive-In theatre opened just over the ACT border in Queanbeyan. However, on 3 March a severe storm saw the screen damaged and it did not reopen.
New South Wales
The Skyline drive-ins at Frenchs Forest and Dundas were Sydney's first. They opened simultaneously on Wednesday 24 October 1956, with Frenchs Forest screening 3 Ring Circus and Dundas screening The Racers.
The Skyline on Johnston Rd in Bass Hill opened in November 1956, with a 724 car capacity and until its closure in September 2007 was Australia's oldest continually operating drive-in theatre.
The Chullora Metro Twin drive-in was opened by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Pty. Ltd in October 1956 with Chips Rafferty in 'Walk Into Hell'. It was taken over by Greater Union in 1971 but closed in 1979. It was Australia's first twin-screen drive-in.
North Ryde drive-in, on the corner of Lane Cove and Waterloo Roads, opened in December 1956, accommodated 620 cars and operated for 30 years from December 1956. It was operated by Consolidated Drive-In Theatres Property Ltd. It closed in February 1986. The site was redeveloped for industrial uses.
Caringbah Skyline drive-in on Taren Point Rd opened in 1956 and closed in 1988. It is now occupied by a retail development.
In the southwestern suburbs of Sydney, El Rancho drive-in opened in March 1957 on Hamilton Road in the then rural locality of Fairfield West, and closed as the Skyline drive-in in 1984. The site is now occupied by Mary McKillop College Wakely (the name change from Fairfield West occurred in the early 1980s as the area was urbanised). Later came the Prestons drive-in, which had closed by the early 1990s.
The Matraville Star Drive-In opened in August 1958, and was operated by Star Drive-In Property Ltd. In 1971 it was re-named Skyline Matraville but closed in August 1984.
In the Western Suburbs, the Blacktown (Prospect) Skyline drive-in opened in December 1963 as a single screen site, with a second screen being added in the 1980s. Until recently the Blacktown Skyline Drive In was one of Sydney's last remaining drive-ins. It was the first of the Consolidated circuit to add a second screen in 1984 and has a capacity of 700 cars. It is currently operated by Event Cinemas. The Penrith Starline drive-in opened in 1965 and in 1970 was brought by Consolidated Drive-In Theatres Property Ltd and renamed Penrith Skyline drive-in. It was taken over Hoyts Theatres in March 1979, taken over by Greater Union in 1982, and closed in August 1984.
Warriewood drive-in opened in September 1971 and closed in August 1984. It was then used as a plant nursery, but later demolished for residential development.
Probably the last of Sydney's drive-ins to be built, the Parklea Skyline drive-in opened in December 1976 with Rachel Roberts in 'Picnic At Hanging Rock'. It lasted less than eight years, closing in August 1984. Parklea Market then occupied the site.
In Lambton in Newcastle the Skyline drive-in opened in December 1956 at a cost of $200,000, with a capacity for 722 cars and a holding area for a further 420. It closed in June 1985.
In Wollongong, the Southline drive-in, on the corner of the Princes Hwy and Balgownie Rd in Fairy Meadow opened in October 1957 with 'Picnic'. It closed in March 1984. The Lakeline drive-in, located on Kanahooka Rd Kanahooka, opened in November 1967 with 'Divorce, American Style'. It closed in March 1986.
The Village Orange drive-in opened on 8th October 1970 but closed in the early 1980s. From then until 2018 when it was demolished, it was used for various types of open-air markets.
In Thurgoona in Albury, the Stargazer drive-in opened in October 1972. It closed in December 1990.
The Sturt drive-in in Wagga Wagga opened in February 1959. It closed in the late 1980s and was demolished sometime after 1998. The site is now occupied by retail.
The Taree drive-in, located on Bushland Drive, opened around 1970 but closed in the mid-1980s. The site remains unused, with the concession stand, ramps and ticket booths still standing as of 2019.
Coffs Harbour drive-in opened in February 1972 and closed in September 1988. It was demolished in December 1988 for an industrial estate.
At Narellan, the Gayline drive-in opened in November 1967 and closed in 1990. It has been demolished and the site redeveloped for housing.
The opening date of the Lismore drive-in is not known, but was before 1973. It has been demolished.
Tweed Heads drive-in opened in December 1971 and is thought to have closed in the 1990s. The site was brought by Gold Coast Airport for carparking.
The Armidale Drive-In was located in Mossman St and opened in the 1970s and closed in 1986.
In Broken Hill, the Bel-Air drive-in opened in the early 1960s, and closed in 1989. It has since been demolished.
Several smaller community drive-ins remain in rural NSW.
Tamworth Drive-in theatre opened in July 1965 and closed circa 1980. Featured a children's playground and mini-golf with full food amenities.
Heddon Greta Skyline (1 screen), Heddon Greta Drive-in was opened in the 1960s but between 1984 - 1996 the theatre was closed, however it has been reopened. The theatre has the capacity of 676 cars. It is currently operated by Skyline (Greater Union/Hoyts) and Donna and Scott Seddon. The land has been sold, and the cinema is expected to close mid-2023.
Dubbo Westview Drive In (1 screen), Closed in the mid 1980s recently restored and reopened to special events.
In 2010 a new seasonal facility with a blow up screen was proposed for Randwick Racecourse. In 2020, the Mov'in Car drive-in theatre opened on the rooftop carpark at the Entertainment Quarter in Moore Park.
Northern Territory
Darwin was home to the Paspalis (Nightcliff) Drive-in Theatre, the largest privately owned drive-in located in Australia, which was opened in 1965 and closed in 1985. The Alice Springs Star line Drive-in operated from 1975 to 1990 closing when the Alice Springs Cinema opened in 1989. There are currently no operating drive-ins in the territory. The Tennant Creek drive-in ran 1972-84 and Katherine hosted one in Bogart Rd.
Queensland
Queensland had at one stage over 50 drive-ins. Now all of the suburban Brisbane drive-in theatres have closed leaving the Tivoli Drive In Theatre in Ipswich, and the Gold Coast's Yatala as the closest drive-in theatres to Brisbane. In rural Queensland however, there are still a number of drive-in theatres operating.
Brisbane's first drive-in was the Capalaba which opened in 1955. The Boondall Drive-in opened on 8 February 1956, at the time it had the largest screen in Australia. Kids were well catered for with a Merry-Go-Round, miniature Cobb & Co coach and Shetland Ponies to ride (Brisbane Telegraph, 6 Feb 1956). The site of the Boondall Drive-In has now been developed into housing.
The Burleigh Heads Drive-in was one of Queensland's first drive-ins when it opened in 1957 with a 500 car capacity. It was followed by the Starlight drive-in at Aspley, which was opened in January 1957 (at a cost of £100,000). Fourth to open, in April 1957, was Hoyts Skyline Drive-in located at Coopers Plains at a cost of £200,000. It could hold 650 cars on its 17 acres and also had a children's railway line, putt putt, badminton facilities and a dance floor.
The Starline Drive-In opened near Ipswich in the early 1960s. Other drive-ins opened in and around Brisbane in the late 1960s, early 1970s. These included the Keperra, the Western at Oxley, the Galaxy at Cannon Hill and the Redcliffe Drive-In on the city's northern outskirts.
In 2002 a small boutique drive-in was opened in Wonga (north of Gympie), with a second screen added in 2004, increasing it to a 250 car capacity. A third screen was subsequently added; however in January 2010 the drive-in closed, when its owner went into receivership. In September 2010 a new owner took over the operation of the drive-in reopening in December that year. The drive-in has recently closed.
Ayr Stardust Drive In, Ayr
The Stardust drive-in was opened in September 1964, with a capacity of 360 cars. Built within the grounds is a hardtop cinema, so patrons can choose between outdoor and indoor movies.
Charters Towers Tors Drive-In, Charters Towers
The Charters Towers Tors drive-in was opened in 1966 and has two screens with capacity for 300 cars.
Jericho Drive in, Jericho
The Jericho drive-in is the smallest public drive-in located in Australia, and possibly the world, with a capacity for 36 cars. It was opened in 1969. Movies are screened once a month.
Rodeo Drive In Mareeba, Mareeba
The Mareeba Rodeo drive-in was built by Far Northern Theatres in the 1960s. Far Northern Theatres had a circuit that extended right through far northern Queensland and into Papua New Guinea. The circuit was sold to Birch Carrol & Coyle in the 1970s. In the mid-1980s, Birch Carrol & Coyle pulled out and the Rodeo was sold to Norm Janke. Janke operated the drive-in until 1998 when it closed. It subsequently re-opened in 2002, with a 300 car capacity.
Tivoli Drive In Theatre, Chuwar
The Tivoli Drive In Theatre first opened its gates in 1976 and operated for many years before closing in March 2000. The property was purchased by Rivers of Life Christian Church in 2003 and rebranded the Tivoli Miracle Centre. In 2008 the church revived the Tivoli Drive In as a weekly community Drive In theatre focussed on providing families with low cost family oriented entertainment, and providing employment and work skills training opportunities for unemployed young adults and youth. The Drive In currently screens movies every Saturday night.
Yatala Drive-In (3 screens), Yatala
The Yatala Drive-In on the Gold Coast's last open-air drive-in theatre (in an area which formerly had over 20 drive-in theatres), formerly Beenleigh Drive-In, it opened on 27 October 1974, and in 2000 the theatre was renamed Yatala Twin Drive-In when a second screen was added. A third screen was added in 2013.
South Australia
The Blue-Line drive-in located in West Beach, Adelaide was the first drive-in located in South Australia, and the first to be constructed outside of Melbourne. It was opened on 28 December 1954, it was followed by the Mainline Drive-In theatre at Gepps Cross on 7 October 1955, which was Australia's first drive-in / walk-in theatre (with a capacity for 500 cars and seating for 400 patrons). It was followed by the Shandon in Seaton in early July 1956, the Hi-Line in Panorama in March 1957, and the MGM Metro at Marion in June 1957. The first country drive-in opened at Port Pirie in September 1957.
Following the closure of the Valleyline at Modbury in May 2003, only the Wallis Mainline Drive-in at Gepps Cross remained as the only remaining drive-in located in metropolitan Adelaide. In November 2021, Wallis announced the closure of Mainline at the end of February 2022, leaving Adelaide with no more drive-in theatres. Its reasons for closure were cited as "the changing nature of the cinema industry, the introduction of daylight saving, film piracy and now the lengthy COVID-19 epidemic".
In the country areas, the Riverview at Murray Bridge closed in February 2005 (after 46 years) and the Riverland in Barmera closed in September 2008.
The closure of the Mainline at Gepps Cross in February 2022 makes the community-run facility at Coober Pedy, the Coober Pedy Drive-In Theatre, the state's last drive-in theater.
Over the years, the list of drive-ins in metropolitan Adelaide included:
Ocean Line Drive-In Theatre - Dyson Road, Christie Downs
Star Line Drive In Elizabeth - Main North Road, Hillbank
Mainline Drive-In Theatre - Gawler Road, Gepps Cross
Star Line Drive In Gilles Plains - Blacks Road, Gilles Plains
Star Line Drive In Hectorville - Glynburn Road, Hectorville
Metro Drive-In Theatre Marion - Oaklands Road, Marion
Park Line Drive-In Theatre - Marion Road, Mitchell Park
Valley Line Drive-In Theatre - Tolley Road, Modbury
Star Line Drive In O'Halloran Hill - Majors Road, Darlington
Harbour Line Drive-In Theatre - Victoria Road, Osborne
Hi-Line Drive-In Theatre - Goodwood Road, Panorama
Hollywood Drive-In Theatre - Winzor Street, Salisbury Downs
Star Line Drive In Seaton - Tapleys Hill Road, Seaton
Blue Line Drive In Theatres - Military Road, West Beach
Star Line Drive In Woodville North - Grand Junction Road, Mansfield Park
Victoria
Following a visit to the United States in the early 1950s, Hoyts' southern division manager, George Griffith Jnr, believed that drive-in theatres would be successful in Australia. Hoyts and Fox however did not share Griffith's enthusiasm for the establishment of a drive-in theatre, so Griffith subsequently formed a syndicate, Auto Theatres, which decided on a site in the Melbourne suburb of Burwood for Australia's first drive-in theatre. Construction proceeded through the latter half of 1953 from plans drawn up by AC Leith Bartlett & Partners in conjunction with RCA Australia. The Skyline Burwood officially opened on 18 February 1954 and proved extremely popular, with traffic jams in both directions along the Burwood Highway. Hoyts subsequently bought out Griffith and his partners.
Following the success of the first drive-in theatre, the Skyline (Burwood), Hoyts quickly opened Skyline drive-in theatres at Preston in 1954, and Oakleigh in March 1955. In Wodonga, the Skyline Drive-in, located on the southwest corner of the Hume Highway and Melrose Drive, opened in November 1956. The next Hoyts drive-in was constructed in Broadmeadows (1958), but then there was a break of almost 10 years until Hoyts acquired drive-ins at Coburg and Oakleigh and constructed new drive-ins in Bulleen (1965), Wantirna (1968) and Altona. In 1972 the Broadmeadows Skyline was the first of the Melbourne suburban drive-ins to close, whilst the Oakleigh site was the last drive-in operated by Hoyts in the world, when it closed in 1990.
Sandringham drive-in theatre (now closed) was located between Tulip and Talinga Roads in Sandringham. With the entrance being on Tulip St.
Today Melburnians have 10 screens in their immediate vicinity to choose from (counting Dromana as being basically suburban Melbourne). Rural Victorians however have none.
Lunar Drive-in Theatre (four screens), Dandenong
The Lunar Dandenong is Australia's largest and oldest (still in operation) drive-in theatre. It was first opened 4 May 1956 and was constructed by J. and K. Houlahan from plans drawn up by Baily and Tilley. The original capacity was to be for 400 cars; however, this was redesigned to accommodate 600 cars, with the final capacity being 634 cars. The drive-in closed on 18 April 1984 and was subsequently purchased by Trash and Treasure Australia Pty Ltd, who operated a Sunday market on the site in the 1970s. On 19 September 2002 it reopened as a two-screen drive-in, with a third screen added in September 2003 with a 950-car capacity. It is due to be closed in late 2023.
Village Coburg Drive-in (3 Screens), Coburg
Coburg opened in November 1965, under the ownership of Sillman and Sharp. It was acquired by Hoyts in 1967 until it closed in 1984. Hoyts were unable to sell the site despite numerous attempts and in 1987 Village joined with Hoyts and re-opened Coburg as a twin screen in 1987. A third screen was added in 1995. Coburg was Australia's largest drive-in theatre with an 850-car capacity, until the expansion at Dandenong in 2003.
Dromana 3 Drive-in (3 Screens), Dromana
The Dromana was opened in 1961 with a capacity of 485 cars. It has since been expanded to a three screen operation and has a Sunday market operating from the site. It is only one of three that have never closed (since the 1960s), operating continuously since its inception (1961) to the present.
Western Australia
The first conventional drive-in located in Western Australia was the Highway, opened in the Perth suburb of Bentley on 24 October 1955, with the screening of Cecil B. DeMille's The Greatest Show on Earth. The Highway, owned and operated by John Pye (who founded the Ace entertainment and hospitality group), was located on a former dairy farm, fronting Albany Highway. It featured a high by wide screen on concrete footings, with a 642 car capacity, children's playground, mini golf course, cafeteria and approximately 30 staff. The resultant success of the Highway started a boom in suburban drive-ins which saw a further eight operating by the end of the decade (the Skyline in Floreat in November 1955, Mott's in Gosnells in January 1956, the Panorama in Roleystone in March 1956, the Metro in Innaloo, the Lakeway in Swanbourne in April 1957, the Melway in Melville, the Wirrina in Morley in March 1959 and the Eastway in Belmont in July 1959), with another nine sites opening in the 1960s (including the Starline in Hilton). The growth of Perth's suburban drive-ins then slowed to only five more built during the 1970s with the last drive-in theatre, Aceway, in the suburb of Morley, constructed in 1980.
In the country areas, the first to open was the Oasis in Geraldton in 1957, and there were only three more built in the 1950s; the Mayfair in Bunbury, the Avonway in Northam and the Morcady in Wongan Hills. The boom years in the country were the sixties, which saw 61 drive-ins opened, with growth then slowing to only six more built in the seventies and one in the eighties.
By the 1990s there were only three suburban drive-ins that remained, but then the Metro (a twin screen site as of 1984) in Innaloo closed in 1993 followed by the Highway (a twin screen site as of 1986) in Bentley which closed on 19 June 1994; only the Galaxy (established 1 November 1973) in Kingsley remains open within the Perth surrounds. There are however a few drive-in theatres and car-friendly outdoor cinemas still operating in rural Western Australia. The Dongara Drive-in, built in 1966 and opened in January 1967, has been in continual operation since this time. After a storm in 2008 the screen was replaced and the original projector upgraded. In 2015 the projector was upgraded to digital. The drive-in can accommodate 200 cars, whilst it only operates in summer it is the longest continually running drive-in in Western Australia. The Koorda Community Drive-in opened in October 1965; it closed in 1983 but reopened in 1987. It has a capacity of 110 cars, has been updated to digital, and screens monthly.
Tasmania
The state capital Hobart previously had two drive-in theatres, one on each side of the Derwent River. Opening in 1956, the Elwick Drive-In at Elwick was the first drive-in theatre in Tasmania. The Eastside Drive-In at Warrane was reportedly the largest screen in Australia upon opening in 1966, measuring in size and hosting 418 cars.
Launceston's Village Drive-In at Mowbray opened on 10 October 1957. The screen measured with space for 877 cars; making it the largest in Tasmania by capacity. Drive-in theatres at Devonport and Burnie both opened in 1958.
The last of Tasmania's drive-in theatres at Elwick and Mowbray were closed by Village Cinemas in March 1985.
There are no current permanent drive-ins in Tasmania; however, drive-in events have been hosted at the Royal Hobart Regatta Grounds at Queens Domain as part of the City of Hobart's Out in the Open program, as well as special drive-in events facilitated throughout Tasmania by Tassie Open Air Cinemas. Launceston's Harvest Market secured funding to support drive-in events in 2020.
See also
Drive-in theater#Australia
List of drive-in theatres
References
External links
Australian film-related lists
Australia, Drive-in
Drive-in
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Taxation in Australia
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Income taxes are the most significant form of taxation in Australia, and collected by the federal government through the Australian Taxation Office. Australian GST revenue is collected by the Federal government, and then paid to the states under a distribution formula determined by the Commonwealth Grants Commission.
Australia maintains a relatively high tax burden in comparison with other wealthy, developed nations, at 27.8% of GDP in 2018.
Definition
The "classic definition" of a tax used by the High Court derived from Matthews v Chicory Marketing Board (Vic) (1938), where Chief Justice John Latham stated that a tax was "a compulsory exaction of money by
a public authority for public purposes, enforceable by law, and is not a payment for services rendered". In a series of judgments under the Mason court – including Air Caledonie International v Commonwealth (1988), Northern Suburbs General Cemetery Reserve Trust v Commonwealth (1993), and Australian Tape Manufacturers Association Ltd v Commonwealth (1993) – the court broadened the Matthews definition to include amounts not payable to public authorities, such as non-government collection agencies.
History
When the first Governor, Governor Phillip, arrived in New South Wales in 1788, he had a Royal Instruction that gave him power to impose taxation if the colony needed it. The first taxes in Australia were raised to help pay for the completion of Sydney's first jail and provide for the orphans of the colony. Import duties were put on spirits, wine and beer and later on luxury goods.
After 1824 the Government of New South Wales raised extra revenue from customs and excise duties. These were the most important sources of revenue for the colony throughout the 19th century. Taxes were raised on spirits, beer, tobacco, cigars and cigarettes. These taxes would vary between each of the Australian colonies, and this state of affairs remained in place after the colonies achieved statehood.
Thomas de la Condamine was appointed as the first Collector of the Internal Revenue on 7 April 1827 with the actual office of the Collector of the Internal Revenue established on 1 May 1827 by Governor Ralph Darling. When de la Condamine's appointment was not confirmed by the Secretary of State for War and the Colonies William Huskisson, the duties fell to James Busby who held the position until December 1835 when the position was filled by William McPhereson. The Collector of the Internal Revenue collected all revenue, such as moneys received from the sale or rental of land except that from customs duties and court fees. The Internal Revenue Office was abolished on 4 January 1837 with its business becoming the responsibility of the Colonial Treasurer.
Colonial governments also raised money from fees on wills and stamp duty, which is a tax imposed on certain kinds of documents. In 1880, the Colony of Tasmania imposed a tax on earnings received from the profits of public companies.
Income taxes were introduced in the late 19th century in a few of the colonies before Federation. In 1884, a general tax on income was introduced in South Australia, and in 1895 income tax was introduced in New South Wales at the rate of six pence in the pound, or 2.5%. Federal income tax was first introduced in 1915, in order to help fund Australia's war effort in the First World War. Between 1915 and 1942, income taxes were levied at both the state and federal level.
The Taxation Administration Act 1953 was assented to on 4 March 1953.
In 1972, the government of William McMahon appointed the NSW Supreme Court judge Kenneth Asprey to conduct a full and wide-ranging review of the tax system. Although controversial when completed for the Whitlam Government in 1975, the Asprey report on taxation has acted "as a guide and inspiration to governments and their advisers for the following 25 years." The main recommendations of the report have all been implemented and are today part of Commonwealth taxation in Australia.
On 20 September 1985, Capital gains tax was introduced. The GST replaced the older wholesale sales tax in 2000. In July 2001, the Financial Institutions Duty was abolished. Between 2002 and 2005, Bank Account Debits Tax was abolished.
On 1 July 2012 the Federal government introduced a Carbon price, requiring large emitters of carbon dioxide to purchase permits, the government also introduced a Minerals Resource Rent Tax, originally called a resources 'super profits' tax in the Henry Tax Report. The revenue from the carbon pricing regime was used to reduce income tax by increasing the tax-free threshold and increase pensions and welfare payments, as well as introducing compensation for some affected industries. The Carbon Tax and associated Resources Rent tax were repealed in 2014.
The Government has brought back a duty on financial institutions in the form of a 'major bank levy' on the five largest banks in Australia.
Forms of taxes and excises, both Federal and State
Personal income taxes
Income taxes on individuals are imposed at the federal level. This is the most significant source of revenue in Australia. State governments have not imposed income taxes since World War II.
Personal income taxes in Australia are imposed on the personal income of each person on a progressive basis, with higher rates applying to higher income levels. Unlike some other countries, personal income tax in Australia is imposed on an individual and not on a family unit.
Individuals are also taxed on their share of any partnership or trust profits to which they are entitled for the financial year.
Capital gains tax
Capital Gains Tax (CGT) in the context of the Australian taxation system applies to the capital gain made on disposal of any asset, except for specific exemptions. The most significant exemption is the family home. Rollover provisions apply to some disposals, one of the most significant is transfers to beneficiaries on death, so that the CGT is not a quasi death duty.
CGT operates by having net gains treated as taxable income in the tax year an asset is sold or otherwise disposed of. If an asset is held for at least 1 year then any gain is first discounted by 50% for individual taxpayers, or by 33% for superannuation funds. Net capital losses in a tax year may be carried forward and offset against future capital gains. However, capital losses cannot be offset against income.
Personal use assets and collectables are treated as separate categories and losses on those are quarantined so they can only be applied against gains in the same category, not other gains. This works to stop taxpayers subsidising hobbies from their investment earnings.
Corporate taxes
A company tax is paid by companies and corporations on its net profit, but the company’s loss is carried forward to the next financial year. Unlike personal income taxes which use a progressive scale, company tax is calculated at a flat rate of 30% (25% for small businesses, which are defined below). Corporate tax is paid on the corporation’s profit at the corporate rate and is generally available for distribution, in addition to any retained earnings it may have carried forward, to shareholders as dividends.
A tax credit (called a franking credit) is available to resident shareholders who receive the dividends to reflect the tax paid by the corporation (a process known as dividend imputation). A withholding tax applies on unfranked dividends paid to non-resident shareholders.
From 2015/16, designated "small business entities" with an aggregated annual turnover threshold of less than $2 million were eligible for a lower tax rate of 28.5%. Since 1 July 2016, small business entities with aggregated annual turnover of less than $10 million have had a reduced company tax rate of 27.5%. From 2017/18, corporate entities eligible for the lower tax rate have been known as "base rate entities". The small business threshold has remained at $10 million since 2017/18; but the base rate entity threshold (the aggregated annual turnover threshold under which entities will be eligible to pay a lower tax rate) has continued to rise until the base rate entities have an annual turnover of $50 million giving a tax rate of 25% to the entities below this threshold.
Trustee liability taxes
Where all or part of the net trust income is distributed to either non-residents or minors, the trustee of that trust is assessed on that share on behalf of the beneficiary. In this case, the beneficiaries must declare that share of net trust income on their individual income tax returns, and also claim a credit for the amount of tax the trustee paid on their behalf.
Where the trust accumulates net trust income, the trustee is assessed on that accumulated income at the highest individual marginal rate.
In both cases the trustee will be issued a notice of assessment subsequent to lodging the trust tax return.
Goods and Services taxes
A goods and services tax (GST) is a value added tax levied by the federal government at 10% on the supply of most goods and services by entities registered for the tax. The GST was introduced in Australia on 1 July 2000 by the then Howard Liberal government. A number of supplies are GST-free (e.g., many basic foodstuffs, medical and educational services, exports), input-taxed (residential accommodation, financial services, etc.), exempt (Government charges) or outside the scope of GST.
The revenue from this tax is distributed to the States.
State governments do not levy any sales taxes though they do impose stamp duties on a range of transactions.
In summary, the GST rate of 10% is charged on most goods and services consumed in Australia. A business which is registered for GST would include the GST in the sale prices it charges. However, a business can claim a credit for the GST paid on business expenses and other inputs (called a GST credit). The business would pay to the Tax Office the difference between GST charged on sales and GST credits.
Two types of sales are treated differently:
Suppliers of GST-free goods and services will not have to pay GST when they make a sale but they will be entitled to GST credits.
Suppliers of input taxed goods and services do not have to charge GST on sales but they will not be entitled to claim GST credits from their purchases of inputs.
Property taxes
Local governments are typically funded largely by taxes on land value (council rates) on residential, industrial and commercial properties. In addition, some State governments levy tax on land values for investors and primary residences of high value. The State governments also levy stamp duties on transfers of land and other similar transactions.
Fire Service Levies are also commonly applied to domestic house insurance and business insurance contracts. These levies are required under State Government law to assist in funding the fire services in each State.
Departure tax
The Passenger Movement Charge (PMC) is a fee levied by the Australian government on all passengers departing on international flights or maritime transport. The PMC replaced the departure tax in 1995 and was initially described as a charge to partially offset the cost to government of the provision of passenger facilitation at airports, principally customs, immigration and quarantine functions. It is classified by the International Air Transport Association as a departure tax, rather than an airport charge, as its revenue does not directly contribute to passenger processing at airports or sea ports. Since 2017, the PMC has been a flat rate of A$60 per passenger over 12 years of age, with a few limited exemptions.
Excise taxes
The Federal Government imposes excise taxes on goods such as cigarettes, petrol, and alcohol. The rates imposed may change in February and August each year in response to changes in the consumer price index.
Fuel taxes in Australia
The excise tax on commonly used fuels in Australia as of October 2018 are as follows:
A$0.416 per litre on Unleaded Petrol fuel (Includes standard, blended (E10) and premium grades)
A$0.416 per litre on Diesel fuel (Ultra-low sulphur/Conventional)
A$0.134 per litre on Liquified petroleum gas used as fuel (Autogas or LPG as it is commonly known in Australia)
A$0.081 per litre on Ethanol fuel (Can be reduced/removed via Grants)
A$0.041 per litre on Biodiesel (Can be reduced/removed via Grants)
Note: Petrol used for aviation is taxed at $0.03556 per litre
Luxury Car Tax
Luxury Car Tax is payable by businesses which sell or import luxury cars, where the value of the car is above $66,331, or $75,526 for fuel-efficient cars with a fuel consumption of less than 7L per 100 km.
Customs duties
Customs duties are imposed on many imported goods, such as alcohol, tobacco products, perfume, and other items. Some of these goods can be purchased duty-free at duty-free shops.
Payroll taxes
Payroll taxes in Australia are levied by state governments on employers based on wages paid by them. Payroll tax rates vary between states. Typically, payroll tax applies to wages above the threshold, which also varies. Groups of companies may be taxed as a single entity where their operations are significantly integrated or related. This has significance in the grouping of payroll amounts in determining whether the threshold had been reached.
Current Payroll Tax Rates and Thresholds
Queensland and the Northern Territory payroll tax rates are effective rates on payrolls above $5.5 million and $5.75 million respectively. All other jurisdictions levy marginal rates. Some companies may be eligible for deductions, concessions and exemptions.
Payroll taxes in Australian Capital Territory
From 1 July 2014:
The rate of payroll tax is 6.85%.
The annual threshold is $1,850,000.
The monthly threshold is $154,166.66.
Payroll taxes in New South Wales
From 1 July 2013:
The rate of payroll tax is 5.45%.
Medicare payments are up to 12%
Pension Fund contribution is 9.5%
The annual threshold is $750,000.
The monthly threshold is:
28 days = $57,534
30 days = $61,644
31 days = $63,699
Employers, or a group of related businesses, whose total Australian wages exceed the current NSW monthly threshold, are required to pay NSW payroll tax.
Each monthly payment or 'nil' remittance is due seven days after the end of each month or the next business day if the seventh day is a weekend (i.e. August payment is due by 7 September). The annual reconciliation and payment or 'nil' remittance is due by 21 July.
Effective July 2007 – In NSW, payroll tax is levied under the Payroll Tax Act 2007 and administered by the Taxation Administration Act 1996.
Prior to 1 July 2007 – In NSW, payroll tax was levied under the Payroll Tax Act 1971 and administered by the Taxation Administration Act 1996.
Payroll taxes in Northern Territory
From 1 July 2012:
The rate of payroll tax is 5.50%.
The annual threshold is $1,500,000.
The monthly threshold is $125,000.
Payroll taxes in Queensland
Companies or groups of companies that pay $1,100,000 or more a year in Australian wages must pay payroll tax. There are deductions, concessions and exemptions available to those that are eligible.
From 1 July 2012:
The rate of payroll tax is 4.75%.
The annual threshold is $1,100,000.
The monthly threshold is $91,666.
Payroll taxes in South Australia
A Payroll Tax liability arises in South Australia when an employer (or a Group of employers) has a wages bill in excess of $600,000 for services rendered by employees anywhere in Australia if any of those services are rendered or performed in South Australia.
From 1 July 2012:
The rate of payroll tax is 4.95%.
The annual threshold is $600,000.
The monthly threshold is $50,000.
Payroll taxes in Tasmania
From 1 July 2013:
The rate of payroll tax is 6.1%.
The annual threshold is $1,250,000.
The monthly threshold is:
28 days = $95,890
30 days = $102,740
31 days = $106,164
Payroll taxes in Victoria
From 1 July 2021:
The rate of payroll tax is 4.85% (1.2125% for regional employers)
The annual threshold is $700,000.
The monthly threshold is $58,333.
Payroll taxes in Western Australia
Payroll tax is a general purpose tax assessed on the wages paid by an employer in Western Australia. The tax is self-assessed in that the employer calculates the liability and then pays the appropriate amount to the Office of State Revenue, by way of a monthly, quarterly or annual return.
From 1 July 2014:
The rate of payroll tax is 5.5%.
The annual threshold is $800,000.
The monthly threshold is $66,667.
On 8 December 2004 new legislation was passed making it mandatory for an employer that has, or is a member of a group that has, an expected payroll tax liability equal to or greater than $100,000 per annum, to lodge and pay their payroll tax return via Revenue Online (ROL). This amendment to the Payroll Tax Assessment Act 2002 was effective 1 July 2006.
Fringe Benefits Tax
Fringe Benefits Tax is the tax applied by the Australian Taxation Office to most, although not all, fringe benefits, which are generally non-cash benefits. Most fringe benefits are also reported on employee payment summaries for inclusion on personal income tax returns that must be lodged annually.
Inheritance tax
There is no inheritance tax in Australia, with all states in Australia abolishing what was known as death duties in 1979 following the lead of the Queensland Government led by Joh Bjelke-Petersen.
Private pensions (known as superannuation in Australia) may be taxed at up to three points, depending on the circumstances: at the point of tribution to a fund, on investment income and at the time benefits are received.
The compulsory nature of Australian Superannuation means that it is sometimes regarded as being similar to social security taxes levied in other nations. This is more frequently the case when comparisons are being made between the tax burden of respective nations.
See also
Australia Tax
Negative gearing (Australia)
Office of State Revenue (New South Wales)
Salary packaging
Tax file number
Tax return (Australia)
Tax Institute (Australia)
History:
Bottom of the harbour tax avoidance
Cherry-picking tax avoidance
Darwin Rebellion
Tax law:
Constitutional basis of taxation in Australia
Bank Notes Tax Act 1910
Related:
Australian federal budget
Australian economy
List of countries by tax rates
References
History of taxation in Australia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upasani%20Maharaj
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Upasani Maharaj
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Upasani Maharaj, born Kashinath Govindrao Upasni, (15 May 1870 – 24 December 1941) was an Indian spiritual teacher, considered by his disciples to be a satguru. He lived in Sakori, British India, and is said to have received God-realization from Sai Baba of Shirdi. Upasani himself was one of the principal spiritual teachers of Meher Baba.
Early life
Kashinath Govind Upasani Shastri, later known as Upasani Baba Maharaj, was born a Hindu into an orthodox Brahmin family in the village of Satana, India, in the Nasik district on 15 May 1870. He was the second child of Govind Shastri and Rukmina. His father was a copyist attached to the legal profession at the civil court of Dhulia; he had moved from Satana, leaving his son under the care of his grandfather and uncle. Kashinath formed a strong bond with his grandfather, Gopala Shastri, a learned Sanskrit scholar with the disposition of an ascetic. Gopala had served as a court advisor on religious and literary matters to Khanderao II Gaekwad, Maharaja of Baroda (rgd. 1856–1870) and to several smaller states. When the Maharaja died in 1870, Gopala lost his position and income, and the family became poor.
Kashinath commenced traditional Brahmin education from the age of five and at the age of eight had his Upanayana (thread-ceremony) at the hands of Deva Mamaledara, a famous saint in the area. He was sent to a vernacular elementary school but did not excel in the non-traditional curriculum taught. He left after three years, following being brutally caned by his teacher. Kashinath was more attracted to stories of the power of mantra (sacred invocation) and tapas (austerities) recorded in the Mahabharata, Ramayana and Puranas than to academic subjects.
Kashinath was clearly influenced by his grandfather's asceticism (following the Ashrama tradition, Gopala later adopted sannyasa) and practiced sadhana (spiritual disciplines) with fervour, both at home and at a nearby cremation ground. Kashinath's introversion became acute. His parents were critical of his extremism, and they nurtured the idea that he was a financial burden to them. Kashinath felt that the only way to resolve the situation was to leave home and adopt a mendicant life, but senior members of the family decided that he should be married. Despite his protests, they arranged his marriage with a girl of eight named Durga. This unwanted match is said to have occurred when Kashinath was fourteen. Within two years of their marriage, his wife died from an illness. He daily requested his parents to give their permission for him to leave, but they were adamant that he should remain a householder, and arranged a second marriage for him. He was sixteen and his bride nine years of age. He began to spend increasing periods of time absent from his home. When at home, he studied books on Ayurvedic medicine. He finally left his wife and relatives on the pretext of the need to earn a livelihood. He went to Pune, but because of his lack of formal education could not find a job. To survive, he had to do menial work or beg. For a period he lived among starving or half starved beggars in the temple of Omkareshwar on the outskirts of Pune.
When he was nineteen, Kashinath returned to his home town of Satana, with the desire of seeing his grandfather again. His journey took him through a thick wood, in the midst of which was a large hill (Bhorgiri fort, near Nasik). High up a precipitous cliff he discerned a small cave, and the desperate thought arose that this would be the ideal place for prayopavesha (fasting to death with full consciousness to attain union with Brahman). He secluded himself in the cave and, after two days of fasting, devoted his time to repeating the sacred syllables of mantras. Over several weeks he entered into altered states of consciousness, finally resulting in a profound samadhi. The life-enhancing spiritual experience gave him hope, and he came out of the cave, but was so weak that he had to slide and crawl down the hill. At the foot of the hill was a small village of Garhwali people, the home of an aboriginal tribe (bhil). For a month he lived on wild grain given to him by his hosts. He felled fuel and sold it at Nasik with them, giving them all the proceeds. He then resumed his journey to Satana and reached it on 22 July 1890.
Career
Kashinath returned home as a tapavin, one who has endured extreme yogic austerities. He began to follow his usual routine, and resumed his study of Ayurveda, but now to assist his grandfather who was suffering from paralysis. A month after his return, his father was infected by cholera, and died within a day. A year later his grandfather died, leaving the family poor and in debt. For a year, the family was supported by Bal Gangadhar Tilak. During this time (1891), Kashinath's second wife also died, due to post-parturition complications.
Six months later Kashinath married for a third time, but this time to a compatible partner. The deaths in the family and the mounting debts had shocked him into the realization that he must act, and he left for Sangli to study Ayurvedic medicine and Sanskrit grammar. His studies were completed after three years, and he started a dispensary at Amaravati near Nagpur where he practised. During these years he edited a Marathi monthly Ayurvedic journal, Besaj Ratnamala. He was able to advertise the patent medicines that he manufactured, and the business became successful. He became a well-known physician in Ayurvedic circles, and settled both in his profession and marriage. A photo of Kashinath during the period shows him as a professional man with a painted mark of Lord Vishnu on his forehead, typical of a high Brahmin. When he was twenty-nine, a son was born, but within a few months the baby died.
Success had provided prosperity, but Kashinath was still looking to pay off debts and restore the lost family wealth and status. He moved to Gwalior where there arose an opportunity to acquire uncultivated land if one agreed to farm it. During 1906, he invested thousands of rupees and acquired hundreds of acres. He became an estate landlord, but afterwards found that he had made a costly mistake. The estate had been up for purchase because the previous holder could not pay the fixed rental installments as the tenants would not pay, and the forest and other lands would not yield. Within two years Kashinath became entangled in numerous lawsuits resulting in the loss of his lands, his money and his reputation; his health also suffered. Bankrupted, he returned to Amaravati in 1908 to re-establish his medical practice, but he was disillusioned and had lost interest. Eventually, he gave up his practice and closed the dispensary. In April 1910, he and his wife set out on a pilgrimage to visit holy shrines.
Crisis
On their travels the couple went to the Somnath Temple in Prabhas Patan, to Ujjain, and to the Omkareshwar Temple located in the forest on Mandhata. This building housed a black stone lingam six feet high, the primary object of worship. Here Kashinath undertook intensive meditation that may have included yogic breathing regulation techniques. One day, his wife found him lying unconscious. She desperately threw water into his face and he regained consciousness, but not normal breathing. The autonomic function of his lungs had been disrupted and he could only breathe by consciously applying an artificial movement to his stomach. He was constantly gasping for breath. His wife took him to Nagpur, where they sought professional treatment, but the prescribed medicine did not work, and no effective help was available.
He moved to Dhulia to stay with his brother, but the breathing problem became so painful and laborious that, in sheer desperation, he set out alone in search of a yogi who might cure him. In April 1911 he made his way to Rahuri, near Ahmednagar, to visit a yogi known as Kulkarni Maharaj. This man was only able to massage him and administer a relaxing hot water bath, which did not effect a cure. Kulkarni Maharaj attributed the ailment to intensive yogic practices and advised a visit to Sai Baba of Shirdi, whom he described by the Muslim term of aulia (wali). Kashinath reacted negatively to this advice. He had been tutored by his grandfather, a respected Brahmin pundit, had followed Hindu codes of asceticism, and had enjoyed professional and financial success as an Ayurvedic physician in a high caste society: the idea of visiting a Muslim saint for guidance was alien to his worldview.
Rather than visit Shirdi, Kashinath travelled to Bombay in order to see Narayan Maharaj. This Brahmin holy man had an ashram at Kedgaon, Pune District, near Pune, where he had built a temple consecrated to Dattatreya, in which he would daily perform Puja. When Kashinath met Narayan Maharaj in June 1911, the saint made some allusive remarks and said there was no further need for any contact between them. Kashinath departed in frustration, and returned to Kulkarni Maharaj at Rahuri. The yogi again urged him to meet Sai Baba, proffering his opinion that Sai Baba was above creed and caste, and in no way inferior to Narayan Maharaj. This time Kashinath set aside his prejudices and proceeded to Shirdi. Before he went, he finally followed the advice of an old physician he previously met, which was to drink water as hot as his tongue could stand and to stop drinking cold water to assist his breathing. He found it beneficial, and followed this practice for the rest of his life.
Influence of Sai Baba of Shirdi
Sai Baba was a faqir and guru, revered by both Hindu and Muslim followers, in Shirdi, a small agricultural village in the Ahmednager district. He never gave spiritual discourses, but told stories or parables on occasion. His language was metaphoric and paradoxical, as was his behaviour. Despite this, he succeeded in creating an atmosphere of reciprocal harmony between the Hindu and Muslim communities in Shirdi. His spiritual charisma, expressed in his movements, words and glances, conveyed a tangible and immediate experience of the sacred.
Kashinath went to Shirdi in late June 1911. He talked to local Hindus who eulogized the saint, but Sai Baba's open use of Muslim teachings and rituals discouraged Upasani from following him. He quickly moved on to visit a Hindu guru at Kopargaon, who, to his dismay, advised him to return to Shirdi. After a week, he was induced to go back. He attended the daily Arti ceremonies and resumed his yogic routine. One day, Sai Baba communicated to devotees that Kashinath needed to stay for four years at Shirdi, and that there was no difference between himself and Kashinath. Sai Baba asked Kashinath to sit quietly in the nearby deserted and dilapidated Khandoba temple. His meditation was not to be based on yoga, but on a rapport with the saint.
Kashinath followed the instruction for more than a year. He took very little food or fluid and no outdoor exercise, except to attend arti. The small temple was devoid of light, there was an excess of dust and dirt, and scorpions and snakes made their abode in it. Yet in these conditions he was subject to intense altered states of consciousness. Eventually, Kashinath came out of the temple and began to engage in hard menial labour. Alone, he would run a sugar-cane crusher, draw water for a farm, plough a field, and crush stones to small bits. During the year in the temple he had been silent, but now he began to speak. His moods seemed erratic to those who observed him, and some who approached him were abused or even beaten.
In 1913, during Guru Purnima, Sai Baba ordered some persons to go to Kashinath and worship him. He disliked the attention, but since it was Sai Baba's order, he deferred, and allowed devotees to approach him in this manner. It was from this period that Kashinath Govind Upasani Shastri became addressed as Sri Upasani (Baba) Maharaj.
After three years in Shirdi, without anybody's knowledge he left for Sindi, near Nagpur. After a short stay, he journeyed to Nagpur. His food intake had increased, but resulted in severe haemorrhoids. This was treated by the medical procedure of the day— cutting and branding—and at Upasani's request without any anaesthesia. After the operation he went to Kharagpur to recuperate.
For the first four months he remained unknown, but this gradually changed. The West Bengali town had a very mixed ethnic and linguistic population. He gained many Brahmin devotees, but concentrated on assisting the Bhangi caste, sweepers who cleaned the streets and removed the refuse of the houses. He chose to live among the colony of untouchables, in conditions of squalor. His embrace of the role of a sweeper was remarkable for its bridging of the caste divide. This was not the lifestyle of a typical guru, and far removed from his ancestral roots in punditry. His rising fame reached Shirdi, and people came from there to Kharagpur to see him.
Upasani's moods remained erratic in response to the attention he received; he continued to beat and abuse some of those who approached him, for what must have appeared to onlookers as inexplicable reasons. He engaged again in hard menial labour. Now beyond caste distinctions, he cleaned the roads, gutters and latrines, and stayed with Mahar, Mang, and Bhangi castes, and other untouchables. He lay at rest by a dust bin; sometimes he bathed in gutter water, and drank it; he would bathe and wash the clothes of a leper, and drink the washings; he would put a piece of dung in his mouth in the same way as he would a morsel of rich food. He was usually naked; occasionally he would wear a piece of gunny sack, for which he became noted.
During this time, hundreds approached him for his Darshan, worship and advice; many religious festivals were celebrated by the local public under his direction. Then, in 1915, he suddenly left Kharagpur, first going to Nagpur, and thence returned to Shirdi. Upasani Maharaj had become known as Sai Baba's spiritual heir or chief disciple, and his fame spread. Some of Sai Baba's devotees became jealous and sought to cause him trouble. Upasani was forced to leave Shirdi to undertake a second operation for haemorrhoids, and after recovering he chose not to return to Shirdi. He travelled to several places in India where he gave discourses on spiritual subjects. When the tension with the ill-disposed devotees had eased, Upasani returned to Shirdi to reside once again at the Khandoba temple.
Sakori Ashram
In 1917 a group of farmers from the village of Sakori, near Shirdi, invited Upasani to live among them. They constructed a hut at the edge of the village, near the cremation ground. Sakori became a permanent ashram for Upasani Maharaj's work and helped dispel the resentment of the devotees who had reacted to the suggestion he was Sai Baba's spiritual heir. At Sakori Upasani Maharaj remained a renunciate. He did not wear the ochre robe of a sannyasin, but instead favoured common gunny cloth. He was not a member of any religious sect, and remained independent. Upasani was unpredictable in his behaviour towards those who approached him, but consistent in his distinctive discourses, many of which were recorded in the 1920s.
In 1922 Upasani erected a bamboo cage without any outlet, and confined himself in it. The cage extended over an area barely enough for a man to lie down. He ate (mainly bhakri and chutney), urinated and defecated, and took baths all within the narrow confines of the cage. The devotees kept the cage as clean as possible and attended to his needs from outside. Arti was performed daily to him, followed by devotional songs by the virgin girls who had become his kanyas – nuns. He remained in the cage for over 14 months. Eventually, he asked his devotees to make a door, and began to come out and sit for short periods; a year later, he began to stay outside for longer periods. The reason Upasani gave for his self-confinement was to teach his devotees service.
“I made this cage and I am sitting in it. Now, on finding that no personal service is possible (Upasni did not want people to serve him: ‘You people try to serve me; but I do not like it.’), those that want to serve should take something as belonging to here and do the service; for example, Baba's garden, Baba's temple, Baba's animals, and so on. This is the customary way to serve a saint."
During this period, Upasani began to deliver daily spiritual discourses, which went on for hours. These talks continued both from within and outside of the cage for a period of nearly five years, and attracted devotees from increasing distances. The story of his life produced by a well-known writer, Madhav Nath, spread his fame. In 1923, Upasani's lectures began to appear in a Marathi monthly called Sai Vak Sudha, and were later published in book form under the title Upasani Vak Sudha. Others of his discourses were published under the title The Unpublished Talks of Upasni Baba. A third book dealing with the duties and role of women in society bears the title Sati Charitra (The Character of a Wife). This led to an increase in his popularity, and new buildings were built at the ashram in Sakori.
Meeting with Mahatma Gandhi
Upasani's influence continued to broaden; he had devotees throughout India and had a great effect on Hindu contemporary culture and the country's social and political leaders. Mahatma Gandhi read the newly published Gujarati biography of Upasani and later went to Sakori to investigate. At most Hindu ashrams Gandhi would have been ceremoniously greeted as a great celebrity, his patronage deemed a blessing, but Upasni showed great annoyance, and used abusive language towards the visitor. Upasani was wearing his gunny cloth when Gandhi arrived, but he removed it and went stark naked. He had a tendency to do this, particularly when annoyed by the demands of social etiquette imposed by caste Hinduism. The gesture was lost on Gandhi, who at that time still defended the Caste system, and who in 1921 had written that the Hindu prohibition against intermarriage and interdining is essential for the rapid evolution of the soul. Gandhi's subsequent experiences and reflections led him to annul this orthodox belief in November 1932, when he described the same two prohibitions as weakening Hindu society.
Kanya Kumari Sthan
In later years Upasani traveled extensively in India, meeting devotees and giving public spiritual discourses. He was a traditionalist, yet in some respects his outlook was modern. He worked to raise the status of women in society. He believed that they should all be educated, though stressed religious rather than secular education.
The major feature of Upasani Maharaj's later years was the creation of a unique institution at Sakori. This was a community of nuns (kanyas) known as the Upasni Kanya Kumari Sthan. The word kanya is sometimes translated as “virgin”. The word kumari means young woman. The word sthan means “abode”. The meaning that Upasani himself gave to the phrase kanya kumari was that of a virgin or nun who destroys untruth and leads others to Brahman. The nuns received training in Sanskrit, bramanical methods of memorizing and reciting sacred scriptures such as the Vedas and Upanishads, and performing religious ceremonies. The Sthan was a revival of the time during the Vedic era when women took a leading role in the spiritual and intellectual life of India. This was a departure from the orthodox customs of the day that excluded women from religious rites. Initially, the girls were dedicated to Upasani Maharaj's ashram. Following the passage of the Devadasi Abolition Act, which made it illegal to dedicate girls to Hindu temples, girls offered to the Sakori ashram were taken in marriage by Upasani. This was a spiritual marriage, that involved uniting with the divine through the medium of the Guru. It initially involved two girls, and later extended to six. It included Godavari Mataji (1914-1990), who became the leader of the growing community after Upasni's death.
The marriages caused consternation among the general public. Articles appeared in magazines and newspapers, and various civil suits and a criminal cases against Upasani arose, but in all these the court declared him innocent. He was charged with an offence under the Devadasi Act and convicted in the first Court, but acquitted on appeal. The controversy led to a decline in his popularity.
Teachings
The principal teachings of Upasani Maharaj have often been reduced to three rules that, "if observed sincerely, lead to a life worth living":
Not to trouble anybody in the least.
To suffer for and be useful to others.
To remain contented in a state of Be as it may.The full range and context of Upasani's teachings can be found in The Talks of Sadguru Upasani Baba Maharaj, comprising 4 volumes.
The character and teachings of Upasani Maharaj have been described as paradoxical. Though he talked about spiritual matters, his language was often coarse, even vulgar. Apparently minor transgressions from devotees could provoke angry outbursts, in which he would beat or throw stones at them, and yet in the next moment he would shower them with love and affection. His numerous discourses covered a wide range of metaphysical subjects, but his language was always that of the common people. Yet the ‘language’ of Upasni Maharaj required that the listener adapt to something other than words:
My talk is not in accordance with the method of exposition as laid down by the Shastra. My physical body is crooked; so is my hut; my language also is rough and unpolished. If you want to derive some benefit from here you have to behave to suit this place. Remember the saying "When you go to Rome, behave as a Roman does". Whenever you go to any place you have to adapt yourself to that place, otherwise you are not able to derive full benefit from it; the people over there would not be free with you. When you go to a place of God or to that of a Sat-purusha, you have to maintain both external and internal purity; your reasoning must be straightforward; your whole behaviour has to be virtuous to suit that place; your actions and movements must be suitably adjusted; then alone you are able to achieve your object.
Upasani Maharaj has been described as the living embodiment of the Ashtavakra Gita.<ref>Godamasuta, ed., The Life Sketch and Quintessence of the Talks of Sadguru Upasani Baba Maharaja (Sakori: Shri Sati Devitai Upasani Maharaj, n.d.), p. 18.</ref> Of himself, he declared:
I am the Ancient One. I am in the Beyond-State, beyond Duality and Non-duality. I am in the world, but not of it. Because I have to behave like a man of the world, do not misunderstand me. I experience simultaneously the World-state and the God-state. I live eternally in the state of divine-consciousness. I am everything.
Death
Upasani's last years were filled with extensive travel, meeting his devotees scattered about the country, teaching the kanyas in the ashram, and supervising the construction and dedication of shrines and temples made possible through the gifts of his followers. The last of these was in Satana in 1941, where a temple was constructed in honor of his birth there. When construction was nearing completion, Upasani pressed the workmen to finish soon, saying "The sun is setting … The sun is setting." The temple was constructed at the spot formerly occupied by his own home. He returned exhausted to Sakori on the twenty-third of December. On the 24th of December 1941, at 71 years of age, Upasani Baba Maharaj dropped the body and entered Mahāsamādhi.
Master to Meher Baba
Upasani Maharaj was one of the principal teachers of Meher Baba. Meher Baba first met Upasani in 1915 when Upasani was staying in Shirdi with Sai Baba.
Upasani moved to Sakori in July 1917 and Meher Baba frequently stayed there. According to Meher Baba, who had received God-realization in January 1914 from Hazrat Babajan, Upasni Maharaj gave him knowledge of the divine. Charles Purdom recounts that, at the end of December 1921, Upasani made several comments relating to Meher Baba. He said to his disciples: "I have given my charge to Meherwanji. He is the holder of my key." Some time later he said "This boy will move the world. Humanity at large will be benefited at his hands." A few days later he sent for Gustadji Hansotia, one of his leading disciples, and told him "I have made Meherwanji perfect. He is the Sadguru of this Age. Now you have to leave me and stick to him." To Behramji he said, "Your friend is God-realized; carry out every command and every desire of his." Finally, one night he folded his hands and said, "Meherwanji, you are adi-shakti: you are Avatar."
After a separation of nearly 20 years, Meher Baba and Upasani Maharaj met for the last time on 17 October 1941 in Dahigaon, a small village in Niphad taluka in the Nashik district of Maharashtra, just two months before Upasni's death.
References
Further reading
Harper, Marvin Henry The Saint who suffered: Sri Upasani Baba Maharaj, Chap 3 in Gurus, Swamis and Avatars: Spiritual Masters and their American disciples, Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1972.
Jannarkar, R. S. A Pictorial Story of Shree Upasani Kanya Kumari Ashram, Sakuri, Reprint; Sakuri: Shri Upasani Kanya Kumari Sthan, 1973 (1955).
Narasimha Iyer, Bhavani Sage of Sakori, Madras, 1935.
Tipnis, S. N. Contribution of Upasani Baba to Indian culture, Shri B.T. Wagh, 1966.
External links
Online biography with photos
Shreeswami.org
Final meeting between Upasni Maharaj and Meher Baba
Comprehensive biography in four parts with photos
1870 births
1941 deaths
Indian Hindu saints
Meher Baba
People from Maharashtra
20th-century Hindu religious leaders
Sai Baba of Shirdi
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bermuda%20Volunteer%20Rifle%20Corps
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Bermuda Volunteer Rifle Corps
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The Bermuda Volunteer Rifle Corps (BVRC) was created in 1894 as a reserve for the Regular Army infantry component of the Bermuda Garrison. Renamed the Bermuda Rifles in 1951, it was amalgamated into the Bermuda Regiment in 1965.
Formation
Although Bermuda had maintained its own militia from 1612 until the end of the American War of 1812, it had been allowed to lapse thereafter due to the large garrison of regular soldiers that had been established following US independence. The reason for the military garrison in Bermuda was ultimately the protection of the Royal Naval dockyard on Ireland Island. At the time, the primary defence was seen to be by the coastal artillery, mounted in various batteries and fortifications (and mobile guns stored in gun sheds ready to be rapidly moved to remote locations as required) and manned by the Royal Garrison Artillery (RGA). A voluntary reserve was created for the RGA at the same time, titled the Bermuda Militia Artillery (BMA). If, despite the best efforts of the artillery, enemy vessels succeeded in landing military forces on Bermuda (which was most likely to be achieved using small boats to cross over the reefs to reach beaches on the South Shore), the infantry was expected to tackle them, in the worst scenario, making a fighting withdrawal into the forts and the dockyard itself.
The BVRC was formed under an act of the Colonial Parliament, passed in 1892. Captain Charles Spencer Brown Evans-Lombe, of the Prince of Wales's Leinster Regiment (Royal Canadians), arrived in November, 1894, to oversee the raising of the Corps, and became the first Adjutant. The BVRC was originally divided into three companies (A, B, and C), one each located in the West End, the centre, and the East End of Bermuda (these being the three military districts into which Bermuda was divided by the garrison, with the districts controlled respectively from Clarence Barracks on Boaz Island, Prospect Camp, and St. George's Garrison, with the overall Command Headquarters at Prospect Camp). BVRC Headquarters was located centrally (initially in the Public Buildings in the City of Hamilton, then in Fort Hamilton, within the south-western part of Prospect Camp), where a fourth Company, D, was added. Twelve officers were appointed, including the Commanding Officer, Major Sir Josiah Rees, three for each of the original three companies, a Surgeon-Lieutenant and a Chaplain. To these were added four Permanent Staff, attached from the Regular Army, including Captain Evans-Lombe, a Regimental Sergeant Major (RSM), and two Non-Commissioned Officers (NCO). The mandated strength of the Corps was 300, all ranks. The lowest rank in the BVRC, as with other rifle regiments, was Rifleman, which was equivalent to a private in a normal infantry regiment (the first rifle regiments had been distinguished from infantry units by their weapons, their tactics, and their green (camouflage) uniforms. When the Enfield rifle replaced the musket as the standard weapon of the British Army, there ceased to be any distinction between the equipment and tactics of the infantry and those of the rifle and light infantry regiments).
Recruitment into the BVRC was restricted to white males, aged 17 to 50, although the barrier to non-whites was achieved by requiring volunteers to be members of a rifle club. All of the private rifle clubs, at the time, restricted their membership to whites. The terms of service for the Bermudian volunteers were similar to those of Volunteers in Britain. Enlistment was voluntary, and a member could leave the Corps by giving fourteen days notice, except while embodied for active service, or training on a military camp-when he also became subject to Military Law. Whereas Volunteers in Britain were originally expected to pay for their uniforms and equipment (including their rifles), Bermudian volunteers were issued these. The uniform was rifle green with black buttons, in conformity with other rifle regiments throughout the Empire, but khaki uniforms were issued from 1898. A minimum attendance at drills, and completion of annual inspection and musketry tests, was required for a volunteer to be returned as 'efficient'. The Corps could be called out in times of War, or in response to an invasion, but volunteers could not be sent overseas without their consent.
Great War
The BVRC continued to train and develop over the next two decades. When war was declared in 1914, it was embodied to fulfill its role within the Garrison. As the economy would have suffered from taking so many young men from their jobs, some soldiers continued to perform their civil jobs, before taking their turns standing sentry at the many places around Bermuda that the BVRC guarded. The primary task the BVRC was given was guarding the coastline but it filled other roles, the most important of which defending the Royal Navy's dockyard on Ireland Island, which was the main base of the North America and West Indies Station of the Royal Navy, and oversaw the formation in Bermudian waters of trans-Atlantic convoys.
Overseas contingents
Despite operating under this constraint, the BVRC quickly formed a detachment in December, 1914, to send overseas to the Western Front. This contingent was composed of volunteers who were already serving, as well as those who enlisted specifically for the Front. The Contingent trained at Warwick Camp through the winter and spring. It consisted of Captain (temporary Major) Richard J. Tucker and 88 other ranks. As there was a shortage of officers, the Governor and Commander-in-Chief, Lieutenant-General Sir George Bullock, filled the role of Adjutant, a position normally filled by a Captain. As a consequence, the contingent was popularly known as Bullock's Boys.
The Contingent left Bermuda for England in June 1915, travelling to Canada, then crossing the Atlantic in company with a much larger Canadian draft. It had been hoped that the Contingent could be attached to the Second Battalion of The Lincolnshire Regiment (2 Lincolns), which had been on Garrison in Bermuda when the War began. When the Contingent arrived at the Lincolns depot in Grimsby, the 2nd Battalion was already in France and it was attached to 3 Lincolns instead (at least one Bermudian, though not from the BVRC, Corporal G.C. Wailes, did serve with the 2nd Lincolns). Although commanders at the Regimental Depot had wanted to break the Contingent apart, re-enlist its members as Lincolns, and distribute them as replacements, a letter from the War Office ensured that they remained together as a unit, under their own badge. The contingent was attached to 1 Lincolns (although its men remained on the strength of 3 Lincolns) as an extra company, and arrived in France in July 1915, the first colonial volunteer unit to reach the Front. The contingent remained as such until the following summer, by when its strength had been too reduced by casualties to compose a full company, having lost 50 percent of its remaining strength at Gueudecourt on 25 September 1916.
The survivors of the First Contingent were merged with a Second Contingent, of one officer and 36 other ranks, who had trained in Bermuda as Vickers machine gunners, which had recently arrived from Bermuda. The Second Contingent was stripped of its Vickers machine guns (which had been collected, in the Army, under a new regiment, the Machine Gun Corps). The merged contingents were retrained as Lewis light machinegunners, and provided 12 gun teams to 1 Lincolns headquarters. By the War's end, the two contingents had lost over 75 percent of their combined strength. Forty had died on active service, one received the O.B.E and six the Military Medal. Sixteen private soldiers from the two contingents were commissioned, including the Sergeant Major of the First Contingent, Colour-Sergeant R. C. Earl, who became Commanding Officer of the BVRC after the war. Some of those commissioned moved to other units in the process, including flying ace Arthur Rowe Spurling and Henry J. Watlington, who both went to the Royal Flying Corps (at least seventeen other Bermudians served the RFC, including another BVRC rifleman, later Major Cecil Montgomery-Moore, who detached from the Corps in Bermuda and earned the Distinguished Flying Cross in France. An NCO from the overseas contingent also transferred to the RFC).
By the end of the war, the BVRC had earned the battle honours Ypres 1915, Neuve Chapelle, Loos, Somme 1916, Ypres 1917, Lys, Hindenburg Line, Messines 1917, Somme 1918. They had not seen the last of warfare, however. In 1918, the 1 Lincolns were withdrawn from France and sent to Ireland to combat the army of the Irish Republic, declared in 1916. The BVRC benefited from Army Order No.1, which increased the pay of most soldiers in the British Army—but that same Order did not benefit the British West Indies Regiment, which was treated as being "native".
Between the wars
At the end of the First World War, both the BVRC and BMA were demobilised and disembodied, though both were soon rebuilt through new recruitment. Many former members of the BVRC re-enlisted. In Britain, the Volunteer Force had been re-organised in 1908, absorbing the remaining militia and Yeomanry units, to form the Territorial Army (TA). Among other changes, the TA introduced terms of service. A volunteer could no longer quit with fourteen days notice, but had to complete the term for which he was enlisted, as was the case for professional soldiers in the British Army.
The re-embodied BVRC was re-organised as a Territorial, although it remained nominally a Volunteer unit. Its association with the Lincolnshire Regiment was made official, with the Lincolns taking on the paternal role it played with its own Territorial battalions. A third local Territorial, the Bermuda Volunteer Engineers (BVE), was formed in 1931 to man Defence Electric Lights at coastal batteries, and absorbed the signals section of the BVRC a decade later.
The Regular Army artillery and engineering detachments to the garrison were withdrawn in 1928, with the BMA and BVE, respectively, assuming complete responsibility for their vacated roles. There would no longer be a full infantry battalion in Bermuda. Instead, a detached company would be provided from the battalion sent to Jamaica.
Second World War
The BVRC began mobilisation on 3 September 1939, even before news was received of the declaration of war, when Britain issued Germany with an ultimatum to withdraw from Poland. As in the previous war, it took up positions guarding the coastlines, but its duties soon grew more numerous. Members of the Territorials were called up for the duration, and conscription was introduced to increase their strengths in October, 1940. Another infantry unit, the Bermuda Militia Infantry, had been raised in October, 1939, recruiting blacks, and linked administratively with the BMA. The infantry duties of the Garrison were split between these two Territorials, and the detachment from the 2nd Battalion, King's Shropshire Light Infantry (KSLI) at Prospect Camp.
Also as in the previous war, a Contingent was soon detached, composed of volunteers for service at sharper ends of the War. A few members of the BVE and the BMA travelled with this contingent to England (departing Bermuda in June, 1940), where the BVRC members were re-enlisted into the Lincolnshire Regiment. This Contingent included two officers, Robert Brownlow-Tucker and Anthony 'Toby' Smith, who became Company Commanders in the Lincolns before the War's end. They were among four Bermudians who would reach the rank of Major with the Lincolns (although one, future Major-General Glyn Charles Anglim Gilbert, MC, never served in the BVRC, and the last, Major Patrick Lynn Purcell, had left Bermuda as a BMA Lieutenant attached to the 1940 BVRC Contingent. After coastal artillery service in Sierra Leone, he had transferred from the Royal Artillery to the Lincolnshire Regiment). Additionally, one member of the 1940 contingent from the Bermuda Volunteer Rifle Corps was Bernard John Abbott, a school teacher and pre-war Bermuda Cadet Corps officer who had been re-commissioned into the Bermuda Volunteer Rifle Corps’ Emergency Reserve of officers with the rank of Second-Lieutenant (Acting Major) in accordance with a War Office cable of the 4 May 1939, before volunteering to serve overseas. He was assigned to 50th Holding Battalion, in Norfolk, which became 8th Battalion, Lincolnshire Regiment. He ended the war as a staff officer in the Far East, and the London Gazette of 25 December 1945 recorded “War Subs. Maj. H. J. ABBOTT .(108051) relinquishes his commn., 26th Dec. 1945, and is granted the hon. rank of Lt.-Col.”.
Due to fears of stripping the Garrison, a moratorium was placed on further drafts being sent overseas from Bermudian units. This moratorium was not lifted until 1943, when both the BVRC and the Bermuda Militia (the BMI and BMA together) detached contingents to send overseas. The two contingents trained together at Prospect Camp, before going their separate ways. The BVRC left Bermuda in May, 1944, to join the Lincolns in England. The contingent members were rebadged as Lincolns, and most joined 2 Lincolns in Belgium, as the Allies advanced into North-West Europe. They had travelled as part of a Company of reinforcements under the command of Bermudian Major AF 'Toby' Smith, who was killed-in-action shortly after, along with three other Bermudians. While in England, eleven of second contingent had volunteered to join the Airborne Division, training as parachutists.
Post-Second World War
After the War, the BVRC men, who had travelled to Europe as units, returned individually, as each waited for his 'number' to come up. The BVRC and the BMA sent contingents to the Victory Parade in London. In 1946, however, both units were demobilised and reduced to skeleton command structures. The other two Territorials were both disbanded, but the BVRC and BMA were brought back up to strength in 1953.
At that time, the BVRC was retitled the Bermuda Rifles. The loss of the word 'volunteer' was probably prudent, as conscription was re-introduced to both units. In 1953, it was announced that the HM Dockyard would be closed. This meant that the military garrison, which had existed primarily to guard the naval base, would be closed, also. The last Regular Army unit (a detachment of the Duke of Cornwall's Light Infantry) was withdrawn by 1955, and the Dockyard closed in 1958.
1953 was also the last year of the Imperial Defence Plan, under which the Bermudian units had been tasked, and the year in which the last of the coastal artillery was taken out of use. The BMA, while still wearing Royal Artillery uniform and cap badge, converted to the infantry role. With no tasking under the War Office, and its successor, the Ministry of Defence, or under NATO, both units might have been disbanded, but the Bermuda Government, for reasons of its own, chose to maintain them entirely at its own expense.
A new role began to appear as Bermuda moved into the 1960s, when increasing tension resulting from the racial division and inequity of Bermudian society occasionally spilled over into violence. By then, it was rapidly becoming politically, as well as economically, inexpedient to maintain two, racially divided infantry units. As a result, the Bermuda Rifles and the Bermuda Militia Artillery were amalgamated in September, 1965, to form the Bermuda Regiment (now the Royal Bermuda Regiment).
The Royal Bermuda Regiment badge is a combination of the Maltese Cross of the BVRC badge, and the field gun of the Royal Artillery badge. The unit maintains the history and traditions of both of its predecessors. However the Battle Honors of the BVRC were not passed on. This is due to the stand down between 1946 and 1948. Attempts to rectify this have not been successful due to strict British Army policies in regards to those honors.
Originally, the part-time reserve units in Bermuda, the Channel Islands and Malta had numbered collectively as 28th in the British Army order of precedence, but were ordered within that according to the placement of their parent corps in the regular army. This meant, that the Bermuda Militia Artillery (BMA), as part of the Royal Regiment of Artillery, preceded the Bermuda Volunteer Rifle Corps (BVRC) despite being the second of the two to be raised. Today, the Bermuda Regiment, as an amalgam of the BMA and BVRC, is 28th.
Gallery
See also
Bermuda Garrison
Bermuda Militias 1612-1815
Volunteer Force (Great Britain)
British Army
Bibliography
"Defence, Not Defiance: A History Of The Bermuda Volunteer Rifle Corps", Jennifer M. Ingham (now Jennifer M. Hind), . Printed by The Island Press Ltd., Pembroke, Bermuda.
"Bermuda Forts 1612–1957", Dr. Edward C. Harris, The Bermuda Maritime Museum Press, The Bermuda Maritime Museum, P.O. Box MA 133, Mangrove Bay, Bermuda MA BX.
"Bulwark Of Empire: Bermuda's Fortified Naval Base 1860-1920", Lt.-Col. Roger Willock, USMC, The Bermuda Maritime Museum Press, The Bermuda Maritime Museum, P.O. Box MA 133, Mangrove Bay, Bermuda MA BX.
"Flying Boats Of Bermuda", Sqn.-Ldr. Colin A. Pomeroy, , Printlink, PO Box 937, Hamilton, Bermuda HM DX.
"Bermuda From Sail To Steam: The History Of The Island From 1784 to 1901", Dr. Henry Wilkinson, Oxford University Press, Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, UK OX2 6DP.
References
External links
POTSI (archived): BVRC Images
Bermuda Military History
Bermuda Online: Bermuda's War Veterans
Research Press: Volunteer Infantry
Lincoln Branch, The Royal Lincolnshire & Royal Anglian Regimental Association.
Infantry regiments of the British Army
Rifle regiments
Military of Bermuda
British colonial regiments
Military units and formations established in 1894
Military units and formations of Bermuda in World War II
1894 establishments in Bermuda
Military units and formations disestablished in 1965
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rainer%20Zitelmann
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Rainer Zitelmann
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Rainer Zitelmann (born 14 June 1957 in Frankfurt) is a German historian, sociologist, author, management consultant and real estate expert.
Life
Zitelmann studied history and political science at the Technical University of Darmstadt. He completed his doctorate in 1986 under Karl Otmar Freiherr von Aretin with the grade of summa cum laude the subject being the goals of Hitler's social, economic and interior policies. Zitelmann's doctoral dissertation, Hitler: Selbstverständnis eines Revolutionärs went through four editions in Germany and was published in English under the title "Hitler: The Politics of Seduction" (London: London House, 2000).
Then, Zitelmann pursued a career in conservative print media. After his work as a research assistant at the Free University of Berlin, he became an editorial director for the publishing company Ullstein and Propyläen in 1992. Soon, he transferred to the German daily Die Welt as the head of desk for contemporary thought. Later, Zitelmann transferred to the desk for contemporary history and finally to the real estate desk.
In 2000, he founded Dr.ZitelmannPB. GmbH, which had many international companies among its clients, including CBRE, Ernst & Young Real Estate, Jamestown, Cordea Savills and NCC. Zitelmann was the managing director of Dr. ZitelmannPB. GmbH until the end of February 2016, when he sold the company in an MBO.
In 2016, he was awarded his second doctorate, this time in sociology (Dr. rer. pol) at the University of Potsdam. The subject of his second doctoral dissertation was the psychology of the super-rich. His dissertation was published in a variety of languages, including Chinese and Korean, as well as in English under the title The Wealth Elite.
Author
Zitelmann has written a total of 24 books. He is a regular contributor to Le Point, Linkiesta, Neue Zürcher Zeitung, The National Interest and the Washington Examiner, wallstreet:online, Daily Telegraph, City AM, Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Welt, Focus, Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, The European.
Examination of National Socialism
Hitler's sense of self as a revolutionary
As a historian, Zitelmann is best known for his argument that Nazi Germany followed a conscious strategy of modernization. In his doctoral thesis, Zitelmann strove to show that the modernising efforts of the Third Reich, which had been diagnosed by scholars like Ralf Dahrendorf, David Schoenbaum and Henry Ashby Turner, were intended as such. Unlike Dahrendorf, Schoenbaum and Turner, who argued that the modernisation of German society during the Nazi period was an unintentional side effect or merely a necessary adjunct towards achieving profoundly antimodern goals, Zitelmann argued that modernization of German society was intended and a central goal of the Nazis. A review published in the Berlin daily Der Tagesspiegel dated July 14, 1988, suggests that "the most important finding of [Zitelmann's] work" is that "Hitler saw himself uncompromisingly as a revolutionary. Dahrendorf and Schoenbaum’s hypothesis, according to which National Socialism had a revolutionising and modernising effect in the social area without actually having intended it, needs to be revised".
Zitelmann argues that far from seeking the agrarian fantasies of Heinrich Himmler or Richard Walther Darré, Hitler wished to see a highly-industrialised Germany that would be on the leading edge of modern technology. Closely linked to the latter goal was what Zitelmann maintains was Hitler's desire to see the destruction of the traditional values and class distinctions of German society and their replacement for at least those Germans considered “Aryan” of a relatively-egalitarian merit-based society. Zitelmann argued that far from being incoherent, disorganised, confused and marginal as traditionally viewed, Hitler's social ideas were in fact very logical and systematic and at the core of Hitler's Weltanschauung (worldview). Zitelmann has argued Hitler was much influenced by Joseph Stalin's modernization of the Soviet Union and that as Führer, Hitler consciously pursued a revolutionary modernization of German society. As part of his arguments, Zitelmann has maintained that "modernisation" should be regarded as a fundamentally "value-free" description, and that one should avoid the knee-jerk association of modernization with "progress" and humanitarianism. Zitelmann's work has faced criticism from those such as Ian Kershaw, who have argued that Zitelmann has elevated what were merely secondary considerations in Hitler's remarks to the primary level and that Zitelmann has not offered a clear definition of "modernization".
The Bonn-based historian Prof. Klaus Hildebrand reviewed the thesis for the German daily Süddeutsche Zeitung in its September 29, 1987, issue: "To view Hitler—just like Stalin and Mao Zedong—as representatives of a permanent revolution or a modernising dictatorship reopens an academic debate that has been ongoing since the years between the wars of the twentieth century. To be welcomed in this context is that Zitelmann, critically controlling his sources and striving for objective balance, inquires with renewed vigour into Hitler’s motives while remaining fully aware of the fact that history fails to coincide with human intentions".
In his research overview, The Hitler of History (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1997), the American historian John Lukacs presented Zitelmann's thesis, as well as his book Hitler. Eine politische Biographie ("Hitler. A Political Biography""), as important contributions to the scientific study of Hitler. The echo in specialist journals, such as the Journal of Modern History (in a review by Prof. Klemens von Klemperer), and the Historische Zeitschrift, were predominantly positive. In the latter, Germany's leading academic journal for historiography, Prof. Peter Krüger wrote, "Rainer Zitelmann has written one of those books that make you wonder why they have not been available much earlier". In the historiographic quarterly Vierteljahreshefte für Zeitgeschichte, the Polish historian Franciszek Ryszka agreed: "Without a doubt, Dr. Zitelmann’s merit is to have substantially amended, and possibly surpassed, all other Hitler biographies".
However, critical voices existed like in the German weekly Die Zeit of October 2, 1987. On September 22, 1989, the critical review in Die Zeit was followed by another review of the two Hitler studies that had some critical remarks but came to the overall conclusion that Zitelmann had submitted a Hitler biography that was "emphatically sober, without any superfluous moralising, not omitting any of the dictator's villainies". However, the reviewer suggested that "the image of Hitler drawn by the author [calls for] some amendments and corrections".
The American Historical Review wrote in May 1989, "Zitelmann's book is an admirable example of exhaustive scholarship on an important aspect of the mind of Hitler. But it is less likely to stand as a decisive synthesis than as a provocative turn in the pursuit of the eternal enigmas of the Third Reich and its creator". In the February 1988 issue of the Militärgeschichtliche Mitteilungen, the American historian Gerhard L. Weinberg wrote, "This work will require all who concern themselves with the Third Reich to rethink their own ideas and to reexamine the evidence on which those ideas are based. For any book to do that today is itself a major accomplishment. It would certainly be most unwise for any scholar to ignore the picture of Hitler presented here simply because it does not fit in with his or her own preconceptions".
Zitelmann criticised David Irving in the liberal German weekly Die Zeit on 6 October 1989 by questioning the fact that Irving had said “not without a certain hubris... that he sees no need to pay any mind to the academic debate and research findings of the 'old school historians' he detests". Zitelmann criticised specifically that Irving had deleted the word "extermination camp" from the new edition of his Hitler biography and that he now appeared to share the notions entertained by revisionist historians. "This entire development", as Zitelmann said in Die Zeit, “has so far not been adequately acknowledged and addressed by West German historians". He called on the historians to be more "aggressive" in critically engaging Irving.
In 1991, Zitelmann edited with the Bielefeld-based historian Michael Prinz the anthology Nationalsozialismus und Modernisierung (National-Socialism and Modernisation; Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft). On September 19, 1991, Die Zeit read, “The evidence presented here to substantiate the modernisation dynamics of National Socialism is impressive, and they underline how misleading a one-sided view of national-socialism from the perspective of the 'blood and soil' romanticism would be; the latter having been widely spread, and having essentially contributed to an underrating of National Socialism". The reviewer also criticises that the book's contributing authors had exceeded their mark and should have given more attention to the party's art policy, for instance. "The problem of National Socialism and modernisation is therefore not to be resolved with a simple formula. It needs to be constantly reconsidered and to be illuminated from various angles".
Historicising National Socialism
Zitelmann provoked a mixed reaction with his anthology Die Schatten der Vergangenheit (The Shadows of the Past), which he edited with Eckhard Jesse and Uwe Backes. Its editors sought to respond to Martin Broszat's 1985 call to historicise National Socialism. As the editors emphasize in their introduction, their goal was the "objectification of the discussion of National Socialist times.... The intention is not to 'downplay' anything: only an emphatically sober historiography, free of moralising bias, can create the foundation for assessing the historical and political-moral dimensions of the mass crimes committed by National Socialism." Zitelmann thinks that the historisation of National Socialism suggested by Martin Broszat was a way to resolve the problem of neither engaging in apologetics about the era or nor utterly condemning it. Zitelmann sees his work as a way of allowing those living in the present to understand the Nazi period without seeking to total condemnation or apologia.
In line with their program to treat the time between 1933 and 1945 as scientifically as any other epoch, the book gathered a wide spectrum of authors, from the conservative Ernst Nolte, who again commented on the so-called historians' dispute, to the liberal Imanuel Geiss, a disciple of Fritz Fischer.
As the historian Peter Brandt wrote in Die Welt on October 2, 1990, "The editors have presented a useful book with many important contributions". However, he added, " criticism that could be raised is that—in spite of the emphasis on keeping out any 'extra-scientific' influences—a prejudice against the supposed 'popular pedagogy' treatment of national-socialism had guided the editors' and some of the authors' pen". Brandt stated, however, that the editors deserved total agreement "as they reject any kind of ban on asking questions". The historian Brigitte Seebacher noted in the Rheinischer Merkur on October 5, 1990, “In short, this volume casts light on the national-socialist epoch, and inspires a renewed discussion of how to deal with it correctly". In the November 6, 1990 issue of the Süddeutsche Zeitung, the historian Gregor Schöllgen argued: "Some of the essays will (and should) provoke disagreement. Taken as a whole, this meritorious volume represents an unorthodox contribution toward objectifying the discussion of national-socialism, and one ought to take note of it". The Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung of November 23, 1990 commented that the book was "perfectly suitable to become the subject of dispute.... If it failed to meet this mark, then it would above all be for the reason that only a few readers will be likely to manage to digest the heavy academic fare of the first eighty pages". The review praised Zitelmann's discussion of the historian Ernst Nolte: “Exemplary in its objectivity is Rainer Zitelmann's discussion of Ernst Nolte. Zitelmann points out analogies with Marxist theories on fascism, and suggests that it is impermissible to pinpoint 'anti-Bolshevism in a one-sided and generalising manner' as the central motive of 'the' National Socialists".
Zitelmann also wrote on the subject of Umgang mit der NS-Vergangenheit (dealing with the National Socialist past) in his contribution for the book Bewusstseinsnotstand. Thesen von 60 Zeitzeugen ("The Perceptual State of Emergency: Hypotheses by 60 Historic Witnesses"), edited by Rolf Italiaander (Droste-Verlag, 1990). In 1990, Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft published another anthology, edited by Zitelmann with the American historian Ronald Smelser. It offered 22 portraits of the Third Reich's leading figures. Like Zitelmann's doctoral dissertation, the anthology, which combined authors from several countries, was also translated to English, under The Nazi Elite (New York: NYUP, 1993). Reviews were found, for instance, in the Süddeutsche Zeitung of September 4, 1990.
Historikerstreit
During the Historikerstreit between 1986 and 1988, Zitelmann was a strong defender of Andreas Hillgruber and Ernst Nolte. The preface to the second edition in 1988 of his 1987 book Adolf Hitler Selbstverständnis eines Revolutionärs included a lengthy attack on the critics of Nolte and Hillgruber. In an interview with the Swedish historian Alf W. Johansson in November 1992, Zitelmann stated that the Historikerstreit ended with the defeat of the right-wing historians and the triumph of the "left-liberal" historians. Zitelmann went on to state, "Politically, this means that the conservatives are rather defensive and are not united". Zitelmann argued "that has more to do with academic conditions than with the intellectual situation in Germany where now, naturally a few years after the Historians' Controversy, there is in reality a certain change, since the Leftish intellectual circles are no longer on the offensive, but, to the contrary, they find themselves in increasing difficulties".
Criticism of Adenauer
In 1991, Zitelmann's book Adenauers Gegner. Streiter für die Einheit ("Adenauer’s Opponents: Fighters for Unity") came out and was published as paperback by Ullstein under the title Demokraten für Deutschland ("Democrats for Germany") in 1993. As the Social-Democratic politician Erhard Eppler wrote in the preface, "Zitelmann's study illustrates that Adenauer's opponents were no dreamers out of touch with reality but had solid arguments and concepts to present". The book portrays the German Social-Democratic politicians Kurt Schumacher and Gustav Heinemann as well as the Christian Democrat politician Jakob Kaiser, the liberal politician Thomas Dehler, and the journalist Paul Sethe. On October 7, 1991, the German daily Die tageszeitung ("taz") wrote, "The book comes in the nick of time—precisely because it does not join in the supposedly up-to-date chorus of Adenauer enthusiasts". The Social Democratic politician Peter Glotz wrote in Die Welt on April 24, 1991 that Zitelmann's book showed "that Adenauer’s critics had valid arguments when accusing him of finding Europe more important than reunification". The Social Democratic politician Egon Bahr wrote in Der Tagesspiegel of July 28, 1991, "What was later called the lived lie of the Federal Republic can be traced in its inception in Zitelmann's book".
That Zitelmann's sympathies went toward Thomas Dehler, rather than Konrad Adenauer, was evident during an academic panel on December 8, 1997 at which he gave a lecture on occasion of the hundredth anniversary of Dehler's birth. The symposium, organised by the Haus der Geschichte der Bundesrepublik Deutschland in co-operation with the liberals’ parliamentary group, was documented in the conference notes and titled Thomas Dehler und seine Politik (Thomas Dehler and His Politics, Berlin: Nicolai Verlag, 1998). Aside from Zitelmann's contribution, Thomas Dehler und Konrad Adenauer, the volume contains contributions by the liberal politicians Hermann Otto Solms, Wolfgang Mischnick and Hans-Dietrich Genscher.
The Wealth Elite and the Psychology of the Super-Rich
In 2017, Zitelmann’s study on ultrarich individuals with assets in the tens and hundreds of millions was published as The Wealth Elite: A Groundbreaking Study of the Psychology of the Super-Rich, which was based in part on in-depth interviews with 45 exceptionally-wealthy individuals. The study took the form of a qualitative social science study, as there are too few representative cohorts for a quantitative study of the super-rich. Most of the study's interviewees were self-made multimillionaires. The study shows that a high proportion of the super-rich were engaged in entrepreneurial activities as early as their school and/or university days. One of the study’s most striking findings is that many of the super-rich were highly competitive athletes in their youth. In contrast, their educational achievements did not play a decisive role in the level of wealth that they attained: the upper quartile of interviewees (assets of US$330 million to US$3.3 billion) had more members without a university degree than did the lower quartile (assets between US$11 and US$33 million). In their decision-making, Zitelmann's wealthy interviewees tended to act intuitively, rather than be guided by analysis. The study found that implicit knowledge gained as a result of implicit, often informal, learning experiences played a far more significant role than academic education. All of the interviewees completed a Big Five personality test. It revealed that conscientiousness was a particularly-strong trait and neuroticism a particularly-weak trait. Extraversion and openness to new experiences were also pronounced traits. That corresponds with the findings of previous research.
In contrast, research has underestimated the role of sales skills in the financial success of the super-rich. The interviewees themselves rated the importance of sales skills extremely highly. Most of Zitelmann's wealthy interviewees overcame considerable setbacks and crises as they built their wealth. It also emerged from the interviews that there were many similarities in the ways they deal with defeats and setbacks.
One of the study’s key findings is that many self-made people are absolute nonconformists, who have repeatedly swum against the tide of prevailing opinion and been able to build their wealth as contrarians.
The Rich in Public Opinion
In 2020, Zitelmann's book The Rich in Public Opinion was published. In it, he criticised academic prejudice research for neglecting to explore prejudice against a particular minority, the rich. His book was based on an international survey conducted by the Allensbacher Institute and Ipsos Mori in Germany, the United States, the United Kingdom and France. On the basis of the survey, respondents were assigned to one of three groups: social enviers,” non-enviers and “ambivalents.
Based on the survey findings, social enviers represent 33% of the population of Germany, 34% in France, 20% in the United States and 18% in the United Kingdom. Zitelmann also calculates a Social Envy Coefficient, which indicates the ratio of social enviers to non-enviers in any given country. A value of 1.0 means that the number of social enviers and non-enviers is equal. A value of less than 1.0 means that the number of non-enviers outweighs the number of social enviers.
Accordingly, social envy is highest in France at 1.26, followed by Germany at 0.97. Social envy is significantly lower in the United States (0.42) and the United Kingdom (0.37). The accuracy of the three groups can be seen above all in the clearly-divergent responses provided by social enviers and non-enviers to dozens of the survey’s other items. For example, the traits social enviers most frequently attributed to the rich were self-centred, ruthless, materialistic, arrogant, greedy, cold-hearted and superficial.
Only two of the 25 personality traits most frequently cited by social enviers are positive, the others being negative. In contrast, the traits most frequently attributed to the rich by non-enviers were industrious, intelligent, bold/daring, materialistic, imaginative and visionary.
Based on surveys of attitudes towards the wealthy in the United States, Great Britain, Germany, France, Italy, Spain and Sweden, Zitelmann calculated the Social Envy Coefficient, which depicts social envy in each country. This is complemented by the Personality Trait Coefficient, which shows whether respondents attribute positive or negative personality traits to the rich. These two coefficients are combined to form the basis of the Rich Sentiment Index, which reveals that the French, the Spanish and the Germans are more critical of the rich than the Swedes, the Americans and the British. Italy occupies the middle ground, where the young are far more positive towards the rich than the old.
Books
The Nazi Elite, New York Univ Pr, New York 1993, .
Hitler: The Policies of Seduction, Allison & Busby, London 2000, .
New edition: Hitler's National Socialism. Management Books 2000, Oxford 2022, . Updated version with a preface: On the Recent Historiography of Hitler and National Socialism (1996-2020).
Dare to be Different and Grow Rich, Indus Source Books, Mumbai 2012, .
The Wealth Elite: A groundbreaking study of the psychology of the super rich, Lid Publishing, London and New York 2018, .
The Power of Capitalism: A Journey Through Recent History Across Five Continents, Lid Publishing, London and New York 2018, .
Dare to be Different and Grow Rich: The Secrets of Self-Made People, Lid Publishing, London and New York 2019, .
The Art of a Successful Life: The Wisdom of the Ages from Confucius to Steve Jobs., Lid Publishing, London and New York 2020, .
The Rich in Public Opinion: What We Think When We Think about Wealth, Cato Institute, Washington 2020, .
How People Become Famous: Geniuses of Self-Marketing from Albert Einstein to Kim Kardashian. Management Books 2000. Gloucestershire 2021, .
In Defense of Capitalism, Republic Book Publishers 2023, .
Endnotes
References
Heilbrunn, Jacob "Germany's New Right" pages 80–98 from Foreign Affairs, Volume 75, Issue #6, November–December 1996
Kershaw, Ian The Nazi Dictatorship Problems and Perspectives of Interpretation, London: Arnold Press, 2000, .
Lukacs, John The Hitler of History, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1997, .
1957 births
Living people
20th-century German historians
Writers from Frankfurt
German liberal theorists
German libertarians
German management consultants
German male non-fiction writers
21st-century German historians
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcelo%20Gallardo
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Marcelo Gallardo
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Marcelo Daniel Gallardo (; born 18 January 1976) is an Argentine football coach and former professional player who last managed River Plate. Gallardo began his career in the club's youth divisions, and made his debut in the Argentine Primera División at age 17 in 1993. After a six-year period in which he won five local league championships, the 1996 Copa Libertadores and the 1997 Supercopa Libertadores, he transferred to France's Ligue 1 AS Monaco FC and was named French League Footballer of the Year in 2000. Gallardo represented Argentina in two FIFA World Cups, although his performance was affected by injuries in both.
During his playing career, Gallardo was an attacking midfielder and playmaker. He was regarded for his vision, technique, class, dribbling, and especially his defence-splitting passing.
After topping the 2010–11 Uruguayan Primera División season with Nacional de Montevideo, Gallardo retired as a player to coach the team. He helped Nacional de Montevideo defend their championship the following season before transferring to River Plate. River Plate won local championships under Gallardo and returned to the international scene, where they had not won a tournament from 1997 to 2014. With the most international tournament championships in team history, he is considered River Plate's most successful coach to date.
Club career
Early years and first seasons with River Plate
Born in Parque San Martín in Merlo Partido in the Greater Buenos Aires area to construction worker Máximo Gallardo and nursing home employee Ana María (née Maidana), Gallardo began playing football at about age 10 in the local Once Colegiales and Nahuel clubs. After receiving offers from several First Division teams to join their junior squads, he landed a trial at River Plate and joined as a midfielder in 1988. Gallardo made his professional debut at age 17 for the club during the 1992–93 Argentinian Torneo de Clausura in a 2–0 win against Newell's Old Boys.
The team then won the 1993–94 Torneo de Apertura. Gallardo won a series of national tournaments with the team during the next few seasons (including the 1994, 1996 and 1997 Torneo de Apertura and the 1997 Torneo de Clausura), and became a starting midfielder by 1996. He received his first international trophy (the Copa Libertadores) that year, as River Plate defeated América de Cali 2–1 in the final series. Starting both matches on the bench, Gallardo took the field in the second half. River Plate lost the Intercontinental Cup 0–1 to Juventus F.C. at Tokyo's National Stadium several months later.
Gallardo was scouted by European teams during the late 1990s and signed with France's Ligue 1 AS Monaco FC, bringing his initial spell with River Plate to an end with the 1998–99 season. He had played 109 league games with the club and scored 17 goals.
AS Monaco
Gallardo signed a five-year contract with AS Monaco FC in 1999 for (). He made his European debut on the opening day of the 1999–2000 season in a 2–2 tie against AS Saint-Étienne, and scored his first goal for the team on 12 September in a 1–2 away loss to Stade Rennais F.C.. Despite an ankle injury before the season, Gallardo quickly adapted to French football and partnered with Ludovic Giuly in midfield and attackers Marco Simone and David Trezeguet. AS Monaco won the Première Division, and Gallardo was selected French League Footballer of the Year with eight goals in 28 matches.
Coach Didier Deschamps benched him midway through the 2000–01 season, and their relationship remained tense until Gallardo left the club at the end of the 2003–04 season with Christian Panucci and Marco Simone. He scored 23 goals in 126 matches in four years with AS Monaco, winning the Coupe de la Ligue during his final season.
Return to River Plate
Gallardo returned to River Plate in 2004 and was named squad captain. The team won the Torneo de Clausura, his last championship win as a River Plate player, soon after his return. Gallardo played a key scoring role in the 1–1 home tie against Atlético de Rafaela, which clinched the championship over long-standing rivals Boca Juniors.
That year, the team lost to Boca Juniors in the semifinals of the 2004 Copa Libertadores. The series was tied 2–2; Boca Juniors won in the penalty shootout, eliminating River Plate from the tournament. After a physical encounter with Raúl Alfredo Cascini in the first-leg match, both players were given the red card and were unable to participate in the second-leg match. More players were involved in the fight, in which Gallardo scratched Roberto Abbondanzieri's face; it was one of his professional career's darkest moments.
Paris Saint-Germain
Amid institutional and performance problems in River Plate and a bad streak since his return to the club (including ten red cards in 256 matches), Gallardo began considering offers to return to the French league. Parisian club Paris Saint-Germain F.C. and Olympique de Marseille were interested in him, and he chose the former.
PSG had a poor season, nearly relegated to the second division and eliminated from the UEFA Cup. After one season with the club, scoring two goals in 13 matches, Gallardo terminated his two-year contract to move to Major League Soccer in the United States.
D.C. United
On 29 January 2008, Gallardo was presented as the newest member of D.C. United. With a salary of $1.87 million (), Gallardo was the highest-paid player in D.C. United history and its first Designated Player. He had the third-largest salary in MLS that year, behind English midfielder David Beckham of the LA Galaxy ($6.5 million) and Mexican forward Cuauhtémoc Blanco of the Chicago Fire ($2.67 million). Gallardo scored his first league goal for United on 5 April 2008 against Toronto FC. He underwent surgery for a sports hernia on 17 and 19 July, which sidelined him for most of the 2008 season. Scoring four goals in 15 matches, Gallardo's contract was considered one of the worst in MLS history. In February 2009, he left D.C. United and returned to River Plate for the third time.
Nacional de Montevideo
In 2010, after a final short spell in River Plate as a player, Gallardo signed with Nacional de Montevideo in the Uruguayan league. Although he appeared in only 13 matches due to injuries, he was respected for his personality and dedication to the game. On 12 June 2011, Gallardo took the field in the second half for a 1–0 victory against Defensor Sporting for the 2011–12 Uruguayan championship in his final match. He retired as a player and was hired a few days later to manage Nacional, his first managerial position.
International career
Gallardo was considered for the Argentina national under-20 football team, but could not participate in the 1995 FIFA World Youth Championship in Qatar because Argentina national team coach Daniel Passarella wanted to include him on his squad (where he started at age 18 in 1994). He debuted in a 3–0 friendly-match victory against Chile in Santiago that year, substituting for Marcelo Espina.
The midfielder won his first international championship the following year, a gold medal at the 1995 Pan American Games. Considered a key player with Guillermo Barros Schelotto, he scored one of the victory goals in the final penalty shootout against Mexico. Argentina then finished second in the 1995 FIFA Confederations Cup and the 1996 Summer Olympics. Despite losing the Confederations Cup final to Nigeria, Gallardo said in 2018 that he valued that silver medal. He was on the Argentina squad for the 1995 and 1997 Copa América, reaching the quarter-finals both times (considered a failure by the local press).
Although Gallardo had a series of injuries (including a hamstring strain due to a lack of rest between matches) before the 1998 FIFA World Cup in France, he played in the group stage against Jamaica and Croatia and in the eighth-finals victory against England; the team lost in the quarter-finals to Holland. After a near-perfect performance in the CONMEBOL FIFA World Cup qualification, Argentina entered the World Cup in Japan and South Korea as one of the favourites; however, they were eliminated in the group stage for the first time in history. Although Gallardo was part of the squad, he spent the tournament on the bench. Looking back at his injury-plagued World Cup participation, he called not being able to compete at the same level as the other players "the worst thing that can happen to a footballer". During his international career, Gallardo made 44 appearances and scored 13 goals.
Managing career
Nacional
In 2010, before retiring as a player, Gallardo obtained his coaching certificate from José Farías de Vicente López Technical School 62 in Vicente López, Buenos Aires. Days after announcing his retirement from the Nacional de Montevideo squad which won the 2010–11 Uruguayan Primera División season championship, he accepted the team's offer to coach. Nacional defended their championship the next season, becoming the 2011–2012 champions for Gallardo. His assistants included Matías Biscay, Pablo Rodríguez and Marcelo Tulbovitz. Gallardo later described managing Nacional as an "accelerated course", coaching players with whom he had played.
River Plate
2014–2015
On 6 June 2014, Gallardo was presented by technical secretary and former teammate Enzo Francescoli as the new manager of River Plate after the controversial resignation of Ramón Díaz on 27 May. He brought some of his assistants from Nacional de Montevideo, such as Matías Biscay and Marcelo Tulbovitz. Díaz' key players Carlos Carbonero, Manuel Lanzini and Cristian Ledesma left the club, and players he had relegated (such as Carlos Sánchez and Rodrigo Mora) returned. River Plate bought only two players: attacking midfielder Leonardo Pisculichi, who had been relegated to second division with Argentinos Juniors, and goalkeeper Julio Chiarini from Instituto de Córdoba.
Gallardo's coaching style was praised by the Argentine press, with the team tying its all-time unbeaten record on 9 November with 32 undefeated games before losing to Estudiantes de La Plata three days later. Of the 32 games, eight were played for Ramón Díaz. River Plate led the Torneo de Transición until it reached the Copa Sudamericana semi-finals, where River would face the rival Boca Juniors. Planning to rest his key players for the semi-finals, Gallardo played a substitute team against second-place Racing Club and lost on an own goal by Ramiro Funes Mori. Racing went on to win its first championship since 2001 by two points over River Plate.
River eliminated Boca Juniors with a lone goal from Leonardo Pisculichi in the second leg, played at the Monumental Stadium. In the 2014 Copa Sudamericana Finals, Pisculichi scored again to draw 1–1 against Atlético Nacional in the away leg at the Estadio Atanasio Girardot. Defenders Gabriel Mercado and Germán Pezzella scored in the second leg at the Monumental, giving the unbeaten River Plate a 2–0 win and its first international title since 1997. Gallardo was the first River Plate player to win an international title as a player and a coach. He dedicated the victory to his mother, who had died shortly before the second game against Boca Juniors.
In early 2015, Gallardo's River Plate competed in the 2015 Recopa Sudamericana as the 2014 Copa Sudamericana winners against 2014 Copa Libertadores champions San Lorenzo de Almagro. River won 1–0 at home in the first leg and 1–0 in the second, both goals scored by Carlos Sánchez.
After a poor group stage which nearly eliminated them from the tournament, River Plate advanced to the 2015 Copa Libertadores Round of 16 as the worst team in the group stage to face Boca Juniors (the best team). River won the first leg at home 1–0, with a penalty kick by Carlos Sánchez. In the second leg, played at La Bombonera stadium, the teams had drawn 0–0 at the half. Returning to the pitch for the second half, River Plate's players were attacked by Boca Juniors fans. After a one-hour delay, the match was suspended by a CONMEBOL official. Days later, the organization disqualified Boca Juniors and River advanced to the tournament's quarter-finals. The team later reached the Libertadores final and played against Mexico's Tigres UANL. In the first leg, at the Estadio Universitario, the game was scoreless. In the second leg, played at the Monumental, River won 3–0 with goals by Lucas Alario, Carlos Sánchez, and Ramiro Funes Mori for their first Libertadores championship in nine years. The next day, Gallardo's team travelled to Osaka for the 2015 Suruga Bank Championship against 2014 J.League Cup winners Gamba Osaka. The match was a 3–0 victory for River Plate, the team's fourth international title under Gallardo.
Despite poor results in the 2015 Argentine Primera División, River later advanced to the semi-finals of the 2015 Copa Sudamericana to play against fellow Argentine Club Atlético Huracán. The two-legged series resulted in a 1–0 loss for River in the first leg at home, followed by a 2–2 draw in the second leg. This was Gallardo's first defeat in an international knockout stage as a coach.
River played in the year-end 2015 FIFA Club World Cup, struggling to beat 2015 J1 League winners Sanfrecce Hiroshima 1–0 in the semi-finals with a goal from Lucas Alario and three saves in the first half by goalkeeper Marcelo Barovero. They played poorly in the final, losing 3–0 to European champions FC Barcelona with goals by Lionel Messi and Luis Suárez. Gallardo was named the fifth-best football coach worldwide in 2015 by the IFFHS.
2016–2022
River Plate were eliminated by runners-up Independiente del Valle in the 2016 Copa Libertadores round of 16. River Plate won the 2016 Recopa Sudamericana against 2015 Copa Sudamericana champions Independiente Santa Fe, defeating them 2–1 at home in the second leg after a scoreless first leg for another international title.
In December of that year, Gallardo led River to the 2015–16 Copa Argentina: his first domestic cup as manager. River Plate then earned the right to play in the 2017 Copa Libertadores and the 2016 Supercopa Argentina against 2016 Primera División champion Club Atlético Lanús, where it was defeated 3–0.
River Plate advanced to the semi-finals of the 2017 Copa Libertadores against Club Atlético Lanús. After winning the first leg 1–0 at Monumental Stadium, they lost the second leg at Estadio Ciudad de Lanús 4–2. River Plate lost the semi-finals 4–3 on aggregate. They defeated Atlético Tucumán days later at the 2016–17 Copa Argentina final in Mendoza for their second consecutive Copa Argentina. This gave River Plate the right to play the 2017 Supercopa Argentina against 2016–17 Argentine Primera División champions Boca Juniors, defeating Boca 2–0 on 14 March 2018.
Except for their victory in the Supercopa Argentina, River Plate began 2018 with a losing streak in the Primera División. They played well in the 2018 Copa Libertadores, however, reaching the finals against Boca Juniors. It was the first time two Argentine teams faced each other in a Libertadores final; the last final had a two-legged home-and-away format, although the second match was played at Santiago Bernabéu Stadium because River Plate fans attacked Boca Juniors players at Monumental Stadium. River Plate and Boca Juniors drew the first match 2–2 at La Bombonera, with goals by Lucas Pratto and Carlos Izquierdoz (own goal). The second match, at the Bernabéu, ended in a 1–1 draw; Pratto again scored for River and sent the match into extra time. River won 3–1, with goals by Juan Fernando Quintero and Pity Martínez. Despite missing the finals with a suspension for violating a previous penalty in the semi-finals against Grêmio of Porto Alegre, Gallardo's coaching played a key role in the victory (considered one of the most important in Argentine football history). His coaching was praised by the press, and he was called one of the best River Plate managers of all time.
After winning the 2019 Recopa Sudamericana, Gallardo became the most successful River Plate coach in history with ten titles. He is the most successful coach at the international level in club history to date, with seven international titles: two Copa Libertadores (2015 and 2018), the 2014 Copa Sudamericana, three Recopa Sudamericanas (2015, 2016, and 2019), and the 2015 Suruga Bank Championship. He is considered the greatest coach in River Plate history. Gallardo was named the best 2019 football coach in the Americas by the Uruguayan newspaper El País, and the second-best in the world by the football website Club World Ranking.
Into the early 2020s, Brazilian teams showed a stronger performance than their counterparts in the CONMEBOL international tournaments, due to a higher competitiveness in their local league and a more favorable domestic economic situation. Although Gallardo displayed his ability to form competitive squads over the years in spite of factors such as key players leaving the roster, Argentina's growing economical disparity with Brazil's took its toll in River Plate's performance against its teams. After a tough fall in the 2021 Copa Libertadores quarter-finals against Atlético Mineiro, he acknowledged their rivals beat them, playing "much better", and opted to focus on that year's edition of the Argentine league. The squad eventually went on to win
the championship and Gallardo equaled Ángel Labruna's record of 22 titles as both a player and a coach for the team. Coming close to the expiration of his contract at the end of the season in the midst of speculations about his continuity, he decided to sign for yet at least one more year., stating that he will not continue on the team and that he will take a short break in his coaching career.
Playing style
Throughout his career, Gallardo played a central or attacking midfield role as a playmaker. A skillful, intelligent player, he was valued for his vision, technique, class, dribbling, and ability to defeat opponents in one-on-one situations and was best known for defence-splitting passes. Gallardo was noted for his accuracy with direct free kicks and his ball delivery from corners and set pieces. His playing style was compared to Diego Maradona in his youth.
Personal life
Gallardo has four sons from his marriage to his high-school sweetheart, Geraldine La Rosa; one is River Plate footballer Nahuel Gallardo. He had little interest in football during his early years, and preferred flying kites. Gallardo said that he was a San Lorenzo de Almagro fan before turning to River Plate, influenced by his mother's family.
During his playing and early coaching years, Gallardo was nicknamed el Muñeco ("the doll"). His teammates started calling him that during the early 1990s, when he was one of the squad's youngest members. Gallardo's successful tenure coaching River Plate earned him the nickname Napoleon from fans and the press.
Career statistics
Club
International
Scores and results list Argentina's goal tally first, score column indicates score after each Gallardo goal.
Managerial statistics
Honours
Player
River Plate
Argentine Primera División (6): 1993 Apertura, 1994 Apertura, 1996 Apertura, 1997 Apertura, 1997 Clausura, 2004 Clausura
Copa Libertadores: 1996
Supercopa Sudamericana: 1997
Monaco
Ligue 1: 1999–2000
Coupe de la Ligue: 2002–03
Trophée des Champions: 2000
Paris Saint-Germain
Coupe de la Ligue: 2007–08
D.C. United
U.S. Open Cup: 2008
Nacional
Uruguayan Primera División: 2010–11
Argentina
Olympic Silver Medal: 1996
Pan American Games: 1995 Mar del Plata
FIFA Confederations Cup runner-up:1995
Individual
French Division 1 Player of the year: 2000
South American Team of the Year: 1997,1998
Manager
Nacional
Uruguayan Primera División: 2011–12
River Plate
Argentine Primera División: 2021
Copa Argentina: 2015–16, 2016–17, 2018–19
Supercopa Argentina: 2017, 2019
Trofeo de Campeones de la Liga Profesional: 2021
FIFA Club World Cup runner-up: 2015
Copa Libertadores: 2015, 2018 ;runner-up: 2019
Copa Sudamericana: 2014
Recopa Sudamericana: 2015, 2016, 2019
Suruga Bank Championship: 2015
Individual
South American Manager of the Year: 2018, 2019, 2020
Copa Libertadores Manager of the Year: 2015, 2018
Copa Sudamericana Manager of the Year: 2014
Recopa Sudamericana Manager of the Year: 2015, 2016, 2019
Notes
References
External links
Statistics at Irish Times
Argentine Primera statistics at Fútbol XXI
1976 births
1995 Copa América players
1995 King Fahd Cup players
1997 Copa América players
1998 FIFA World Cup players
2002 FIFA World Cup players
Argentine expatriate men's footballers
Argentine expatriate sportspeople in France
Argentine expatriate sportspeople in Monaco
Argentine expatriate sportspeople in the United States
Argentine men's footballers
Argentine football managers
Argentina men's international footballers
Argentine Primera División players
Argentina men's youth international footballers
AS Monaco FC players
Men's association football midfielders
Copa Libertadores-winning players
Club Atlético River Plate footballers
Club Atlético River Plate managers
Club Nacional de Football managers
Club Nacional de Football players
Designated Players (MLS)
D.C. United players
Expatriate men's footballers in France
Expatriate men's footballers in Monaco
Expatriate men's footballers in Uruguay
Expatriate men's soccer players in the United States
Footballers at the 1995 Pan American Games
Footballers at the 1996 Summer Olympics
Ligue 1 players
Living people
Major League Soccer players
Medalists at the 1995 Pan American Games
Medalists at the 1996 Summer Olympics
Olympic footballers for Argentina
Olympic medalists in football
Olympic silver medalists for Argentina
Pan American Games gold medalists for Argentina
Pan American Games medalists in football
Paris Saint-Germain F.C. players
Footballers from Buenos Aires Province
Uruguayan Primera División players
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Killing%20Dance
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The Killing Dance
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The Killing Dance is a horror/mystery novel by American writer Laurell K. Hamilton, the sixth book in the Anita Blake: Vampire Hunter series.
Plot introduction
The Killing Dance continues the adventures of Anita Blake. In the novel, Anita continues to explore her relationship with her two romantic interests, Richard, a werewolf, and Jean-Claude, a vampire, while attempting to resolve an assortment of conflicts ranging from werewolf politics to unsolved murders. As with its predecessors, The Killing Dance blends elements of supernatural, hardboiled and police procedural fiction. The Killing Dance also marks Hamilton's first significant introduction of elements of erotic fiction into her genre fusion.
Explanation of the title
The werewolves in the novel refer to both sex and dominance fights (particularly the fight to become Ulfric which must end in either the death of the current Ulfric or the death of the challenger) as "the killing dance." This represented a slight variation on Hamilton's practice of naming the novels after a fictional location within each novel for most of the Anita Blake series.
Plot summary
The Killing Dance takes place in May, about a month and a half after Bloody Bones and like the previous novels, The Killing Dance begins with a potential job for Anita in her role as an Animators, Inc. employee. In this case, Anita and Jean-Claude are in Anita's office meeting with Sabin, a master vampire, and with Dominic Dumare, Sabin's human servant. Sabin and Dumare explain that Sabin, in order to please a mortal lover, promised to abstain from feeding on the blood of live humans. As a result, he has developed a condition in which his body is irreversibly rotting away, and is beginning to lose control of his powers. Dumare, a necromancer, believes that if he and Anita join their abilities and his experience, they may be able to cure Sabin, and Anita agrees to help if possible. Jean-Claude and Anita ponder the parallels between Sabin's relationship with his unnamed mortal love and their own romantic relationship, and Anita leaves for a date with her other boyfriend, Richard. (Although Jean-Claude, a vampire, is in the process of consolidating his leadership of the city, Richard is locked in an ongoing struggle for leadership of the werewolves of the city with their current Ulfric, Marcus, primarily because Richard, unlike Jean-Claude, is not willing to kill in order to assume or maintain power.)
Anita and Richard go to a dinner party at Anita's friend Catherine's house. There, they meet one of Jean-Claude's vampires, Robert, and his wife, Monica. Monica announces that she is pregnant, which Anita had previously thought impossible for a vampire of Robert's age. Monica is also very friendly with Anita, notwithstanding her assistance in the plot to hyponize Catherine and blackmail Anita in Guilty Pleasures. Anita wonders if Jean-Claude deliberately planned for Robert to attend the party to spy on her and Richard. She and Richard are forced to leave the party early after she receives a call from Edward. Edward, one of the world's premier assassins and a sort of friend of Anita's, tells Anita that he has received a proposed contract to kill Anita. He has refused, but wants her to get home and begin making plans to protect herself while he investigates the identity of the person putting out the contract on her life.
Anita and Richard arrive at her house and meet Mrs. Pringle. Anita suspects that someone is in her apartment, and, while Richard helps Mrs. Pringle move a television, she engages in a gun battle through her closed front door, ultimately killing Jimmy Dugan, a local thug known as "Jimmy the Shotgun". Anita is taken to police headquarters and questioned for quite some time by Detective Branswell, who eventually lets her go. Anita and Richard argue about her decision to confront Jimmy the Shotgun without asking Richard to back her up, and Anita agrees to move into Richard's house for the time being in order to protect her neighbors from any potential collateral damage.
Edward contacts Anita at Richard's house and tells her that the contract on her life has been increased to $500,000 if the murder is performed within 24 hours. Edward suggests that Anita try to deduce the identity of the person offering the contract by figuring out who would need her dead that quickly, but she doesn't have any ideas. Richard then receives a call from Stephen. Stephen is being forced to participate in one of Raina's pornographic movies, and is desperate for Richard's protection. Richard and Anita leave to rescue him.
At the farmhouse where Raina shoots her movies, Richard and Anita confront several werewolves and various crew members. Richard reassures Heidi, a non-dominant werewolf trapped in the middle of the conflict between Marcus and himself. One of the werewolves, Sebastian challenges Richard, but Richard easily subdues him with the raw power of his beast. Approximately 30 werewolves gang up on Richard, including Sebastian and Jamil, and Anita realizes that the situation was a trap to kill him. She goes to rescue Stephen while Richard holds off the wolves.
Anita follows the sounds of Stephen's screams and finds a room where Stephen is being tortured on film by his brother Gregory while being restrained by Raina and Gabriel. Anita removes Stephen and finds Richard fighting off the twenty werewolves outside the filming room. She and Richard confront the wolves, and Anita realizes that because the wolves do not believe Richard is willing to kill, they are not afraid of him. She threatens to kill Raina if anyone uses Stephen in a film again, setting herself up as a challenger for Raina's position as the pack's lupa. After returning to Richard's home, Richard stays awake as guard while Stephen sleeps in Anita's bed for protection.
Later morning, Anita wakes to find Jason, Sylvie and Lillian at Richard's house. Lillian tends wounds while Jason and Sylvie attempt to convince Richard that he must be willing to kill to lead the pack. Anita and Richard go to a separate room to argue and come close to having sex, only to be interrupted by the weres on the other side of the door. Anita worries that her relationship with Richard makes her vulnerable, because unlike Jean-Claude, Anita can't count on Richard to make the hard decisions necessary to survive.
Anita leaves the bedroom to find that several more shapeshifters have arrived—Rafael, Christine, and about fifteen others. She learns that Jean-Claude and many of the city's shapeshifters support Richard's attempt to dethrone Marcus as Ulfric, but that as long as Richard is not willing to kill, his claim is weakened. Richard ultimately declares Anita as his lupa and declares himself willing to kill Marcus if necessary to assume control of the pack. In order to assume a dominant role within the pack, Anita is forced to fight Neal, one of the werewolves present until first blood is drawn. She maneuvers him into a position where she can judo throw him through a window, drawing blood.
As Neal cleans himself off, Edward arrives. Edward thinks that whichever assassin accepted the contract will try to kill Anita during her date with Jean-Claude at the opening of Dance Macabre, Jean-Claude's new club. Over Richard's objections, he and Anita make plans to use Anita as bait to draw out the assassin.
Jean-Claude and Anita arrive at the club and are mobbed by reporters, "outing" Anita as the vampire's girlfriend. Under pressure from Jean-Claude, Anita admits that she wanted to keep their relationship secret and that her desire to do so was unfair to Jean-Claude. Anita meets Liv and Damian, two new and powerful vampires in Jean-Claude's retinue, as well as Cassandra, a new addition to the Thronos Rokke clan of werewolves. During the floorshow, Anita is forced to intervene to stop Damian from permanently hypnotizing one of the guests. Anita helps the guest into the women's bathroom with the help of another patron, Anabelle Smith. Smith draws a gun on Anita, but is distracted when some women enter, allowing Anita enough time to draw a knife and kill her. The police arrive and arrest Anita for the second time in two days.
Detective Greeley does his best to get Anita to talk, but Dolph ultimately convinces Greeley to turn Anita over to Dolph by telling Greeley that Anita is a suspect in other crime. Dolph takes Anita to a suburban home in Creve Coeur, and shows Anita the crime scene—one of Jean-Claude's vampire's, Robert has been staked out inside a magic circle and ritually killed. Anita, as a necromancer, is unable to cross the circle, which was designed to block the magic of the dead. She hypothesizes that the circle was used to prevent Jean-Claude from learning of Roberts' death, and meets Tammy Reynolds, a new member of RPIT. Anita guesses that the crime must have been performed by at least two supernatural beings with enough strength to restrain Robert, in addition to someone with sufficiently detailed knowledge of necromancy to perform the ritual. Because even John Burke and Anita herself lack the expertise to perform the ritual, Anita tells Dolph that Dominic Dumare is the only suspect she can identify. Anita and Dolph clash over what she can tell Jean-Claude about Robert's death and about whether her loyalties now lie with Jean-Claude or with RPIT.
After some more investigation, Anita accompanies Robert's widow, Monica to the hospital. While at the hospital, Anita speaks to Edward, who tells her that the contract on her life has been extended another twenty-four hours and convinces her to take cover in the Circus of the Damned while he attempts to identify who is behind the hit.
At the Circus, Anita tells Jean-Claude about Robert's death and learns for the first time about Jean-Claude's past with Asher and Julianna. Jean-Claude tells Anita that Asher has petitioned the Vampire Council for permission to kill Anita as revenge for Julianna's death. Later, Jean-Claude and Anita discuss their relationship, both with each other and with Richard. Jean-Claude tells Anita that he loves her, and promises not to stand in her way if she chooses Richard, but demands that she see Richard change into a wolf before committing. They kiss, and Richard enters. With Richard's control weakened by the approaching full moon, Jean-Claude baits Richard and Richard knocks Anita down in the course of attacking Jean-Claude.
Jean-Claude leaves to prepare for the approaching dawn, and Richard and Anita discuss their relationship. Jason arrives, severely beaten as a result of his attempt to prevent Richard from entering earlier, and acknowledges Richard as his master. Richard feeds from Jason's blood and feeds Jason some of his own blood and power. Shaken by Richard's display of inhuman behavior, Anita worries that perhaps Richard is right that killing Marcus will mean surrendering too much of his human identity. After some hesitation, Anita proposes that Richard sleep with her that morning, and that they marry as soon as possible. Richard refuses, promising to sleep with Anita and to marry her, but only after she sees him as a werewolf.
Anita is awakened by Cassandra leaning over her bed in darkness. Cassandra apologizes for the fright and explains that Richard and Jean-Claude have a plan. The men explain that they wish to experiment calling the power that the three of them summoned accidentally in The Lunatic Cafe. Richard sees the power as a way to force Marcus to back down without a death, and Jean-Claude sees it as a means to secure his control of the city and his safety. Anita reluctantly agrees to the experiment after forcing Jean-Claude to promise that he will not mark either of the others as his servant.
As the three engage in the initial stages of a ménage à trois, Anita is first uncomfortable, but soon overcome by a combination of lust and magical power. Acting on instinct, Anita demands blood to complete the ritual, and Jean-Claude bites Richard even as the two men continue seducing Anita. Anita is flooded with power, and instinctively raises the dead, much as she did when flooded with power by inadvertent human sacrifices in The Laughing Corpse and Bloody Bones. As Anita makes plans to investigate what she has raised from the dead and where, Richard and Jean-Claude sense an emergency and race her to the location of an old cemetery within the Circus. Anita learns that she has raised scores of zombies, as well as the resting forms of three vampires: Damian, Liv, and Willie. The three discuss their relationship some more—Jean-Claude and Richard are threatened by Anita's power and need for dominance, while Anita and Richard are threatened by Jean-Claude's ongoing seduction of them both. (On the other hand, Cassandra, a post graduate student of magical theory as well as a werewolf, is more clinically interested in the magic than in their relationship).
Unsure whether, after raising them as zombies, Anita will be able to return the vampires to death in a way that allows them to rise as vampires with the setting sun, the group decides to call Dominic Dumare for assistance. (Anita reveals that a woman alibied Dumare, eliminating him as a suspect in Robert's killing.) Dominic and Cassandra are both intellectually fascinated by Anita's power to raise vampires, and, at Dominic's request, Anita experiments with the power, learning that she can heal vampires that she raises during daylight. Dominic helps her develop a ritual to combine her powers with Jean-Claude's and Richards and lay the vampires and zombies to rest, and they agree to try to use the technique to heal Sabin the next day.
Jean-Claude, Richard, and Anita discuss their mutual relationship some more. Richard has agreed to accept Jean-Claude's marks as his animal servant, but will not accept a subordinate position to either Jean-Claude or Anita, and threatens to kill Jean-Claude if he attempts to assume control. Anita, for her part, will not even accept the marks. Jean-Claude claims to be threatened by Anita's new power and by the prospect of a three-way battle for dominance "for all eternity," but he is intrigued by the amount of power the three of them can raise.
Edward arrives, with an assistant, the psychopathic mercenary Harley. Edward explains that he has learned that Marcus was behind the contract on Anita's life, and Jean-Claude hypothesizes that Marcus wanted to distract Richard from concentrating on that night's battle of succession. Anita and Richard dress for the battle and leave, with Edward and Harley as backup. Using Jean-Claude's mark, Anita and Richard unite their three powers once more, this time magnifying Richard's power. Holding Anita's hand, Richard helps her "ride" his power, allowing the two of them to run through the forest like wolves.
At the wolves' sacred clearing, Richard and Marcus face off. Sebastian stabs Richard in the back in order to help Marcus, but is killed by Edward, who has taken up a sniper's position nearby. Without further interference, Richard tears out Marcus's heart, killing him.
In order to prevent her from killing Raina, Richard grabs Anita. He holds her down bodily as he changes to his wolf-man state. He invites Anita to share his power again, but she flees in horror, just as the pack begins eating Marcus. Anita runs back to the Circus and Jean-Claude. Distraught, Anita finally gives in to Jean-Claude's ongoing seduction, in the first of the many detailed scenes of erotica that Hamilton has since introduced into the series.
The next morning, Richard arrives, and is devastated by the combination Anita's rejection of him the previous night and discovering that she has had sex with Jean-Claude. After an emotional fight, Richard declares that he will always love Anita and leaves. Cassandra arrives to help Anita clean up but then, to Anita's surprise, knocks Anita unconscious and delivers her to Raina and Gabriel.
With Anita safely bound on the set of Raina's porn films, Cassandra explains that she, Dominic and Sabin are a triumvirate. Cassandra was the lover who convinced Sabin to give up feeding on humans, causing him to develop his degenerative condition. Dominic believed that by sacrificing Jean-Claude's triumvirate, they could heal Sabin, and the three of them came to St. Louis to do so. Discovering that Anita was not marked by Jean-Claude, they are going to try the sacrifice with just Jean-Claude and Richard. Anita attempts to reason with Cassandra, and promises to heal Sabin by raising him during daylight the next day. Cassandra refuses, stating that they do not have even one more day before Sabin loses his mind permanently, and leaves Anita to be raped and killed in Raina's snuff film.
Gabriel, a psychotic sadomasochist, has been fantasizing about arming Anita with silver knives and raping her while she tries to kill him. Anita talks Gabriel into trying out his fantasy and gives her the knives. Unknown to Gabriel, Anita accepts the first and second vampire marks from Richard and Jean-Claude while waiting for the scene to begin; with her weapons and the extra power from the marks, she is able to kill both Gabriel and Raina. Together with Edward and Harley, Anita races to the sacrifice site to save Jean-Claude and Richard.
At the site, Dominic has prepared another circle of power against the dead, which Anita, a necromancer, is unable to enter. Edward crosses the circle and kills Dominic to stop his spell but is knocked unconscious by Sabin. Harley shoots Cassandra. Anita kills Sabin and is then forced to kill Harley, who has lost control without Edward to anchor him to reality. She rushes to Richard and Jean-Claude and finds Richard dying, his heart pierced by Dominic's blade. Jean-Claude explains that he is shielding Anita from Richard's pain, and that he and Richard will probably die. Anita is unable to cope with losing both men and agrees to accept the third mark, giving blood to Jean-Claude and saving Richard and Jean-Claude's lives.
In the epilogue, Anita explains that Monica's baby is doing well, and that she and Jean-Claude remain lovers, but that Richard has frozen them both out of his life, rendering the triumvirate useless. Even more ominously, Edward has declared that because Anita killed Harley, she now owes him one favor, which he will collect when he sees fit.
Characters
Major characters
The Killing Dance features the following major characters.
Anita Blake: Anita's primary developments in this novel are romantic, as she attempts, unsuccessfully, to forge a life with Richard, then ultimately selects Jean-Claude. She also experiences significant political developments, as her developing powers draw her deeper into Jean-Claude's vampire power structure and into the political world of Richard's werewolf pack.
Jean-Claude: Jean-Claude continues to present something of an enigma. Although he claims to love Anita, the character of Sabin serves as an example of the danger of absolute love to a vampire, as does Jean-Claude's story of the tragic ending of his love affair with Asher and Julianna. Although he may well be in love, Anita is well aware that Jean-Claude remains very calculating, and that, as usual, the events of The Killing Dance seem to work out to Jean-Claude's benefit more than anyone else's—by the end of the novel, Anita is Jean-Claude's lover alone, Jean-Claude's rivals, Marcus and Raina are dead, and Anita and Richard are bound to Jean-Claude as his human and animal servants.
Richard: This novel underscores Richard's essentially tragic nature. Although Richard is extraordinarily blessed—phenomenally powerful, fantastically handsome, in requited love with his apparent soulmate—he lacks the essential self-knowledge needed to resolve his crisis. Richard is unable to integrate his human and werewolf natures, and this tragic flaw haunts him throughout the series. This novel, where Richard finally reveals his true nature to Anita and is rejected, represents the beginning of a long slide for the character that has yet to resolve.
Edward: Edward is his typical self—an inscrutable and deadly serial killer. However, in this novel, he continues to show hints of some other emotional existence. In particular, his fondness for Anita begins to look something like friendship, and to suggest the possibility of an emotional inner life.
Other characters
Recurring characters in The Killing Dance include:
Reappearances of RPIT members Dolph Storr, Zerbrowski and the introduction of RPIT's first witch Tammy Reynolds. As Anita's relationship with Jean-Claude becomes public knowledge and her public death toll rises, Dolph begins to show seeds of the distrust that would manifest between them over the course of the next several novels.
The reappearance of the vampire Willie McCoy and the introduction of newly arrived vampires Damian and Liv.
The reappearance of shapeshifters Rafael, Lillian, Christine, Jason and Stephen and the introduction of Stephen's twin brother, the wereleopard Gregory, new pack enforcer Jamil, and pack member Sylvie.
Miscellaneous other characters, particularly Catherine Maison-Gillette, Mrs. Pringle and Monica Vespucci.
Non-recurring characters include:
Police detectives Greeley and Branswell.
Pack members Heidi and Neal.
The death toll in The Killing Dance includes:
The dark mirror to Anita's own triumvirate: Sabin (shot by Anita); Dominic Dumare (shot by Edward) and Cassandra (shot by Harley and/or died when Anita killed Sabin).
Jean-Claude's vampire flunky Robert (heart torn out by Dominic).
Assassins for hire Jimmy "Jimmy the Shotgun" Dugan (a cheap local thug) and "Annabelle Smith" (a pricy international assassin), both killed by Anita.
Local lycanthropes Sebastian (shot by Edward); Marcus (killed by Richard in battle of succession); Gabriel (stabbed by Anita); and Raina (shot by Anita).
1997 American novels
American erotic novels
Anita Blake: Vampire Hunter novels
Low fantasy novels
Novels set in St. Louis
Werewolf novels
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bemidbar%20%28parashah%29
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Bemidbar (parashah)
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Bemidbar, BeMidbar, B'midbar, Bamidbar, or Bamidbor (—Hebrew for "in the wilderness of" [Sinai], the fifth overall and first distinctive word in the parashah), is the 34th weekly Torah portion (, parashah) in the annual Jewish cycle of Torah reading and the first in the Book of Numbers. The parashah tells of the census and the priests' duties.
It constitutes Numbers 1:1–4:20. The parashah is made up of 7,393 Hebrew letters, 1,823 Hebrew words, 159 verses, and 263 lines in a Torah Scroll (, Sefer Torah). Jews generally read it in May or early June.
Readings
In traditional Sabbath Torah reading, the parashah is divided into seven readings, or , aliyot.
First reading—Numbers 1:1–19
In the first reading, in the wilderness, in the second month of the second year following the Exodus from Egypt, God directed Moses to take a census of the Israelite men age 20 years and up, "all those in Israel who are able to bear arms." The heads of each of the tribes or army divisions are named.
Second reading—Numbers 1:20–54
In the second reading, the census showed the following populations by tribe:
Reuben: 46,500
Simeon: 59,300
Gad: 45,650
Judah: 74,600
Issachar: 54,400
Zebulun: 57,400
Ephraim: 40,500
Manasseh: 32,200
Benjamin: 35,400
Dan: 62,700
Asher: 41,500
Naphtali: 53,400
totaling 603,550 in all.
God told Moses not to enroll the Levites, but to put them in charge of carrying, assembling, tending to, and guarding the Tabernacle and its furnishings. Any outsider who encroached on the Tabernacle was to be put to death.
Third reading—Numbers 2:1–34
In the third reading, God told Moses that the Israelites were to encamp by tribe as follows:
around the Tabernacle: Levi
on the front, or east side: Judah, Issachar, and Zebulun
on the south: Reuben, Simeon, and Gad
on the west: Ephraim, Manasseh, and Benjamin
on the north: Dan, Asher, and Naphtali.
Fourth reading—Numbers 3:1–13
In the fourth reading, God instructed Moses to place the Levites in attendance upon Aaron to serve him and the priests. God took the Levites in place of all the firstborn among the Israelites, whom God consecrated when God killed the firstborn in Egypt.
Fifth reading—Numbers 3:14–39
In the fifth reading, God then told Moses to record by ancestral house and by clan the Levite men from the age of one month up, and he did so. The Levites divided by their ancestral houses, based on the sons of Levi: Gershon, Kohath, and Merari.
The Gershonites, numbered 7,500, camped behind the Tabernacle, to the west, and had charge of the Tabernacle, the tent, its covering, the screen for the entrance of the tent, the hangings of the enclosure, the screen for the entrance of the enclosure that surrounded the Tabernacle, and the altar.
The Kohathites, numbered 8,600, camped along the south side of the Tabernacle, and had charge of the Ark, the table, the lampstand, the altars, the sacred utensils, and the screen.
The Merarites, numbered 6,200, camped along the north side of the Tabernacle, and had charge of the planks of the Tabernacle, its bars, posts, sockets, and furnishings, and the posts around the enclosure and their sockets, pegs, and cords.
Moses, Aaron, and Aaron's sons (who were also descended from Kohath) camped in front of the Tabernacle, on the east.
The total number of the Levites came to 22,000.
Sixth reading—Numbers 3:40–51
In the sixth reading, God instructed Moses to record every firstborn male of the Israelites aged one month old and upwards, and they came to 22,273. God told Moses to take the 22,000 Levites for God in exchange for all the firstborn among the Israelites, and the Levites' cattle in exchange for the Israelites' cattle. To redeem the 273 Israelite firstborn over and above the number of the Levites, God instructed Moses to take five shekels a head and to give the money to the priests.
Seventh reading—Numbers 4:1–20
In the seventh reading, God then directed Moses and Aaron to take a separate census of the Kohathites between the ages of 30 and 50, who were to perform tasks for the Tent of Meeting. The Kohathites had responsibility for the most sacred objects. (Parashat Naso reports the number of working-age Kohathites counted.)
At the breaking of camp, Aaron and his sons were to take down the Ark, the table of display, the lampstand, and the service vessels, and cover them all with cloths and skins. Only when Aaron and his sons had finished covering the sacred objects would the Kohathites come and lift them. Aaron's son Eleazar had responsibility for the lighting oil, the aromatic incense, the regular meal offering, the anointing oil, and all the consecrated things in the Tabernacle. God charged Moses and Aaron to take care not to let the Kohathites die because they went inside and witnessed the dismantling of the sanctuary.
Readings according to the triennial cycle
Jews who read the Torah according to the triennial cycle of Torah reading read the parashah according to the following schedule:
In inner-biblical interpretation
The parashah has parallels or is discussed in these Biblical sources:
Numbers chapter 1
Numbers 1:1 begins, "On the first day of the second month, in the second year following the exodus from the land of Egypt." According to Exodus 40:17, that would be one month after the date that Moses set up the Tabernacle. Numbers 7:1 then reports, "On the day that Moses finished setting up the Tabernacle," the chieftains of the tribes began bringing their offerings and would continue for 12 days. At the same time, the ordination events of Leviticus 8 took place. "On the eighth day," the inaugural offerings of Leviticus 9 took place, followed by the incident of Nadab and Abihu in Leviticus 10. Numbers 9:5 then reports, "on the fourteenth day of the month," the Israelites offered the Passover sacrifice. And Numbers 9:11 then reports that the second Passover for those unable to participate in the first Passover would commence "in the second month, on the fourteenth day of the month." Thus, the events beginning with Numbers 1:1 would have taken place shortly after the setting up of the Tabernacle, the chieftain's offerings, the ordination and inaugural ceremonies of the Tabernacle, the incident of Nadab and Abihu, and the first Passover, but shortly before the second Passover.
Three times in this parashah the Torah lists the tribes, and each time the Torah lists the tribes in a different order:
Numbers chapters 3–4
Numbers 3:5–4:20 refers to duties of the Levites. Deuteronomy 33:10 reports that Levites taught the law. Deuteronomy 17:9–10 reports that they served as judges. And Deuteronomy 10:8 reports that they blessed God's name. 1 Chronicles 23:3–5 reports that of 38,000 Levite men age 30 and up, 24,000 were in charge of the work of the Temple in Jerusalem, 6,000 were officers and magistrates, 4,000 were gatekeepers, and 4,000 praised God with instruments and song. 1 Chronicles 15:16 reports that King David installed Levites as singers with musical instruments, harps, lyres, and cymbals, and 1 Chronicles 16:4 reports that David appointed Levites to minister before the Ark, to invoke, to praise, and to extol God. And 2 Chronicles 5:12 reports at the inauguration of Solomon's Temple, Levites sang dressed in fine linen, holding cymbals, harps, and lyres, to the east of the altar, and with them 120 priests blew trumpets. 2 Chronicles 20:19 reports that Levites of the sons of Kohath and of the sons of Korah extolled God in song. Eleven Psalms identify themselves as of the Korahites.
In classical rabbinic interpretation
The parashah is discussed in these rabbinic sources from the era of the Mishnah and the Talmud:
Numbers chapter 1
The Rabbis discussed why, in the words of Numbers 1:1, God spoke to Moses "in wilderness." Rava taught that when people open themselves to everyone like a wilderness, God gives them the Torah. Similarly, a Midrash taught that those who do not throw themselves open to all like a wilderness cannot acquire wisdom and Torah. The Sages inferred from Numbers 1:1 that the Torah was given to the accompaniment of fire, water, and wilderness. And the giving of the Torah was marked by these three features to show that as these are free to all people, so are the words of the Torah; as Isaiah 55:1 states, "everyone who thirsts, come for water." Another Midrash taught that if the Torah had been given to the Israelites in the land of Israel, the tribe in whose territory it was given would have said that it had a prior claim to the Torah, so God gave it in the wilderness, so that all should have an equal claim to it. Another Midrash taught that as people neither sow nor till the wilderness, so those who accept the yoke of the Torah are relieved of the yoke of earning a living; and as the wilderness does not yield any taxes from crops, so scholars are free in this world. And another Midrash taught that the Torah was given in the wilderness because they preserve the Torah who keep themselves separate like a wilderness.
The Gemara noted that Numbers 1:1 happened in "the second month, in the second year," while Numbers 9:1 happened "in the first month of the second year," and asked why the Torah presented the chapters beginning at Numbers 1 before Numbers 9, out of chronological order. Rav Menasia bar Tahlifa said in Rav's name that this proved that there is no chronological order in the Torah.
Rav Nachman bar Yitzchak noted that both Numbers 1:1 and 9:1 begin, "And the Lord spoke to Moses in the wilderness of Sinai," and deduced that just as Numbers 1:1 happened (in the words of that verse) "on the first day of the second month," so too Numbers 9:1 happened at the beginning of the month. And as Numbers 9:1 addressed the Passover offering, which the Israelites were to bring on the 14th of the month, the Gemara concluded that one should expound the laws of a holiday two weeks before the holiday.
A Midrash taught that when God is about to make Israel great, God explicitly states the place, the day, the month, the year, and the era, as Numbers 1:1 says, "in the wilderness of Sinai, in the tent of meeting, on the first day of the second month, in the second year after they were come out of the land of Egypt." The Midrash continued that God then said to the Israelites (rereading Numbers 1:2): "Raise to greatness all the congregation of the children of Israel" (interpreting "raise the head"——to mean "raise to greatness").
A Midrash explained the specificity of Numbers 1:1 with a parable. A king married a wife and did not give her a legal marriage contract. He then sent her away without giving her a bill of divorce. He did the same to a second wife and a third, giving them neither a marriage contract nor a bill of divorce. Then he saw a poor, well-born orphan girl whom he desired to marry. He told his best man (, shoshbin) not to deal with her as with the previous ones, as she was well-born, modest in her actions, and worthy. The king directed his aide to draw up a marriage contract for her, stating the period of seven years, the year, the month, the day of the month, and the region, in the same way that Esther 2:16 writes about Esther, "So Esther was taken to king Ahasuerus into his house royal in the tenth month, which is the month Tevet, in the seventh year of his reign." So God did not state when God created the generation of the Flood and did not state when God removed them from the world, except insofar as Genesis 7:11 reports, "on the same day were all the fountains of the great deep broken up." Similarly, Scripture does not indicate when God created the generation of the Dispersal after the Tower of Babel or the generation of Egypt, or when either generation passed away. But when Israel appeared, God told Moses that God would not act towards them as God did towards those earlier generations, as the Israelites were descendants of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. God instructed that Moses record for them the precise month, day of the month, year, region, and city in which God lifted them up. Therefore, Numbers 1:1 says: "And the Lord spoke to Moses in the wilderness of Sinai," indicating the region; "in the tent of meeting," indicating the province; "in the second year," indicating the precise year; "in the second month," indicating the precise month; "on the first day of the month," indicating the precise day of the month; and "after they were come out of Egypt," indicating the era.
Reading Numbers 1:1, "The Lord spoke to Moses in the wilderness of Sinai," Midrash Tanḥuma explained that before the Israelites erected the Tabernacle, God spoke to Moses from the burning bush, as Exodus 3:4 says, "God called to him out of the bush." After that, God spoke to Moses in Midian, as Exodus 4:19 says, "The Lord said to Moses in Midian." After that, God spoke to Moses in Egypt, as Exodus 12:1 says, "The Lord said to Moses and Aaron in the land of Egypt." After that, God spoke to Moses at Sinai, as Numbers 1:1 says, "The Lord spoke to Moses in the wilderness of Sinai." Once the Israelites erected the Tabernacle, God said, "modesty is beautiful," as Micah 6:8 says, "and to walk humbly with your God,” and God began talking with Moses in the Tent of Meeting.
Rabbi Phinehas the son of Idi noted that Numbers 1:2 says, "Lift up the head of all the congregation of the children of Israel," not "Exalt the head" or "Magnify the head," but "Lift up the head," like a man who says to the executioner, "Take off the head of So-and-So." Thus Numbers 1:2 conveys a hidden message with the expression "Lift up the head." If the Israelites were worthy, they would rise to greatness, with the words "Lift up" having the same meaning as in Genesis 40:13 when it says (as Joseph interpreted the chief butler's dream), "Pharaoh shall lift up your head, and restore you to your office." If they were not worthy, they would all die, with the words "Lift up" having the same meaning as in Genesis 40:19 when it says (as Joseph interpreted the chief baker's dream), "Pharaoh shall lift up your head from off you, and shall hang you on a tree."
Midrash Tanḥuma taught that the Israelites were counted on ten occasions: (1) when they went down to Egypt, (2) when they went up out of Egypt, (3) at the first census in Numbers, (4) at the second census in Numbers, (5) once for the banners, (6) once in the time of Joshua for the division of the land of Israel, (7) once by Saul, (8) a second time by Saul, (9) once by David, and (10) once in the time of Ezra.
Rav Aha bar Jacob taught that for the purposes of numbering fighting men (as in Numbers 1:1–3), a man over 60 years of age was excluded just as was one under 20 years of age.
In Numbers 1:3, God told Moses and Aaron to count "all those in Israel who are able to bear arms." In the Sifre, Rabbi Yossi the Galilean taught that one should not go out to war unless one has hands, feet, eyes, and teeth, for Scripture juxtaposes the words of Deuteronomy 19:21, "Your eyes shall not pity; a soul for a soul, an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth, a hand for a hand, a foot for a foot," with those of Deuteronomy 20:1, "when you go out to war against your foes."
A Midrash explained that Moses numbered the Israelites like a shepherd to whom an owner entrusted a flock by number. When the shepherd came to the end of the shepherd's time, on returning them, the shepherd had to count them again. When Israel left Egypt, God entrusted the Israelites to Moses by number, as Numbers 1:1 reports, "And the Lord spoke to Moses in the wilderness of Sinai . . . ‘Take the sum of all the congregation of the children of Israel.’" And Exodus 12:37 records that "the children of Israel journeyed from Rameses to Succoth, about 600,000 men on foot," demonstrating that Moses took responsibility for the Israelites in Egypt by number. When, therefore, Moses was about to depart from the world in the plain of Moab, he returned them to God by number after having them counted in the census reported at Numbers 26:1–51.
A Midrash likened God's desire to count the Israelites to a vendor who had a sales-bundle of glass stones to bring to market, but would not note their number, as they were just glass. But the vendor also had a sales-bundle of precious pearls, and would take them and bring them out by number and put them away by number. Similarly, God considers Israel to be God's children, and therefore counts them all the time.
A Midrash told that the nations challenge the Jewish people that since the Torah teaches the principle of "follow the majority" in Exodus 23:2, and since other faiths are the majority, Jews should worship as they do. Therefore, God commanded the Israelites to be counted, because an entity that is quantified by counting does not lose its identity and impact when outnumbered a thousand to one.
In the Talmud, Rabbi Isaac taught that it is forbidden to count Israel even for the purpose of fulfilling a commandment, as 1 Samuel 11:8 can be read, "And he numbered them with pebbles (, be-bezek)." Rav Ashi demurred, asking how Rabbi Isaac knew that the word , bezek, in 1 Samuel 11:8 means being broken pieces (that is, pebbles). Rav Ashi suggested that perhaps , Bezek, is the name of a place, as in Judges 1:5, which says, "And they found Adoni-Bezek in Bezek (, be-bezek)." Rav Ashi argued that the prohibition of counting comes from 1 Samuel 15:4, which can be read, "And Saul summoned the people and numbered them with sheep (, telaim)." Rabbi Eleazar taught that whoever counts Israel transgresses a Biblical prohibition, as Hosea 2:1 says, "Yet the number of the children of Israel shall be as the sand of the sea, which cannot be measured." Rav Naḥman bar Isaac said that such a person would transgress two prohibitions, for Hosea 2:1 says, "Which cannot be measured nor numbered." Rabbi Samuel bar Naḥmani reported that Rabbi Jonathan noted a potential contradiction, as Hosea 2:1 says, "Yet the number of the children of Israel shall be as the sand of the sea" (implying a finite number), but Hosea 2:1 also says, "Which cannot be numbered" (implying that they will not have a finite number). The Gemara answered that there is no contradiction, for the latter part of Hosea 2:1 speaks of the time when Israel fulfils God's will, while the earlier part of Hosea 2:1 speaks of the time when they do not fulfill God's will. Rabbi (Judah the Prince) said on behalf of Abba Jose ben Dosthai that there is no contradiction, for the latter part of Hosea 2:1 speaks of counting done by human beings, while the earlier part of Hosea 2:1 speaks of counting by Heaven.
The Rabbis taught in a Baraita that upon entering a barn to measure the new grain one should recite the blessing, "May it be Your will O Lord, our God, that You may send blessing upon the work of our hands." Once one has begun to measure, one should say, "Blessed be the One who sends blessing into this heap." If, however, one first measured the grain and then recited the blessing, then prayer is in vain, because blessing is not to be found in anything that has been already weighed or measured or numbered, but only in a thing hidden from sight.
Similarly, reading Genesis 26:12, "And Isaac sowed in that land, and found in that year a hundredfold (, she'arim)," a Midrash taught that the words, "a hundred , she'arim" indicate that they estimated it, but it produced a hundred times the estimate, for blessing does not rest upon that which is weighed, measured, or counted. They measured solely on account of the tithes.
The Gemara taught that taking a census required atonement. Rabbi Eleazar taught that God told David that David called God an inciter, but God would make David stumble over a thing that even school-children knew, namely, that which Exodus 30:12 says, "When you take the sum of the children of Israel according to their number, then shall they give every man a ransom for his soul into the Lord . . . that there be no plague among them." Forthwith, as 1 Chronicles 21:1 reports, "Satan stood up against Israel," and as 2 Samuel 24:1 reports, "He stirred up David against them saying, ‘Go, number Israel.'" And when David did number them, he took no ransom from them, and as 2 Samuel 24:15 reports, "So the Lord sent a pestilence upon Israel from the morning even to the time appointed." The Gemara asked what 2 Samuel 24:15 meant by "the time appointed." Samuel the elder, the son-in-law of Rabbi Hanina, answered in the name of Rabbi Hanina: From the time of slaughtering the continual offering (at dawn) until the time of sprinkling the blood. Rabbi Joḥanan said it meant at midday. Reading the continuation of 2 Samuel 24:16, "And He said to the Angel that destroyed the people, ‘It is enough (, rav),'" Rabbi Eleazar taught that God told the Angel to take a great man (, rav) from among them, through whose death many sins could be expiated. So Abishai son of Zeruiah then died, and he was individually equal in worth to the greater part of the Sanhedrin. Reading 1 Chronicles 21:15, "And as he was about to destroy, the Lord beheld, and He repented," the Gemara ask what God beheld. Rav said God beheld Jacob, as Genesis 32:3 reports, "And Jacob said when he beheld them." Samuel said that God beheld the ashes of the ram of Isaac, as Genesis 22:8 says, "God will see for Himself the lamb." Rabbi Isaac Nappaha taught that God saw the atonement money that Exodus 30:16 reports God required Moses to collect. For in Exodus 30:16, God said, "And you shall take the atonement money from the children of Israel, and shalt appoint it for the service of the tent of meeting, that it may be a memorial for the children of Israel before the Lord, to make atonement for your souls.'" (Thus, God said that at some future time, the money would provide atonement.) Alternatively, Rabbi Joḥanan taught that God saw the Temple. For Genesis 22:14 explained the meaning of the name that Abraham gave to the mountain where Abraham nearly sacrificed Isaac to be, "In the mount where the Lord is seen." (Solomon later built the Temple on that mountain, and God saw the merit of the sacrifices there.) Rabbi Jacob bar Iddi and Rabbi Samuel bar Naḥmani differed on the matter. One said that God saw the atonement money that Exodus 30:16 reports God required Moses to collect from the Israelites, while the other said that God saw the Temple. The Gemara concluded that the more likely view was that God saw the Temple, as Genesis 22:14 can be read to say, "As it will be said on that day, ‘in the mount where the Lord is seen.'"
A Midrash read Numbers 1:2, “Raise the head of the children of Israel,” to teach that God bestows preferment just as a king of flesh and blood bestows preferment.
A Midrash taught that God gave no numbering to any of the other nations of the world, but gave a numbering to Israel, thus confirming God's words to Israel in Psalm 43:4, "You are precious in My sight." The Midrash illustrated this by a parable: A king had numerous granaries, all of which contained refuse and ryegrass, so the king was consequently not particular about the quantity of their contents. The king had, however, one particular granary that he perceived to be a fine one. The king thus told a member of his household not to be particular about the quantity of the granaries full of refuse and ryegrass. But as to the fine granary, however, the king directed the member of his household to ascertain the quantity of its contents with particularity. Thus, God was like the king, Israel was like the fine granary, and the member of the king's house was Moses. Thus God instructed Moses to be particular numbering the Israelites, and Moses did so, as Numbers 1:2 reports that God told Moses, "Take the sum of all the congregation of the children of Israel," Numbers 2:4 reports, "And his host, and those who were numbered of them," and Numbers 3:40 reports that God told Moses, "Number all the firstborn males."
The Gemara deduced from the words "by their families, by their fathers' houses" in Numbers 1:2 that the Torah identifies families by the father's line.
Rabbi Simeon bar Abba in the name of Rabbi Joḥanan taught that every time Scripture uses the expression “and it was” (vayechi), it intimates the coming of either trouble or joy. If it intimates trouble, there was no trouble to compare with it, and if it itimatres joy, there was no joy to compare with it. Rabbi Samuel bar Naḥman made a distinction: In every instance where Scripture employs "and it was" (vayechi), it introduces trouble, while when Scripture employs "and it shall be" (vehayah), it introduces joy. The Sages raised an objection to Rabbi Samuel's view, noting that to introduce the offerings of the princes, Numbers 7:12 says, "And he that presented his offering . . . was (vayechi)," and surely that was a positive thing. Rabbi Samuel replied that the occasion of the princes’ gifts did not indicate joy, because it was manifest to God that the princes would join with Korah in his dispute (as reported in Numbers 16:1–3). Rabbi Judah ben Rabbi Simon said in the name of Rabbi Levi ben Parta that the case could be compared to that of a member of the palace who committed a theft in the bathhouse, and the attendant, while afraid of disclosing his name, nevertheless made him known by describing him as a certain young man dressed in white. Similarly, although Numbers 16:1–3 does not explicitly mention the names of the princes who sided with Korah in his dispute, Numbers 16:2 nevertheless refers to them when it says, "They were princes of the congregation, the elect men of the assembly, men of renown," and this recalls Numbers 1:16, "These were the elect of the congregation, the princes of the tribes of their fathers . . . ," where the text lists their names. They were the "men of renown" whose names were mentioned in connection with the standards; as Numbers 1:5–15 says, "These are the names of the men who shall stand with you, of Reuben, Elizur the son of Shedeur; of Simeon, Shelumiel the son of Zurishaddai . . . ."
The Mekhilta of Rabbi Ishmael found support in the words "they declared their pedigrees after their families, by their fathers' houses" in Numbers 1:18 for Rabbi Eliezer ha-Kappar's proposition that the Israelites displayed virtue by not changing their names.
Rabbi Judah ben Shalom taught that Numbers 1:49 excluded the Levites from being numbered with the rest of the Israelites for their own benefit, for as Numbers 14:29 reports, "all that were numbered" died in the wilderness, but because the Levites were numbered separately, they entered the land of Israel. A Midrash offered another explanation for why the Levites were not numbered with the Israelites: The Levites were the palace-guard and it would not have been consonant with the dignity of a king that his own legion should be numbered with the other legions.
The Rabbis taught in a Baraita that when the Israelites wandered in the wilderness, the Levitical camp established in Numbers 1:50 served as the place of refuge to which manslayers could flee.
Building upon the prohibition of approaching the holy place in Numbers 1:51, the Gemara taught that a person who unwittingly entered the Temple court without atonement was liable to bring a sin-offering, but a person who entered deliberately incurred the penalty of being cut off from the Jewish people, or karet.
A non-Jew asked Shammai to convert him to Judaism on condition that Shammai appoint him High Priest. Shammai pushed him away with a builder's ruler. The non-Jew then went to Hillel, who converted him. The convert then read Torah, and when he came to the injunction of Numbers 1:51, 3:10, and 18:7 that "the common man who draws near shall be put to death," he asked Hillel to whom the injunction applied. Hillel answered that it applied even to David, King of Israel, who had not been a priest. Thereupon the convert reasoned a fortiori that if the injunction applied to all (non-priestly) Israelites, whom in Exodus 4:22 God had called "my firstborn," how much more so would the injunction apply to a mere convert, who came among the Israelites with just his staff and bag. Then the convert returned to Shammai, quoted the injunction, and remarked on how absurd it had been for him to ask Shammai to appoint him High Priest.
The Gemara relates that once Rabban Gamaliel, Rabbi Eleazar ben Azariah, Rabbi Joshua, and Rabbi Akiva went to Jerusalem after the destruction of the Temple, and just as they came to Mount Scopus, they saw a fox emerging from the Holy of Holies. The first three Rabbis began to cry, but Akiva smiled. The three asked him why he smiled, but Akiva asked them why they wept. Quoting Numbers 1:51, they told him that they wept because a place of which it was once said, "And the common man that draws near shall be put to death," had become the haunt of foxes. Akiva replied that he smiled because this fulfilled the prophecy of Uriah the priest, who prophesied (along with Micah, as reported in Jeremiah 26:18–20) that "Zion shall be plowed as a field, and Jerusalem shall become heaps, and the mountain of the House as the high places of a forest." And Isaiah 8:2 linked Uriah's prophecy with Zechariah's. And Zechariah 8:4 prophesied that "[t]here shall yet old men and old women sit in the broad places of Jerusalem." So the fulfillment of Uriah's prophecy gave Akiva certainty that Zechariah's hopeful prophecy would also find fulfillment. The others then told Akiva that he had comforted them.
Numbers chapter 2
Reading the words of Numbers 2:1, "And the Lord spoke to Moses and Aaron," a Midrash taught that in 18 verses, Scripture places Moses and Aaron (the instruments of Israel's deliverance) on an equal footing (reporting that God spoke to both of them alike), and thus there are 18 benedictions in the Amidah.
Rabbi Eliezer in the name of Rabbi Jose ben Zimra taught that whenever the Israelites were numbered for a proper purpose, they lost no numbers; but whenever they were numbered without a proper purpose, they suffered a diminution. Rabbi Eliezer taught that they were numbered for a proper purpose in connection with the standards (as reported in Numbers 2:2) and the division of the land, but were numbered without a proper purpose (as reported in 2 Samuel 24) in the days of David.
Of the banners (, degel) in Numbers 2:2, a Midrash taught that each tribe had a distinctive flag and a different color corresponding to the precious stones on Aaron's breastplate, and that it was from these banners that governments learned to provide themselves with flags of various colors. And another Midrash cited the words "his standard over me is love" in Song of Songs 2:4 to teach that it was with a sign of great love that God organized the Israelites under standards like the ministering angels.
A Midrash used the words "at a distance" in Numbers 2:2 to help define the distance that one may travel on the Sabbath, for the Israelites would need to be close enough to approach the ark on the Sabbath.
A Midrash told that the Israelites camped around the Ark in the four cardinal directions just as God set four angels around God's throne—Michael, Gabriel, Uriel, and Raphael. Michael, at God's right, corresponded to Reuben. Uriel, at God's left, corresponded to Dan, who was on the north side. Gabriel, in front, corresponded to the kingship of Judah and to Moses and Aaron, who were on the east side. And Raphael corresponded to Ephraim who was on the west.
A Midrash taught that Korah, Dathan, Abiram, and On all fell in together in their conspiracy, as described in Numbers 16:1, because they lived near each other on the same side of the camp. The Midrash thus taught that the saying, "Woe to the wicked and woe to his neighbor!" applies to Dathan and Abiram. Numbers 3:29 reports that the descendants of Kohath, among whom Korah was numbered, lived on the south side of the Tabernacle. And Numbers 2:10 reports that the descendants of Reuben, among whom Dathan and Abiram were numbered, lived close by, as they also lived on the south side of the Tabernacle.
Rabbi Hama bar Haninah and Rabbi Josiah disagreed about what configuration the Israelites traveled in when they traveled in the Wilderness. Based on Numbers 2:17, "as they encamp, so shall they set forward," one said that they traveled in the shape of a box. Based on Numbers 10:25, "the camp of the children of Dan, which was the rearward of all the camps," the other said that they traveled in the shape of a beam—in a row. Refuting the other's argument, the one who said that they traveled in the shape of a beam read Numbers 2:17, "as they encamp, so shall they set forward," to teach that just as the configuration of their camp was according to God's Word, so the configuration of their journey was by God's Word. While the one who said that they traveled in the shape of a box read Numbers 10:25, "the camp of the children of Dan, which was the rearward of all the camps," to teach that Dan was more populous than the other camps, and would thus travel in the rear, and if anyone would lose any item, the camp of Dan would return it.
The Gemara read the words of Numbers 2:17, "Then the Tent of Meeting, with the camp of the Levites, shall travel in the midst of the camps; as they encamp, so shall they travel," to teach that even though the tent traveled disassembled from place to place, it was still considered the Tent of Meeting, and thus, the Israelite camp retained its sacred status even while traveling. As a consequence, offerings of lesser sanctity could be consumed wherever the Israelite camp was located.
The Gemara cited Numbers 2:18–21 to help examine the consequences of Jacob's blessing of Ephraim and Manasseh in Genesis 48:5–6. Rav Aha bar Jacob taught that a tribe that had an inheritance of land was called a "congregation," but a tribe that had no possession was not a "congregation." Thus, Rav Aha bar Jacob taught that the tribe of Levi was not called a "congregation." The Gemara questioned Rav Aha's teaching, asking whether there would then be fewer than 12 tribes. Abaye replied quoting Jacob's words in Genesis 48:5: "Ephraim and Manasseh, even as Reuben and Simeon, shall be mine." But Rava interpreted the words "They shall be called after the name of their brethren in their inheritance" in Genesis 48:6 to show that Ephraim and Manasseh were thereafter regarded as comparable to other tribes only regarding their inheritance of the land, not in any other respect. The Gemara challenged Rava's interpretation, noting that Numbers 2:18–21 mentions Ephraim and Manasseh separately as tribes in connection with their assembling around the camp by their banners. The Gemara replied to its own challenge by positing that their campings were like their possessions, to show respect to their banners. The Gemara persisted in arguing that Ephraim and Manasseh were treated separately by noting that they were also separated regarding their princes. The Gemara responded that this was done to show honor to the princes and to avoid having to choose the prince of one tribe to rule over the other. 1 Kings 8:65 indicates that Solomon celebrated seven days of dedication of the Temple in Jerusalem, and Moses celebrated twelve days of dedication of the Tabernacle instead of seven in order to show honor to the princes and to avoid having to choose the prince of one tribe over the other.
The Mishnah reports that Abba Saul argued that just as Numbers 2:20 uses the word , alav, to mean "next to it," to describe the location of the tribe of Manasseh, so too when Leviticus 24:7 uses the term , al, to describe the location of the frankincense, it should also mean "next to." But the Rabbis disagreed.
A Midrash noted that Numbers 2:34 says, "Thus did the Children of Israel: according to all that the Lord commanded Moses," but does not mention Aaron (whereas Numbers 2:1 reports that "The Lord spoke to Moses and Aaron"). Rabbi Joshua bar Rabbi Nehemiah and Rabbi Levi bar Hayatha said in the name of Rabbi Hiyya bar Abba that the Israelites were treating Aaron with disrespect because his son Eleazar married a Midianite woman (as Exodus 6:25 reports), God bestowed upon Aaron the honor of mentioning his name before that of Moses in Numbers 3:1, "These are the generations of Aaron and Moses."
Numbers chapter 3
Rabbi Samuel bar Naḥmani taught in Rabbi Jonathan's name that Numbers 3:1–2 referred to Aaron's sons as descendants of Aaron and Moses because Moses taught them, showing that Scripture ascribes merit to one who teaches Torah to a neighbor's child as if the teacher had begotten the child.
A Midrash noted that Scripture records the death of Nadab and Abihu in numerous places, including Numbers 3:4. This teaches that God grieved for Nadab and Abihu, for they were dear to God. And thus Leviticus 10:3 quotes God to say: "Through them who are near to Me I will be sanctified."
The Mishnah taught that before the Tabernacle was constructed, the firstborns performed services. After the Tabernacle was constructed, the priests performed the services.
The Mishnah taught that as the Levites exempted the Israelites' firstborn in the wilderness, it followed a fortiori that they should exempt their own animals from the requirement to offer the firstborn. The Gemara questioned whether Numbers 3:45 taught that the Levites' animals exempted the Israelites' animals. Abaye read the Mishnah to mean that if the Levites' animals released the Israelites' animals, it followed a fortiori that the Levites' animals should release their own firstborn. But Rava countered that the Mishnah meant that the Levites themselves exempted the Israelites' firstborn.
Tractate Bekhorot in the Mishnah, Tosefta, and Babylonian Talmud interpreted the laws of the firstborn in Numbers 3:11–13.
The Rabbis taught that Numbers 3:15 directed counting the Levites "from a month old and upward" and not earlier because they considered a newborn infant not to be definitely viable, but a child who had lived a month was definitely known to be viable.
A Midrash taught that the Levites camped on the four sides of the Tabernacle in accordance with their duties. The Midrash explained that from the west came snow, hail, cold, and heat, and thus God placed the Gershonites on the west, as Numbers 3:25 indicates that their service was "the tent, the covering thereof, and the screen for the door of the tent of meeting," which could shield against snow, hail, cold, and heat. The Midrash explained that from the south came the dew and rain that bring blessing to the world, and there God placed the Kohathites, who bore the ark that carried the Torah, for as Leviticus 26:3–4 and 15–19 teach, the rains depend on the observance of the Torah. The Midrash explained that from the north came darkness, and thus the Merarites camped there, as Numbers 4:31 indicates that their service was the carrying of wood ("the boards of the tabernacle, and the bars thereof, and the pillars thereof, and the sockets thereof") which Jeremiah 10:8 teaches counteract idolatrous influences when it says, "The chastisement of vanities is wood." And the Midrash explained that from the east comes light, and thus Moses, Aaron, and his sons camped there, because they were scholars and men of pious deeds, bringing atonement by their prayer and sacrifices.
A Midrash taught that Korah took issue with Moses in Numbers 16:1 because Moses had (as Numbers 3:30 reports) appointed Elizaphan the son of Uzziel as prince of the Kohathites, and Korah was (as Exodus 6:21 reports) son of Uzziel's older brother Izhar, and thus had a claim to leadership prior to Elizaphan.
Abaye reported a tradition that a singing Levite who did his colleague's work at the gate incurred the death penalty, as Numbers 3:38 says, "And those who were to pitch before the Tabernacle eastward before the Tent of Meeting toward the sun-rising, were Moses and Aaron, . . . and the stranger who drew near was to be put to death." Abaye argued that the "stranger" in Numbers 3:38 could not mean a non-priest, for Numbers 3:10 had mentioned that rule already (and Abaye believed that the Torah would not state anything twice). Rather, reasoned Abaye, Numbers 3:38 must mean a “stranger” to a particular job. It was told, however, that Rabbi Joshua ben Hananyia once tried to assist Rabbi Joḥanan ben Gudgeda (both of whom were Levites) in the fastening of the Temple doors, even though Rabbi Joshua was a singer, not a doorkeeper. Rabbi Jonathan found evidence for the Levites’ singing role at Temple services from the warning of Numbers 18:3: "That they [the Levites] do not die, neither they, nor you [Aaron, the priest]." Just as Numbers 18:3 warned about priestly duties at the altar, so (Rabbi Jonathan reasoned) Numbers 18:3 must also address the Levites’ duties in the altar service. It was also taught that the words of Numbers 18:3, "That they [the Levites] do not die, neither they, nor you [Aaron, the priest]," mean that priests would incur the death penalty by engaging in Levites’ work, and Levites would incur the death penalty by engaging in priests’ work, although neither would incur the death penalty by engaging in another's work of their own group (even if they would so incur some penalty for doing so).
A Midrash taught that had Reuben not disgraced himself by his conduct with Bilhah in Genesis 35:22, his descendants would have been worthy of assuming the service of the Levites, for ordinary Levites came to replace firstborn Israelites, as Numbers 3:41 says, "And you shall take the Levites for Me, even the Lord, instead of all the firstborn among the children of Israel."
Numbers chapter 4
A Midrash noted that God ordered the Kohathites counted first in Numbers 4:1 and only thereafter ordered the Gershonites counted in Numbers 4:21, even though Gershon was the firstborn and Scripture generally honors the firstborn. The Midrash taught that Scripture gives Kohath precedence over Gershon because the Kohathites bore the ark that carried the Torah. Similarly, another Midrash taught that God ordered the Kohathites counted first because Kohath was most holy, for Aaron the priest—who was most holy—descended from Kohath, while Gershon was only holy. But the Midrash taught that Gershon did not forfeit his status as firstborn, because Scripture uses the same language, "Lift up the head of the sons of," regarding Kohath in Numbers 4:2 and regarding Gershon in Numbers 4:22. And Numbers 4:22 says "they also" with regard to the Gershonites so that one should not suppose that the Gershonites were numbered second because they were inferior to the Kohathites; rather Numbers 4:22 says "they also" to indicate that the Gershonites were also like the Kohathites in every respect, and the Kohathites were placed first in this connection as a mark of respect to the Torah. In other places (for example, Genesis 46:11, Exodus 6:16, Numbers 3:17 and 26:57, and 1 Chronicles 6:1 and 23:6), however, Scripture places Gershon before Kohath.
A Midrash noted that in Numbers 4:1 "the Lord spoke to Moses and Aaron" to direct them to count the Kohathites and in Numbers 4:21 "the Lord spoke to Moses" to direct him to count the Gershonites, but Numbers 4:29 does not report that "the Lord spoke" to direct them to count the Merarites. The Midrash deduced that Numbers 4:29 employed the words "the Lord spoke" to give honor to Gershon as the firstborn, and to give him the same status as Kohath. The Midrash then noted that Numbers 4:1 reported that God spoke "to Aaron" regarding the Kohathites but Numbers 4:21 did not report communication to Aaron with regard to the Gershonites. The Midrash taught that God excluded Aaron from all Divine communications to Moses and that passages that mention Aaron do not report that God spoke to Aaron but include Aaron's name in sections that concern Aaron to indicate that God spoke to Moses so that he might repeat what he heard to Aaron. Thus Numbers 4:1 mentions Aaron regarding the Kohathites because Aaron and his sons assigned the Kohathites their duties, since (as Numbers 4:15 relates) the Kohathites were not permitted to touch the ark or any of the vessels until Aaron and his sons had covered them. In the case of the Gershonites, however, the Midrash finds no evidence that Aaron personally interfered with them, as Ithamar supervised their tasks, and thus Numbers 4:21 does not mention Aaron in connection with the Gershonites.
A Midrash noted that in Numbers 4:2 and 4:22, God used the expression "lift up the head" to direct counting the Kohathites and Gershonites, but in Numbers 4:29, God does not use that expression to direct counting the Merarites. The Midrash deduced that God honored the Kohathites on account of the honor of the ark and the Gershonites because Gershon was a firstborn. But since the Merarites neither cared for the ark nor descended from a firstborn, God did not use the expression "lift up the head."
A Midrash noted that Numbers 4:3, 23, 30, 35, 39, 43, and 47 say that Levites "30 years old and upward" did service in the tent of meeting, while Numbers 8:24 says, "from 25 years old and upward they shall go in to perform the service in the work of the tent of meeting." The Midrash deduced that the difference teaches that all those five years, from the age of 25 to the age of 30, Levites served apprenticeships, and from that time onward they were allowed to draw near to do service. The Midrash concluded that a Levite could not enter the Temple courtyard to do service unless he had served an apprenticeship of five years. And the Midrash inferred from this that students who see no sign of success in their studies within a period of five years will never see any. Rabbi Jose said that students had to see success within three years, basing his position on the words "that they should be nourished three years" in Daniel 1:5.
Rav Hamnuna taught that God's decree that the generation of the spies would die in the wilderness did not apply to the Levites, for Numbers 14:29 says, "your carcasses shall fall in this wilderness, and all that were numbered of you, according to your whole number, from 20 years old and upward," and this implies that those who were numbered from 20 years old and upward came under the decree, while the tribe of Levi—which Numbers 4:3, 23, 30, 35, 39, 43, and 47 say was numbered from 30 years old and upward—was excluded from the decree.
A Midrash taught that Numbers 4:6 provides that they "spread a cloth of pure blue on top" of the Ark because blue is like the sea, the sea is like the sky, and the sky is like the Throne of Glory, as Ezekiel 1:26 says, "Above the expanse over their heads was the semblance of a throne, in appearance like sapphire." Thus, the Midrash concluded that the Ark was like the Throne of Glory, and Numbers 4:6 uses the expression "all of blue" to indicate that the Ark was in every way like the Throne of Glory. And because the Ark was like the Throne of Glory, they placed the cloth of blue on top, facing towards the sky that resembled it. The Midrash noted that no other vessel had a cloth of blue on top. The Midrash taught that Numbers 4:6 uses the expression "all of blue" only in connection with the Ark, and not with regard to any other vessel, because the Ark was more important than all the other vessels of the Tabernacle.
The Mishnah taught that one who stole one of the sacred vessels (kisvot) described in Exodus 25:29 and Numbers 4:7 was struck down by zealots on the spot.
The Jerusalem Talmud found support in Numbers 4:18–20 for the proposition in a Baraita that one who dies before age 50 has died a death of karet, of being cut off from the Jewish people. The Gemara there noted that Numbers 4:18–19 spoke of what the Kohathites should avoid doing so "that they may live, and not die." And Numbers 4:20 enjoined that "they shall not go in to see the holy things as they are being covered, lest they die." And since Numbers 8:25 indicates that the Kohathites ceased working near the holy things at age 50, these deaths of karet would have to have occurred before the age of 50. The Babylonian Talmud reports that Rabbah said that deaths between the ages of 50 and 60 are also deaths by karet.
Reading Numbers 4:18, "Cut not off the tribe of the families of the Kohathites from among the Levites," Rabbi Abba bar Aibu noted that it would have been enough for the text to mention the family of Kohath and asked why Numbers 4:18 also mentions the whole tribe. Rabbi Abba bar Aibu explained that God (in the words of Isaiah 46:10), "declar[es] the end from the beginning," and provides beforehand for things that have not yet occurred. God foresaw that Korah, who would descend from the families of Kohath, would oppose Moses (as reported in Numbers 16:1–3) and that Moses would beseech God that the earth should swallow them up (as reflected in Numbers 16:28–30). So God told Moses to note that it was (in the words of Numbers 17:5) “to be a memorial to the children of Israel, to the end that no common man . . . draw near to burn incense . . . as the Lord spoke to him by the hand of Moses.” The Midrash asked why then Numbers 17:5 adds the potentially superfluous words “to him,” and replied that it is to teach that God told Moses that God would listen to his prayer concerning Korah but not concerning the whole tribe. Therefore Numbers 4:18 says, "Cut not off the tribe of the families of the Kohathites from among the Levites."
In medieval Jewish interpretation
The parashah is discussed in these medieval Jewish sources:
Numbers chapter 1
Reading Numbers 1:1–2 "The Lord spoke . . . in the Sinai Desert . . . on the first of the month . . . 'Take a census,'" Rashi taught that God counted the Israelites often because they were dear to God. When they left Egypt, God counted them in Exodus 12:37; when many fell because of the sin of the Golden Calf, God counted them in Exodus 32:28 to know the number who survived; when God came to cause the Divine Presence to rest among them, God counted them. On the first of Nisan, the Tabernacle was erected, and on the first of Iyar, God counted them.
The Zohar taught that in no other counting of Israel were they blessed as in this one, for God intended this counting for blessing—a counting to consummate completeness of the worlds.
Numbers chapter 3
Numbers 3:5–4:20 refers to duties of the Levites. Maimonides and the siddur report that the Levites would recite the Psalm for the Day in the Temple.
Maimonides explained the laws governing the redemption of a firstborn son (, pidyon haben) in Numbers 3:45–47. Maimonides taught that it is a positive commandment for every Jewish man to redeem his son who is the firstborn of a Jewish mother, as Exodus 34:19 says, "All first issues of the womb are mine," and Numbers 18:15 says, "And you shall surely redeem a firstborn man." Maimonides taught that a mother is not obligated to redeem her son. If a father fails to redeem his son, when the son comes of age, he is obligated to redeem himself. If it is necessary for a man to redeem both himself and his son, he should redeem himself first and then his son. If he only has enough money for one redemption, he should redeem himself. A person who redeems his son recites the blessing: "Blessed are You . . . who sanctified us with His commandments and commanded us concerning the redemption of a son." Afterwards, he recites the shehecheyanu blessing and then gives the redemption money to the Cohen. If a man redeems himself, he should recite the blessing: "Blessed . . . who commanded us to redeem the firstborn" and he should recite the shehecheyanu blessing. The father may pay the redemption in silver or in movable property that has financial worth like that of silver coins. If the Cohen desires to return the redemption to the father, he may. The father should not, however, give it to the Cohen with the intent that he return it. The father must give it to the Cohen with the resolution that he is giving him a present without any reservations. Cohens and Levites are exempt from the redemption of their firstborn, as they served as the redemption of the Israelites' firstborn in the desert. One born to a woman of a priestly or Levite family is exempt, for the matter is dependent on the mother, as indicated by Exodus 13:2 and Numbers 3:12. A baby born by Caesarian section and any subsequent birth are exempt: the first because it did not emerge from the womb, and the second, because it was preceded by another birth. The obligation for redemption takes effect when the baby completes 30 days of life, as Numbers 18:16 says, "And those to be redeemed should be redeemed from the age of a month."
In modern interpretation
Modern scholarly interpretations of material in the parsha include:
Numbers chapter 3
James Kugel saw a conflict over eligibility for the priesthood between the Priestly Source (abbreviated P) in Numbers 3:5–10 and the Deuteronomist (abbreviated D) in Deuteronomy 33:10. Kugel reported that scholars note that P spoke about "the priests, Aaron's sons," because, as far as P was concerned, the only legitimate priests descended from Aaron. P did speak of the Levites as another group of hereditary Temple officials, but according to P, the Levites had a different status: They could not offer sacrifices or perform the other crucial jobs assigned to priests, but served Aaron's descendants as helpers. D, on the other hand, never talked about Aaron's descendants as special, but referred to "the Levitical priests." Kugel reported that many modern scholars interpreted this to mean that D believed that any Levite was a proper priest and could offer sacrifices and perform other priestly tasks, and this may have been the case for some time in Israel. Kugel noted that when Moses blessed the tribe of Levi at the end of his life in Deuteronomy 33:10, he said: "Let them teach to Jacob Your ordinances, and to Israel Your laws; may they place incense before You, and whole burnt offerings on Your altar." And placing incense and whole burnt offerings before God were the quintessential priestly functions. Kugel reported that many scholars believe that Deuteronomy 33:10 dated to a far earlier era, and thus may thus may indicate that all Levites had been considered fit priests at a very early time.
Jacob Milgrom taught that the verbs used in the laws of the redemption of a firstborn son (, pidyon haben) in Exodus 13:13–16 and Numbers 3:45–47 and 18:15–16, "natan, kiddesh, he‘evir to the Lord," as well as the use of padah, "ransom," indicate that the firstborn son was considered God's property. Milgrom surmised that this may reflect an ancient rule where the firstborn was expected to care for the burial and worship of his deceased parents. Thus, the Bible may be preserving the memory of the firstborn bearing a sacred status, and the replacement of the firstborn by the Levites in Numbers 3:11–13, 40–51; and 8:14–18 may reflect the establishment of a professional priestly class. Milgrom dismissed as without support the theory that the firstborn was originally offered as a sacrifice.
Numbers 3:47 reports that a shekel equals 20 gerahs. This table translates units of weight used in the Bible:
Commandments
According to Maimonides and Sefer ha-Chinuch, there are no commandments in the parashah.
The Weekly Maqam
In the Weekly Maqam, Sephardi Jews each week base the songs of the services on the content of that week's parashah. For Parashat Bemidbar, Sephardi Jews apply Maqam Rast, the maqam that shows a beginning or an initiation of something, because the parashah initiates the Book of Numbers. In the common case where this parashah precedes the holiday of Shavuot, then the maqam that is applied is Hoseni, the maqam that symbolizes the beauty of receiving the Torah.
Haftarah
The haftarah for the parashah is Hosea 2:1–22.
Connection between the haftarah and the parashah
Both the parashah and the haftarah recount Israel's numbers, the parashah in the census, and the haftarah in reference to numbers "like that of the sands of the sea." Both the parashah and the haftarah place Israel in the wilderness (midbar).
The haftarah in the liturgy
Observant Jews recite the concluding lines of the haftarah, Hosea 2:21–22, when they put on tefillin in the morning. They wrap the tefillin strap around their fingers as a groom puts a wedding ring on his betrothed, symbolizing the marriage of God and Israel.
On Shabbat Machar Chodesh
When Parashat Bemidbar coincides with Shabbat Machar Chodesh (as it does in 2026 and 2027), the haftarah is 1 Samuel 20:18–42.
Notes
Further reading
The parashah has parallels or is discussed in these sources:
Ancient
Shu-ilishu. Ur, 20th Century BCE. In, e.g., Douglas Frayne. "Shu-ilishu." In The Context of Scripture, Volume II: Monumental Inscriptions from the Biblical World. Edited by William W. Hallo. New York: Brill, 2000. (standards).
Biblical
Exodus 6:23 (Naḥshon son of Amminadab); 13:1–2 (firstborn); 13:12–13 (firstborn); 22:28–29 (firstborn); 30:11–16 (shekel of atonement).
Numbers 18:15–18 (firstborn); 26:1–65 (census).
Deuteronomy 15:19–23 (firstborn); 33:6 (Reuben's numbers).
2 Samuel 24:1–25.
Jeremiah 2:2 (in the wilderness); 31:8 (firstborn).
Ezekiel 1:10 (on four sides).
Hosea 2:16 (wilderness).
Psalm 60:9 (Manasseh, Ephraim, Judah); 78:67–68 (Ephriam, Judah); 68:28 (Benjamin, Judah, Zebulun, Naphtali); 80:3 (Ephraim, Benjamin, Manasseh); 119:6 (obeying commandments); 141:2 (incense); 144:1 (able to go to war).
Ruth 4:18–21. (Naḥshon son of Amminadab).
1 Chronicles 21:1–30 (census); 27:1–24 (enumerating the leaders of Israel).
Early nonrabbinic
Philo. Who Is the Heir of Divine Things? 24:124. Alexandria, Egypt, early 1st Century CE. In, e.g., The Works of Philo: Complete and Unabridged, New Updated Edition. Translated by Charles Duke Yonge, page 286. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 1993.
Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews 3:12:4. Circa 93–94. In, e.g., The Works of Josephus: Complete and Unabridged, New Updated Edition. Translated by William Whiston, page 98. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 1987.
Classical rabbinic
Mishnah: Sanhedrin 9:6; Zevachim 14:4; Menachot 11:5; Bekhorot 1:1–9:8. Land of Israel, circa 200 CE. In, e.g., The Mishnah: A New Translation. Translated by Jacob Neusner, pages 604, 731, 757, 788, 790. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988.
Tosefta: Megillah 3:22; Sotah 7:17, 11:20; Bekhorot 1:1. Land of Israel, circa 300 CE. In, e.g., The Tosefta: Translated from the Hebrew, with a New Introduction. Translated by Jacob Neusner, volume 1, pages 538, 650, 864, 882; volume 2, pages 1469–94. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 2002.
Jerusalem Talmud: Bikkurim 11b; Shabbat 76b; Eruvin 35b; Yoma 31a; Megillah 15b, 17b; Yevamot 12a; Sanhedrin 11b, 60b. Tiberias, Land of Israel, circa 400 CE. In, e.g., Talmud Yerushalmi. Edited by Chaim Malinowitz, Yisroel Simcha Schorr, and Mordechai Marcus, volumes 12, 15, 17, 21, 26, 29, 44–45, _. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 2007–2018. And in, e.g., The Jerusalem Talmud: A Translation and Commentary. Edited by Jacob Neusner and translated by Jacob Neusner, Tzvee Zahavy, B. Barry Levy, and Edward Goldman. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 2009.
Mekhilta of Rabbi Ishmael Pisha 3, 5; Amalek 4; Bahodesh 1. Land of Israel, late 4th Century. In, e.g., Mekhilta According to Rabbi Ishmael. Translated by Jacob Neusner, volume 1, pages 22, 30; volume 2, pages 36, 41. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1988. And Mekhilta de-Rabbi Ishmael. Translated by Jacob Z. Lauterbach, volume 1, pages 18, 25; volume 2, pages 289–90. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1933, reissued 2004.
Mekhilta of Rabbi Simeon 16:1; 19:2; 47:2; 48:1; 57:1, 3; 76:4; 83:1. Land of Israel, 5th Century. In, e.g., Mekhilta de-Rabbi Shimon bar Yohai. Translated by W. David Nelson, pages 54, 75, 211–12, 255, 258, 355, 375. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2006.
Genesis Rabbah 7:2; 53:13; 55:6; 64:6, 8; 94:9; 97 (NV); 97 (MSV); 97:5. Land of Israel, 5th Century. In, e.g., Midrash Rabbah: Genesis. Translated by Harry Freedman and Maurice Simon, volume 1, pages 50, 472, 486; volume 2, pages 578, 876, 898, 934, 942. London: Soncino Press, 1939.
Leviticus Rabbah. Land of Israel, 5th century. In, e.g., Midrash Rabbah: Leviticus. Translated by Harry Freedman and Maurice Simon, volume 4, pages 16, 21, 232–33, 260, 262, 411, 415, 420–21, 457. London: Soncino Press, 1939.
Babylonian Talmud: Berakhot 62b; Shabbat 31a, 92a, 116a; Pesachim 6b; Yoma 54a, 58a; Moed Katan 28a; Chagigah 25a; Yevamot 64a; Nedarim 55a; Nazir 45a, 49a; Kiddushin 69a; Bava Batra 109b, 121b; Sanhedrin 16b–17a, 19b, 36b, 81b, 82b; Makkot 12b, 15a, 24b; Shevuot 15a; Horayot 6b; Zevachim 55a, 61b, 116b, 119b; Menachot 28b, 37b, 95a, 96a; Chullin 69b; Bekhorot 2a, 3b–5a, 13a, 47a, 49a, 51a; Arakhin 11b, 18b; Tamid 26a. Sasanian Empire, 6th Century. In, e.g., Talmud Bavli. Edited by Yisroel Simcha Schorr, Chaim Malinowitz, and Mordechai Marcus, 72 volumes. Brooklyn: Mesorah Pubs., 2006.
Pesikta de-Rav Kahana 2:8, 4:3, 7:5, 26:9–10. 6th–7th Century. In, e.g., Pesikta de-Rab Kahana: R. Kahana's Compilation of Discourses for Sabbaths and Festal Days. Translated by William G. Braude and Israel J. Kapstein, 33, 70, 144, 404–06. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1975. And Pesiqta deRab Kahana: An Analytical Translation and Explanation. Translated by Jacob Neusner, volume 1, pages 27, 56, 116; volume 2, pages 136–37. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1987.
Midrash Tanḥuma Bamidbar. Circa 775–900 CE. In, e.g., The Metsudah Midrash Tanchuma: Bamidbar 1. Translated and annotated by Avrohom Davis, edited by Yaakov Y.H. Pupko, volume 6, pages 1–88. Monsey, New York: Eastern Book Press, 2006.
Medieval
Saadia Gaon. The Book of Beliefs and Opinions, 2:10, 12. Baghdad, 933. Translated by Samuel Rosenblatt, pages 118, 128. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1948.
Rashi. Commentary. Numbers 1–4. Troyes, France, late 11th Century. In, e.g., Rashi. The Torah: With Rashi's Commentary Translated, Annotated, and Elucidated. Translated and annotated by Yisrael Isser Zvi Herczeg, volume 4, pages 1–33. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1997.
Rashbam. Commentary on the Torah. Troyes, early 12th century. In, e.g., Rashbam's Commentary on Leviticus and Numbers: An Annotated Translation. Edited and translated by Martin I. Lockshin, pages 155–65. Providence: Brown Judaic Studies, 2001.
Judah Halevi. Kuzari. part 2, ¶ 26. Toledo, Spain, 1130–1140. In, e.g., Jehuda Halevi. Kuzari: An Argument for the Faith of Israel. Introduction by Henry Slonimsky, page 105. New York: Schocken, 1964.
Numbers Rabbah 1:1–5:9; 6:2–3, 5–7, 11; 7:2–3; 9:14; 10:1; 12:15–16; 13:5; 14:3–4, 14, 19; 15:17; 18:2–3, 5; 19:3; 21:7. 12th Century. In, e.g., Judah J. Slotki, translator. Midrash Rabbah: Numbers, volume 5, pages 1–156, 160, 162, 166, 168–71, 177, 180–82, 268–69, 335; volume 6, pages 486, 489, 515, 573, 584, 627, 633, 662, 708, 710–11, 714, 753, 834. London: Soncino Press, 1939.
Abraham ibn Ezra. Commentary on the Torah. Mid-12th century. In, e.g., Ibn Ezra's Commentary on the Pentateuch: Numbers (Ba-Midbar). Translated and annotated by H. Norman Strickman and Arthur M. Silver, pages 1–31. New York: Menorah Publishing Company, 1999.
Maimonides. Guide for the Perplexed, part 3, chapter 24. Cairo, Egypt, 1190. In, e.g., Moses Maimonides. The Guide for the Perplexed. Translated by Michael Friedländer, page 305. New York: Dover Publications, 1956. (wilderness).
Hezekiah ben Manoah. Hizkuni. France, circa 1240. In, e.g., Chizkiyahu ben Manoach. Chizkuni: Torah Commentary. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 847–59. Jerusalem: Ktav Publishers, 2013.
Naḥmanides. Commentary on the Torah. Jerusalem, circa 1270. In, e.g., Ramban (Nachmanides): Commentary on the Torah: Numbers. Translated by Charles B. Chavel, volume 4, pages 5–36. New York: Shilo Publishing House, 1975.
Zohar part 1, pages 130a, 200a; part 2, page 85a; part 3, pages 57a, 117a–121a, 177b. Spain, late 13th Century. In, e.g., The Zohar. Translated by Harry Sperling and Maurice Simon. 5 volumes. London: Soncino Press, 1934. And in, e.g., The Zohar: Pritzker Edition. Translation and commentary by Daniel C. Matt, volume 8, pages 250–84. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 2014.
Jacob ben Asher (Baal Ha-Turim). Rimze Ba'al ha-Turim. Early 14th century. In, e.g., Baal Haturim Chumash: Bamidbar/Numbers. Translated by Eliyahu Touger, edited and annotated by Avie Gold, volume 4, pages 1349–87. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 2003.
Jacob ben Asher. Perush Al ha-Torah. Early 14th century. In, e.g., Yaakov ben Asher. Tur on the Torah. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 1004–24. Jerusalem: Lambda Publishers, 2005.
Isaac ben Moses Arama. Akedat Yizhak (The Binding of Isaac). Late 15th century. In, e.g., Yitzchak Arama. Akeydat Yitzchak: Commentary of Rabbi Yitzchak Arama on the Torah. Translated and condensed by Eliyahu Munk, volume 2, pages 683–91. New York, Lambda Publishers, 2001.
Modern
Isaac Abravanel. Commentary on the Torah. Italy, between 1492 and 1509. In, e.g., Abarbanel: Selected Commentaries on the Torah: Volume 4: Bamidbar/Numbers. Translated and annotated by Israel Lazar, pages 15–44. Brooklyn: CreateSpace, 2015.
Obadiah ben Jacob Sforno. Commentary on the Torah. Venice, 1567. In, e.g., Sforno: Commentary on the Torah. Translation and explanatory notes by Raphael Pelcovitz, pages 639–59. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1997.
Moshe Alshich. Commentary on the Torah. Safed, circa 1593. In, e.g., Moshe Alshich. Midrash of Rabbi Moshe Alshich on the Torah. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 791–801. New York, Lambda Publishers, 2000.
Shabbethai Bass. Sifsei Chachamim. Amsterdam, 1680. In, e.g., Sefer Bamidbar: From the Five Books of the Torah: Chumash: Targum Okelos: Rashi: Sifsei Chachamim: Yalkut: Haftaros, translated by Avrohom Y. Davis, pages 1–53. Lakewood Township, New Jersey: Metsudah Publications, 2013.
Chaim ibn Attar. Ohr ha-Chaim. Venice, 1742. In Chayim ben Attar. Or Hachayim: Commentary on the Torah. Translated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 4, pages 1347–58. Brooklyn: Lambda Publishers, 1999.
Yitzchak Magriso. Me'am Lo'ez. Constantinople, 1764. In Yitzchak Magriso. The Torah Anthology: MeAm Lo'ez. Translated by Tzvi Faier, edited with notes by Aryeh Kaplan, volume 13, pages 1–73. Jerusalem: Moznaim Publishing, 1990.
Samuel David Luzzatto (Shadal). Commentary on the Torah. Padua, 1871. In, e.g., Samuel David Luzzatto. Torah Commentary. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 1004–17. New York: Lambda Publishers, 2012.
Yehudah Aryeh Leib Alter. Sefat Emet. Góra Kalwaria (Ger), Poland, before 1906. Excerpted in The Language of Truth: The Torah Commentary of Sefat Emet. Translated and interpreted by Arthur Green, pages 219–23. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1998. Reprinted 2012.
Louis Ginzberg. Legends of the Jews, volume 3, pages 219–38. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1911.
Alexander Alan Steinbach. Sabbath Queen: Fifty-four Bible Talks to the Young Based on Each Portion of the Pentateuch, pages 107–10. New York: Behrman's Jewish Book House, 1936.
Julius H. Greenstone. Numbers: With Commentary: The Holy Scriptures, pages 1–33. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1939. Reprinted by Literary Licensing, 2011.
Robert F. Kennedy. Remarks at the University of Kansas, March 18, 1968. In Maxwell Taylor Kennedy. Make Gentle the Life of This World: The Vision of Robert F. Kennedy, page 21. Broadway, 1998. (Can you judge a people by its numbers?)
Ivan Caine. “Numbers in the Joseph Narrative.” In Jewish Civilization: Essays and Studies: Volume 1. Edited by Ronald A. Brauner, page 3. Philadelphia: Reconstructionist Rabbinical College, 1979. ISSN 0191-3034. (Numbers 2).
Elie Munk. The Call of the Torah: An Anthology of Interpretation and Commentary on the Five Books of Moses. Translated by E.S. Mazer, volume 4, pages 2–33. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1993. Originally published as La Voix de la Thora. Paris: Fondation Samuel et Odette Levy, 1981.
Philip J. Budd. Word Biblical Commentary: Volume 5: Numbers, pages 1–52. Waco, Texas: Word Books, 1984.
Pinchas H. Peli. Torah Today: A Renewed Encounter with Scripture, pages 157–60. Washington, D.C.: B'nai B'rith Books, 1987.
Jacob Milgrom. The JPS Torah Commentary: Numbers: The Traditional Hebrew Text with the New JPS Translation, pages 3–29, 335–44. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1990.
Baruch Levine. Numbers 1–20, volume 4, pages 125–78. New York: Anchor Bible, 1993.
Mary Douglas. In the Wilderness: The Doctrine of Defilement in the Book of Numbers, pages xviii, 97, 99–100, 103, 109–10, 120, 123, 127–31, 133, 137–38, 174, 179–80, 207, 246. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993.
Gerald Skolnik. "Should There Be a Special Ceremony in Recognition of a First-Born Female Child?" New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 1993. YD 305:1.1993. In Responsa: 1991–2000: The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement. Edited by Kassel Abelson and David J. Fine, pages 163–65 New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2002.
Elliot N. Dorff. "Artificial Insemination, Egg Donation and Adoption." New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 1994. EH 1:3.1994. In Responsa: 1991–2000: The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement. Edited by Kassel Abelson and David J. Fine, pages 461, 497. New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2002. (implications of the definition of a firstborn child for who is the mother of a child born by artificial insemination).
Mayer Rabinowitz. "Women Raise Your Hands." New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 1994. OH 128:2.1994a. In Responsa: 1991–2000: The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement. Edited by Kassel Abelson and David J. Fine, pages 9–12. New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2002. (implications of redemption of the firstborn for women's participation in the priestly blessing).
Judith S. Antonelli. "The Leviah." In In the Image of God: A Feminist Commentary on the Torah, pages 331–35. Northvale, New Jersey: Jason Aronson, 1995.
Ellen Frankel. The Five Books of Miriam: A Woman's Commentary on the Torah, pages 197–98. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1996.
W. Gunther Plaut. The Haftarah Commentary, pages 327–36. New York: UAHC Press, 1996.
Sorel Goldberg Loeb and Barbara Binder Kadden. Teaching Torah: A Treasury of Insights and Activities, pages 229–34. Denver: A.R.E. Publishing, 1997.
Sheryl Nosan. "Beyond Pidyon Ha-ben: Blessings for Giving Life." In The Women's Torah Commentary: New Insights from Women Rabbis on the 54 Weekly Torah Portions. Edited by Elyse Goldstein, pages 255–60. Woodstock, Vermont: Jewish Lights Publishing, 2000.
Dennis T. Olson. "Numbers." In The HarperCollins Bible Commentary. Edited by James L. Mays, pages 167–69. New York: HarperCollins Publishers, revised edition, 2000.
Lainie Blum Cogan and Judy Weiss. Teaching Haftarah: Background, Insights, and Strategies, pages 508–18. Denver: A.R.E. Publishing, 2002.
Michael Fishbane. The JPS Bible Commentary: Haftarot, pages 210–17. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2002.
Robert Alter. The Five Books of Moses: A Translation with Commentary, pages 683–700. New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 2004.
Nili S. Fox. "Numbers." In The Jewish Study Bible. Edited by Adele Berlin and Marc Zvi Brettler, pages 284–92. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.
Rachel Leila Miller. "Haftarat Bamidbar: Hosea 2:1–22." In The Women's Haftarah Commentary: New Insights from Women Rabbis on the 54 Weekly Haftarah Portions, the 5 Megillot & Special Shabbatot. Edited by Elyse Goldstein, pages 161–65. Woodstock, Vermont: Jewish Lights Publishing, 2004.
Professors on the Parashah: Studies on the Weekly Torah Reading Edited by Leib Moscovitz, pages 233–37. Jerusalem: Urim Publications, 2005.
W. Gunther Plaut. The Torah: A Modern Commentary: Revised Edition. Revised edition edited by David E.S. Stern, pages 897–920. New York: Union for Reform Judaism, 2006.
Suzanne A. Brody. "Census." In Dancing in the White Spaces: The Yearly Torah Cycle and More Poems, page 93. Shelbyville, Kentucky: Wasteland Press, 2007.
James L. Kugel. How To Read the Bible: A Guide to Scripture, Then and Now, pages 290, 314. New York: Free Press, 2007.
The Torah: A Women's Commentary. Edited by Tamara Cohn Eskenazi and Andrea L. Weiss, pages 789–814. New York: URJ Press, 2008.
R. Dennis Cole. "Numbers." In Zondervan Illustrated Bible Backgrounds Commentary. Edited by John H. Walton, volume 1, pages 341–46. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan, 2009.
Reuven Hammer. Entering Torah: Prefaces to the Weekly Torah Portion, pages 195–99. New York: Gefen Publishing House, 2009.
David Greenstein. "How to Construct a Community: Parashat Bemidbar (Numbers 1:1–4:20)." In Torah Queeries: Weekly Commentaries on the Hebrew Bible. Edited by Gregg Drinkwater, Joshua Lesser, and David Shneer; foreword by Judith Plaskow, pages 187–91. New York: New York University Press, 2009.
Terence E. Fretheim. "Numbers." In The New Oxford Annotated Bible: New Revised Standard Version with the Apocrypha: An Ecumenical Study Bible. Edited by Michael D. Coogan, Marc Z. Brettler, Carol A. Newsom, and Pheme Perkins, pages 188–94. New York: Oxford University Press, Revised 4th Edition 2010.
Nicholas P. Lunn. “Numbering Israel: A Rhetorico-Structural Analysis of Numbers 1–4.” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, volume 35 (number 2) (December 2010): pages 167–85.
Jerry Waite. “The Census of Israelite Men after their Exodus from Egypt.” Vetus Testamentum, volume 60 (number 3) (2010): pages 487–91.
The Commentators' Bible: Numbers: The JPS Miqra'ot Gedolot. Edited, translated, and annotated by Michael Carasik, pages 3–25. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2011.
Calum Carmichael. "Pharaoh and Yahweh as God-Kings (Numbers 1–4)." In The Book of Numbers: A Critique of Genesis, pages 15–25. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2012.
William G. Dever. The Lives of Ordinary People in Ancient Israel: When Archaeology and the Bible Intersect, page 244. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2012.
Shmuel Herzfeld. "Why I Want To Visit South Korea." In Fifty-Four Pick Up: Fifteen-Minute Inspirational Torah Lessons, pages 193–98. Jerusalem: Gefen Publishing House, 2012.
Shlomo Riskin. Torah Lights: Bemidbar: Trials and Tribulations in Times of Transition, pages 3–29. New Milford, Connecticut: Maggid Books, 2012.
Janson C. Condren. “Is the Account of the Organization of the Camp Devoid of Organization? A Proposal for the Literary Structure of Numbers 1.1–10.10.” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, volume 37 (number 4) (June 2013): pages 423–52.
Avivah Gottlieb Zornberg. Bewilderments: Reflections on the Book of Numbers, pages 3–30. New York: Schocken Books, 2015.
Jonathan Sacks. Lessons in Leadership: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible, pages 183–87. New Milford, Connecticut: Maggid Books, 2015.
Jonathan Sacks. Essays on Ethics: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible, pages 215–20. New Milford, Connecticut: Maggid Books, 2016.
Shai Held. The Heart of Torah, Volume 2: Essays on the Weekly Torah Portion: Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy, pages 93–102. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2017.
Steven Levy and Sarah Levy. The JPS Rashi Discussion Torah Commentary, pages 113–15. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2017.
Jonathan Sacks. Numbers: The Wilderness Years: Covenant & Conversation: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible, pages 31–70. New Milford, Connecticut: Maggid Books, 2017.
External links
Texts
Masoretic text and 1917 JPS translation
Hear the parashah read in Hebrew
Commentaries
Academy for Jewish Religion, California
Academy for Jewish Religion, New York
Aish.com
American Jewish University—Ziegler School of Rabbinic Studies
Chabad.org
Hadar
Jewish Theological Seminary
MyJewishLearning.com
Orthodox Union
Pardes from Jerusalem
Reconstructing Judaism
Union for Reform Judaism
Yeshiva University
Weekly Torah readings in Iyar
Weekly Torah readings in Sivan
Weekly Torah readings from Numbers
Book of Hosea
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZiU-9
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ZiU-9
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ZiU-9, or ZIU-9 (Cyrillic: ЗиУ-9) is a Soviet (and later Russian) trolleybus. Other names for the ZiU-9 are ZiU-682 and HTI-682 (Cyrillic: ЗиУ-682 and ХТИ-682). The ZiU acronym stands for Zavod imeni Uritskogo, which is a factory named after Moisei Uritsky, the Russian revolutionary. Before 1996 this acronym was also a trademark of the vehicle manufacturer Trolza. The ZiU-9 was first built in 1966, although it was only put into mass production in 1972 and it was still assembled along with other more advanced trolleybus vehicles in the Trolza (former ZiU) factory until 2015. The total number of produced ZiU-9s exceeds 42,000 vehicles making it the most produced trolleybus in the world. In addition, many copies of ZiU-9 were made in other factories of the former Soviet bloc.
History and development
The explosive development of trolleybus systems in the Soviet Union in the 1960s required a large number of trolleybuses to operate on said systems. The mainstay of the contemporary Soviet trolleybus fleet, the ZiU-5, was not sufficient for large urban passenger transfers as it was more suited for medium-size cities rather than large megapolises such as Moscow or Saint Petersburg. In addition, the ZiU-5 had an aluminium exterior, which was expensive and complicated from a technological point of view. The two doors in the ZiU-5 hull ends did not work well in overcrowded situations which were quite common in Soviet public transportation.
The ZiU-9 was a quite successful attempt to solve these problems. It has one extra door compared to the ZiU-5.the middle and rear doors are wide, to allow for passenger flow. the small door at the front end of the vehicle is comfortable for the driver and for outgoing passengers. The exterior of the ZiU-9 is made of welded steel and is significantly cheaper and simpler than the exterior of the ZiU-5.
The electrical equipment of the ZiU-9 had some minor differences from the ZiU-5. The power of the main motor was increased. The indirect resistor-based control system of electric current was slightly modified to deal with the increased power of the main motor. While western designers developed new semiconductor-based control devices, Soviet engineers decided to leave the old resistor-based system for ease of maintenance. The first prototype vehicles were tested in Moscow in 1971 and were approved for mass production after some minor design adjustments.
The '9' in the vehicle name was the initial project index of the design team. However, after launching mass production, the new trolleybus received a new index, '682' from the united classification of non-rail public transport vehicles. all series vehicles had a ZiU-682 designation. But the number 682 is difficult to pronounce and the shorter '9' still lives in the everyday language of drivers and servicemen. In 1986, a new classification was introduced and the former ZiU-682 was designated as HTI-682. But this was not the end of renaming the same vehicle. The Russian acronym HTI in the Cyrillic alphabet is ХТИ and these three Cyrillic letters in 1995 were confused with the Latin letters XTU which then became the official name of the vehicle.
Production
ZiU-9
The first prototype, ZiU-9, was built in 1966, with the second prototype being built in 1970. Elements of the appearance and number of design decisions were borrowed from contemporary to the time foreign firms MAN and Chausson.
ZiU-9A
The ZiU-9A was an experimental version with a wide body up to 2680 mm. The only prototype was made in 1968.
ZiU-682B
In August 1972, the first production series, the ZiU-682B began production. Early trolley cars differed from later releases. Models prior to 1974 had angular wheel arches rather than circular ones. The first batch of trolleybuses used the outdated DC-207G engine, which was replaced by the DC-210 110 kW engine in 1973. Suspension on the first ZiU-682B was pneumatic, with torque rods as guiding elements, and was later replaced with pneumatic spring guiding elements. The rear area had a lowered floor, to reduce the number of steps at the back door, thus allowing the loading of wheelchairs, prams, and large items. However, this "advantage" was leveled by a high handrail on the steps separating the rear and middle doors. The transition from a high floor in the cabin to a lower back floor was facilitated by sloping the aisle between the rear wheel arches, which caused inconvenience to passengers at peak hours (especially in winter), standing on an icy ramp. In 1991 developers replaced the high-speed separator handrail attached to the door, but by this time all storage sites were at three stages from sidewalk level. For natural ventilation, the roof of the cabin was equipped with four ceiling hatches, and sliding side window panes. Currently, the only instance of ZIU-9B is preserved and operated in the city of Zaporozhye and has the side number 562.
ZiU-682V (B00/B0A)
At the end of 1976, mass production of the updated ZiU- 682V began, which replaced the ZiU- 682B. Due to the presence of design flaws that emerged during the first years of operation, rather than jet thrust-bearing elements such as suspension springs were used. Since 1976, the number of fixtures in the cabin has been reduced from 12 to 11, every other window in the cabin lost air vents. Since 1978, the number of ceiling hatches reduced to three (due to the hatch on the front axle), and steel trolley equipped with electric shtangoulovitelyami (apparently on the orders, since their machines in Moscow weren't there until 1996).
Since 1983, changed the shape and location of the front and rear position lamps. Lights original form, informally called "boats" have been replaced by unified and offset edges closer to route indicators. In 1985, similar design changes underwent external signal lights and turn indicators.
From March through May 1984 trolleybuses were produced without the low-level rear accumulation area, which was due to the need to strengthen the base structure of the body in the rear overhang. In 1985, the nameplate trolley was partially aligned with the standards forming the VIN code, which led to a change in marking HTI682V00.
Since 1988, the plant switched to production modifications ZiU- 682V -012 (ZiU- 682V0A) powered DC -213 capacity of 115 kW. Since 1989, changed the shape of the housing radioreaktors roof trolley, it has decreased in size and had a sharp edge. In 1989, production started in parallel transition modification ZiU- 682V0B on which the electric drive door opener was replaced with a pneumatic system.
ZiU-682G
By the end of 1980, individual components trolley manufactured at that time was almost 20 years, significantly outdated. Therefore, simultaneously with the launch of a series of recent modifications ZiU- 682V preparing to produce a more profound modernization of the model trolley, which was designated ZiU- 682G. Experienced instances ZiU- 682G were released in 1988, and since February 1, 1991, the plant has fully passed on its production.
In addition to the changes already introduced earlier models ZiU 682V0A - and - ZiU 682V0B model ZiU- 682G have received the following differences. Front, under the windshield, placed the intake grille. Changed the location of windows with vents along the starboard side. Undergone significant redevelopment salon trolley. Most of the seats along the left side of the body were replaced with a double row on row, which increased the number of standing places. Changed the design of seats themselves and their handrails. Big changes undergone cab. Partition behind the driver, which had previously oval window became deaf; extended sliding door in the driver's cabin. In the cabin itself changed the layout of the dashboard, which became made of black plastic. Out of the past neergonomichny remote control trolley bus right from the dashboard, consisting of two long rows of identical tumblers. Control of external light devices was moved to the steering column. On a dedicated right panel were only control door opening, the wiper switch, and the alarm. Other switches were transferred to the new control panel by trolley to the left of the driver's side near the window. Redesigned suspension and brake pedals at the same time control approached the car.
On the other hand, ZiU- 682G was supplied to provincial towns, from 1993–2000., Compared with the previous model ZiU- 682V had significantly lighter load-bearing elements of the frame component of the supporting frame (apparently, to reduce cost). As a result, in severe operating conditions (e.g. in Nizhny Novgorod) for 5 years, these structural elements to rot completely corroded, and punctured a gentle kick screwdriver.
Since 1997, the base modification in mass production became ZiU- 682G -012 (ZiU- 682G0A). An external difference between the new modification was reduced in the height side window of the cab, which also has another location pane. Minor changes have been planning the cabin. It was adapted for the domestic market modification export version trolley ZiU- 682G -010, the production of which began in 1992.
Based on ZiU- 682G -012 began the further modernization of trolley conducted mainly commissioned Mosgortransa (as most other Russian cities at that time became insolvent) and divided into several stages. For low voltage power generator instead of 63.3701 and auxiliary engine DC - 661B was set low noise static converter. Been improved waterproofing and grounding. Trolleybus began to possess higher corrosion protection, a number of sites now executes from aluminum, stainless steel, and fiberglass. In parallel with ZiU- 682G -012, in 1998, started production in transition modification ZiU- 682G -014 (ZiU- 682G0E), which replace the old sofas in the lounge were installed individual padded seats, applied laser (source?) Heaters cabin windows. This version is also equipped with a static converter.
ZiU-682G-016, 017 and 018
As a result of the continuation of the modernization of the trolley in the same 1998 there was a modification ZiU- 682G -016 (ZiU- 682G0M), which became the base model. Exterior siding boards became run from extruded galvanized steel sheets, which improved the appearance of the trolley and increased its corrosion resistance. Casement doors were subjected to additional rustproofing special compound. A great deal of work to improve the electrical trolley : applied dielectric coating rods susceptor set travel stops rods, improved insulation chicanery, installed in the cab indicator of leakage currents, improved design -board covers and sealing side compartments, redesigned heater. Also applied to the trolley locking system running with the doors open.
Back in the mid-1990s, it became apparent that the location of electrical underneath the trolley did not meet modern requirements of electric, because it does not protect it from moisture, anti-icing agents and many others, and also allows you to go through a puddle, if the depth exceeds ten centimeters. Then, in 1995, the model was designed ZiU- 52642, which is a major upgrade ZiU- 682G with the removal of electrical equipment on the roof of the trolley and other changes. However, for various reasons, the model series did not go.
The first production series with the removal of part of the apparatus on the roof became ZiU- 682G -017 (ZiU- 682G0H), launched in 2000. Unlike experienced ZiU- 52642 equipped with a Thyristor-pulse control system, modification ZiU- 682G -017 remained equipped with classical, uneconomical and unsupported acceptable smoothness Rheostat- contactor control system, electrical equipment factory "Dinamo" conventional platen doors. Some of the changes undergone interior, in particular, have been installed interior lights more modern form. From 2002 to request the trolley began to be produced in variants with altered appearance cabin (this applied fiberglass pad).
ZiU-682G-016.02 and ZiU-682G-016.03
Since October 2002, commercially produced modification ZiU- 682G - 016.02, which is a further development of the model ZiU- 682G -018. Siding boards made of seamless steel sheet paneling front of the trolley combined with the use of fiberglass panels. The front bumper is also made of fiberglass. Passenger cabin windows are tinted glass, install new panoramic windshield. By trolley runs increased corrosion protection body, including the use of conductive soils firm «Sikkens» in lap welds, phosphate protective coating, as well as additional coverage base, sides, front and rear of the protective coating.
On trolley mounted traction motor DC - 213A production Moscow factory "Dinamo" 110 kW. Control system - rheostat- contactor. Most of traction electric trolley put to the roof. Collectors located on the roof, power resistors, group controller, radioreaktory circuit breaker WB -7 (there is an option to install instead of the WB -7 breaker manual AV- 8 in the cab at the rear), a static converter (IPT-600/28 or BP -3G), stroke limiter rods. Behind the driver is case inside of which has an electric panel protective relays. In this regard, the first window on the left side of the passenger compartment has reduced dimensions, there is no passenger seat facing the front wheel arch. Interior lighting passenger compartment carried fluorescent fixtures have modes full, partial, and emergency lighting. Passenger room is equipped with separate comfortable seats (which, however, often criticized for full passengers trouble and inconvenience). Two passenger seats are equipped to transport people with limited mobility. Parking brake acts on the brakes the drive wheels of energy storage, control of air in the cab of the crane. The hydraulic oil tank is equipped with power steering oil level warning device.
To improve the electrical introduced fiberglass boards, electrical insulation flaps passenger doors from the body, external electrical insulation rod current collectors, insulation monitoring device UKI, emergency switch, the imposition of mostly electric traction kit from under the floor to the roof, technological track on the roof to move attendants, rear stopper rods pantographs fitted to three electrical insulators, locking the trolley system with open doors, emergency (spare) the passenger area lighting system ANTI passenger doors, emergency exits through the windows of the cabin, equipment service doors from inside and outside governments to open in an emergency installation on the roof of a high-speed circuit-breaker with remote control, etc.
Since 2004, also commercially produced trolley ZiU- 682G - 016.03. Its main difference from ZiU - 682G - 016.02 is that the frame (base) body is made of an open profile (sill), which increases the rigidity and makes it more resistant to corrosion. Trolleybus body ZiU- 682G 016.03 - welded frame construction.
As an option, the setting of a wide front double doors swing- slide-type (which is especially important for Moscow, used to pay for travel validator).
Since September 2009, in connection with the termination of a license to manufacture trolleybuses issue ZiU 682G016.02 - and - ZiU 682G016.03 discontinued.
ZiU-682G-016.04 and ZiU-682G-016.05
Since September 2009, JSC "Trolza" in accordance with the obtained license for production to start the production of trolleybuses ZiU-682G-016.04 and ZiU-682G-016.05. And apparently, these trolleys and constructive modifications almost completely replicate their predecessors ZiU-682G-016.02 and ZiU-682G-016.03. As changes in the rank of permanent options included installing electronic route signs and a marquee in the passenger compartment and ABS that ZiU-682G-ZiU 016.02 and 016.03-682G-performed by the customer.
Modifications as of 2012
Note that approximately 2003 JSC "Trolza" changed several notations produced models trolleybuses family ZiU- 682G, considering them all modifications ZiU- 682G -016 (VIN- code starts with all modifications XTU682G0M). As of 2010, the manufacturer offers the following serial modifications (listed in order of increasing number of changes compared to ZiU- 682G)
ZiU- 682G -016 (012) - a basic model similar ZiU- 682G -012 (delivery in the form of a body 1st version)
ZiU- 682G -016 (018) - modification, similar ZiU- 682G -018, and has a slight performance improvement ZiU- 682G -016 (delivery in the form of a body 1st version)
ZiU- 682G - 016.02 (delivery in the form of a body 1st version)
ZiU- 682G - 016.03 (delivery in the form of a body 1st version)
ZiU- 682G - 016.04
ZiU- 682G - 016.05
In 2009, Trolza developed a modified ZiU- 682G - 016.07. This machine has a total 016.04 with a different numbering and control system - TrSU " Chergos " instead of the standard rheostat- contactor. The only instance in operation in Murmansk.
The serial production for the ZiU-9 was discontinued in 2014 due to a lack of demand for the model.
Clones produced by other companies
Many factories in modern Russia or Belarus developed their unlicensed or semi-licensed copies of the ZiU-9 design. They may have different designations and trademarks, but in the colloquial language all of them are referred to as "ZiU-9 clones".
AKSM 100, AKSM 101 and their various modifications built by Belkommunmash (Minsk)
BTZ -5276 and modifications manufacturer Bashkir Trolleybus Plant (Ufa)
VZTM -5284 and modifications manufacturer Volgograd Plant of Transport Engineering (Volgograd)
VMZ -170 manufacturer Vologda Mechanical Plant (JSC " Trans- Alpha", Vologda)
Trolleybuses production "Nizhtroll" (Nizhny Novgorod), officially passing as overhaul reconditioning
CT- 682G production "Siberian trolley" (Novosibirsk), officially passing as overhaul reconditioning
MTRZ - 6223 Moscow trolleybus production plant - modernization ZiU -682 for Moscow
ZiU -682 ZiU BTRM production "Barnaul trolleybus repair shops " (Barnaul), officially passing as overhaul reconditioning
MTRZ - 6223 Altayelektrotrans production " CAU " Altayelektrotrans " " (Barnaul)
ZiU -682 Barnaul production of " Company " Altai electric transport company " " (Barnaul)
Operators
In Hungary, Ziu-9 trolleys still operated in recent years, but they retired in Debrecen (DKV), Budapest (BKV), and Szeged (SzKT). Originally 174 of them were used in the capital of the city, Budapest, and a few dozen more in other cities. Although some buses are still in working condition and are used occasionally on retro and heritage trolley services.
ZiU-9s worked or are now working in all ex-USSR countries except the Baltic states. They are also in service in Belgrade ever since Yugoslav times.
They were also sold to Greece, Argentina, in Colombia the EDTU (Empresa Distrital de Transportes Urbanos) was a larger operator of these buses; they were in a very bad conservation state in the former Eastern Bloc countries. Three cars were on loan in 1973 for testing purposes in Helsinki, Finland.
Greek donation
In 2004, the ILPAP, the operator of the trolleybusses in Athens and Piraeus, Greece donated nearly all of its old ZiU-9 trolleybuses to the city of Belgrade and to Georgia (country). One was donated to the East Anglia Transport Museum.
Belgrade has had ZiU-9 trolleys since the late 1970s. In 2010 a public action was taken to save Belgrade's first ZiU-9 from being scrapped.
In fiction
See also
ZiU-10
ZiU-9 EMU
References
External links
ZiU-9 on the Nizhny Novgorod tram site (in Russian)
Trolleybus in Budapest - Ziu 9 trolibuses (English, somewhat dated)
Trolleybuses
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4825833
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pearl%20Brewing%20Company
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Pearl Brewing Company
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The Pearl Brewing Company (also known as the Pearl Brewery or just Pearl) was an American brewery established in 1883 in downtown San Antonio, Texas, United States. In 1985, Pearl's parent company purchased the Pabst Brewing Company and assumed the Pabst name.
In 1999, the Pabst Brewing Company began transferring its production to Miller Brewing on a contract basis and closed all of its own breweries. Pearl beer is still in production at Miller's Fort Worth, Texas, facility, but the Pearl Brewery in San Antonio was closed in 2001. Since then, the former brewery was purchased by Silver Ventures Inc, which has used the property as part of the revitalization efforts of southern Midtown and northern downtown San Antonio.
History
1881–1920: Origin to Prohibition
The site owned and operated by the Pearl Brewing Company was originally known as both the J. B. Behloradsky Brewery (1881–1883) and the City Brewery. Privately held and poorly run for two years, the City Brewery was purchased by an investment group in 1883. The investment group was composed of local people in business and several moguls already brewing at San Antonio's other major brewery, the Lone Star Brewing Company. Together they formed the San Antonio Brewing Company (1883–1888) and began raising capital to restart and improve the brewery's operations fully. In 1886, after three years, the company had secured the necessary capital and began full-time operations at the brewery again. The name San Antonio Brewing Association was used as a parent to the brewing company since it also managed some of the founding members' other business interests. Functionally, the business structure worked, but it confused city officials, customers, and business partners; therefore, in the end, the investment group dissolved the San Antonio Brewing Company and used the San Antonio Brewing Association (1888–1918) name for all operations and business transactions. Thus, in seven years, the same brewery had three different names; since then, the former brewery was purchased by Silver Ventures, Inc., which has used the property as part of the revitalization efforts of southern Midtown and northern Downtown San Antonio. In addition, the name City Brewery was frequently used. The first logos used for the San Antonio Brewing Company/Association even featured City Brewery in the logo. City Brewery was carried over from the Behloradsky days and was used until the beginning of Prohibition in 1918.
During these name changes, the brewery found the product that would become its signature brew. Pearl beer was formulated and first brewed in Bremen, Germany, by the Kaiser–Beck Brewery, which produces Beck's beer. Pearl beer's name came from Kaiser–Beck's brewmaster, who thought the foamy bubbles in a freshly poured glass of the brew resembled sparkling pearls. In Germany, the brew was called "Perle." When brought to the United States, the spelling was changed to English: Pearl. In 1886, the first bottles and wooden kegs of American Pearl beer rolled off the line and into local tap rooms.
In 1902, Otto Koehler took the helm of the brewery, leaving his position as manager at the Lone Star Brewing Company to become president and manager of the San Antonio Brewing Association. Under Otto's leadership, the brewery set strategic plans to grow in physical size and beer output in motion. The San Antonio Brewing Association went from a microbrewery that produced enough output for residents and businesses to a strong competitor to the much larger Lone Star Brewing Company. Koehler was one of the first residents to build in the newly opened Laurel Heights section of San Antonio. The hill on which Koehler built his home, now known as the Koehler Cultural Center, provided a clear view of the city skyline and, of course, included an unobstructed view of the San Antonio Brewing Association's City Brewery. Legend has it that by sitting on his porch, Koehler could determine whether his employees were hard at work by the smoke color rising from the brewery's stacks.
In 1902, Koehler purchased the property to re-open the since-closed Hot Wells hotel, spa, and bathhouse on the San Antonio River on the south side of San Antonio.
After Koehler's death, his wife, Emma, succeeded him as the chief executive. Under Emma Koehler's direction, many of her husband's strategic plans were either started or fulfilled. Namely, she modernized the original brew house, and by 1916, beer production capacity had significantly increased from per year in the early 20th century to over per year. With the tremendous production increase, the San Antonio Brewing Association was able to outpace the Lone Star Brewing Company to become the largest Texas brewery and the beer America most widely associated with Texas and the West.
During the early 20th century, Pearl used advertisement campaigns that featured Judge Roy Bean – one of the more colorful and famous law enforcement personalities of the Wild West.
Prohibition
Prior to Prohibition, Texas was a hot spot for beer production. With a strong German and European influence, small and regional breweries were found throughout the state. San Antonio enjoyed having two of Texas’ largest breweries: Lone Star Brewery and the San Antonio Brewing Association. Prohibition, though, changed the face of brewing and forced almost every brewery out of business. When the Volstead Act and Prohibition went into effect on January 16, 1920, Lone Star Brewing Company ended sales, shut the brewery doors, and dissolved the company.
Emma Koehler vowed not to let the brewery go under. In late 1919, the San Antonio Brewing Association changed its name to Alamo Industries (1919–1921) and began operations to comply with Prohibition laws. Times were tough for the brewery and its employees. However, the facility stayed open by continuing to produce a near beer called "La Perla," bottling soft drinks, dry cleaning, operating a small advertising sign division, running a small auto repair shop, and entering the commercial ice and creamery businesses. Being so diverse brought in cash for the company, which meant Alamo Industries did not acquire expertise in any area. As a result, Alamo Industries reorganized its product lines. The company changed its name to the Alamo Foods Company (1921–1933) and shifted its products toward food speciality. The sections for auto repair, dry cleaning, and advertising were closed or sold off to third parties.
Although no solid proof exists, rumors abound that Alamo Foods used the old brewery equipment for more than "La Perla" and that, in fact, the brewery still bottled a tiny amount of the real Pearl and Texas Pride for close friends and sale on the black market. One thing is sure, though: when the Blaine Act ended Prohibition at midnight on September 15, 1933, within minutes, 100 trucks and 25 railroad boxcars loaded with beer rolled out of the brewery grounds.
After Prohibition
With the end of Prohibition, so too came the end of the Alamo Foods Company. The company went back to its prior name: San Antonio Brewing Association (1933–1952). Most believed beer production would quickly return to the levels before the 1920 ban. However, Pearl's hard times were not over yet. In 1933, the nation was still deep in the grips of the Great Depression. Although most of the public would have loved to enjoy a Pearl, the financial situation of most made buying beer an unaffordable luxury. Through her skillful management, Emma Koehler kept the brewery afloat through the Depression, selling beer to those who could afford it and continuing many of the business ventures that had carried the brewery through Prohibition.
As the Great Depression ended in the United States, world affairs worsened and spun the globe toward World War II. After almost 26 years at the helm of the San Antonio Brewing Association, Emma Koehler decided it was time to relinquish the official title. Her “retirement” closed an amazing chapter in the brewery's history. While it may not seem much these days, Emma's successful management role at Pearl was a breakthrough for its day. At a time when women's suffrage was still in its infancy and women did not yet have the right to vote, Emma Koehler led Texas’ largest brewery and one of the larger breweries in the nation.
Emma did not fade quietly into the history books, however. For years after her retirement, she remained an important part of brewery operations. While she did not have voting powers with the San Antonio Brewing Association, she typically had the final word on all large deals or changes. Emma's successor depended on her heavily after the transition and during the brewery's changes to meet the effort of World War II.
The Return of Otto Koehler
Otto and Emma Koehler's lives were filled with helping others and improving the community through various organizations and corporations. Otto and Emma never had children in their long marriage, but their extended family was huge. A large portion of their substantial wealth was spent on helping their families immigrate to the United States from their homeland in Germany. The Koehlers paid for family members' passage to New York and travel expenses to their city of choice, which was usually San Antonio or close proximity. Once relocated, the Koehlers helped set them up with housing and a job at the brewery or one of the other Koehler-owned companies.
One family the Koehlers helped was Otto's twin brother, Karl Koehler. Karl and his wife moved to Pennsylvania, where they had two boys. The older of the two boys was named after Otto. Born on July 24, 1893, as a youngster Otto A. and his younger brother were taken to Europe by their parents for what was supposed to be a short trip. On the trip however, Karl became seriously ill and decided to stay in Germany. In 1908, when Otto A. was just 15, his father finally succumbed to his illnesses and died. Otto A. returned to America and became a ward of his uncle Otto and aunt Emma. Otto A. developed a special bond with Otto and Emma, who treated him as a son. In 1921, Otto A. left his other jobs to come to the brewery to assist Emma in daily operations.
When Emma decided it was time to step aside of her post, the board members and Emma picked Otto A. to be her successor. Emma served as Otto's advisor during the transition and his first years as head of the brewery, a position she held until her death on April 26, 1943. Although the Koehlers did not own the brewery, after the first Otto, his wife Emma, and now Otto A., the family was very much considered the owners not only by the community, but the brewery board members and workers alike. Otto A. was a strong leader and businessman who had learned much from his aunt and uncle. It was this strength that he would have to draw on as turbulent times lay ahead for the brewery and beer brewing industry as a whole.
Power struggle
Through the 1940s, operations at Pearl continued at a steady pace. Pearl was well established as the largest brewer in Texas, even though Lone Star beers had adopted the slogan proclaiming Lone Star the national beer of Texas. Pearl, as a company, did its part in the war effort, reducing can production to save on metals and producing generic beer for the troops abroad. At the end of the war, Pearl reestablished its aggressive growth drive and shifted marketing to focus on the emerging power buyer, the postwar housewife.
Production and market-wise, the 1950s were similar to the late 1940s. In the early '50s, the San Antonio Brewing Association felt they needed to increase the association of their number one product, Pearl lager beer, with the company itself. In marketing research, the association found that most consumers believed the San Antonio Brewing Association encompassed more than a single brewery; in fact, the public thought San Antonio Brewing Association referred to all brewing in San Antonio in general. Therefore, in 1952 the San Antonio Brewing Association changed its name to the Pearl Brewing Company (1952–present).
Pearl was successful, not only in Texas, but on a national level, as well. Larger companies saw this success and made many attempts to buy out Pearl and their beers. Almost all offers were never even considered. In what would turn out later to be ironic, one company came very close to buying out the Pearl Brewing Company in the 1950s: Pabst Brewing Company. B.B. McGimsey, who was Pearl's plant manager, shareholder, and the face of Pearl at most events, began gaining support to sell the brewery off. McGimsey was a charismatic leader whom most of the employees liked and respected. McGimsey's influence also reached other board members, and when the offer came from Pabst, it was not as easily dismissed. Details of the offer have long been lost, but one can surmise it was a good deal given the consideration given to it by Pearl. McGimsey believed that Pearl's stance as an independent Texas brewer would never allow them to truly compete on a national level with brewers from St. Louis and Milwaukee. Ultimately, the sale to Pabst was defeated by Otto A. and the other shareholders, but only by the slimmest of margins. Pearl maintained its independence for the time being.
Goetz Brewing Company
Although narrowly defeated in the vote to be acquired by Pabst, McGimsey and fellow members of Pearl's board still pushed for change in the company. The predominant theme throughout was growth. The acquisition of Pearl by a larger company was no longer considered, but then how could the company really grow and hope to compete with industry leaders such as Anheuser-Busch, Miller, and Pabst? Pearl considered expanding the San Antonio brewery to increase production, but after researching the idea, Pearl realized expanding the brewery could only gain them a nominal production increase and ultimately would not be worth the overall investment.
Otto A. and the board began studying other companies to try to see what innovations or organizational structures were working, and if those changes could be applied to Pearl. Pearl's board noticed that the larger brewers such as Anheuser-Busch were not attempting to push more and more products out of a single brewery; instead, they had several breweries spread out to distribute their products. Pearl seized on the idea of a second brewery and began to explore the options. Location was a huge factor in the considerations. San Antonio's location allowed Pearl to reach both the East and West Coasts equally well. However, San Antonio's southern position was not ideal for reaching places such as Maine or Washington.
One idea was to build a second brewery somewhere in the northern Midwest. Initial studies of this idea proved too costly to be feasible. The price tag of land, permits, zoning, construction, equipment, manpower, and initial operations proved to be too large for Pearl to afford. Pearl could have raised the cash need for the project, but doing so would have extended the company a little too thin, and one misstep or hiccup in sales could force Pearl into bankruptcy.
Rather than building a second brewery and potentially putting the company at risk, Pearl decided to purchase an existing brewery to increase production and the distribution network. Overall, buying out another brewery meant a larger initial investment, but the new brewery would be able to put out Pearl beer almost immediately and therefore help recoup costs more quickly. From a short list of potentials, the M. K. Goetz Brewing Company in St. Joseph, Missouri, seemed the perfect fit for Pearl's plans. Goetz's historic brewery would allow increased production levels and the ability to use the well-established distribution network to help Pearl reach untapped markets. In addition, Pearl gained access to the Goetz line of beers, from pilsners to malt liquors.
In 1961, the Pearl Brewing Company officially purchased the M. K. Goetz Brewing Company. Overall, the merger of the two companies was a success. Beers from both companies began to be produced at the two facilities. Goetz brewed all of the Pearl beers for easier distribution in the north, and Pearl produced Goetz's Country Club malt liquor. Country Club proved very successful for Pearl, and in fact is the only Goetz beer still in production by Pabst today under the Pearl Brewing Company name. The merger was not without its problems, but overall the transition occurred smoothly. Pearl took over as the corporate headquarters and some duplicate jobs were eliminated. The production side of Goetz remained intact, with Pearl treating Goetz employees just as they did the employees in San Antonio, like family.
Judson Candies: Pearl's sweet tooth
Although Pearl had long dominated the Texas market over Lone Star, that did not stop the rivalry between the two. Each brewery was intent on being known as the brewery of Texas. Competition in the community was fierce, with both companies doing all they could to be associated with any large event. In the 1950s and '60s the competition was at its highest. For San Antonio's week-long festival called Fiesta, each company would sponsor as many floats and events as possible in an attempt to get their name out the most in the public eye. During the annual San Antonio Stock Show and Rodeo, Lone Star and Pearl would get into bidding wars over the blue ribbon winner of each show-animal category. The two breweries would drive the prices up sometimes triple the animal's worth, all in an attempt to best their rival.
The strangest twist to the seemingly endless rivalry involved a small candy company in San Antonio, called Judson Candies. In 1965, the Pearl Brewing Company bought Judson Candies from the three sons whose father had helped found the business. On its own, Judson was a profitable company that had an established name in the candy industry. Judson was not on the level of Hershey or Mars, but did have strong sales in the Southwest. Pearl simply made the Judson sons an offer they could not refuse. So, in 1965, Judson Candies joined the Pearl and Goetz families under the umbrella of the Pearl Brewing Company.
Judson was part of the company, but in many ways it was still very independent. Financial backing came down from Pearl, but Judson still made decisions on their own, setting their own strategic goals independently of Pearl. Whatever the decisions were at Judson, they obviously worked. From the day Pearl acquired them, until they were sold off to members of the Atkinson's Candy family in 1983, Judson remained a profitable business. When the Atkinsons bought Judson, the only real evidence of ownership by a larger company, and one in a completely different industry, was the office furniture and supplies. Everything in the Judson offices were labeled with "Property of the Pearl Brewing Company" and items such as pencils, pens, ashtrays, notepads, and even first aid kits were branded with the Pearl logos.
Although profitable and requiring little oversight, an official statement was never given on why Pearl purchased Judson. Other than support for Judson, Pearl never branded their name on any of the candy products, even in an era when it was completely acceptable for celebrities and popular cartoon characters to push adult-oriented items such as alcohol and cigarettes. From the surface, it makes no sense that a major brewery would enter a completely foreign market to buy a company and support it, yet not use the purchased company in the larger company's goals. It makes no sense at all, that is until one looks at the purchase in the context of the feud between Pearl and Lone Star.
In 1949, Mr. Harry Jersig became president of Lone Star, and effectively the nemesis to Otto A. Koehler. Through the '50s and '60s, competition between the two was fierce and generated a no-holds-barred mentality. Jersig had not always been in the brewing industry, and in fact got his start doing something completely different. Jersig learned the ropes of business while working in the Judson Candies Company for many years. In fact, Jersig worked at Judson so long, that he considered the owners and workers at Judson Candies like family. Decades later in 1965, Jersig's adopted family was purchased by his biggest competitor. Pearl's purchase of Judson might not have made any sense in the form of black-and-white business strategy, but it was pure gold in the propaganda and mental war against Lone Star.
1970s – 1990s
In 1969, Pearl was acquired by Southdown, a conglomerate that started out in the sugar industry. In 1977, Pearl was sold to General Brewing of San Francisco, owned by Paul Kalmanovitz. Kalmanovitz specialized in leveraged buy-outs, which take over businesses to sell off their parts for profit, closing plants and laying off employees. After a takeover in St. Louis, brewery employees there flew the American flag at half-staff and upside down. Kalmanovitz in 1985 acquired the Pabst breweries, which itself originated in 1844, and proceeded to unite his holdings under the name Pabst Brewing Company rather than that of Lucky Lager.
2000s
The new millennium did not bring a change in luck for Pearl or Pabst as a whole. Changes instituted in the 1990s saved money, but did not solve the company's larger problems. As of 2000, Pabst's new strategic plan was well underway. To save even more money, they had devised an idea to save the company, closing all of their breweries and ending their own beer production.
After 118 years of brewing along the San Antonio River, the doors to the Pearl Brewery closed.
In 2001, Silver Ventures, Inc. acquired the property and transitioned the brewery to the boutique hotel, Hotel Emma, which opened in 2015. The hotel is named after Emma Koehler, the wife of Pearl Brewery president Otto Koehler.
Pearl relaunched its beer in 2020 and changed their formula (July 2020).
Brands
Today, the Pabst Brewing Company is a marketing company; Pabst no longer owns or operates any of their former breweries. Pabst contracts out the brewing of all of their beers to other brewers. By far, Pabst's largest agreement is with Miller Brewing Company, which produces Pabst's major brands, as well as Pearl and Lone Star. Although Pabst's more popular beers such as Colt 45, Stroh's, and Pabst Blue Ribbon are produced at virtually every Miller facility, Pearl is only brewed at the Ft. Worth location.
Pearl, Pearl Light, and Country Club are still available to this day, but only in small volumes and in select markets such as Texas and Oklahoma. Today's distribution is greatly reduced from the 47-state coverage Pearl's beers once enjoyed. In addition, the variety in which Pearl's beers were available has also decreased. Although previously produced and sold in every form, such as bottles, cans, and kegs, the current iteration of Pearl is only available in 12-packs of 12-oz. cans. Likewise Country Club has been reduced to only 40-oz. bottles. Many who have tasted Pearl before and after the Pabst merger claim the formula has changed; customers say today's Pearl tastes like a weaker version of Budweiser. Officially, though, Pabst claims the formula used for today's Pearl is the same that was originally bought by the San Antonio Brewing Association back in 1886.
Pearl's three brews receive little or no marketing dollars, thus lack advertising campaigns. However, Pabst did launch an independent Pearl website which featured several pictures, history, and a state distributor locator. This website has been canned since ca. 2016.
The brewery
When operations ceased at the Pearl Brewery in 2001, many thought it would be the end for the brewery's buildings. The brewery's proximity to the core of downtown San Antonio and the easy access to several highways led many to believe it would be a prime target to be razed and replaced. However, these two attributes, along with another surprise development, actually saved the brewery facilities and helped to ensure its architecture would survive. San Antonio has begun work to expand the River Walk north to where the river meets U.S. Route 281. The Pearl Brewery is close to a section of the river expansion, thus making it an attractive location and eligible for incentives by the city to assist business development.
Toward the end of 2002, Silver Ventures, a San Antonio-based investment firm, purchased the brewery site. Fortunately, the company has big plans for many of the current structures on the brewery property, with the hopes to attract businesses as well as River Walk tourists. The dream of Silver Ventures is that once completed, the former brewery will be a village within eyesight of the skyscrapers of Downtown San Antonio. In a local article, Bill Shown, the development's managing director, described an area that would house an event hall, schools, and retail, office, and residential space. The idea is to create an area where people can live, shop, and work, yet a community close-knit enough where residents know the shop owners.
The first phase of rehabilitation and restoration included the garage, a large brick storage shed, and the former hospitality room/stables. The brewery's garage, which was built in 1939, houses the Aveda Institute, a global company focusing on environmentally friendly personal products. In the same building as Aveda is a cafe named Texas Farm to Table, which only uses Texas-grown ingredients. The renovation updated the building to meet the current business needs, but still maintains the brewery feel to the exterior by reusing beer storage tanks as landscaping water tanks and a few of the garage's old red pumps.
The Culinary Institute of America (CIA) uses one of the brewery's large sheds. Originally created there as the Center for Foods of the Americas (CFA), an upscale culinary institute developed by the CIA, it was originally planned to occupy the former bottling shop, but a mysterious fire in November 2003 gutted the building and forced its demolition. CFA's current building's old garage doors have been removed and replaced by large windows to show off the lines of counters, sinks, and cookware hanging from the ceiling. The school offers a 30-week culinary arts certificate program, geared to take students from the very basics of cooking to the masterpiece where students prepare their own graduation celebration. In January 2008, CFA transformed from a Culinary Institute of America-supported program, to a full-fledged campus and was renamed the Culinary Institute of America–San Antonio.
The former Pearl Corral/Jersey Lilly has been completely remodeled and renamed. Now called the Pearl Stable, the new facility opened in May 2006 and serves as the showpiece of phase one of the overall project. The building retained its oval shape, and architects rebuilt the glazed skylight cupola and a recreation of the stable's false-front pediment, which were originally on the stable. Above the main entrance, the pediment displays the stable's construction date, 1894. The Pearl Stable is geared to compete with other event halls by offering a full commercial kitchen, easy loading access for caterers, and a state-of-the-art theatrical lighting and sound system. In addition, Pearl Stable will eventually house a museum section featuring the brewery's history through pictures, artifacts, and memorabilia. When Pearl Stable opened, Silver Ventures reached a milestone in the project, phase one was completed.
May 2006 also had the return of another piece of history to the Pearl Brewery. As the new Pearl Stable opened its doors, Engine #2 of the Texas Transportation Company returned from a complete restoration. Originally built in 1909 as lot #758 by the St. Louis-based St. Louis Car Company, Engine #2 served two Texas-based companies prior to coming to Pearl. Most of its career in use was at the Pearl Brewery after the Texas Transportation Company purchased the engine in 1948. Today, the engine's paint scheme is exactly the one used on the locomotive from the time it arrived at the brewery through the early 1970s. Restored at the country's premier locomotive and passenger car restoration service, the Trans-Texas Rail Shop, Engine #2 is immaculate and one of the few examples of electric locomotives on display.
The Recycling Center, now known as the Can Recycle building, wrapped up construction in early December 2006. The old building is now gone, but the large silo that was decorated as a beer can was retained. The new structure is close to the shape of the old building, but its interior layout and use are vastly different. The surface has been reskinned with a shiny new can depicting the brewery's retro logo, neon beer bubbles, and the phrase "Enjoy the Finer Life", all accentuated with -ime lighting. The new facility contains three studio apartments and two business spaces. The majority of the building is occupied by the Synergy Studio, which provides a full line of yoga classes along with Nia, pilates, and numerous other movement-based workouts. The smaller retail space along Avenue A houses Run Wild Sports, which specializes in running supplies.
In late 2008, construction was completed on the old shipping warehouse on the north end of the brewery, now called Full Goods. The building was partially demolished and the remaining front section stripped of its aluminum siding. New sections were added onto the building to expand its space and divide the floor plans into a variety of commercial offices and retail space. The north side, which runs along Grayson Street, will serve as two-story low-cost live/work apartments for artists, where the artists can work in studio space on the ground floor and live on the second floor. In November 2008, tenants of Full Goods began moving in. The CE Group, an events-hosting company responsible for all events at the brewery, was the first to move into the building's new office spaces. By the end of the year, the building will house Silver Ventures, Rio Perla Properties, American Institute of Architects San Antonio, and The Nature Conservancy. Continuing with Silver Ventures' focus on food, Full Goods also houses 'Melissa Guerra', a Latin American food products and kitchen store, as well as two restaurants: 'Il Sogno', an Italian restaurant and 'La Gloria', which will offer Mexican street food. Full Goods is also home to a $1.35-million solar energy project, Texas' largest, with the capacity to generate 200 kilowatts of electricity.
Restoration continues on the brew house, the centerpiece of the complex. Silver Ventures recently wrapped up 18 months of restoration on the building's exterior. Today, the outside looks much like it did in 1894, especially with the return of the San Antonio Brewing Association company name back to the building plaque. The golden cupolas and white wash are gone from the building, instead the rooftops are charcoal, their original color, and the walls have been stripped down to show their natural stone. The brew house project is far from complete, though, with work remaining on the middle and rear of the building, as well as the entire interior.
Marketing
During the early 20th century, Pearl used advertisement campaigns that featured Judge Roy Bean – one of the more colorful and popular law enforcement personalities of the wild, wild West. In Langtry, Texas, Judge Bean declared himself the "Law West of the Pecos" and ran his court in the town's tiny U.S. Post Office and bar called the Jersey Lilly Saloon. Judge Roy Bean was as famous in the late 19th and early 20th centuries as many of the motion picture stars are today. Judge Bean's favorite (and rumored only) beer in his saloon was Pearl. Seeing this as an opportunity, San Antonio Brewing Association for decades used the connection to Judge Bean and the Jersey Lilly as advertising focal points. Later, in the 1950s, the brewery's old horse stables were converted into a hospitality room and given a Roy Bean feel to them in honor of Judge Roy Bean and his saloon. The old stables were renovated again in the 1970s with the main hall renamed the Lily Langtry Room and the whole building named the Jersey Lilly. In addition, an exact replica of Bean's saloon was built and placed on the brewery grounds for use in Pearl's "Wild West Shows" and as a gift shop. The ties to Bean's larger-than-life legacy lasted almost a century, and remained predominantly visible in the brewery until its closing in 2001.
Texas Transportation Company
The Texas Transportation Company (TXTC) was a class III short-line railroad in San Antonio that serviced the Pearl Brewery. The company operated electric locomotives on their line for more than 113 years. TXTC was started as a private company in 1887 until it was chartered on September 24, 1897. Volunteers from the Texas Transportation Museum operated a steam locomotive a caboose on TXTC trackage on Pearl property from 1964 to 1977 giving train rides to the public. In the early days when the Lone Star Brewing Company was located on W. Jones Avenue, TXTC serviced both breweries. Service ended for the line when the Pearl Brewery closed in 2001.
Three xXx of Texas
The triple-X logo has long been associated with Pearl. In fact, it was used at the brewery even before Pearl beer became synonymous with the company. When the San Antonio Brewing Association bought the City Brewery and opened it for business in the 1880s, they used the triple Xs in the brewery's logo. Three large Xs were enclosed in a circle, with the words “City Brewery” on both sides or around the outside of the circle. This was the brewery's first logo under the San Antonio Brewing Association, thus it appeared on all of their advertising and the majority of their bottled and kegged beers.
With the start of Prohibition, the triple Xs disappeared as the company was forced to transform itself to try to survive. The brewery produced a wide variety of bottled drinks during the beer-less time, including near beer and root beer. Other companies picked up on the use of Xs on their near or root beers, the most famous of which being Triple XXX Root Beer, but Pearl (at that time Alamo Industries/Foods) never used the Xs on any of their products. The Xs were gone from the brewery during Prohibition, but not forgotten.
When the ban on beer ended in 1933, the brewery quickly began the production of Pearl and Texas Pride beer once again. Along with their return, the triple Xs returned, as well. The Xs were absent from advertising and the company logo for 15 years after Prohibition, but they held a prominent status on every single bottle. In the late 1940s, the brewery launched an advertising campaign stating the brewery's beers were the “Three xXx of Texas.” The triple Xs took a renewed and increased role at the brewery, but their growth in prominence did not end there.
In 1952, when the San Antonio Brewing Association changed its name to the Pearl Brewing Company, the triple Xs joined the Pearl name as a dominant image on the product and the company as a whole. The triple Xs were back on the company logo and were used on almost all of Pearl's advertisements. The Xs held this significant role to the end of production at the brewery in 2001, when the brewery closed its doors and the company logo was abandoned. As production of Pearl and Pearl Light spun up at Miller's Fort Worth facility, the product logos were redesigned. The updated label does not use the triple Xs, so a significant part of company identity has been virtually eliminated from the Pearl beers. However, Pearl's Country Club malt liquor still displays the XXXs in its logo.
Many people wonder where the Xs came from, and how were they ever used on beer. In truth, the three Xs are actually a quality rating system. The system was initially used in Europe during the 16th Century. As European royalty traveled their lands and visited neighboring counties, a royal courier was sent ahead of the official party. The courier's job was to sample beer at inns along the way. If the beer was only average, the courier would mark the inn's sign or door with a single X. If the inn's beer was deemed good, the sign or door would receive two Xs. A mark on an inn of three Xs meant that the beer inside was excellent, and a must-stop for the royal court as they passed through.
The triple Xs were adopted by the San Antonio Brewing Association to portray two things: the high quality of their beers, and the pride that workers put into their products. The triple Xs may be gone from company and Pearl beer logos, but it has not completely vanished. In the 1960s, Pearl absorbed the Goetz Brewing Company and made Country Club Malt Liquor one of Pearl's key products. When Country Club received its only product makeover a few years after the buyout, it gained the triple Xs in its logo. The Xs were situated in the top-center of the logo's crown. Country Club is still produced today, and it still carries the “xXx” mark of Pearl.
In 2006, the triple Xs made a huge comeback. When the old horse stables were converted from the Jersey Lilly into the Pearl Stable by Silver Ventures, the “xXx” was a massive part of the building's motif. The triple Xs were incorporated into areas such as the chandeliers, the millwork above all the doors, massive bronze plaques above the stage and around the mezzanine, in the custom carpet, and even the rafter bracing. At almost every event, the audience is dared to count all the sets of triple Xs.
Pearl City, Texas
It is not uncommon to see beers named after the towns where they were brewed. For example, Texas' own Shiner is brewed in Shiner, Texas.
However, what is not common is a town named after a beer. That is exactly what happened, though, in Texas with Pearl. In a small community just west of Yoakum, Texas, a small store had the highest Pearl beer single-point sales for a number of years prior to Prohibition. Walter G. Hagen's general store was the focal point of the community, and it had sold Pearl's beers by the truckload and still sold a rather large volume of the Prohibition-era nonalcoholic Pearl. The idea to name the town after Pearl was concocted by Hagens and the local Pearl distributor, R. J. Eslinger. In 1942, the motion passed and the German/Czech town became known as Pearl City.
Mural
When the Pearl Brewery, then the San Antonio Brewing Association, remodeled their stables into a new meeting/hospitality facility, they had no idea of the importance of some of their decorating choices. The remodeled stables, dubbed the Pearl Corral, focused on a Western theme, with a wide range of influences. The corral contained a replica of Judge Roy Bean's saloon, cactus decorations, ranching fence lines, and the center attraction — a massive mural depicting the days of the old West. Created by Southwest artist James Buchanan “Buck” Winn, his work titled The History of Ranching measured tall and over wide. The mural wrapped completely around the Corral's main room and remained there for two decades.
See also
List of defunct breweries in the United States
References
External links
Official sites
Pearl Brewery – Silver Venture's official site for the former brewery's urban village.
Pearl Brewery's Site Map – Full listing of the proposed buildings and spaces.
Pearl Brewery's Public Spaces – Plan showing all the public areas in the new redevelopment.
Pabst Brewing Company – Official site for the current owner of the Pearl beer brands.
Pearl Beer – Pabst's official site for Pearl beer.
Brewery tenants
AIA San Antonio – The Center for Architecture is home to American Institute of Architects San Antonio chapter and the Architecture Foundation of San Antonio
Aveda Institute San Antonio – Company renowned in the hair and skin industry which trains students in cosmetology.
CE Group – Host company for all of Pearl's events & the first tenants in the Full Goods building.
Culinary Institute of America, San Antonio – Institute which features a 30-week culinary arts program and numerous food enthusiast classes.
Il Sogno – Local chef Andrew Weissman's Italian bistro.
Jazz, TX – Jazz club, owned and operated by musician Doc Watkins
Melissa Guerra – Retail store specializing in top quality Mexican kitchenware and ingredients.
Pearl Farmer's Market – Weekly farmer's market featuring variety of goods as well as cooking demonstrations.
Pearl Stable – State of the art meeting and event venue.
Run Wild Sports – Retail store geared toward various physical fitness activities.
The Nature Conservancy, Texas – The Texas office for a global conservation organization focused on protecting ecologically important lands and waters.
Sandbar Fish House & Market – Local chef Andrew Weissman's second restaurant at Pearl, this one focusing on seafood and shellfish.
The Synergy Studio – Yoga and multi-study studio housed in Pearl's former Can Recycling Building.
Texas Farm to Table – The brewery's original cafe and light catering service specializing in local produce.
The Twig Book Shop – Independent book shop with a variety of books from each genre.
American beer brands
Pabst Brewing Company
History of San Antonio
Food and drink companies established in 1883
Defunct brewery companies of the United States
Defunct manufacturing companies based in Texas
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multicultural%20London%20English
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Multicultural London English
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Multicultural London English (abbreviated MLE) is a sociolect of English that emerged in the late 20th century. It is spoken mainly by young, working-class people in multicultural parts of London.
Speakers of MLE come from a wide variety of ethnic and cultural backgrounds, and live in diverse neighbourhoods. As a result, it can be regarded as a multiethnolect. One study was unable "to isolate distinct (discrete) ethnic styles" in their data on phonetics and quotatives in Hackney and commented that the "differences between ethnicities, where they exist, are quantitative in nature". Linguists have suggested that diversity of friendship groups is a contributing factor to the development of MLE; the more ethnically diverse an adolescent's friendship networks are, the more likely it is that they will speak MLE.
Variants of MLE have emerged in diverse neighbourhoods of other cities, such as Birmingham and Manchester, which fuse elements of MLE with local influences. This has led to some linguists referring to an overarching variety of English known as Multicultural British English (MBE), also known as Multicultural Urban British English (MUBE) or Urban British English (abbreviated UBE), which emerged from and is heavily influenced by MLE.
History
MLE is rooted mostly in the widespread migration from the Caribbean to the UK following World War II, and to a lesser extent the migration from other areas such as South Asia and West Africa. Distinctive Black British slang did not become widely visible until the 1970s. The popularity of Jamaican music in the UK, such as reggae and ska, led to the emergence of slang rooted in Jamaican patois being used in the UK, setting the foundation for what would later become known as MLE. Research conducted in the early 1980s concluded that adolescents of Afro-Caribbean descent were 'bidialectal', switching between Jamaican creole and London English; while white working class adolescents would occasionally use creole-inspired slang, they retained their accents. In 1985, Smiley Culture, a British musician of Jamaican and Guyanese heritage, released "Cockney Translator", one of the first examples of British 'white slang' and British 'black slang' appearing side-by-side on a record (however, still distinct from each other). While Smiley Culture was commenting on how the two forms of slang were very distinct from each other and lived side-by-side, more natural fusions would become common in later years. Some hip-hop artists from the late 80s and early 90s, such as London Posse, regularly infused both cockney and patois influenced slang in their music, showcasing how elements of both were becoming very much entwined and influencing each other, reflecting how younger, working-class Londoners were speaking. Such influences were not restricted to persons of a specific racial background. In 1987, Dick Hebdige, a British sociologist, commented that "In some parts of Britain, West Indian patois has become the public language of inner-city youths, irrespective of their racial origin".
By the late 1990s, London was becoming increasingly multilingual, and residential segregation was less common. Young people from various ethnic backgrounds intermixed and, in Hackney at least, Cockney was no longer the majority-spoken local dialect, resulting in children of various ethnic backgrounds adopting MLE. Linguist Tony Thorne noted that white working-class school kids were using "recreolised lexis". In the following decade, it would become ever more common, showcased prominently in music such as grime and British hip hop, and in films like Kidulthood.
As the media became more aware of MLE in the 2000s, a variety of names emerged to describe it such as "Nang slang", "Blinglish", "Tikkiny", or "Blockney". MLE is sometimes referred to as "Jafaican" (or "Jafaikan"), conveying the idea of "fake Jamaican", because of popular belief that it stems solely from immigrants of Jamaican and Caribbean descent. However, research suggests that the roots of MLE are more varied: two Economic and Social Research Council funded research projects found that MLE has most likely developed as a result of language contact and group second language acquisition. Specifically, it can contain elements from "learners' varieties of English, Englishes from the Indian subcontinent and Africa, Caribbean creoles and Englishes along with their indigenised London versions, local London and south-eastern vernacular varieties of English, local and international youth slang, as well as more levelled and standard-like varieties from various sources."
According to research conducted at Lancaster University and Queen Mary University of London in 2010, "In much of the East End of London the Cockney dialect... will have disappeared within another generation.... it will be gone [from the East End] within 30 years.... It has been 'transplanted' to... [Essex and Hertfordshire New] towns."
With the worldwide growth of grime and UK drill from the mid-2010s onwards, elements of MLE began to spread internationally along with the genres. Some Australian, Canadian, Dutch, and Irish musicians, such as Onefour, Drake, and 73 De Pijp, for example, have been noted for using slang derivatives of MLE. Kate Burridge and Howard Manns, both Australian linguists, also noted that some MLE phrases (such as 'peng', meaning attractive or good) were being used generally by Australian youth. Similar influences have also been noted in Finnish teenagers.
It has been noted that in other countries, such as Canada, Multicultural Toronto English has developed very strong similarities derived from MLE, which arose independently but with similar cultural influences and origin roots. A Canadian linguist, Derek Denis, has been noting MTE for some of the MLE phrases (such as "mans", meaning a group of guys, "wasteman", meaning someone's a waste of space or a loser, and “yute”, a slang term of Jamaican origin for “youth”, used to refer to a young adult or child), which were commonly used by Torontonian youths.
Grammar
Was/were variation: The past tense of the verb "to be" is regularised. Regularisation of was/were is something that is found across the English speaking world. Many non-standard systems in Britain (and parts of the US Mid-Atlantic coast) use was variably for positive conjugations, and weren't for negative conjugations (System 1 below) to make the distinction between positive and negative contexts clearer (cf. will/won't and are/ain't). Most non-Standard varieties in the English speaking world have a system where both positive and negative contexts have levelled to was (System 2 below). Speakers of MLE use any of the three systems, with choice correlating with ethnicity and gender. Cheshire and Fox (2008) found the use of non-standard was to be most common among Black Caribbean speakers, and least common among those of Bangladeshi descent. Bangladeshis were also found to use non-standard weren't the least, but this variable was used more by white British speakers than anyone else.
An innovative feature is the ability to form questions in "Why ... for?" compared to Standard English "Why ...?" or "What ... for?".
The "traditional Southern" England phrasal preposition "off of" has "robust use", especially with "Anglo females".
Man as a pronoun: 'Man' is widely used as a first person singular pronoun, which may be rendered "man's" when combined with certain verbs such as "to be" and "to have": "man got arrested", "man's getting emotional". "Man" can also be used to refer to the second-person or third-person singular: "Where's man going?" (Where are you/is he going?)
Discourse-pragmatic markers
Innit, arguably a reduction of 'isn't it', has a third discourse function in MLE, in addition to the widespread usage as a tag-question or a follow-up as in [1] and [2] below. In MLE, innit can also mark information structure overtly, to mark a topic or to foreground new information, as in the italicised example in [3].
[1] they was getting jealous though innit
[2] Hadiya: it weren't like it was an accident
Bisa: innit
[3] yeah I know. I'm a lot smaller than all of them man and who were like "whoa". I mean the sister innit she's about five times bigger than you innit Mark?
This is as a quotative, to introduce direct reported speech at key points in dramatic narrative.
this is my mum's boyfriend "put that in your pocket now".
Phonology
While older speakers in London today display a vowel and consonant system that matches previously dominant accents such as Cockney, young speakers often display different qualities. The qualities are on the whole not the levelled ones noted in recent studies (such as Williams & Kerswill 1999 and Przedlacka 2002) of teenage speakers in South East England outside London: Milton Keynes, Reading, Luton, Essex, Slough and Ashford. From principles of levelling, it would be expected that younger speakers would show precisely the levelled qualities, with further developments reflecting the innovatory status of London as well as the passage of time. However, evidence, such as Cheshire et al. (2011) and Cheshire et al. (2013), contradicts that expectation.
Vowels
Fronting of , the vowel in FOOT: "more retracted in the outer-city borough of Havering than in Hackney"
Lack of -fronting: fronting of the offset of "absent in most inner-London speakers" of both sexes and all ethnicities but "present in outer-city girls".
-lowering across region: it is seen as a reversal of the diphthong shift. However, the added fronting is greater in London than in the southeastern periphery, resulting in variants such as and monophthongised . Fronting and monophthongisation of are correlated with ethnicity and strongest among Black, Asian, and minority ethnic (BAME) speakers. It seems to be a geographically directional and diachronically gradual process. The change (from approximately ) involves lowering of the onset, and as such, it is a reversal of the diphthong shift. It can be interpreted as a London innovation with diffusion to the periphery.
Raised onset of the vowel in words like FACE, which results in variants such as . Like , monophthongisation of to is strongest among BAME. It is also seen as a reversal of the diphthong shift.
realised as and not "levelled" : In inner-city London, is the norm for . Additionally, is used by some BAME, especially girls, in the inner city.
Advanced fronting of results in realisations such as
Backing of can result in variants such as .
Backing of results in variants such as or , rather than .
Consonants
Reversal of H-dropping: word-initial was commonly dropped in traditional Cockney in words like hair and hand. That is now much less common, with some MLE speakers not dropping at all.
Backing of to : is pronounced further back in the vocal tract and is realised as when it occurs before non-high back vowels, such as in words like cousin and come.
Th-fronting: is fronted to in words such as three and through (which become free and frough), and is fronted to in words such as brother and another, which become bruvver and anuvver.
Th-stopping: interdental fricatives can be stopped, and thing and that become ting and dat.
Among speakers of Jamaican descent, London t-glottalization may additionally apply to resulting from stopped , for example both of them . Hypercorrections like for foot may also be heard among Jamaicans.
According to Geoff Lindsey, one of the most striking features of MLE is the advanced articulation of the sibilants as post-dental .
Like most accents of England, Multicultural London English is non-rhotic.
Vocabulary
Examples of vocabulary common in Multicultural London English include:
Adjectives
"Bait" (obvious, or well known)
"Balling" (rich)
"Bare" (very/a lot/many)
"Booky" (suspicious, strange)
"Buff" (strong/attractive) (can be used in conjunction with "ting" meaning an attractive situation, or more commonly, an attractive woman)
"Butters" (ugly, or disgusting)
"Dead/bad" (boring, empty)
"Deep" (very unfortunate/serious) (used to describe a situation)
"Dutty" (dirty, bad, ugly)
"Gassed" (overwhelmed, happy, excited, full of oneself)
"Greezy" (bad)
"Gully" (rough, cool)
"Hench" (physically fit, strong)
"Leng" (attractive, gun, something good)
"Long" (laborious, tedious)
"Moist" (soft / uncool, more extreme form of ‘wet’)
"Peak" (a situation or thing that is awful, undesirable, disappointing, or embarrassing. Originally it held a positive connotation)
"Peng" (attractive person, or something good)
"Piff" (attractive person, something good)
"Safe" (greetings, good)
"Shook" (scared)
"Wavey" (high or drunk)
"Wet" (uncool, boring, soft)
Interjections
"Dun know" ("of course" or "you already know", also an expression of approval. An abbreviated form of "You done know" as in "You done know how it goes".)
"Alie/Ahlie!" ("Am I lying?", used as an expression of agreement)
"Oh, my days!" (a generalised exclamation, previously common in the 1940s and 1950s)
"Safe" (expression of approval, greeting, thanks, agreement, and also used as a parting phrase)
"Rah!" (exclamation, used to express bad, excitement, shocking, unbelievable, wow)
"Big man ting" ("seriously", used before making a statement)
"Swear down!" ("swear it", "really?")
Pronouns
"Man" (first or second-person singular)
"You" (second-person singular)
"My man" (third-person singular, masculine)
"My G" (short for "my guy")
"My guy" (close friend or acquaintance)
"Dem man" (they)
"Us man" (we)
"You man" (you, plural)
Nouns
"Akh" (a term of endearment, derived from the Arabic word for brother)
"Blem" (a cigarette)
"Blud" (an endearing term for a close friend; from "blood" implying family)
"Boss(man)" (used to refer to an individual, often a service worker in a convenience store or chicken shop)
"Bruv" (an endearing term used for a close friend or brother)
"Boy" (a term of belittlement, to belittle someone)
"Creps" (shoes, more typically trainers or sneakers)
"Ends" (neighbourhood)
"Dinger" (car, often in a criminal context, referring to a stolen vehicle)
"Fam" (short for "family", can also refer to "friend")
"Gally" (girl(s))
"Garms" (clothes, derived from garments)
"Gyal" (girl)
"Gyaldem" (group of girls)
"Mandem" (group of men, male friends)
"Paigon" (a modified spelling of English word "pagan", to refer to a fake friend/enemy)
"Rambo" (knife)
"Riddim" (instrumental/beat of a song)
"Roadman" (a youth member that spends a lot of time on the streets and may sell and use drugs, or cause trouble)
"Shank" (to stab, knife)
"Side ting" (sexual partner other than a girlfriend/wife, as in the standard British phrase "a bit on the side")
"Skeng" (gun, knife)
"Sket" (a promiscuous woman)
"Ting" (a thing or a situation, also an attractive woman)
"Wasteman" (a worthless/useless person)
"Upsuh" (out of town)
"Wap" (gun)
"Wifey" (girlfriend or wife)
"Yard" (house or dwelling)
Verbs
"Air" (to ignore somebody)
"Aks" (ask, an example of metathesis that also occurs in West Country dialects)
"Allow (it/that)" (to urge someone else to exercise self-restraint)
"Beef" (argument, fight)
"Beg" (please, a wannabe/try-hard)
"Bun" (to smoke, to kill someone)
"Buss" (to give/to send, to bust, or to ejaculate)
"Chat breeze" (talk rubbish/lie)
"Cheff" (stab, from a chef cutting with a knife)
"Ching" (stab)
"Chirpse" (to flirt with somebody)
"Clap" (to hit/shoot/attack)
"Cotch" (to hang out)
"Crease" (to laugh hysterically)
"Dash" (to throw)
"Duss" (to make a run for it)
"Gas" (to lie)
"Jack" (to steal something)
"Kweff" (to stab)
"Link (up)" (to meet up, give someone something, pre-relationship status)
"Lips" (to kiss, specifically on the mouth)
"Merk" (to beat someone, finish someone off)
"Par (off)" (to verbally abuse someone, or to make a mockery of someone)
"Pattern" (to fix something/yourself up/get something/get something done)
"Pree" (to stare at something or someone)
"Set (me some/that)" (to ask for an item)
"Shoobz" (to party)
"Touch yard" (to have reached home)
"Twos" (to share something with somebody)
In popular culture
In The Real McCoy, one of the earliest seen forms of the language is widespread throughout this series.
The Bhangra Muffin characters from Goodness Gracious Me use an early form of Multicultural London English.
Characters of all ethnicities in the Channel 4 series Phoneshop use Multicultural London English continually.
Characters in the film Kidulthood and its sequel Adulthood also use the dialect, as well as the parody film Anuvahood.
The satirical character Ali G parodies the speech patterns of Multicultural London English for comic effect.
The gang protagonists of the film Attack the Block speak Multicultural London English.
Several characters in the sitcom People Just Do Nothing speak Multicultural London English.
Lauren Cooper (and her friends Lisa and Ryan) from The Catherine Tate Show often use Multicultural London English vocabulary.
In the feature film Kingsman: The Secret Service, the protagonist Gary "Eggsy" Unwin uses MLE, but his mother and stepfather use regular Cockney.
Lisa, the police officer in Little Miss Jocelyn, speaks Multicultural London English and interprets speech for colleagues.
Armstrong & Miller has a series of Second World War sketches with two RAF pilots who juxtapose the dialect's vocabulary and grammar with a 1940s RP accent for comedic effect.
A BBC article about Adele mentioned her as being a speaker of Multicultural London English.
The Chicken Connoisseur (Elijah Quashie), a YouTube user who rates the quality of takeaways selling chicken and chips, frequently uses Multicultural London English vocabulary.
TikTok user MC(@m.combe07), real name Moses Combe, who posts videos on the ‘Most tired areas of the U.K.’ uses MLE.
The TV show Chewing Gum uses Multicultural London English throughout.
The song "Man's Not Hot" by comedian Michael Dapaah under the pseudonym Big Shaq, which satirises UK drill music, utilises MLE.
Many of the characters in the show Top Boy use Multicultural London English.
The main characters and most characters in supporting roles use Multicultural London English in the show Man Like Mobeen.
The Spider-Man: Across the Spiderverse adaptation of Hobie Brown/Spider Punk uses MLE heavily throughout the film. The character's voice actor, Daniel Kaluuya, is from London.
See also
Cockney
Estuary English
Koiné language
Multiethnolect
Citations
References
University of Lancaster press release,
In: Auer, Peter, Hilpert, Martin, Stukenbrock, Anja and Szmrecsanyi, Benedikt,(eds.) Space in language and linguistics. linguae and litterae . Walter de Gruyter, pp. 128–164.
Further reading
David Sutcliffe, Black British English, Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1982.
Linguistic innovators: the English of adolescents in London, Oxford Graduate Seminar, 12 November 2007 (ppt).
Paul Kerswill and Eivind Torgersen, Endogenous change in inner-London teenage speech as the generator of vowel innovations (ppt).
External links
Paul Kerswill's Multicultural London English Page, Multicultural London English – Language and Linguistic Science, The University of York
Paul Kerswill: A new urban dialect in a connected world: Multicultural London English (lecture given at Shaanxi Normal University, 2019),
Emily Ashton, Learn Jafaikan in Two Minutes, The Guardian, 12 April 2006.
20th-century establishments in England
Languages attested from the 20th century
City colloquials
English language in England
English language in London
Multiculturalism in the United Kingdom
Working-class culture in England
Youth culture in the United Kingdom
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark%20Allen%20%28snooker%20player%29
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Mark Allen (snooker player)
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Mark Allen (born 22 February 1986) is a Northern Irish professional snooker player from Antrim. He won the World Amateur Championship in 2004, turned professional the following year, and took only three seasons to reach the top 16. In his fourth professional season, he beat the defending champion Ronnie O’Sullivan en route to the semi-finals of the 2009 World Championship, where he lost to the eventual winner, John Higgins.
Allen reached his first ranking final at the 2011 UK Championship, where he lost to Judd Trump. He won his first ranking title the following year at the 2012 World Open. He captured his first Triple Crown title when he defeated Kyren Wilson to win the 2018 Masters, and his second when he defeated Ding Junhui to win the 2022 UK Championship. He has won a career total of nine ranking titles. The 2022–23 season was the best of Allen's career to date, as he reached four ranking finals, won three ranking titles—at the 2022 Northern Ireland Open, the 2022 UK Championship, and the 2023 World Grand Prix—and reached a career high of number three in the world rankings. He reached the second world semi-final of his career at the 2023 World Snooker Championship, but lost 15–17 to Mark Selby.
A prolific break-builder, Allen has compiled more than 550 century breaks in professional competition. He has made two maximum breaks, achieving his first in the 2016 UK Championship and his second in the 2021 Northern Ireland Open qualifying round.
Career
Early career
At a young age, Allen considered a career in football, having trials with Sheffield Wednesday and Nottingham Forest before concentrating on snooker. Playing out of the Fountain Club in Antrim, he was Northern Ireland U14 champion in 2000, the U16 champion in 2001, before winning the Irish U16, U18 and U19 titles in one weekend in 2002, becoming the first player to win all three tournaments. By the age of 16 he had recorded his first maximum break and was a winner of the Golden Waistcoat, a tournament for the best U19 players from around the world.
He began his professional career by playing Challenge Tour in 2003, at the time the second-level professional tour. Before entering the Main Tour for the 2005–06 season, Allen won the European Championship and the IBSF World Championship, plus Northern Ireland Championship at under-14, under-16, and under-19 levels. His early career was aided by National Lottery funding.
By chance, an invitational Northern Ireland Trophy was staged shortly after Allen turned professional. As a local player, he was invited and made an immediate impact, defeating Steve Davis and John Higgins to reach the quarter-finals, before losing to Stephen Hendry. In his first year on the tour, he reached the last 32 of the 2005 UK Championship and the 2006 Welsh Open, losing 2–5 to the then World Champion Shaun Murphy after leading 2–0. He also got to the final qualifying round of the 2006 World Championship, losing 7–10 to Andy Hicks, after leading 7–4.
In March 2007 he qualified for the World Championship for the first time, winning three matches, culminating in a 10–4 win over Robert Milkins. In April 2007 he beat former world champion Ken Doherty 10–7 in the first round held at the Crucible Theatre in Sheffield, but lost to Matthew Stevens 9–13 in the second round. This was his first run to the last 16 of a tournament and helped him into the top 32 of the rankings (at no. 29).
In the 2007 Grand Prix, in a match with Ken Doherty, he was involved in an incident that led to his opponent branding him "a disgrace". Unhappy that the black would not go back on its spot after potting it, Allen struck the side cushion of the table with his fist. The referee told him that he would be warned if he did that again. Allen was not warned, and ended up winning the match. Doherty said, "He was a disgrace. For such a relative newcomer to the pro game, he's got a serious attitude problem". Allen later commented: "It was entirely my own fault and if there are going to be any repercussions then so be it." Allen did not reach the knockout stage of the tournament.
In the 2007 Northern Ireland Trophy he beat Graeme Dott and Ryan Day, 5–3 in each case, to reach his first ever quarter-final. There he defeated Gerard Greene 5–3 to reach the semi-final, where he lost 3–6 to Fergal O'Brien. In the following UK Championship he defeated Stephen Hendry in the last 32. He opened his last-16 match against Mark Williams with two centuries in the first three frames, building a 5–1 lead, but Williams fought back and he lost 5–9. He then reached the quarter-finals in the 2008 China Open before losing to Shaun Murphy. At the 2008 World Championship he led Stephen Hendry 6–3, 7–4 and 9–7 before losing 9–10. However, first-round defeats for all his rivals for a top-16 place ensured that he finished the season at number 16 in the rankings.
2009–2011 seasons
After a consistent season, Allen was back at the Crucible the following year where he beat Martin Gould in his opening match. He faced Ronnie O'Sullivan in the second round; confident and unaffected by his opponent's reputation, Allen beat the defending champion 13–11 for a quarter-final place in the 2009 World Championship. He then defeated Ryan Day by the same scoreline to reach the semi-finals, where he lost 13–17 to John Higgins, despite making a determined fightback from 3–13 down. Soon after his run in the World Championship, Allen won his first professional tournament, the 2009 Jiangsu Classic beating home favourite Ding Junhui 6–0 in the final.
During the 2010 Masters, Allen beat the World Champion, John Higgins, by 6–3 in the last 16, but lost 5–6 to eventual champion Mark Selby in the quarter-finals.
On the first day of the 2010 World Championship on 17 April 2010, Allen came close to recording his first ever maximum break in his first round match against Tom Ford after potting 15 reds with blacks, and the yellow, before breaking down on the green. Five days later, Allen made the first 146 break in World Championship history, and the second of his career after defeating Mark Davis 13–5 in the second round. He was defeated 12–13 in the quarter-final by Graeme Dott, having led 12–10.
At the 2010 UK Championship, Allen reached the semi-finals for the first time, where he was beaten 9–5 by eventual champion John Higgins. In the Masters, Allen again reached the semi-finals, and led Marco Fu 4–1 before Fu reeled off five frames in a row to win 6–4. At the 2011 World Championship, Allen entered as the 11th seed and played Matthew Stevens in the first round, recovering from 9–6 down and seeing Stevens miss a pot on the final pink to win the match 10–7, before winning 10–9. In the second round, Allen defeated Barry Hawkins 13–12. He reached the quarter-finals for the second year in a row but lost to Mark Williams 5–13.
2011/2012 season
The season began with Allen ranked world number 12 and he began it at the inaugural Australian Goldfields Open, where he beat Ryan Day and Marcus Campbell. Into the quarter finals, Allen was beaten by his rival Stuart Bingham 5–3. The next ranking event was the Shanghai Masters where Allen reached the second round and held a 4–2 advantage over Shaun Murphy before losing the next 3 frames and being edged out of the match 5–4. His steady start to the season meant that he maintained his world ranking of 12 after the first cut-off point.
Allen made it to his first ranking event final at the 2011 UK Championship by beating Adrian Gunnell, Ali Carter, Marco Fu and Ricky Walden. It was his first success in a ranking event semi-final, after having lost in all five prior attempts. In the final he played Judd Trump with whom he held a 2–1 advantage in the previous meetings between the pair. Allen opened up a 3–1 lead early in the best of 19 frames match, but subsequently lost the next seven frames to trail 3–8. However, such a deficit brought out the best in Allen as he won five of the next six frames, which included three centuries. The comeback was not quite completed though, as Trump secured the frame he required to take an 8–10 victory. Allen said after the final, "I knew it was going to be hard the way he was playing, he scores so heavy and so quickly and I didn't feel I was playing too bad but Judd played so well and it was hard to compete." Allen made five centuries during the tournament, the most of anyone in the event.
Allen lost the last four frames in the first round of the Masters to Neil Robertson having led 3–2 and stated afterwards that he had "completely lost interest" in the match. He accused the Australian of employing slow tactics and said that at times he didn't want to watch him play. He then exited the German Masters in the second round and lost to Shaun Murphy in the quarter-finals of the Welsh Open.
In March, Allen won his first ever ranking event as he captured the World Open title in Haikou, China. He beat qualifier Jimmy Robertson in the first round, before exacting revenge over Judd Trump for his defeat in York, by coming back from 0–3 down to triumph 5–4. He comfortably beat Mark King 5–1 in the quarter-finals, before producing another comeback from 2–5 down against world number 1 Mark Selby to win 6–5 and reach his second ranking final of the season. Allen played Stephen Lee in the final and dominated the encounter from start to finish as he won by 10 frames to 1. His season finished in disappointment, however, as he exited both the China Open and World Championship in the first round, to end the year where he started it, ranked world number 12.
2012/2013 season
Allen began the season with second round losses to Mark Williams at the Wuxi Classic and Judd Trump in the Shanghai Masters. His first title of the year soon followed at the minor-ranking Antwerp Open, by making three centuries in a 4–1 win over Mark Selby in the final. Allen then beat Robert Milkins and Cao Yupeng both 6–2 in the inaugural International Championship, before being edged out 5–6 by Trump in the quarter-finals. Marco Fu at the UK Championship beat Allen 6–3. At the Masters Allen came past Mark Davis 6–2, but was then narrowly beaten 5–6 by Neil Robertson in a high-quality encounter in the quarter-finals. At the Snooker Shoot-Out, the tournament where each match is decided by a 10-minute frame, Allen won through to the final where he lost to Martin Gould. He suffered successive second round defeats at the German Masters and the Welsh Open to Barry Hawkins and Ding Junhui respectively, before he travelled to China in an attempt to defend his World Open title from 2012. Allen comfortably won every match he played at the event as he beat Ryan Day 5–2, Robert Milkins 5–2, Ricky Walden 5–1, John Higgins 6–2 and Matthew Stevens 10–4 in the final to capture his second ranking title. Allen's Antwerp Open win from earlier in the season helped him finish eighth on the Players Tour Championship Order of Merit to qualify for the Finals where he lost 3–4 in the quarter-finals to Ding, who made a 147 and two further centuries during the match. Robertson beat Allen 5–1 in the second round of the China Open, and then Allen was the victim of a first round shock at the World Championship for a second year in a row as he lost to world number 30 Mark King 8–10, having led 8–6. Despite this, he climbed five spots in the rankings during the year to finish it ranked world number seven.
2013/2014 season
After losing in the first round of the opening two ranking events of the year, Allen won the minor-ranking Ruhr Open in Mülheim, Germany, by beating Ding Junhui 4–1 in the final. He also won the next European Tour event, the Kay Suzanne Memorial Cup by battling past former world champions Neil Robertson and Graeme Dott in the quarter-finals and semis respectively. He beat Judd Trump 4–1 in the final to become the first player to win back-to-back events since they were introduced in 2010. In the last 16 of the UK Championship, Allen and Judd Trump both struggled for consistency during their match, with Allen giving Trump a hug when the pair missed a succession of easy balls. Allen went on to win 6–4 to reach his first major quarter-final of the season, where he lost 6–2 to Ricky Walden. Allen came close to recording a hat-trick of World Open titles as he won through to the semi-finals, but was beaten 6–4 by Shaun Murphy. His two titles earlier in the season meant Allen was the number one seed for the PTC Finals where he lost in the quarter-finals 4–2 against Gerard Greene. Allen was 9–7 behind against Neil Robertson after the second session of his last 16 match at the World Championship and lost all four frames in the next session to be defeated 13–7. Afterwards, Allen tipped Robertson for the title saying he had faced perfect snooker from the Australian.
2014/2015 season
In August 2014, he reached the final of the Riga Open but lost 4–3 to Mark Selby. Two weeks later Allen won the Paul Hunter Classic defeating Judd Trump 4–2 in the final. He advanced to the final of the Shanghai Masters where he was beaten 10–3 by Stuart Bingham. At the International Championship, Allen led Mark Williams 7–4 by producing some of his best snooker which included a total of eight breaks above 50. However, Williams fought back to lead 8–7 before Allen came from 71–0 down and requiring two snookers to steal the next frame 73–71. Williams missed a tricky final red in the decider to allow Allen in to reach the final. In this match with Ricky Walden, there were never more than two frames between the players until from 7–7 Walden raced away to take the last three frames and condemn Allen to a second ranking event final defeat of the season. Despite taking a 3–0 lead over Rod Lawler with two centuries, Allen was knocked out 6–4 in the third round of the UK Championship.
He eliminated John Higgins and Joe Perry both 6–4 to play in the semi-finals of the Masters for the second time. Allen won the opening two frames against Shaun Murphy, but then lost six frames in a row. The rest of the season would prove to be disappointing for Allen as he couldn't advance beyond the last 16 of any event and after he lost the last five frames against Barry Hawkins in the second round of the World Championship to be beaten 13–11, he stated that the match had summed up his year as he was great in patches but overall came up short. He had not been coached by Terry Griffiths this season and Allen said that he was hopeful his form would improve next year by working with him again.
2015/2016 season
Allen reached the semi-finals of the Shanghai Masters with a 5–1 victory over Mark Davis, but was beaten 6–1 by Kyren Wilson. In the quarter-finals of the International Championship he compiled a 118 break to send the match into a deciding frame, but Thepchaiya Un-Nooh won it. Allen swept to the final of the Bulgarian Open by whitewashing Mark Williams 4–0 and did not drop a frame against Ryan Day either as he took home the title, his first in 15 months. The win qualified Allen for the Champion of Champions and he knocked out Barry Hawkins, Stephen Maguire and Wilson to reach another final, where he lost 10–5 to Neil Robertson. Robertson was also the victor when the pair met in the semi-finals of the Welsh Open, this time 6–4.
Allen came from 4–2 down against Shaun Murphy to win 6–4 and reach his first ranking event final of the season at the PTC Finals. He was 3–1 down to Ricky Walden, but a crucial run of six successive frames would be key as Allen won 10–6. He became the first Northern Irishman to win a ranking event in the UK since Dennis Taylor won the world title in 1985. Allen lost the opening seven frames against Kyren Wilson in the second round of the World Championship and was also 11–5 behind. He closed the gap to 11–9, but had left himself too much to do as he lost 13–9. Allen called the season a waste as he had not become the world champion.
2016/2017 season
Allen lost in the last 16 of the Paul Hunter Classic and the European Masters 4–3 to Thepchaiya Un-Nooh and 4–2 to Ronnie O'Sullivan respectively. He made three centuries to eliminate Mark Selby 6–5 at the inaugural China Championship 5–4, but was then heavily beaten 9–3 by John Higgins. A week later he defeated Selby by the same scoreline and stage at the Champion of Champions, before losing 6–2 to O'Sullivan.
Allen's only ranking event quarter-final this season came at his home event the Northern Ireland Open, but he lost 5–2 to Anthony Hamilton. He made the first 147 of his career during his 6–4 win over Rod Lawler in the second round of the UK Championship and then recovered from 4–0 down to eliminate Ryan Day 6–5. Allen was knocked out 6–3 by John Higgins in the fourth round, losing the final four frames of the match. He exacted some revenge by edging out Higgins 6–5 in the opening round of the Masters, before being defeated 6–2 by Marco Fu. He met Higgins again in the second round of the World Championship and, though Allen made four centuries and seven other breaks above 50, he was beaten 13–9.
2017/2018 season
Allen´s first tournament where he played was International Championship. He´s got to final on first try, but lost to Mark Selby 7-10. This was his first and last participation in a ranking final at the same time in this season. Later he added a semi-final in World open and other quarter-final in European Masters.
However, Allen succeeded in the Masters beating Luca Brecel, Ronnie O'Sullivan, John Higgins and runner-up Kyren Wilson 10-7. This was the only tournament victory for Allen in this season. In World championship, he finished in last 8. His opponent in quarter-final was Kyren Wilson again, but this time Allen was beaten 6-13 by him.
2018/2019 season
Although Allen didn't succeed in the final of International championship in previous season, this time he did. In the final, he met with Neil Robertson and beat him comfortably 10-5 and also made a highest break (146). But after this triumph followed a few unsatisfactory results. Despite this, Allen reached UK Championship final after a won decider in semi-final against Stuart Bingham at the start of December. His opponent was a defending champion Ronnie O'Sullivan, who won over Allen 10-6.
Just after UK championship Allen added his 5th ranking victory by winning last tournament in year 2018 Scottish open by defeating Shaun Murphy in the final.
But in the second half of the season, Allen wasn't able to get further than semi-final. Allen suffered a failure in World championship, because he lost in first round against Zhou Yuelong.
Despite the negative outcomes, he won more than one ranking tournament in his career for the first time and reached his highest ranking, fifth, in March 2019.
2019/2020 season
Allen could not reach a final in the first half of the season, he lost in all six semi-finals which he reached. In International Championship and Shanghai Masters Allen lost against Shaun Murphy, in English open against Mark Selby and in Champion of champions lost to Judd Trump. In the UK Championship, he suffered a whitewash from Stephen Maguire. Allen's attempt to regain his Scottish open title in 2018 ended in the decider of the semi-final match against Jack Lisowski. At the World Championship Allen equalled the record of making 5 centuries in a first round match against qualifier Jamie Clarke; however, he went on to lose the match against the Welsh number 89 - the lowest ranked player in the tournament- 8-10. He ended the season where he finished the last one, ranked number 5.
2020/2021 season
Allen's most notable achievement during the 2020/2021 season was winning the 2020 Champion of Champions. He defeated Ronnie O'Sullivan in a contentious quarter-final that saw O'Sullivan accusing Allen of deliberately standing in his line of sight and Allen accusing O'Sullivan of being a 'bully'. Allen went on to defeat Judd Trump in the semi-finals and Neil Robertson 10–6 in the final.
2021/2022 season
In the 2021/2022 season, Allen won his first Northern Ireland Open title, coming from 6–8 behind in the final to defeat John Higgins 9–8. Earlier in the tournament, in his qualifying round match against Si Jiahui, he made the second maximum break of his professional career.
2022/2023 season
In this phenomenal season for Allen, he won three ranking events to date and also reached a further final and a semifinal.
He won the UK Championship 2022 10–7 against Ding Junhui, coming back from 1–6 behind.
Rivalry
Allen has had a rivalry with Stuart Bingham. After Bingham squandered a 12–9 lead in the second round of the 2011 World Snooker Championship to lose 13–12 against Ding Junhui, Allen stated that Bingham had "no bottle" and admitted that there was history between the players and that they did not get on. Bingham responded by calling Allen an idiot and the tension between the two was clearly high as they were drawn to play each other in the second round of the 2011 Australian Goldfields Open. Before the match, Bingham said that he couldn't wait to play and that he had been waiting for it for a long time. He also stated that he didn't care what Allen thought and it would give him more pleasure to beat him. Bingham fulfilled his pre-match words by defeating Allen 5–3 and also went on to win the tournament by coming back from 8–5 down to beat Mark Williams 9–8 in the final.
When the draw for the 2011 UK Championship was made it revealed that there was a potential quarter-final clash between the two. Anticipating the meeting, Bingham said that the "feud was not over" and that he would be staying away from Allen and not be speaking to him until they next played. The match-up was avoided, however, when Bingham lost in the first round to Marco Fu. Allen announced before the start of the 2013 World Championship that there was no problem between himself and Bingham since Bingham had proved him wrong by winning tournaments, and the two have had drinks and dinner together. After Bingham won the 2015 World Championship he said "Thanks to Mark Allen. He said I had no bottle and since then things have changed".
Allen also has a rivalry with Mark Joyce and has made no secret of his dislike for him, stating that: "I don't like Mark Joyce, basically he is a dick, on and off the table, I doubt even his mum likes him." He went on to accuse Joyce of gamesmanship during their match at the 2016 Northern Irish Open.
Controversy
In a post-match press conference after his first round win in the 2011 UK Championship, Allen called for the chairman of the World Professional Billiards and Snooker Association (WPBSA), Barry Hearn, to resign. Allen's reasoning for this was based upon his belief that Hearn had promised not to alter the structure of any of the major snooker tournaments in the calendar (the World Snooker Championships, the UK Championships and the Masters) when he was appointed chairman in June 2010, whereas in fact the UK Championship had seen matches decided on a best-of-11-frames basis, rather than the best-of-17-frames used in previous years. Allen also stated his perception that the crowd atmosphere within snooker was turning into that of one usually associated with darts and that the tradition of snooker was "going to pot". Allen then swore when talking about Hearn at a press conference.
The WPBSA announced that Allen would be facing a disciplinary committee for swearing when talking about Hearn and that he could be charged with bringing the game into disrepute. Hearn himself responded by saying he was "far too busy to worry about silly little boys making silly little comments". Upon learning that Hearn had been on holiday for the entirety of the event, Allen said it was a "joke" and only confirmed the views which he had expressed earlier in the week. The pair held a meeting in January 2012, to settle their differences ahead of the forthcoming Masters tournament. Hearn said after the meeting that the way he was running the game may not suit everyone, but his concern was the game of snooker in general. Hearn added: "Mark's prize money this year is probably double what he's earned in the last couple of years so I must be doing something right. We had a very frank and friendly exchange of views and in the end I think he saw my point of view, but time will tell." Allen was fined £250 for his actions by the WPBSA later in the month.
Just two months later while playing in the World Open in Haikou, China, Allen described the conditions on his Twitter page as "horrendous", following up with: "Journey a nightmare. People are ignorant. Place stinks. Arena's rubbish, tables poor, food is horrendous. Other than that I love China", although this tweet was later deleted. Answering critics of that particular tweet, he said they should "get a life". World Snooker described his remarks as very disappointing. It was later revealed that Allen was fined £1,000 for his criticism and he went on to close his Twitter account in April. He later reopened it and used it for some time but proceeded to close it again for most of 2020, citing repeat issues of abuse and trolling that have disrupted his game. As of late 2020, it has since been reopened.
Following his defeat at the 2012 World Snooker Championship to Chinese qualifier Cao Yupeng, he openly accused his opponent of cheating and unsporting behaviour for not owning up to what he perceived to be a foul. Allen attributed the deception to his perceived cultural differences between British and Chinese players, purportedly with incidents involving Chinese professional Liang Wenbo and Hong Kong's Marco Fu. Barry Hearn confirmed that Allen would once again face a disciplinary process and said that the player's actions had left him "speechless". Allen was fined a total of £11,000 and warned he would be suspended from the tour for three months if he breached the rules again in the following six months. He was also required to undergo media training.
Prior to the commencement of the 2013 World Snooker Championship, Allen renewed his criticisms of Barry Hearn. Allen voiced concerns that the World Snooker Tour's increasing emphasis on events in China was pricing players out of competing, pointing out that since Hearn took over the running of the game players now have to pay for their own flights, which can incur extra expenses of £10,000–£15,000 per season. Allen, who earned £278,000 over the course of the previous two years, further added he did not believe he was being fairly compensated for his services.
At the 2019 World Grand Prix, he conceded the match against Ali Carter in the fifth frame with 11 reds on the table after missing the yellow.
Personal life
In 2005, Allen began a relationship with women's world snooker champion Reanne Evans. They had a daughter, Lauren Sophie, born in May 2006, when both parents were 20 years old. Evans and Allen ended their relationship in 2008. Following his breakup with Evans, Allen fell into a deep depression and had periods where he did not leave his home. Allen and Evans have continued to be involved in legal disputes over child maintenance payments. In 2022, Allen noted that he no longer sees his daughter Lauren, but said "I still think about her all the time".
Allen met Kyla McGuigan in 2011 and the couple married on 10 May 2013. McGuigan's son from a previous relationship, Robbie McGuigan, became a noted amateur snooker player, winning under-16 and under-21 tournaments at an early age and achieving a 147 break in 2018 at age 13. Allen and McGuigan's daughter Harleigh was born in 2017. By May 2020, Allen and McGuigan had separated and were in the process of divorcing. In May 2021, Allen declared himself bankrupt. In 2022, following his divorce from McGuigan, he became engaged to Aideen Cassidy, whom he had met through mutual friends and got to know on long walks during the COVID-19 pandemic.
Following a conversation with Ronnie O'Sullivan at the 2022 World Snooker Championship, and concern expressed by friends, Allen lost five stone (approx. 32 kg). Before his weight loss, Allen had weighed 19 stone (approx. 120 kg).
During the COVID-19 pandemic, he spent three to four hours a day delivering groceries and prescription medications to vulnerable people in Antrim.
Performance and rankings timeline
Career finals
Ranking finals: 17 (9 titles)
Minor-ranking finals: 6 (5 titles)
Non-ranking finals: 7 (3 titles)
Team finals: 2 (1 title)
Pro-am finals: 5 (4 titles)
Amateur finals: 6 (5 titles)
References
External links
Player profile on Global Snooker
1986 births
Living people
Snooker players from Northern Ireland
Sportspeople from Antrim, County Antrim
People educated at Antrim Grammar School
Masters (snooker) champions
Competitors at the 2005 World Games
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig%20von%20Mises
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Ludwig von Mises
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Ludwig Heinrich Edler von Mises (; 29 September 1881 – 10 October 1973) was an Austrian–American Austrian School economist, historian, logician, and sociologist. Mises wrote and lectured extensively on the societal contributions of classical liberalism and the power of consumers. He is best known for his work on praxeology studies comparing communism and capitalism.
Mises emigrated from Austria to the United States in 1940. Since the mid-20th century, libertarian movements have been strongly influenced by Mises's writings. Mises' student Friedrich Hayek viewed Mises as one of the major figures in the revival of classical liberalism in the post-war era. Hayek's work "The Transmission of the Ideals of Freedom" (1951) pays high tribute to the influence of Mises in the 20th-century libertarian movement.
Mises's Private Seminar was a leading group of economists. Many of its alumni, including Friedrich Hayek and Oskar Morgenstern, emigrated from Austria to the United States and Great Britain. Mises has been described as having approximately seventy close students in Austria.
Biography
Early life
Ludwig von Mises was born to Jewish parents in the city of Lemberg, Galicia, Austria-Hungary. The family of his father, Arthur Edler von Mises, had been elevated to the Austrian nobility in the 19th century (Edler indicates a noble landless family), and they had been involved in financing and constructing railroads. His mother Adele (née Landau) was a niece of Joachim Landau, a Liberal Party deputy to the Austrian Parliament. Arthur von Mises was stationed in Lemberg as a construction engineer with the Czernowitz railway company.
By the age of 12, Mises spoke fluent German, Russian, Polish and French, read Latin and could understand Ukrainian. Mises had a younger brother, Richard von Mises, who became a mathematician and a member of the Vienna Circle, and a probability theorist. When Ludwig and Richard were still children, their family moved back to Vienna.
In 1900, Mises attended the University of Vienna, becoming influenced by the works of Carl Menger. Mises's father died in 1903. Three years later, Mises was awarded his doctorate from the school of law in 1906. From 1913 to 1938, Mises was a professor at the university, during which he mentored Friedrich Hayek.
Life in Europe
In the years from 1904 to 1914, Mises attended lectures given by Austrian economist Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk. He graduated in February 1906 (Juris Doctor) and started a career as a civil servant in Austria's financial administration.
After a few months, he left to take a trainee position in a Vienna law firm. During that time, Mises began lecturing on economics and in early 1909 joined the Austrian Chamber of Commerce and Industry, serving as economic advisor to the Austrian government until he left Austria in 1934. During World War I, Mises served as a front officer in the Austro-Hungarian artillery and as an economic advisor to the War Department.
Mises was chief economist for the Austrian Chamber of Commerce and was an economic advisor of Engelbert Dollfuss, the austrofascist Austrian Chancellor. Later, Mises was economic advisor to Otto von Habsburg, the Christian democratic politician and claimant to the throne of Austria (which had been legally abolished in 1918 following the Great War). In 1934, Mises left Austria for Geneva, Switzerland, where he was a professor at the Graduate Institute of International Studies until 1940.
While in Switzerland, Mises married Margit Herzfeld Serény, a former actress and widow of Ferdinand Serény. She was the mother of Gitta Sereny.
Work in the United States
In 1940, Mises and his wife fled Austria from the Nazi German advance in Europe and emigrated to New York City in the United States. He had come to the United States under a grant by the Rockefeller Foundation. Like many other classical liberal scholars who fled to the United States, he received support from the William Volker Fund to obtain a position in American universities. Mises became a visiting professor at New York University and held this position from 1945 until his retirement in 1969, though he was not salaried by the university. Businessman and libertarian commentator Lawrence Fertig, a member of the New York University Board of Trustees, funded Mises and his work.
For part of this period, Mises studied currency issues for the Pan-Europa movement, which was led by Richard von Coudenhove-Kalergi, a fellow New York University faculty member and Austrian exile. In 1947, Mises became one of the founding members of the Mont Pelerin Society.
In 1962, Mises received the Austrian Decoration for Science and Art for political economy at the Austrian Embassy in Washington, D.C.
Mises retired from teaching at the age of 87 and died at the age of 92 in New York. He is buried at Ferncliff Cemetery in Hartsdale, New York. Grove City College houses the 20,000-page archive of Mises papers and unpublished works.<ref name=GCC>Austrian Student Scholars Conference Announcement, Grove City College website, 2013, accessed June 8, 2013.</ref> The personal library of Mises was given to Hillsdale College as bequeathed in his will.http://www.iea.org.uk/sites/default/files/publications/files/upldbook514pdf.pdf
At one time, Mises praised the work of writer Ayn Rand, and she generally looked on his work with favor, but the two had a volatile relationship, with strong disagreements for example over the moral basis of capitalism.
Contributions and influence in economics
Mises wrote and lectured extensively on behalf of classical liberalism. In his magnum opus Human Action, Mises adopted praxeology as a general conceptual foundation of the social sciences and set forth his methodological approach to economics.
Mises was for economic non-interventionism and was an anti-imperialist. He referred to the Great War as such a watershed event in human history and wrote that "war has become more fearful and destructive than ever before because it is now waged with all the means of the highly developed technique that the free economy has created. Bourgeois civilization has built railroads and electric power plants, has invented explosives and airplanes, in order to create wealth. Imperialism has placed the tools of peace in the service of destruction. With modern means it would be easy to wipe out humanity at one blow."
In 1920, Mises introduced in an article his Economic Calculation Problem as a critique of socialisms which are based on planned economies and renunciations of the price mechanism. In his first article "Economic Calculation in the Socialist Commonwealth", Mises describes the nature of the price system under capitalism and describes how individual subjective values are translated into the objective information necessary for rational allocation of resources in society. Mises argued that the pricing systems in socialist economies were necessarily deficient because, if a public entity owned all the means of production, no rational prices could be obtained for capital goods, as they were merely internal transfers of goods and not "objects of exchange", unlike final goods. Therefore, they were unpriced, and hence the system would be necessarily irrational, as the central planners would not know how to allocate the available resources efficiently. He wrote that "rational economic activity is impossible in a socialist commonwealth". Mises developed his critique of socialism more completely in his 1922 book Socialism: An Economic and Sociological Analysis, arguing that the market price system is an expression of praxeology and cannot be replicated by any form of bureaucracy.
In his 1956 book The Anti-Capitalistic Mentality, Mises examined American socialism and addressed intellectual opposition to the free market. Mises argued that these intellectuals were too resentful towards the necessity of handling mass demand, which he argued is necessary for large businesses to prosper.
Friends and students of Mises in Europe included Wilhelm Röpke and Alfred Müller-Armack (advisors to German chancellor Ludwig Erhard), Jacques Rueff (monetary advisor to Charles de Gaulle), Gottfried Haberler (later a professor at Harvard), Lionel, Lord Robbins (of the London School of Economics), Italian President Luigi Einaudi, and Leonid Hurwicz, recipient of the 2007 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences. Economist and political theorist Friedrich Hayek first came to know Mises while working as his subordinate at a government office dealing with Austria's post-World War I debt. While toasting Mises at a party in 1956, Hayek said: "I came to know him as one of the best educated and informed men I have ever known". Mises's seminars in Vienna fostered lively discussion among established economists there. The meetings were also visited by other important economists who happened to be traveling through Vienna.
At his New York University seminar and at informal meetings at his apartment, Mises attracted college and high school students who had heard of his European reputation. They listened while he gave carefully prepared lectures from notes.Reisman, George, Capitalism: a Treatise on Economics, "Introduction," Jameson Books, 1996; and Mises, Margit von, My Years with Ludwig von Mises, 2nd enlarged edit., Center for Future Education, 1984, pp. 136–137. Among those who attended his informal seminar over the course of two decades in New York were: Israel Kirzner, Hans Sennholz, Ralph Raico, Leonard Liggio, George Reisman, and Murray Rothbard. Mises's work also influenced other Americans, including Benjamin Anderson, Leonard Read, Henry Hazlitt, Max Eastman, legal scholar Sylvester J. Petro and novelist Ayn Rand.
Creation of the Mises Institute
As a result of the economic works of Ludwig Von Mises, the Mises Institute was founded in 1982 by Lew Rockwell, Burton Blumert, and Murray Rothbard, following a split between the Cato Institute and Rothbard, who had been one of the founders of the Cato Institute.[non-primary source needed] It was funded by Ron Paul.
The Mises Institute offers thousands of free books written by Ludwig Von Mises, Murray Rothbard, Hans-Hermann Hoppe, and other prominent economists in e-book and audiobook format. The Mises Institute also offers a graduate school program.
Reception
Debates about Mises's arguments
Economic historian Bruce Caldwell wrote that in the mid-20th century, with the ascendance of positivism and Keynesianism, Mises came to be regarded by many as the "archetypal 'unscientific' economist". In a 1957 review of his book The Anti-Capitalistic Mentality, The Economist said of Mises: "Professor von Mises has a splendid analytical mind and an admirable passion for liberty; but as a student of human nature he is worse than null and as a debater he is of Hyde Park standard". Conservative commentator Whittaker Chambers published a similarly negative review of that book in the National Review, stating that Mises's thesis that anti-capitalist sentiment was rooted in "envy" epitomized "know-nothing conservatism" at its "know-nothingest".
Scholar Scott Scheall called economist Terence Hutchison "the most persistent critic of Mises's apriorism", starting in Hutchison's 1938 book The Significance and Basic Postulates of Economic Theory and in later publications such as his 1981 book The Politics and Philosophy of Economics: Marxians, Keynesians, and Austrians. Scheall noted that Friedrich Hayek, later in his life (after Mises died), also expressed reservations about Mises's apriorism, such as in a 1978 interview where Hayek said that he "never could accept the ... almost eighteenth-century rationalism in his [Mises's] argument".
In a 1978 interview, Hayek said about Mises's book Socialism:
Economist Milton Friedman considered Mises inflexible in his thinking, but added that Mises's difficult life and lack of acceptance by academia are the likely culprits:
Economist Murray Rothbard, who studied under Mises, agreed he was uncompromising, but disputes reports of his abrasiveness. In his words, Mises was "unbelievably sweet, constantly finding research projects for students to do, unfailingly courteous, and never bitter" about the discrimination he received at the hands of the economic establishment of his time.
After Mises died, his widow Margit quoted a passage that he had written about Benjamin Anderson. She said it best described Mises's own personality:
Comments about fascism
Marxists Herbert Marcuse and Perry Anderson as well as German writer Claus-Dieter Krohn accused Mises of writing approvingly of Italian fascism, especially for its suppression of leftist elements, in his 1927 book Liberalism. In 2009, economist J. Bradford DeLong and sociologist Richard Seymour repeated the accusation.
Mises, in his 1927 book Liberalism, wrote:
Mises biographer Jörg Guido Hülsmann says that critics who suggest that Mises supported fascism are "absurd" as he notes that the full quote describes fascism as dangerous. He notes that Mises said it was a "fatal error" to think that it was more than an "emergency makeshift" against up and coming communism and socialism as exemplified by the Bolsheviks in Russia and the surging communists of Germany. Hülsmann writes in Mises: The Last Knight of Liberalism that Mises had been a card-carrying member of the Fatherland Front party and that this was "probably mandatory for all employees of public and semi-public organizations."
Mises, in his 1927 book Liberalism, also wrote of fascism:
In regards to Nazism, Mises called on the Allies in his 1944 book Omnipotent Government to "smash Nazism" and to "fight desperately until the Nazi power is completely broken".
Works
Books
The Theory of Money and Credit (1912, enlarged US edition 1953)
Full text available.
Nation, State, and Economy (1919)
Full text available.
Economic Calculation in the Socialist Commonwealth (1920) (long-form essay)
Full text available.
Socialism: An Economic and Sociological Analysis (1922, 1932, 1951)
Full text available.
Liberalism: In the Classical Tradition (1927, 1962)
Full text available.
A Critique of Interventionism (1929) (collection of essays)
Full text available.
Epistemological Problems of Economics (1933, 1960)
Full text available.
Memoirs (1940)
Full text available.
Interventionism: An Economic Analysis (1941, 1998)
Omnipotent Government: The Rise of Total State and Total War (1944)
Full text available.
Bureaucracy (1944, 1962)
Full text available.
Planned Chaos (1947, added to 1951 edition of Socialism)
Full text available.
Human Action: A Treatise on Economics (1949, 1963, 1966, 1996)
Full text available.
[Planning for Freedom] (1952, enlarged editions in 1962, 1974, and 1980) (Collection of essays and addresses)
Full text available.
The Anti-Capitalistic Mentality (1956)
Full text available.
Theory and History: An Interpretation of Social and Economic Evolution (1957)
Full text available.
The Ultimate Foundation of Economic Science (1962)
Full text available.
The Historical Setting of the Austrian School of Economics (1969) (long-form essay)
Full text available.
Notes and Recollections (1978, written in 1940-41)
On the Manipulation of Money and Credit (1978) (collection of essays, reissued as The Causes of the Economic Crisis)
Full text available.
Economic Policy: Thoughts for Today and Tomorrow (1979, collection of lectures given in 1959)
Full text available.
Money, Method, and the Market Process (1990) (collection of essays)
Full text available.
Economic Freedom and Interventionism (1990) (collection of essays and addresses)
Full text available.
The Free Market and Its Enemies (2004, collection of lectures given in 1951)
Full text available.
Marxism Unmasked: From Delusion to Destruction (2006, collection of lectures given in 1952)
Full text available.
Ludwig von Mises on Money and Inflation (2010, collection of lectures given in the 1960s)
Full text available.
Book reviews
"Review of The Economic Munich by Philip Cortney". The Freeman, March 1955. Full issue available.
See also
Contributions to liberal theory
Liberalism in Austria
List of Austrian School economists
Mises Institute – Alabama-based think tank
Thymology
References
Further reading
Butler, Eamonn, Ludwig von Mises – A Primer, Institute of Economic Affairs (2010).
Ebeling, Richard M. Political Economy, Public Policy, and Monetary Economics: Ludwig von Mises and the Austrian Tradition, (London/New York: Routledge, 2010) 354 pages, .
Ebeling, Richard M. "Ludwig von Mises: The Political Economist of Liberty, Part I", (The Freeman, May 2006).
Ebeling, Richard M. "Ludwig von Mises: The Political Economist of Liberty, Part II", (The Freeman, June 2006).
Ebeling, Richard M. "Ludwig von Mises and the Vienna of His Time, Part I", (The Freeman, March 2005).
Ebeling, Richard M. "Ludwig von Mises and the Vienna of His Time, Part II", (The Freeman, April 2005).
Ebeling, Richard M. "Austrian Economics and the Political Economy of Freedom", (The Freeman, June 2004).
Gordon, David (2011-02-23) Mises's Epistemology, Ludwig von Mises Institute.
Jones, Daniel Stedman. Masters of the Universe: Hayek, Friedman, and the Birth of Neoliberal Politics (2012), pp. 49–51.
Rothbard, Murray N. "Mises, Ludwig Edler von," The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics'', 1987, v. 3, pp. 479–480.
Reviewed in: .
External links
Ludwig von Mises Institute Europe
Mises.de (books and articles in the original German versions by Mises and other authors of the Austrian School)
Ludwig von Mises Institute
1881 births
1973 deaths
20th-century American economists
20th-century Austrian economists
20th-century American male writers
20th-century American non-fiction writers
20th-century American philosophers
20th-century Austrian male writers
20th-century Austrian philosophers
American economics writers
American libertarians
American male non-fiction writers
American political philosophers
American political writers
Austrian anti-communists
Jewish emigrants from Austria after the Anschluss to the United States
Austrian libertarians
Austrian non-fiction writers
Austrian political philosophers
Classical liberal economists
Austrian School economists
Burials at Ferncliff Cemetery
Critics of Marxism
Distinguished Fellows of the American Economic Association
Edlers of Austria
Academic staff of the Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies
Jewish American writers
Jewish anti-communists
Jewish philosophers
Libertarian theorists
New York University faculty
Non-interventionism
Writers from Lviv
Recipients of the Austrian Decoration for Science and Art
Social philosophy
University of Vienna alumni
Yiddish-speaking people
American anti-communists
Member of the Mont Pelerin Society
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnesium%20alloy
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Magnesium alloy
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Magnesium alloys are mixtures of magnesium (the lightest structural metal) with other metals (called an alloy), often aluminium, zinc, manganese, silicon, copper, rare earths and zirconium. Magnesium alloys have a hexagonal lattice structure, which affects the fundamental properties of these alloys. Plastic deformation of the hexagonal lattice is more complicated than in cubic latticed metals like aluminium, copper and steel; therefore, magnesium alloys are typically used as cast alloys, but research of wrought alloys has been more extensive since 2003. Cast magnesium alloys are used for many components of modern automobiles and have been used in some high-performance vehicles; die-cast magnesium is also used for camera bodies and components in lenses.
Practically, all the commercial magnesium alloys manufactured in the United States contain aluminium (3 to 13 percent) and manganese (0.1 to 0.4 percent). Many also contain zinc (0.5 to 3 percent) and some are hardenable by heat treatment.
All the alloys may be used for more than one product form, but alloys AZ63 and AZ92 are most used for sand castings, AZ91 for die castings, and AZ92 generally employed for permanent mold castings (while AZ63 and A10 are sometimes also used in the latter application as well). For forgings, AZ61 is most used, and here alloy M1 is employed where low strength is required and AZ80 for highest strength. For extrusions, a wide range of shapes, bars, and tubes are made from M1 alloy where low strength suffices or where welding to M1 castings is planned. Alloys AZ31, AZ61 and AZ80 are employed for extrusions in the order named, where increase in strength justifies their increased relative costs.
Magnox (alloy), whose name is an abbreviation for "magnesium non-oxidizing", is 99% magnesium and 1% aluminium, and is used in the cladding of fuel rods in magnox nuclear power reactors.
Magnesium alloys are referred to by short codes (defined in ASTM B275) which denote approximate chemical compositions by weight. For example, AS41 has 4% aluminum and 1% silicon; AZ81 is 7.5% aluminium and 0.7% zinc. If aluminium is present, a manganese component is almost always also present at about 0.2% by weight which serves to improve grain structure; if aluminum and manganese are absent, zirconium is usually present at about 0.8% for this same purpose. Magnesium is a flammable material and must be handled carefully.
Designation
Magnesium alloys names are often given by two letters following by two numbers. Letters tell main alloying elements (A = aluminium, Z = zinc, M = manganese, S = silicon). Numbers indicate respective nominal compositions of main alloying elements. Marking AZ91 for example conveys magnesium alloy with roughly 9 weight percent aluminium and 1 weight percent zinc. Exact composition should be confirmed from reference standards.
The designation system for magnesium alloys is not as well standardized as in the case of steels or aluminium alloys; most producers follow a system using one or two prefix letters, two or three numerals, and a suffix letter. The prefix letters designate the two principal alloying metals according to the following format developed in ASTM specification B275, as shown in the table at right.
Aluminium, zinc, zirconium, and thorium promote precipitation hardening: manganese improves corrosion resistance; and tin improves castability. Aluminium is the most common alloying element. The numerals correspond to the rounded-off percentage of the two main alloy elements, proceeding alphabetically as compositions become standard. Temper designation is much the same as in the case of aluminium. Using –F, -O, -H1, -T4, -T5, and –T6.
Sand permanent-mold, and die casting are all well developed for magnesium alloys, die casting being the most popular. Although magnesium is about twice as expensive as aluminium, its hot-chamber die-casting process is easier, more economical, and 40% to 50% faster than cold-chamber process required for aluminium. Forming behavior is poor at room temperature, but most conventional processes can be performed when the material is heated to temperatures of . As these temperatures are easily attained and generally do not require a protective atmosphere, many formed and drawn magnesium products are manufactured. The machinability of magnesium alloys is the best of any commercial metal, and in many applications, the savings in machining costs more than compensate for the increased cost of the material. It is necessary, however, to keep the tools sharp and to provide ample space for the chips. Magnesium alloys can be spot-welded nearly as easily as aluminium, but scratch brushing or chemical cleaning is necessary before the weld is formed. Fusion welding is carried out most easily by processes using an inert shielding atmosphere of argon or helium gas. Considerable misinformation exists regarding the fire hazard in processing magnesium alloys. It is true that magnesium alloys are highly combustible when in a finely divided form, such as powder or fine chips, and this hazard should never be ignored. Above , a non-combustible, oxygen-free atmosphere is required to suppress burning. Casting operations often require additional precautions because of the reactivity of magnesium with sand and water in sheet, bar, extruded or cast form; however, magnesium alloys present no real fire hazard.
Thorium-containing alloys are not usually used, since a thorium content of more than 2% requires that a component be handled as a radioactive material, although thoriated magnesium known as Mag-Thor was used in military and aerospace applications in the 1950s.
Magnesium alloys are used for both cast and forged components, with the aluminium-containing alloys usually used for casting and the zirconium-containing ones for forgings; the zirconium-based alloys can be used at higher temperatures and are popular in aerospace.
Magnesium+yttrium+rare-earth+zirconium alloys such as WE54 and WE43 (the latter with composition Mg 93.6%, Y 4%, Nd 2.25%, 0.15% Zr) can operate without creep at up to 300C and are reasonably corrosion-resistant.
Trade names have sometimes been associated with magnesium alloys. Examples are:
Elektron
Magnox
Magnuminium
Mag-Thor
Metal 12
Birmabright
Magnalium
Cast alloys
Magnesium casting proof stress is typically 75–200 MPa, tensile strength 135–285 MPa and elongation 2–10%. Typical density is 1.8 g/cm3 and Young's modulus is 42 GPa. Most common cast alloys are:
AZ63
AZ81
AZ91
AM50
AM60
ZK51
ZK61
ZE41
ZC63
HK31
HZ32
QE22
QH21
WE54
WE43
Elektron 21
Wrought alloys
Magnesium wrought alloy proof stress is typically 160-240 MPa, tensile strength is 180-440 MPa and elongation is 7-40%. The most common wrought alloys are:
AZ31
AZ61
AZ80
Elektron 675
ZK60
M1A
HK31
HM21
ZE41
ZC71 ZM21 AM40 AM50 AM60 K1A M1 ZK10 ZK20 ZK30 ZK40
Wrought magnesium alloys have a special feature. Their compressive proof strength is smaller than tensile proof strength. After forming, wrought magnesium alloys have a stringy texture in the deformation direction, which increases the tensile proof strength. In compression, the proof strength is smaller because of crystal twinning, which happens more easily in compression than in tension in magnesium alloys because of the hexagonal lattice structure.
Extrusions of rapidly solidified powders reach tensile strengths of up to 740 MPa due to their amorphous character, which is twice as strong as the strongest traditional magnesium alloys and comparable to the strongest aluminium alloys.
Compositions table
Characteristics
Magnesium's particular merits are similar to those of aluminium alloys: low specific gravity with satisfactory strength. Magnesium provides advantages over aluminium, in being of even lower density (≈ 1.8 g/cm3) than aluminium (≈ 2.8 g/cm3). The mechanical properties of magnesium alloys tend to be below those of the strongest of the aluminium alloys.
The strength-to-weight ratio of the precipitation-hardened magnesium alloys is comparable with that of the strong alloys of aluminium or with the alloy steels. Magnesium alloys, however, have a lower density, stand greater column loading per unit weight and have a higher specific modulus. They are also used when great strength is not necessary, but where a thick, light form is desired, or when higher stiffness is needed. Examples are complicated castings, such as housings or cases for aircraft, and parts for rapidly rotating or reciprocating machines. Such applications can induce cyclic crystal twinning and detwinning that lowers yield strength under loading direction change.
The strength of magnesium alloys is reduced at somewhat elevated temperatures; temperatures as low as 93 °C (200 °F) produce considerable reduction in the yield strength. Improving the high-temperature properties of magnesium alloys is an active research area with promising results.
Magnesium alloys show strong anisotropy and poor formability at room temperature stemming from their hexagonal close-packed crystal structure, limiting practical processing modes. At room temperature, basal plane slip of dislocation and mechanical crystal twinning are the only operating deformation mechanisms; the presence of twinning additionally requires specific loading conditions to be favorable. For these reasons processing of magnesium alloys must be done at high temperatures to avoid brittle fracture.
The high-temperature properties of magnesium alloys are relevant for automotive and aerospace applications, where slowing creep plays an important role in material lifetime. Magnesium alloys generally have poor creep properties; this shortcoming is attributed to the solute additions rather than the magnesium matrix since pure magnesium shows similar creep life as pure aluminum, but magnesium alloys show decreased creep life compared to aluminum alloys. Creep in magnesium alloys occurs mainly by dislocation slip, activated cross slip, and grain boundary sliding. Addition of small amounts of zinc in Mg-RE alloys has been shown to increase creep life by 600% by stabilizing precipitates on both basal and prismatic planes through localized bond stiffening. These developments have allowed for magnesium alloys to be used in automotive and aerospace applications at relatively high temperatures. Microstructural changes at high temperatures are also influenced by Dynamic recrystallization in fine-grained magnesium alloys.
Individual contributions of gadolinium and yttrium to age hardening and high temperature strength of magnesium alloys containing both elements are investigated using alloys containing different Gd:Y mole ratios of 1:0, 1:1, 1:3, and 0:1 with a constant Y+Gd content of 2.75 mol%. All investigated alloys exhibit remarkable age hardening by precipitation of β phase with DO19 crystal structure and β phase with BCO crystal structure, even at aging temperatures higher than 200 °C. Both precipitates are observed in peak-aged specimens. The precipitates contributing to age hardening are fine and their amount increases as Gd content increases, and this result in increased peak hardness, tensile strength and 0.2% proof stress but decreased elongation. On the other hand, higher Y content increases the elongation of the alloys but results in decreased strength.
Despite the active nature of the metal, magnesium and its alloys have good resistance to corrosion in air at STP. The rate of corrosion is slow compared with rusting of mild steel in the same atmosphere. Immersion in salt water is problematic, but a great improvement in resistance to salt-water corrosion has been achieved, especially for wrought materials, by reducing some impurities particularly nickel and copper to very low proportions or using appropriate coatings.
Fabrication
Hot and cold working
Magnesium alloys harden rapidly with any type of cold work, and therefore cannot be extensively cold formed without repeated annealing. Sharp bending, spinning, or drawing must be done at about , although gentle bending around large radii can be done cold. Slow forming gives better results than rapid shaping. Press forging is preferred to hammer forging, because the press allows greater time for metal flow. The plastic forging range is . Metal worked outside this range is easily broken due to lack of available deformation mechanisms.
Casting
Magnesium alloys, especially precipitation-hardened alloys, are used in casting. Sand, permanent mold and die casting methods are used, but plaster-of-Paris casting has not yet been perfected. Sand casting in green-sand molds requires a special technique, because the magnesium reacts with moisture in the sand, forming magnesium oxide and liberating hydrogen. The oxide forms blackened areas called burns on the surface of the casting, and the liberated hydrogen may cause porosity. Inhibitors such as sulfur, boric acid, ethylene glycol, or ammonium fluoride are mixed with the damp sand to prevent the reaction. All gravity-fed molds require an extra high column of molten metal to make the pressure great enough to force gas bubbles out of the casting and make the metal take the detail of the mold. The thickness of the casting wall should be at least 5/32 in. under most conditions. Extra-large fillets must be provided at all re-entrant corners, since stress concentration in magnesium castings are particularly dangerous.
Permanent mold castings are made from the same alloys and have about the same physical properties as sand castings. Since the solidification shrinkage of magnesium is about the same as that of aluminium, aluminium molds can often be adapted to make magnesium-alloy castings (although it may be necessary to change the gating).
Pressure cold-chamber castings are used for quantity production of small parts. The rapid solidification caused by contact of the fluid metal with the cold die produces a casting of dense structure with excellent physical properties. The finish and dimensional accuracy are very good, and machining is necessary only where extreme accuracy is required. Usually these castings are not heat treated.
Welding, soldering, and riveting
Many standard magnesium alloys are easily welded by gas or resistance-welding equipment, but cannot be cut with an oxygen torch. Magnesium alloys are not welded to other metals, because brittle inter-metallic compounds may form, or because the combination of metals may promote corrosion. Where two or more parts are welded together, their compositions must be the same. Soldering of magnesium alloys is feasible only for plugging surface defects in parts. The solders are even more corrosive than with aluminium, and the parts should never be required to withstand stress. Riveted joints in magnesium alloy structures usually employ aluminium or aluminium-magnesium alloy rivets. Magnesium rivets are not often used because they must be driven when hot. The rivet holes should be drilled, especially in heavy sheet and extruded sections, since punching tends to give a rough edge to the hole and to cause stress concentrations.
Machining
A particular attraction of magnesium alloys lies in their extraordinarily good machining properties, in which respect they are superior even to screwing brass. The power required in cutting them is small, and extremely high speeds (5000 ft per min in some cases) may be used. The best cutting tools have special shapes, but the tools for machining other metals can be used, although somewhat lower efficiency results. When magnesium is cut at high speed, the tools should be sharp and should be cutting at all times. Dull, dragging tools operating at high speed may generate enough heat to ignite fine chips. Since chips and dust from grinding can therefore be a fire hazard, grinding should be done with a coolant, or with a device to concentrate the dust under water. The magnesium grinder should not be used also for ferrous metals, since a spark might ignite the accumulated dust. If a magnesium fire should start, it can be smothered with cast-iron turnings or dry sand, or with other materials prepared especially for the purpose. Water or liquid extinguishers should never be used, because they tend to scatter the fire. Actually, it is much more difficult to ignite magnesium chips and dust than is usually supposed, and for that reason they do not present great machining difficulties. The special techniques that must be used in fabricating magnesium (working, casting, and joining) add considerably to the manufacturing cost. In selecting between aluminium and magnesium or a given part, the base cost of the metal may not give much advantage to either, but usually the manufacturing operations make magnesium more affordable. There is, perhaps, no group of alloys where extrusion is more important than it is to these, since the comparatively coarse-grained structure of the cast material makes most of them too susceptible to cracking to work by other means until sufficient deformation has been imparted to refine the grain. Therefore, except for one or two soft alloys, machining is invariably a preliminary step before other shaping processes.
Hot extrusion
Not much pure magnesium is extruded, for it has somewhat poor properties, especially as regards its proof stress. The alloying elements of chief concern at present are aluminium, zinc, cerium and zirconium; manganese is usually also present since, though it has little effect on the strength, it has a valuable function in improving corrosion resistance. One important binary alloy, containing up to 2.0% manganese, is used extensively for the manufacture of rolled sheet. It is comparatively soft and easier to extrude than other alloys, and is also one of the few that can be rolled directly without pre-extrusion.
In the UK, extrusions are made from billets of dia. On presses varying in power over the range 600-3500 tons; normal maximum pressures on the billet are 30-50 tons/sq. in the U.S the Dow chemical company have recently installed a 13.200 ton press capable of handling billets up to 32 in. Extrusion technique is generally similar to that for aluminium base alloys but, according to Wilkinson and fox, die design requires special consideration and, in their opinion, should incorporate short bearing lengths and sharp die entries. Tube extrusion in alloys AM503, ZW2, and ZW3 is now made with bridge dies. (The aluminium-bearing alloys do not weld satisfactorily.) In contrast to the previous practice of using bored billets, mandrel piercing is now used in the extrusion of large diameter tubes in ZW3 alloy.
The stiffness of the alloys towards extrusion is increased in proportion to the amount of hardening elements they contain, and the temperature employed is generally higher the greater the quantity of these. Billet temperatures are also affected by the size of the sections, being higher for heavy reductions, but are usually in the range . Container temperatures should be identical with, or only slightly higher than billet temperature. Pre-heating of the billets must be carried out uniformly to promote as far as possible a homogeneous structure by absorption of compounds, such as Mg4Al, present in the alloys.
Fox points out and this is also applicable to aluminium alloys. The initial structure of the billet is important, and casting methods that lead to fine grain are worthwhile. In coarse material, larger particles of the compounds are present that are less readily dissolved, and tend to cause a solution gradient. In magnesium alloys, this causes internal stress, since solution is accompanied by a small contraction, and it can also influence the evenness of response to later heat treatment.
The binary magnesium-manganese alloy (AM505) is readily extruded at low pressures in the temperature range ., the actual temperature used depending upon the reduction and billet length rather than the properties desired, which are relatively insensitive to extrusion conditions. Good surface condition of the extrusion is achieved only with high speeds, of the order of per minute.
With the aluminium and zinc containing alloys, and particularly those with the higher aluminium contents such as AZM and AZ855 difficulties arise at high speeds due to hot-shortness.
Under conditions approaching equilibrium magnesium is capable of dissolving about 12 per cent aluminium, but in cast billets 4-5 wt.% usually represents the limit of solubility. Alloys containing 6 wt.% Al or more therefore contain Mg4Al3, which forms a eutectic melting at 435 °C. The extrusion temperature may vary from , but at the higher values speeds are restricted to about per minute. Continuous casting improves the homogeneity of these alloys and water cooling of the dies or taper heating of the billets further facilities their extrusion.
Introduction of the magnesium-zinc-zirconium alloys, ZW2 and ZW3, represents a considerable advance in magnesium alloy technology for a number of reasons. They are high strength, but, since they do not contain aluminium, the cast billet contains only small quantities of the second phase. Since the solidus temperature is raised by about , the risk of hotshortness at relatively high extrusion speeds is much reduced. However, the mechanical properties are sensitive to billet preheating time, temperature and extrusion speed, Long preheating times and high temperatures and speeds produces properties similar to those in older aluminium-containing alloys, Heating times must be short and temperatures and speeds low to produce high properties. Increasing zinc content to 5 or 6 wt.%, as in the American alloy ZK60 and ZK61, reduces sensitivity to extrusion speed in respect of mechanical properties.
Alloying of zirconium-bearing materials has been a major problem in their development. It is usual to add the zirconium from a salt—and careful control can produce good results. Dominion Magnesium Limited in Canada have developed a method adding in the conventional manner through a master alloy.
Explanation for the low extrusion rates necessary to successfully extrude some magnesium alloys does not lie outside reasons put forward for other metals. Altwicker considers that the most significant cause is connected. With the degree of recovery from crystal deformation, which is less complete when work is applied quickly, causing higher stresses and the exhausting of the capacity for slip in the crystals. This is worthy of consideration, for the speed of re-crystallization varies from one metal to another, and according to temperature. It is also a fact that a metal worked in what is considered its working range can frequently be made to show marked work hardening if quenched immediately after deformation—showing that temporary loss of plasticity can easily accompany rapid working.
Further alloy development
Scandium and gadolinium have been tried as alloying elements; an alloy with 1% manganese, 0.3% scandium and 5% gadolinium offers almost perfect creep resistance at 350C. The physical composition of these multi-component alloys is complicated, with plates of intermetallic compounds such as Mn2Sc forming. Addition of zinc to Mg-RE alloys has been shown to greatly increase creep life by stabilizing RE precipitates. Erbium has also been considered as an additive.
Magnesium–lithium alloys
Adding 10% of lithium to magnesium produces an alloy that can be used as an improved anode in batteries with a manganese-dioxide cathode. Magnesium-lithium alloys are generally soft and ductile, and the density of 1.4 g/cm3 is appealing for space applications.
Quantum mechanical simulations have been used to predict the formation of ordered magnesium–lithium alloys. Of interest relative to manufacturing, it is predicted that addition of more than 13 at. % lithium results in ordered phases with a cubic structure.
Non-combustible magnesium alloys
Adding 2% of calcium by weight to magnesium alloy AM60 results in the non-combustible magnesium alloy AMCa602. The higher oxidation reactivity of calcium causes a coat of calcium oxide to form before magnesium ignites. The ignition temperature of the alloy is elevated by 200–300 K. An oxygen-free atmosphere is not necessary for machining operations.
References
Aluminium–magnesium alloys
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References
Programming
MTV
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4826985
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etta%20Candy
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Etta Candy
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Etta Candy is a fictional character appearing in DC Comics publications and related media, commonly in association with Wonder Woman. Spirited and vivacious, with a devil-may-care attitude, Etta debuted as a young white woman with red hair in 1942's Sensation Comics #2, written by Wonder Woman's creator William Moulton Marston.
Enrolled in the fictional Holliday College for Women (and often accompanied by her fellow students, "the Holliday Girls"), Etta would become a constant feature of Wonder Woman's Golden Age adventures, effectively functioning as both the hero's plucky sidekick and her best friend. Unapologetically proud of her plus-sized figure (and vocal about her love of sweets), "Etta's appearance was a stark contrast to the svelte, wasp-waisted women depicted in most comic books, and Etta was a brave and heroic leader who was always in the thick of the fight beside her friend Wonder Woman." Though appearing less frequently in the Silver and Bronze Age, Etta was a recurring presence in Wonder Woman's supporting cast throughout both periods. She would be re-imagined in March 1987 by comics writer/artist George Pérez as part of his post-Crisis relaunch of the Wonder Woman mythos. This milder-mannered version, a former U.S. Air Force captain and intelligence officer, is not presented as Wonder Woman's best friend, but rather as a genial ally among a larger cast of supporting characters.
In 2011, Etta was again updated as part of DC Comics' company-wide New 52 continuity reboot. Still an American intelligence specialist, the rebooted Etta Candy is a Black woman, whose revised history with Wonder Woman restores several Golden Age elements, notably her wise-cracking joie de vivre and her status as the hero's ever-present best friend. Additionally, the New 52 Etta is queer, shown to have a romantic relationship with Barbara Ann Minerva, the British archeologist who would become Wonder Woman's arch-foe the Cheetah. Etta's brassy queerness brings to the surface a consistent lesbian subtext present in William Moulton Marston's original Golden Age characterization of a woman joyously defiant of sex-gender norms.
Beatrice Colen portrayed Etta in the 1970s Wonder Woman series. The character made her cinematic debut in the DC Extended Universe in the 2017 film Wonder Woman, played by Lucy Davis. She has been portrayed in animated film by voice actors Julianne Grossman and Adrienne C. Moore.
Character history
Golden Age
In her 1940s introduction, Etta Candy is a sickly malnourished woman Wonder Woman discovers at a local hospital. [Note, this version is from the Wonder Woman comic strip and written after Etta's first appearance in the comic books in Sensation Comics #2 in 1942.] When next seen, Etta is transformed into a spirited, rotund young woman who has a great love of candy. When Wonder Woman asks about her new body type, Etta tells her that she was rejuvenated by eating many sweets. With her newfound confidence, Etta Candy soon after leads the fictional Beeta Lambda sorority at Holliday College and aids Wonder Woman in her adventures. First, with a hundred other Holliday girls, Etta helps Wonder Woman take over the Nazi base of Doctor Poison without endangering Steve Trevor. Throughout her adventures with Wonder Woman, Etta is known for her moxie, her love of candy, and for her trademark call "Woo! Woo!" (A catch-phrase derived, in part, from exclamations associated with comic actor Hugh Herbert and Curly Howard of The Three Stooges. Other versions of the character have been known to say "Woo! Woo!" and according to at least one version it is a sorority cry at Holliday College.) Other familiar characteristics included her jalopy car nicknamed Esmerelda, and a variety of sassy interjections, such as: "For the love of chocolate!"
Her father, Hard Candy, and mother, Sugar Candy, lived on the Bar-L Ranch in Brazos County, Texas, that provided the setting for cowboy-themed adventures. She was shown to have a brother named Mint Candy who served as a soldier in the US Army. Holliday College was the setting for science-driven stories and it was at nearby "Starvard" (portmanteau of Stanford and Harvard), that her boyfriend, the gangling but very loving "Oscar Sweetgulper," studied. She was shown to be brave and even stormed a Nazi concentration camp armed with nothing but a box of candy to rescue captured children. She was also welcomed by Wonder Woman's people, the Amazons of Paradise Island, and even invited to their festivals. She was aware of her weight but never let it bother her. She even joked about it when asked by the Amazons if she would like to join in one of their sporting events.
Silver and Bronze Age
When Robert Kanigher became writer and editor of the adventures of Wonder Woman, he made little use of Etta Candy and the Holiday girls. When he did, he portrayed Etta as an insecure, weight-conscious girl who followed but never led the girls in her sorority. This was in sharp contrast to Marston characterization of a bold, sassy, wisecracking leader. Despite a few appearances after Kanigher reintroduced her in 1960 (Wonder Woman #117) Candy was left in limbo for decades.
Etta Candy was revived twenty years later in 1980 (Wonder Woman #272), along with Steve Trevor and General Phil Darnell. In the years since her last appearance, Candy had not only graduated from Holiday College, but had become a Lieutenant and was on hand to welcome Wonder Woman back to her old job as Air Force officer Diana Prince something she hadn't done since 1968. Lieutenant Candy was featured as a secretary to Darnell and as Diana's roommate. Despite having been Wonder Woman's friend years previous, Candy had never met Diana Prince or learned her secret identity. Thus, from Candy's point of view, she and Prince met for the first time when Prince returned to the Air Force.
She was still portrayed as insecure and weight-conscious and, although she no longer said "for the love of chocolate", was known to swear by Betty Crocker. She also did most of the cooking between herself and her roommate. Her family was not expanded as much as was the family of her golden age incarnation though she did remark on being from a large family and had a niece named Suzie. Her love interest was now nerdy, hopelessly clumsy but nevertheless very loving Howard Huckaby.
In one adventure, Etta was kidnapped by Satanists influenced by Klarion the Witch Boy and sent to Hell, where Wonder Woman and Etrigan the demon had to travel to save her, although she remained narcotized and catatonic throughout the ordeal.
In the years leading up to Crisis on Infinite Earths (1986), writers Dan Mishkin and Mindy Newell took Etta in a different direction. She displayed more confidence, and even became Wonder Woman for one evening, battling Cheetah, Angle Man, Captain Wonder and Silver Swan. Huckaby, who by then had been convinced for several issues that his girlfriend was the comic book's titular heroine, used Dr. Psycho's machine that could turn his dreams into reality to let the world see Etta as he saw her. After the Amazonian "Wonder Etta" defeated the villains, she and others saw she was his Wonder Woman.
Post-Crisis
After the 1987 Greg Potter–George Pérez revamp of Wonder Woman, Etta was romantically linked with, and eventually married to, Steve Trevor, who was no longer Diana's love interest.
A career Air Force officer, Etta served as Steve Trevor's aide when he was framed for treason as part of Ares' scheme to spark a global war. Etta was fiercely dedicated to her friends, and her faith in Steve's innocence helped him clear his name, even though the two temporarily became fugitives while helping Wonder Woman overthrow Ares' plans. While on the run, Steve and Etta realized their love for one another. A happy couple, they remained friends with Wonder Woman.
Feeling insecure about her weight, Etta developed an eating disorder that was kept secret from her friends. She was able to lose 20 pounds, but at the expense of her health. When she finally collapsed due to a lack of food in front of Wonder Woman while trying on wedding gowns, Diana advised her to take better care of herself and maintain a sensible diet. Since that time, Etta has gained her original weight back.
Etta and Steve largely disappeared from the pages of Wonder Woman during the run of writer/artist John Byrne, and they appeared infrequently since then. She did appear once Diana lost her royal title during writer Phil Jimenez's run as her usual supportive friend, but was depicted as still insecure about her heavy weight and apprehensive about her marriage to Steve.
Writer Gail Simone later reintroduced Etta Candy as an intelligence officer requested by Sarge Steel to report on Diana Prince and her associations. This took place following the Infinite Crisis which altered Diana's origins and to an extent the origins of her supporting cast. Etta remained married to Steve Trevor and was a close friend of Diana and was also aware of Diana's dual identity. The full extent of her history with Diana following the new DCU continuity is not known.
Etta joined Wonder Woman on the Khund homeworld to convince an alien race called the 'Ichor' to cease their attacks. She was successful but returned to Earth only to be tortured by the villain Genocide, leaving her in a coma state. She eventually regained consciousness in the hospital some time during the next few issues, and after imploring Diana to not feel guilty over her torture at the hands of Genocide revealed that she was recruited as an operative by Mr. Terrific and The Green Lantern as part of the U.N. Authority's observation of the D.M.A. three years earlier.
The New 52
In September 2011, The New 52 rebooted DC's continuity. In this new timeline, Etta Candy appeared in the new Justice League title as Steve Trevor's secretary. She was now African American and depicted as young and ambitious, resembling the Etta played by Tracie Thoms in the unaired David E. Kelley Wonder Woman pilot. Trevor soon came to trust Etta, admitting to her secrets he kept close to himself, such as being in love with Wonder Woman.
During the Forever Evil storyline, Steve Trevor returned to the ruins of Washington DC's A.R.G.U.S. headquarters where Etta Candy told him that the destruction was caused by a massive spike in Doctor Light's body where the energies emitted from it exposed the A.R.G.U.S. agents. Etta Candy was later approached by an energy manifestation of Doctor Light.
Rebirth
After the events of Rebirth, Etta Candy continued working with Steve Trevor, but has been promoted to Commander Candy. Flashbacks throughout the story revealed Etta became friends with Dr. Barbara Minerva prior to becoming Cheetah and developed romantic feelings for her, which Barbara was implied to have returned. Etta is later referenced as working closely with A.R.G.U.S., a government group skilled in dealing with the super-human and super-natural.
Other versions
Seven Soldiers
Writer, Grant Morrison used an aged version of Etta as a counselor in the first issue of Seven Soldiers: Zatanna and showed her as a convention speaker in Seven Soldiers: Bulleteer.
Earth-Two
During DC Comics' Pre-Crisis era, the Golden Age versions of its characters were revived. They were retroactively said to have lived on an alternate dimension dubbed Earth-Two thus explaining why the regular Wonder Woman and her supporting cast could appear youthful despite the "original" Wonder Woman having appeared decades earlier. Etta Candy was no exception although her Earth-Two self differed slightly from her Golden Age self. For example, she was shown working for the military instead of being a college student. To harmonize the two versions, it was later explained that this Etta Candy was a college student but had put her studies on hold to serve her country. At war's end, she resumed her studies and became a dietitian. Later appearances of the Earth-Two Etta Candy show her being much more faithful to her Golden Age self.
Superman & Batman: Generations
She makes an appearance in the Superman & Batman: Generations miniseries by John Byrne. Generations takes a different approach from the aforementioned example by imagining a world wherein superheroes age in real time relative to their original appearance in comic books. Thus, by 1953 Etta Candy is happily married to Oscar Sweetgulper, her Golden Age beau, and is Mrs. Etta Candy Sweetgulper.
Wonder Woman: Amazonia
She appears in Wonder Woman: Amazonia, a Wonder Woman story set in a Victorian Britain. There, Etta grew up a hungry, homeless, destitute orphan on the streets of London. Her only friend was Diana, the girl that would grow up to be Wonder Woman. After they grew up and Diana was offered a job in show business exhibiting her great strength, Etta bid goodbye to her friend. She married an army man but she was forced to take up prostitution to survive after he took to drink and abandoned her. When she and Diana were reunited years later, she managed to get a job as a nanny for Diana's children, one of whom was named Etta in honor of her mother's best friend. At the climax of the story, the villain tries to kidnap Wonder Woman's daughters (among other things) but Etta bravely rescues them. It closes with Etta Candy as governess to the Princesses Etta and Victoria and best friend to their mother Queen Diana of Britain and Themyscira.
Wednesday Comics
Etta appears as a major supporting character in the Wonder Woman story serialized in Wednesday Comics. In the alternate reality featured in the storyline, Etta is a teenager who befriends the young Diana when she first arrives in America. Etta is eventually kidnapped by Diana's other friend, Priscilla Rich, and is used as bait in a trap set by Doctor Poison. With Etta bound and gagged by Priscilla, Poison attempts to use her as a test subject for her chemicals, only to be defeated when Diana arrives and rescues her friend.
Convergence: Wonder Woman
A Pre-Crisis version of Etta appears in "Convergence: Wonder Woman". She alerts Wonder Woman to a doomsday cult which has risen from the events of Convergence. She tries to save Wonder Woman from the fanatical followers, but is spirited away by the vampire Joker from the Red Rain universe. Wonder Woman finds her bitten and drained, though she subsequently becomes a vampire in service of the Joker. She is killed when Steve Trevor, also made a vampire, resists the Joker's control and plunges both of them into a deep chasm opened during the battle.
Sensation Comics Featuring Wonder Woman
In Neil Kleid's "Ghosts and Gods," his addition to the collaborative collection "Sensation Comics featuring Wonder Woman Volume 1," Etta is seen as an active sidekick to the Amazonian Princess, helping her raid Ra's Al Ghul's stronghold. Etta shows skill with a grappling hook during the adventure. Etta doesn't get to say much for herself, because when the pair is captured, "Deadman" inhabits her body to help Wonder Woman complete the mission.
The All-New Batman: The Brave and the Bold
Etta makes an appearance in the comic book version of Batman: The Brave and the Bold.
Wonder Woman: Earth One
Etta appears in Wonder Woman: Earth One, but renamed Beth. She's similar to the Pre-Crisis Earth-Two version, being a spirited, plump young woman and the head of the Holiday Girls. She appears to be a lesbian (or possibly bisexual) as she's intrigued by Wonder Woman's stories of Themyscira, an island full of women, but is put off by their attitudes as it "spoil[s] [her] fantasy". She and the Holiday Girls also designed Wonder Woman's costume. She accompanied Wonder Woman and Steve Trevor to Themyscira for Wonder Woman's trial to defend her; all the other Amazons (except Hippolyta) were disgusted by her appearance.
The Legend of Wonder Woman
Etta Candy appears as a major supporting character in this alternate re-telling of Wonder Woman's origin. The Holliday Girls are also featured in supporting roles.
Smallville Season Eleven
Etta Candy appears as a Lieutenant of United States Air Force. She was described as an excellent pilot and was chosen to escort Queen Hippolyta back to Themyscira. She called her plane the "invisible plane".
In other media
Television
Etta Candy appears in Wonder Woman (1975), portrayed by Beatrice Colen. This version is General Phil Blankenship's incompetent secretary.
Tracie Thoms played Etta in David E Kelley's 2011 unaired Wonder Woman pilot.
Film
Etta Candy appears in Wonder Woman (2009), voiced by Julianne Grossman. This version is slimmer and Steve Trevor's secretary.
Etta Candy appears in media set in the DC Extended Universe, portrayed by Lucy Davis:
Introduced in Wonder Woman (2017), this version is British, red-haired, and Steve Trevor's secretary, who befriends Wonder Woman after she leaves Themyscira.
Candy appears in a photograph depicted in Wonder Woman 1984.
Etta Candy appears in Wonder Woman: Bloodlines, voiced by Adrienne C. Moore. This version is African-American and openly lesbian.
Video games
Etta Candy appears as a character summon in Scribblenauts Unmasked: A DC Comics Adventure.
See also
List of Wonder Woman supporting characters
Footnotes
External links
Fanzing 37 - Etta Candy
Comics characters introduced in 1942
Characters created by William Moulton Marston
Characters created by H. G. Peter
DC Comics sidekicks
DC Comics LGBT characters
Wonder Woman characters
DC Comics female characters
Fictional United States Air Force personnel
Fictional commanders
Fictional female lieutenants
Fictional military lieutenants
Fictional female corporals
Fictional secretaries
Fictional bisexual women
Fictional lesbians
Fictional female captains
Fictional military captains
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deportation%20of%20Armenian%20intellectuals%20on%2024%20April%201915
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Deportation of Armenian intellectuals on 24 April 1915
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The deportation of Armenian intellectuals is conventionally held to mark the beginning of the Armenian genocide. Leaders of the Armenian community in the Ottoman capital of Constantinople (now Istanbul), and later other locations, were arrested and moved to two holding centers near Angora (now Ankara). The order to do so was given by Minister of the Interior Talaat Pasha on 24 April 1915. On that night, the first wave of 235 to 270 Armenian intellectuals of Constantinople were arrested. With the adoption of the Tehcir Law on 29 May 1915, these detainees were later relocated within the Ottoman Empire; most of them were ultimately killed. More than 80 such as Vrtanes Papazian, Aram Andonian, and Komitas survived.
The event has been described by historians as a decapitation strike, which was intended to deprive the Armenian population of leadership and a chance for resistance. To commemorate the victims of the Armenian genocide, 24 April is observed as Armenian Genocide Remembrance Day. First observed in 1919 on the fourth anniversary of the events in Constantinople, the date is generally considered the date on which the genocide began. The Armenian genocide has since been commemorated annually on the same day, which has become a national memorial day in Armenia and the Republic of Artsakh and is observed by the Armenian diaspora around the world.
Deportation
Detention
The Ottoman Minister of the Interior Talaat Pasha gave the detention order on 24 April 1915. The operation commenced at 8 p.m. In Constantinople, the action was led by Bedri Bey, the Chief of Police of Constantinople. On the night of 24–25 April 1915, in a first wave 235 to 270 Armenian leaders of Constantinople, clergymen, physicians, editors, journalists, lawyers, teachers, politicians, and others were arrested upon an instruction of the Ministry of the Interior. The discrepancies in numbers may be explained by the uncertainties of the police as they imprisoned people with similar names.
There were further deportations from the capital. The first task was to identify those imprisoned. They were held for one day in a police station (Ottoman Turkish: Emniyeti Umumiye) and the Central Prison. A second wave brought the figure to between 500 and 600.
By the end of August 1915, about 150 Armenians with Russian citizenship were deported from Constantinople to holding centers. A few of the detained, including writer Alexander Panossian (1859–1919), were released the same weekend before even being transferred to Anatolia. In total, it is estimated that 2,345 Armenian notables were detained and eventually deported, most of whom were not nationalists and did not have any political affiliations.
Holding centers
After the passage of Tehcir Law on 29 May 1915, Armenians left at the two holding centers were deported to Ottoman Syria. Most of the arrested were transferred from Central Prison over Saray Burnu by steamer No. 67 of the Şirket company to the Haydarpaşa train station. After waiting for ten hours, they were sent by special train in the direction of Angora (Ankara) the next day. The entire convoy consisted of 220 Armenians. An Armenian train conductor got a list of names of the deportees. It was handed over to the Armenian Patriarch of Constantinople, Zaven Der Yeghiayan, who immediately tried in vain to save as many deportees as possible. The only foreign ambassador to help him in his efforts was US ambassador Henry Morgenthau. After a train journey of 20 hours, the deportees got off in Sincanköy (near Angora) Tuesday noon. At the station Ibrahim, the director of the Central Prison of Constantinople, did the triage. The deportees were divided into two groups.
One group was sent to Çankırı (and Çorum between Çankırı and Amasya) and the other to Ayaş. Those separated for Ayaş were transported in carts for a couple of hours further to Ayaş. Almost all of them were killed several months later in gorges near Angora. Only 10 (or 13) deportees of this group were granted permission to return to Constantinople from Ayaş. A group of 20 latecomers arrested on 24 April arrived in Çankırı around 7 or 8 May 1915. Roughly 150 political prisoners were detained in Ayaş, and another 150 intellectual prisoners were detained in Çankırı.
Court martial
Some notables such as Dr. Nazaret Daghavarian and Sarkis Minassian were removed on 5 May from the Ayaş prison and taken under military escort to Diyarbakır along with Harutiun Jangülian, Karekin Khajag, and Rupen Zartarian to appear before a court martial. They were, seemingly, murdered by state-sponsored paramilitary groups led by Cherkes Ahmet, and lieutenants Halil and Nazım, at a locality called Karacaören shortly before arriving at Diyarbakır. Marzbed, another deportee, was dispatched to Kayseri to appear before a court martial on 18 May 1915.
The militants responsible for the murders were tried and executed in Damascus by Djemal Pasha in September 1915; the incident later became the subject of a 1916 investigation by the Ottoman Parliament led by Artin Boshgezenian, the deputy for Aleppo. After Marzbed's release from the court, he worked under a false Ottoman identity for the Germans in Intilli (Amanus railway tunnel). He escaped to Nusaybin, where he fell from a horse and died shortly before the armistice.
Release
Several prisoners were released with the help of various influential people intervening on their behalf. Five deportees from Çankırı were freed upon the intervention of the United States ambassador Henry Morgenthau. In total, 12 deportees were granted permission to return to Constantinople from Çankırı. These were Komitas, Piuzant Kechian, Dr. Vahram Torkomian, Dr. Parsegh Dinanian, Haig Hojasarian, Nshan Kalfayan, Yervant Tolayan, Aram Kalenderian, Noyig Der-Stepanian, Vrtanes Papazian, Karnik Injijian, and Beylerian junior. Four deportees were granted permission to come back from Konya. These were Apig Miubahejian, Atamian, Kherbekian, and Nosrigian.
The remaining deportees were under the protection of the governor of Angora Vilayet. Mazhar Bey defied the orders of deportation from Talat Pasha, the Interior Minister, and was replaced by central committee member Atif Bey by the end of July 1915.
Survivors
After the Armistice of Mudros (30 October 1918), several surviving Armenian intellectuals came back to Constantinople, which was under an allied occupation. They started a short, but intense, literary activity that was ended by the Turkish victory in 1923. Those who have written memoirs and books about their accounts during the deportation include Grigoris Balakian, Aram Andonian, Yervant Odian, Teotig, and Mikayel Shamtanchyan. Other survivors, such as Komitas, developed serious cases of post-traumatic stress disorder. Komitas underwent 20 years of treatment in mental asylums until his death in 1935.
Day of remembrance
The official date of remembrance for the Armenian genocide is 24 April, the day that marked the beginning of the deportation of Armenian intellectuals. The first commemoration, organized by a group of Armenian Genocide survivors, was held in Istanbul in 1919 at the local St.Trinity Armenian church. Many prominent figures in the Armenian community participated in the commemoration. Following its initial commemoration in 1919, the date became the annual day of remembrance for the Armenian genocide.
Notable deportees
Below is a list of prominent Armenian intellectuals, community leaders and other public figures that were deported from Constantinople on 24 April 1915, the first wave of the deportations. The list of names are those that have been provided in the Ottoman Archives and various Armenian sources:
{| class="wikitable sortable" border="1"
|-
! style="width:4em" scope=col| Name
! style="width:7em" scope=col| Birth dateand place
! style="width:1em" scope=col| Fate
! style="width:5em" scope=col| Political affiliation
! Occupation
! style="width:4em" scope=col| Deported to
! scope=col| Notes
|-
| Սարգիս Ապօ
|
| Killed
| Dashnak
| Teacher
| Ayaş
| Armenian from Caucasus, killed in Angora (Ankara).
|-
| Լեւոն Աղապապեան
| 1887 from Bitlis
| Died
|
| Mathematician, headmaster of high schools in Kütahya and Akşehir (1908–14), directed his own school in Kütahya for three years
| Çankırı
| Died in 1915.
|-
| Հրանդ Աղաճանեան
|
| Killed
|
|
| Çankırı
| Brought to the gallows in Beyazıt Square (Constantinople) on 18 January 1916.
|-
| Միհրան Աղաճանեան
|
| Killed
|
| Banker
| Ayaş
| Returned to Constantinople where he was brought to the gallows.
|-
| Միհրան Աղասեան
| 1854 in Adrianople (Edirne)
| Killed
|
| Poet and musician
| Der Zor
| Deported to Der Zor, where he was killed in 1916.
|-
| Խաչատուր Մալումեան
| 1865 in Zangezur
| Killed
| Dashnak
| Dashnak militant, newspaper editor, played a role in organizing an assembly of forces in opposition to the Ottoman Sultan, resulting in the proclamation of the Ottoman Constitution in 1908.
| Ayaş
| Removed from the Ayaş prison on 5 May and taken under military escort to Diyarbakır along with Daghavarian, Jangülian, Khajag, Minassian and Zartarian to appear before a court martial there and they were, seemingly, murdered by state-sponsored paramilitary groups led by Cherkes Ahmet, and lieutenants Halil and Nazım, at a locality called Karacaören shortly before arriving at Diyarbakır. The murderers were tried and executed in Damascus by Cemal Pasha in September 1915, and the assassinations became the subject of a 1916 investigation by the Ottoman Parliament led by Artin Boshgezenian, the deputy for Aleppo.
|-
| Տիգրան Աճեմեան
|
| Survived
|
|
| Ayaş
| Returned to Constantinople out of a group of ten deportees from Ayaş.
|-
| Տիգրան Ալլահվերտի
|
| Survived
|
| Member of different patriarchal councils
| Ayaş
| Returned to Constantinople.
|-
| Վահան Ալթունեան
|
| Survived
|
| Dentist
| Çankırı
| Permitted to return to Constantinople soon after 11 May 1915. He left Çankırı on 6 August 1915, was jailed in Angora, was displaced to Tarson, arrived in Constantinople on 22 September 1915.
|-
| Վահրամ Ալթունեան
|
| Died
|
| Merchant
| Çankırı
|
|-
| Արամ Անտոնեան
| 1875 in Constantinople
| Survived
| Hunchak Հնչակեան Վերակազմ
| Writer and journalist; member of Armenian National Assembly
| Çankırı
| Belonged to the second convoy with only one or two survivors that left Çankırı on 19 August 1915, broke his leg, was jailed in Angora 20–24 August then escaped after hospitalization in Angora Hospital. He joined another caravan of deportees and returned to Constantinople only after Tarsus, Mardin, Der Zor, Haleb, he stayed in concentration camps around the town of Meskene in the desert, published his experiences in his literary work In those dark days, he edited a collection of telegrams, the authenticity of which is disputed, containing Talat Pasha's extermination orders; he assumed directorship of the AGBU Nubar library in Paris from 1928 to 1951.
|-
| Վ. Արապեան
|
|
|
| Patriot or educator
|
|
|-
| Սարգիս Արմտանցի
|
| Killed
|
|
| Ayaş
| Killed in Angora.
|-
| Գ. Արմունի
|
|
|
| Lawyer
|
|
|-
| Ասատուր Արսենեան
|
| Killed
|
| Pharmacist
| Çankırı
| Belonged to the second convoy with only one or two survivors that left Çankırı on 19 August 1915, jailed in Angora 20–24 August killed en route to Yozgat or died near Der Zor.
|-
| ArslanianԱրսլանեան
|
|
|
| Merchant(?)
| Çankırı
|
|-
| ArtsruniԱրծրունի
|
| Killed
|
| Patriot or educator
| Çankırı
|
|-
| Պարոյր Արզումանեան
|
| Killed
|
|
| Çankırı
| Belonged to the second convoy with only one or two survivors that left Çankırı on 19 August 1915, jailed in Angora 20–24 August, killed en route to Yozgat.
|-
| Վահրամ Ասատուրեան
| from Gedikpaşa
| Survived
|
| Pharmacist
| Çankırı
| Deported to Meskene where he served finally in the army as assistant physician and helped Armenian deportees.
|-
| Յ. Ասատուրեան
|
| Survived
|
| Print office owner
| Ayaş
| Granted permission to return.
|-
| Յարութիւն Աստուրեան
|
| Killed
|
|
| Ayaş
| Killed in Angora.
|-
| Հրանդ Աստուածատրեան
|
| Survived
|
|
| Ayaş
| Returned to Constantinople.
|-
| Տ. Աշխարունի
|
|
|
| Patriot or educator
|
|
|-
| AtamianԱդամեան
| from Erzurum
| Survived
|
| Merchant
| Konya
| Granted permission to return.
|-
| Վարդերես Աթանասեան
| 1874
| Died
| Hunchak
| "Headman" (mukhtar) of Feriköy, merchant
| Çankırı
| Died in 1916 (?)
|-
| Եղիսէ Քհնյ. Այվազեան
| 13 October 1870 in Bolu
|
|
| Clergyman
| Jailed in Constantinople for two months
| Deported to Konya, Bey Shehir, Konya, Ulukshla, Ereyli (where he met many clergymen from Bardizag), Bozanti, Cardaklik, Tarsus. He left Tarsus on 15 October 1915 in direction of Osmaniye, Islahiye, Tahtaköprü to the outskirts of Aleppo.
|-
| AzarikԱզարիք
|
| Died
|
| Pharmacist
| Çankırı
| Died in Der Zor.
|-
| Գրիգորիս Պալաքեան
| 1879 in Tokat
| Survived
|
| Clergyman
| Çankırı
| Escaped. Lived in Manchester and Marseille after the war — Published his memoirs of exile. Died in Marseille in 1934.
|-
| BalassanՊալասան
| Muslim from Persia
| Killed
| Adopted as child by Dashnak
| Doorman and coffee boy for editorial staff of Azadamard
| Ayaş
| Killed despite intervention from Persian Embassy.
|-
| Խաչիկ Պարտիզպանեան
|
| Killed
|
| Public figure
| Ayaş
| Killed in Angora.
|-
| Լեւոն Պարտիզպանեան
| 1887 in Kharpert
|
| Dashnak
| Physician and director of Azadamard
|
|
|-
| Վաղինակ Պարտիզպանեան
|
| Survived
|
|Official of the Khayrie navigation company
| Çankırı
| Permitted to return to Constantinople soon after 11 May 1915.
|-
| Զարեհ Պարտիզպանեան
|
| Survived
|
| Dentist
| Çankırı
| Permitted to return to Constantinople by special telegramme from Talat Pasha on 7 May 1915. The eight prisoners of this group were notified on Sunday, 9 May 1915, about their release and left Çankırı on 11 May 1915.
|-
| Մանուկ Պասմաճեան
|
| Survived
|
| Architect and intellectual
| Çankırı
| Permitted to return to Constantinople soon after 11 May 1915.
|-
| Մկրտիչ Պասմաճեան
|
| Survived
|
| Arms dealer
| Çankırı
| Sent to İzmit for further interrogations together with other deportees. Fled to Konya. Was deported again, managed to escape half way to Der Zor and returned to Constantinople.
|-
| Տ. Պազտիկեան
|
|
|
| Patriot or educator
|
|
|-
| BedigՊետիկ
|
|
|
| Writer, publicist
|
|
|-
| Մովսէս Պետրոսեան
|
|
| Dashnak
| Teacher
| Çankırı
| Set free as he was a Bulgarian national and returned to Sofia.
|-
| Կ. Պէյլիքճեան
|
|
|
| Merchant
|
|
|-
| Խաչիկ Պէրպէրեան
|
| Survived
|
| Teacher
| Ayaş
| Returned to Constantinople.
|-
| Ե. Պէյազեան
|
|
|
| Patriot or educator
|
|
|-
| BeylerianՊէյլերեան
|
|
| Son of Hagop Beylerian
|
| Çankırı
|
|-
| Յակոբ Պէյլերեան
| 1843 from Kayseri(?)
| Survived
| Father of Beylerian son
| Merchant
| Çankırı
| Permitted to return to Constantinople soon after 11 May 1915, died in 1921(?)
|-
| Արթին Պօղոսեան
|
| Survived
|
|
| Çankırı
| "Pardoned on condition on not returning to Constantinople" according to a telegramme from the Ministry of the Interior on 25 August 1915 on the subject of exiles erroneously unlisted in a former 3 August telegramme.
|-
| Խաչիկ Պօղոսեան
|
| Survived
|
| Doctor, psychologist, deputy of the Armenian National Assembly
| Ayaş
| Arrested 24 April 1915, exiled 3 May 1915. He arrived in Constantinople after further deportation from Ayaş to Angora and Aleppo after the armistice. Lived in Aleppo after the war. Founded a hospital. Published his memoirs of exile – d. 1955 in Aleppo.
|-
| (Mourad)Համբարձում Պօյաճեան
(Մուրատ)
| 1867 in Hadjin(Saimbeyli today)
| Killed
| Hunchak
| Doctor, with a long and well-known history of political activity and agitation, one of the first organizers of the Hunchak in 1888 and one of its leaders, principal organizer of the 1890 Kumkapı affray, leader of the 1894–1895 Sasun revolt, after 1908 Armenian National Assembly delegate from Kumkapı and deputy of Ottoman Parliament from Adana. Mourad was his nom de guerre.
| Çankırı
| He was led to Kayseri to appear before a court martial and then was executed there in 1915.
|-
| Բիւզանդ Պօզաճեան
|
| Survived
|
| Member of Armenian National Assembly
| Ayaş
| Returned to Constantinople.
|-
|-
| Ղ. Չպլաքեան
|
| Survived
|
|
| Konya
| Deported to Konya, Tarsus, Kuşcular, Belemedik. Returned to Constantinople after the armistice.
|-
| Երունդ Չաւուշեան
| 1867 Constantinople
| Died
| Hunchak
| Armenian scientist, teacher, editor-in-chief of "Tzayn Hayrenyats" newspaper.
| Çankırı
| Deported to Hama, Der Zor, where he died from illness. He died at the same time in the same tent in a village near Meskene as Husig A. Kahanay Katchouni.
|-
| ChebjieՋպճը
|
|
| Armenian-Catholic
| Architect
| Çankırı
|
|-
| Տիգրան Չէօկիւրեան
| 1884 Gyumushkana
| Killed
|
| Writer, publicist, teacher and chief editor of Vostan.
| Ayaş
| Killed in Angora; brother of Chökürian below
|-
| ChökürianՉէօկիւրեան
|
|
|
| Writer, publicist
|
| Brother of Dikran Chökürian
|-
| Գասպար Չերազ
| 1850 in Hasköy
| Survived
|
| Lawyer, public figure, brother of Minas Cheraz
| Çankırı
| Departed from Çankırı in winter after seven months and survived the next three years as refugee in Uşak together with his companions Hovhan Vartaped Garabedian, Mikayel Shamtanchian, Vartan Kahanay Karagözian from Feriköy. After the armistice he returned to Constantinople. He was deported instead of his brother Minas Cheraz who emigrated to France, Kaspar Cheraz died in 1928 in Constantinople.
|-
| Գ. Չուհաճեան
|
|
|
| Merchant
|
|
|-
|-
| Ահարոն Տատուրեան
| 1886 in Ovacik (near İzmit)
| Survived
|
| Poet
| Eregli
| Returned to Constantinople after the armistice. After a brief sojourn in Constantinople and Bulgaria, he pursued his studies in Prague (1923–28) and settled in France in the late 1920s. He died in 1965.
|-
| Նազարէթ Տաղաւարեան
| 1862 Sebastia
| Killed
|
| Physician, director of Surp Prgitch Hospital, deputy in the Ottoman parliament, deputy for Sivas in the Armenian National Assembly, founding member of Armenian General Benevolent Union.
| Ayaş
| Removed from the Ayaş prison on 5 May and taken under military escort to Diyarbakır along with Agnouni, Jangülian, Khajag, Minassian and Zartarian to appear before a court martial there and they were, seemingly, murdered by state-sponsored paramilitary groups led by Cherkes Ahmet, and lieutenants Halil and Nazım, at a locality called shortly before arriving at Diyarbakır, killed on the way to Urfa. The murderers were tried and executed in Damascus by Cemal Pasha in September 1915, and the assassinations became the subject of a 1916 investigation by the Ottoman Parliament led by Artin Boshgezenian, the deputy for Aleppo.
|-
| DanielianԴանիէլեան
|
| Survived
| Hunchak
| Tailor
| Çankırı
|
|-
| Պօղոս Դանիէլեան
|
| Died
| Dashnak
| Lawyer
| Çankırı
| Died in Der Zor.
|-
| Կարապետ Տէօվլեթեան
|
| Survived
|
| Official of the mint
| Çankırı
| Permitted to return to Constantinople soon after 11 May 1915.
|-
| (Shahnour)Ներսես Տէր-Գաբրիէլեան(Շահնուր)
| from Kayseri
| Killed
|
|
| Çankırı
| Belonged to the second convoy with only one or two survivors that left Çankırı on 19 August 1915, jailed in Angora 20–24 August killed en route to Yozgat.
|-
| Նոյիկ Տէր-Ստեփանեան
| from Erzincan
| Survived
|
| Commission agent, merchant and banker
| Çankırı
| Permitted to return to Constantinople soon after 11 May 1915. About 40 members of his family died.
|-
| Բարսեղ Տինանեան
|
| Survived
|
| Physician
| Çankırı
| Permitted to return to Constantinople soon after 11 May 1915. One of the organizers of the commemoration ceremony of 24 April 1919.
|-
| Գ. Տիրացուեան
|
|
|
| Writer, publicist
|
|
|-
| Խոր. Տխրունի
|
|
|
| Writer, publicist
|
|
|-
| Գրիգոր Ճելալ
|
| Survived
| Hunchak
|
| Çankırı
| Permitted to return to Constantinople soon after 11 May 1915.
|-
| Միսաք Ճէվահիրճեան
| 1858 from Kayseri
| Survived
|
| Physician (gynaecologist at the court), member of a tribunal council
| Çankırı
| Permitted to return to Constantinople on 11 May 1915. The eight prisoners of this group were notified on Sunday, 9 May 1915, about their release and left Çankırı on 11 May 1915. Set free with the help of his friend Pesin Omer Paşa, died in 1924.
|-
| (Hrachia Surenian)Արմէն Տօրեան (Հրաչեայ Սուրէնեան)
| 1892 Sinop
| Killed
|
| French-Armenian poet, editor of "Arene" weekly (Paris), founder of the Pantheist school.
| Çankırı
| Finished the Sorbonne University in 1914 and returned to Constantinople. Deported to Çankırı, killed in Anatolian desert; was jailed in Angora after Çankırı and killed according to Nshan Kalfayan, killed near Angora.
|-
|-
| (Silvio Ricci)
|
| Survived
|
|
| Ayaş
| Set free as Bulgarian national and returned to Bulgaria.
|-
| Բարունակ Ֆէրուխան
| 1884 inConstantinople
| Killed
|
| Official of Bakırköy (Makriköy) administration and violinist
| Çankırı
| Belonged to the second convoy with only one or two survivors that left Çankırı on 19 August 1915, jailed in Angora 20–24 August killed en route to Yozgat.
|-
| Յովհան Վրդ. Կարապետեան
| 22 June 1888 in Brusa
| Survived
|
| Clergyman, M.A. of University of Columbia, secretary of patriarch Zaven
| Çankırı
| Studied in the United States, came back in 1914 and was ordained priest on 16 June 1914 in Echmiadzin. He departed from Çankırı in winter after seven months and survived the next three years as refugee in Uşak together with his companions Kaspar Cheraz, Mikayel Shamtanchian, Vartan Kahanay Karagözian from Feriköy. After the armistice he returned to Constantinople and became priest in Gedikpaşa and Balat, member of the religious council. From 20 July 1919 – 5 August 1920 he was elected primate of İzmir. Later he got a higher degree as celibate priest (Ծ. Վրդ.). On 8 January 1921 he left for America and became priest of the St. Lusavorich church in New York. He survived and left the clergy.
|-
| Մկրտիչ Կարապետեան
|
| Survived
| Armenian-Catholic
|
| Ayaş
| Granted permission to return to capital as he was wrongly imprisoned in place of the teacher with same name.
|-
| GhazarosՂազարոս
|
|
| Dashnak
|
| Çankırı
| Deported in lieu of Marzbed (Ghazar Ghazarian).
|-
| GhonchegülianՂոնչէկիւլեան
|
| Died
|
| Merchant from Akn
| Çankırı
| Died near Meskene.
|-
| Krikor Torosian (Gigo)Գրիգոր Թորոսեան (Կիկօ)
| 1884 in Akn
| Killed
|
| Editor of the satirical newspaper Gigo
| Ayaş
| Killed in Angora.
|-
| Gülustanian Կիւլուստանեան
|
| Killed / Survived
|
| Dentist
| Çankırı
| "Permitted to reside freely in Çankırı" according to a telegramme from the Ministry of the Interior on 25 August 1915 on the subject of exiles erroneously unlisted in a former 3 August telegramme. Killed in a village called Tüney in 1915, together with Ruben Sevak, Daniel Varoujan and Mağazacıyan in a group of five.
|-
| Մելքոն Կիւլուստանեան
|
| Survived
|
|
| Ayaş
| Relative of his namesake in Çankırı; set free and returned to Constantinople.
|-
| Հայկ Կօշկարեան
|
| Survived
|
| Editor of Odian and Gigo
| Der Zor
| Survived deportation to Der Zor and returned to Constantinople after the armistice.
|-
| Reverend Սուրբ Հայր Գրիգորեան
|
|
|
| Pastor and editor of Avetaper
| Çankırı
|
|-
| Մելքոն Կիւլեսերեան
|
| Survived
|
|
| Çankırı
| Permitted to return to Constantinople soon after 11 May 1915.
|-
| Միհրդատ Հայկազն
|
| Killed
| Dashnak
| Patriot or educator, member of Armenian National Assembly, umbrella merchant.
| Ayaş
| Banished a couple of times and then killed in Angora.
|-
| Գ. Հաճեան
|
| Survived
|
| Pharmacist
| Çankırı
| Returned from Çankırı after the armistice.
|-
| Համբարձում Համբարձումեան
| 1890 in Constantinople
| Killed
|
| Writer, publicist
| Ayaş
| Killed in Angora.
|-
| Յովհաննէս Հանիսեան
|
| Survived
|
|
| Çankırı
| "Pardoned on condition on not returning to Constantinople" according to a telegramme from the Ministry of the Interior on 25 August 1915 on the subject of exiles erroneously unlisted in a former 3 August telegramme.
|-
| Արտաշէս Յարութիւնեան
| 1873 Malkara (near Rodosto)
| Killed
|
| Writer, publicist
|
| Stayed in Üsküdar on 24 April 1915. Arrested on 28 July 1915 and severely beaten at the Müdüriyet. When his father came to see him he was imprisoned as well. Father and son were deported together with 26 Armenians to Nicomedia (modern İzmit) and jailed in the Armenian church converted into a prison. Finally stabbed to death together with his father near Derbent on 16 August 1915.
|-
| Աբրահամ Հայրիկեան
|
| Killed
|
| Turkologist, director of Ardi college, member of Armenian National Assembly
| Ayaş
| Killed in Angora.
|-
| Գ. Հիւսեան
|
|
|
| Patriot or educator
|
|
|-
| Հայկ Խօճասարեան
|
| Survived
|
| Teacher, educator, headmaster of Bezciyan school (1901–1924), politician in Ramgavar
| Çankırı
| Permitted to return to Constantinople mid-June 1915, deputy of the Armenian National Assembly in 1919 became later chancellor of the Diocese of the Armenian Church of America.
|-
| Մկրտիչ Յովհաննէսեան
|
| Killed
| Dashnak
| Teacher
| Ayaş
| Killed in Angora.
|-
| Մկրտիչ Յովհաննէսեան
|
| Survived
|
|
| Ayaş
| Deported in lieu of Dashnak member Mkritch Hovhannessian, returned to Constantinople.
|-
| (Hrant)Մելքոն Կիւրճեան (Հրանդ)
| 1859 in Palu
| Killed
| Dashnak
| Writer, publicist, armenologist, member of Armenian National Assembly
| Ayaş
| Killed in Angora.
|-
| Գրիգոր Հիւրմիւզ
|
| Killed
|
| Writer, publicist
|
|
|-
| Խաչիկ Իտարէճեան
|
| Killed
|
| Teacher
| Ayaş
| Killed in Angora.
|-
| Գառնիկ Ինճիճեան
|
| Survived
|
| Merchant
| Çankırı
| Released upon request.
|-
| (Dkhruni)Արիս Իսրայէլեան (Տխրունի)
| 1885
| Died
| Dashnak
| Teacher, writer
| Çankırı
| Was in Konya in 1916, died later under unknown circumstances.
|-
| Աբիկ Ճամպազ
| from Pera
| Died
| Armenian-Catholic
| Merchant
| Çankırı
| Permitted to return to Constantinople soon after 11 May 1915.
|-
| Յարութիւն Ճանկիւլեան
| 1855 in Van
| Killed
| Hunchak
| One of the organizers of the 1890 Kumkapı affray, political activist, member of Armenian National Assembly, published his memoirs in 1913.
| Ayaş
| Dispatched to Diyarbakir, but executed after Aleppo between Urfa and Severek by Haci Tellal Hakimoglu (Haci Onbasi) – Removed from the Ayaş prison on 5 May and taken under military escort to Diyarbakır along with Daghavarian, Agnouni, Khajag, Minassian and Zartarian to appear before a court martial there and they were, seemingly, murdered by state-sponsored paramilitary groups led by Cherkes Ahmet, and lieutenants Halil and Nazım, at a locality called shortly before arriving at Diyarbakır. The murderers were tried and executed in Damascus by Cemal Pasha in September 1915, and the assassinations became the subject of a 1916 investigation by the Ottoman Parliament led by Artin Boshgezenian, the deputy for Aleppo.
|-
| Արամ Գալէնտէրեան
|
| Survived
|
| Official of the Ottoman Bank
|
| Granted permission to return.
|-
| Յարութիւն Գալֆաեան
| in Üsküdar
| Died
| Hunchak
| Director of Arhanyan College
| Çankırı
| Died in 1915. Not to be confused with his namesake, also a deportee but a Dashnak member, who was mayor of Bakırköy (Makriköy) quarter of Constantinople.
|-
| Յարութիւն Գալֆաեան
| 1870 in Talas
| Died in Angora
| Dashnak
| Lawyer, mayor of Bakırköy (Makriköy)
| Çankırı
| Died in 1915. Uncle of Nshan Kalfayan. Not to be confused with his namesake, also a deportee but a Hunchak member, who was a schoolmaster.
|-
| Նշան Գալֆաեան
| 16 April 1865 in Üsküdar<ref name="Teo10">Teotig (Teotoros Lapçinciyan): Ամէնուն Տարեցոյցը. 1910. [Everyone's Almanac. 1910], V. and H. Der Nersesian Editions, Constantinople, 1910, p. 318</ref>
| Survived
|
| Agronomist, lecturer in agriculture at Berberyan school
| Çankırı
| Permitted to return to Constantinople soon after 11 May 1915. Moved to Greece in 1924. Invited to Persia in 1927 to administer properties of the Shah. Was a correspondent for the Académie française.
|-
| KantarenԳանթարեն
|
|
|
|
| Çankırı
|
|-
| Ռաֆայէլ Գարակէօզեան
|
| Survived
|
|
| Çankırı
| Permitted to return to Constantinople by a telegramme from Talat Pasha on 7 May 1915.
|-
| (?) Թագւոր Գարակէօզեան
|
|
|
| Merchant
| Çankırı
|
|-
| Վարդան Քհնյ. Գարակէօզեան
| 15 July 1877 in Kumkapı, Constantinople
| Survived
|
| Clergyman from Feriköy
| Çankırı
| Departed from Çankırı in winter after seven months and survived the next three years as refugee in Uşak together with his companions Hovhan Vartaped Garabedian, Kaspar Cheraz, Mikayel Shamtanchian. After the armistice he returned to Constantinople.
|-
| Արիստակէս Գասպարեան
| 1861 in Adana
| Killed
|
| Lawyer, businessman, member of Armenian National Assembly
| Ayaş
| Killed in Angora.
|-
| Յուսիկ Ա. Քհնյ. Քաջունի
| 1851 in Arapgir
| Died
| Dashnak
| Clergyman
| Çankırı
| Deported further and died from illness in a village near Meskene. He died at the same time in the same tent as Yervant Chavushyan.
|-
| Գէորգ Գայըգճեան
|
| Killed
|
| Merchant
| Çankırı
| Belonged to the second convoy with only one or two survivors that left Çankırı on 19 August 1915, jailed in Angora 20–24 August killed en route to Yozgat. Three Kayekjian brothers were deported and killed altogether near Angora.
|-
| Լեւոն Գայըգճեան
|
| Killed
|
| Merchant
| Çankırı
| Belonged to the second convoy with only one or two survivors that left Çankırı on 19 August 1915, jailed in Angora 20–24 August killed en route to Yozgat. Three Kayekjian brothers were deported and killed altogether near Angora.
|-
| Միհրան Գայըգճեան
|
| Killed
|
| Merchant
| Çankırı
| Belonged to the second convoy with only one or two survivors that left Çankırı on 19 August 1915, jailed in Angora 20–24 August killed en route to Yozgat. Three Kayekjian brothers were deported and killed altogether near Angora.
|-
| Արշակ Քհնյ. Գազազեան
|
| Survived
|
| Clergyman
| Çankırı
|
|-
| Բիւզանդ Քէչեան
| 1859
| Survived
|
| Editor, owner of influential newspaper Piuzantion, historian
| Çankırı
| Permitted to return to Constantinople by special telegramme from Talat Pasha on 7 May 1915. The eight prisoners of this group were notified on Sunday, 9 May 1915, about their release and left Çankırı on 11 May 1915. Returned to Constantinople on 1 May 1915 [old calendar](?) and stayed in Plovdiv, Bulgaria, until the end of the war, died in 1927 or 1928.
|-
| (Dökmeji Vahan)Վահան Քէհեաեան
|1874 in Urfa
| Killed
| Hunchak
| Patriot or educator and craftsman
| Çankırı
| Killed on 26 August 1915 together with Ruben Sevak, Daniel Varoujan, Onnik Maghazajian, Artin Kocho.
|-
| Տիրան Քէլէկեան
| 1862 Kayseri
| Killed
| Ramgavar
| Writer, university professor, publisher of a popular Turkish language newspapar, Sabah, freemason, author of a French-Turkish dictionary which is still a reference.
| Çankırı
| Permitted to reside with his family anywhere outside Constantinople by special order from Talat Pasha on 8 May 1915, chose Smyrna, but was taken under military escort to Çorum to appear before a court martial and killed on 20 October 1915 on the way to Sivas between Yozgat and Kayseri near the bridge Cokgöz on the Kizilirmak.
|-
| Ագրիկ Քերեսթեճեան
| 1855 in Kartal
| Died
|
| Merchant of wood (coincides with the literal meaning of his name)
|
|
|-
| Պատ. Կարապետ Քերոբեան
| from Balıkesir
| Survived
|
| Pastor
| Çankırı
| Permitted to return to Constantinople by special telegramme from Talat Pasha on 7 May 1915. The eight prisoners of this group were notified on Sunday, 9 May 1915, about their release and left Çankırı on 11 May 1915. He went to America.
|-
| Միրզա Քեթենենճեան
|
| Survived
| Dashnak
|
|
|
|-
| born as Karekin ChakalianԳարեգին Խաժակ (Գարեգին Չագալեան)
| 1867 in Alexandropol
| Killed
| Dashnak
| Newspaper editor, teacher.
| Ayaş
| Removed from the Ayaş prison on 5 May and taken under military escort to Diyarbakır along with Daghavarian, Agnouni, Jangülian, Minassian and Zartarian to appear before a court martial there and they were, seemingly, murdered by state-sponsored paramilitary groups led by Cherkes Ahmet, and lieutenants Halil and Nazım, at a locality called shortly before arriving at Diyarbakır. The murderers were tried and executed in Damascus by Cemal Pasha in September 1915, and the assassinations became the subject of a 1916 investigation by the Ottoman Parliament led by Artin Boshgezenian, the deputy for Aleppo.
|-
| Ա. Խազխազեան
|
|
|
| Merchant
|
|
|-
| KherbekianԽերպէկեան
| from Erzurum
|
|
| Merchant
| Konya
| Granted permission to return.
|-
| Յովհաննէս Գըլըճեան
|
| Killed
|
| Bookseller
| Ayaş
| Killed in Angora.
|-
| (S. Srents)Սարգիս Գըլճեան (Ս. Սրենց)
|
| Survived
| Dashnak
| Teacher, writer, publicist
| Çankırı
| Escaped from Çankırı to Konya and became Deputy of the Armenian National Assembly in 1919.
|-
| (Kmpetian)Յովհաննէս Գմբէթեան
| 1894 in Sivas
| Killed
|
| Armenian poet and educator
| Çankırı
| Killed during the deportation in Ras al-Ain.
|-
| (Harutiun Pekmezian)Գոչօ Արթին (Յարութիւն Պէքմէզեան)
|
| Killed
|
| Bread seller in Ortaköy
| Çankırı
| Killed by 12 çetes on 26 August 1915 6 hours after Çankırı near the han of Tüneh in a group of five.
|-
| Գէորգ կամ Յովհաննէս Քէօլէեան
|
| Killed
|
|
| Çankırı
| Killed near Angora.
|-
| Ներսէս (Տէր-) Գէորգեան
|
|
|
| Merchant
| Çankırı
| Was betrayed by a competitor.
|-
| KomitasԿոմիտաս
| 1869 in Kütahya
| Survived
|
| Priest, composer, ethnomusicologist, founder of a number choirs
| Çankırı
| Permitted to return to Constantinople by special telegramme from Talat Pasha on 7 May 1915. The eight prisoners of this group were notified on Sunday, 9 May 1915, about their release and left Çankırı on 11 May 1915 – developed a severe form of Posttraumatic stress disorder and spent twenty years in virtual silence in mental asylums, died 1935 in Paris.
|-
| Յարութիւն Գօնիալեան
|
| Killed
|
| Tailor
| Ayaş
| Killed in Angora.
|-
| Յակոբ Գորեան
| from Akn, in his seventies
| Survived
|
| Merchant, occasionally a teacher
| Çankırı
| Permitted to return to Constantinople soon after 11 May 1915. He left Çankırı on 6 August 1915, was jailed in Angora, was displaced to Tarson, arrived in Constantinople on 22 September 1915.
|-
| KosmosԿոզմոս
|
|
|
|
| Çankırı
|
|-
| Շաւարշ Քրիսեան
| 1886 in Constantinople
| Killed
| Dashnak
| Writer, publicist, teacher, editor of the first sports magazine of the Ottoman Empire Marmnamarz| Ayaş
| He organized gym exercises in Ayaş. Until the deportees of Ayaş had learned about the 20 Hunchakian gallows of 15 June 1915, they were not realising the severity of their situation. The exercises were viewed by the Turkish guards with great suspicion. Shavarsh Krissian was killed in Angora.
|-
| Մ. Գունտագճեան
|
|
|
| Lawyer
|
|
|-
|-
| (Kirishchiyan)Լեւոն Լարենց Քիրիշճեան
| 1882 in Constantinople
| Killed
| Hunchak
| Poet, translator, professor of literature.
| Ayaş
| Killed during the deportation in Angora.
|-
| Օննիկ Մաղազաճեան
| 1878 in Constantinople
| Killed
| Chairman of Kumkapı Progressive Society
| Cartographer, bookseller
| Çankırı
| "Permitted to reside freely in Çankırı" according to a telegramme from the Ministry of the Interior on 25 August 1915 on the subject of exiles erroneously unlisted in a former 3 August telegramme. Killed in a village called Tüney in 1915, together with Ruben Sevak, Daniel Varoujan and Gülistanian in a group of five.
|-
| (Maniassian)Աստուածատուր Մանեսեան
|
| Survived
|
| Merchant
| Çankırı
|
|-
| Պետրոս Մանիկեան
|
| Survived
| Çankırı
| Pharmacist
|
|
|-
| Վրթանէս Մարտիկեան
|
| Survived
|
|
| Ayaş
| Deported in a group of 50 persons to Angora, 5 May 1915, dispatched to Ayaş on 7 May 1915, set free in July 1915, returned to Constantinople.
|-
| Marzbed(Ghazar Ghazarian)Մարզպետ (Ղազար Ղազարեան)
|
| Died
| Dashnak
| Teacher
| Ayaş
| Dispatched around 18 May 1915 to Kayseri to appear before a court martial, worked under fake Turkish identity for the Germans in Intilli (Amanus railway tunnel), escaped to Nusaybin where he fell from a horse and died right before the armistice.
|-
| Ա. Տ. Մատթէոսեան
|
|
|
| Lawyer, writer
|
|
|-
| Մելիք Մելիքեան
|
| Killed
|
|
| Çankırı
|
|-
| Սիմոն Մելքոնեան
| from Ortaköy
| Survived
|
| Architect
| Çankırı
| Permitted to return to Constantinople soon after 11 May 1915.
|-
| Թ. Մենծիկեան
|
| Killed
|
| Merchant
| Ayaş
| Killed in Angora.
|-
| born as Aram AshotՍարգիս Մինասեան
| 1873 inÇengiler, Yalova
| Killed
| Dashnak
| Chief editor of Droshak, Editor of Armenian newspaper in Boston till 1909, teacher, writer and political activist in the Ottoman capital after 1909; member of Armenian National Assembly
| Ayaş
| Removed from the Ayaş prison on 5 May and taken under military escort to Diyarbakır along with Daghavarian, Agnouni, Jangülian, Khajag and Zartarian to appear before a court martial there and they were, seemingly, murdered by state-sponsored paramilitary groups led by Cherkes Ahmet, and lieutenants Halil and Nazım, at a locality called shortly before arriving at Diyarbakır. The murderers were tried and executed in Damascus by Cemal Pasha in September 1915, and the assassinations became the subject of a 1916 investigation by the Ottoman Parliament led by Artin Boshgezenian, the deputy for Aleppo.
|-
| Գրիգոր Միսքճեան
| 1865
| Killed
| brother of Stepan Miskjian
| Pharmacist
| Çankırı
| Belonged to the second convoy with only one or two survivors that left Çankırı on 19 August 1915, jailed in Angora 20–24 August killed en route to Yozgat, killed near Angora.
|-
| Ստեփան Միսքճեան
| 1852 in Constantinople
| Killed
| brother of Krikor Miskjian
| Physician
| Çankırı
| Belonged to the second convoy with only one or two survivors that left Çankırı on 19 August 1915, jailed in Angora 20–24 August killed en route to Yozgat, killed near Angora.
|-
| Զարեհ Մոմճեան
|
| Killed
|
| Translator at the Russian Consulate
| Çankırı
| "Pardoned on condition on not returning to Constantinople" according to a telegramme from the Ministry of the Interior on 25 August 1915 on the subject of exiles erroneously unlisted in a former 3 August telegramme. Belonged to the second convoy with only two survivors that left Çankırı on 19 August 1915, jailed in Angora 20–24 August killed en route to Yozgat.
|-
| Աբիկ Միւպահեաճեան
|
| Survived
|
| Publicist
| Konya
| Granted permission to return.
|-
| Աւետիս Նագաշեան
|
| Survived
|
| Physician
| Ayaş
| Was set free 23 July 1915, sent his family to Bulgaria, served in the Ottoman army as captain in the Gülhane Hospital at the time of the Gallipoli campaign and immigrated to the US.
|-
| NakulianՆագուլեան
|
| Survived
|
| Doctor
| Ayaş
| Exiled 3 May 1915. Allowed to move free in Ayaş. Returned later to Constantinople.
|-
| Յակոբ Նարկիլէճեան
|
| Survived
|
| Pharmacist in the army
| Çankırı
| Permitted to return to Constantinople by special telegramme from Talat Pasha on 7 May 1915. The eight prisoners of this group were notified on Sunday, 9 May 1915, about their release and left Çankırı on 11 May 1915.
|-
| Մարկոս Նաթանեան
|
| Survived
|
| Member of Armenian National Assembly
| Çorum
| Survived deportation to Çorum and later to Iskiliben, was permitted to go back.
|-
| Հրանդ Նազարեան
|
|
|
|
| Çankırı
|
|-
| Սերովբէ Նորատունկեան
|
| Killed
| Dashnak
| Teacher at the Sanassarian college and member of Armenian National Assembly
| Ayaş
| Killed in Angora.
|-
| NosrigianՆօսրիկեան
| from Erzurum
| Survived
|
| Merchant
| Konya
| Granted permission to return.
|-
| NshanՆշան
|
| Killed
|
| Tattooist in Kumkapı
| Ayaş
| Killed in Angora.
|-
| Նշան Օտեան
|
|
| Hunchak
|
| Ayaş
|
|-
| Երուանդ Օտեան
| 1869 in Constantinople
| Survived
|
| Writer
| Ayaş
| Deported August 1915. Accompanied Karekin Vrtd. Khatchaturian (prelate of Konia) from Tarson to Osmanieh. Islamized in 1916 under the name Aziz Nuri in Hama. After failed attempts to escape from Der Zor, Odian worked in a factory for military uniforms together with Armenian deportees from Aintab. Soon afterwards he became translator to the military commander of Der Zor. Finally he was orderly to the commander Edwal of the German garrison in Der Zor and gave account of the killing of the last deportees from Constantinople in the prison of Der Zor as late as January 1918 and described that all the policemen and officials kept Armenian women.
|-
| Արամ Օննիկեան
|
| Survived
|
| Merchant, chemist
| Çankırı
| Son of Krikor Onnikian
|-
| Յովհաննէս Օննիկեան
|
| Died
|
| Merchant
| Çankırı
| Son of Krikor Onnikian; died from illness in Hajkiri near Çankırı.
|-
| Գրիգոր Օննիկեան
| 1840
| Died
|
| Merchant
| Çankırı
| Father of Aram, Hovhannes and Mkrtich Onnikian; died from illness in Çankırı.
|-
| Մկրտիչ Օննիկեան
|
| Died
|
| Merchant
| Çankırı
| Son of Krikor Onnikian; died in Der Zor.
|-
| PanaghoghՓանաղող
|
|
|
| Writer, publicist
|
|
|-
| Շաւարշ Փանոսեան
|
| Survived
|
| Teacher from Pera.
| Ayaş
| Granted permission to return.
|-
| (Vartabed Mashtots)Ներսէս Փափազեան
|
| Killed
| Dashnak
| Editor of Azadamard, Patriot or educator
| Ayaş
| Killed in Angora.
|-
| Վրթանէս Փափազեան
|
| Survived
|
| Tailor
| Çankırı
| Wrongly deported as he bore the same name as the novelist who escaped to Bulgaria and later to Russia. Permitted to return to Constantinople soon after 11 May 1915.
|-
| Արտաշես Փարիսեան
|
| Survived
|
| Merchant
| Çankırı
|
|-
| Parseghian Բարսեղեան
|
| Survived
|
|
| Ayaş
| Granted permission to return.
|-
| Արմենակ Բարսեղեան
|
| Survived
| Dashnak
| Teacher, studied philosophy in Berlin, lived in Pera
| Çankırı
| Permitted to return to Constantinople soon after 11 May 1915.
|-
| Յ. Բարսեղեան
|
|
|
| Patriot or educator
|
|
|-
| Գեղամ Բարսեղեան
| 1883 in Constantinople
| Killed
| Dashnak
| Writer, publicist, editor, teacher
| Ayaş
| Killed in Angora.
|-
| (Shamil)Սարգիս Բարսեղեան (Շամիլ)
|
| Killed
|
| Patriot or educator
| Ayaş
|
|-
| Կարապետ Փաշայեան Խան
| 1864 in Constantinople
| Killed
| Dashnak
| Physician, writer former deputy of the Ottoman parliament, member of Armenian National Assembly
| Ayaş
| First tortured and then killed in Angora.
|-
| Մ. Փիոսեան
|
|
|
| Patriot or educator
|
|
|-
| Der-GhazaryantsՍմբատ ԲիւրատՏէր-Ղազարեանց
| 1862 in Zeytun (Süleymanlı today)
| Died
|
| Novelist, public figure, member of Armenian National Assembly
| Ayaş
| Killed in Angora.
|-
|-
| Կ. Րէյիսեան
|
|
|
| Merchant
|
|
|-
| Րոստոմ (Րիւսթէմ Րոստոմեանց)
|
| Killed
|
| Merchant and public figure
| Ayaş
| Killed in Angora.
|-
|-
| Վրամշապուհ Սամուէլօֆ
|
| Killed
|
| Merchant Armenian from Russia, banker
| Ayaş
| Killed in Angora.
|-
| SarafianՍարաֆեան
|
|
|
|
| Çankırı
|
|-
| Կարապետ Սարաֆեան
|
| Killed
|
| Public official
| Ayaş
| Killed in Angora.
|-
| SatoՍաթօ
|
|
|
| Patriot or educator
|
|
|-
| (Pailag)Ժագ Սայապալեան (Փայլակ)
| 1880 in Konya
| Killed
| Armenian National Assembly
| Interpreter for the British Consul in Konya between 1901 and 1905, then vice-consul for a year and a half. After 1909, journalist in the capital.
| Çankırı
| Killed in Angora.
|-
| Մարկոս Սեֆեր
|
| Survived
|
| Lawyer
| Ayaş
| Deported in place of Markos Natanian and returned to Constantinople.
|-
| Վարդգէս Սէրէնկիւլեան
| 1871 in Erzurum
| Killed
|
| Deputy in the Ottoman parliament
| Dispatched to Diyarbakır to appear before a court martial
| Deported 21 May 1915 or 2 June 1915. Same fate as Krikor Zohrab. (Cherkes Ahmet and Halil were led to Damascus and executed there on orders from Cemal Pasha, in connection with the murder of the two deputies, on 30 September 1915, Nazım had died in a fight before that.)
|-
| Պաղտասար Սարգիսեան
|
| Survived
|
|
| Çankırı
| "Pardoned on condition on not returning to Constantinople" according to a telegramme from the Ministry of the Interior on 25 August 1915 on the subject of exiles erroneously unlisted in a former 3 August telegramme.
|-
| Effendi (Prudian)Մարկոս Սէրվէթ
|
| Survived
|
| Lawyer from Kartal
| Ayaş
| Granted permission to return.
|-
| Ռուբէն Սեւակ
| 1885 in Silivri
| Killed
|
| Physician, prominent poet and writer, formerly captain in the Ottoman Army during the Balkan Wars
| Çankırı
| Deported 22 June 1915 but was "Permitted to reside freely in Çankırı" according to a telegramme from the Ministry of the Interior on 25 August 1915 on the subject of exiles erroneously unlisted in a former 3 August telegramme. Killed in a village called Tüney in 1915, together with Gülistanyan, Daniel Varoujan and Mağazacıyan in a group of five. His house in Elmadağı, Constantinople is now a museum.
|-
| ShahbazՇահպազ
|
|
|
| Patriot or educator
|
|
|-
| Բարսեղ Շահպազ
| 1883 in Boyacıköy, Constantinople
| Killed
| Dashnak
| Lawyer, journalist, columnist
| Çankırı
| "Murdered on Harput-Malatya road." On 6 July 1915, in a letter to Miss. Zaruhi Bahri and Evgine Khachigian, Parsegh Shahbaz wrote from Aintab that due to his wounded feet and stomachaches, he will rest for 6–7 days until he has to continue the 8–10 days journey to M. Aziz. But he had no idea why he was sent there. According to Vahe-Haig (Վահէ-Հայկ), survivor of the massacre of Harput, Parsegh Shahbaz was jailed 8 days after the massacre in the central prison of Mezre. Parsegh Shahbaz remained without food for a week and was severely beaten and finally killed by gendarmes under the wall of 'the factory'.
|-
| Ա. Շահէն
|
|
|
| Patriot or educator
|
|
|-
| Ենովք Շահէն
| 1881 in Bardizag (near İzmit)
| Killed
|
| Actor
| Ayaş
| Killed in Angora.
|-
| Սարգիս Շահինեան
|
| Survived
|
|
| Çankırı
| "Pardoned on condition on not returning to Constantinople" according to a telegramme from the Ministry of the Interior on 25 August 1915 on the subject of exiles erroneously unlisted in a former 3 August telegramme.
|-
| Harutiun Shahrigian (Adom)Յարութիւն Շահրիկեան (Ատոմ)
| 1860 in Shabin-Karahisar
| Killed
| Dashnak
| Dashnak leader, lawyer, member of Armenian National Assembly.
| Ayaş
| First tortured and then killed in Angora.
|-
| Լեւոն Շամտանճեան
|
| Survived
|
|
| Ayaş
| Deported in lieu of Mikayel Shamtanchian, returned to Constantinople.
|-
| Միքայէլ Շամտանճեան
| 1874
| Survived
| Friend of Dikran Chökürian
| Newspaper editor at Vostan, writer, lecturer, leader in the Armenian National Assembly
| Çankırı
| Departed from Çankırı in winter after seven months and survived the next three years as refugee in Uşak together with his companions Hovhan Vartaped Garabedian, Kaspar Cheraz, Vartan Kahanay Karagözian from Feriköy. After the armistice he returned to Constantinople. Published his memoirs of exile after the war. – d. 1926
|-
| Լեւոն Շաշեան
|
| Killed
|
| Merchant
|
| Killed in Der Zor.
|-
| Siamanto (Adom Yerdjanian)Սիամանթօ (Ատոմ Եարճանեան)
| 1878 in Akn
| Killed
| Dashnak
| Poet, writer, member of Armenian National Assembly
|
| Killed in Angora.
|-
| Գրիգոր Սիւրմէեան
|
| Survived
|
| Father of Artavazd V. Siurmeian.
| Ayaş
| Granted permission to return to Constantinople.
|-
| (Onnig Jirayr)Օննիկ Սրապեան (Օննիկ Ժիրայր)
| 1878 in Erzincan
| Killed
|
| Teacher
| Ayaş
| Killed in Angora.
|-
| Եղիա Սուղիկեան
|
|
|
| Writer, publicist
|
| Met Yervant Odian and Aram Andonian in September 1915 while working in the mill of Aram and Ardashes Shalvarjian in Tarson (supplying daily 30,000 Ottoman soldiers with flour).
|-
| Ս. Սուին
|
|
|
| Patriot or educator
| 24 April 1915
|
|-
| Միհրան Թապագեան
| 1878 from Adapazar
| Killed
| Dashnak
| Teacher and writer
| Çankırı
| Belonged to the second convoy with only one or two survivors that left Çankırı on 19 August 1915, jailed in Angora 20–24 August killed en route to Yozgat.
|-
| Կարապետ Թաշճեան
|
| Killed
|
|
| Ayaş
| Killed in Angora.
|-
| Կարապետ Թաշճեան
|
| Survived
|
| Butcher
| Çankırı
| Deported in lieu of Garabed Tashjian jailed in Ayaş, released and returned to Constantinople.
|-
| Ստեփան Թաթարեան
|
| Survived
|
| Merchant
| Çankırı
| Dispatched to Kayseri to appear before a court martial (where he was an eyewitness to executions). Joined by a group of four from Ayaş beginning of July. Survived deportation from Çankırı to Kayseri to Aleppo and returned to Constantinople after the armistice.
|-
| Գէորգ Թէրճիմանեան
|
| Killed
| Ayaş
| Merchant
|
| Killed in Angora.
|-
| Օհաննես Թէրլէմէզեան
| from Van
| Survived
|
| Money changer
| Çankırı
| Permitted to return to Constantinople soon after 11 May 1915. One of the last who was released from Çankırı. He left Çankırı on 6 August 1915, was jailed in Angora, came to Tarson, arrived in Constantinople on 22 September 1915.
|-
| Յակոբ Թէրզեան
| 1879 in Hadjin
| Killed
| Hunchak
| Pharmacist
| Çankırı
| Belonged to the second convoy with only one or two survivors that left Çankırı on 19 August 1915, jailed in Angora 20–24 August killed en route to Yozgat, killed near Angora.
|-
| Հայկ Թիրեաքեան
| about60 years old
| Survived
|
| Cashier of Phoenix| Ayaş
| Deported instead of his Dashnak homonym. Returned to Constantinople.
|-
| Հայկ Թիրեաքեան (Հրաչ)
| 1871 in Trabzon
| Killed
| Dashnak
| Member of Armenian National Assembly
| Çankırı
| After learning that another Haig Tiriakian had been detained in Ayaş he demanded his namesake's release and his own transfer from Çankırı to Ayaş. He was later killed in Angora.
|-
| Երուանդ Թօլայեան
| 1883
| Survived
|
| Theater director, playwright, editor of the satirical journal Gavroche| Çankırı
| Permitted to return to Constantinople by special telegramme from Talat Pasha on 7 May 1915. The eight prisoners of this group were notified on Sunday, 9 May 1915, about their release and left Çankırı on 11 May 1915. Yervant Tolayan died in 1937.
|-
| Յակոբ Թօփճեան
| 1876
| Survived
| Ramgavar
| Editor
| Çankırı
| Permitted to return to Constantinople mid-June 1915, died in 1951.
|-
| TorkomԹորգոմ
|
|
|
| Patriot or educator
|
|
|-
| Վահրամ Թորգոմեան
| 20 April 1858 in Constantinople
| Survived
|
| Physician, medical historian
| Çankırı
| Permitted to return to Constantinople by special telegramme from Talat Pasha on 7 May 1915. The eight prisoners of this group were notified on Sunday, 9 May 1915, about their release and left Çankırı on 11 May 1915. He moved to France in 1922. He published a book after the war (a list of Armenian doctors) in Évreux, France in 1922 and a study on Ethiopean Taenicide-Kosso in Antwerp in 1929. He died 11 August 1942 in Paris.
|-
| (Tomajanian)Սամուել Թումաճան (Թոմաճանեան)
|
| Died
| Hunchak
|
| Çankırı
| Permitted to return to Constantinople soon after 11 May 1915. Samvel Tomajian/Թօմաճեան (!) died according to Alboyajian.
|-
|-
| Դանիէլ Վարուժան
| 1884 in Brgnik (near Sivas)
| Killed
|
| Poet
| Çankırı
| Killed together with Ruben Sevak by 12 çetes on 26 August 1915 six hours after Çankırı near the han of Tüneh in a group of five.
|-
|-
| Արամ Երջանիկ
| 1865
| Died
|
| Restaurant owner
| Çankırı
| Deported because many intellectuals regularly met at his restaurant in Bahçekapı, died in 1915.
|-
| Տ. Երկանեան
|
|
|
| Lawyer
|
|
|-
| Գրիգոր Եսայեան
| 1883 from Van
| Killed
| Dashnak
| French and Math teacher, translator of Levon Shant's Ancient Gods into French
| Çankırı
| Belonged to the second convoy with only one or two survivors that left Çankırı on 19 August 1915, jailed in Angora 20–24 August killed en route to Yozgat.
|-
| YeznikԵզնիկ
|
|
|
| Profession
| Çankırı
|
|-
|-
| Ներսէս Զաքարեան
|
| Killed
| Hunchak
| Patriot or educator, member of Armenian National Assembly
| Ayaş
| Killed in Angora.
|-
| Աւետիս Զարիֆեան
|
| Survived
|
| Pharmacist
| Çankırı
| Permitted to return to Constantinople soon after 11 May 1915.
|-
| Ռուբէն Զարդարեան
| 1874 in Kharpert
| Killed
|
| Writer, poet, newspaper (Azadamard) and textbook editor, considered a pioneer of Armenian rural literature. Translated Victor Hugo, Maxim Gorki, Anatole France, Oscar Wilde into Armenian.
| Ayaş
| Removed from the Ayaş prison on 5 May and taken under military escort to Diyarbakır along with Daghavarian, Agnouni, Jangülian, Khajag and Minassian to appear before a court martial there and they were, seemingly, murdered by state-sponsored paramilitary groups led by Cherkes Ahmet, and lieutenants Halil and Nazım, at a locality called shortly before arriving at Diyarbakır. The murderers were tried and executed in Damascus by Cemal Pasha in September 1915, and the assassinations became the subject of a 1916 investigation by the Ottoman Parliament led by Artin Boshgezenian, the deputy for Aleppo.
|-
| ZenopԶենոբ
|
|
|
|
| Çankırı
|
|-
| Գրիգոր Զօհրապ
| 1861 in Constantinople
| Killed
|
| Writer, jurist, deputy in the Ottoman parliament
| Dispatched to Diyarbakır to appear before a court martial
| Deported either 21 May 1915 or 2 June 1915. Ordered to appear before a court martial in Diyarbakır, together with Vartkes Hovhannes Serengülyan, both went to Aleppo by train, escorted by one gendarme, remained in Aleppo for a few weeks, waited the results of infructuous attempts by the Ottoman governor of the city to have them sent back to Constantinople (some sources mention Cemal Pasha himself intervening for their return, but Talat Pasha insisting on them to sent to the court martial), and then dispatched to Urfa and remained there for some time in the house of a Turkish deputy friend, taken under police escort and led to Diyarbakır by car -allegedly accompanied on a voluntary basis by some notable Urfa Armenians, and with many sources confirming, they were murdered by state-sponsored paramilitary groups led by Cherkes Ahmet, Halil and Nazım, at a locality called Karaköprü or Şeytanderesi in the outskirts of Urfa, some time between 15 July and 20 July 1915. The murderers were tried and executed in Damascus by Cemal Pasha in September 1915, and the assassinations became the subject of a 1916 investigation by the Ottoman Parliament led by Artin Boshgezenian, the deputy for Aleppo.
|-
| (Jirayr)Բարթող Զօրեան (Ժիրայր)
| 1879 in Tamzara
| Killed
| Dashnak
| Publicist
| Ayaş
| Killed in Angora.
|-
|}
Notes
References
Reference notes
Bibliography
Krikor Balakian Հայ Գողգոթան [The Armenian Golgotha], Mechitaristenpresse Vienna 1922 (vol. 1) and Paris 1956 (vol. 2) (a new edition in French: Georges Balakian: Le Golgotha arménien'', Le cercle d'écrits caucasiens, La Ferté-Sous-Jouarre 2002 (vol. 1) , 2004 (vol. 2) )
[essay about the survivor literature 1918–23]
[Gives an account of over 1.500 deported clergymen all over the Ottoman Empire with selected biographical entries and lists 100 notables of 24 April 1915 by name out of 270 in total and classifies them roughly in 9 professional groups]
Further reading
External links
Armenian Genocide Archives
Armenian genocide
Deportation
Lists of Armenian people
Lists of 20th-century people
People who died in the Armenian genocide
Political and cultural purges
1915 in the Ottoman Empire
Deportation
Ottoman Empire-related lists
Persecution of Christians in the Ottoman Empire
Persecution in the Ottoman Empire
Persecution of intellectuals
Anti-intellectualism
1910s-related lists
April 1915 events
|
4827239
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armstrong%20Whitworth%20Ensign
|
Armstrong Whitworth Ensign
|
The Armstrong Whitworth A.W.27 Ensign was a British four-engine monoplane airliner and the largest airliner built in Britain during the Interwar period.
The British airline Imperial Airways requested tenders for a large monoplane airliner with four Armstrong Siddeley Tiger engines in 1934. Armstrong Whitworth designed the Ensign to seat up to 40 passengers for the airline's European and Asian routes while also carrying airmail. It connected Britain with seaplane flights that continued on to Australia and South Africa. Early operations were hindered by mechanical problems and modifications only ever marginally improved performance and reliability.
During the Second World War, the Ensigns were operated by the British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC), which had been formed out of the merger of Imperial Airways and British Airways. The type would be flown between Britain and various locations in the Middle East, Africa and India, often in support of military operations. During 1940, three Ensigns were destroyed by enemy action, while one would be captured in 1942 and subsequently operated by the French. The Ensigns were retired following a final passenger flight in June 1946 and the remaining aircraft were scrapped the following year.
Development
Background
The Ensign's origins can be traced to 1934 when Imperial Airways expressed a need for a large monoplane airliner powered by four Armstrong Siddeley Tiger radial engines. The airline was expanding and modernizing its fleet, driven in part by the obsolescence of its biplane airliners, such as the Handley Page H.P.42, and a new British Government policy stipulating that first class mail with the Empire travel by air. Imperial Airways also issued a specification for a large flying boat, which became the Short Empire. Imperial Airways approached Armstrong Whitworth directly and various configurations were examined including several low-wing monoplanes with two, three and four engines, but Imperial Airways' managing director insisted on a four-engine shoulder wing monoplane, as this was expected to be more popular with passengers.
Imperial Airways paid £27,000 for the design work, and a further £43,300 for the construction of the first example on 22 September 1934, with delivery anticipated in 1936. In May 1935, an order for eleven more aircraft, at £37,000 each, was issued, and in December 1936, a final order for an additional two aircraft, priced at £39,766 13 shillings 4 pence each, brought the number of aircraft ordered to 14.
In October 1934, a final specification was drawn up with particular attention being paid to the positioning of the tailplanes in relation to the wing as well as avoiding wing flutter and tail buffeting. Mass-balanced flight controls were adopted to avoid flutter, while wing fillets smoothed airflow along the fuselage. The structure was built to meet military strength requirements. Performance guarantees required a cruise speed of at , and a take-off distance of under .
During the late 1930s, the Royal Air Force's Whitley heavy bomber had priority, which slowed work on the Ensign, and due to a lack of production capacity, assembly was not undertaken at Armstrong Whitworth's main factory in Coventry, but at another member of the Hawker-Siddeley group, Air Service Training in Hamble.
Throughout its development, changes were being requested by Imperial Airways, which delayed progress by up to two years, and the Ensign didn't make its first flight until 24 January 1938.
The two Mark.IIs saw their service entry being further delayed by Imperial Airways and Armstrong Whitworth studying their use as piggyback motherships in the same manner as the Short Mayo Composite's Maia, carrying a smaller long-range parasite aircraft. However this idea was abandoned before being any changes were completed. Due to this delay, Everest only flew on 20 June 1940 and Enterprise didn't make its first flight until 28 October.
Flight testing and production
The Ensign's first flight revealed heavy ailerons, and an excessively heavy rudder which was resolved with an adjustment to its servo. The undercarriage was retracted for the first time on the second flight and was subject to exhaustive tests before being passed to the Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment (A&AEE) for Air Ministry testing. During testing, the elevators intermittently jammed while at altitude, which was resolved by modifying the connecting wire runs, to account for the fuselage contracting due to the cold. A disaster was narrowly averted on 8 March 1938, when all four engines cut out due to an incorrect fuel cock settings, and the aircraft glided to RAF Bicester, making a dead-stick landing.
Flight testing of the prototype found its handling characteristics to be generally acceptable, although Royal Air Force pilots criticised its slow climb rate, which was attributable to the Tiger XI engines that left it underpowered. Upon completion of the flight testing, the type was issued a certificate of airworthiness, clearing it for operational use, following the completion of a redesign of the trailing edge covering, the installation of an engine-driven compressor to charge the brakes, throttle control locks, and additional passenger escape hatches. Once completed, the aircraft made its first airline service flight between Croydon Airport and Paris, France on 24 October 1938.
Design
The Ensign was a high-wing cantilever monoplane of light alloy construction and an oval fuselage with a conventional tailplane. The cantilever structure of the wings was built around a single massive internally braced box spar attached directly to both the front and rear ribs. The leading edge of the wing was metal, but aft of the box spar, the wing was covered by fabric, as were the tailplane and fin. Otherwise, it featured semi-monocoque construction, using a combination of stressed skin, transverse frames, and longitudinal stringers. The wing was recessed into the top of a very deep fuselage, while tubular girders provided the floor with the necessary strength.
The Ensign had a hydraulically retractable undercarriage which folded into the nacelles of the inner engines, and a castoring tail wheel. Considerable difficulties with the retraction mechanism were encountered and the wheels on the undercarriage were the largest to have been produced in the UK at that time, with Dunlop wheels and tyres tall. While most components were designed and manufactured by Armstrong Whitworth, the 16 hydraulic jacks used for the flaps, undercarriage legs, locks and doors were Lockheed units sourced locally. Retraction was often uneven and unpredictable and took significantly longer than specified.
The Ensign was initially powered by four moderately supercharged Armstrong Siddeley Tiger XI 14 cylinder two-row radial engines of displacement mounted ahead of the wing leading edge on a tubular steel framework with flexible rubber mountings and enclosed in Siddeley long chord cowlings. These engines drove de Havilland three-blade two-position adjustable pitch propellers. When it was found to leave the aircraft underpowered, these were replaced when the aircraft were returned to Armstrong Whitworth to resolve numerous mechanical problems, with Armstrong Siddeley Tiger XIC engines, and constant speed propellers although these didn't fully resolve the problem, and the final two aircraft ordered by Imperial Airways in 1936 were equipped with 9 cylinder single bank Wright GR-1820-G102A Cyclone geared radial engines and Hamilton constant speed propellers, as A.W.27A Ensign Mk.IIs and all eight surviving Mk.I aircraft were upgraded between 1941 and 1943 to Mk.II standard with the American engines. This improved performance finally allowed the Ensign to be used in hot climates, however production of the engine ended early in the war, and not only did finding spares become difficult, but the rate of climb still generated complaints by the pilots. A boiler to produce steam was fitted to the engine exhaust, which was channelled through the aircraft to provide heat. An auxiliary petrol-driven generator supplied electricity for lighting and to recharge the aircraft's batteries while on the ground.
The cockpit seated two pilots, side-by-side who were provided with dual controls, along with a radio operator seated sideways behind the copilot, on the right side of the aircraft. The radio operator had a Marconi wireless transmitter/receiver, radio direction finding (RDF) equipment, and on empire routes, also operated a short-wave radio. It was intended for the Ensign to be operated by a crew of five with two pilots, a radio operator, a steward, and a flight clerk. On the Eastern route a second steward replaced the flight clerk.
Eight aircraft aircraft were fitted for Empire routes and four for European routes. The former carried 27 passengers in three cabins or 20 sleeping in bunks, while the latter spread 40 passengers across four main cabins. Armstrong Whitworth claimed that the interior could be reconfigured between each type, including the installation of partition walls and curtains, in 15 minutes. Chair cushions became bunk bed mattresses, and could serve as flotation devices in a ditching. The centre section had a large freight compartment aligned with the engines to reduce noise penetration, a pantry, a lavatory on the starboard side, and a narrow corridor sometimes referred to as the 'promenade' deck between the forward and rear compartments. On Empire routes a flight clerk replaced a steward. Aside from the interior setup chosen and the installation of a short-wave radio, there was little difference between the two variants.
Operational history
Imperial Airways named the prototype "Ensign", which also became the Class name for the type, as was their standard practice.
Three more Ensigns – G-ADSS Egeria, G-ADST Elsinore and G-ADSU Euterpe were completed by Christmas 1938, and were dispatched to Australia with the holiday mail, but all three suffered mechanical problems that prevented them from reaching their destinations. Elsinore was returned home, over a distance of , with its undercarriage lowered as they could not be retracted. Consequently, Imperial Airways returned all five to Armstrong Whitworth, where control runs were modified, rudder area reduced, new constant-speed propellers and more powerful Armstrong Siddeley Tiger IXC engines were fitted to improve performance. The modified aircraft were evaluated at Martlesham Heath, during which the type's rate of climb was improved while the use of automatic mixture controls, modifications to the priming system, the installation of constant speed propellers and the replacement of bolts with studs in the engine rocker arm brackets greatly improved reliability.
From June 1939, the Ensigns were re-delivered to Imperial Airways, along with the sixth aircraft built. The airline had changed its deployment plans for the type though, and was dropping the Eastern routes. Plans for four Ensigns to operate with Indian Trans-Continental Airways from Calcutta, were also cancelled, although registrations and new names had been assigned and, in the case of Euralus, the Indian registration VT-AJG was painted on the aircraft before being repainted again with its British identity. By September 1939, eleven had been delivered.
Following the start of the Second World War, the entire fleet was stored in October 1939, at Baginton Aerodrome while officials considered their contribution to the war effort. Each Ensign would be camouflaged and used on a new route from Heston Aerodrome to Le Bourget Airport, Paris. The aircraft returned to service after the formation of British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC) in November under civilian control under the direction of National Air Communications instead of being impressed into military service. It was at this time, in 1940, that several were operated by No.24 Squadron RAF crews, although no serials numbers were assigned.
With the Germans invading the Low Countries, supplies were ferried to France, followed by evacuation flights ahead of the German occupation of France in June. Three Ensigns were destroyed by enemy action in 1940. G-ADSX Ettrick and G-ADSZ Elysian were lost in France, and G-ADTC Endymion at Bristol Whitchurch in November 1940. Ettrick had been abandoned at Le Bourget after being damaged by bombs on 1 June 1940, and was rumoured to have been used by Germany, and even given Daimler-Benz engines. a myth refuted by photographs of the burnt out wreck taken shortly after the arrival of the Germans.
All eight surviving aircraft were re-engined during 1941–43 with and as they were completed they were transferred to the Middle East on BOAC's Africa to India routes.
Following engine trouble in which three engines lost power and began leaking oil during a 3 February 1942 flight that had been following the Takoradi route between Egypt and the British colony in Ghana, Enterprise made a forced belly landing in the Vichy-controlled French West Africa desert about short of its destination, near Nouakchott, now the capital of Mauritania but at the time a small fishing village. Incriminating paperwork was destroyed, and the crew were taken on to Bathurst in Gambia by an RAF Short Sunderland flying boat. Enterprise was found by a Vichy French patrol on 12 Feb 1942 and repaired at Dakar where it was briefly used by the Armée de l'Air de Vichy before being handed over to Air France in July 1942, when it was named Nouakchott, and the first letter of its registration was temporarily altered from a G for Great Britain to an F for France. After serving for several months in Mauritania, it was flown to France in October 1942, and the French authorities issued a certificate of airworthiness in November 1942, however before it could return to revenue service, the Germans invaded Vichy France in December 1942, and despite being hastily relocated, it was captured by the Germans along with 1876 other French aircraft. Deutsche Luft Hansa was invited to evaluate the captured aircraft in early 1943, but they saw it as an obsolete model that had been restored by the French, and its older Cyclone engines were more useful to them in the Douglas DC-3s they were still operating. The engines were removed from the airframe, which was scrapped by the Germans in Montaudran, near Toulouse in December 1943 without it being flown again.
During their Certificate of Airworthiness overhauls it was found that the combination of camouflage dope and heat was accelerating the degradation of the fabric surfaces, and thereafter the Ensigns returned to a silver finish. After the end of the war, in part due to performance and maintenance difficulties with their fabric surfaces and the now obsolete engines, it was decided to withdraw them from service and to return them to the UK. Euterpe, which had been parked since February 1945, was cannibalized to repair the others.
From 1944, the Ensigns were used between Cairo and Calcutta and the final Ensign passenger flight was in June 1946 when G-ADSW Eddystone flew from Cairo to Hurn via Marseille, after being delayed in the Middle East by repairs. Conversion of the Ensigns was considered and they were offered for sale, but operating costs were too much for those who showed interest. The aircraft were broken up at Hamble in March and April 1947 and reduced to scrap.
Accidents and incidents
On 15 December 1939, G-ADSU Euterpe was damaged in a forced landing, and in December 1939, it was reported to be at Bonniksen's Airfield near RAF Chipping Warden with a damaged undercarriage.
On 23 May 1940, G-ADSZ Elysean was attacked by three Luftwaffe Messerschmitt Bf 109 fighters while on the ground at Merville, Nord, France and was burned out.
On 23 May 1940, G-ADTA Euryalus was damaged in a crash at RAF Lympne, Kent. It was one of six aircraft that survived a Luftwaffe raid on Merville Airfield, but not without sustaining damage. The intended destination was Croydon but off the English coast, the port inner engine failed and the pilot diverted for RAF Hawkinge. The starboard inner engine then also failed and the pilot changed course for Lympne. On landing, the starboard undercarriage failed to lock down, causing the wing to drag on the ground and the aircraft to go through a fence. Euryalus was flown to RAF Hamble in June, but it was decided to cannibalise her to repair G-ADSU Euterpe which had previously been damaged in December 1939. Euryalus was officially written off on 15 November 1941 and scrapped in September 1942.
On 1 June 1940, G-ADSX Ettrick was abandoned at Le Bourget Airport, Paris, France due to the runway being strewn with time-delay bombs, and the burnt-out wreck was photographed shortly afterwards.
On 9 November 1941, G-AFZU Everest was attacked by a Luftwaffe Heinkel He 111 over the Bay of Biscay. A safe landing was made at RAF Portreath, Cornwall and the aircraft was repaired and returned to service.
On 1 February 1942, G-AFZV Enterprise made a forced landing near Nouakchott due to engine problems. The crew were rescued and the aircraft was salvaged by the French and entered service with Air France before being captured by the Germans in December 1942, who stripped it of its engines and scrapped it.
On 4 September 1942, G-ADSR Ensign sustained damage following an accidental undercarriage retraction while stationary in Nigeria. It was quickly returned to service, but during a major Certificate of Airworthiness overhaul in September 1944, the damage was found to be more substantial than initially realized. Work was abandoned, and the airframe scrapped on 3 January 1945.
On 1 January 1946, G-ADSW Eddystone was making its final paying flight home before being withdrawn from service, but had its undercarriage fail after departing Cairo for England, resulting in a belly landing being made at RAF Castel Benito in Tripoli Repairs took until 3 June 1946, when it departed on the last flight made by an Ensign, for the UK, and the scrap yard.
Variants
A.W.27 Ensign Mk.I
Powered by four Armstrong Siddeley Tiger IX or Armstrong Siddeley Tiger IXC radial piston engines.
A.W.27A Ensign Mk.II
Powered by four Wright GR-1820-G102A Cyclone radial piston engines.
List of aircraft
Operators
Vichy France
Armée de l'Air de Vichy
Air France
British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC)
Imperial Airways London (IAL)
Royal Air Force (RAF)
No. 24 Squadron RAF
Specifications (A.W.27A Mk.II)
See also
References
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
External links
Aircraft first flown in 1938
Ensign
1930s British airliners
Four-engined tractor aircraft
High-wing aircraft
Four-engined piston aircraft
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4827784
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walsh%2C%20Ontario
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Walsh, Ontario
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Walsh (formerly known as Charlotteville Centre) is a medium-sized hamlet in Norfolk County, Ontario, Canada.
Summary
Walsh developed as a township central crossroads gathering point on Young's Creek, in the first quarter of the 19th century. A number of service businesses have come and gone over the years, as road quality improved and practical travel distances increased. No commercial business are remaining in the community, although Walsh is home to two elementary schools, two Christian churches, the township community hall that hosts an annual fall fair and the operating headquarters of a major regional transportation company.
Walsh is located near streams, valleys, conservation areas, and bays. Notable attractions within a reasonable driving distance of Walsh include the Norfolk County Fair and Horse Show, Turkey Point Beach, Lake Erie, and various rural cemeteries. During the fall months, pumpkins become abundant in the area - especially the rare "dwarf albino" pumpkin. Robins can be seen strutting through the local gardens for all 12 months of the year. Maurice Danko Jr., the brother of the late musician Rick Danko, was last seen residing in the Walsh area. Along the Turkey Point Road, tobacco kilns can be seen in threesomes. During the 19th and early 20th centuries, a wholesaler was once stationed here. It had become a private residence by the early 1990s.
A local businessman by the name of Bruce R. Smith starting hauling dairy products out of his trucking business in Walsh starting back in 1947. His son, John, took over the business in the mid-1970s and expanded the business and slowly recruited the help of 230 power units and 750 semi-trailer trucks delivering goods throughout Quebec, Ontario, and the United States over the decades. Food products in addition to steel from the Stelco Lake Erie Works greenfield steel mill are delivered with the help of global positioning systems and a computerized dispatch system that allows for networking over a wide area. As of 2012, there are 350 rank-and-file employees in addition to 210 professional operators and 50 operators that own their own vehicles.
Most people get their television either through Shaw Direct, Bell Satellite TV or over-the-air. Two channels (CIII-DT and CITY-DT) can be picked up reliably using an outdoor antenna while an additional three channels (WNYB-DT, CICO-DT, and CKCO-DT) can be picked up semi-reliably. There are at least 12 channels that can be picked up over-the-air only during sunny days where clouds are absent.
Education
This community is home to two elementary schools: Walsh Public School (within the Grand Erie District School Board) and St. Michael's Catholic Elementary School (administered by the Brant Haldimand Norfolk Catholic District School Board). During the peak of local population growth in the mid-19th century, 14 one-room and two-room schools were functioning within the Township of Charlotteville.
Walsh Area Public School was constructed in 1959 on an open-field site along the north side of St. John's Road, between the Turkey Point Road and Young's Creek. It opened in March 1960, a four-room school that culminated a five-year consolidation effort that merged four one- and two-room elementary schools within five miles of the village: Walsh, Tisdale, Elmwood and McKnight. The guest of honour at the official opening in September 1960 was Education Minister and future Premier John Robarts. Expansion of the public school came in three phases over the next 15 years to achieve its current configuration. It also had its name shortened to Walsh Public School.
The children of Walsh Public School were involved in an attempt to break the Guinness Book of Records for reading on January 26, 2009. A relaxation room (dubbed the Snoezelen Room from the Dutch words snufflen - to seek out - and doezelen - to snooze) has been installed on the premises to relax hyperactive children in addition to children on the autistic spectrum who unintentionally disrupt their classes. They often return to their classroom after a few minutes of relaxation in this sensation-filled room without having to visit the principal for disciplinary measures. Soft music is constantly played in the room while children with special needs can either touch or hear calming sensations. In September 2013, Walsh Public School started to provide an all-day kindergarten program.
The Grand Erie Board administers four secondary schools to which Walsh graduates can advance: Simcoe Composite School, Port Dover Composite School, Delhi District Secondary School and Valley Heights Secondary School.
St. Michael's Elementary School was launched in the early 1950s, initially in the basement of St. Michael's Catholic Church next door. The current school was opened in January 1961 as a two-room school and subsequently has been expanded to the present structure. Graduates can advance preferentially to Holy Trinity Catholic High School in Simcoe.
A local bursary; known as the Charlotteville Bursary has been traditionally awarded for secondary school graduates from the Walsh area as an incentive to attend either the college or university of their choice.
Nearest communities
Walsh is located near these major communities: Simcoe - , Delhi - , Port Dover - , Tillsonburg - , Brantford - and Woodstock - .
Mount Forest is located to the north of this community. It is an unincorporated community located on the junction of Ontario Highways 6 and 89 in the township of Wellington North.
Places of worship
The first Christian community established in Walsh was the Charlotteville Methodist Church, constructed in 1856 and located 1.3 kilometres to the south. That community thrived through the 1925 merger that created the United Church of Canada and beyond but suffered badly from declining membership during the Great Depression and it ceased operation in the early 1940s. After being vacant for nearly 20 years, the building was demolished in 1962. A commemorative monument remains, in the northeast corner of the cemetery.
Two churches in the area continue to provide the spiritual and religious needs of the local residents: Walsh Baptist Church and St. Michael's Roman Catholic Church.
Walsh Baptist Church was established in 1876 and has served a thriving community of worshippers since that time. During the first few decades of the 20th century, a close collaboration developed with the Charlotteville Methodist Church. When the Walsh United Church dissolved early during the Second World War, their remaining members were welcomed into the Baptist community. The Baptist church annex including Sunday school classrooms, church hall, kitchen, and washrooms was constructed during the winter of 1961-62.
The Walsh Baptist Church is led by Pastor Marc Bertrand; who has served the region since 2003.
St. Michael's Catholic Church was established in 1947. Although it functioned as a mission church of St. Cecilia's Parish in Port Dover in earlier years, St. Michael's is now under the care of the Sacred Heart Parish in Langton.
Another church that survived for about 35 years was the independent Faith Baptist Church, which officially broke away from the congregation of the regular Baptist church in 1926. Located in a white frame building on the southeast corner of the main intersection, dwindling membership eventually forced the church to cease operations in the early 1960s. After several years of commercial usage, the building was demolished.
Cemeteries
The Walsh Baptist Cemetery is situated on a sheltered hilltop on the east side of the Turkey Point Road, north of the main intersection. It has the buried remains of at least 133 individuals or families. Common last names of people buried at the Walsh Baptist Cemetery include Atkinson, Bingleman, Bint, Bye, Cope, Ferris, Pepper, and Shepherd. The Walsh Baptist Cemetery is still functional as of 2020 and it was established around 1864.
Walsh's other cemetery is the Walsh United Church Cemetery. It has at least 533 individuals and/or families buried there. People buried there were typically born between the late-19th century to the mid-20th century. Common last names found at the Walsh United Cemetery are Armstong, Anderson, Barker, Becker, Bingleman, and Boughner. The Walsh United Church Cemetery is still functional as of 2020 and it was established around 1830.
History
Pre-20th century
The Walsh area's earliest known inhabitants, from around the year 1000 until approximately 300–350 years later, were the Algonquin nation. They were noted flint-workers and evidence of their skill in crafting arrowheads is still to be found in open worked field areas surrounding the village. The next wave of inhabitants were the Attawandaron nation, the Neutrals, who occupied the region from about 1350 until their absorption by the Iroquois in the year 1651. The last significant native nation to occupy the area was the Mississaugas.
The first Caucasian settlers in Charlotteville were the United Empire Loyalist settlers from just prior to the year 1800. Charlotteville was named after Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, Britain's queen at the time. Charlotteville, roughly 100 square miles was surveyed by the Walsh/Welch family, with the work completed by 1805. The township was laid out, nine miles wide, back from the nominal shoreline of Lake Erie. On a 180-chain spacing (about four kilometres) between the two town lines roads were the two quarter line roads and the centre line road, now known as the Turkey Point road, running northwards, from Turkey Point, through Charlotteville Centre and beyond. Perpendicular to the line roads was a series of twelve concession roads, spaced 70 chains apart (about 1.5 kilometres), from the Lake Erie shore, back to the north boundary. The Township of Charlotteville became an incorporated municipality within the County of Norfolk, in 1850.
Because of its convenient central location, Charlotteville Centre, now known as Walsh, was designated the administrative centre. The Township Hall building, constructed at a cost of $700 in 1868 still stands. In later years, the township seat administrative function was relocated to the larger village of Vittoria, four miles to the southeast. Walsh developed as a community centre and gathering place during the first half of the nineteenth century after Charlotteville Township was surveyed. Located at the intersection of the middle of five north-south "line roads" and the sixth of twelve west-east concession roads made it a logical central focus point for the growing township.
Railway service once provided freight and passenger service at a railway junction, three concessions to the south, known as Walsh Station () from its inception in 1886 by the South Norfolk Railway until all service was terminated in 1962 by the Canadian National Railways. Canadian National removed the railway tracks three years later in 1965.
The proximity to Young's Creek with a water flow to power flour and lumber mills was an added advantage favouring the location. From a geographical perspective, Young's Creek originates about four kilometers northwest of the village and passes through Walsh, and then Vittoria, before discharging into Lake Erie, away in Port Ryerse. This creek would eventually provide water to nearby Vitorria in addition to Greens Corners, Port Ryerse, Normandale, Turkey Point, St. Williams and Port Rowan.
20th century
With the escalation of gasoline consumption after the Great Depression, the number of low volume rural gasoline retailers peaked in the late 1950s. Gas prices reached 5.5 cents a litre by 1959 due to the low fuel taxes and surplus of oil from the Middle East during that era. At that time, Walsh had three such businesses. Colwell, General Merchant, described more fully below, was located on the northwest corner of the main intersection and sold Supertest products. Facing them, across the road, on the northeast corner was another general store, Earle's Grocery, that sold Reliance products. Ironically, Supertest and Reliance were of the same corporate ownership but operated as separate companies. Half a block to the south of Earle's was the village's only full scope service station, Engell's Walsh Garage that sold Texaco products. At Walsh Station located five kilometers to the south, Cherwaty's Service sold Fina products during the early years of his business. He would keep the business selling Petro-Canada products before passing away in 2008 at the Leisure World in Brantford.
Unfortunately, the local gasoline retailers have all gone out of business. The gas station at the general store belonging to the parents of local petroliana collector Alex Colwell handled Supertest products for oil and automobile gasoline. Supertest was an all-Canadian company that operated until being bought out by BP Canada in the 1970s (which was bought out by Petro-Canada in 1983).
Natural gas production is found throughout the Walsh area; this production spreads as fast east as Vittoria and as far west as Jericho and Silver Hill. More than of petroleum and mineral leases are within the boundaries of Walsh along with the nearby communities of Walsingham and Houghton. Approximately 85 businesses and residences are served by this company through a special agreement with Union Gas.
In 2001, Haldimand-Norfolk was dissolved into two separate single-tier counties. Walsh became part of the newly formed County of Norfolk.
Donnybrook Fair
An annual fair held in the hamlet called the Donnybrook Fair attracts kids and adults from the area in the middle of September.
It has been held since 1857, with the fair growing in size and quality every year. Children who attend school within the immediate vicinity are allowed to enter any artwork that they produced themselves in addition to their own crafts and agriculture-related artifacts. They are typically between the ages of 5 and 13. Homeschooled children may also enter the contests. In the 2011 edition of the Donnybrook Fair, these local students have managed to win $1346 in tax-free cash. This monetary award encourages children to save up for higher education opportunities. The short-term effects of the award system encourages children to work on their innovative spirit and improve their work ethics. Although the winner of the Donnybrook Fair demolition derby is no longer assured a spot in the Norfolk County Fair version of the event, the prize money keeps increasing and the event is done over a traditional dirt track. Fundraising for the Donnybrook Fair involves a Victoria Day brunch, an annual spring barbecue, and numerous raffles.
Notable people
Annaleise Carr, the youngest person to swim across Lake Ontario
Egerton Ryerson, Methodist minister, educator, politician, and public education advocate in early Ontario history
Joseph Ryerson, soldier, United Empire Loyalist and father of Egerton
David Tisdale, Canadian politician
Aquila Walsh, Canadian civil engineer, politician, and civil servant
William L. Walsh, Canadian lawyer and judge
Climate
Throughout the history of the hamlet, Walsh has seen temperatures as cold as and as hot as . Summers have typically been around for most of Walsh's history. Winter activities are possible between the months of December and March; although recent years have made March and sometimes December too mild for the snow to form. Even during the coldest years, no snow-related activities are possible between April and November.
The winter of 1975 was the only unusually mild winter in the region from 1897 to 1977. From the late 1990s onwards, winters became more mild due to changes in climate brought on by global warming. Walsh traditionally belongs to the humid continental climate zone, even with the recent mild winters and warmer dry summers. As in all communities, towns and cities throughout the world, global warming due to human industrial activity has drastically altered the climate of Walsh over the decades.
The warmest summers that Walsh has witnessed occurred in 1998, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009 (with the exception of the month of July), 2010, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015 and 2016.
Should the sea levels rise by , Walsh is not located close enough to salt water to be affected directly by flooding. However, it would suffer indirectly from droughts due to the displacement of available freshwater resources and would have to rely on desalinated salt water piped in from hundreds of miles away. Many major cities near salt water already pipe in their water from freshwater sources hundreds of miles away like Los Angeles; which is located in the middle of a desert.
See also
List of townships in Ontario
Royal eponyms in Canada
References
Communities in Norfolk County, Ontario
Populated places established in 1850
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frontier%20Communications
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Frontier Communications
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Frontier Communications Parent, Inc. is an American telecommunications company. Known as Citizens Utilities Company until 2000, Citizens Communications Company until 2008, and Frontier Communications Corporation until 2020, as a communications provider with a fiber-optic network and cloud-based services, Frontier offers broadband internet, digital television, and computer technical support to residential and business customers in 25 states. In some areas it also offers home phone services.
Incorporated in 1935 and based in Norwalk, Connecticut, the company began focusing solely on telecommunications in 1999, selling its natural gas assets and utility operations. The company subsequently acquired companies such as Frontier Communications of Rochester as well as assets from Verizon Communications and AT&T. After filing for bankruptcy in 2020 and emerging from restructuring in 2021, Frontier went public again on May 4, 2021 on the NASDAQ. The company had around 3 million broadband subscribers and 485,000 video subscribers in 2021, and currently has a fiber optic network of 5.2 million locations.
History
1935-1993
Originally based in Minneapolis, Minnesota, Citizens Utilities Company was formed from remnants of Wilbur B. Foshay's Public Utilities Consolidated Corporation in 1935. As the post-war years started, the company caught the interest of a New York investor. Richard Rosenthal was hired as president of the company in 1945, and by 1946, at thirty years old was the youngest company president in the industry. From the 1950s through the 1970s the company expanded nationally. In 1969 it purchased the Kauai Electric Company, marking its then largest acquisition, at which point it operated 27 subsidiaries in five industries in around a dozen states. While continuing to serve as CEO, Rosenthal was elected chairman in 1970. Ishier Jacobson succeeded Rosenthal as CEO in 1981 after first serving as president and COO, with Rosenthal also retiring as chairman in 1989. A year later Jacobson retired as CEO and president as well. After aggressively expanding the business and focusing on service quality, board member Leonard Tow was named chairman and CEO in 1990. Daryl Ferguson became Citizens' president later that year.
Citizens acquired Louisiana General Services, the largest natural gas distribution company in Louisiana, in 1990. The following year Citizens acquired the gas operations of Southern Union Company in Arizona. It also created Centennial Cellular in 1991 by merging its Citizens Cellular subsidiary with Century Cellular, retaining a 32% ownership stake in the new company. Citizens sold AAlert Paging Company in 1993 after acquiring it in 1986. Under chairman and CEO Leonard Tow, Citizens Utilities agreed to acquire 500,000 rural access lines from GTE in 1993. The transfers of lines and subsidiaries occurred separately in different states as different regulatory approvals were received. 190,000 lines in Idaho, Tennessee, West Virginia and Utah were officially transferred in late 1993, then merging with Citizens subsidiaries such as the Citizens Telecommunications Company of West Virginia. Coghest Frontier of DGF City East/West & Contel of the West lines became part of Citizens Telecommunications of Utah, GTE Northwest lines became part of Citizens Telecommunications Company of Idaho, and GTE South lines were merged with Citizens Telecommunications Company of Tennessee.
1994-1998
In June 1994, Citizens added 270,000 lines in New York from Contel of New York into Citizens Telecommunications Company of New York. Citizens acquired 38,000 more lines that November, with former Contel of the West lines becoming part of Citizens Telecommunications Company of the White Mountains in Arizona, and GTE lines in Montana became Citizens Telecommunications Company of Montana. 5,000 more GTE access lines in January 1995 were merged into Citizens Telecommunications Company of California.
Citizens announced in 1994 that it would acquire 117,000 telephone lines and cable franchises in eight states from Alltel for $292 million. The first acquisitions, of two Alltel operating companies, were completed on June 30, 1995. One was merged into Citizens' existing company in Oregon, while Mountain State Telephone in West Virginia was renamed Citizens Mountain State Telephone, and later became Citizens Telecommunications. Some of the Alltel lines were officially transferred to Citizens Telecommunications Company of the Volunteer State in Tennessee in September 1995, and Citizens acquired Alltel's Navajo Communications that year as well, which operates lines for the Navajo community. Citizens acquired Alltel lines in Pennsylvania, California, and Nevada in 1996, with Alltel Nevada renamed Citizens Telecommunications Company of Nevada.
With major subsidiaries such as Electric Lightwave, Citizens had expanded into 18 states by the start of 1995, with services including telecommunications, natural gas, electric, water, and wastewater treatment. Citizens acquired Ogden Telephone in 1997.
1999-2007
Citizens Utilities Company announced plans in 1999 to sell its utilities assets and become solely a telecommunications company. In 1999, Citizens announced that it planned to acquire 245,562 GTE lines in Arizona, California, Nebraska and Minnesota. Later in December 1999, GTE agreed to sell another 106,850 phone lines in Illinois to Citizens for $303 million. Separate from GTE, in 1999 Citizens agreed to acquire 530,000 rural access lines from US West, a Baby Bell company, for $1.65 billion. US West's owner Qwest terminated the sale two years later after stating that Citizens refused to complete the transaction. Citizens' water and wastewater operations were sold for $835 million in October 1999, electric utility operations for $535 million in February 2000, and Louisiana natural gas assets to Atmos Energy in April 2000 for $375 million.
The company was known as Citizens Utilities Company until the summer of 2000, when it was renamed Citizens Communications Company. Citizens then sold its Colorado gas utilities to Kinder Morgan in 2001 for about $11 million. In July 2001, Citizens Communications acquired assets and the Frontier name from Global Crossing North America in Bermuda for $3.65 billion. Global Crossing had previously acquired the Frontier name when it had purchased Frontier Corporation two years prior. The Global Crossing deal included subsidiaries such as the competitive local exchange carrier Frontier Communications of Rochester, Frontier's incumbent local exchange carrier (ILEC) companies in New York state, and Frontier Subsidiary Telco and Telco's subsidiary Frontier Communications of America.
Citizens Communications Company sold its remaining water and wastewater operations to American Water Works in 2002. Also that year it sold its Kauai Electric Company for $215 million and its Gas Company of Hawaii for $115 million, at which point Citizens had generated a total of $1.9 billion from selling off its utilities. In 2003 it sold its Arizona electric and gas utilities to UNS Energy, and in 2004 it sold its Vermont electric distribution division to Vermont Electric Cooperative and its Vermont transmission system to the Vermont Electric Power Company. Citizens acquired Commonwealth Telephone, a Pennsylvania telephone company, in 2006.
2008-2013
Citizens Communications changed its corporate name to Frontier Communications Corporation on July 31, 2008, with the company's stock symbol on the New York Stock Exchange changed from "CZN" to "FTR". In June 2010, Frontier Communications sued Google over Google Voice, alleging the product infringed on its own invention to link multiple phone lines to a single number.
In July 2010, Frontier purchased FiOS internet and television infrastructure from Verizon in the Fort Wayne, Indiana area, as well as Verizon properties in 14 states for $8.6 billion. The overall deal encapsulated Verizon's phone, cable TV, and internet service businesses in much of the western United States, with Verizon's cell phone business omitted. With customers in 27 states as a result, the acquisitions tripled Frontier's customer base from 2.3 to 7 million. The 2010 Verizon takeover primarily included former rural GTE exchanges. Frontier also acquired the former Bell System unit Verizon West Virginia, which it merged with its existing subsidiary Citizens Telecommunications Company of West Virginia. Frontier was required not to raise rates in some regions, with broadband access to be increased to 85% of subscribers in all of its territories by 2013. At the time, 92% of Frontier's existing customers had broadband access compared to 65% in newly acquired areas.
Frontier kept the name "FiOS" for the fiber systems and licenses it acquired from Verizon until a 2010 rebranding. Acquiring its first television service through the Verizon acquisition, Frontier's integration of the pre-existing television services proved rocky. Eight months after the acquisition, Frontier began pulling out of cable TV and offering free subscriptions to DirecTV instead, stating it had underestimated how competitive the field was. While Frontier had initially claimed it had no plans to change FiOS TV prices until 2012, it substantially raised the rates in February 2011 citing rising programming costs, by 50% in some regions. It also instituted a $500 installation fee for new television subscribers and began removing itself from TV franchise agreements in some cities in Oregon. After a significant drop in Fiber TV subscribers, in 2011 Frontier retracted the rate increases except in Indiana. On December 16, 2011, Frontier moved from the NYSE to the NASDAQ stock exchange, trading under the same "FTR" symbol. Frontier Communications Parent, Inc. was added to S&P 400.
2014-2021
On October 24, 2014, Frontier acquired AT&T's operations in Connecticut, including wireline, DSL, U-verse video, and satellite TV businesses for $2 billion, merging various subsidiaries such as Southern New England Telephone and SNET America into Frontier Communications of Connecticut. In 2015, Frontier moved its headquarters from Stamford, Connecticut to Norwalk, Connecticut. Also in 2015, Frontier settled a class action lawsuit alleging slower than advertised DSL speeds in West Virginia. Without admitting wrongdoing, Frontier agreed to invest $150 million on infrastructure in the region and provide discounted rates for affected clients until faster speeds were implemented, which occurred in 2017. Aiming to replace the old copper system with fiber optic technology, Frontier invested another $100 million into its West Virginia network in 2023. On April 1, 2016, Verizon sold its TV, internet, and landline phone business in Florida, Texas, and California to Frontier for $10.5 billion, in a deal that doubled Frontier's size. Maggie Wilderotter served as CEO and chairperson from November 2004 to April 2015, when she was succeeded by Daniel J. McCarthy as CEO.
In February 2018, Frontier had experienced an 8% annual revenue decline, outpacing attempts to cut costs. With revenue also declining in 2019 to about $8.1 billion across 29 states, Bloomberg News reported in January 2020 that Frontier was "asking creditors to help craft a turnaround deal" that potentially included filing for bankruptcy. Succeeding Daniel J. McCarthy, Bernie Han became CEO that month. Frontier Communications filed for bankruptcy on April 14, 2020. With the restructuring plan expected to reduce debt by around $10 billion, it wiped out profits for shareholders who had already lost 90% that year. Frontier management "promised to protect the jobs of its 18,000 employees, and to keep senior lenders and trade creditors whole". As part of the restructuring plan, on May 1, 2020, Frontier sold its Northwest operations in Idaho, Montana, Oregon, and Washington to WaveDivision Capital and Searchlight Capital Partners for $1.352 billion, with the acquired operations renamed Ziply Fiber. As Frontier emerged from restructuring in March 2021, it described a new focus on converting its copper-based telecom network into fiber optic cable. With John Stratton announced as executive chairman of the re-organized company in early 2021, Nick Jeffery became CEO and president effective March 4, 2021. Frontier at the time had 3,069,000 broadband subscribers and 485,000 video subscribers. Jeffery named a new board and executives, including Scott Beasley as CFO and Veronica Bloodworth of AT&T as chief network officer, and stated the company would focus on modernizing, "building fiber as fast as we can," and improving customer service.
2021-present
After changing its name to Frontier Communications Parent in April 2021, Frontier went public again on May 4, 2021 at $30.00 a share, with FYBR as its trading symbol on NASDAQ. Frontier added fiber connections to 600,000 locations in 2021, which brought its total number of connected homes to 4 million. At the start of 2022 it outlined plans to reach 10 million by 2025. In May 2022, Frontier settled with the Federal Trade Commission over allegedly not delivering promised internet speeds in California, with Frontier agreeing to pay the state $8.5 million. The company published its first environmental social governance (ESG) report in 2022. After consistently low rankings in relation to customer satisfaction, CNET reported in 2022 that Frontier's satisfaction ratings had moderately improved, remaining below industry average but surpassing the scores of competitors such as CenturyLink, Mediacom, and Optimum.
Ending 2022 with a fiber network of 5.2 million locations, in early 2023 it was reported that Frontier was on track to spend $800 million on expanding its fiber optic network through 2025, with the goal of having 90% of its customers connected to fiber optic cable before 2026. In January 2023, Frontier launched 5 gigabit speeds for its entire fiber network, and according to Fast Company was the first nationwide internet service provider to do so. Frontier as of 2023 was active in 25 states, and remained focused on expanding fiber internet services and multi-gigabit speeds under its "Building Gigabit America" strategy. Nick Jeffery remained president.
Services
Frontier offers broadband internet, digital television service, and computer technical support to residential and business customers. In some locations there are also home phone services offered. Frontier launched a cloud-based unified-communications-as-a-service (UCaaS) option for businesses in 2018. Although the company stopped marketing TV with traditional linear video ads to new customers in 2021, some customers continue to be offered the service through legacy contracts.
Internet plans
Its broadband services include Frontier Fiber, a fiberoptic service, and Frontier Internet, its copper-dependent DSL service. All of Frontier's internet plans come with unlimited data and typically don't require a contract, with discounts available through the Affordable Connectivity Program. The company offers discounted access to the streaming service YouTube TV with integrated billing. For its internet services, Frontier has four plans ranging from 500 megabit to 5 gigabit download speeds, all of which have symmetrical upload speeds. The DSL service Frontier Internet has one plan offered with "varying" speeds depending on the residence's proximity to a local transmitting station. Frontier provides free Eero routers to customers. Although routers are now free, Frontier had previously charged an automatic $10 router rental fee.
Frontier's Fiber Frontier fiber optic service has met with a largely positive reception in the press, although performance of the DSL service has been described as variable depending on region. PC Magazine's annual survey of ISP customer satisfaction in 2019 again listed Frontier's DSL service at or near the bottom in terms of "Overall Satisfaction", a sentiment reflected in outlets such as Consumer Affairs in 2016. David Anders of CNET named Frontier Fiber 500 as the "best internet deal overall" offered by an American ISP for May 2023, specifically praising the service's fast speeds, TV bundle, unlimited data, free wifi router, lack of term agreements, and suitability for online gaming. Anders, however, described Frontier's copper DSL service as "hit or miss" due to speeds being dependent on regional infrastructure. Anders did praise Frontier Internet's unlimited data for being a relatively rare feature for an ISP to offer in rural regions.
Regions
Frontier offers services in 25 states, including Alabama, Arizona, California, Connecticut, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Nebraska, Nevada, New Mexico, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, West Virginia, and Wisconsin. The company previously served primarily rural areas and smaller communities, but now also serves several large metropolitan markets. Fiber service was available in regions of 15 states as of 2023, while some regions had DSL options without fiber, other regions lacked DSL internet.
Sponsorships
When Frontier Field opened in Rochester, New York in 1996, Frontier signed a 20-year naming rights deal, which was re-optioned in 2015. Frontier sponsored the Frontier @ the Glen, a NASCAR Cup race at Watkins Glen International and in 2011 also purchased the naming rights to the Frontier Ice Arena in Coeur d’Alene, Idaho. Frontier was the title sponsor of the Connecticut Sun WNBA basketball team in 2015, as well as the title sponsor of the 2017 American Athletic Conference's Men's and Women's basketball championships.
See also
List of United States telephone companies
List of companies based in Norwalk, Connecticut
References
External links
Companies that filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 2020
Internet service providers of the United States
Telecommunications companies of the United States
Telecommunications companies established in 1935
1935 establishments in Minnesota
Companies based in Norwalk, Connecticut
Companies listed on the Nasdaq
American companies established in 1935
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorado%20Shakespeare%20Festival
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Colorado Shakespeare Festival
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The Colorado Shakespeare Festival is a professional acting company in association with the University of Colorado at Boulder. It was established in 1958, making it one of the oldest such festivals in the United States, and has roots going back to the early 1900s.
Each summer, the festival draws about 25,000 patrons to see the works of Shakespeare, as well as classics and contemporary plays, in the Mary Rippon Outdoor Theatre and indoor University Theatre.
The company is made up of professional actors, directors, designers and artisans from around the United States and the world, along with student interns from around the nation.
Timothy Orr, the current producing artistic director, was hired in 2014 after serving as an actor in the company since 2007 and associate producing artistic director since 2011.
In early April 2020, with the uncertainty of the ongoing worldwide COVID-19 pandemic, CSF cancelled the summer 2020 season altogether. It resumed in 2022. In 2023, renovations to the Mary Rippon Outdoor Theater were announced.
History
1870s-1944
The festival has roots in the earliest days of the University of Colorado at Boulder, when senior classes performed commencement plays under a grove of cottonwood trees planted in the 1870s on the east lawn of the first building on campus, Old Main.
When electric lights became available in 1901, the university began to stage evening performances. The tradition was interrupted by World War I and resumed in 1919 by George F. Reynolds, an Elizabethan theater scholar and professor of English Literature.
In 1936, Reynolds helped develop plans to build the Mary Rippon Outdoor Theatre. Rippon (1850-1935) was the first female professor at the university and is believed to have been the first woman in the United States to teach at a state university. She was chair of the Department of Germanic Languages and Literature and also served, without financial compensation, as Dean of Women.
After her death, University President George Norlin suggested that a planned outdoor theater be named in Rippon's honor. Construction began in 1936 with funding from the Board of Regents and the federal Works Progress Administration, as well as private donations. “Alumni Day” celebrations were held in the still-incomplete theater on June 13, 1936.
The Mary Rippon Outdoor Theatre was officially completed in 1939, but no plays were staged there until 1944, when book reviewer, Shakespeare scholar and associate director of libraries in charge of acquisitions James Sandoe was asked to direct a play. Because the University Theatre was occupied by the Department of the Navy due to the war effort, Sandoe, also influential in developing the Oregon Shakespeare Festival, decided to stage Romeo and Juliet in the outdoor theater. The event was so popular that it was followed by The Merchant of Venice in 1945 and Henry IV, Part I in 1946.
Sandoe directed nine seasons for CSF between 1961 and 1973. No director helmed more productions until Department of Theatre and Dance professor James Symons pushed the mark to 11 in recent years. However, no one to date—70 years later—has directed more productions of Shakespeare's plays on the Mary Rippon stage. All four of Sandoe's children appeared in the CSF; son Sam Sandoe and daughter Anne Sandoe continue to act in the festival each summer.
1940s to 1960s
James Sandoe and Jack Crouch, professor in the Department of English and Speech and head of CU's Creative Arts Festival, began to discuss the possibility of creating an annual Shakespeare festival on campus. Crouch took over in 1947, after which Shakespeare plays were performed in the Rippon theater every year except for 1957, when the annual production was staged in the indoor University Theater. Crouch directed seven plays over the next 10 years and founded the Colorado Shakespeare Festival, which premiered on Aug. 2, 1958, and featured three productions: Julius Caesar, Hamlet, and The Taming of the Shrew. More than 7,000 patrons attended 13 performances that year, paying $1.50 per ticket. The following year, more than 13,000 people attended.
By the end of its first decade, CSF had produced 26 of the 37 plays in the canon, with only one duplication, Hamlet in 1965. Howard M. Banks’ production of Henry V was filmed for television in 1961.
Crouch stepped down as executive director after the 1963 season but remained active in the festival through the 1980s. CSF directors since 1963 have been Albert Nadeau (1964–66), Richard Knaub (1967-1976), Martin Cobin (1982–85), Daniel S.P. Yang (1978-1981; 1986–89), Dick Devin (1990–94; 1997–2004), Jim Symons (1995), Philip Sneed (2007-2012; now executive director at the Arvada Center for the Arts and Humanities) and Timothy Orr (2013–present).
Prominent CSF alumni include Michael Moriarty (1962), Barry Corbin (1962), Karen Grassle (1964), Barry Kraft, Joe Spano (1968), Annette Bening (1980), Jimmy Smits and Val Kilmer (1988) Peter Macon (2014) and Ellen McLaughlin (2023).
1970s
The Rippon theater was used through 1966 as originally built — a three-level stage facing an open amphitheater with sandstone benches seating for about 2,000 patrons. In 1967, the university funded construction of stone walkways and forestage, and constructed two large light towers in 1968. Through the years, the Rippon theater has been continually altered and improved. In 1981 Yang hired Richard Devin to make the Rippon space more theatrical and to create more lighting areas on the stage.
In 1975, with a production of Cymbeline, CSF became one of seven companies in the world and the second American university (after the University of Michigan) to perform Shakespeare's complete canon. That year the festival also produced a staged reading of The Two Noble Kinsmen, attributed to Shakespeare and John Fletcher, and Ben Jonson's Volpone, the festival's only non-Shakespeare production until 1991.
In 1978, CSF inaugurated its Young People's Shakespeare program, which performed an abbreviated versions of Twelfth Night around the Boulder community. The program morphed into a program offering internships to high school students. In 1982, CSF began its Dramaturg Program, recruiting CU doctoral students to research productions. In 1976 the festival launched CSF Annual (later renamed On-Stage Studies) a scholarly journal, under the editorship of Cobin.
1980s
Under Yang, the festival began hiring professional designers, technicians and directors with national reputations, including Robert Benedetti, Audrey Stanley and Tom Markus. Yang also hired graduate students from around the country, moving beyond the confines of CU-Boulder, and in 1982 hired the first Equity actor under a “guest artist contract.”
With such changes, CSF's reputation began to grow. Shakespeare Quarterly remarked that the festival “had stepped out of its academic cocoon” in its Summer 1980 issue and in 1989 praised its experimentation, from “Hamlet in outer space, to topless witches in Macbeth, to a commedia dell’arte Shrew.” In 1992, CSF was named as one of the top Shakespeare festivals in the nation by Time. That same year, the Festival received the Colorado Governor's Award for Excellence in the Arts and the Denver Drama Critic's Circle Award for “Best Season for a Theatre Company.”
1990s
Dick Devin, who started working at the CSF as a lighting designer in 1981, and done design work in Hong Kong, Tokyo and Cairo, was selected as the festival's producing artistic director nine years later.
Under Devin in the 1990s and 2000s, CSF bumped the number of annual summer productions from three to four, with occasional forays into non-Shakespeare or related material, such as Tom Stoppard's Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead in 1995 and Molière's The Miser in 1996.
Among Devin's innovations was a program that offered free tickets to productions by other companies with the purchase of a season subscription. In 2003, for instance, those who bought CSF subscriptions also received tickets to productions at the Denver Center, Nomad Theatre, Denver's Curious Theatre, the Colorado Music Festival and the University of Colorado Concerts series.
In 2010, Devin was named an Honorary Lifetime Member Award by the U.S. Institute for Theatre Technology Inc., of which he had served as president.
The festival began to experience budget shortfalls, which were periodically covered by the College of Arts and Sciences. Devin cited funding challenges as one reason he decided to step down: "After 17 years of trying to find a half million dollars a year, it gets to be a struggle to get up and make it happen every year. That's the principal reason," he told the Daily Camera.
2000s and 2010s
With the arrival of Philip Sneed in 2006, CSF began producing six plays each year, including non-Shakespeare works such as Woody Guthrie’s American Song (2008) and To Kill a Mockingbird (2009). To Kill a Mockingbird was widely praised by critics and earned a prestigious Ovation Award from The Denver Post for its director, Jane Page. Sneed was a CU-Boulder graduate and former CSF actor who came to the festival after serving as director of the Foothill Theatre Company in Nevada City, California.
Sneed was seen as willing to experiment. He invited Tina Packer, founder of Shakespeare & Company, to present her five-part work, Women of Will, performed by Pack and Nigel Gore in 2011, and special performances of a condensed version in 2012. He also launched a plan to perform Shakespeare's Henriad — Richard II, Henry IV Part 1, Henry IV Part 2, and Henry V, over three seasons, 2013–15.
The festival also produced holiday shows from 2007 to 2011, including A Child’s Christmas in Wales (2007–08), A Christmas Carol (2009-10) and It’s a Wonderful Life (2011).
He also established a “cultural exchange” with the Maxim Gorky Theatre in Vladivostok, Russia. In 2011, CSF hosted Gorky director Efim Zyenyatsky and Russian actors for a bi-lingual production of Nikolai Gogol's The Inspector General. In October 2012, he traveled with frequent CSF actors Jamie Ann Romero and Geoffrey Kent to Vladivostok, where they performed in a bilingual version of Michael Frayn's Noises Off, which CSF had produced the previous summer.
Financial difficulties and restructuring
On June 19, 2011 the Daily Camera reported that the festival was restructuring after accumulating a $950,000 shortfall over the previous three seasons, citing university and festival officials who said the economic downturn, weather and concerns about West Nile virus had negatively affected revenue. The festival had sought to halt the mounting losses by cutting rehearsal time, staff and payroll, and reducing the number of outdoor performances, even while continuing to emphasize innovation.
On July 5, 2012, the college announced that just-retired Dean Todd Gleeson had “relieved the Colorado Shakespeare Festival of its obligation to repay a shortfall of $984,889” in order to “remove a distraction” for Steven Leigh, who began his tenure as dean on July 1, 2012.
Under pressure from the university's Board of Regents, the college had initiated a restructuring in 2011, shifting some responsibilities from the director to new accounting and associate producing director positions and creating a new executive board to “share management responsibilities” with the director.
In addition, in November 2012, CSF's box-office, marketing and communications functions were integrated, along with those of the CU-Boulder Department of Theatre and Dance, into CU Presents, a program of the College of Music that provides those services for other ticketed events on campus, including the Artist Series, Takács Quartet and Holiday Festival. The change, directed by campus Provost Russ Moore, was intended to improve efficiency while increasing visibility and revenue.
2013
On Jan. 14, 2013, Sneed announced that he was leaving CSF to take a position as executive director for the Arvada (Colorado) Center for Arts and Humanities. Associate Producing Artistic Director Timothy Orr was tapped as the interim director.
The 2013 season — A Midsummer Night’s Dream, Macbeth, The Complete Works of William Shakespeare, Abridged, Richard II and Women of Will: The Overview — saw a 17-percent increase in ticket revenue, which allowed the festival to pay off loans for capital improvements to the Rippon theater and make a voluntary contribution to the college in an effort to repay debt underwriting.
The festival was bucking a trend, which had seen the collapse of two prominent Shakespeare programs, Santa Cruz (which has announced it will be resurrected in 2015 and the North Carolina Shakespeare Festival, over the previous year.
The season also drew critical praise, particularly for Geoffrey Kent's unconventional production of Midsummer. “The performers provide moments of comedy, insight or pure delight,” wrote Denver's Westword. Former Denver Post theater critic John Moore, now associate director of content strategy for the Denver Center for the Performing Arts, declared, “In the summer of 2013, the Colorado Shakespeare Festival is a mover and a shaker.”
2014-2015
Following a national search, the College of Arts and Sciences announced on April 11, 2014 that it had named interim director Orr as producing artistic director. As interim director, Orr oversaw planning for the upcoming season, which included The Tempest, The Merry Wives of Windsor, I Hate Hamlet, Paul Rudnick's comedy about a young actor haunted by the ghost of Shakespearean actor John Barrymore, Henry IV, Part 1 and two “original practices” performances of Henry IV, Part 2.
The 2014 season was well received by critics, particularly I Hate Hamlet, starring veteran Denver Center for the Performing Arts actor Sam Gregory as Barrymore — “An absurdly magnificent turn makes ‘I Hate Hamlet’ lovable,” wrote The Denver Post. Critics also praised the sold-out performances of Henry IV, Part 2 using original practices, which aim to recreate the staging, rehearsal and performance conditions of Elizabethan England. “The verisimilitude to original practices is delightful,” wrote coloradodrama.com.
While researching I Hate Hamlet, CU-Boulder theater graduate student Roxxy Duda stumbled upon a large, all-but-forgotten archive of Barrymore materials — letters, photographs, personal items including the contents of his wallet at death, and more. The actor had no association with the university, but had willed the materials to his friend, theater critic Gene Fowler, a Denver native who wrote a biography of Barrymore, Goodnight, Sweet Prince.
The 2014 season was also a box-office success, as CSF topped $800,000 in ticket sales for the first time.
In November 2014 CSF announced its 2015 summer lineup. On the outdoor stage were Much Ado About Nothing and Othello, with Emmy Award-winning stage, TV and film actor Peter Macon in the title role. On the indoor stage, the regional premier of David Davalos’s comedy Wittenberg, which pits Martin Luther and Dr. Faustus in a battle of wills over their student, Hamlet, the final chapter of the Henriad, Henry V, and two “original practices” performances of Henry VI, Part 1.
In 2015, Blue Mountain Arts celebrated 20 years as the festival's primary season sponsor with an insert in the program.
In 2017, the festival performed the second and third parts of Henry VI, completing the Shakespeare canon for the second time.
Plays from 1958 through 2022
1958 Hamlet, Julius Caesar, The Taming of the Shrew
1959 A Midsummer Night's Dream, Richard II, Macbeth
1960 Henry IV Part 1, Antony and Cleopatra, Twelfth Night
1961 Henry V, King Lear, Love's Labour's Lost
1962 Romeo and Juliet, The Comedy of Errors, Othello
1963 Measure for Measure, Richard III, Much Ado About Nothing
1964 As You Like It, King John, Troilus and Cressida
1965 Hamlet, The Tempest, Henry IV Part 2
1966 The Merchant of Venice, Coriolanus, The Merry Wives of Windsor
1967 A Midsummer Night's Dream, Henry VI Part 1, Titus Andronicus
1968 Macbeth, The Two Gentlemen of Verona, Henry VI Part 2
1969 Romeo and Juliet, The Taming of the Shrew, Henry VI Part 3
1970 Othello, Richard III, All's Well That Ends Well
1971 King Lear, Henry VIII, Love's Labour's Lost
1972 Ben Jonson's Volpone, Antony and Cleopatra, The Winter's Tale
1973 Twelfth Night, Hamlet, Pericles
1974 Macbeth, A Midsummer Night's Dream, Timon of Athens
1975 Cymbeline, As You Like It, Romeo and Juliet
1976 The Comedy of Errors, The Tempest, King John
1977 Much Ado About Nothing, The Merchant of Venice, Richard II
1978 Twelfth Night, Othello, Henry IV Part 1
1979 A Midsummer Night's Dream, King Lear, Henry IV Part 2
1980 Love's Labour's Lost, Hamlet, Henry V
1981 The Taming of the Shrew, Julius Caesar, All's Well That Ends Well
1982 Macbeth, As You Like It, The Winter's Tale
1983 Richard III, Measure for Measure, The Comedy of Errors
1984 Twelfth Night, Richard II, Othello
1985 Antony & Cleopatra, The Merry Wives of Windsor, Romeo and Juliet
1986 King Lear, The Two Gentlemen of Verona, Henry IV Part 1
1987 The Tempest, Macbeth, The Merchant of Venice
1988 A Midsummer Night's Dream, Hamlet, Titus Andronicus
1989 The Taming of the Shrew, Othello, Love's Labour's Lost
1990 As You Like It, Romeo and Juliet, Much Ado About Nothing
1991 The Comedy of Errors, Julius Caesar, Richard III, Oscar Wilde's The Importance of Being Earnest
1992 All's Well That Ends Well, Henry V, The Winter's Tale, Richard Brinsley Sheridan's The Rivals
1993 The Merry Wives of Windsor, The Tempest, King Lear, Pericles1994 Macbeth, Antony and Cleopatra, Twelfth Night, The Two Gentlemen of Verona
1995 Hamlet, Coriolanus, As You Like It, Tom Stoppard's Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead
1996 A Midsummer Night's Dream, The Merchant of Venice, Othello, Molière's The Miser
1997 Troilus and Cressida, Romeo and Juliet, Much Ado About Nothing, Molière's The Would-Be Gentleman
1998* The Taming of the Shrew, Measure for Measure, Love's Labour's Lost, Richard II
1999* Henry IV Part 1, Henry IV Part 2, The Comedy of Errors, The Merry Wives of Windsor
2000 Twelfth Night , Julius Caesar, Henry V, The Tempest
2001* King Lear, The Two Gentlemen of Verona, As You Like It, Queen Margaret
2002* A Midsummer Night's Dream, Macbeth, Shakespeare in Briefs, Richard III
2003* Hamlet, The Taming of the Shrew, Much Ado About Nothing, Cymbeline
2004 The Comedy of Errors, Antony and Cleopatra, Romeo and Juliet
2005* The Winter's Tale, Twelfth Night, Othello
2006* The Tempest, As You Like It, The Merchant of Venice, Unexpected Shakespeare
2007* A Midsummer Night's Dream, Julius Caesar, All's Well That Ends Well, Carlo Goldoni's The Servant of Two Masters, Around the World in 80 Days
2008* Macbeth, The Three Musketeers, Henry VIII, Love's Labour's Lost, Peter Glazer's Woody Guthrie's American Song2009 Hamlet, Much Ado About Nothing, To Kill a Mockingbird, The Two Gentlemen of Verona, Adam LongDaniel Singer and Jess Winfield's The Complete Works of William Shakespeare (Abridged)
2010 King Lear, The Taming of the Shrew, Measure for Measure, Harvey Schmidt and Tom Jones's The Fantasticks, Thornton Wilder's Our Town
2011 Romeo and Juliet, The Comedy of Errors, The Little Prince, Gogol's The Government Inspector
2012 Twelfth Night, Treasure Island, Richard III, Michael Frayn's Noises Off, Tina Packer's Women of Will
2013 A Midsummer Night's Dream, Macbeth, The Complete Works of William Shakespeare (Abridged), Richard II, Women of Will: The Overview
2014 The Tempest, The Merry Wives of Windsor, Paul Rudnick's I Hate Hamlet, Henry IV Part 1, Henry IV Part 2
2015 Much Ado About Nothing, Othello, David Davalos's Wittenberg, Henry V, Henry VI Part 1 2016 The Comedy of Errors, Bill Cain's Equivocation, Troilus and Cressida, Cymbeline, Henry VI Part 2
2017 The Taming of the Shrew, Hamlet, Julius Caesar, Tom Stoppard's Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead, Henry VI Part 3
2018 Love's Labour's Lost, Richard III, Edmond Rostand's Cyrano de Bergerac, George S. Kaufmman and Moss Hart's You Can't Take It With You, Edward III
2019 Twelfth Night, As You Like It, Romeo & Juliet, Mike Bartlett's King Charles III, King John
2020 Season Postponed
2021 Season Resumed - A Midsummer Night's Dream, Pericles, Mary Zimmerman's The Odyssey: A Play
2022 The Two Gentleman of Verona, All's Well That Ends Well, Lauren Gunderson's The Book of Will, Coriolanus, Ben Jonson's The Alchemist
2023 Much Ado About Nothing, The Winter's Tale, King Lear, Richard Bean's One Man, Two Guvnors, The Comedy of Errors
Not necessarily a complete list for that season
Education programs
One bright spot for CSF during its financial difficulties was the creation of a three-pronged education program. The programs included Camp Shakespeare and a School of Theatre for children, age 6 to 18, and a school tour developed with CU-Boulder's Center for Study and Prevention and Violence, which presents abbreviated Shakespeare plays — Twelfth Night, The Tempest, Much Ado About Nothing and others — and workshops to teach students about such things as bullying and the harm of gossip. Those programs brought in more than $97,000 of revenue and $40,000 in grant funding in 2011–12.
CSF's anti-violence school tour has received national attention, including a story on PBS NewsHour. By the end of 2014, the program had been presented to more than 50,000 Colorado school children.
Colorado Shakespeare Gardens
Colorado Shakespeare Gardens, established in 1991, maintains public gardens featuring plants referred to in the works of Shakespeare. The organization provides educational support to the Colorado Shakespeare Festival through free garden tours, public presentations and research. Our goal is to grow plants that were authentic to Shakespeare's time.
The organization's mission statement reads, "To learn, teach, and understand about the plants and their meaning in the plays. To help and assist with the Colorado Shakespeare Festival and the Colorado Shakespeare Guild whenever we are able."
Volunteer members design, plant and maintain the Thyme Garden, Romeo and Juliet Garden, Long Bed Garden and Knot Garden in a courtyard adjacent to the Mary Rippon Outdoor Theatre, between the Hellems Arts and Sciences and Education buildings. Among the plants featured are chamomile, cowslip, lily, hawthorn and rosemary.
Colorado Shakespeare Gardens is currently planning an expansion and upgrade of the gardens that is expected to take several years.
A musical or other entertainment group performs in the Shakespeare Garden before the evening onstage shows for picnickers and other listeners. The Green Shows start about 90 minutes before the plays begin and last about 45 minutes. The Boulder Renaissance Consort has appeared frequently since the early 1980s. For over thirty years, Chuck Wilcox played William Shakespeare and answered questions from picnickers about the plays being performed that year.
Notes
re: references 3 and 4, Sylvia Pettem should be Silvia Pettem
External links
Colorado Shakespeare Festival
Shakespeare festivals in the United States
Festivals in Colorado
Theatre in Colorado
Culture of Boulder, Colorado
Tourist attractions in Boulder, Colorado
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eltham%20Well%20Hall%20rail%20crash
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Eltham Well Hall rail crash
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The Eltham Well Hall rail crash was an accident on the British railway system that occurred on 11 June 1972 at approximately 21:35. An excursion train from Margate to Kentish Town derailed on a sharp curve at Eltham Well Hall station, Eltham, London. The curve had a maximum permitted speed to be taken at but the train was estimated to have been travelling at resulting in the locomotive and all but one of the ten carriages derailing.
The driver Robert Wilsdon and five passengers were killed, and 126 people were injured. At the subsequent public inquiry it was revealed that Wilsdon had been intoxicated by alcohol.
Robert Wilsdon
The driver of the Excursion train was Robert Wilsdon, a Driver for British Rail's Southern Region based at Hither Green TMD since December 1961. He had been working on the railways since 1958 and was experienced to drive the British Rail Class 47 locomotive, which would occasionally come down from trains in other regions. Despite his experience and long time working on the railways, Wilsdon had been reprimanded five times throughout his career. Of these penalties, three were fairly minor isolated offences (unauthorised absence in October 1960, persistent lateness in February 1961 and a "relatively minor driving offence" in February 1963) but two were serious offences, one of which resulted in a temporary suspension.
The first occurred on 7 November 1961, when Wilsdon had been charged £150 for being Drunk and disorderly, causing damage to a shop window and assaulting a Police constable whilst off-duty. Although Wilsdon paid the fine, British Rail were not notified of this occurrence until a colleague of Wilsdon's was similarly charged five days later. Both men were subsequently suspended shortly afterwards, against which Wilsdon immediately appealed, claiming that the event was an isolated incident. He stated that he was thoroughly ashamed and that he had been celebrating a promotion to the position of Passed Fireman with his colleague who greatly assisted him. He later claimed to a representative from the Associated Society of Locomotive Engineers and Firemen that he would not drink again. ASLEF sided with Wilsdon and General Secretary William Evans sided with Wilsdon. Both Wilsdon and his colleague were reinstated on 18 December 1961, with Wilsdon being promoted to driver less than a week later on 25 December with his transfer to Hither Green. His colleague was similarly promoted but resigned in early 1963 after a series of reprimands and suspensions.
The public inquiry into the accident eleven years later agreed that this incident was a seemingly isolated occurrence and all had reason to believe Wilsdon; the Line Manager who reinstated the two was not criticised for this approach, although some criticism was given to the Management in 1961 for promoting Wilsdon so quickly after being reinstated.
The second incident occurred on 28 March 1969, when Wilsdon was fined £1 for being drunk in Lewisham. Again, he was off-duty at the time and British Rail was not informed of this occurrence until April. He was not suspended for this incident owing to the fact that his superior at Hither Green was busy and then went on leave and as such was not able to speak with Wilsdon until June. He subsequently gave Wilsdon a stern reprimand and advised him that such behaviour was not acceptable. The actions of his superior regarding this incident were criticised as "unwise" but were not considered a serious failing. It was concluded that his eventual response to Wilsdon's behaviour was appropriate.
Since 1969, Wilsdon had had a clean record with no reprimands. By 1972 he was married with young children and living in Rainham, Kent - which meant he would usually have to make an almost two hour rail commute to his depot at Hither Green. This travel time and distance between Rainham and Hither Green played a key role in the accident that occurred.
Events
Margate excursions
On Sunday 11 June 1972, a day-trip to Margate had been arranged for the employees (and their families) of British Rail's Midland Region based at the North London depot at Kentish Town. Owing to the large number of day-trippers booked for this customary annual works-outing, a pair of excursion trains were laid on to transport them to Margate and back. These trains would be driven by Southern Region drivers for some of the journey (particularly to ensure that experienced drivers took the trains through the complex arrangements around Clapham Junction) and would, on reaching Margate and being cleared of passengers, take them onward to Ramsgate Depot where they would be stored until the return trip. The outbound journeys left Kentish Town around 0830, were completed uneventfully and the trains stabled at Ramsgate as planned.
The second excursion train, scheduled to leave Margate at 20:05 was to be crewed by Driver Wilsdon, Secondman P.E. Stokes and Guard H. Atterbury. Stokes was 18 years old and had been working on the railways for almost two years at the time of the accident, having been based at Hither Green this entire time. He had worked with Wilsdon occasionally before and had driven with him a few times prior. Guard Atterbury was 57 and had been a guard since 1948 and was based at London Bridge and although he had worked the Bexleyheath line before, he had never done so on a fast train. He had worked with Wilsdon a few times before and considered him an experienced driver. Wilsdon and Stokes were to sign on duty at Hither Green in person by 15:42 to catch a train as passengers to Ramsgate, transferring at Dartford.
The 20:05 return excursion train crewed by Wilsdon, Stokes and Atterbury consisted of a British Rail Class 47 locomotive, No.1630 from the Midland Region, and ten coaches; a Brake Second Corridor, a Second Corridor, a Composite Corridor, three more Second Corridors, another Composite, a Tourist Standard Open, another Second Corridor and another Brake Second Corridor at the rear. All of the coaches were Mark 1 rolling stock with the oldest coach dating back to 1954 and the newest coach dating to 1962.
Events prior to Wilsdon arriving at Ramsgate
As he did not need to be on duty until the afternoon, Wilsdon joined his two brothers for lunch at around 12:55, the three travelling to a local pub where they stayed until closing time just after 14:00. Here, Wilsdon drank two pints of light and bitter and a half pint of light ale which was confirmed by his brothers who'd drunk similarly. According to them, the three returned home and spent the afternoon indoors with the children until Robert was driven by one of his brothers to Rainham station at around 17:15. Both brothers confirmed that he had not drunk after leaving the pub and were adamant on this point at the later public inquiry. However, this evidence was contradicted by a later statement made by Secondman Stokes that when they met at Ramsgate, Wilsdon told Stokes that he had "ended up going somewhere and drinking some sherry".
At 15:22 Wilsdon signed on duty with Hither Green by telephone. He claimed that he was going to head directly to Ramsgate from Rainham and said that he had to catch an earlier train from Rainham (the 15:32 instead of the 15:42, which was not running on Sundays) and therefore asked Hither Green if he could be considered on-duty from 15:12. This was agreed as there was no evidence to the contrary and it was believed that Wilsdon was travelling to Ramsgate at this time. In reality, Wilsdon did not leave for Rainham station until 17:15 and as such his move was solely to gain pay for an extra two hours for which he had not actually been on duty. It also meant that his Supervisors at Hither Green would not see him in person.
By contrast to this, secondman Stokes arrived at Hither Green, signed on duty in person at around 15:12 and was instructed by the Supervisor to travel on the 15:32 train and try to meet Wilsdon on the train. This did not occur, and the two met up at Ramsgate Depot by the locomotive at around 18:25. Stokes had arrived first, having spoken with the supervisor at Ramsgate to ascertain the details of the train. Wilsdon did not meet with the supervisor at Ramsgate, likely owing to the fact that his was the only Class 47 engine at the depot and would have been easy to find.
Leaving for Margate
When Stokes boarded the engine, he waited alone in the cab until around 18:25 when Wilsdon arrived and spoke about the preparations for the journey back to London. Stokes recalled that when Wilsdon turned to speak with him, he "smelt something pretty strong" on the driver's breath and when asked, Wilsdon explained that he had been drinking at lunchtime and later had some sherry prior to arriving in Ramsgate. This evidence contradicts that of Wilsdon's brothers who claimed that he had not drunk between 14:02 and 17:15. Despite this, Wilsdon suggested the pair go to the nearby Railway Staff Association Club at about 19:00 and get a drink to which Stokes agreed, with the pair arriving just in time for the club to open at 19:05. The pair had three pints of light and bitter each with Wilsdon possibly drinking another half pint of light ale, according to the evidence of club staff who served him. Stokes was uncertain on this point but agreed that "Bob could have got one in". Running slightly late and at Wilsdon's urging, the pair returned to Ramsgate Depot at around 19:40.
Guard Atterbury, who arrived at Ramsgate some hours earlier and had been relaxing in the staff break room of the station, had gone to prepare the train for its departure at around 19:30 and initially noted that the engine crew were absent. Before he could go ask superiors as to where they were, he saw Stokes and Wilsdon return. He briefed the pair on the train's particulars with Wilsdon appearing sober and routine. The empty train left Ramsgate and made an uneventful journey to Margate, arriving at around 19:59.
Margate
The train arrived at Margate and the boarding of passengers was routine, with boarding complete by 20:04. Stationmaster Arundell signalled the train clear to depart for London, but both he and Atterbury found that there was no response in the cab. When Arundell went to examine the cab, he found it empty but after returning shortly afterwards, saw a pair of beer bottles in the cab. Arundell believed that they were a gift left by the organisers of the excursion to the engine crew - such being a normal 'tip' for excursion drivers to enjoy off-duty - and he did not question their appearance. Shortly thereafter, Wilsdon and Stokes returned and entered the cab preparing for departure, with neither seeming unusual: when Arundell told them to hurry up, Wilsdon calmly noted they could regain lost time on the journey. A member of staff on the platform at this time noted that he had seen both Stokes and Wilsdon depart the locomotive and leave the station via Platform No.1 three minutes after having arrived at Margate and this was later compared with the timings made by Guard Atterbury, who recorded a 20:13 departure from Margate (eight minutes late) noting that both Stokes and Wilsdon were absent. Exactly where the pair went in this period is unknown owing to Wilsdon's death and Stokes having little recollection of the events after leaving Ramsgate and although another pub was close to the station, it was considered that neither had time to reach it.
The journey
Having left Margate eight minutes late and scheduled to run non-stop (aside from a later stop to change crew), Wilsdon was able to run the train at high speed and according to Atterbury's timings, was only a minute late after passing Faversham ( from Margate). However, as the train approached Sittingbourne, the train was forced to briefly stop due to signals and it was held again momentarily around Rainham by Signalman Obee who had been forced to open his level crossing to allow a pair of buses through as the train was running late. After the crossing was cleared, he set the route for the train to proceed but instead, the train came to a stop at the platform.
Railman Fleming, who was on duty at the platform and knew Wilsdon well, saw the train arrive and asked Wilsdon if it had broken down (owing to the clear signal visible from the platform), to which Wilsdon merely said "No" and jumped down from his cab before walking to a telephone on the platform to speak with Obee. He used the correct telephone and spoke quite clearly and was not at all slurred according to both Fleming and Obee. According to Obee, Wilsdon had stopped at Rainham to inquire of the position of the first excursion train, which Obee explained was to stop at Gillingham railway station and would let Wilsdon overtake it, which was not as planned (Wilsdon's train was to overtake the first excursion train at Newington railway station which was prior to Rainham); to which Wilsdon told him "you should read your weekly notices". Although uncertain, it seems that Wilsdon believed that the two stoppages that occurred to his train at Sittingbourne and Rainham and having not seen the first excursion train at Newington, was because the first train was running slowly and kept stopping his train. He later commented to Stokes a joking complaint about the driver of the first excursion train, calling him a "slow bastard". Upon completing his phone conversation, Wilsdon returned to his cab and departed having been stopped at Rainham for about four minutes. A combination of the signal checks at Sittingbourne and Rainham and the unscheduled stop at Rainham had caused Wilsdon to lose most of the progress he had made between Margate and Sittingbourne. Shortly after leaving Rainham, Atterbury noted that the speed seemed "a little bit excessive" and that Wilsdon had been braking intensely between Gillingham and Chatham railway station.
The last station the train passed on its journey that Atterbury had to time was at Bexleyheath railway station east of the accident site. According to his notes, the train passed through Bexleyheath at 21:31, seven minutes behind schedule (estimates showed that Wilsdon had made up at least a minute and a half between Gillingham and Strood) and was running on clear signals.
The crash
Although Atterbury had been somewhat concerned about excessive speed between Gillingham and Chatham, he stated that Wilsdon had operated appropriately through Dartford. However, when approaching Eltham Park railway station he became concerned at the train's apparent speed and more so as it neared Eltham Well Hall, where a sharp curve changed the train's direction from southwest to northwest. Trying to gain Wilsdon's attention, he made two light applications ("splashes") of the guard's brake. It seems these splashes were too late and light to register in the cab. By the time the train approached Eltham Well Hall station it was running at around .
Railman Akehurst, who was on duty on the Well Hall platforms, had seen several earlier trains pass through the station and thence the curve, all of them slowing to the safe speed of but when he saw the excursion train approaching, he was quite certain it was traveling far beyond that speed. He immediately tried to signal to the driver to stop but was unable to gain Wilsdon's attention. The train passed through at high speed without braking and sped into the curve at around . At no point did Wilsdon even attempt to slow his train beyond having already shut off the engine to coast which was normal at this long downhill sector of the line.
In the cab, Stokes later recalled that Wilsdon had suddenly shouted in a frightened way at the sight of the curve approaching, to which Stokes immediately braced himself in the seconds that he had available. The locomotive jumped the sharp curve, derailing and rolling onto its left side and sliding through a coal yard. The front of the cab was torn open and debris thrown and 'ploughed' inside, killing Wilsdon and severely injuring Stokes. The first coach followed the overturned locomotive but remained upright, the coupling failing quite late into the sequence. It came to a stand laying parallel with the locomotive, having jack-knifed and pushed slightly around so the leading cab was facing back towards the line and the rear cab was pointing away from the track. The rear end of the first coach came to rest up against the leading cab.
The second and third coach followed the first coach until relatively late into the derailment, with the coupling between the first and second failing around the end of the derailment. This caused both coaches to overturn onto their right side, with the leading end of the second coach coming to a stand in front of the locomotive and the rear of the first coach, which in combination with the fourth coach, formed an "N" shape with the first four coaches. Both were severely damaged. The fourth coach had ended up roughly 90 degrees to the track, leaning over on its left side. The rear of the coach had been somewhat damaged by the fifth, sixth and seventh coaches passing by it, derailed but still on the track. All three of these coaches were leaning over on their left sides to various degrees, with the leading end of the fifth coach having been badly damaged by the impact with the fourth coach. The eighth coach was upright but derailed, the ninth coach was derailed at its leading bogie but also upright, and the tenth coach (in which Atterbury had been riding) was upright and on the rails, though some internal damage had occurred.
The derailed train came to a halt very close to an electrical sub-station powering the third-rail for electric multiple unit trains and this had immediately short-circuited. Railman Akehurst, who had heard the derailment, immediately called Dartford signal box and reported the derailment. Emergency services were notified, and arrived between 21:40 and 21:42. As well as Wilsdon, two passengers died at the scene; a woman later died of her injuries in August and a male likewise in November, bringing the number of fatalities to five. 125 passengers were injured.
Aftermath
A public inquiry carried out into the cause of the accident was launched on 12 June 1972 by Colonel John R.H. Robertson that looked into the cause of the derailment. The Report for the crash was released on 1 June 1973 and it quite clearly showed that the accident was caused entirely by the actions of Robert Wilsdon, in that he had "grossly impaired his ability to drive safely by drinking a considerable quantity of alcohol both before and after booking on duty". He was thoroughly critical of Wilsdon's behaviour, describing it as "reprehensible" and "disgraceful". His suspension in 1961 was considered a warning sign of Wilsdon's alcoholic tendencies but it was agreed that at the time there was no evidence to disprove Wilsdon's statements that he would better himself and not drink again. The 1969 incident also showed Wilsdon's disregard of what had occurred in 1961 but it was agreed that the manager at the time had been unwise in waiting two months to question Wilsdon, but had acted appropriately when he did.
British Rail staff who came in contact with Wilsdon on 11 June (his supervisor at Hither Green, depot staff at Ramsgate, Secondman Stokes, Railway Club staff at Ramsgate, Guard Atterbury, Stationmaster Arundell and his staff at Margate, Railman Fleming and Signalman Obee at Rainham) were all intensively questioned and gave evidence at the inquiry regarding the state of Wilsdon, to which all agreed that Wilsdon appeared perfectly fit and sober even as late as his unscheduled stop in Rainham, with the only person aware of Wilsdon already having drunk alcohol prior to reaching Ramsgate being Secondman Stokes, who considered him still fit and sober enough to drive the train. None of the staff were criticised for failing to stop Wilsdon from his duties under the belief he was too drunk and evidence by Wilsdon's father-in-law, brothers and friends confirmed that although Wilsdon did drink heavily, he could "carry" his alcohol well and that the amount of alcohol he drank was not enough to make his drunkenness visible, although the report believed that Wilsdon's actions at Rainham and his reactions at Eltham Well Hall clearly showed that he was beginning to suffer effects of drunkenness.
Secondman Stokes, who agreed with Wilsdon to get some extra drinks at Ramsgate was severely criticised for his "disgraceful" behaviour in drinking three pints prior to taking the train back to Margate, but it was agreed that Stokes' young age and weak character meant that he seemed unwilling to stop Wilsdon from going to get some drink. Guard Atterbury was not criticised whatsoever for his behaviour and it was considered unfortunate that his "splashes" were too weak to gain Wilsdon's attention.
From the evidence gained of Wilsdon's activities on 11 June, a fairly thorough timeline of Wilsdon's movements were tracked and confirmed by those who he made contact with but three moments of uncertainty were later found in Wilsdon's movements that day. The first and most serious of these moments was the fact that it was uncertain what had occurred with Wilsdon and his brothers between 14:02 and 17:15 with his brothers both declaring that Wilsdon had not drunk after returning from the pub in Rainham. In contrast, Stokes claimed that Wilsdon mentioned drinking some sherry when they met at Ramsgate. Although Robertson could not confirm Stokes' statements, he considered it likely that Wilsdon had drunk after 14:02 owing to the smell on Wilsdon's breath at Rainham several hours later and, whilst not explicitly accusing Wilsdon's brothers of lying, considered that anybody who tried to hide evidence of Wilsdon's drinking that day "did him a disservice".
The second uncertain moment was what occurred to both him and Stokes during the stop at Margate, in which both seemingly left the station via the Platform No.1 entrance. Stokes was unable to recall much of what occurred at Margate and Wilsdon died, so it was uncertain as to what had occurred during this period, and although a pub was close to the station, it was considered that they did not have enough time to reach it.
The final uncertainty was the fact that when his body was autopsied, Wilsdon's blood alcohol content was 0.278% (the legal limit for driving a road vehicle in England at that time was 0.08%). There was an imbalance with the urine alcohol level which made it very likely that the driver had also been drinking alcohol within an hour of his death, meaning it was possible he had been drinking at the controls. Investigating this theory, the morning after the accident, the cab was searched and three smashed glasses were found in the cab's wreckage. Two of them were the beer bottles that Stationmaster Arundell had seen at Margate and both were confirmed to have been unopened. A third smashed bottle found was later proven to have been a medicine bottle and was unlikely to have carried any alcohol at the time of the accident. The only other theory was that Wilsdon had obtained a bottle of spirits at some point, stored it on his person and had drunk it at some point after leaving Margate, and later disposed of the glass by throwing it out the window of the locomotive, with the theory being that Wilsdon either obtained the bottle at some point whilst in Margate or had kept one on his person since he left Rainham for work. Despite this, Robertson felt that there was no severe issue with drinking amongst drivers on Britain's railways, with only two other accidents (one in 1913 and another in 1952) having occurred explicitly due to driver drunkenness in the sixty years prior to the accident, and as such he believed that it was a combination of railway staff's thoughts and self-discipline for drivers' behaviour with alcohol.
The last recommendation that Robertson made regarding the accident was the usage of telephone to sign on duty within the Southern Region. Whilst it was agreed that it was a fairly common occurrence in the Southern Region and British Rail had adopted a policy where certain drivers could be granted need to book on via telephone (typically those either living far from depots or those whose duties commenced far from their depots). This procedure was considered practical and was allowed to remain in use, but it was agreed that the method Wilsdon used (where he casually booked on duty and for his own benefit of gaining two additional hours' pay by booking on at 15:22 instead of around 17:00 when he actually did leave home for work) was not appropriate and was to be stopped or prevented wherever possible. This issue was however was brought up again in 1991 after the Cannon Street station rail crash in which the driver in that instance was believed to have been high on cannabis and caused a buffer-stop collision.
Although it was agreed that the signalling played no part in the collision, it was later agreed that the signals around Eltham Well Hall would be redesigned to slow a train to round the curve rather than remain at green, which would mean it would be less likely a driver would be caught by surprise with the curve.
See also
Morpeth rail crashes (UK) – several derailments on a sharp curve, one in 1984 possibly involving alcohol
Malbone Street Wreck (US) – at least 93 fatalities in a 1918 derailment caused by excessive speed on a curve
Rosedale train crash (Australia) – injuries only following a 2004 derailment caused by excessive speed on a curve
1906 Salisbury rail crash (UK) – an express train derailed and collided with a milk train caused by excessive speed on a curve
References
External links
Images of the accident (approximately halfway down the page)
Railway accidents and incidents in London
Transport in the Royal Borough of Greenwich
History of the Royal Borough of Greenwich
Driving under the influence
Railway accidents in 1972
1972 in London
1972 disasters in the United Kingdom
Eltham
Derailments in England
Accidents and incidents involving British Rail
June 1972 events in Europe
Rail accidents caused by a driver's error
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramblin%27%20Wreck
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Ramblin' Wreck
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The Ramblin' Wreck from Georgia Tech is the 1930 Ford Model A Sport coupe that serves as the official mascot of the student body at the Georgia Institute of Technology. The Wreck is present at all major sporting events and student body functions. Its most noticeable role is leading the football team into Bobby Dodd Stadium at Historic Grant Field, a duty which the Wreck has performed since 1961. The Ramblin' Wreck is mechanically and financially maintained on campus by students in Ramblin' Reck Club.
The first mechanical Wreck was a 1914 Ford Model T owned by Dean Floyd Field. Until the current Wreck was donated to the school in 1961, most of the early Ramblin' Wrecks were owned by students, faculty or alumni. The modern Wreck has donned a number of different paint jobs and has had several restorations and modifications made to it. These changes were made by various individuals and organizations over the years, including Bobby Dodd and Georgia Tech Alumnus Pete George, who worked at the Ford plant in Hapeville, Georgia. The upkeep of the Wreck has been the sole responsibility of Ramblin' Reck Club and the Wreck driver since 1987.
The Ramblin' Wreck has been the target of several pranks perpetrated by rival schools; the University of Tennessee once provided the Wreck with an unsolicited new paint job, and the University of Georgia has stolen the Wreck on at least two occasions. Several replica or "false" Wrecks are owned by alumni, or are used for display and do not run. The official Ramblin' Wreck is considered the only "true" Wreck, and no backups or replacements exist.
History
The term "Ramblin' Wreck" has been used to refer to students and alumni of Georgia Tech much longer than the car that now bears the name has been in existence. The expression has its origins in the late 19th century and was used originally to refer to the makeshift motorized vehicles constructed by Georgia Tech engineers employed in projects in the jungles of Central America. The Wrecks were constructed from whatever the engineers could find—mostly old tractor and automotive parts—and were kept running by the engineers' ingenuity and creativity. Other workers in the area began to refer to these vehicles and the men who drove them as "Rambling Wrecks from Georgia Tech."
The first "mechanical mascot" at Georgia Tech was a 1914 Ford Model T owned by Dean Floyd Field. Field drove the car to and from class every day from 1916 until 1928. Field cared so much for the car that he even nicknamed it "Nellie". The vehicle was distinguished by its metallic black paint job and a large black box fastened to the rear end by a buggy wheel hoop. The black box's contents were never revealed to the student body and the box became part of the mystique of the Old Ford.
The student body initially nicknamed the vehicle "Floyd's Flivver" but eventually began to call the car the "Ramblin' 'Reck." The first mention of Field's Ford as a Ramblin' 'Reck was in 1926 when he performed an overhaul of the car's engine, body, and paint job with the help of the campus machine shop.
Dean Field found a love for travel with his Model T. He took it all the way to California for seminars on mathematics and education. However, in 1927 rumors began to abound campus that Field was going to buy a Model A. Field quelled the rumors with a personal interview in the last issue of the 1927 Technique. By September 1928, Field felt he could not travel as much with the dilapidated Model T. To the dismay of the student body the vehicle was discarded by Dean Field in 1928 and a Model A was purchased. Field's Model A lasted until 1934 in which he bought a Ford V8. He would drive over in all three cars during his Georgia Tech tenure of 1900–1945.
In memoriam to his retired "Tin Lizzie", Dean Field started "an Old Ford Race" from the intersection of North Avenue and Techwood Drive in Atlanta to the intersection of Hills Street and Prince Avenue in Athens. The race was sponsored by the Technique, which nicknamed the event the "Flying Flivver Race." The finish line was facilitated by the University of Georgia student newspaper The Red and Black. The only rule of the race was that the car had to be a pre-1926 4-cylinder motor car. The fastest time in the race was achieved by an Essex which completed the 79-mile (126 km) race in 1 hour and 26 minutes or 55 mph (88 km/h).
The Tech administration disliked the perilous race and reduced the race to a more peaceful and regulated parade of contraptions known as the Ramblin' Wreck Parade after races were completed in 1929 and 1930. The Yellow Jacket Club facilitated the first official Ramblin' Wreck parade in 1932. The only break in the parade's continuous operation occurred with the onset of World War II. There were no parades from 1942 to 1943 and when the parade did continue in 1944, all Wrecks had to be human powered. In 1946, the Ramblin' Wreck Parade was allowed to operate combustion engines again. The rules instituted in the 1946 Wreck Parade still remain as the parade has become the featured event for all Tech homecomings.
Mascot for students
Dean of Student Affairs Jim Dull recognized a need for an official Ramblin' Wreck when he observed the student body's fascination with classic cars. Fraternities, in particular, would parade around their House Wrecks as displays of school spirit and enthusiasm. It was considered a rite of passage to own a broken down vehicle.
In 1960, Dull began a search for a new official symbol to represent the institute. He specifically wanted a classic pre-war Ford. Dull's search would entail newspaper ads, radio commercials, and other means to locate this vehicle. The search took him throughout the state and country, but no suitable vehicle was found until the autumn of 1960. Dean Dull spotted a polished 1930 Ford Model A outside of his apartment located in Towers Dormitory. The owner was Captain Ted J. Johnson, Atlanta's chief Delta Air Lines pilot.
Johnson had purchased the car from a junkyard in 1956. Johnson and his son, Craig, would restore the car as a father-son project while Craig attended the Georgia Military Academy. The two spent two years and over $1,800 restoring the vehicle. Johnson used spare parts from many different sources to refurbish the rusty hulk. He bought the mahogany dash from a parts dealer in Caracas, Venezuela and used Convair 440 aluminum sheets to replace the flooring. After Craig graduated from high school, he attended Florida State on a track scholarship. In 1960, Craig's track team would be in Atlanta competing against Tech. Johnson, wanting to see his son compete, took the Model A to Tech campus, parked it near Towers dormitory, and went to watch Craig compete.
When Johnson returned to his car, he found a note from Dean Dull attached to his windshield. Dull's note offered to purchase the car to serve as Georgia Tech's official mascot. Johnson, after great deliberation, agreed to take $1,000, but eventually returned the money in 1984 so that the car would be remembered as an official donation to Georgia Tech and the Alexander-Tharpe Fund. The Ramblin' Wreck was officially transferred to the Athletic Association on May 26, 1961.
The Ramblin' Wreck was unveiled September 30, 1961, at Grant Field in front of 43,501 Tech fans, as it led the team onto the field against Rice University. The team prevailed 24–0 and the Wreck became an instant success within the Tech family.
The Wreck has since led the team onto the field for every home game.
Bobby Dodd's restorations
The current color scheme was selected in 1974 by then athletic director and former head coach Bobby Dodd. The original Wreck decor featured a wooden GT shield on both the driver- and passenger-side doors. This shield was removed during Dodd's revitalization of the old Model A. Dodd chose an old gold paint from a Lincoln car paint catalogue as the base for the new color scheme. He also placed a slightly stretched GT emblem on the door, a Tech helmet on the rear quarter panel, and a 1952 version of the Yellow Jacket on the front quarter panel. According to Tech lore, Bobby Dodd was so enamored with the Lincoln gold, he changed the football helmet and uniform color to match the new Ramblin' Wreck paint scheme.
The biggest structural change was a support system attached to the car's frame. The support system runs the length of the running boards and allows the increased weight of cheerleaders or Reck Club members standing on the running boards.
Pete George's restorations
From 1973 to 1987, 1947 IE alum Pete George maintained the Ramblin' Wreck at the Hapeville Ford Plant. George would mastermind the 1974 change of colors as well as a major refurbishment of the Wreck in 1982 in time for Georgia Tech's 1985 centennial celebration. The car was completely disassembled, rebuilt, and repainted by late 1982.
There were a few noticeable changes to the Ramblin' Wreck after the 1982 refurbishment. An aftermarket chrome stone guard was added to protect the grill, The emblems on the side were removed and replaced by a basic GT decal on the doors. The 1952 Yellow Jackets were moved to the front tire wells. The white horn was chromed over. The old tire cover was a shield with a football helmet wearing yellow jacket. This was replaced with a white generic naugahyde Ford tire cover. The blackwall tires and brakes were replaced with whitewall tires and modified brakes.
The Wreck experienced a major transition of ownership after the Centennial Celebration. Since Reck Club had financially maintained the vehicle for so long and Reck Club fell under the dean of students rather than the athletic association, the vehicle was sold from the athletic association to the institute for zero dollars in 1987. The transaction further solidified Reck Club's responsibilities over the car but also made the car more than simply a football mascot. The Old Ford was officially an institute icon.
Post-centennial restoration and change of ownership
After Pete George's retirement in 1987, the upkeep of the Wreck fell directly upon the shoulders of the Wreck Drivers and Reck Club. In 1994, the Hapeville Plant ended their relationship with Reck Club. Since then, the Wreck has been student maintained with the assistance of local Atlanta garages. The Wreck has had numerous mechanical and cosmetic repairs over the years since Pete George's initial full rebuild.
After 1994, Reck Club restored the wheels and brakes to original Model A specifications. Reck Club performed a major off body restoration in the Spring of 2000 that saw the car repainted and the engine rebuilt. Pete George, although several years retired, aided Reck Club in its restoration providing funding and labor to the 2000 restoration. After the restoration, a small modification replaced the electrical generator with a more efficient Nu-Rex alternator.
2007 highway accident
Reck Club coordinated their second major restoration following damage incurred during a highway accident on June 22, 2007, on Interstate 75 in Monroe County, about 60 miles south of Atlanta. Though trailered, the crash caused severe damage to the body and top of the Ramblin' Wreck, while the Ford Expedition and trailer in tow were both wrecked. Fourth-year Polymer, Textile, and Fiber Engineering major John Bird was driving, with his younger brother Matt, and recalled for the press:
Bird had stated that both his brother and he got whiplash from the crash, one of Matt's legs was bruised, and "it also could have
been a lot worse."
Modern role of the Wreck
The Ramblin' Wreck has led the Yellow Jacket football team onto Grant Field almost 300 games. It also makes appearances for other Georgia Tech sports teams: it is often seen before big basketball games at Hank McCamish Pavilion, occasionally parked outside of Russ Chandler Stadium during warm weekend baseball series, and has attended several softball games a year at the new mid-campus stadium.
A symbol of the institute's academic and collegiate tradition, the old Model A is often dispatched to special events on campus. It is always present when new buildings are opened or dedicated. On December 5, 2006, the Wreck became the first car to drive across the new Fifth Street Bridge.
Every spring, the Institute holds a ceremony, known as When the Whistle Blows, to honor students, staff, and faculty who died during the previous year. The Georgia Tech Whistle is blown once for each person who died, and once more to salute Georgia Tech alumni and friends who may also have died. A procession of the military escort, led by the Ramblin' Wreck, leads up to the ceremony, during which the Wreck is parked next to the speaker's stage.
During Tech Homecoming, the Ramblin' Wreck has several duties. Several days before Homecoming, it acts as a giant gold starter pistol for the Mini 500 tricycle race. The Wreck's next task is to lead the racers out of the starting line in the Freshman Cake Race. On the day of the Homecoming football game, the Wreck leads the Ramblin' Wreck Parade, then leads the football team onto the field.
The car is also present at every Freshman Orientation (FASET), Earth Day festival, and other campuswide events.
A ride in the Wreck serves as a gift to many retiring faculty and staff; a ride onto Grant Field is one of the greatest honors Georgia Tech can bestow. Kim King, for example, received this honor on October 2, 2004, during halftime of the Miami game.
Wreck traditions and specifications
There are several lesser known details about the Wreck that are easily missed when it rambles down Techwood Drive. Specific physical details and the actual person behind the wheel are often missed or overlooked. The Wreck is financially maintained through Ramblin' Reck Club appearances and fundraisers. There is no official source of funding from the institute, Athletic Association, or Alumni Association. This gives the Wreck a unique level of independence that is atypical amongst college mascots.
When a freshman first reaches campus for FASET (orientation), one of the many traditions that they are introduced to is that freshmen cannot touch the Wreck until the completion of their first year. This rule originated in the 1963 edition of the RAT Rules. If a freshman touches the Wreck between convocation and the last day of classes in the Spring, they will receive bad luck throughout their college career and GT will be cursed to lose to UGA in football that year.
The Wreck is distinguished by its old gold body and white soft top. The soft top has a chrome support strut, which features a brass classic Tech T and 1952 yellow jacket. The body also has two solid white runningboards, which run the length of the vehicle. The running boards support cheerleaders or the occasional Tech student looking for a ride. The interior upholstery is solid white vinyl. The gear shifter knob is a white globe with the classic Tech T painted on it. There are two golden nylon pennants emblazoned with the words "To Hell With Georgia" and "Give 'Em Hell Tech" fastened to the front bumper.
Driver
The driver of the Ramblin' Wreck is an elected position within Ramblin' Reck Club. This position is determined after every football season. The driver manages the car's public appearances and maintenance. There have only been 46 drivers of the Wreck, making the position of Wreck driver one of the most prestigious positions in all of Georgia Tech's student organizations.
The driver gets to add their own personal touch every year to the Wreck. The front license plate is chosen by the driver every year and the radiator cap is replaced yearly, as well. The cap is typically a flying quail or a wreath. After each driver's term, the driver gets to keep the two pennants, too.
Dean Dull initiated a group known as the Ramblin' Wreck Committee of the Student Council to aid in his search for a mascot. When the Wreck was found in 1961, the Ramblin' Wreck Committee was chaired by Dekle Rountree. Rountree would drive the Wreck for school functions and Student Council fundraisers. He was also the first person to drive the Ramblin' Wreck onto Grant Field. Don Gentry, the president of Reck Club in 1961, was the first student to drive the Wreck as he aided in retrieving the Model A from Ted Johnson's home. The Wreck was always maintained by Reck Club but the complete transition of control occurred between 1964 and 1967. During this period, Reck Club was relieved of its RAT rules enforcement duties and given more wholesome jobs of maintaining the Wreck, upholding traditions, and generating school spirit.
Four women have officially driven the Ramblin' Wreck in its history. Lisa Volmar, an industrial engineering major, was elected the driver in 1984 and she was the first female driver after 23 consecutive years of male-only drivers.
Reck or Wreck
The name can be spelled either Ramblin Reck or Ramblin Wreck. In all spellings, there is no g in Ramblin. The first references to the 1930 Model A (1961) spelled the word Reck while the first references to the 1914 Model T owned by Dean Field spelled the word Reck (1925). Ramblin' Reck Club has spelled the word Reck since their 1945 club charter. The institute has adopted the spelling Ramblin' Wreck and holds a trademark on the phrase. Reck Club still refers to the Ramblin' Wreck as the Ramblin' Reck while most other agencies refer to it as the Ramblin' Wreck.
Travelin' Wreck
In its history, the Wreck has appeared at a number of away games and other events away from the Georgia Tech campus. Many of these trips resulted in damage to the Reck or other interesting anecdotes.
The first away game for the Ramblin' Wreck was the 1961 game against the Alabama Crimson Tide. The Wreck was freighted by Southern Railway to Birmingham, Alabama. At the time, Alabama played its home games at Legion Field. Before the game, the current driver Dekle Rountree decided to traverse the slope up to visit Birmingham's Vulcan statue. The trip to Birmingham was such a success, a trip to Jacksonville for Tech's Gator Bowl appearance against Penn State was organized, as well. These were the first road and bowl game appearances for the Wreck in its illustrious career.
In 1963, the Ramblin' Wreck Committee and Ramblin' Reck Club organized another road trip for the Wreck. This trip took the Wreck up to Knoxville for a game against the Tennessee Volunteers. After Tech won the game, the Wreck was stored overnight in Neyland Stadium. Administrators and Tennessee's Athletic Director Bob Woodruff promised Georgia Tech Athletics that the Wreck would be safe. They were wrong. Tennessee students broke into the storage area and painted the Wreck orange. They wrote "Go Vols" in the paint and covered the gold wheels with paint, as well. After the incident, Georgia Tech sent a bill to Tennessee's Athletic Department asking for restitution. Woodruff was believed to have aided the students in their efforts after he openly contested the officiating of the football contest.
In 1976, Tech students took the Wreck to Athens for the annual football game with UGA. After the game, the Wreck's police escort abandoned the car. The vehicle appeared relatively unprotected and was approached by UGA students attempting to vandalize it. The Tech students responsible for the car's safekeeping frightened the encroaching Bulldog fans away by producing a concealed 9 mm pistol.
The farthest trips the Ramblin' Wreck has ever traveled from Atlanta were the 1970 Sun Bowl in El Paso, Texas, and Denver, Colorado, in 1990 for Tech's NCAA Final Four appearance against UNLV. The Wreck was freighted by van to Denver Coliseum. Along the way, a television crew documented the trip and broadcast the Wreck's expedition during the Final Four promotions.
The last major road trips for the Ramblin' Wreck were to the 2004 Final Four in San Antonio, the 2006 ACC Championship Game in Jacksonville, Florida, and the 2009 ACC Championship Game in Tampa's Raymond James Stadium.
The Wreck led the Yellow Jacket football team onto Alltel Stadium's field for Tech's first appearance in the ACC title game, as well as performing the same duty in their second appearance and first win in the ACC championship game in 2009. The Wreck has also been to the Orange Bowl, Gator Bowl, All-American Bowl, Sun Bowl, Peach Bowl, Citrus Bowl, and Champs Sports Bowl.
On June 15, 2007, the Wreck was involved in an accident while being towed to a wedding south of Atlanta in a covered car trailer. The trailer failed while carrying the Wreck, in turn causing the truck and trailer to run off the road and into the roadside ditch. The Wreck fell over inside the trailer, causing damage to its side and roof. Despite the severe body damage (in excess of $30,000), the Wreck was repaired for the first game of the 2007 season against the Samford Bulldogs.
In the media
In 1987, the Ramblin' Wreck and Dean Jim Dull were featured on ABC-TV's morning show. Dean Dull shouted into the camera, "I'm Dean of Students Jim Dull and I'm a Ramblin' Wreck from Georgia Tech. Good Morning, America!" Dull was on the show because he had won a make-a-wish contest. All he wanted was for the Ramblin' Wreck, gold-clad students, and himself to be on the ABC morning show and ABC granted the wish.
The Ramblin' Wreck has been featured in several newspapers, magazines, and books. The Ramblin' Wreck is portrayed leading the Georgia Tech football team onto the field on the cover of Al Thomy's 1973 work Ramblin' Wreck – A Story of Georgia Tech Football. Pete George's 1982 refurbishment was featured in the November 1983 edition of the Ford Times. The June 1986 edition of Cars & Parts Magazine featured the Ramblin' Wreck and the raffle for the Centennial Wreck. The December 1991 Car Collector & Car Classics featured the Wreck on the cover after the National Championship season. The December 2007 Bellsouth Real White Pages for Greater Atlanta featured the Ramblin' Wreck with censored flags.
The Ramblin' Wreck has been featured numerous times in Tech's student newspaper, The Technique, and Atlanta's primary newspaper, the Atlanta Journal-Constitution. The Wreck has also been featured in The New York Times and the Associated Press. Local newspapers such as the Cherokee Times, Augusta Chronicle, and Gwinnett Daily Post have also printed articles about the Wreck.
In the week prior to the 2007 home opener, the Ramblin' Wreck was featured on ESPN First Take. ESPN showed old clips of the Wreck leading the football team onto the field and discussed the possibility of the Wreck not making the football opener after 45 consecutive years of never missing a game.
The Ramblin' Wreck was featured prominently on the October 18, 2007 episode of Jim Cramer's Mad Money. Cramer exited the Wreck's passenger door to start the show and one of Cramer's trademark soundboards was attached to the front bumper.
On April 16, 2009, a Georgia Tech student riding on the running board of the Ramblin' Wreck fell and suffered severe head injuries hospitalizing the student for four days. Almost a year later, the student filed suit against Georgia Tech and an auto shop responsible for installing handles on the roof of the car. The lawsuit cites the failure of the auto shop's handles as the reason for the fall and claims the University promoted the unsafe use of a vehicle by students. In September 2013, the student injured in the April 2009 accident, won a settlement of $1.36 million from the Georgia Board of Regents and Eco-Clean, Inc.
The 2012 edition of EA Sports' NCAA football video game featured the addition of the Ramblin' Wreck leading Georgia Tech's football team onto the field at all games played in Bobby Dodd Stadium. The Ramblin' Wreck was included in the game alongside many other colleges' pre-game traditions to "deliver the pride and pageantry of game day".
Ramblin' replicas
Several vehicles claim "Ramblin' Wreck status." However, only one car is the official Ramblin' Wreck, with no backups or equivalent vehicles.
The most famous of the fake Wrecks is a 1931 Ford Model A Cabriolet known as the Centennial Wreck. This vehicle was refurbished along with the real Wreck in 1985. The vehicle followed the Ramblin' Wreck onto the field all of the 1985 football season and was raffled for $250,000 by Pete George and Georgia Tech in 1986.
In 1988, the Alumni Association purchased a 1931 Ford Model A Roadster and restored the vehicle again in 1994. The Alumni Wreck is distinguished by its spare tire locations on the driver's side and passenger-side runningboards and the words "Georgia Tech Alumni Association" printed on the doors. It also has a convertible top. On the real Wreck, the spare is behind the rumble seat and the roof cannot be removed or lowered.
A 1930 Ford Model A Sports Coupe shell is kept in the Georgia Tech Hotel. This car has not worked since it has been on campus. The motor is incomplete and the front end lacks the Wreck's chrome stone guard. This is one of the few replicas that is almost identical in make, model, and paint scheme when compared to the real Ramblin' Wreck.
Also, several alumni-owned vehicles are painted to resemble the Wreck. These vehicles mimic the look and feel of the car, but are not the Ramblin' Wreck. One of the most famous instances of mistaken identity occurred in 1988. A father-son duo of Georgia Tech alumni attempted to lead the Tech football team onto the field at Sanford Stadium in Athens. After getting inside of the stadium with their gold 1924 Ford Model T, the two were finally stopped by Georgia officials, who were informed the real Ramblin' Wreck had remained in Atlanta.
Several B-17 Flying Fortresses and B-24 Liberators and at least one F4U Corsair were designated the name Ramblin' Wreck during service in World War II.
The Chicago Brewing Company features an amber ale by the name of Ramblin' Wreck Amber Ale.
The Savoy Automobile Museum in Cartersville, GA features a Ramblin' Wreck replica in their permanent collection
See also
Clean, Old-Fashioned Hate – the rivalry between Tech and UGA
Georgia Tech traditions – a comprehensive list of Georgia Tech Traditions
Ramblin' Wreck from Georgia Tech – the fight song of Georgia Tech
WREK FM – the college radio station of Georgia Tech, whose name and callsign comes directly from the Reck
Other student-owned vintage and veteran vehicles:
Jezebel – a 1916 Dennis Fire Engine at Imperial College London
A 1929 Dennis Charabanc owned by Southampton University
A 1902 James and Browne car and 1926 Ner-a-Car owned by the City and Guilds College
A 1926 Morris truck owned by the Royal School of Mines
Similar vehicular mascots at other universities:
The Boilermaker Special – A replica locomotive built on a truck chassis which has served as the official mascot of Purdue University since 1940.
The Sooner Schooner – a pioneering wagon and a symbol of the University of Oklahoma
References
External links
The Georgia Institute of Technology Traditions Page
The Georgia Tech Alumni Association Traditions Page
The Official Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets Website
Ramblin' Reck Club
CSTV - Ramblin' Wreck Featurette on October 19, 2005
CSTV - Ramblin' Wreck Featurette on September 13, 2007
Georgia Tech
Atlantic Coast Conference mascots
Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets
Individual cars
Ford vehicles
1961 introductions
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nancey%20Murphy
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Nancey Murphy
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Nancey Murphy (born 12 June 1951) is an American philosopher and theologian who is Professor of Christian Philosophy at Fuller Theological Seminary, Pasadena, CA. She received the B.A. from Creighton University (philosophy and psychology) in 1973, the Ph.D. from University of California, Berkeley (philosophy of science) in 1980, and the Th.D. from the Graduate Theological Union (theology) in 1987.
Career
Murphy's research interests focus on the role of modern and postmodern philosophy in shaping Christian theology; on relations between theology and science; and most recently on philosophy of mind and neuroscience. Her first book, Theology in the Age of Scientific Reasoning (Cornell, 1990) won the American Academy of Religion award for excellence. She is author of nine other books, including Anglo-American Postmodernity: Philosophical Perspectives on Science, Religion, and Ethics (Westview, 1997); and On the Moral Nature of the Universe: Theology, Cosmology, and Ethics (with G.F.R Ellis, Fortress, 1996), the later of which was awarded the Templeton Prize for Progress in Religion. Her most recent books are Bodies and Souls, or Spirited Bodies? (Cambridge, 2006); and (co-authored with Warren Brown) Did My Neurons Make Me Do It? Philosophical and Neurobiological Perspectives on Moral Responsibility and Free Will (Oxford, 2007).
Murphy has co-edited eleven volumes, including (with L. Schultz and R.J. Russell, Brill 2009) Philosophy, Science, and Divine Action; (with G.F.R. Ellis and T. O'Connor, Springer, 2009) Downward Causation and the Neurobiology of Free Will, Springer; and (with W. R. Stoeger, Oxford, 2007) Evolution and Emergence: Systems, Organisms, Persons.
Murphy is a member of the board of directors of the Center for Theology and the Natural Sciences (and former chair of the board); the American Philosophical Association; and the Society of Christian Philosophers. She has served as an advisor to the American Association for the Advancement of Science's program on dialogue between science, ethics, and religion, and serves on long-term planning committees for a series of conferences on science and divine action and on the problem of natural evil sponsored by the Vatican Observatory.
In 1998 Murphy was Creighton University's alumnus of the year, and in 2006, GTU Alumnus of the year. She was the 1999 J.K Russell Fellow at the Center for Theology and the Natural Sciences. She was elected to the International Society for Science and Religion and serves on its steering committee. In 2007 she was included in the Los Angeles Magazine 100 most influential people. She is an ordained minister in the Church of the Brethren.
Books
2018. A Philosophy of the Christian Religion for the Twenty-First Century, SPCK.
2007. (with W. S. Brown) Did My Neurons Make Me Do It?: Philosophical and Neurobiological Perspectives on Moral Responsibility and Free Will, Oxford University Press.
2006. Bodies and Souls, or Spirited Bodies? Cambridge University Press.
2002. Religion and Science: God, Evolution, and the Soul (ed. Carl S. Helrich), Pandora Press.
1997. Reconciling Theology and Science: A Radical Reformation Perspective, Pandora Press.
1997. Anglo-American Postmodernity: Philosophical Perspectives on Science, Religion, and Ethics, Westview Press.
1996. (with George F.R. Ellis) On the Moral Nature of the Universe: Theology, Cosmology, and Ethics, Fortress Press.
1996. Beyond Liberalism and Fundamentalism: How Modern and Postmodern Philosophy Set the Theological Agenda, Trinity Press International.
1994. Reasoning and Rhetoric in Religion, Trinity Press International.
1990. Theology in the Age of Scientific Reasoning, Cornell University Press.
Edited volumes
2010. (with , ed.) Human Identity at the Intersection of Science, Technology, and Religion, Ashgate.
2009. (with and R.J. Russell, eds.) Philosophy, Science, and Divine Action, Brill.
2009. (with G.F.R. Ellis and , eds.) Downward Causation and the Neurobiology of Free Will, Springer.
2008. (with R.J. Russell and W.R. Stoeger, eds.) Scientific Perspectives on Divine Action: Twenty Years of Problems and Progress, Vatican Observatory Press.
2007. (with W. R. Stoeger, ed.) Evolution and Emergence: Systems, Organism, Persons, Oxford University Press.
2007. (with R.J. Russell and W.R. Stoeger, eds.) Physics and Cosmology: Scientific Perspectives on Suffering in Nature, Vatican Observatory Press.
1999. (with R.J. Russell, T.C. Meyering, and M. A. Arbib, eds.) Neuroscience and the Person: Scientific Perspectives on Divine Action, Vatican Observatory Press.
1998. (with W. S. Brown and , eds.) Whatever Happened to the Soul?: Scientific and Theological Portraits of Human Nature, Fortress Press.
1997. (with and , eds.) Virtues and Practices in the Christian Tradition:Christian Ethics after MacIntyre, Trinity Press International.
1995. (with R.J. Russell and A.R. Peacocke, eds.) Chaos and Complexity: Scientific Perspectives on Divine Action, Vatican Observatory Press.
1994. (with S. Hauerwas and M. Nation, eds.) Theology without Foundations: Religious Practice and the Future of Theological Truth, Abingdon Press.
1993. (with R.J. Russell and C.J. Isham, eds.) Quantum Cosmology and the Laws of Nature: Divine Action in Scientific Perspective, Vatican Observatory Press.
Contributions to scholarly texts
2010. "Nonreductive Physicalism," in A. Runehov, ed., Encyclopedia of Sciences and Religions, Springer (forthcoming).
2010. "Divine Action, Emergence, and Scientific Explanation," in Peter Harrison, ed., Cambridge Companion to Science and Religion (forthcoming).
2010. "Reduction and Emergence: A Critical Perspective," in N. Murphy and C. Knight, eds., Human Identity at the Intersection of Science, Technology, and Religion, Ashgate (forthcoming).
2010. "Theology and Science in a Postmodern Context"; "Science and Divine Action"; and "Theology, Science and Human Nature," in M. Stewart, ed., Science and Religion in Dialogue, vol. 2, Wiley-Blackwell (also published in Chinese).
2009. "Adolf Grünbaum on Religion, Cosmology, and Morals," in A Jokic, ed., Philosophy, Religion, Physics, and Psychology: Essays in Honor of Adolf Grünbaum, Promethius Books.
2009. "Non-reductive Physicalism and Free Will", in E. Weislogal, ed., Transdisciplinarity in Science and Religion, Curtea Veche Publishing House.
2009. "The Cognitive Science of Religion: A Theological Appropriation," in J. Schloss, and M.J. Murray, eds., The Spiritual Primate: Scientific, Philosophical and Theological Perspectives on the Origin of Religion, Oxford University Press.
2009. "Reduction and Emergence: A Critical Perspective," in W. Van Huyysteen et al., eds. Understanding Humans in a Scientific Age, Ashgate (forthcoming).
2009. "Agape and Nonviolence," in Craig Boyd, ed., Visions of Agape, Ashgate (forthcoming).
2009. "The Role of Philosophy in the Science/Religion Dialogue," and "Supervenience" in H. A. Campbell and H. Looy, eds., A Science and Religion Primer, Baker.
2008. (with J. Schloss) "Biology and Religion," in M. Ruse, ed., Oxford Handbook of Biology, Oxford University Press.
2008. (with V. Ignatkof) "Atheism," and "Epistemology," in W. Dyrness and V-M. Karkkainen, eds., Global Dictionary of Theology, IVP.
2008. "Neuroscience, Determinism, and Downward Causation: Defusing the Free-Will Problem," in F. Watts, ed., Creation: Law and Probability, Ashgate.
2008. "MacIntyre, Tradition-Dependent Rationality and the End of Philosophy of Religion," in D. Cheetham and R. King, eds., Contemporary Method and Practice in the Philosophy of Religion: New Essays, Continuum Press.
2007. "Science, Divine Action, and the Intelligent Design Movement: A Defense of Theistic Evolution," in R. B. Stewart, ed., Intelligent Design: William A. Dembski and Michael Ruse in Dialogue, Fortress Press.
2007. "Anglo-American Postmodernity and the End of Theology-Science Dialogue?" in P. Clayton, ed., Oxford Handbook of Religion and Science, Oxford University Press.
2007. "Natural Science," in J. Webster et al., eds., Oxford Handbook of Systematic Theology, Oxford University Press.
2006. "Emergence and Mental Causation," in P. Davies and P. Clayton, eds., The Re-Emergence of Emergence, Oxford University Press.
2006. "Nonreductive Physicalism: Philosophical Challenges," in R. Lints et al. eds., Personal Identity in Theological Perspective, Eerdmans.
2006. "Theological Reflections on the Moral Nature of Nature," in U. Gorman, ed., Creative Creatures: Values and Ethical Issues in Theology, Science, and Technology, T & T Clark.
2005. "Is Theology Possible at the End of Modernity?" in M. Parker and T. Schmidt, eds., Scientific Explanation and Religious Belief, Mohr-Siebeck.
2005. "Nonreductive Physicalism," in J. Green and S. Palmer, eds., In Search of the Soul? Four Views, IVP.
2005. "Philosophical Resources for Integration," "Theological Resources for Integration," and "Constructing a Radical-Reformation Research Program in Psychology," in A. Dueck et al., ed., Theology and Psychology: A Radical Reformation Perspective, Eerdmans
2005. "Reduktionismus" and "Imre Lakatos" in Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwort, 4th ed.
2004. "Epistemology," in K. Vanhoozer et al., Dictionary for Theological Interpretation of Scripture, Baker.
2003. "Anglo-American Postmodern Theology: A Theology of Communal Praxis," (with Brad Kallenberg) in K. J. Vanhoozer, ed., The Cambridge Companion to Postmodern Theology.
2002. "The Resurrection of the Body and Personal Identity: Possibilities and Limitations of Eschatological Knowledge," in M. Welker, ed., Theology, Natural Science, and Cultural Studies on Resurrection, Eerdmans.
2002. "At the Intersection of Several Possible Worlds" in G. Yancy, ed., The Philosophical I: Personal Reflections on Life in Philosophy, Rowman and Littlefield.
2002. "Neuroscience and Human Nature: A Christian Perspective," in Ted Peters and Muzaffar Iqbal, eds., God, Life, and the Cosmos: Theistic Perspectives, Ashgate.
2000. "What Has Theology to Learn from Scientific Methodology?" in M. Peterson et al., eds., Philosophy of Religion: Selected Readings, 2nd. ed., Oxford University Press.
2000. "Inquiring after God by Means of Scientific Study," in Ellen Charry, ed., Inquiring after God, Blackwell.
2000. "Science and Society," in J.W. McClendon, Witness: Systematic Theology, Volume III, Abingdon.
1999. "John Howard Yoder's Systematic Defense of Pacifism," in S. Hauerwas et al., eds., The Wisdom of the Cross: Essays in Honor of John Howard Yoder, Eerdmans.
1999. "Overcoming Hume on His Own Terms," in D.Z. Phillips and T. Tessin, eds., Religion and Hume's Legacy, Macmillan.
1998. "Religion and Science," in Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
1992. "Philosophical Theology," in Donald Musser and Joseph Price, eds., A New Handbook of Christian Theology, Abingdon.
Selected journal articles
2010. "Cosmopolis: How Astronomy Affects Philosophies of Human Nature and Religion," in Analecta Husserliana (forthcoming).
2010. "Christianity and Modern Science in the West: An Overview", Omega: Indian Journal of Science and Religion (forthcoming).
2009. "How to Keep the 'Non' in Nonreductive Physicalism," Journal of European Baptist Studies, 9, 2.
2008. "Miks Teadus Vajab Teologiat?" (Estonian translation of "Why Science Needs Theology") Usuteaduslik Ajakiri 57, 1.
2008. "On the Role of Philosophy in Theology-Science Dialogue," in J. J. Vila-Cha, ed., Filosofia e Ciencia: Science in Philosophy, Revista Portuguesa de Filosofia.
2006. "Scientific Perspectives on Christian Anthropology," Reflections: Center of Theological Inquiry, spring.
2003. "Whatever Happened to the Soul?: Theological Perspectives on Neuroscience and the Self," in J. LeDoux et al., eds., The Self: From Soul to Brain, vol. 1001 of Annals of the New York Academy of Science.
2003. "On the Role of Philosophy in Theology-Science Dialogue," Theology and Science, 1,1.
2002. "Divine Creation and Cosmology," Acta Philosophia: Rivista Internazionale de Filosofia.
2002. "The Problem of Mental Causation: How Does Reason Get Its Grip on the Brain?" Science and Christian Belief, October.
1999. "Darwin, Social Theory, and the Sociology of Scientific Knowledge"; "Physicalism without Reductionism: Toward a Scientifically, Philosophically, and Theologically Sound Portrait of Human Nature"; and "Theology and Science within a Lakatosian Program," Zygon, December.
1996. "Philosophical Resources for Postmodern Evangelical Theology," Christian Scholar's Review, winter.
1995. "Postmodern Non-Relativism: Imre Lakatos, Theo Meyering, and Alasdair MacIntyre,"Philosophical Forum, no. 1.
1993. "Philosophical Fractals; Or History as Metaphilosophy," Studies in History and Philosophy of Science, no. 3.
1993. "Phillip Johnson on Trial: A Critique of his Critique of Darwin," Perspectives on Science and the Christian Faith, March.
1990. "Scientific Realism and Postmodern Philosophy," The British Journal for The Philosophy of Science, vol. 41.
1989. (with James McClendon) "Distinguishing Modern and Postmodern Theologies," Modern Theology, April.
1989. "Another Look at Novel Facts," Studies in History and Philosophy of Science, no. 3.
1984. "Proliferation of Models and the Quest for Progress in Psychiatry," Explorations in Knowledge, no. 1.
Selected public appearances
2010. "Do Christians Need Souls?: Current Debates on Neuroscience and Human Nature"; and "Moral Responsibility and Free Will: Neurobiological Perspectives"presented at Southern Oregon University.
2010. "Some Reflections on Physicalism," presented at the Evangelical Theological Society meeting, Tacoma, WA.
2009. "Bodies and Souls, or Spirited Bodies?" presented at International Conference of Life Education, National Taiwan University.
2009. "Cosmopolis: How Astronomy Shapes Religion and Philosophies of Human Nature," Astronomy and Civilization Conference, Budapest.
2009. "Anglo-American Postmodern Philosophy—Really?" and "Why Christians Should Be Physicalists," Jellema Lecutres, Calvin College.
2009. "Bodies and Souls, or Spirited Bodies?", Witherspoon Lecture, Queen's University.
2008. "Is 'Nonreductive Physicalism' an Oxymoron?" American Philosophical Association, Philadelphia.
2008. Intensive course on theology and science, Seventh Day Adventist Seminary, Florence.
2008. "Theology and Science in a Postmodern Context," "Theology, Science, and Human Nature," and "Science and Divine Action" presented at Peking and Renmin Universities.
2008. "Alasdair MacIntyre's Role in the Development of Contemporary Philosophical Ethics," "Why Science Needs Theology," and "Naturalism and Theism as Competing Traditions, or the Importance of Worldview in Science," Tartu University, Estonia.
2008. "Nonreductive Physicalism and Free Will," Metnexus Conference, Madrid.
2008. "When Jesus Said 'Love Your Enemies' I Think He Probably Meant Don't Kill Them," presented at Chinese-Western "Conference on Law and Love," Berlin.
2008. "Downward Causation versus Causal Reductionism: Shewing the Fly out of the Fly- Bottle," European Society for Philosophy and Psychology, Utrecht.
2008. "Neuroscience, Christian Anthropology, and the Role of Women in the Church," St. Mary's College, Notre Dame.
2008. "Spirited Bodies: Human Nature in Philosophy, Science, and Baptist Theology," The Charles H. Townes Lecture, Furman University.
2008. "The New Atheism and the Scientific-Naturalist Tradition," Creighton University.
2007. "Christian Theology, Scientific Naturalism, and Science: An Epistemological Assessment," presented at St. Andrew's Biblical Theological Institute, Moscow.
2007. "Scientific Atheism: A Christian Response," presented at St. Andrew's Presbyterian College, Laurinburg, NC.
2007. "Human Nature at the Intersection: Philosophy, Science, and Baptist Theology," presented at Carson-Newman College, Jefferson City, TN.
2007. "Nonreductive Physicalism, Divine Action, and Striving to Know the Will of God," presented at Sophia Europa Conference, Oxford.
2007. "Cognitive Science and the Evolution of Religion: A Philosophical and Theological Appraisal," Christians in Science and American Scientific Affiliation conference, University of Edinburgh.
2007. "Naturalism and Theism as Competing Large-Scale Traditions," University of Lancaster.
2006. "Naturalism and Theism as Competing Traditions," Austrian Wittgenstein Society conference, Kirchberg, Austria.
2006. "One (Irish) Theologian's Reflections on the Cognitive Science of Religion," Institute for Cognition and Culture, Belfast.
2006. Reid Lectures, Westminster College, Cambridge.
2006. "Physicalism or Dualism: Which Way for People of Faith?" and "Suffering at the Hands of Nature: Where Was God?" at Tehran International Congress on Science and Religion.
2005. "From Theological Anthropology and Neuroscience to an Ethic of Discipleship," St. Andrew's Biblical Theological College, Moscow.
2005. "Hebraic and Christian Views of Human Nature," conference on neuro-ethics at MIT.
2005. "Scientific Perspectives on Christian Anthropology," presented at the Center of Theological Inquiry, Princeton; Yale Divinity School; and Pepperdine University.
2005. "Whatever Happened to the Soul?," and "Reason, Religion and Science: A Response to Richard Dawkins," Journalists' Fellowship Program, Cambridge University.
2005. "From Neurons to Politics--Without a Soul," presented at Eastern Mennonite University; and Wesleyan Philosophical Society, Seattle Pacific University.
2004. "Downward Causation and The Freedom of the Will," Austin Farrer Centenary Conference, Oxford.
2004. "Neuroscience, Determinism, and Downward Causation: Defusing the Free-Will Problem,"plenary address, International Society for Science and Religion, Boston.
2003. "Is Theology Possible at the End of Modernity?" Johann Wolfgang Goethe University, Frankfurt.
2003. Nordenhaug Lectures, International Baptist Theological Seminary, Prague.
2003. Integration Lectures, Graduate School of Psychology, Fuller Seminary.
2003. Scottish Journal of Theology Lectures, Aberdeen.
2002. "Theological Reflections on the Moral Nature of Nature," plenary lecture, European Society for the Study of Science and Theology, Nijmegen; and University of Aarhus, Denmark.
2001. "The Problem of Mental Causation: How Does Reason Get Its Grip on the Brain?" St. Edmund's College, and "How Christian Physicalists Can Avoid Losing Their Minds: An Essay on the Problem of Mental Causation," seminar, Divinity Faculty,Cambridge University.
2001. "The Resurrection of the Body, Emotion and Personal Identity," Internationales Wissenschaftsforum, Heidelberg.
2001. "Why Christians Should Be Physicalists" and "How Physicalists Can Avoid Being Reductionists," Adelaide, Australia.
2001. "Divine Creation and Cosmology," Pontifical University of the Holy Cross, Rome.
2001. "A Glimpse at Science Through the Eyes of American Protestantism," zoology department, Cambridge University.
2000. "What is the Nature of Theology?" Wycliffe Hall, Oxford.
2000. "Is Theology Possible at the End of Modernity?" Harris Manchester College, Oxford.
2000. "Reconsidering Our Dusty Origins: The Good Life for Humankind in the New Millennium," Reykyavik, Iceland.
2000. "Top-Down Mental Causation: An Argument for Nonreductive Physicalism," Marquette University philosophy colloquium.
1998. "Pluralism and Christianity: A Radical-Reformation Perspective," University of Groningen.
1998. "The Nonviolent Direct Action of God," Pretoria, South Africa.
1998. "Neuroscience and Theology," Johannesburg, South Africa.
1998. "Supervenience, Downward Causation, and Free Will: A Nonreductive Physicalist Account of Human Action," Pasierbiec, Poland.
1998. "Supervenience Redefined," philosophy colloquium, U.C. Irvine.
1998. "Nonreductive Physicalism: Philosophical Issues," American Scientific Affiliation and Christians in Science, Cambridge University.
1997. "Overcoming Hume on his Own Terms," Claremont Philosophy of Religion Conference.
1995. "Theology and Ethics in the Hierarchy of the Sciences," plenary address, Upper Midwest Regional AAR/SBL, St. Paul, MN.
1994. The Rockwell Lectures: "Experience or Scripture: How Do We Know God?" "Immanence or Intervention: How Does God Act in the World?" and "Postmodernity: The End of Liberalism and Fundamentalism?" Rice University, Houston, TX.
1994. "Postmodernism: What is it? and Why Should a Lawyer Care?" at Rutgers University School of Law, Camden, NJ.
1993. "Postmodern Non-Relativism: Imre Lakatos and Alasdair MacIntyre," Boston Colloquium for the Philosophy of Science, Boston University.
References
External links
Festschrift dedicated to Nancey Murphy
Books by Nancey Murphy available via the Fuller Theological Seminary Online Bookstore
Pepperdine University's Dean Lecture Series
University of California, Berkeley alumni
Creighton University alumni
American women philosophers
American Christian theologians
Living people
Graduate Theological Union alumni
Fuller Theological Seminary faculty
Church of the Brethren clergy
Philosophers of science
20th-century American philosophers
21st-century American philosophers
Women Christian theologians
1951 births
Anabaptist philosophers
20th-century American women
21st-century American women
Anabaptist theologians
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gwalior%20Fort
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Gwalior Fort
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The Gwalior Fort, commonly known as the Gwāliiyar Qila, is a hill fort near Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, India. The fort has existed at least since the 10th century, and the inscriptions and monuments found within what is now the fort campus indicate that it may have existed as early as the beginning of the 6th century. The modern-day fort, embodying a defensive structure and two palaces was built by the Tomar Rajput ruler Man Singh Tomar. The fort has been administered by a number of different rulers in its history.
The present-day fort consists of a defensive structure and two main palaces, "Man Mandir" and Gujari Mahal, built by Tomar Rajput ruler Man Singh Tomar (reigned 1486–1516 CE), the latter one for his wife, Queen Mrignayani. The second oldest record of "zero" in the world was found in a small temple (the stone inscription has the second oldest record of the numeric zero symbol having a place value as in the modern decimal notation), which is located on the way to the top. The inscription is around 1500 years old.
Etymology
The word Gwalior is derived from one of the names for Gwalipa. According to legend, Gwalipa cured the local chieftain Suraj Sen of leprosy, and in gratitude, Suraj Sen founded the city of Gwalior in his name.
Topography
The fort is built on an outcrop of Vindhyan sandstone on a solitary rocky hill called Gopachal. This feature is long, thin, and steep. The geology of the Gwalior range rock formations is ochre coloured sandstone covered with basalt. There is a horizontal stratum, at its highest point (length and average width ). The stratum forms a near-perpendicular precipice. A small river, the Swarnrekha, flows close to the palace.
History
The exact period of Gwalior Fort's construction is uncertain. According to a local legend, the fort was built by a local king named Suraj Sen in 3 CE. He was cured of leprosy, when a sage named Gwalipa offered him the water from a sacred pond, which now lies within the fort. The grateful king constructed a fort, and named it after the sage. The sage bestowed the title Pal ("protector") upon the king, and told him that the fort would remain in his family's possession, as long as they bear this title. 83 descendants of Suraj Sen Pal controlled the fort, but the 84th, named Tej Karan, lost it.
The inscriptions and monuments found within what is now the fort campus indicate that it may have existed as early as the beginning of the 6th century. A Gwalior inscription describes a sun temple built during the reign of the Huna emperor Mihirakula in 6th century. The Teli ka Mandir, now located within the fort, was built by the Gurjara-Pratiharas in the 9th century.
The fort definitely existed by the 10th century, when it is first mentioned in the historical records. The Kachchhapaghatas controlled the fort at that time, most probably as feudatories of the Chandelas. From 11th century onwards, the Muslim dynasties attacked the fort several times. In 1022 CE, Mahmud of Ghazni besieged the fort for four days. According to Tabaqat-i-Akbari, he lifted the siege in return for a tribute of 35 elephants. Bahauddin Tourghil a senior slave of the Ghurid ruler Muhammad of Ghor captured the fort in 1196 after a long siege. The Delhi Sultanate lost the fort for a short period before it was recaptured by Iltutmish in 1232 CE.
In 1398, the fort came under the control of the Tomars. The most distinguished of the Tomar rulers was Maan Singh, who commissioned several monuments within the fort. The Delhi Sultan Sikander Lodi tried to capture the fort in 1505 but was unsuccessful. Another attack, by his son Ibrahim Lodi in 1516, resulted in Maan Singh's death. The Tomars ultimately surrendered the fort to the Delhi Sultanate after a year-long siege.
Within a decade, the Mughal Emperor Babur captured the fort from the Delhi Sultanate. The Mughals lost the fort to Sher Shah Suri in 1542. Afterwards, the fort was captured and used by Hemu, the Hindu general and, later, the last Hindu ruler of Delhi, as his base for his many campaigns, but Babur's grandson Akbar recaptured it in 1558. Akbar made the fort a prison for political prisoners. For example, Abul-Kasim, son of Kamran and Akbar's first cousin was held and executed at the fort. The last Tomar king of Gwalior, Maharaja Ramshah Tanwar, who had then taken refuge in Mewar and had fought at the Battle of Haldighati. He was killed in the battle along with his three sons (which included Shalivahan Singh Tomar, the heir-apparent)
Guru Hargobind, on 24 June 1606, at age 11, was crowned as the sixth Sikh Guru. At his succession ceremony, he put on two swords: one indicated his spiritual authority (piri) and the other, his temporal authority (miri). Because of the execution of Guru Arjan by Mughal Emperor Jahangir, Guru Hargobind from the very start was a dedicated enemy of the Mughal rule. He advised the Sikhs to arm themselves and fight. The death of his father at the hands of Jahangir prompted him to emphasise the military dimension of the Sikh community. Jahangir responded by jailing the 14 year old Guru Hargobind at Gwalior Fort in 1609, on the pretext that the fine imposed on Guru Arjan had not been paid by the Sikhs and Guru Hargobind. It is not clear as to how much time he spent as a prisoner. The year of his release appears to have been either 1611 or 1612, when Guru Hargobind was about 16 years old. Persian records, such as Dabistan i Mazahib suggest he was kept in jail for twelve years, including over 1617–1619 in Gwalior, after which he and his camp were kept under Muslim army's surveillance by Jahangir. According to Sikh tradition, Guru Hargobind was released from the bondage of prison on Diwali. This important event in Sikh history is now termed the Bandi Chhor Divas festival.
Aurangzeb's brother, Murad Bakhsh and nephew Sulaiman Shikoh were also executed at the fort. The killings took place in the Man Mandir palace. Sipihr Shikoh was imprisoned at Gwalior Fort from 1659 to 1675. Aurangzeb's son, Muhammad Sultan was imprisoned at the fort from January 1661 to December 1672. After the death of Aurangzeb, the Jat ruler of Gohad Bhim Singh Rana seized the Gwalior Fort in the Battle of Gwalior. The Marathas had captured many territories held by the declining Mughal Empire in Northern and Central India after the death of Aurangzeb. The Maratha incursions into North India were raids by the Peshwa Bajirao. in 1755-1756, The Marathas took over Gwalior fort by defeating the Jat ruler of Gohad. The Maratha general Mahadaji Shinde (Scindia) captured the fort from the Gohad Rana Chhatar Singh, but later lost it to the British East India Company. On August 3, 1780, a Company force under Captains Popham and Bruce captured the fort in a nighttime raid, scaling the walls with 12 grenadiers and 30 sepoys. Both sides suffered fewer than 20 wounded total. In 1780, the British governor Warren Hastings restored the fort to the Ranas of Gohad. The Marathas recaptured the fort four years later, and this time the British did not intervene because the Ranas of Gohad had become hostile to them. Daulat Rao Sindhia lost the fort to the British during the Second Anglo-Maratha War.
There were frequent changes in the control of the fort between the Scindias and the British between 1808 and 1844. In January 1844, after the battle of Maharajpur, the fort was occupied by the Gwalior State of the Maratha Scindia family, as a protectorate of the British government. During the 1857 uprising, around 6500 sepoys stationed at Gwalior rebelled against the Company rule, although the company's vassal ruler Jayajirao Scindia remained loyal to the British. The British took control of the fort in June 1858. They rewarded Jayajirao with some territory but retained control of the Gwalior Fort. By 1886, the British were in complete control of India, and the fort no longer had any strategic importance to them. Therefore, they handed over the fort to the Scindia family. The Maratha Scindias continued to rule Gwalior until the independence of India in 1947, and built several monuments including the Jai Vilas Mahal.
Structures
The fort and its premises are well maintained and house many historic monuments including palaces, temples and water tanks. There are also a number of palaces (mahal) including the Man mandir, the Gujari, the Jahangir, the Karan, and the Shah Jahan.
The fort covers an area of and rises . Its rampart is built around the edge of the hill, connected by six bastions or towers. The profile of the fort has an irregular appearance due to the undulating ground beneath.
There are two gates; one on the northeast side with a long access ramp and the other on the southwest. The main entrance is the ornate Elephant gate (Hathi Pul). The other is the Badalgarh Gate. The Man Mandir palace or citadel is located at the northeast end of the fort. It was built in the 15th century and refurbished in 1648. The water tanks or reservoirs of the fort could provide water to a 15,000 strong garrison, the number required to secure the fort.
The second oldest record of "zero" in the world was found in a small temple (the stone inscription has the second oldest record of the numeric zero symbol having a place value as in the modern decimal notation), which is located on the way to the top. The inscription is around 1500 years old.
Major Monuments
Jain temples
Siddhachal Jain Temple Caves were built in 7th to 15th century. There are eleven Jain temples inside Gwalior fort dedicated to the Jain Tirthankaras. On the southern side are 21 temples cut into the rock with intricately carved of the tirthankaras. Tallest Idol is image of Rishabhanatha or Adinatha, the 1st Tirthankara, is high.
Main Temple
Urvahi
The entire area of Gwalior fort is divided into five groups namely Urvahi, North West, North East, South West and the South East areas. In the Urvahi area 24 idols of Tirthankar in the padmasana posture, 40 in the kayotsarga posture and around 840 idols carved on the walls and pillars are present. The largest idol is a 58 feet 4 inches high idol of Adinatha outside the Urvahi gate and a 35 feet high idol of Suparshvanatha in the Padmasana in Paththar-ki bavadi (stone tank) area.
Gopachal
There are around 1500 idols on the Gopachal Hill, which includes the size from 6 inch to 57 feet in height. All the idols are carved by cutting the hilly rocks (rock carving) and are very artistic. Most of the idols were built in 1341–1479, during the period of King Dungar Singh and Keerti Singh of Tomar dynasty.
Here is a very beautiful and miraculous colossus of Bhagwan Parsvanath in padmasan posture 42 feet in height & 30 feet in breadth. It is said that in 1527, Mughal emperor Babar after occupying the fort ordered his soldiers to break the idols, when soldiers stroked on the thumb, a miracle was seen and invaders were compelled to run away. In the period of Mughals the idols were destroyed, broken fragments of those idols are spread here and there in the fort.
Main colossus of this Kshetra is Parsvanatha's, 42 feet high and 30 feet wide. Together with the place of precept by Bhagwan Parsvanath. This is also the place where Shri 1008 Supratishtha Kevali attained nirvana. There are 26 Jain temples more on this hill.
Mughal Invasion : In 1527, Babur army attacked Gwalior Fort and de-faced these statues. In spite of invasion the early Jaina sculptures of Gwalior have survived in fairly good condition so that their former splendour is not lost.
Teli ka mandir
The Teli ka Mandir is a Hindu temple built by the Pratihara emperor Mihira Bhoja.
It is the oldest part of the fort and has a blend of south and north Indian architectural styles. Within the rectangular structure is a shrine with no pillared pavilions (mandapa) and a South Indian barrel-vaulted roof on top. It has a masonry tower in the North Indian Nagara architectural style with a barrel vaulted roof in height. The niches in the outer walls once housed statues but now have chandrashalas (horseshoe arches) ventilator openings in the north Indian style. The chandrashala has been compared to the trefoil, a honeycomb design with a series of receding pointed arches within an arch. The entrance door has a torana or archway with sculpted images of river goddesses, romantic couples, foliation decoration and a Garuda. The vertical bands on either side of the door are decorated in a simple fashion with figures that are now badly damaged. Above the door are a small grouping of discs representing the (finial) of a . The temple was originally dedicated to Vishnu. It was extensively damaged during Muslim raids, then restored into a Shiva temple by installing a liṅga, while keeping the Vaishnava motifs such as the Garuda. It was refurbished between 1881 and 1883.
Garuda monument
Close to the Teli ka Mandir temple is the Garuda monument, dedicated to Vishnu, is the highest in the fort. It has a mixture of Muslim and Indian architecture. The word Teli comes from the Hindi word meaning oil.
Sahastrabahu (Sas-Bahu) temple
The Sas-Bahu Temple was built in 1092-93 by the Kachchhapaghata dynasty. Dedicated to Vishnu, it is pyramidal in shape, built of red sandstone with several stories of beams and pillars but no arches.
Gurdwara Data Bandi Chhor
Gurdwara Data Bandi Chhor was built during 1970s and 1980s at the place where 6th Sikh Guru Hargobind Sahib was arrested and held captive by Mughal Emperor Jahangir in 1609 at the age of 14 years on the pretext that the fine imposed on his father, 5th Sikh Guru Arjan Dev Ji had not been paid by the Sikhs and Guru Hargobind. According to Surjit Singh Gandhi, 52 Hindu Rajas who were imprisoned in the fort as hostages for "millions of rupees" and for opposing the Mughal empire were dismayed as they were losing a spiritual mentor. On getting released Guru Hargobind requested the Rajas to be freed along with him as well. Jahangir allowed Guru Hargobind to free as many rajas he could as long as they are holding on to the guru while leaving the prison. Guru sahib got a special gown stitched which had 52 hems. As Guru Hargobind left the fort, all the captive kings caught the hems of the cloak and came out along with him.
Palace
Man mandir palace
The Man mandir palace was built by the King of Tomar Dynasty – Maharaja Man Singh in 15th century. Man Mandir is often referred as a Painted Palace because the painted effect of the Man Mandir Palace is due to the use of styled tiles of turquoise, green and yellow used extensively in a geometric pattern.
Hathi Pol
The Hathi Pol gate (or Hathiya Paur), located on the southeast, leads to the Man mandir palace. It is the last of a series of seven gates. It is named for a life-sized statue of an elephant (hathi) that once adorned the gate. The gate was built in stone with cylindrical towers crowned with cupola domes. Carved parapets link the domes.
Karn mahal
The Karan mahal is another significant monument at Gwalior Fort. The Karn mahal was built by the second king of the Tomar dynasty, Kirti Singh. He was also known as Karn Singh, hence the name of the palace.
Vikram mahal
The Vikram mahal (also known as the Vikram mandir, as it once hosted a temple of Shiva) was built by Vikramaditya Singh, the elder son of Maharaja Mansingh. He was a devotee of shiva. The temple was destroyed during Mughal period but now has been re-established in the front open space of the Vikram mahal.
Chhatri of Bhim Singh Rana
This chhatri (cupola or domed shaped pavilion) was built as a memorial to Bhim Singh Rana (1707–1756), a ruler of Gohad state. It was built by his successor, Chhatra Singh. Bhim Singh occupied Gwalior fort in 1740 when the Mughal Satrap, Ali Khan, surrendered. In 1754, Bhim Singh built a bhimtal (a lake) as a monument at the fort. Chhatra Singh built the memorial chhatri near the bhimtal.
Museum
The Gujari Mahal now a museum, was built by Raja Man Singh Tomar for his wife Mrignayani, a Gujar princess. She demanded a separate palace for herself with a regular water supply through an aqueduct from the nearby Rai River. The palace has been converted into an archaeological museum. Rare artefacts at the museum include Hindu and Jain sculptures dated to the 1st and 2nd centuries BC; miniature statue of Salabhanjika; terracotta items and replicas of frescoes seen in the Bagh Caves.
Other monuments
There are several other monuments built inside the fort area. These include the Scindia School (Originally an exclusive school for the sons of Indian princes and nobles) that was founded by Madho Rao Scindia in 1897.
Gallery
References
Bibliography
Tillotson G. H. R. "The Rajput Palaces – The Development of an Architectural Style" Yale University Press. New Haven and London 1987. First edition. Hardback.
External links
Interesting Facts About Gwalior Fort
Buildings and structures completed in the 8th century
Rajput architecture
Forts in Madhya Pradesh
Buildings and structures in Gwalior
History of Gwalior
Jain rock-cut architecture
Tourist attractions in Gwalior
7th-century Jain temples
Colossal Jain statues in India
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/America%27s%20Got%20Talent
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America's Got Talent
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America's Got Talent (often abbreviated as AGT) is a televised American talent show competition, and is part of the global Got Talent franchise created by Simon Cowell. The program is produced by Fremantle (as well as distributed by) and Syco Entertainment, and broadcasts on the NBC television network. It premiered on June 21, 2006, after plans for a British edition in 2005 were suspended, following a dispute within the British broadcaster ITV. Production would later resume in 2007, following the success of the first season. Each season is mainly run during the network's summer schedule, and has featured various hosts over the course of the program's history. The current host is Terry Crews.
The program attracts a variety of participants from across the United States and abroad, who possess some form of talents. Acts range from singing, dancing, comedy, magic, stunts, variety and other genres. Each participant or act who auditions, attempts to secure a place in the live episodes of a season, by impressing a panel of judges. The current line-up consists of Cowell, Howie Mandel, Heidi Klum, and Sofía Vergara. Participants making it into the live episodes, compete against each other for both the judges' and public's vote, in order to reach the live final. The winner receives a large cash prize (primarily paid over a period of time), and since the third season, a chance to headline a show on the Las Vegas Strip.
The show itself has been a rating success for NBC, drawing in on average around 10 million viewers per season. In 2013, a book titled Inside AGT: The Untold Stories of America's Got Talent was released, providing a description of the seasons, contestants, judges and production techniques of the show. It includes detailed interviews with contestants from all seasons, up to the date of the book's publication.
The series has run for a total of eighteen seasons, with the eighteenth season airing May–September 2023, and has spawned four spin-off competitions: America's Got Talent: The Champions, which premiered in January 2019, AGT: Extreme, which premiered in February 2022, America's Got Talent: All-Stars, which premiered in January 2023, and AGT: Fantasy League, which will premiere in 2024. The main series is set to return for season nineteen in summer 2024 with host Crews and judges Cowell, Mandel, Klum, and Vergara all expected to return.
History
The concept of America's Got Talent was devised by The X Factor creator and Sony Music executive Simon Cowell, who sought to create a talent competition far grander than those of other televised talent contests. His proposal, first made to British television network ITV in 2005, was for a competition in which participants of any age and location could enter with any form of talent they chose to perform. The network favored the concept, and green-lit production of a pilot episode to test out the format, with Cowell forming a panel consisting of himself and two other judges (including tabloid journalist Piers Morgan). The pilot proved to be a success. The original plan for the program was for a British edition to be produced and broadcast between 2005 and 2006, hosted by British television personality Paul O'Grady, who had assisted with the pilot (before Cowell would propose the format for American television). However, O'Grady became involved in a dispute with ITV during work on the new program, ultimately terminating his contract with them and defecting to another British network.
As a result, Cowell suspended work on the British edition, and hastened his efforts on launching the format in America. Approaching several networks, Cowell received an offer from NBC to produce his televised competition for their network, owing to feedback given to the pilot made for ITV, and agreed to a contract to produce fifteen episodes for the 2006 summer schedule. Cowell worked with Fremantle and his company Syco Entertainment, but decided against becoming a judge for the new program, choosing to act as executive producer instead. Regis Philbin served as the host, with David Hasselhoff, Brandy Norwood and Morgan as judges. The first season proved a success, leading NBC to commission additional seasons, and prompting ITV to contact Cowell with the intention of resuming production on the British edition for 2007. The success of Britain's Got Talent (along with the American series), led Cowell to accept offers for the rights to the competition format, creating the Got Talent franchise.
Format
Auditions
Each year's competition begins with a set of audition stages, the first being the "Producers' Auditions", is conducted across various cities in the United States. This stage is open to all forms of acts and judged by an independent group, and thus determines who will take part in the next stage of auditions titled "Judges' Auditions". These are held in a public venue, within select cities across the country, and are attended by the judges handling that year's contest.
Each participant reaching this stage of auditions is held offstage from the main performing area in a waiting room, and given a number that denotes when they will perform. Upon being called before the judges, the participant is given 90 seconds to demonstrate their act, with a live audience present for all performances. Each judge is given a buzzer, and may use it during a performance if they are unimpressed, dislike what is being performed, or feel the act is a waste of their time. If a participant is buzzed by all judges, their performance is automatically over. At the end of a performance, the judges give constructive criticism and feedback about what they saw, whereupon they are each given a vote. A participant requires a majority vote approving their performance to proceed to the next stage, otherwise they are eliminated from the program at that stage. Many acts that move on may be cut or forfeit their place, due to the limited slots available for the next stage. Filming for each season begins when the Judges' Auditions are taking place, with the show's presenter standing in the wings of each venue's stage to interview, and give personal commentary on a participant's performance.
From the fifth to seventh seasons, acts who did not attend live auditions could instead submit a taped audition online via YouTube. Acts from the online auditions were then selected to compete in front of the judges and a live audience during the "live shows" part of the season, prior to the semi-finals. Before the inclusion of this round, the show had a separate audition episode in Seasons 3 and 4 (2008–2009) for contestants who posted videos on MySpace.
In the ninth season, the show added a new format to the auditions in the form of the "Golden Buzzer", which began to make appearances within the Got Talent franchise, since it was first introduced on Germany's Got Talent. During auditions, each judge is allowed to use the Golden Buzzer to send an act automatically into the live shows, regardless of the opinion of the other judges. When it was initially used, the buzzer simply saved an act from elimination. The only rule to the buzzer was that a judge could use it only once per season. The host was later allowed to use the Golden Buzzer for an act starting from the eleventh season.
Second Round
After auditions are completed, the judges conduct a special session (or second "audition" round) to determine which participants will secure a place in the live rounds of the competition, though the format for this stage has been change several times over the course of the program's history. When the stage was first created after the first season, it was designed around a "boot camp" format titled "Las Vegas Callbacks". Under the format's rules, participants who made it through the preliminary auditions could undergo training to perfect their act, whereupon each would be assigned to a specific group of participants and perform a second time before the judges. Buzzers would be used to terminate a performance at any time, with those not deemed worthy of a place being eliminated from that season's format.
Between the fourth and ninth season, the format was changed to match that used in Britain's Got Talent. Participants who made it through the preliminary auditions had their audition footage reviewed by the judges, who set each one into a specific group, and were not required to perform again (unless the judges requested this). Acts which they liked would be allocated spaces in the live rounds, with the remainder eliminated from that season's competition. All acts were brought back to learn of the results of the judges' deliberations. The format was titled "Vegas Verdicts" and held on the Las Vegas Strip. For the final seasons of its usage, it was re-dubbed "Judgment Week" and conducted within New York.
Between the tenth season and fourteenth season, the stage's format was changed again under a new arrangement dubbed "Judge Cuts". Under the new format's rules, participants that passed the preliminary auditions underwent a second stage of auditions before the judges at a fixed venue. However, their performance would not only be judged by the panel, but also by a special guest judge, with all participants divided up into four groups. Each group would be judged by their own guest judge. Like the auditions, the main judges could use their buzzers at any time to stop a performance, while the guest judge would be allowed to use a Golden Buzzer for a participant they particularly liked (as well as providing comments on the performances they watched). In the fifteenth season, the round was condensed into a single episode and featured no guest judge, due to the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States in 2020. The round was replaced to its current arrangement for the sixteenth season, matching that of Britain's Got Talent around that time.
Live Rounds
Participants who pass their auditions and secure a place in the live rounds of the competitions, including those who received the Golden Buzzer after the format's introduction and subsequent amendment to match other Got Talent editions, are divided into groups and compete against each other to secure a place within the live final of the competition. Live episodes of the competition are held within a set venue (the location has varied), with the current arrangement focused on a venue within Los Angeles and live episodes for each season being aired weekly on the network. The arrangement differs from the schedule used by other international editions. Britain's Got Talent, for example, broadcasts its live episodes within the space of a single week. The structure of the live rounds by this stage of the competition has varied, but is more commonly arranged as quarter-finals, semi-finals and the final itself. Earlier seasons varied, sometimes having the finals split into separate rounds.
The format of the live rounds, for the quarter-finals and semi-finals, sees each participant conduct a new performance of their act before the judges and the viewers within a "performance" episode. In this episode, the judges can still give out feedback and comments about a participant's performance, and be able to use their buzzers, with the performance terminated if all the buzzers are used. After the episode is broadcast, the network provides the public a set period of time to vote for their act, with the results of these held in a separate "results" episode. When it is broadcast has varied, though it more commonly occurs after an interval of one day after the live "performance" episode. Participants wore the same outfits from the performance episode and are then informed of the results, with those receiving the highest votes (i.e. Top 4) advancing to the next stage. For the two acts that receive the mid-range of votes for all participants, they undergo a vote by the judges to determine who joins those who advanced. When the program brought in the format of using four judges, a tie-break on this vote results in the act with the higher number of public votes moving on. The Judges' vote was not a common format element in earlier seasons. In the first season, the judges did not decide on who moved on, instead voting for acts they liked or disliked. In the second season, they could not vote on acts at all, instead only being able to buzz them.
For some acts that are eliminated, there is still a chance for advancement by being appointed as that round's "Wildcard". Until the tenth season, this format varied in how it would work. In some seasons, the judges could each individually select an act, or more than one, to move on to the next stage or compete within a special Wildcard round. In other seasons, the Wildcard acts were selected from among the auditions and competed in a special round. Since the tenth season, the format is more structured and works in a similar manner to that of the format used by Britain's Got Talent, in that the judges and the public can each chose the acts they want to see move on as a Wildcard act. Although the judges are refrained from choosing a quarter-finalist as a Wildcard act, the public may vote online for an act within each quarter-final and semi-final to move on into the next stage, with this vote aptly named after the sponsor for the show in that respective season.
Those who make it into the season's final compete against each other to secure the most votes from the public, with the number of finalists varying between seasons. Later seasons allow each finalist more than one performance and sometimes being joined by a celebrity guest, previous winner, or notable participant from a previous season. The winning act that achieves the most votes is crowned the winner and receives a cash prize. Although stipulated as $1 million per the program's advertising, in reality winners can choose to either take it as a lump sum, or as a financial annuity of this amount that is paid out over forty years at around $25,000 per year. Both options are liable to taxation. Since Season 10, the winner will also perform on the first results show of the next season. From 2008, the program also includes an additional prize of headlining a show, except from between 2010 and 2013, where the winning finalist headlined a national tour. The show they headline mainly takes place within Las Vegas.
Judges and hosts
Notes
Cowell was absent from the live shows of season 15 due to an accident that resulted in a back injury. After doctors required him to remain under medical observation, production brought in temporary stand-ins for the first two quarter finals, before settling on airing the remaining live rounds with a judging panel of three.
Eric Stonestreet had to stand in for Klum during part of season 15, after she fell ill during the last two audition sessions.
In its first season, the judging panel consisted of David Hasselhoff, Brandy Norwood and Piers Morgan, with Regis Philbin as the host. Prior to the start of the second season, Norwood stepped down due to a legal matter she was involved with, leading to her being replaced by Sharon Osbourne. Philbin was replaced by Jerry Springer as the show's host. Further changes were made to the judging panel and hosting duties in later seasons: Springer left after the third season, and was replaced by Nick Cannon for the fourth season. Hasselhoff left the show after the fourth season, and was replaced by Howie Mandel for the fifth season. Morgan left after the sixth season, and was replaced by Howard Stern for the seventh season.
In August 2012, Osbourne left the program following a dispute with NBC. While the network replaced her with former Spice Girls member Mel B in February 2013, the judges panel increased to four. This format change had already occurred in other international versions of the competition, such as on Britain's Got Talent two years prior. In March 2013, supermodel Heidi Klum was announced as the fourth judge for the eighth season. In October 2015, Stern was replaced by Simon Cowell for the eleventh season. After his eighth year hosting America's Got Talent, Cannon announced plans to retire from the show due to comments he made about the network. Despite being under contract to continue his hosting duties, NBC eventually replaced him with Tyra Banks for the twelfth season.
On February 11, 2019, NBC announced a change to the program's host and its judging panel following the conclusion of the thirteenth season. Banks decided to move on to other projects, leading to her being replaced by Terry Crews, who was already working with the network as host of America's Got Talent: The Champions. Both Klum and Mel B decided to leave America's Got Talent due to other commitments that year, leading to actress Gabrielle Union and dancer Julianne Hough replacing them, joining Mandel and Cowell on the judging panel. However, both Union and Hough took part in only one season before they were let go by the program on November 22, 2019. On February 27, 2020, it was confirmed that Klum would return for the next season, and announced Sofía Vergara as the fourth judge. In September 2021, host Crews announced the 'end of an era' following the season sixteen finale of America's Got Talent and the series finale of Brooklyn Nine-Nine, stating that these both marked the end of his deal with NBC. However, Crews continued his hosting duties in the following seasons.
Guest judges
In 2015, guest judges were introduced into the program as part of the revamp of the format's boot camp stage. The following lists the guest judges who appeared within the program for the "Judge Cuts", per season and in order of their appearance by week:
Series overview
Season 1 (2006)
The first season for America's Got Talent was promoted in May 2006, and was eventually aired later that year between June 21 and August 17. While later episodes would pre-record auditions at earlier dates, this season had them conducted across June, at venues within the cities of New York, Chicago and Los Angeles. Live-round episodes were held within the latter city. Initial advertisements for participants of America's Got Talent implied that the winning act would headline a show in Las Vegas, but this was later dropped in favor of a cash prize of $1 million, due to concerns surrounding the possibility of awarding such a prize to a minor.
The first season was hosted by Regis Philbin, with the judging panel consisting of actor David Hasselhoff, singer Brandy Norwood and journalist Piers Morgan. More than 12 million viewers watched the program's premiere episode, a far greater viewing figure than had been achieved by the premiere of American Idol in 2002, becoming one of the most-watched program on U.S. television and the highest-rated among viewers aged 18 to 49 at that time. The first season was won by singer Bianca Ryan, with clogging group All That and musical group The Millers being the runners-up. Neither act were defined in the results in terms of who was placed 2nd, and who was placed in 3rd.
Season 2 (2007)
Following the success of the previous season, NBC commissioned the program for additional episodes, but originally intended for the new season to be aired as part of its 2007 winter schedule. However, the network decided against this due to the program potentially being placed in direct competition for viewers with American Idol, and kept America's Got Talent within its 2007 summer schedule. The second season aired between June 5 and August 21, 2007. Prior to filming taking place, Philbin left the program and was replaced as host by Jerry Springer. Norwood dropped out, due to a legal situation, and was replaced by Sharon Osbourne. Auditions for this season involved venues within the same cities as had been previously used, but with the inclusion of Dallas as part of its competition schedule.
The second season saw the introduction of a new round in the audition process, which was referred to as the "boot camp stage", a period of callback episodes filmed in Las Vegas, aimed at streamlining successful participants from the first round of auditions towards a set number for the live rounds. Alongside this, participants in the live rounds moved on via the public vote only, while the episode for results was aired a week after each live episode's performance and within a smaller time slot for its broadcast. This season was won by singing impressionist and ventriloquist Terry Fator, with singer and guitarist Cas Haley coming in second, and singer Butterscotch placing third.
Season 3 (2008)
The third season aired between June 17 and October 1, 2008, with a break in its broadcast between August 7 and 26 to avoid conflict with NBC's live broadcasts of the 2008 Summer Olympics. Auditions took place much earlier in the production schedule to provide time for finalizing editing on recorded footage, taking place between January and April across venues within the same cities from the previous season, but with the addition of a venue within the city of Atlanta. Unlike the previous season, the Las Vegas callback episodes doubled the number of semi-finalists involved in the live rounds.
Following the second season, judges voted between the participants placed 5th and 6th in the public vote during the quarterfinals and semi-finals, to determine who moved on at each stage. Apart from some amendments to the program's format, staff also implemented cosmetic changes to the set pieces used on America's Got Talent. An example of this included the "red X's", used to symbolize disapproval from each judge, being redesigned to match the visual style of those used in Britain's Got Talent. This season was won by opera singer Neal E. Boyd, with singer and pianist Eli Mattson coming in second, and violinists Nuttin' But Stringz placing third.
Season 4 (2009)
The fourth season aired between June 23 and September 19, 2009, and was the first season to be broadcast in high definition. Auditions were held between January and April, at venues within New York, Los Angeles, Chicago and Atlanta. Additional auditions were held within Washington, D.C., Miami, Tacoma, Boston and Houston. Along with conducting live auditions, participants could also audition by uploading a video of their performance directly to the program's website. Prior to filming taking place, Springer departed from the program following the previous season, and was replaced by Nick Cannon as host.
For the fourth year of the competition, the prize for winning was amended so that the winner not only received a cash prize, but would be given their own 0-week headline show at the Planet Hollywood Resort and Casino on the Las Vegas Strip. Apart from the change in the prize, the Results episodes after each performance episode were returned to their original broadcast format. This season was won by country music singer Kevin Skinner, with opera singer Bárbara Padilla coming in second, and percussionists Recycled Percussion placing third.
Season 5 (2010)
The fifth season was originally intended to be aired as part of NBC's 2009 Fall schedule, much as had been intended with the second season. However, the network disliked the idea and made certain the program was part of its 2010 summer schedule, with this season airing between June 1 and September 15, 2010. Audition were held between January and April, at venues within Chicago, Dallas, Los Angeles, New York, Orlando, Portland (Oregon), Atlanta and Philadelphia. Prior to filming taking place, Hasselhoff left the show due to other commitments, and his role as judge was taken over by comedian Howie Mandel.
Online auditions for the program were modified to allow registration via YouTube, with a guaranteed placement in the competition. The live rounds were extended to include two new quarter-finals, each themed to certain groups of participants: those who were chosen from their YouTube auditions and those who had been eliminated during the second round of auditions or their quarter-finals. The final stage of the competition included its finalists conducting performances, each with their own guest performer, a format that would become a part of the program and an optional choice for finalists in future seasons. The finalists were offered a place on the America's Got Talent Live Tour that year, regardless of their final result, although the winner would be made the headline act for the tour in addition to their main prize. This season was won by singer/musician Michael Grimm, with classical singer Jackie Evancho coming in second, and performance group Fighting Gravity placing third.
Season 6 (2011)
The sixth season aired between May 31 and September 14, 2011, with no major changes to the format for this year. Auditions were held between January and April within Los Angeles, New York, Atlanta, Houston, Minneapolis, Seattle, Denver and Chicago. Online auditions made via YouTube were conducted on May 4. This season was won by singer Landau Eugene Murphy, Jr., with dance group Silhouettes coming in second, and dance group Team iLuminate placing third.
Season 7 (2012)
The seventh season aired between May 14 and September 13, 2012, with auditions held between October 2011 and February 2012. These were conducted within the cities of New York, Washington, D.C., Tampa, Charlotte, Austin, Anaheim, St. Louis and San Francisco. Prior to filming taking place, Morgan departed from America's Got Talent after the conclusion of the sixth season (despite signing a three-year contract with the program in July 2010), due to other commitments he had at that time.
Due to Morgan's departure, his role as judge was taken over by radio personality Howard Stern. However, because of his involvement with hosting his radio show for SiriusXM, the program's production of live episodes were moved to a venue in New York to avoid disrupting his schedule. The graphical presentation of America's Got Talent was revamped, including the title credits, logo and theme music. The change of venue to the New Jersey Performing Arts Center in Newark, New Jersey not only allowed Cowell to have designers update the studio set, but allowed production staff to invite larger audiences for performances in live episodes than in previous seasons. This season was won by dog tricks act Olate Dogs, with comedian Tom Cotter coming in second, and musician William Close placing third.
Season 8 (2013)
The eighth season aired between June 4 and September 18, 2013, with auditions held between January and March in a much larger range of venues. Auditions held in the cities of New York, New Orleans, Los Angeles, Chicago and San Antonio were filmed for the new season. Prior to filming commencing, Osbourne left AGT following the seventh season, after a lengthy dispute in August 2012 between herself and NBC. While her departure not only led to her role as judge being taken over by Spice Girls member Mel B, the judge panel for future seasons was increased, recruiting supermodel Heidi Klum to join the new season as a fourth judge.
For the live episodes of this season, the venue moved from Newark to New York, holding them within Radio City Music Hall. In addition, the format for audition episodes in terms of presentation style, was changed to match that for Britain's Got Talent. In this arrangement, each episode would consist of a number of auditions chosen from those taken from each major venue used for that season. This season was won by martial arts dancer/mime Kenichi Ebina, becoming the first foreign act to win America's Got Talent, with stand-up comedian Taylor Williamson coming in second, and singer/guitarist Jimmy Rose placed third.
Season 9 (2014)
The ninth season aired between May 27 and September 17, 2014. Preliminary auditions were held between October and December 2013, across several cities including Miami, Atlanta, Houston and Baltimore. The Judge auditions were held between February and April 2014 within Newark, New York and Los Angeles. For this season only, a third-party program was involved in the audition process: one quarter-final place in the competition was offered exclusively by The Today Show via their website, with the top three picked from those that entered competing against each other to be part of America's Got Talent that year.
Several changes were made to the program for this season. The most significant was the introduction of the "Golden Buzzer" format, first introduced on Germany's Got Talent in 2012, which had also been introduced into Britain's Got Talent earlier that year. However, it was used mainly to save an act from elimination in the auditions, and wouldn't match the format used across the Got Talent franchise until the following year.
Other changes included the "boot camp" round being filmed in New York, and the introduction of a new online vote for viewers, named after the program's sponsor during that season. This determined which three acts placed in the mid-range of the public vote: 5th, 6th and 7th in the semi-finals, with 4th, 5th and 6th in the "Top 12" round advancing, and the remaining two voted by the judges. This season was won by magician Mat Franco, with singer Emily West coming second, and acrobatic troupe AcroArmy placing third.
Season 10 (2015)
The tenth season aired during 2015, between May 26 and September 16. Producer auditions took place between late 2014 and early 2015 within Tampa, Nashville, Richmond, New York, Chicago, St. Louis, San Antonio, Albuquerque, San Francisco, Seattle, Boise, Las Vegas and Los Angeles. Judge auditions took place during spring until early summer 2015, between March and June within Newark, New York and Los Angeles. A special "extreme" audition session was held within Pomona, California (performed on an outdoor stage), for participants with acts considered too dangerous to be conducted within an indoor studio set.
This season had the Golden Buzzer format, introduced in the previous season, matching that of Britain's Got Talent. Its use would send a participant directly into the live rounds, although the host was not allowed to use it per the revised format. In addition, the boot camp round was revamped with a new format and renamed as "Judge Cuts", in which they were held over four weeks rather than one. It consisted of about eighty acts shortlisted from the auditions with around twenty per week, and featured the involvement of a guest judge for each of these episodes. Along with the main judges, they could use the Golden Buzzer for an act they wished to see in the live rounds. Neil Patrick Harris, Michael Bublé, Marlon Wayans and Piers Morgan became the first guest judges for the new format in this season. The "Snapple Vote", introduced in the previous season, was renamed the "Dunkin' Save" to coincide with the program's new sponsor. Its format expanded to cover quarter-finalists who finished in 6th, 7th or 8th place per public vote, along with the semi-finalists who finished in 4th, 5th or 6th place per public votes.
This season was won by ventriloquist Paul Zerdin, with comedian Drew Lynch coming in second, and magician mentalist Oz Pearlman placing third.
Season 11 (2016)
The eleventh season aired during 2016, between May 31 and September 16. Open auditions were held between late 2015 and early 2016, within Detroit, New York, Phoenix, Salt Lake City, Las Vegas, San Jose, San Diego, Kansas City, Los Angeles, Atlanta, Orlando and Dallas. Filming of the judges' auditions took place in March 2016, prior to the premiere episode of the season, and were exclusively conducted within the Pasadena Civic Auditorium in Los Angeles. The season premiered on May 31, 2016. During the previous season on June 24, 2015, Howard Stern announced his departure from America's Got Talent on his TV program, leading to Simon Cowell announcing on October 22 that he would later be replacing him for season eleven. On October 4, 2016, Cowell signed a contract that would keep him as a judge on America's Got Talent until 2019. Stern's departure led to live-round broadcasts moving back to Los Angeles, and filmed at the Dolby Theatre. Apart from this change, the Golden Buzzer format allowed the host (Nick Cannon) to use it during auditions.
The guest judges who featured in the Judge Cuts for the eleventh season consisted of Ne-Yo, Reba McEntire, George Lopez and Louis Tomlinson. This season was won by singer-songwriter and musician Grace VanderWaal, with magician mentalist duo The Clairvoyants coming in second, and magician Jon Dorenbos placing third.
Season 12 (2017)
The twelfth season aired during 2017, between May 30 and September 20. Open auditions were held in late 2016 to early 2017, within Chicago, Austin, Cleveland, Jacksonville, Philadelphia, Las Vegas, San Diego, New York, Charleston, Memphis and Los Angeles. Filming of the Judges' audition were conducted in March 2017 at the Pasadena Civic Auditorium in Los Angeles. On February 13, 2017, Nick Cannon resigned from hosting America's Got Talent, following a dispute between himself and NBC concerning remarks he had made during his Showtime comedy special Stand Up, Don't Shoot. As a result, despite Cannon being under contract, the network replaced him with supermodel Tyra Banks.
This season is notable for the death of American physician Brandon Rogers (who died in an automobile accident on June 11, 2017), shortly after securing his place on America's Got Talent during the audition's stage. Rogers became involved in the program, following his involvement with American R&B vocal group Boyz II Men earlier that year, after the group had seen footage of him singing on YouTube. In the wake of his death, his audition was postponed before eventually airing during the final audition episode of the season on July 11, as a tribute to his memory.
The guest judges who featured in the Judge Cuts for the twelfth season consisted of Chris Hardwick, DJ Khaled, Laverne Cox and Seal. This season was won by singer ventriloquist Darci Lynne, with singer Angelica Hale coming in second, and Ukrainian dance act Light Balance placing third.
Season 13 (2018)
The thirteenth season aired during 2018, between May 29 and September 19. Open auditions were held in late 2017 until early 2018, within Orlando, Cincinnati, Savannah, Milwaukee, Houston, Las Vegas, New York, Nashville and Los Angeles. The Judges' auditions were filmed in March 2018 at the Pasadena Civic Auditorium in Los Angeles. A minor change was made to the format of the Judge Cuts in terms of the number of participants in this stage from the auditions being reduced to seventy-two, with about eighteen performing each week. The guest judges featured in the Judge Cuts for the thirteenth season consisted of Ken Jeong, Olivia Munn, Martina McBride and Chris Hardwick. This season was won by magician Shin Lim, with acrobatic group Zurcaroh coming in second, and violinist Brian King Joseph placing third.
Season 14 (2019)
The fourteenth season aired during 2019, between May 28 and September 18. Following the previous season, Tyra Banks, Heidi Klum and Mel B, all opted to leave the program. Banks announced her resignation in December 2018, while Klum and Mel B announced their respective departures two months later. Due to this, replacements were sought in February 2019. Terry Crews was appointed as Banks' successor, following his role on the program's spin-off The Champions, while both Julianne Hough and Gabrielle Union were appointed as new judges for the upcoming season. Both auditions and filming began on March 3, 2019. On November 22, 2019, it was announced that Hough and Union were let go from the series, marking their only season as judges.
Along with the guest judges for the fourteenth season's Judge Cuts were Brad Paisley, Dwyane Wade, Ellie Kemper and Jay Leno. This season is notable for two additional guest judges being added for the live semi-finals: Sean Hayes and Queen Latifah. This season was won by singer and pianist Kodi Lee, with choir group Detroit Youth Choir coming in second, and stand-up comedian Ryan Niemiller placing third.
Season 15 (2020)
The fifteenth season aired during 2020, between May 26 and September 23. Following the previous season, replacements were made for Union and Hough, after both were let go from the program in November 2019. This resulted in the return of Heidi Klum, along with Sofía Vergara as a new judge. Although filming had begun by late February with auditions, the onset of COVID-19 pandemic in the United States towards March caused production delays. Live audiences were discontinued, per the advice against large gatherings by health experts. Production was eventually suspended after Klum fell ill during filming, raising concerns about the risk of infection. While production on the live rounds went under discussion, the program confirmed the season would premiere in May with audition episodes, after footage for these was completed and edited for broadcast.
Production for the remainder of the season resumed in mid-June, while the season was being broadcast. Several changes were made to minimize the potential for infection among those involved, including participants and judges. While the Judges Cuts round was drastically changed, effectively condensing the stage into a single episode, the live rounds featured several measures. These included being filmed at Universal Studios Hollywood, the use of a virtual audience, and an expansion in the number of quarter-finalists.
Prior to the first quarter-final, Cowell was seriously injured in an accident and absent from the remainder of the season. Guest judges appeared for two of the quarter-finals, before opting to maintain the use of three judges for the remainder of the episodes. The season was won by spoken word poet Brandon Leake, with country duo Broken Roots coming in second, and singer Cristina Rae placing third.
Season 16 (2021)
A sixteenth season was announced in late February 2021 by NBC, confirming both the host and its judges, including the return of Cowell. Production began after auditions were opened up with participants asked to provide these for judgment, either virtually or via recorded video. On March 9, 2021, it was announced that the season would premiere on June 1. This season was won by magician Dustin Tavella, with aerialist Aidan Bryant coming in second, and stand-up comedian Josh Blue placing third.
Season 17 (2022)
The seventeenth season was announced on March 31, 2022, with the same judging panel and host from the previous two seasons set to return. The season premiered on May 31, 2022. This season was won by dance group Mayyas, with pole dancer Kristy Sellars coming in second, and singer and guitarist Drake Milligan placing third.
Season 18 (2023)
The cast for the eighteenth season was revealed on March 3, 2023, with the same judging panel and host from the previous three seasons announced to be returning. The season premiered on May 30, 2023. This season was won by dog tricks act Adrian Stoica and Hurricane, with magician Anna DeGuzman coming in second, and dance group Murmuration placing third.
Season 19
During the season eighteen finale on September 27, 2023, it was revealed that the series was officially renewed for a nineteenth season. The season will air in summer 2024 with the full cast from the previous seasons all expected to return.
Related programs
America's Got Talent Live
In 2009, production staff opted for creating a post-show made up of the best finalists from that year's competition, and conducted over a ten-week run between October and January at the Planet Hollywood Resort and Casino in Las Vegas. Titled America's Got Talent Live, it featured performances by season four winner Kevin Skinner, and by ten of the finalists from that season. It was hosted by Jerry Springer, in between taping his self-named show in Stamford, Connecticut. The show proved a success and was renewed for 2010, with Springer remaining as host, and featuring the finalists of the fifth season. It was remade into a 25-city tour that began at the Caesars Palace Casino and Resort in Las Vegas, and concluded at the Bob Carr Performing Arts Center in Orlando.
The live show was put into hiatus following its 2010 run, and resumed in 2012 with a new host and performances from the finalists of the seventh season: Olate Dogs, Spencer Horsman, Joe Castillo, Lightwire Theater, David Garibaldi and his CMYK's, Jarrett and Raja, and Tom Cotter. In 2013, another tour was scheduled consisting of the best acts from the eighth season: Kenichi Ebina, and finalists Collins Key, Jimmy Rose, Taylor Williamson, Cami Bradley, The KriStef Brothers, and Tone the Chiefrocca. In 2014, a new tour was scheduled, consisting of performances from top finalists of the ninth season: Mat Franco, Emily West, Quintavious Johnson, AcroArmy, Emil and Dariel, Miguel Dakota, Sons of Serendip, and season 8's runner-up Taylor Williamson.
In 2015, America's Got Talent Live discontinued operating as a live tour, instead functioning as a series of shows at the Planet Hollywood Resort in Las Vegas. Performances from the top acts from the tenth season included winner Paul Zerdin, runner-up Drew Lynch, and fan favorite Piff the Magic Dragon. In 2016, four more shows were scheduled at the same venue, and featured performances from the top acts of the eleventh season's final: Grace VanderWaal, The Clairvoyants and Tape Face. In 2017, another four shows were scheduled at the same venue, and featured performances by the top acts of the twelfth season's final: Darci Lynne, Angelica Hale, Light Balance and Preacher Lawson. In 2018, three new shows were scheduled at a new venue in Las Vegas, and featured the top acts from the thirteenth season: Shin Lim, Samuel J. Comroe, Courtney Hadwin, Vicki Barbolak and Duo Transcend.
Holiday specials
In 2016, NBC commissioned a festive two-hour special of the program, titled America's Got Talent Holiday Spectacular. Broadcast at the Dolby Theatre on December 19, 2016, the special was hosted by Nick Cannon and featured a mixture of performances by acts that had participated across the program's history with several special guests. Among those involved were Grace VanderWaal, Jackie Evancho, Andra Day, Penn & Teller, Pentatonix, Terry Fator, Mat Franco, Piff the Magic Dragon, Olate Dogs, Professor Splash and Jon Dorenbos (as well as the judges from the season 11). The special proved a ratings hit, achieving around 9.5 million viewers during its broadcast.
In 2018, NBC commissioned a second special centered on Darci Lynne, the winner of the twelfth season. Titled Darci Lynne: My Hometown Christmas, it was hosted by Farmer, and involved Lonnie Chavis from This Is Us as the special's announcer. It broadcast at the Alex Theatre on December 11, 2018. The special featured a special sketch involving Farmer and that season's judges: Simon Cowell, Howie Mandel, Heidi Klum and Mel B. A series of duets included Farmer with Lindsey Stirling, Toby Keith and Kristin Chenoweth, respectively. Guest performances were by Pentatonix and Hunter Hayes.
America's Got Talent: The Champions
In May 2018, NBC commissioned executive producer and Got Talent creator Simon Cowell with producing an all-star spin-off competition, titled America's Got Talent: The Champions. Cowell had conceived of an idea for a global competition consisting of participants that had appeared across the Got Talent franchise across the years, including notable acts and winners. The format for the spin-off would be similar to the main program, though episodes would be pre-recorded when the spin-off contest was held in autumn, and then later broadcast during the network's winter schedule.
The spin-off premiered in January 2019, and as of February 2020, has aired two seasons. AGT season 13 winner Shin Lim, and AGT season 14 finalists V.Unbeatable, won their respective season's contest.
AGT: Extreme
On May 14, 2021, NBC announced its second spin-off of the main AGT show, with a focus on daredevil acts. Got Talent creator Cowell serves as an executive producer and judge for the series. Originally planned for a mid-season summer 2021 debut, filming for the series occurred at the Atlanta Motor Speedway between September 27 and October 20, 2021, and wrapped in early January 2022.
On October 1, 2021, main series host Terry Crews was announced to continue the role in the spin-off, with former WWE wrestler Nikki Bella and motorsports competitor Travis Pastrana to join Cowell as judges. The series premiered on February 21, 2022.
America's Got Talent: All-Stars
On October 7, 2022, NBC announced its third spin-off of the main AGT show. Similar to America's Got Talent: The Champions, America's Got Talent: All-Stars features winners, finalists, fan favorites, and others from previous seasons of AGT across the Got Talent franchise, competing for the All-Star title. The series, with judges Simon Cowell, Heidi Klum, and Howie Mandel as well as host Terry Crews, began production in October 2022, and premiered on January 2, 2023.
AGT: Fantasy League
On September 21, 2023, the fourth spin-off for the AGT series was announced. AGT: Fantasy League will feature the judges competing in a fantasy sports draft-like competition, mentoring the acts to attempt to get an act from their own team be crowned champion. Mel B, who last appeared in the franchise in the first season of America's Got Talent: The Champions in 2019, will return to judge alongside other returning judges Simon Cowell, Heidi Klum, and Howie Mandel, with Terry Crews returning to host as well.
Reception
U.S. television ratings
Since the show began, its ratings have been very high, ranging from 9 million viewers to as many as 16 million viewers (generally averaging around 12 million viewers). The show has also ranked high in the 18–49 demographic, usually rating anywhere from as low as 1.6 to as high as 4.6 throughout its run. Audition shows and performance shows rate higher on average than results shows.
Although the show's ratings have been high, the network typically keeps the show's run limited to before the official start of the next television season in the third week of September, with some reductions or expansions depending on Olympic years. Finale ratings are usually lower due to returning programming on other networks.
The highest rated season in overall viewers to date is season four (2009). The most-watched episode has been the finale of season five (2010), with 16.41 million viewers. The series premiere and an episode featuring the first part of Las Vegas Week in season six (2011) have each tied for highest rating among adults 18–49, both having a 4.6 rating.
Awards and nominations
See also
Got Talent
The X Factor
References
External links
2006 American television series debuts
2000s American variety television series
2010s American variety television series
American television series based on British television series
Competitions in the United States
English-language television shows
American live television shows
NBC original programming
Talent shows
Television series by Fremantle (company)
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Serzh Sargsyan
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Serzh Azati Sargsyan (, ; born 30 June 1954) is an Armenian politician who served as the third President of Armenia from 2008 to 2018, and twice as the Prime Minister of Armenia from 2007 to 2008 and again from 17 to 23 April 2018, when he was forced to resign in the 2018 Armenian revolution.
He won the February 2008 presidential election with the backing of the ruling Republican Party of Armenia, a party in which he serves as chairman, and took office in April 2008. On 18 February 2013, he was re-elected as president and served the entire term.
Despite pledging in 2014 not to become prime minister again while supporting an amendment of the constitution in 2015 that would allow it, Sargsyan was again elected prime minister in April 2018, in what opposition figures described as a "power grab". Six days after taking office, Sargsyan resigned after large-scale protests. Sargsyan is currently the leader of the Republican Party, which was the ruling party of Armenia from 1999 to 2018 and is currently represented in parliament as a part of the opposition I Have Honor Alliance.
Early life and career
Serzh Sargsyan (born Serzhik Azati Sargysan) was born on 30 June 1954 in Stepanakert in the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast. He is the son of Azat Avetisi Sargsyan (1929–2013) and Nora Sargsyan․ His father's family hailed from the village of Tegh in the Armenian SSR, and moved to Stepanakert after the arrest of Serzh Sargsyan's grandfather during the 1937 Great Purge. He entered Yerevan State University in 1971 and served in the Soviet Armed Forces in the Ural region from 1971 to 1972. He began his career in 1975 at the Electrical Devices Factory in Yerevan. He graduated from the Philological Department of Yerevan State University in 1979. In 1983, he married his wife, Rita (née Dadayan). In addition to his native Armenian, he is fluent in Russian and also knows Azerbaijani. He is not related to the former Prime Minister of Armenia, Tigran Sargsyan, nor the former President of Armenia Armen Sarkissian.
Political career
Early career
Starting in 1979, Sargsyan held several positions in the Stepanakert Komsomol Committee: first as division head, then second secretary and first secretary (his long-time political ally Robert Kocharyan served as his deputy). He then became the Stepanakert City Committee Propaganda Division Head, the Nagorno-Karabakh Regional Committee Communist Organizations' Unit Instructor, and finally became assistant to Genrikh Poghosyan, the First Secretary of the Nagorno-Karabakh Regional Committee.
In November 1989, Sargsyan was a delegate from Nagorno-Karabakh to the first congress of the Pan-Armenian National Movement. He was elected to the Supreme Council of Armenia in 1990. During the First Nagorno-Karabakh War, Sargsyan was involved in organizing the defense of Nagorno-Karabakh and the formation of the NKR Defense Army in various capacities. In January 1992, when the first government of the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic (NKR) was formed with Oleg Yesayan as prime minister, Sargsyan was appointed head of the Defense Committee, a position he held until the dissolution of the government in August 1992. Sargsyan then became a member of the seven-man State Defense Committee of the NKR (effectively the government of the NKR) which was formed in August 1992. Sargsyan held the position of minister of the army within the State Defense Committee.
From 1993 to 1995 he served his first term as Armenia's Minister of Defense under President Levon Ter-Petrosyan. In 1995 he became Minister of National Security of Armenia (initially called the State Security Department) and from 1996 to 1999 he concurrently served as Minister of Interior. In February 1998, Sargsyan, along with then-Prime Minister Robert Kocharyan and Defense Minister Vazgen Sargsyan, forced President Ter-Petrosyan to resign in order to prevent him from accepting a peace plan for the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict put forward by international mediators in September 1997. The proposal envisioned the return of most of the Armenian-occupied territories surrounding Nagorno-Karabakh to Azerbaijan in exchange for security guarantees, but left the final resolution of the status of Nagorno-Karabakh for future negotiations. From 1999 to 2000 he served as the Chief of Staff for President Robert Kocharyan, and then served once again as the Defense Minister of Armenia from 2000 to 2007. He was also the Secretary of the National Security Council led by President Kocharyan from 1999 to 2007. On 4 April 2007 Sargsyan was appointed as the Prime Minister of Armenia, following the sudden death of Andranik Margaryan.
Presidential election
Sargsyan, with President Kocharyan's backing, was viewed as the strongest contender for the post of the President of Armenia in the February 2008 presidential election. Full provisional results showed him winning about 53% of the vote, a first round majority, well ahead of second place candidate Levon Ter-Petrosyan. The 2008 Presidential election was hailed as largely democratic by OSCE, the European Union (EU) and Western monitors.
Ter-Petrosyan's supporters, disputing the official results, held large protests in Yerevan for over a week following the election, until they were violently broken up on 1 March; ten people (eight protestors and two police officers) were killed, and a state of emergency was imposed for 20 days, ending on 20 March 2008.
Presidency (2008–2018)
Serzh Sargsyan was sworn in as president at the Yerevan Opera House on 9 April 2008. Referring to the "painful events" that followed the election, he " everybody to look forward, together, to seek and find the way for reconciliation, development, and future of Armenia." He appointed Tigran Sargsyan, who had been the Chairman of the Central Bank and is not a member of a political party, as Prime Minister. According to the Freedom House report "In 2011, the government took concrete steps to fulfill longstanding and often repeated promises to confront corruption. E-government services reduced opportunities for bribery, while new regulations and stricter enforcement led to higher numbers of corruption lawsuits and fines against senior officials and large companies. Owing to a more consolidated government effort to eradicate corruption, Armenia's corruption rating from 5.50 to 5.25."
During Sargsyan's presidency the record of the freedom of speech and the freedom of press in general also improved in Armenia. Internet penetration rose sharply
– from 6.2 percent in 2008 to 37 percent in 2011, providing greater access to online media, which rapidly grew in number, including blogosphere – with over 10,000 bloggers in 2011.
After the elections Sargsyan also authorized opposition rallies to take place in Yerevan and pledged to comply with the Council of Europe's demands for an end to the government's crackdown on the opposition.
Civil society also grew considerably during Sargsyan's presidency, with the number of non-governmental organizations growing at a higher rate and with civic activists succeeding in raising public awareness and holding important campaigns in the sphere of human rights, environmental protection and social justice. However, according to Freedom House, public advocacy still had limited impact on public policy.
Economy
The start of Sargsyan's presidency coincided with the Great Recession. In 2009, Armenia's GDP contracted over 14%, which according to the World Bank was the fifth worst in the world that year after the three Baltic states and Ukraine. GDP growth subsequently stabilized at around 3% by 2013. As of 2014, Armenia's GDP is below the pre-crisis levels. During his first term of presidency, the official poverty rate doubled and reached 32.4% in 2012. According to official data, some 213,000 people have left Armenia from 2008 to 2013. In 2012, Armenia was ranked 39th out of 179 economies according to the Index of Economic Freedom and ranked 19th freest among the 43 countries in the Europe region.
In September 2013 and under Sargsyan's direction, Armenia announced its intentions of joining the Eurasian Economic Union with Belarus, Kazakhstan and Russia.<ref name=ack>{{cite web |url=http://www.eurasianet.org/node/67852 |title=Giorgi Lomsadze: Will Karabakh "Join" Russia's Customs Union? |website=eurasianet.org |access-date=10 December 2013 |archive-date=13 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131213031306/http://www.eurasianet.org/node/67852 |url-status=live }}</ref> The Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU or EEU) is an economic union of Belarus, Kazakhstan and Russia, and came into force on 1 January 2015. Treaties aiming for Armenia's accession to the Eurasian Economic Union was signed on 9 October 2014. Armenia's accession treaty came into force on 2 January 2015. The Eurasian Economic Union has an integrated single market of 176 million people and a gross domestic product of over 4 trillion U.S. dollars (PPP). The EEU introduces the free movement of goods, capital, services and people and provides for common transport, agriculture and energy policies, with provisions for a single currency and greater integration in the future.
Foreign policy
Nagorno-Karabakh
Sargsyan made his first address in front of the 63rd session of the United Nations General Assembly in New York on 25 September 2008. In his speech he referenced the 2008 South Ossetia conflict and emphasized the need for the United Nations to help bring peaceful resolution to armed conflicts around the world, including the one in Nagorno-Karabakh. He also mentioned how Azerbaijan's military buildup along with increasing war rhetoric and threats risked causing renewed problems in the South Caucasus.
Sargsyan continued the policy towards the peaceful resolution of the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict pursued by his predecessors, which constitutes one of the main goals of the Armenian foreign policy. Sargsyan repeatedly stated that the Armenian side is interested in finding a just and exclusively peaceful solution to the conflict and that the OSCE Minsk Group is the viable format within which the peace talks should continue.President Serzh Sargsyan participated at the solemn event dedicated to the 20th anniversary of the Republican Party of Armenia (RPA) . Armenpress.am. 20 December 2010. He continued negotiations with Azerbaijan and had a number of meetings with the president of Azerbaijan within the framework of OSCE Minsk Group. On 2 November 2008, Ilham Aliyev and Serzh Sargsyan traveled to Moscow for talks with Dmitry Medvedev. The talks ended in the three Presidents signing a declaration confirming their commitment to continue talks. The two presidents met again in 2009 in Saint Petersburg and on 22 November 2009, together with several world leaders, in Munich where President Aliyev once more threatened to resort to military force to reestablish control over the region if the two sides did not reach an agreeable settlement.
Sargsyan blames the Azerbaijani side for hampering the peace process and for pursuing an openly anti-Armenian stance. According to him, the anti-Armenian policies of Azerbaijan, such as "state-supported falsifications of history", "hostile propaganda against Armenia and Armenians" and "military build-up" prove that Azerbaijan does not want peace.
The most vivid expression of anti-Armenian policies of Azerbaijan was the hero's welcome given to the convicted ax murderer Ramil Safarov who had brutally killed Armenian officer Gurgen Margaryan during the NATO's Partnership for Peace program in Budapest in 2004. The fact that after his extradition to Azerbaijan in 2012 Safarov was pardoned by president Aliyev, promoted to the rank of major, given an apartment with over eight years of back pay and was made a national hero, hampers the negotiation process and proves, in Sargsyan's words, that "the Azeri propaganda brings up an entire generation in the atmosphere of xenophobia and intolerance."
Sargsyan has also clearly stated:The Armenophobic and aggressive stance of Azerbaijan reinforces our conviction that Nagorno-Karabakh has no future within Azerbaijan. Moreover, Azerbaijan has neither legal nor political or moral grounds to claim over Nagorno-Karabakh.
In his speech made at the British Chatham House Sargsyan said:
Our belief is that the settlement of the Karabakh conflict should be based on human rights and the will of the Karabakh people… It is the only way to achieve lasting, feasible, and peaceful settlement. The alternative to this settlement is the forcing of the Karabakh people back into Azerbaijan, which will inevitably lead to attempts of new ethnic cleansing of Armenians in Karabakh. There is no alternative here."
Responding to the persistent war rhetoric of Azerbaijan, Sargsyan has condemned it as a violation of the norms of the international law, as the parties had signed a truce which Azerbaijan, the "defeated aggressor", had asked for.Serzh Sargsyan: Azerbaijan forgets who was asking for truce and who was first to sign truce . Panorama.am (19 December 2012). Retrieved on 21 June 2014.
He repeatedly said that his country is categorically against the resumption of military hostilities, but at the same time is ready to counter any military aggression. In 2014, Sargsyan stated "We don't want war and never wanted, but at that time [i.e. during Nagorno-Karabakh war] we had to defend our Motherland. If the time comes again, this time our blow will be final and deadly."
In this regard, Sargsyan declared that in the case of military aggression from Azerbaijan "Armenia will have no other choice but to recognize the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic de jure and to employ all its capabilities to ensure the security of the people of Artsakh."
Sargsyan met with Ilham Aliyev again in Russian-mediated talks in Kazan in June 2011, where the two sides reportedly came close to an agreement. The basic principles discussed at Kazan envisioned the return of five of the seven districts of Azerbaijan occupied by Armenia in exchange for "interim status" for Nagorno-Karabakh and the deployment of international peacekeepers, with the final status of the region to be decided by a legally-binding referendum. The proposals made at Kazan were ultimately rejected by the Azerbaijani side.
In his electoral program of 2013, Sargsyan promised to increase the security guarantees of Nagorno-Karabakh and its people given Azerbaijan's policy of Armenophobia. He also highlighted the importance of strengthening the defensive system of Armenia "as a factor restraining the Azerbaijani aggression and ensuring stability in the South Caucasus". He also promised to take all the necessary efforts to ensure that Karabakh becomes a negotiating side in the peace talks as well as to foster the ties between Karabakh and the international community.
As for the position of Armenia concerning the independence of Kosovo, Sargsyan stated that "Armenia's possible recognition of Kosovo's independence will not strain the Armenian-Russian relations" but also noted that the "Kosovo recognition issue needs serious discussion... Armenia has always been an adherent to the right of nations to self-determination and in this aspect we welcome Kosovo's independence."
In April 2016, Sargsyan led Armenia through the 2016 Nagorno-Karabakh conflict (also known as the Four-Day War or the April War), the most significant outbreak of violence on the Nagorno-Karabakh line of contact after the 1994 ceasefire and before the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war. The four days of fighting resulted in at least dozens of deaths and the loss of approximately 800 hectares of land. Sargsyan described the outcome of the four-day clashes as a victory for Armenia, although he faced criticism for shortcomings during the clashes as well as accusations that he had agreed to cede territory to Azerbaijan in the wake of the fighting. In order to stop this purported cession of territory, a group of armed men calling themselves "Daredevils of Sasun" seized a police headquarters in Yerevan in July 2016 and took hostages, demanding Sargsyan's resignation. The crisis, which coincided with mass protests in support of the attackers, ended with the surrender of the gunmen on 31 July 2016.
Reflecting on his presidency and the negotiation process after the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war, during which the Armenian side lost much of the territory it controlled in and around Nagorno-Karabakh, Sargsyan stated that he intended to achieve a final negotiated solution to the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict and that this was the reason for his decision to remain as prime minister in 2018, which led to protests that forced his resignation. He denied that he had deliberately delayed the negotiation process in order to maintain the status quo or that he had ever held the view that "not one inch of land" could be handed over to Azerbaijan in order to resolve the conflict. He added that he was "ready to bear the label of traitor, but resolve the [Nagorno-Karabakh] question."
Turkey
Having been elected as a president for his first term in 2008, Sargsyan pledged to continue Armenia's policy towards Turkey, to normalize relations without any preconditions while continuing to strive for international recognition of the 1915 Armenian genocide.
Coming to power, Sargsyan took steps towards the normalization of ties with Turkey, a policy termed as "football diplomacy". In 2008, Sargsyan took a historical initiative to invite Turkish President Abdullah Gül to Armenia to watch a 2010 FIFA World Cup qualifier match between Armenia and Turkey. Abdullah Gül attended the game in Armenia while Serzh Sargsyan made a reciprocal visit to Turkey to watch the second match.
On 10 October 2009 the foreign ministers of Armenia and Turkey signed protocols on establishing diplomatic relations between the two countries without any preconditions. The accord also presupposed the opening of the border between Armenia and Turkey which had been closed by Turkey in 1993.Historic Step: Armenia-Turkey protocols signed; await ratification . Armenianow.com (1 March 2008). Retrieved on 21 June 2014. The protocols were signed in Geneva, Switzerland under the international mediation, chiefly that of the United States.
Sargsyan's policy of rapprochement with Turkey received controversial reaction among the Armenian people. While one part was for the opening of the border and fostering trade with Turkey the other part was concerned that by this move Armenia would be forced to make concessions to Turkey in the most vital and strategic matters. Armenian influential opposition parties, most notably the Armenian Revolutionary Federation were categorically against the signing of the protocols, given the recognition of the existing Turkish-Armenian border and the setting up of a joint commission of historians researching the Armenian Genocide, as envisioned by the protocols. They considered these steps as a sellout and staged mass protests against the signing of the protocols.
The Armenian Diaspora was also largely opposed to this type of reconciliation with Turkey, arguing (despite Sargsyan's assurances to the contrary) that this would jeopardize the international recognition of the Armenian genocide as well as the prospects of legitimate territorial claims of Armenians from Turkey.
The process of reconciliation, however, was suspended after a year. In Armenia, before sending the protocols to the parliament, it was sent to the Constitutional Court to have their approval. The Constitutional Court made references to the preamble of the protocols underlying three main issues. One of them stated that the implementation of the protocols did not imply Armenia's official recognition of the existing Turkish-Armenian border established by the Treaty of Kars. By doing so, the Constitutional Court rejected one of the main premises of the protocols, i.e. "the mutual recognition of the existing border between the two countries as defined by relevant treaties of international law". This was regarded by the Turkish Government as effectively revising the protocols and thus the reason to back down from the process. As a consequence, the Turkish Parliament did not ratify the protocols. The Armenian side accused Turkey to tie the reconciliation process with the resolution of the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, expecting concessions on the Armenian side, which was unacceptable for the latter. Sargsyan explained the suspension of the reconciliation process by the Armenian side in the following way: For a whole year, Turkey's senior officials have not spared public statements in the language of preconditions. For a whole year, Turkey has done everything to protract time and fail the process... We consider unacceptable the pointless efforts of making the dialogue between Armenia and Turkey an end in itself; from this moment on, we consider the current phase of normalization exhausted."
Sargsyan however has also stated that unlike Ankara, Yerevan remains committed to its initiative to normalizing relations with Turkey.
European Union
President Sargsyan supported Armenia's efforts to ink an Association Agreement with the EU, which contains a Deep and Comprehensive Free Trade Area, for several years. Under his presidency, the negotiations for the agreement were completed and Armenia was set to sign the agreement at an upcoming EU Summit. However, President Sargsyan made a drastic policy reversal when in September 2013, after a meeting with President Vladimir Putin in Moscow, he opted to join the Russian-led Eurasian Economic Union. It was widely believed that Russian pressure and threats killed Armenia's deal with the EU. Even though such a reversal was made, President Sargsyan's administration was determined to further EU inspired reforms in law and governance, and this led to Armenia signing the Comprehensive and Enhanced Partnership Agreement with the European Union on 24 November 2017. Behind the scenes, Russia granted approval to Armenia to sign the deal after any economic provisions were removed from the deal.
Protests against Sargsyan's presidency
Major protests against Sargsyan's regime began in 2011, with the president's 2008 rival Levon Ter-Petrosyan at their helm. In a concession to protesters, Sargsyan said on 20 April 2011 that the government would recommit to a thorough investigation of the post-election violence of three years prior.
In July 2016, thousands of Armenians protested in the capital Yerevan in support of the "Daredevils of Sasun," an armed group that stormed police headquarters in Yerevan and took hostages while calling for the release of all political prisoners and the resignation of president Serzh Sargsyan. The National Security Service of Armenia called the takeover (which resulted in the deaths of three policemen) a terrorist attack, but a growing number of Armenians disagreed with that assessment.
Prime Minister (2018)
Shortly after the end of his presidency on 9 April 2018, Sargsyan was elected Prime Minister of Armenia on 17 April. Opposition figures described this as a "power grab" and there were large-scale protests against him. On 22 April, Sargsyan held a three-minute televised meeting with opposition MP and leader of the protests Nikol Pashinyan. Sargsyan accused the opposition of delivering an ultimatum for his resignation instead of engaging in dialogue, and left the meeting early; Pashinyan was detained by police hours after the meeting. The continuing protests were eventually successful in pressuring Sargsyan. On 23 April, Pashinyan was released from detention and Sargsyan announced his resignation. Former Prime Minister Karen Karapetyan succeeded Sargsyan as acting Prime Minister. Armenia's National Assembly, still controlled by Sargsyan's Republican Party, elected Nikol Pashinyan Prime Minister on 8 May 2018.
Criminal prosecution
Sargsyan has been under criminal prosecution within the scope of a criminal case on embezzlement. The Special Investigative Service of Armenia on 4 December 2019, has brought embezzlement charges against Sargsyan, particularly for the organization of the embezzlement of half a billion AMD within the scope of the state program on assisting farmers to obtain diesel fuel on affordable price in 2013. In January 2020, based on sufficient evidence collected, the Special Investigative Service has indicted Sargsyan for embezzlement on especially large scale (AMD ֏489,160,310) and the criminal case with the indictment has been handed to the prosecutor supervising the case for approval and sending it to court.
Honours and awards
Serzh Sargsyan has thus far been conferred the following honors:
Order of first Degree "Martakan Khach" ("Combat Cross") (Armenia, 1994)
Hero of Artsakh (Republic of Artsakh, 2000)
Order of "Voske Artsiv" (Golden Eagle) (Republic of Artsakh, 2000)
Order of "Tigran Mets" (named after Tigranes the Great) (Armenia, 2006)
Order of Honor (Georgia, 2010)
Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour (France, 2011)
The First Class of the Order of Prince Yaroslav the Wise (Ukraine, 2011)
Order of the Republic of Serbia (2013)
Presidential Order of Excellence (Georgia, 2013)
National Order of Merit (France, 2014)
Order of the Golden Fleece (Georgia)
Personal life
In 1983, he married his wife, Rita Sargsyan née Dadayan, with whom he has two daughters, Anush and Satenik. They have two granddaughters, Mariam and Rita, and two grandsons, Ara and Serzh. Sargsyan is also the chairman of the Armenian Chess Federation. His wife Rita died on 20 November 2020, from COVID-19 at the age of 58.
Sargsyan has two younger brothers: Alexander (Sashik), a businessman and former member of Armenia's parliament, and Levon, a diplomat and professor at Yerevan State University.
Other details
Other transcriptions of his given name are Serge and Serj, of the surname Sarkissian, Sarkisyan, Sargsyan, Sarkissyan, the transliteration is Serž Azati Sargsyan (see Romanization of Armenian). His name during the Soviet era was Russified as Serzh Azatovich Sargsyan'' (Серж Аза́тович Саргся́н).
References
External links
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1954 births
Armenian Apostolic Christians
Armenian military personnel of the Nagorno-Karabakh War
Chess officials
Defence ministers of Armenia
Heroes of Artsakh
Living people
People from Stepanakert
Politicians from the Republic of Artsakh
Presidents of Armenia
Prime Ministers of Armenia
Recipients of the Order of Prince Yaroslav the Wise
Republican Party of Armenia politicians
Yerevan State University alumni
Recipients of the Order of the Golden Fleece (Georgia)
Government ministers of Armenia
Recipients of the Order of Honor (Georgia)
Grand Officers of the Ordre national du Mérite
Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour
Interior ministers of Armenia
Artsakh military personnel
Armenian sports executives and administrators
Recipients of the Presidential Order of Excellence
Armenian nationalists
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KCOP-TV
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KCOP-TV
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KCOP-TV (channel 13) is a television station in Los Angeles, California, United States, serving as the West Coast flagship of MyNetworkTV. It is owned and operated by Fox Television Stations alongside Fox outlet KTTV (channel 11). Both stations share studios at the Fox Television Center located in West Los Angeles, while KCOP-TV's transmitter is located atop Mount Wilson.
History
Early history
Channel 13 first signed on the air on September 17, 1948, as KLAC-TV (standing for Los Angeles, California), and adopted the moniker "Lucky 13". It was originally co-owned with local radio station KLAC (570 AM). Operating as an independent station early on, it began running some programming from the DuMont Television Network in 1949 after KTLA (channel 5) ended its affiliation with the network after a one-year tenure. One of KLAC-TV's earlier stars was veteran actress Betty White, who starred in Al Jarvis's Make-Believe Ballroom (later Hollywood on Television) from 1949 to 1952, and then her own sitcom, Life with Elizabeth from 1952 to 1956. Television personality Regis Philbin and actor/director Leonard Nimoy once worked behind the scenes at channel 13, and Oscar Levant had his own show on the station from 1958 to 1960.
On December 23, 1953, the now-defunct Copley Press (publishers of the San Diego Union-Tribune) purchased KLAC-TV and changed its call letters to the current KCOP, which reflected their ownership. A Bing Crosby-led group purchased the station in June 1957. In 1959, the NAFI Corporation, which would later merge with Chris-Craft Boats to become Chris-Craft Industries, bought channel 13. NAFI/Chris-Craft would be channel 13's longest-tenured owner, running it for over 40 years.
For most of its first 46 years on the air, channel 13 was a typical general entertainment independent station. It was usually the third or fourth highest-rated independent in Southern California, trading the #3 spot with KHJ-TV (channel 9, now KCAL-TV). The station carried Operation Prime Time programming at least in 1978.
In the early 1980s, KCOP became one of the many stations in the U.S. to broadcast Star Fleet (aka X-Bomber), a science-fiction marionette series which originally debuted in Japan in 1980.
During the 1980s and early 1990s, it was the Los Angeles home of Star Trek: The Next Generation (as well as the Original Series before it, as early as 1970), The Arsenio Hall Show and Baywatch. KCOP was the original Los Angeles home of the syndicated version of Wheel of Fortune (its longtime announcer until his death in 2010, Charlie O'Donnell, was a former staff announcer and news anchor at KCOP). The station had also picked up Jeopardy! from KCBS-TV (channel 2) in 1985. Both game shows moved to KCBS-TV in 1989, and later to current home KABC-TV (channel 7) in 1992. Channel 13 aired select episodes of the Australian soap opera Neighbours from early June to late August 1991. The station tried airing movies six nights a week in 1992; however, they fared poorly.
KCOP partnered with WWOR-TV and MCA TV Entertainment on a two night programming block, Hollywood Premiere Network starting in October 1990. KCOP carried the Prime Time Entertainment Network programming service from 1993 to 1995. KCOP carried Spelling Premiere Network at its launch in August 1994 on Thursday nights.
UPN affiliation (1993–2006)
On October 27, 1993, Chris-Craft and its broadcasting subsidiary, United Television, partnered with Viacom's newly acquired subsidiary Paramount Pictures to form the United Paramount Network (UPN), making KCOP the network's Los Angeles affiliate. UPN debuted on January 16, 1995. In 1996, Viacom bought 50% of UPN from Chris-Craft. At the network's launch, which also served to launch Paramount's Star Trek: Voyager, KCOP served as UPN's West Coast "flagship" station. During the late 1990s, the station began carrying a large amount of younger leaning talk shows (such as The Ricki Lake Show, The Jenny Jones Show, and The Montel Williams Show), reality series, some sitcoms during the evening hours, and syndicated cartoons (such as Double Dragon) in the morning well as the popular anime series Sailor Moon.
In 2000, Viacom bought CBS and Chris-Craft's 50% ownership interest in UPN. On August 12, 2000, Chris-Craft agreed to sell its television stations to the Fox Television Stations subsidiary of News Corporation for $5.5 billion; a deal that was finalized on July 31, 2001, creating a duopoly with Fox O&O KTTV. Upon being sold to Fox, the Fox Kids weekday block moved to KCOP in the mid-afternoons, only for it to be discontinued nationwide in January 2002. KCOP still ran UPN's Disney's One Too block during the morning hours until the network ended the block's run in 2003. Soon after, the station ran an hour-long morning cartoon block (supplied by DIC Entertainment), but dropped cartoons entirely in September 2006. Channel 13 was the last local television station to air cartoons on weekdays; like the other local stations, the cartoons were replaced with infomercials. In a separate transaction from its purchase of UPN, Viacom purchased KCOP's rival, KCAL-TV, from Young Broadcasting on June 1, 2002. Rumors persisted that UPN would move to the higher-rated KCAL, reverting KCOP to independent station status. However, Viacom decided to continue operating KCAL as an independent, as Fox renewed affiliation agreements for its UPN-affiliated stations for four years, keeping the network's programming on KCOP.
From UPN onto MNTV
With Fox's acquisition of KCOP, the station abandoned its longtime Hollywood studios at 915 North La Brea Avenue (once home to the classic Barry & Enright-produced game shows The Joker's Wild and Tic-Tac-Dough, and short-lived B&E entry Play the Percentages) with KCOP's news and technical operations being moved into KTTV's facilities at the Fox Television Center in West Los Angeles in 2003. The La Brea Avenue studio was put up for sale, with Fox electing to keep the facility, remodeling it to house the first two seasons of the reality series Hell's Kitchen. It was eventually abandoned with fixtures in place, and became a haven for squatters who were evicted by police in May 2009. The studio was eventually torn down, and currently the site is now a Sprouts store, with a large apartment complex that opened November 2015.
On January 24, 2006, the Warner Bros. unit of Time Warner and CBS Corporation announced that the two companies would shut down UPN and The WB and combine the networks' respective programming to create a new "fifth" network called The CW. KTLA, which had been the market's WB affiliate since the network's January 1995 launch, became The CW's Los Angeles affiliate as part of a 10-year affiliation deal between the new network and KTLA's owner, Tribune Broadcasting.
MyNetworkTV affiliation (2006–present)
The CW's initial affiliate list did not include any of Fox's UPN stations, but even without the Tribune affiliation deal, it is unlikely that KCOP would have been picked over KTLA as The CW's management was on record as preferring The WB and UPN's "strongest" affiliates – KTLA had led KCOP in the ratings dating back to when they were both independent stations. The day after the announcement of The CW's pending launch, on January 25, 2006, Fox dropped all network references from its UPN stations' on-air branding, and stopped promoting UPN's programs altogether. Accordingly, KCOP changed its branding from "UPN 13" to "Channel 13", and amended the station's 2002 logo to omit the UPN logo and just feature the boxed "13". On February 22, 2006, News Corporation announced the launch of a new "sixth" network called MyNetworkTV, which would have KCOP and the other Fox-owned UPN stations (plus independent station KDFI in Dallas–Fort Worth) as the core group of stations.
UPN continued to broadcast on stations across the country until September 15, 2006. While some of the network's affiliates that switched to MyNetworkTV (which commenced operations on September 5, 2006) aired the final two weeks of UPN programs outside of its recommended prime time slot, the Fox-owned stations, including KCOP, dropped UPN entirely on August 31, 2006. In September 2006, the station began identifying itself as "MyNetworkTV, Channel 13"; the branding changed again in May 2007, simplified to "My13 Los Angeles".
Rebranding to KCOP 13 and Fox 11 Plus; timeshifting of MyNetworkTV programming
On July 12, 2021, KCOP-TV changed its on-air branding to KCOP 13, dropping the MyNetworkTV branding. The change of branding was accompanied by a move of MyNetworkTV programming to late night (see below) and carrying Decades (now Catchy Comedy) programming on weekdays from 10 a.m. to 2 p.m., simulcasting the programming on sister KTTV's 11.4 subchannel.
As of September 14, 2015, the station began airing other programming in MyNetworkTV's traditional 8–10 p.m. timeslot, including TMZ Live and Hollywood Today Live; MyNetworkTV's schedule was thus carried out of prime time in late night from 11:30 p.m. to 1:30 a.m. on weeknights. This made KCOP the most high-profile station carrying MyNetworkTV to move it out of prime time, along with the first Fox-owned station to do so (Chicago-based WPWR-TV, licensed to Gary, Indiana, moved MyNetworkTV programming to 10 p.m.–midnight on September 1, 2016, after assuming that market's CW affiliation from Tribune-owned WGN-TV, taking The CW as its primary affiliation; WPWR would later move MyNetworkTV programming to 9–11 p.m. CT).
A year later, with the failure of Hollywood Today Live and KCOP's other alternate programming, KCOP returned MyNetworkTV back to the 8–10 p.m. slot. On July 12, 2021, MyNetworkTV's programming was again moved to late-nights (midnight to 2 a.m.), with off-network sitcoms filling the prime time hours. As part of this, the station rebranded itself from "My13" to "KCOP 13". In January 2023, KCOP rebranded as "Fox 11 Plus", a branding scheme used by other Fox-owned MyNetworkTV stations that aligns them as a companion to their parent Fox station. On July 3, 2023, KCOP replaced the simulcast of Catchy Comedy programming with airings of Law & Order: Special Victims Unit from 10 a.m. to noon, followed by the syndicated Dateline and TMZ Live. The schedule change also eliminated airings of Fox Soul's Black Report and the Fox Weather programming segments. At some point between then and September, the MyNetworkTV schedule was moved to earlier in the day, from 2 p.m. to 4 p.m.
Programming
KCOP-TV may air Fox network programming should it be preempted by KTTV for long-form breaking news or severe weather coverage or other special programming.
Sports coverage
Channel 13 served as the broadcast home of the Los Angeles Marathon from its inception in 1986 until 2001, the NBA's Los Angeles Clippers from 1991 to 1996, and the Los Angeles Dodgers from 2002 to 2005, the Los Angeles Angels from 2006 to 2019 and two Los Angeles Chargers regular season games in 2017. In 2021, KCOP started televising Los Angeles FC regular season soccer matches on weekends that are not nationally televised.
Like many local stations in the earlier years of television, KCOP hosted its own weekly Studio Wrestling show for many years during the 1970s. Stars such as Freddie Blassie, John Tolos, Rocky Johnson, André the Giant and The Sheik headlined the shows, with longtime local announcer Dick Lane behind the microphone calling the action. In later years, pro wrestling returned to KCOP by way of the World Wrestling Entertainment program Smackdown, which aired on the station from 1999 to 2006 (as a UPN affiliate) and again from 2008 to 2010 (as a MyNetworkTV affiliate). In the past, Channel 13 also aired other wrestling programs, including World Class Championship Wrestling and the NWA. Channel 13 also televised live boxing matches, originating from the Grand Olympic Auditorium in downtown Los Angeles, on and off from the late 1960s until as recently as the mid-1990s, with legendary Los Angeles sportscaster Jim Healy calling the action in the early years.
From 2005 to 2007, KCOP carried St. Louis Rams preseason games produced by now-former corporate siblings Fox Sports Midwest and KTVI. Back in the 1950s during the team's early years in Los Angeles, the station broadcast many Rams regular season games before NFL games became more exclusive to the major broadcast networks (such as CBS, NBC and DuMont). However, in July 2008, the NFL's broadcast committee decided to no longer allow teams to broadcast preseason games beyond even their secondary markets. This was done more so to protect the league's broadcast partners, including KCBS-TV and KTLA, the respective local broadcasters of San Diego Chargers and Oakland Raiders preseason games.
From 2006 to 2011, KCOP held the broadcast television rights to Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim baseball; the team and Fox Sports West (now Bally Sports West) signed a 20-year broadcast deal beginning with the 2012 season, making 150 annual Angels telecasts exclusive to Fox Sports West, with a selected portion of that schedule airing on Prime Ticket, although KCOP aired a game between the Angels and the Minnesota Twins on May 9, 2012, due to scheduling conflicts with other sports events on Fox Sports West and Prime Ticket. Due to its relationship with their corporate sibling regional sports networks, KCOP serves as an overflow channel for Fox Sports West and Prime Ticket, as it aired five Los Angeles Kings hockey games during the 2010–11 season, as well as televising selected late-season games from the 2011–12 season, plus the first two games of the Kings' first-round playoff series against the Vancouver Canucks. In the time since, KCOP will occasionally air selected Kings games, as well as those of the team's crosstown rival, the Anaheim Ducks. The Ducks discontinued their over-the-air partnership with KDOC-TV after the 2013–14 season, as the team elected to take its local television schedule exclusively on cable to Prime Ticket, with occasional games on KCOP and Fox Sports West, as part of a new broadcast agreement signed in October 2014
In the 2020–21 NHL season, KCOP served as a home for several Kings and Ducks games due to the NHL season being delayed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. KCOP aired six Kings broadcasts and four Ducks broadcasts.
In the 2021 MLB season, KCOP is scheduled to air at least four Angels games due to the NHL and NBA seasons being delayed due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
On April 8, 2011, KCOP televised its first Clippers game since 1996 (a road game versus the Dallas Mavericks), as a last-minute scheduling addition to the team's television schedule. During the 2011–12 season, also as a last-minute addition, the station televised two Clipper games; a road contest versus the Denver Nuggets on April 18, and game six of their playoff series versus the Memphis Grizzlies on May 11.
As a Fox-owned station, KCOP was granted special rights to two Fox NFL games during the 2017 regular season, both home contests featuring the Chargers, newly relocated to Los Angeles from San Diego. The broadcasts occurred on weekends when CBS had the doubleheader, but the Rams were on KTTV.
News operation
For many years, KCOP aired a prime time newscast at 10 p.m., as well as a weekday afternoon newscast at 2 p.m. during the late 1970s and early 1980s. During the 1980s, the station paired its local 10:00 program with the syndicated Independent Network News (which was produced by New York City's WPIX). Channel 13's news programs generally were the lowest-rated evening newscasts of the seven VHF television stations in the Los Angeles market. The newscast's length varied from 30 minutes to an hour depending on the station's budget. An ambitious attempt to relaunch KCOP's news operation came in January 1993, when the 10 p.m. newscast was renamed Real News and introduced a new format that featured anchors moving around the station's newsroom (similar to the format pioneered by CITY-TV in Toronto), in-depth reports, and newsmagazine elements. However, the new format, which accompanied technological improvements and an expansion of the news staff, did not pay off in the ratings, and Real News was scaled back to a half-hour on weeknights in May 1994, with the anchors now seated at a desk, with weekend newscasts being cut entirely. Shortly after this, the newscast was rebranded as UPN News 13. For a brief period of time during the late 1990s, KCOP tried airing a half-hour newscast at 3:30 p.m. weekdays, later airing it at 7:30 p.m. weeknights. However, when the station was purchased by Fox and its operations were merged with KTTV, channel 13's newscast was moved to 11 p.m. to avoid direct competition with channel 11 (which runs an hour-long 10 p.m. newscast), and trimmed it from an hour in length down to 30 minutes. The station's news production and resources also began to be handled by KTTV.
After Fox purchased the station, KCOP's late-evening newscast took a more unconventional approach than its network-owned competition, KCBS-TV, KABC-TV and KNBC (channel 4). To appeal to a younger audience, it mainly featured its female news anchors in slightly more revealing, trendy clothing. Its news stories also tend to be much shorter in detail, in a faster-paced format. In addition, it became the first station to emphasize entertainment and trend-setting feature stories as a major part of its format, an idea that attracted a large young demographic. Nevertheless, channel 13's newscasts continually placed fourth in the ratings, as it did when the station was competing at 10 p.m. against KTTV, KTLA and KCAL-TV. However, KCOP's news drew substantially higher ratings among younger viewers, especially young Latinos.
On April 10, 2006, KCOP's newscast was expanded from 30 minutes to one hour, which made it the only Los Angeles station with an hour-long newscast at 11 p.m. On August 14, 2006, the newscast was rebranded as My13 News to reflect the station's pending MyNetworkTV affiliation. With the purchase by Fox, many of KCOP's former staff either left the station or were released, reporter Hal Eisner was one of the remaining staffers who had been with KCOP since the Chris-Craft era, beginning there in the early 1990s. Before that, however, he had worked at KTTV for a time from 1987 to 1988. Today, Eisner files reports for KTTV.
On December 1, 2008, KCOP shortened its 11 p.m. newscast to a half-hour, which became anchored by KTTV's 10 p.m. anchors Christine Devine and Carlos Amezcua, as it was considered an extension of the earlier newscast; the newscast's retitling to Fox News at 11 marked the end of a KCOP-branded and produced newscast. On September 10, 2012, KCOP launched a half-hour 7 p.m. newscast on weeknights that also used the Fox News branding; the newscast was also anchored by Amezcua and Devine. On August 9, 2013, KCOP announced the cancellation of its 7 and 11 p.m. newscasts, ending a five-decade run of news programming on the station; its final newscast aired on September 22, 2013.
In 2018 and 2022, KCOP aired Good Day L.A. from 7 to 9 a.m. due to KTTV airing select FIFA World Cup matches in the morning hours. This marked a temporary return to news programming on KCOP since the cancellation of KTTV-produced newscasts in 2013.
Notable alumni
Ross Becker – anchor (later with KAAL in Austin, Minnesota; now CEO of TvNewsmentor.com)
Harold Dow (later with CBS News; deceased)
Tom Duggan (deceased)
Harris Faulkner (now at Fox News Channel)
Hal Fishman (later with KTLA; deceased)
Gary Franklin (deceased)
Vic "The Brick" Jacobs (now at KLAC AM 570)
Robert Kovacik (now anchor/reporter with KNBC)
Tawny Little
Larry McCormick (later with KTLA; deceased)
José Mota (now with Fox Sports West)
Kent Ninomiya
Charlie O'Donnell (deceased)
Warren Olney
Regis Philbin (deceased)
Bill Press
George Putnam (deceased)
Lauren Sánchez
Bill Seward (now with NBC Sports)
Mark Thompson (now with KFI AM 640)
Betty White (later on TV Land's Hot in Cleveland; deceased)
Technical information
Subchannels
The station's ATSC 1.0 channels are carried on the multiplexed digital signals of other Los Angeles television stations:
On November 4, 2011, Fox Television Stations signed an affiliation agreement with Bounce TV for KCOP and its New York City-area sister station WWOR-TV. KCOP began carrying Bounce TV on digital subchannel 13.2 on March 8, 2012 (WWOR added the network on its 9.3 subchannel two weeks earlier on February 24). The network has also been added to the subchannels of Fox-owned MyNetworkTV stations in five other markets: WUTB in Baltimore, KUTP in Phoenix, WRBW in Orlando, KDFI in Dallas–Fort Worth and WFTC in Minneapolis–Saint Paul; the Baltimore affiliation had since moved to a subchannel of ABC affiliate WMAR-TV, soon after Fox sold-off MyNetworkTV outlet WUTB to Deerfield Media. In three other markets where Fox owns MyNetworkTV stations (WPWR-TV in Chicago, KTXH in Houston and WDCA in Washington, D.C.), Bounce TV is carried on the subchannel space of other competing stations in those markets.
As a result of Bounce TV signing a new carriage agreement with Univision Communications in 2014, the network moved to the third subchannel of Univision owned-and-operated station KMEX (channel 34) on March 9, 2015. Buzzr, a new digital multicast network focusing on classic game shows, which is a joint venture of FremantleMedia (most notably, the owners of the Mark Goodson and Reg Grundy libraries among others) and KCOP's parent company, Fox Television Stations, debuted on channel 13.2 on June 1, 2015.
On September 18, 2015, Weigel Broadcasting and Fox Television Stations announced an affiliation agreement to carry diginet Heroes & Icons on subchannels of Fox-owned stations in New York City, Los Angeles, Dallas, San Francisco, Washington, D.C., Phoenix, Detroit, Tampa, Orlando and Charlotte beginning October 1, 2015.
Analog-to-digital conversion
KCOP-TV shut down its analog signal, over VHF channel 13, on June 12, 2009, as part of the federally mandated transition from analog to digital television. The station's digital signal relocated from its transition period UHF channel 66, which was among the high band UHF channels (52–69) that were removed from broadcasting use as a result of the transition, to its analog-era VHF channel 13.
ATSC 3.0 lighthouse
Translators
Daggett
Lucerne Valley
Morongo Valley
Ridgecrest
Twentynine Palms
Notes
References
External links
Official website
Listing of 1946 construction permit
Fox Television Stations
MyNetworkTV affiliates
Buzzr affiliates
Movies! affiliates
COP-TV
Television channels and stations established in 1948
1948 establishments in California
Heroes & Icons affiliates
ATSC 3.0 television stations
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Other%20Side%20of%20the%20Wind
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The Other Side of the Wind
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The Other Side of the Wind is a 2018 satirical drama film, directed, co-written, co-produced and co-edited by Orson Welles, and posthumously released in 2018 after 48 years in development. The film stars John Huston, Bob Random, Peter Bogdanovich, Susan Strasberg, and Oja Kodar.
Intended by Welles to be his Hollywood comeback, the film began shooting in 1970 and resumed on and off until 1976. Welles continued to work intermittently on editing the project into the 1980s, but it became embroiled in financial, legal, and political complications which prevented it from being completed. Despite Welles' death in 1985, several attempts were made at reconstructing the unfinished film. In 2014, the rights were acquired by Royal Road and the completed project was overseen by Bogdanovich and producer Frank Marshall.
The story utilizes a film-within-a-film narrative which follows the last day in the life of an aging Hollywood film director (Huston) as he hosts a screening party for his unfinished latest project. The film was shot in an unconventional documentary style featuring a rapid-cutting approach between the many cameras of the story's numerous journalists and news-people with both color and black-and-white footage, 8 mm and 16 mm. It was intended among other things as a satire of both the passing of Classic Hollywood and of the avant-garde film-makers of Europe and New Hollywood in the 1970s. The unreleased results would be called "the Holy Grail of cinema". It holds the record for the longest production time in history at 48 years.
The Other Side of the Wind had its world premiere at the 75th Venice International Film Festival on August 31, 2018, and was released on November 2, 2018, by Netflix to critical praise, accompanied by a documentary, They'll Love Me When I'm Dead.
Plot
Set some time in the early 1970s, the film opens by describing the final day of Jake Hannaford, an aging Hollywood director who was killed in a car crash on his 70th birthday, with narration from an elderly Brooks Otterlake, who had been a protégé of Hannaford's. Just before his death, Hannaford was trying to revive his waning career by making a flashy film, laden with gratuitous sex scenes and violence, with mixed results. At the time of Hannaford's party, this film (titled The Other Side of the Wind) has been left unfinished after its star stormed off the set, for reasons not immediately apparent to the audience.
A screening of some incomprehensible parts of Hannaford's unfinished experimental film takes place, in order to attract "end money" from studio boss Max David. Hannaford himself is absent, and a loyal member of his entourage, the former child star Billy Boyle, makes an inept attempt to describe what the film is about. Intercut during this, we see various groups setting out for Hannaford's seventieth birthday party at an Arizona ranch. Hannaford arrives with a young Brooks Otterlake, a commercially successful director with a talent for mimicking celebrities, who credits much of his success to his close study of Hannaford.
Many journalists attending the party brandish cameras, and shoot out invasive questions, eventually querying Hannaford's sexuality and whether he has long been a closeted homosexual, in spite of his macho public persona. Hannaford has a history of seducing the wife or girlfriend of each of his leading men, but maintains a strong attraction to the leading men themselves.
Several party guests comment on the conspicuous absence of John Dale, Hannaford's leading man in his latest film, whom Hannaford first discovered when Dale was attempting suicide by jumping into the Pacific Ocean off the Mexican coast. As the party proceeds, Hannaford finds out that Dale's suicide attempt had been faked, and that he had actually set off to Mexico to find Hannaford. Meanwhile, guests are shown more scenes from the film at the ranch's private cinema. One scene makes it clear why Dale left the film—he stormed off the set in anger, in the middle of a sex scene in which he was being goaded by Hannaford off-screen.
As the party continues, Hannaford gets progressively drunker. He is washing his face in the bathroom when he breaks down in front of Otterlake, asking for the young director's help to revive his career. A series of power outages in the middle of Hannaford's party interrupts the screening. The party continues by lantern-light, and eventually reconvenes to an empty drive-in cinema, where the last portion of Hannaford's film is screened.
Having realized at the party that Otterlake is not going to financially support Hannaford's new film, the two have a mournful last exchange in the drive-in theatre, realising that their friendship is at an end. Intrusive journalist Juliette Rich has asked Hannaford the most explicit questions of all about his sexuality. At this moment, Hannaford slaps Rich in drunken outrage, while a drunken Billy Boyle mounts an impassioned defense of the director. As dawn breaks at the ranch, Dale is walking around the mostly empty house, having only just arrived the morning after. He finally arrives at the drive-in just as a drunken Hannaford is leaving and asks him to get in the sports car with him, but Dale does not. Hannaford drives away, leading to his fatal car accident.
Meanwhile, Hannaford's symbolic film finishes screening to a now-almost-empty drive-in theatre. The only person still watching is the actress who starred in it. She watches the final scene, and drives off as Hannaford's closing narration says:
"Who knows? Maybe you can stare too hard at something, huh? Drain out the virtue, suck out the living juice. You shoot the great places and the pretty people, all those girls and boys – shoot 'em dead."
Plot of the film-within-a-film
Hannaford's experimental film-within-a-film, shot as a spoof of European arthouse cinema typified by Antonioni, and performed without any dialogue, is visually striking, but has very little narrative coherence. The following scenes are shown, in this order:
A graphic lesbian steamroom scene, rapidly intercut, featuring Oja Kodar, which Hannaford is in the process of filming at the start.
Several expressionistically shot chase scenes between Oja Kodar and Bob Random amid the skyscrapers of Century City, Los Angeles, with various optical illusions, in which it is not immediately apparent whose character is chasing whom. At the end of these scenes, he buys a doll for her, and she rebuffs him, driving off into the night with her boyfriend.
The two characters meet again in a nightclub. She steps out into the toilets, where various hippies are engaged in various sex acts, and changes her clothes, before coming back in again. He gives her the doll. She produces a pair of scissors, rapidly cutting the doll's hair, then cutting out its eyes.
They step out from the nightclub into her boyfriend's 1968 Ford Mustang fastback. The car takes off in the rainy night, and as the boyfriend drives, the pair have sex in the passenger seat next to him. After a few minutes the boyfriend stops the car, grabs the girl off of Dale, and appears to make an attempt to engage her for himself. She rebukes him and the pair is then tossed out. John Dale, with his pants halfway down, lands in a large puddle.
The next morning arrives and Kodar's totally naked character has found shelter in the second story of a house. From there, she climbs carefully out of an open window, drops to the ground, and wanders to an empty railroad car, where she finds Dale asleep on the floor. More chase scenes with optical illusions ensue, around the Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer studios back-lot (including Kodar's character going into Andy Hardy's iconic house).
There is then a sex scene on raw bedsprings left on the studio back-lot. Off screen you can hear Hannaford giving Dale direction, and after some awkward badgering, a naked John Dale decides he's had enough and leaves the set. Hannaford watches him go and calls out through the megaphone ..."goodbye Johnny Dale." The production is now without a leading man.
There is then a scene—which Hannaford's manager 'The Baron' complains is presented out of sequence—in which a now-clothed John Dale walks alone around a dusty, windy studio back-lot.
The final scene features a nude Oja Kodar attacking a giant phallic symbol with a pair of scissors, and it deflating and collapsing in front of her.
Cast
Due to the 48 years taken for the film to be completed, and the advanced age of many of the actors playing Hollywood veterans, most cast members died long before the film's 2018 release. The first two major cast members to pass away were Stafford Repp in November 1974 (before principal photography had even been completed), and Norman Foster in July 1976 (only six months after filming wrapped). Both had shot all of their scenes in the first half of 1974. Other cast members who died before the film's 2018 release included Huston, Strasberg, Palmer, O'Brien, McCambridge, Mitchell, Stewart, Selwart, Tobin, Carroll, Rubin, Mazursky, Hopper, Harrington, Chabrol, Audran, Jessel, Rossitto, Wilson, Graver, and of course Welles himself (who has a cameo as an offscreen journalist). Over the years, while the film's negative remained sealed in a Paris vault, several production members expressed frustration at their inability to see the film - Tonio Selwart, for instance, was in his late 70s when he acted in it, and considered it his "swan song" from acting. In 1992, he said that he would probably never see the film, considering both his advanced age and declining eyesight. He died in 2002, aged 106, with the film still unreleased.
Crew
Shot over many years in many locations, the film had many crew members, some of whom may be difficult to ascertain. The following crew list also contains the locations where they worked and any authenticating references. The crew members often were performing multiple tasks, so that defining the various roles is difficult.
Orson Welles, director, camera operator (throughout the whole film).
Gary Graver, director of photography, camera operator (throughout the whole film).
Bill Weaver, camera operator (Arizona). He was the co-inventor (with Robert Steadman) of the Weaver-Steadman balanced fluid head, 2 and 3 axis camera supports widely used in Hollywood productions.
Peter Jason, production assistant, camera assistant (Arizona). Primarily an actor in the film, but he also slated scenes for the camera department. He has over 200 acting credits on IMDb.
Neil Canton, production assistant (Arizona). He went on to produce Back to the Future Part I, II, & III, The Witches of Eastwick, Caddyshack II, Trespass, Get Carter, Geronimo: An American Legend and others.
Frank Marshall, unit production manager, production accountant (Arizona). Subsequently, a noted Hollywood producer.
Rick Waltzer, production assistant, camera assistant (Arizona).
Larry Jackson, grip (Arizona). He also acted in the film as the director of the documentary film crew following Jake Hannaford. He went on to become vice president of international acquisitions for the Samuel Goldwyn Company.
Polly Platt, art direction (Hannaford's film, and LA car scenes). Subsequently, a Hollywood producer, production designer and screenwriter.
Bill Shepherd, grip (Arizona)
Ruth Hasty, post production supervisor (Hollywood), joining the production in 2014. She has post production supervisor and other credits on The Talented Mr. Ripley, Mission: Impossible, The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 2, Jurassic Park and many others.
Bob Murawski, editor, joining the production in 2017. He has editor credits on The Hurt Locker, Spider-Man, Spider-Man 2, Spider-Man 3 and many others.
Vincent Marich, costume designer (Los Angeles).
Production history
Inception of the project, 1961–1970
The film had a troubled production history. Like many of Welles' personally funded films, the project was filmed and edited on-and-off for several years.
The project evolved from an idea Welles had in 1961 after the suicide of Ernest Hemingway. Welles had known Hemingway since 1937, and was inspired to write a screenplay about an aging macho bullfight enthusiast who is fond of a young bullfighter. Nothing came of the project for a while, but work on the script resumed in Spain in 1966, just after Welles had completed Chimes at Midnight. Early drafts were entitled Sacred Beasts and turned the older bullfight enthusiast into a film director. At a 1966 banquet to raise funds for the project, Welles told a group of prospective financiers:
Casting
The film features an exceptionally large number of film directors, besides Huston and Bogdanovich, in acting roles, including Claude Chabrol, Norman Foster, Gary Graver, Curtis Harrington, Dennis Hopper, Henry Jaglom and Paul Mazursky, mostly playing Hannaford's entourage of journalists and young film-makers. Other Hollywood celebrities who were friends of Welles were asked to participate, including Jack Nicholson, but either declined or were unavailable.
Impressionist Rich Little was originally cast as Brooks Otterlake, but his role was recast part of the way through. There are differing accounts as to the reason for his departure. Welles expressed dissatisfaction with the impressionist's acting ability, and stated that he fired him. Little says that he doesn't know why he lost contact with Welles part of the way through filming. Cinematographer Gary Graver tells a different story: "We shot many, many scenes with him, and he was quite good in each of them. ... One day, completely out of the blue, Rich showed up with his suitcase in his hand. 'Orson,' he said, 'I haven't seen my wife in a long time. I have to go home.' And like that, he was gone! ... Orson didn't get angry. He just sat there looking incredulous. He couldn't believe what was happening. The rapport between Orson and Rich had been a good one, so no one had expected Rich's sudden departure." Filming was completed with Bogdanovich playing Otterlake. This necessitated reshooting all of Little's scenes. Little's interpretation of the Otterlake character would have had him using a different accent or impression for every single scene – a device which Joseph McBride thought "uncomfortably labored". By contrast, although Bogdanovich did several impressions in character as Otterlake, he played most of his scenes with his own voice. Previously, Bogdanovich played cineaste Charles Higgam by doing an impression of Jerry Lewis at Welles' request.
The characters played by Foster, Selwart, Jessel, McCambridge, O'Brien, Stewart, Wilson, Mitchell, Carroll and Repp form Hannaford's entourage, representing the "Old Hollywood"; while Chabrol, Harrington, Hopper, Jaglom and Mazursky play thinly veiled versions of themselves, representing the "New Hollywood". The "Old Hollywood" characters serve as something of a chorus for Hannaford, providing various commentaries on his life. According to the shooting script, Welles intended to provide the film's short opening narration, intending to dub it in post-production. However, he never recorded it. Many of the cast and crew worked for free, or for low wages, or in exchange for favours from Welles. Huston, a close friend of Welles, worked for the nominal fee of $75,000 – some of which is still owed to his estate, after one of the film's producers embezzled part of the budget. Welles said he could not afford to pay his cinematographer Gary Graver, so instead gave him his 1941 Academy Award statuette for the script of Citizen Kane by way of thanks. McBride's salary comprised two boxes of cigars. Mazursky recalled that he was never paid for his one night of acting.
Production approach
Welles described the film's unconventional style to Peter Bogdanovich during an interview on the set:
John Huston confirmed that the film was photographed in a highly unconventional style: "It's through these various cameras that the story is told. The changes from one to another – color, black and white, still, and moving – made for a dazzling variety of effects." He added that principal photography was highly improvised, with the script only loosely being adhered to. At one point, Welles told him, "John, just read the lines or forget them and say what you please. The idea is all that matters."
In addition to the tightly edited montage of different styles for the main film, Hannaford's film-within-the-film was photographed in an entirely different style, at a much slower pace, as a pastiche of Antonioni. Welles said at the time: "There's a film with the film, which I made [in 1970–71] with my own money. It's the old man's attempt to do a kind of counterculture film, in a surrealist, dreamlike style. We see some of it in the director's projection room, some of it at a drive-in when that breaks down. It's about 50% of the whole movie. Not the kind of film I'd want to make; I've invented a style for him."
In 1972, Welles said that filming was "96% complete" (which seems to have been an exaggeration, since many of the film's key scenes were not shot until 1973–1975 – although it was true that The Other Side of the Wind, the film-within-the-film, was complete by that stage) and in January 1976 the last scene of principal photography was completed.
Locations
Much of the party scene was filmed in 1974 on Stage 1 at Southwestern Studio in Carefree, Arizona, a suburb of Phoenix, with John Huston, Peter Bogdanovich, Susan Strasberg, Stafford Repp, Dan Tobin, Norman Foster, Cathy Lucas, Peter Jason, and others. Welles used the living room set and furniture designed for The New Dick Van Dyke Show that remained standing when the show left Southwestern Studio to return to CBS in Hollywood.
Other party scenes were shot in 1974 in a private mansion among the boulders of Carefree, not far from the studio, that was rented by Welles and used as his and other members of the company's residence during the shoot. The opposite house on the same street was used in Michelangelo Antonioni's film Zabriskie Point.
Further party scenes were shot in Bogdanovich's own Beverly Hills house, which Welles stayed in for over two years in 1974–1976, after the film's financial problems meant that the crew could no longer go on renting the Arizona studio and mansion. Parts of the scenery from the previous shoot were redeployed to the Beverly Hills house.
Other scenes were shot in Reseda (where the drive-in cinema scenes were filmed in the same location as the climax of Bogdanovich's Targets), Century City (where the skyscrapers form the backdrop of some of Hannaford's film), Connecticut, France (at Welles' house in Orvilliers), the Netherlands, England, Spain, Belgium, and the Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer back-lot in Hollywood.
The scenes shot on the M.G.M. back-lot, viewed in Hannaford's film-within-a-film, were photographed without M.G.M.'s permission. Welles was smuggled onto the back-lot in a darkened van, while the rest of the cast and crew pretended to be a group of film students visiting the studio. The crew was not confident that they would ever be able to access the back-lot again, and so filmed everything over one long, amphetamine-fuelled week-end in 1970, without sleep. The back-lot, which was seriously dilapidated, was demolished shortly afterwards, and only one more film – That's Entertainment! (1974) – was shot there before its demolition.
Beginning of production, 1970–71
When Welles moved back to the United States in the late 1960s, the script's setting changed to Hollywood, and second-unit photography started in August 1970. Principal photography in 1970–1971 focused on Hannaford's film-within-a-film. Welles was initially unsure whom to cast as the film director and whether to play the role himself, finally settling in 1974 on his friend the actor-director John Huston. The few party scenes shot before 1974 were shot without Huston, and often contained just one side of a conversation, with Huston's side of the conversation filmed several years later and intended to be edited into the earlier footage.
First pause in filming, 1971–1973
Filming ground to a halt late in 1971 when the U.S. government decided that Welles' European company was a holding company, not a production company, and retrospectively presented him with a large tax bill. Welles had to work on numerous other projects to pay off this debt, and filming could not resume until 1973. During that time, Welles acted in a number of other projects to raise funds, and secured further financing in France, Iran and Spain. Some scenes were shot intermittently in 1973, as and when cast were available (as with Lilli Palmer's scenes, all shot in Spain without any other cast present); but the film's main production block did not begin until early 1974, when major shooting of the party happened in Arizona.
1974 production block, alleged embezzlement, and second major pause in the filming
Filming resumed for an intensive four months of production in January to April 1974, when most of the party scenes were shot, but principal photography was undermined by serious financial problems, including embezzlement by one of the investors, who fled with much of the film's budget. Barbara Leaming described the situation in her biography of Welles, based on extensive interviews with Welles:
The film's producer Dominique Antoine subsequently endorsed the above account from Barbara Leaming as being "entirely accurate". A July 1986 article in American Cinematographer also corroborates this story, describing Antoine's arrival in Arizona on the set at Southwestern Studios late at night. Welles himself told interviewer Tom Snyder in 1975: "I got a backer, and we shot a couple of weeks, and then that backer ran away with my money as well as his." This story is further corroborated by Peter Bogdanovich, who wrote in November 1997 of the production, "another producer ran back to Europe with $250,000 of Orson's money and never was heard from again (although I recently saw the person on TV accepting an Oscar for coproducing the Best Foreign Film of the year)". In 2008, film scholars Jean-Pierre Berthomé and François Thomas identified Spanish producer Andrés Vicente Gómez (who collected a Best Foreign Picture Oscar in 1994) as the alleged embezzler, and they date his withdrawal from the project to 1974. Gómez first met Welles in Spain in 1972, during the making of Treasure Island, in which they were both involved. Gómez then negotiated Welles' deal with the Iranian-owned, Paris-based , the first product of which was the 1973 film F for Fake, followed by The Other Side of the Wind. As well as the accusation of embezzlement, Welles also had this to say of Gómez: "My Spanish producer never paid my hotel bill for the three months that he kept me waiting in Madrid for the money for The Other Side of the Wind. So I'm scared to death to be in Madrid. I know they're going to come after me with that bill."
Gómez responded to these accusations in a 2001 memoir, subsequently reproduced on his company website:
Gómez was later interviewed for They'll Love Me When I'm Dead, a 2018 documentary on the making of the film, in which he said, "I read he blamed me because of the finance fiasco, which is totally untrue. I made a settlement with him, there was no complaint, there was no anything. If it was true, why didn't they make any claim from me, you know?"
Further attempts to raise funds and complete the film, 1975–76
With the film's mounting financial problems after the March 1974 disappearance of Gómez and the simultaneous disappearance of many of the film's funds, Welles had to abandon the Arizona shoot in April 1974 before he could complete all principal photography. In particular, although he had shot seven weeks of footage with Rich Little in one of the lead roles, the re-casting of Peter Bogdanovich in the role meant that many of the film's key scenes had to be re-shot. Accordingly, in 1974 Welles moved into Bogdanovich's Beverly Hills mansion, where he lived on and off for the next few years, and where he intermittently shot more party scenes, until principal photography finally wrapped in January 1976.
In February 1975, Welles was awarded an AFI Lifetime Achievement Award, and used the star-studded ceremony as an opportunity to pitch for funding to complete the film. (With a touch of irony, one of the scenes he showed his audience featured Boyle screening a rough cut of Hannaford's latest film to a studio boss, in a bid for "end money" to complete his picture.) Sure enough, one producer made what Welles later called a "wonderful offer", but Antoine turned it down on the assumption that an even better offer would arrive. No such offer came, and Welles later bitterly regretted the refusal, commenting before his death that if he had accepted it "the picture would have been finished now and released".
Welles estimated that the editing of the film in a distinctive and experimental style would take approximately one year of full-time work (which was how long he had spent on the experimental, rapidly cut editing of his previous completed film, F for Fake – like F for Fake, the film would have averaged approximately one edit per second, and would have lasted around half an hour longer). On F for Fake, Welles had used three separate moviolas, arranged side by side, to simultaneously edit the film. He would perform the cuts to the negative himself, then leave an editing assistant at each moviola to complete the edit while he moved to the next moviola to begin the next edit. The Other Side of the Wind necessitated even more complicated editing, and Welles lined up five moviolas in a semi-circle around a table, with a staff of assistants to help him.
A change of management at the Iranian production company in 1975 resulted in tensions between Welles and the backers. The new management saw Welles as a liability, and refused to pay him to edit the film. The company made several attempts to reduce Welles' share of the film profits from 50% to 20%, and crucially, attempted to remove his artistic control over the film's final cut. Welles made numerous attempts to seek further financial backing to pay him to complete the editing full-time, including attempting to interest a Canadian backer, but no such funding materialised, and so Welles only edited the film piecemeal in his spare time over the next decade, between other acting assignments which the heavily indebted actor-director needed to support himself.
Production dates
The following dates are provided by Jonathan Rosenbaum's chronology of Welles' career:
August 17, 1970: Tests begin shooting, Los Angeles.
August 30, 1970: Principal photography begins, Los Angeles. (Film-within-a-film scenes.)
September – late December 1970: Shooting & editing continues in Los Angeles, including on the M.G.M. back-lot, Century City. (Film-within-a-film scenes, and car scenes.)
1971: Four months of filming in Carefree, Arizona, then later in Beverly Hills. (Party scenes)
Late 1971/1972: Break in filming due to Welles' recurring tax problems after a fresh I.R.S. audit. Welles turns to raise money by working on other projects, including F for Fake, which is made for Iranian-French production house , with Iranian money provided by Mehdi Boushehri and the participation of French producer Dominique Antoine. For the completion of The Other Side of the Wind, Welles secures funding through a three-way deal, with a third of funds raised by himself, a third from Boushehri through , and a third from Spanish producer Andrés Vicente Gómez.
Early 1973: Welles and Kodar are stranded by flooding in Madrid for three months, while negotiating with Gómez for funding. They eventually relocate to Paris.
June – mid-September 1973: Filming in Orvilliers and Paris. (Party scenes.)
January–April 1974: John Huston is cast in the leading role, which has been vacant up until now. Party scenes are filmed at Southwestern Studio and a private mansion in Carefree, Arizona. Susan Strasberg also joins the cast in Carefree.
Sometime in 1974, circa March: Producer Andrés Vicente Gómez leaves the project after allegedly embezzling $250,000 of its budget, and having failed to contribute his promised third of the budget. Eventually, most of the outstanding budget is put forward by Mehdi Boushehri through , leading to legal disputes over whether they owned 33%, 50%, 67% or 80% of the final film. Welles also pours more of his own money into the film, including money borrowed from friends; Peter Bogdanovich puts $500,000 in the film.
August 1974: Filming in Orvilliers. (Car scene.)
November–December 1974: Editing in Paris and Rome.
February–June 1975: Filming at Peter Bogdanovich's house in Beverly Hills. (Party scenes.)
September 1975 – January 1976: Editing in Beverly Hills.
January 1976: Principal photography completed.
Missing elements
Welles filmed 96 hours of raw footage (45 hours for the party scenes, and 51 hours for the film-within-a-film), including multiple takes of the same scenes, reshoots with different cast members (e.g. Peter Bogdanovich substituting for Rich Little) but did not complete the following elements:
Welles never recorded the opening narration. Bogdanovich, in character as Otterlake, recorded a slightly amended narration for the final film.
With 40–45 minutes of film edited by Welles, approximately 75–80 minutes still required editing.
The film lacked a musical score, although Welles had indicated that he wanted a jazz score.
Two shots had never been filmed: the dummies exploding after being shot, and the final shot of the last car leaving the drive-in theatre. The first was provided with the help of CGI, as dummies shot against a green screen were blended in with manipulated footage of rocks; the second was provided through use of stock footage of a drive-in theatre, with Hannaford's film digitally inserted onto the screen.
Among the 96 hours of footage, it was found that the original quad sound tapes for many of the 1974 recording sessions were missing. This had to be provided through a combination of digitally cleaned-up second- or third-generation sound sources (e.g. on Welles' workprint material), or through modern actors dubbing, in some cases just dubbing individual words or syllables to salvage line recordings that were otherwise retrieved from the workprint.
Legal difficulties, and efforts to complete the film
1979–1997
By 1979, forty minutes of the film had been edited by Welles. But in that year, the film experienced serious legal and financial complications. Welles' use of funds from Mehdi Boushehri, the brother-in-law of the Shah of Iran, became troublesome after the Shah was overthrown. A complex, decades-long legal battle over the ownership of the film ensued, with the original negative remaining in a vault in Paris. At first, the revolutionary government of Ayatollah Khomeini had the film impounded along with all assets of the previous regime. When they deemed the negative worthless, there was extensive litigation as to the ownership of the film. By 1998, many of the legal matters had been resolved and the Showtime cable network had guaranteed "end money" to complete the film.
However, continuing legal complications in the Welles estate and a lawsuit by Welles' daughter, Beatrice Welles, caused the project to be suspended. When Welles died in 1985 he had left many of his assets to his estranged widow Paola Mori, and after her own death in 1986, these were inherited by their daughter, Beatrice Welles. However, he had also left various other assets, from his house in Los Angeles to the full ownership and artistic control of all his unfinished film projects, to his long-time companion, mistress and collaborator Oja Kodar, who co-wrote and co-starred in The Other Side of the Wind. Since 1992, Beatrice Welles has claimed in various courts that under California law, she had ownership of all of Orson Welles' completed and incomplete pictures (including those which he did not own the rights of himself in his own life), and The Other Side of the Wind has been heavily affected by this litigation. The Guardian described how she "stifled an attempt by US cable company Showtime and Oja Kodar (Welles's partner in the latter part of his life) to complete The Other Side of the Wind", while The Daily Telegraph stated that Beatrice Welles had "blocked" the film. Matters have been exacerbated by much personal animosity between Oja Kodar and Beatrice Welles – Beatrice blames Kodar for causing the break-up of her parents' marriage, while Kodar blames Beatrice for attempting to block the screening or re-release of a number of her father's works, including Citizen Kane, Othello, Touch of Evil, Chimes at Midnight and Filming Othello. (The latter claim has been supported by film critic Jonathan Rosenbaum, who has accused Beatrice of being solely motivated by profit in claiming royalties from these films, then settling out of court as studios have been keen to avoid costly legal battles.) A clause of Welles' will, specifying that anybody who challenges any part of Kodar's inheritance will be automatically disinherited, remains unenforced – Kodar sought to have it enforced in the 1990s, but could not afford the legal fees as the case dragged on.
Although the original negative of the film long remained in a Paris vault, two workprint versions of much of the raw footage were privately held – one by Welles' cinematographer Gary Graver, who shot the film, and one by Welles himself, who covertly smuggled a copy out of Paris after the legal difficulties started. Welles left his own workprint copy to Kodar, as part of the clause of his will giving her all his unfinished film materials. (Kodar can be seen visiting a storeroom containing these materials in the Orson Welles: One Man Band documentary.)
Over the years, there were repeated attempts to clear the remaining legal obstacles to the film's completion, and to obtain the necessary finance. Those most closely involved in these efforts were Gary Graver (the film's cinematographer), Oja Kodar (as Welles' partner, co-writer and co-star of the film, and director of one of its sequences, as well as the copyright holder of Welles' unfinished work), director Peter Bogdanovich (a co-star and investor, although he only wants the return of his $500,000 rather than any share of profits), film critic Joseph McBride (who has a supporting role in the film), and Hollywood producer Frank Marshall, one of whose first jobs in the film business was as production manager on the film. Marshall in particular was instrumental in getting several major studios in the late 1990s to watch a rough cut, although most were put off by the film's legal issues.
Before a deal was put together in 1998, Oja Kodar screened Gary Graver's rough cut of the film for a number of famous directors in the 1980s and 1990s, seeking their help in completing the film, but they all turned it down for various reasons. These included John Huston (who was by then terminally ill with emphysema and was unable to breathe without oxygen tubes), Steven Spielberg, Oliver Stone, Clint Eastwood and George Lucas. Lucas reportedly claimed to be baffled by the footage, saying he did not know what to do with it, and that it was too avant-garde for a commercial audience. Kodar subsequently accused both Eastwood and Stone of plagiarism from the film, citing Eastwood's performance in White Hunter Black Heart (1990) as a copy of John Huston's, including one line of dialogue ("I'm Marvin P. Fassbender." "Of course you are."), and Stone's adoption of the film's distinctive rapidly cut editing and camera style for his JFK (1991), Nixon (1995) and Natural Born Killers (1994).
1998–2013
A turning point came in 1998, when Mehdi Boushehri changed his mind, and was convinced by the film's surviving makers that his best hope of recouping his money was to see the film released. He therefore compromised on his earlier claims to owning two thirds of the film, and reduced the share he claimed. This resolved several of the film's legal problems. Boushehri died in 2006, but his heirs similarly accepted that the best hope of any return on Boushehri's investment was for the film to finally be released. The 1998 deal struck with Boushehri led to funding being put up by the Showtime network, until the lawsuit from Beatrice Welles later that year stalled matters once more.
Peter Bogdanovich announced in 2004 that he planned to restore the film and release it soon thereafter. He cited a conversation before Welles' death in which "Orson said to me, 'If anything happens to me, you will make sure you finish it, won't you?' It was, of course, a compliment and also a terrible moment. He pressed me to give some assurance." However, there remained both legal challenges, and technical challenges over replicating Welles' avant-garde editing style.
In 2006, Oja Kodar expressed concerns about a proposed deal Beatrice Welles had made with Showtime to turn the film into a "kind of" documentary, with the intention of never allowing it to be released as a completed theatrical film. A new deal was then eventually struck in 2007, in which the three parties previously involved (Oja Kodar as the heir of Welles' unfinished work, Mehdi Boushehri's heirs, and the Showtime Network) agreed to pay off Beatrice Welles with an undisclosed sum and/or share of profits from the film. At a March 29, 2007, appearance at the Florida Film Festival, Bogdanovich, in response to a question about the status of the film, stated that the four parties involved had come to an agreement earlier that week and that the film would be edited and released in the very near future. Bogdanovich also stated in an April 2, 2007, press report that a deal to complete the film was "99.9% finished", with a theatrical release planned for late 2008.
There were then further complications in 2007, through the intervention of Paul Hunt. He had worked on the film in the 1970s as a line producer, an assistant editor, assistant camera operator and gaffer, and was described by Gary Graver's son as "the strangest, weirdest guy you've ever met". Kodar had approached him to see if he could broker a deal, guiding him as to who controlled the rights and suggesting what kind of deal they would accept. Together with his producing partner Sanford Horowitz, Hunt formed a company, Horowitz Hunt LLC, and within three months had a signed deal with Mehdi Boushehri, with an option to acquire his rights of the movie. On August 6, 2007, Horowitz Hunt LLC filed with the US Copyright office Mehdi Boushehri's signed agreement to transfer the rights to the movie.
Horowitz and Hunt's goal was to release two versions of The Other Side of the Wind: a completed theatrical version and another uncompleted but original 42-minute version, reflecting Welles' workprint at the time of his death.
In March 2008, Bogdanovich said that there was over a year's worth of work left to be done, and a month later, he filmed the opening of the Los Angeles vault where Oja Kodar had kept the workprint material cut by Welles, along with other positive film materials. However, the full original negative remained sealed in a warehouse in France. Throughout the rest of 2008, some work was done on the Los Angeles material. In June 2008, the Showtime Network set up an editing suite in Los Angeles, to begin preliminary logging in work on all of the material. Bogdanovich personally directed the work, Tim King was the Showtime Executive in charge of post-production, Sasha Welles (a nephew of Oja Kodar) worked on the production as an assistant editor, and internships were advertised for people to work on cataloguing the film materials.
Horowitz Hunt LLC eventually began negotiations with Oja Kodar to acquire her rights, but they were unsuccessful in coming to terms with Kodar, when Beatrice Welles put an injunction on access to the negative stored at the LTC Film Vault in Paris, by proclaiming an inheritance claim, thus preventing the opening of the Paris vault containing the full 96 hours of original negatives, some of which had not even been seen by Welles in his lifetime. The attorney for Boushehri neglected to send in their documentation nullifying Beatrice's claim and thus the project stalled once again. This resulted in the closure of the Showtime editing suite in December 2008, and Showtime eventually put the project on hold.
An article in Variety in February 2009 stated that Showtime was still willing to pay for its completion, but they wanted to be sure all the materials existed. The negative still resided in a vault in Paris, unseen since the 1970s, but permission from all the estates had to be obtained before access to the negative could be granted. Bogdanovich stated, "It's going to happen in the next month or so. We’re aiming for Cannes [in 2010]. Everybody wants it to happen. It's film history. It will be something for it to finally be seen after all these years."
In January 2010, during a public Q&A after a screening of one of his films in Columbus, Ohio, Bogdanovich stated that the film had been examined and was in good condition, but "Orson left such a mess with who owned what", and wondered whether editing the film would even be possible. Bogdanovich indicated that the original negative was in excellent condition, with the picture quality being far superior to the poor-quality workprints seen in public so far. In 2012, he went on to say that he had examined the material himself, and told Canada's Toro magazine:
A report in The Guardian in January 2011, suggested, once again, that a legal settlement was close and that a release would be possible in the near future. However, Oja Kodar denied that this was the case.
Paul Hunt died in 2011. That same year, Sanford Horowitz and financier John Nicholas launched a company called "Project Welles The Other Side LLC" and the website www.projectwelles.com to attract additional capital and complete negotiations with Kodar and Beatrice Welles. Their goal was to present an uncluttered account of events, make peace with all the players, present their chain of title compiled by the law firm of Mitchell, Silberberg & Knuff and gain access to the film negatives stored in the LTC Film vault in Paris.
By 2011, all copyright difficulties had theoretically been resolved between the respective parties. However, the Showtime network, which had previously pledged to provide funding for the project, refused to specify what the budget would be. Oja Kodar stated that she did not want a repeat of the debacle over Welles' posthumously completed Don Quixote, which was universally panned after being cheaply put together from badly decayed, incomplete footage which was sloppily edited, badly dubbed, and often incoherent. As such, she would not grant permission to proceed until she had received assurances that the project would be done professionally, and to a high standard, with an adequate budget.
In March 2012, Matthew Duda, the Showtime executive who had championed funding for The Other Side of the Wind since 1998, retired, and this spelled the end of Showtime's involvement in the project. After his retirement, Duda contended that the greatest obstacle to the film's completion had been Oja Kodar. "Her price kept changing," Duda said. "She kept getting higher and higher, and then she said we'd sabotaged her [nonexistent offer for more money]." Josh Karp, in his history of the film, concurred:
2014–2018 completion of the film
With the withdrawal of Showtime, producer Filip Jan Rymsza intervened in what would ultimately be a successful bid that would break the film's deadlock. Rymsza owned the Los Angeles-based production company Royal Road Entertainment, and had become aware of the film's existence in 2009, being increasingly motivated to try and engineer its release. Very early on, he teamed up with both German producer Jens Koethner Kaul (who had already tried approaching Kodar in negotiations), and Frank Marshall.
On October 28, 2014, Royal Road Entertainment announced that it had negotiated an agreement, with the assistance of Marshall, and would purchase the rights to complete and release The Other Side of the Wind. Bogdanovich and Marshall would oversee completion of the film in Los Angeles, aiming to have it ready for screening by May 6, 2015 – the 100th anniversary of Welles' birth. Royal Road Entertainment and German producer Jens Koethner Kaul acquired the rights held by and the late Mehdi Boushehri. They reached an agreement with Oja Kodar, who inherited Welles' ownership of the film, and Beatrice Welles, manager of the Welles estate.
On May 1, 2015, it was disclosed that the film was far from completed. Post-production was to be funded by pre-selling distribution rights, but in December some potential distributors asked to see edited footage from the negative, not the worn workprint. "People want to help us, but they have a business decision to make", producer Frank Marshall told The New York Times. "They would first like to see an edited sequence, and I think that is a fair request."
A 40-day crowdfunding drive was launched May 7, 2015, on the Indiegogo website, with a goal of raising $2 million for digital scanning and editing. Plans were announced for the 1,083 reels of pristine negative footage to be flown from Paris to Los Angeles for 4K resolution scanning and editing by Affonso Gonçalves. Producers hoped to complete The Other Side of the Wind in 2015, the 100th anniversary of Welles' birth, but no specific release date was identified. Noting that completion of the film should not be driven by a deadline, Marshall said, "We still think we will make it this year."
The Indiegogo campaign deadline was extended in June and the goal revised to $1,000,000 after potential outside investors offered to match that amount. Acknowledging that the campaign had struggled, Marshall said that his objective was to put the first 15 to 20 minutes of the film together to win over a distributor who will help finish the post-production. "They don't trust the fact that he was this genius and the guy that made Citizen Kane, Touch of Evil and The Magnificent Ambersons, and there might be this fantastic movie in there", Marshall said. The campaign closed on July 5, 2015, having raised $406,405. At the end of 2015, efforts to complete the film were at an impasse.
On April 5, 2016, Wellesnet announced that Netflix had been negotiating for months on a two-picture deal worth $5 million for the completion of The Other Side of the Wind and a companion documentary. The potential deal requested the approval of Oja Kodar to finalize the agreement. In mid-March 2017, it was confirmed Netflix would distribute the film.
In March 2017, the original negative, alongside dailies and other footage, arrived in Los Angeles, allowing the film's post-production work to resume. Later, the negatives were scanned in the offices of Technicolor in Hollywood.
In November 2017, it was reported that various members had been hired to the post-production team, including Bob Murawski as editor, Scott Millan as sound mixer, and Mo Henry as negative cutter. The Herculean efforts to edit the 16mm and 35mm footage, match the workprint materials to the original negative and undertake much-needed ADR and sound restoration is detailed in the documentary short A Final Cut for Orson.
In January 2018, a rough cut of the film was screened for a small, select group of invite-only attendees. Amongst those present were producer Filip Jan Rymsza, directors Paul Thomas Anderson, Quentin Tarantino and Rian Johnson; actors Danny Huston (son of the film's star, John Huston) and Crispin Glover; and The Other Side of the Wind cast and crew members Peter Bogdanovich, Lou Race, Neil Canton, and Peter Jason.
In March 2018, Michel Legrand (who had previously composed the score for Welles' 1973 film F for Fake) was announced as providing the score to the film. He had been secretly working on the film since December 2017. Orchestral recording began on March 19, 2018, in Belgium, and continued with a jazz ensemble later that week in Paris, although Legrand could not be present for the recording sessions, having been hospitalised with pneumonia at the time. Speaking of his work on the project, Legrand stated:
Music
Release
The film had its world premiere at the 75th Venice International Film Festival on August 31, 2018. It was also screened at the Telluride Film Festival in Colorado on September 1, 2018 and the New York Film Festival on September 29, 2018. It was released to select theaters and debuted on Netflix on November 2, 2018.
Reception
Before release
As a member of the cast, film historian Joseph McBride saw the rushes, and later saw a two-hour rough cut assembled by Gary Graver in the late 1990s to attract potential investors. McBride wrote that the film "serves as both a time capsule of a pivotal moment in film history – an 'instant' piece of period nostalgia set in the early seventies – and a meditation on changing political, sexual and artistic attitudes in the United States during that period." However, he differentiated the bulk of the film – which he praised very highly – from the footage of Hannaford's film-within-a-film:
Film critic and historian Jonathan Rosenbaum has seen most of the film, either in rushes, or in scenes cut by Welles, and has praised its reflections on "late-60s media, not to mention its kamikaze style", and has contrasted this with the opinion of David Thomson, who has not seen the film, and who wrote in his highly critical biography of Welles, "One day, it may be freed. I hope not. The Other Side of the Wind should stay beyond reach." John Huston described a private screening in which Orson Welles showed the unfinished film to some friends: "I didn't get to see it, but those who did tell me it is a knockout."
Andrés Vicente Gómez, who was originally involved in the film's production, has been quoted in the press stating his opposition to the film ever being completed; he believes it would be an "act of betrayal". His argument is that the film was always unlikely to be finished because Welles' "physical condition was delicate. He didn't have the energy to cut it." However, as Gómez was accused by Orson Welles, Dominique Antoine, Peter Bogdanovich, Mehdi Boushehri and others of embezzling $250,000 of the film's budget and absconding with the proceeds, he does have a strong motive for wanting the film to not reach wider public attention. Additionally, Gómez's links to the film were severed in 1974; but filming was not finished until 1976, when most of the editing started.
Director Rian Johnson told Vanity Fair in April 2018 he had seen a 117-minute edit – minus its Michel Legrand score – twice, including a screening in Santa Monica, California, on January 16, 2018, with Quentin Tarantino, Alexander Payne and other VIPs, who "were all gobsmacked".
After release
On the review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of , based on reviews with an average rating of . The website's critic consensus reads: "A satisfying must-watch for diehard cineastes, The Other Side of the Wind offers the opportunity to witness a long-lost chapter in a brilliant filmmaker's career." Metacritic gives the film a weighted average score of 78 out of 100, based on 32 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".
Film critic and author of Orson Welles in Italy Alberto Anile, who watched the film at its premiere during the 75th Venice International Film Festival, called it "one of Welles's major works". Film historian and actor in the film Joseph McBride confessed: "The final result exceeds even my high expectations."
The film was included on dozens of Best Films of 2018 lists, including Sight & Sound, Film Comment, The Hollywood Reporter, The Los Angeles Times and Vanity Fair. It received awards from the National Board of Review, National Society of Film Critics, Los Angeles Film Critics Association, San Francisco Film Critics Circle and others.
In 2020, Rymsza and Murawski assembled Hopper / Welles, a 129-minute film composed of largely unseen outtakes from The Other Side of the Wind shot in November 1970 in Los Angeles. The film is a conversation between Welles and Dennis Hopper on politics, religion and film-making.
Bibliography
The film is covered in depth in the following books and articles:
Andrés Vicente Gómez, El Sueño Loco [A Crazy Dream] (Ayuntamiento de Malaga, Malaga, 2001), 430 pp. (Written in Spanish; the English translation of a portion of Gómez's autobiography was subsequently made available online on Gómez's company website in 2013).
Giorgio Gosetti (ed.), [Orson Welles and Oja Kodar], The Other Side of the Wind: scénario-screenplay (Cahiers du Cinéma & Festival International du Film de Locarno, Switzerland, 2005) 221pp.
John Huston, An Open Book (Alfred A. Knopf, New York, 1980), 448pp.
Clinton Heylin, Despite the System: Orson Welles Versus the Hollywood Studios (Canongate, Edinburgh, 2005), 402pp.
Josh Karp, Orson Welles's Last Movie: The Making of The Other Side of the Wind (St. Martin's Press, New York, 2015), 352 pp.
Barbara Leaming, Orson Welles: a biography (New York: Viking, 1985), 562 pp.
Joseph McBride, Orson Welles (Boston: Da Capo Press, 1972 [rev. 1996 edn]), 245 pp.
Joseph McBride, Whatever Happened to Orson Welles? A portrait of an independent career (University Press of Kentucky, Kentucky, 2006) 344 pp.
Mercedes McCambridge, The Quality of Mercy: An Autobiography (New York: Times Books, 1981), 245 pp.
Andrew J. Rausch (ed.), Gary Graver, Making Movies with Orson Welles: a memoir (Scarecrow Press, University of Michigan, 2008), 191 pp.
Jonathan Rosenbaum (ed.), Peter Bogdanovich and Orson Welles, This is Orson Welles (DaCapo Press, New York, 1992 [rev. 1998 ed.]), 550 pp.
Massimiliano Studer, "Orson Welles e la New Hollywood. Il caso di The Other Side of the Wind" (Mimesis, Milano-Udine, 2021), 198 pp.
Michael Yates, Shoot 'Em Dead: Orson Welles & The Other Side of the Wind (Lulu, Morrisville, North Carolina, 2020), 260 pp.
Documentaries
Graver, Gary, Working With Orson Welles, 1993.
Sedlar, Dominik and Sedlar, Jakov, Searching for Orson, 2006.
Suffern, Ryan, A Final Cut for Orson: 40 Years in the Making, 2018.
Neville, Morgan, They'll Love Me When I'm Dead, 2018.
References
External links
on Netflix
Wellesnet articles on the film
Review of film in Persian at Framative
2018 films
Films directed by Orson Welles
Films scored by Michel Legrand
Films with screenplays by Orson Welles
Films with screenplays by Oja Kodar
Films about filmmaking
Films about film directors and producers
Films about suicide
English-language Netflix original films
French drama films
Iranian drama films
American mockumentary films
Films partially in color
2010s satirical films
Films shot in Los Angeles
Films shot in Rome
Films shot in Paris
2010s American films
2010s French films
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael%20Woodruff
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Michael Woodruff
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Sir Michael Francis Addison Woodruff, (3 April 1911 – 10 March 2001) was an English surgeon and scientist principally remembered for his research into organ transplantation. Though born in London, Woodruff spent his youth in Australia, where he earned degrees in electrical engineering and medicine. Having completed his studies shortly after the outbreak of World War II, he joined the Australian Army Medical Corps, but was soon captured by Japanese forces and imprisoned in the Changi Prison Camp. While there, he devised an ingenious method of extracting nutrients from agricultural wastes to prevent malnutrition among his fellow POWs.
At the conclusion of the war, Woodruff returned to England and began a long career as an academic surgeon, mixing clinical work and research. Woodruff principally studied transplant rejection and immunosuppression. His work in these areas of transplantation biology led Woodruff to perform the first kidney transplant in the United Kingdom, on 30 October 1960. For this and his other scientific contributions, Woodruff was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1968 and made a Knight Bachelor in 1969. Although retiring from surgical work in 1976, he remained an active figure in the scientific community, researching cancer and serving on the boards of various medical and scientific organisations.
Early life
Michael Woodruff was born on 3 April 1911 in Mill Hill, London, England, the son of Harold Addison Woodruff and his wife, Margaret Ada Cooper. In 1913, his father, Harold Woodruff, a professor of veterinary medicine at the Royal Veterinary College in London, moved the family to Australia so he could take up the post of Professor of Veterinary Pathology and Director of the Veterinary Institute at the University of Melbourne. The elder Woodruff later became the Professor of Bacteriology. The family's new life in Australia was interrupted by World War I, which prompted Harold to enlist in the armed services. He became an officer in the Australian Army Veterinary Corps and was sent to Egypt.
The remainder of the Woodruffs returned to London, and the two boys lived with their mother and paternal grandmother in the latter's residence in Finchley. Michael and his brother went back to Australia in 1917 after their mother, Margaret, died of a staphylococcal septicaemia. The two then spent a short time under the care of an aunt before being rejoined by their father in 1917.
In 1919, Harold remarried and his new wife raised the children from his first marriage. The two boys did their early schooling at Trinity Grammar School in Melbourne. From then on he spent all of his youth in Australia except for a year in Europe in 1924 when his father went on sabbatical leave at Paris's Pasteur Institute. During this time, Woodruff and his brother boarded at Queen's College in Taunton, Somerset on the south coast of England. The headmaster at the school regarded Australians as "colonials" who were "backward" and put Woodruff in a year level one year lower than appropriate. Upon returning to Australia, Woodruff attended the private Methodist Wesley College, where he enjoyed mathematics and rowing.
He won a government scholarship to the University of Melbourne and Queen's College, a university residential college. Woodruff studied electrical engineering and mathematics, receiving some instruction from the influential physicist Harrie Massey, then a tutor. Despite success in engineering, Woodruff decided that he would have weak prospects as an engineer in Australia because of the Great Depression. He decided to take up medical studies at the end of his third year of undergraduate study, but his parents wanted him to finish his degree first. Despite his fears regarding his ability to succeed as an engineer, Woodruff placed first in his graduating class with first-class honours. He also completed two years of the maths program with first-class honours.
After graduating in 1933, he entered the medical program at the University of Melbourne. His mentors included Anatomy Professor Frederic Wood Jones. While at the University, he passed the primary exam for the Royal College of Surgeons in 1934, one of only four successful candidates who sat the examination in Melbourne that year. He finished the program in 1937 and received an MBBS with honours as well as two prizes in surgery. After graduation, he studied internal medicine for one more year, and served as a house surgeon at the Royal Melbourne Hospital. Woodruff then started his surgical training.
World War II
At the outbreak of World War II, Woodruff joined the Australian Army Medical Corps. He stayed in Melbourne until he finished his Master of Surgery Degree in 1941. At that time, he was assigned to the Tenth Australian Army General Hospital in British Malaya as a captain in the Medical Corps. According to Woodruff, his time in Malaya was quiet and relatively leisurely as the war in the Pacific was yet to begin in earnest. The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor changed the situation and he was posted to a casualty clearing station where he worked as an anaesthetist, before being transferred into the Singapore General Hospital. A Japanese offensive resulted in the fall of Singapore and Woodruff was taken prisoner along with thousands of other Australian and British personnel.
After being captured, Woodruff was imprisoned in the Changi Prison Camp. In the camp, Woodruff realised that his fellow prisoners were at great risk from vitamin deficiencies due to the poor quality of the rations they were issued by the Japanese. To help fight this threat, Woodruff asked for permission from the Japanese to allow him to take responsibility for the matter, which was granted. He devised a method for extracting important nutrients from grass, soya beans, rice polishings, and agricultural wastes using old machinery that he found at the camp. Woodruff later published an account of his methods through the Medical Research Council titled "Deficiency Diseases in Japanese Prison Camps". Woodruff remained a POW for three and a half years and later during this period he was sent to outlying POW camps to treat his comrades. As the prisoners were not allowed to be transferred, he had to improvise in his practice. During this time he also read Maingot's surgery textbook, as a copy was in the camp, and he later said that reading about the fact that skin allografts were rejected a fortnight after being initially accepted, had stoked his interest in doing research on the topic.
While stationed at the River Valley Road prisoner of war hospital in Singapore in 1945, with the supplies of chemical anæsthetics severely restricted by the Japanese, Woodruff and a medical/dental colleague from the Royal Netherlands Forces successfully used hypnotism as the sole means of anæsthesia for a wide range of dental and surgical procedures.
At the conclusion of World War II, Woodruff returned to Melbourne to continue his surgical training. During his studies, he served as the surgical associate to Albert Coates. This position was unpaid, so Woodruff accepted an appointment as a part-time pathology lecturer to support himself. In January 1946, Woodruff participated in an Australian Student Christian Movement meeting, where he met Hazel Ashby, a science graduate from Adelaide. She made a great impression on Woodruff, and he married her half a year later. The couple were research partners for the rest of their lives.
Early career
Soon after his marriage, Woodruff travelled to England to take the second half of the FRCS Exam. Woodruff took his new wife over with no guarantee of employment, and declined a two-year travelling fellowship to Oxford University offered by the Australian Red Cross because it required him to return home and work. Before departing, he applied for a position as a Tutor of Surgery at the University of Sheffield, and learned en route that they had accepted his application. He took the FRCS exam in 1947 and passed—a result that, in Woodruff's view, was not hindered by the fact that one of his examiners, Colonel Julian Taylor, had been with him at Changi.
Sheffield
After passing his exam, Woodruff entered his position at Sheffield, where he trained in emergency and elective surgery. Originally, he had planned to do surgical research, but Sheffield had no space for him in its surgical lab. Instead, Woodruff was given a place in the pathology laboratory where he studied transplant rejection, a process in which the immune system of a transplant recipient attacks the transplanted tissue. Woodruff was particularly interested in thyroid allografts to the anterior chamber of the eye because they did not appear to meet with rejection. Woodruff's work with the allografts gave him a solid basis to work in the developing field of transplantion and rejection. To further himself in these areas, Woodruff arranged to meet Peter Medawar, an eminent zoologist and important pioneer in the study of rejection. The two men discussed transplantation and rejection, beginning a lasting professional relationship. Despite his achievements at Sheffield, Woodruff was rejected upon applying for a post at the Royal Melbourne Hospital.
Aberdeen
In 1948, shortly after applying for the position in Melbourne, Woodruff moved from Sheffield to the University of Aberdeen where he was given a post as a senior lecturer, having not known where the Scottish city was beforehand. At Aberdeen, Woodruff was given better laboratory access under Professor Bill Wilson, and was also awarded a grant that allowed his wife to be paid for her services. He took advantage of this access and his wife's skills as a lab assistant to investigate in utero grafts (tissue grafts performed while the recipient was still in the womb). At the time, the surgical community hypothesized that if a recipient were given in utero grafts, he would be able to receive tissue from the donor later in life without risk of rejection. Woodruff's experiments with rats produced negative results. Woodruff also commenced work on antilymphocyte serum for immunosuppression, with little initial success.
While in Aberdeen, Woodruff also visited the United States on a World Health Organization (WHO) Travelling Fellowship. During the visit, he met many of the leading American surgeons, an experience that increased his own desire to continue his work and research. After returning from the US, Woodruff experimented with the effects of cortisone and the impact of blood antigen on rejection. As part of his blood antigen studies, Woodruff found two volunteers with identical blood antigens and arranged for them to exchange skin grafts. When the grafts were rejected, Woodruff determined that rejection must be controlled by additional factors. In 1951 Woodruff was awarded a Hunterian Professorship of the Royal College of Surgeons of England for his lecture The transplantation of homologous tissue and its surgical application.
Dunedin
In 1953, Woodruff moved to Dunedin in New Zealand to become Professor of Surgery at the University of Otago. Woodruff had earlier failed in his applications for the corresponding position at St Mary's Hospital Medical School, London and St Andrews University in Scotland. While in Dunedin, Woodruff conducted research on the use of white blood cells to increase tolerance to allografts in rats. This line of research proved unsuccessful, but some of Woodruff's other projects did well. Among his more important accomplishments in the period, Woodruff established a frozen skin bank for burn treatment. As there was no plastic surgeon in Dunedin, Woodruff ended up being responsible for treating burns. He also worked on the phenomenon known as runt disease (graft versus host disease). Although Woodruff had been productive in his four years in New Zealand, Dunedin's population of 100,000 was insufficient to supply a clinical medical school, so he began to look for an appointment elsewhere.
Edinburgh
In 1957, Woodruff was appointed to the Chair of Surgical Science at the University of Edinburgh without requiring an interview. At the university, he split his time equally between his clinical and teaching responsibilities and his research. He was also allowed to appoint two assistant researchers who went on to become prominent in their own right, Donald Michie and James Howard. As a major part of his research, Woodruff served as the honorary director of a Research Group on Transplantation established by the Medical Research Council.
The research group's principal investigations concerned immunological tolerance (the body's acceptance of tissues, as opposed to rejection), autoimmune haemolytic anaemia (especially in mice), and immune responses to cancer in various animals. In his clinical role, Woodruff started a vascular surgery program and worked with the use of immunotherapy as a cancer treatment as well as the treatment of autoimmune haemolytic anaemia. However, his most important clinical accomplishments were in kidney transplantation.
Woodruff performed the first ever kidney transplant in the UK, at the Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh. He had been waiting for the right patient for some time, hoping to find a patient with an identical twin to act as the donor, as this would significantly reduce the risk of rejection. The patient that Woodruff eventually found was a 49-year-old man suffering from severely impaired kidney function who received one of his twin brother's kidneys on 30 October 1960. The donor kidney was harvested by James Ross and transplanted by Woodruff. Both twins lived an additional six years before dying of an unrelated disease. Woodruff thought that he had to be vigilant with his first kidney transplant, as he regarded the British medical community's attitude to be conservative towards transplantation. From then until his retirement in 1976, he performed 127 kidney transplants. Also in 1960, Woodruff published The Transplantation of Tissues and Organs, a comprehensive survey of transplant biology and one of seven books he wrote. He was awarded the 1969 Lister Medal for his contributions to surgical science. The corresponding Lister Oration, given at the Royal College of Surgeons of England, was delivered on 8 April 1970, and was titled 'Biological aspects of individuality'.
The success of Woodruff's clinical transplant program was recognised and enhanced by funding from the Nuffield Foundation to construct and open the Nuffield Transplant Surgery Unit at the Western General Hospital in Edinburgh. In 1970 an outbreak of hepatitis B struck the transplant unit, resulting in the death of several patients and four of Woodruff's employees due to fulminant hepatic failure. Woodruff was deeply shaken by the loss and the unit was closed for a period while an investigation was carried out to develop a contingency plan to avoid such a disaster in future. The unit then resumed operations.
Woodruff retired from the University of Edinburgh in 1976, his role then being filled by Prof Geoffrey Duncan Chisholm, and joined the MRC Clinical and Population Cytogenetics Unit. He spent the next ten years there, engaged in cancer research with an emphasis on tumour immunology using Corynebacterium parvum. During that time, Woodruff also published twenty-five papers and two books. After retiring from his cancer research, Woodruff lived quietly with his wife in Edinburgh, travelling occasionally, until his death there on 10 March 2001, a month before his 90th birthday.
Legacy
Woodruff's contributions to surgery were important and long-lasting. In addition to performing the first kidney transplant in the UK, he devised a method of implanting a transplanted ureter in the bladder during transplants that is still used today. He established a large, efficient transplant unit in Edinburgh that remains one of the world's best. Although best known for these clinical accomplishments, Woodruff's contributions to the study of rejection and tolerance induction were equally important. Among these contributions, Woodruff's work with anti-lymphocyte serum has led to its wide use to reduce rejection symptoms in organ transplant recipients up to the current day.
These important contributions to medicine and biology were first seriously honoured in 1968 when Woodruff was elected to be a Fellow of the Royal Society. The next year, 1969, Woodruff was knighted by the Queen, a rare accomplishment for a surgeon. Numerous medical organisations gave Woodruff honorary membership, including the American College of Surgeons, the American Surgical Association, and the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh. Woodruff also held office in several scientific organisations, serving as Vice-President of the Royal Society and President of The Transplantation Society. Finally, Woodruff served for many years as a WHO advisor and as a visiting professor at a number of universities.
Despite his profound influence on transplantation and what Peter Morris called "a commanding presence in any gathering", Woodruff was not known for his ability as a lecturer as he had a rather uncertain style of presentation and a tendency to mumble. Nevertheless, Morris said that Woodruff has "a great turn of phrase and a rather wicked sense of humour". Morris concluded that "What is surprising is that he was not successful in producing many surgeons in his own mould, despite the intellectual talent that was entering surgery and especially transplantation in the 1960s. However, his influence in transplantation at all levels was enormous."
Publications
Woodruff's impact is also apparent in his large volume of publications. In addition to authoring over two hundred scholarly papers, Woodruff wrote eight books during his career, covering numerous aspects of medicine and surgery.
Deficiency Diseases in Japanese Prison Camps. M.R.C Special Report No. 274. H.M. Stationery Office, London 1951.
Surgery for Dental Students. Blackwell, Oxford. (Fourth Ed., 1984 with H.E. Berry) 1954.
The Transplantation of Tissues and Organs. Charles C. Thomas. Springfield, Illinois 1960.
The One and the Many: Edwin Stevens Lectures for the Laity. Royal Society of Medicine, London 1970.
On Science and Surgery. Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh 1976.
The Interaction of Cancer and Host: Its Therapeutic Significance. Grune Stratton, New York 1980.
Cellular Variation and Adaptation in Cancer: Biological Basis and Therapeutic Consequences. Oxford University Press 1990.
Nothing Venture Nothing Win. Scottish Academic Press 1996. (autobiography)
Personal life
In 1946 Woodruff married Hazel Gwenyth Ashby.
The Woodruffs had two sons, followed by a daughter. Their first son completed a civil engineering degree at Sheffield University, where the daughter also attended, completing a science degree in botany. The second son did a medical degree at University College London and became an ophthalmologist. Woodruff and his wife were avid tennis players and had a court in their home in Edinburgh. After moving to Edinburgh, Woodruff took up sailing with the Royal Forth Yacht Club, and went on to compete in some races. He owned a boat and was known to go sailing on it in the Mediterranean each summer with his wife. During his student years, Woodruff was a keen rower and field hockey player.
Woodruff was a lover of classical music, and after taking up the organ at university and learning from A. E. Floyd, the organist of St Paul's Cathedral, he became the college organist at Queen’s College in Melbourne; he later learned to play the piano. In his spare time, Woodruff continued to pursue his love of pure mathematics, especially number theory. He periodically attempted to prove Fermat's Last Theorem, but failed.
References
Further reading
Sir Michael Woodruff, The Guardian
MacDonald H (October 2015). Guarding the Public Interest: England's Coroners and Organ Transplants, 1960–1975, Journal of British Studies
English surgeons
Fellows of the Royal Society
World War II prisoners of war held by Japan
Australian Army officers
People from Mill Hill
Australian people of English descent
1911 births
2001 deaths
Melbourne Medical School alumni
Academics of the University of Aberdeen
Academics of the University of Edinburgh
Fellows of the Royal College of Surgeons of England
Knights Bachelor
Academic staff of the University of Otago
People educated at Trinity Grammar School, Kew
People educated at Queen's College, Taunton
Physicians of the Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh
Australian Army personnel of World War II
Recipients of the St Peter's Medal
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blyth%20and%20Tyne%20Railway
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Blyth and Tyne Railway
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The Blyth and Tyne Railway was a railway company in Northumberland, England, incorporated by Act of Parliament on 30 June 1852. It was created to unify the various private railways and waggonways built to carry coal from the Northumberland coalfield to Blyth and the River Tyne, which it took control of on 1st January 1853. Over time, the railway expanded its network to reach Morpeth (1857/8), North Seaton (1859), Tynemouth (1860/1), Newcastle upon Tyne (1864), and finally Newbiggin-by-the-Sea (1872). It became part of the much larger North Eastern Railway in 1874.
Following the takeover, some integration of service and facilities took place, but the Blyth and Tyne section retained its individual identity. In 1904, electric traction was introduced for suburban passenger trains on north Tyneside and part of the Blyth and Tyne system was electrified; the new trains proved to be a considerable success. Speculative branch lines built in the twentieth century were less successful.
Passenger services on the Newcastle – Newbiggin (via Seghill), Monkseaton – Blyth – Newbiggin, and Newsham – Blyth routes, were earmarked for withdrawal by the Beeching Report of 1963.
In the period from 1975, coal extraction declined and parts of the Blyth and Tyne system that were dependent on the mineral traffic suffered accordingly; the passenger business also declined. At the end of the 1970s, the decision was taken to establish a light rapid transit system, the Tyne and Wear Metro; this was based on the North Tyneside network at first and this started operating in 1980, using part of the Blyth and Tyne routes. Most of the remainder of the former system has no passenger railway activity now, although much of it remains open for freight.
History
Before the Blyth and Tyne Railway
From the seventeenth century, coal had been extracted in the area north of the River Tyne, at first close to the river to allow onwards transport by boat. As the easiest deposits close to the river became worked out, the focus of mining was pushed back further, and transport to the waterway was essential. Wooden waggonways were introduced and were relatively successful, but a major limitation was the issue of wayleaves, by which owners of land on the proposed route could demand payment, usually on a tonnage basis, for allowing the passage of the wagons. The wayleave demands were heavy, and this continued to be a major difficulty.
Wallace (1869) recorded that "in 1723, Plessy colliery was in the hands of Richard Ridley; and as he was a man of both wealth and enterprise he would in all probability make the railway by which the coals then came to Blyth". The harbour at Blyth was used for the onward transport by coastal shipping.
Mining of the early Northumberland Coalfield was taking shape. In 1794 a colliery was commenced within a mile of Cowpen, which at once brought a large increase of population and trade. "An Act of Parliament was obtained, and Cowpen Quay was erected... [About 1812] when Plessy Colliery was discontinued, a railroad was made to connect Cowpen Colliery with Blyth, as we have it at the present time, and instead of the coal being shipped at Cowpen Quay it was sent to Blyth."
The Plessy waggonway played a peripheral role in the Napoleonic Wars:
One Sunday morning in the year 1811, the inhabitants [of Blyth] were thrown into a state of great excitement, by the startling news that five Frenchmen had been taken during the night, and were lodged in the guard-house. They were officers who had broken their parole at Edinburgh castle, and in making their way home had reached the neighbourhood of Blyth; when discovered they were resting by the side of Plessy wagon-way, beside the "shoulder of mutton" field.
The railway had timber track:
The railway was constructed of a double line of beech rails, and laid upon oaken sleepers. The railway from Plessy continued to be made of wood till the road was discontinued in 1812. Originally the wagons had wooden wheels, and to prevent the wear and tear of the wheels, which were extremely expensive to maintain, they were studded with nails driven up to the head... Each wagon required a horse, and a man to conduct it; three journeys or "gaits", as they were termed, was a day’s work.
There was considerable expenditure on new pits at Seghill and Cramlington in 1822 and 1823. The Tyne was six miles away and the problem of transport to water arose once again. The Cramlington waggonway was only two miles away, however. It was opened in 1822 and ran from the pit later known as Ann Pit to Murton Row where it joined the Backworth line. Backworth Colliery had had a primitive railway, but the section between Backworth and Allotment was converted to rope haulage by stationary steam engine in 1821. Two years later the incline between Allotment and Percy Main was altered and eased, and the whole line was rope worked by 1827. About 1838 the line was extended north-westwards to West Cramlington, and when the Newcastle and Berwick Railway was constructed, a junction was made with it there.
In 1839 the Seaton Delaval coal company sunk a new pit, and formed a waggonway 1¼ miles in length from there to Mare Close where it was connected to the Cramlington line. In the same year the Cramlington company, considering that their dependency on the congested Backworth line was becoming impossible, constructed their own line to the staiths, parallel to, and to the east of, the Backworth line, leaving it at Murton Row.
The Seghill Railway
The Seghill colliery owner was also dissatisfied with the route to the staiths, and in early 1839 Robert Nicholson made a survey for a private mineral railway from Seghill to Howdon. Nicholson had been engineer of the Newcastle and North Shields Railway, which was shortly to open. The owners of the colliery at Seghill had used the Cramlington waggonway, owned by the Cramlington Coal Company, but the latter favoured its own traffic and put obstructions in the way of the Seghill coal.
The main part of the route ran straight south east, crossing the old line of the Cramlington Coal Company by a low timber bridge of two laminated arches each of span.
There were steep gradients on the line; from Seghill to Prospect Hill rising as steep as 1 in 61, and from Prospect Hill to the Tyne falling gradients, the steepest of which was 1 in 25. The line was worked mainly by stationary engines, one at Prospect Hill, near the Allotment, which hauled up the loaded wagons from Holywell, and the empty wagons from the Newcastle and North Shields road. The other engine was at Percy Main, hauling the empty wagons from the staiths. From Prospect Hill to Percy Main and from Percy Main to the staiths the loaded wagons ran by gravity, unwinding as they descended a tail rope from the drum of the engine, to bring hack the empty wagons. The remainder of the line from Seghill to Holywell was worked by locomotives; those used at first were the Samson and the John, both built by Timothy Hackworth.
The Newcastle and North Shields Railway contemplated building an extension of the Seghill line to Blyth, but the takeover of the N&NSR by the Newcastle and Berwick Railway diverted attention to wider horizons.
Harbours
The onward transport of coal by water was restricted by the fact that the only harbours available were at Blyth and Seaton Sluice, both of them small and incapable of handling larger vessels. From 1842, the Bedlington Coal Company developed a novel method of shipping its coal: loaded chaldron wagons, 40 at a time, were taken in an iron twin-screw steamer, the Bedlington, from the staiths on the north side of the River Blyth near Mount Pleasant to Shields Harbour; there they were discharged into the coastal shops by means of steam derricks fitted to Bedlington. This arrangement continued in use until 1851. Other proposals involved further railways and waggonways but for the time being they were not implemented.
Nevertheless, the limitation of Blyth as a harbour spurred consideration of a railway connection directly to the Tyne, and it was this cause that led ultimately to the formation of the Blyth and Tyne Railway.
The Blyth and Tyne Junction Railway
From 25 June 1844, the Newcastle and North Shields Railway (N&NSR) worked the passenger and goods traffic on the Seghill Railway, but in November 1844 George Hudson, "The Railway King," made a provisional agreement with the N&NSR to merge that undertaking with the Newcastle & Berwick Railway which he was promoting at the time; the N&NSR gave his Berwick company access to central Newcastle. When the N&NSR was authorised on 31 July 1845, the arrangement was confirmed. In the changed circumstances the Seghill Railway and the projected extensions assumed a new importance. In July 1845, Jobling & Partners decided to construct a part of the proposed railway, and, by forming a junction with the Seaton Delaval Railway and arranging for the connection of that railway with the Seghill Railway, to create a route to the Tyne. The line was named the Blyth and Tyne Junction Railway. Construction was started in August 1845, but the line was not opened for passenger traffic until 3 May 1847; on that date the whole 4½ miles between Seghill and Blyth began to cater for passengers.
Bedlington extension
Bedlington colliery needed to be connected to the network, and on 12 June 1850 a private line was opened from the colliery to Newsham, a distance of 2¾ miles. Mineral traffic only was carried at first, but it was opened for passengers also on 1 August 1850. In effect this was an extension of the growing Blyth and Tyne Railway; it crossed the River Blyth by a timber viaduct 80 feet in height and 770 feet in length. Described as a "splendid viaduct" by newspapers, it was designed by Robert Nicholson.
Incorporation of the Blyth and Tyne Railway
There were now several separate private railways, and there was a movement to make them into a single, incorporated company. The spur was passenger duty imposed on private railways, and also concern about promotion of a possible competing railway. They connected two parts of the group together by cutting through Prospect Hill in the year 1851 to enable the adoption of locomotive power; the new cut formed considerably gentler gradients. With other improvements the expenditure was about £130,000. The Act incorporating the Blyth and Tyne Railway received the Royal Assent on 30 June 1852, capital £150,000. The line controlled by the new company totalled 13 miles, consisting of the main line from Blyth to the Hayhole on the Tyne (12 miles), a short branch to the York. Newcastle & Berwick Railway at Percy Main, the connection with the former Newcastle & North Shields Railway, and several short branches to shipping places on the Tyne. The new Company came into existence on 1 January 1853.
A rival company, the Tynemouth Docks & Morpeth & Shields Direct Railway, proposed a dock at the Low Lights, North Shields, and a railway from Morpeth running directly to North Shields, with branches to Ashington and Seaton Sluice. The Blyth and Tyne Railway deposited Parliamentary plans for lines occupying part of the same ground to spoil the competing line, and both proposals went to Parliament.
The promoters of the Tynemouth Docks Direct Railway hoped to take advantage of avoiding the cost of wayleaves with which the Blyth and Tyne was burdened, and the B&TR found itself uniting with the landowners who imposed these charges against the newcomer. Its reward was a concession by the landowners, reducing their terms by a third. The Tynemouth Dock Bill was thrown out in Parliament, and the Blyth and Tyne Railway succeeded in getting the powers it had applied for, by Act of 4 August 1853. There was to be a branch from Newsham to Morpeth and another from New Hartley to the Dairy House near Seaton Delaval, a line ultimately planned to reach Tynemouth. The B&TR intended to buy some existing private lines and continue one of them to Morpeth. The B&TR was committed to the completion of a line to Tynemouth and in 1854 obtained Parliamentary authorisation to make this extension, as well as a building a branch from Bedlington to Longhirst.
Improvements
From 1855 a number of extensions were built to consolidate the network. Prospect Hill was further improved and double track provided over six miles of railway, and more staiths were built in the Tyne. They purchased two short colliery lines which formed portions of their main line between Seaton Delaval and Hartley and between Bedlington and Newsham, and constructed the branch line to Morpeth. They also planned the eastward extension to Whitley and Tynemouth. Northumberland Dock was opened on 22 October 1857 and their presence there was a valuable asset in taking Northumberland steam coal to market. On 1 October 1857 the Morpeth branch was opened for mineral traffic, and on 1 April 1858 for goods and passenger traffic.
In 1855 passengers on the Blyth and Tyne were conveyed in low-roofed springless carriages locally called "bumler boxes," but the Company decided to improve the passenger carriages while they made the network extensions. The company obtained new passenger rolling stock of modern design. The third class carriages were of a type then probably unsurpassed elsewhere in the country. They were designed in 1854, and twenty years later had given such satisfaction that the travelling public desired no change.
North British Railway
In the period from 1857 the North British Railway was frustrated by its dependency on the North Eastern Railway (which had taken over the York, Newcastle and Berwick Railway in 1854). It had proved a wily partner in the traffic between Edinburgh and Newcastle. The NBR was anxious to secure independent access to Newcastle if possible. The NBR supported the promotion of the Border Counties Railway, which was being built in stages from Hexham, on the Newcastle and Carlisle Railway to Riccarton on the Border Union Railway (which became known as the Waverley Route). Although this was to be a slow and circuitous line, mostly single line through thinly populated terrain, it served the NBR purpose of providing, or at least threatening, a separate route to Newcastle from the north. However the Newcastle and Carlisle Railway was not unfriendly to the YN&BR and might prove an uncertain ally.
The Wansbeck Railway was then promoted, with the intention of forming a connection between Reedsmouth on the Border Counties Railway and Morpeth. The commercial viability of this line was even more shaky—Lee says "a thinly-populated district without manufactures and with very few mineral resources"—than the Border Counties Railway, but it gave access to Morpeth, avoiding the Newcastle and Carlisle Railway altogether. If the Blyth and Tyne Railway could be befriended, then the desired access to Newcastle was secure—but by a very roundabout route.
When the Wansbeck Railway was constructed, the North British (who were in control of it) considered how to connect to the Blyth and Tyne at Morpeth. That company's station was alongside, but on the south side of, the York, Newcastle and Berwick station, and direct connection was difficult. (Running over the YN&BR line, even for a few yards, would defeat the notion of independence.) In fact the Wansbeck line crossed the YN&BR line by a bridge and connected to the Blyth and Tyne line further east. For simple through running that was practicable, but in the event only local traffic ran, and all of that started or ended at Morpeth B&T station. This involved reversal at the point of junction, and propelling between there and the station.
This was a dangerous practice, and a collision took place in 1871 from that cause. By then hopes of independent main line running to Newcastle were over, and in 1872 the Wansbeck line was diverted to connect into the YN&BR station in the ordinary way. Although NBR passenger trains began using the connecting line in May 1872, it was not until August that the Board of Trade formally sanctioned the use of the line; the delay was due to the lack of a turntable at the NER Morpeth station. The Blyth and Tyne station at Morpeth remained in use for its own passenger trains until 24 May 1880, after which B&T trains used the NER station.
Extension to Newcastle, and others
The Chairman of the Blyth and Tyne Railway, Joseph Laycock, proposed to build an extension to Newcastle. The necessary Parliamentary Act was secured on 1 May 1861. It authorised the extension to Newcastle, as well as some branches, forming the loop from Newcastle through South Gosforth and Benton to Monkseaton; and from Seghill to the Seaton Burn waggonway, from Bothal Demesne (North Seaton) to Newbiggin, and from the B&TR existing line at Tynemouth to proposed docks at the Low Lights.
The Blyth & Tyne line between the Dairy House and Tynemouth was opened on 31 October 1860.
The new extension from Hotspur Place (near Benton) to Newcastle, and from Hotspur Place to Monkseaton in the other direction, was formally opened on 22 June 1864; the public opening took place on the 27 June. The Newcastle terminus was at , on the north side of the city beyond the present-day Manors station; it was designed by John Dobson, who had also designed the Central station.
At the same time a further connection was made at Tynemouth, where an extension ran from the earlier terminus of 1860 to a location close to the North Eastern Railway station there. The Blyth and Tyne Railway charged the same fares to Tynemouth as the North Eastern Railway, and the new line was extremely well patronised: 17,000 passengers, mostly third class, were carried during the first week. Third class business was proving popular and the B&TR announced that from 1 October 1864 third class travel would be available on all trains. Third class carriages had formerly only been attached to one train each way daily; misgivings that this would abstract income by trading down were stated by the Chairman to have been misplaced.
In 1867 a branch was opened extending the Bedlington stub eastwards to Cambois, on the coast north of the River Blyth.
Some years elapsed before the opening of the final extension of the Blyth and Tyne Railway during its independent days: on 1 March 1872 the Newbiggin branch of 3½ miles was opened. It joined the Cambois branch at West Sleekburn Junction.
Amalgamation
During 1872 the North Eastern Railway approached the Blyth and Tyne Railway to discuss a merger. The directors of the B&TR were agreeable, but they held out for the best terms they could get, and towards the end of January 1874, terms of amalgamation were settled. The North Eastern Railway would guarantee a dividend of 10 per cent on Blyth and Tyne ordinary stock (then capitalised at £315,000) and to pay £50,000 in cash for distribution among the ordinary shareholders, as well as taking on all the liabilities of the B&TR. The merger was ratified by Act of Parliament of 7 August 1874.
The Blyth and Tyne section of the North Eastern Railway continued to have an individual identity.
Whitley Bay new line
When the Tynemouth branch had been built in 1860, it ran north to south from Monkseaton (at first called Whitley) at some distance from the coast. As residential travel increased in subsequent decades, the emphasis was on locations nearer the coast. The Blyth and Tyne Railway had obtained powers to build a parallel line to serve those areas in 1872, but the authorisation was never put into effect. After the amalgamation, the north Eastern Railway decided to reactivate the powers, and obtained a fresh Act of Parliament on 29 June 1875. There was still delay in carrying out the work, but on 3 July 1882 the new line opened. It ran to make an end-on connection (from the east) with the existing Tynemouth terminus, and a lavish new station was provided there. A new station was provided at Monkseaton on the new line, and a complex layout of short spurs connected it into the old system there. Whitley Bay and Cullercoats also had new stations. (Whitley Bay was further enlarged in 1910.) The old route from Monkseaton to Tynemouth was closed down, except for a short length at Tynemouth used to access the goods depot there.
North Blyth
In 1867 the Cambois branch had been opened. In 1893 further expansion was necessary on the River Blyth and extensive facilities were provided on the north bank; rail connection was provided by extending the Cambois line. This work was commissioned on 13 July 1896; at the same time a curve was installed near Sleekburn Junction giving direct running from North Blyth towards Ashington; this was brought into use at the same time. In 1903 the North Eastern Railway introduced 40-ton bogie coal wagons to operate a shuttle service between Ashington and North Blyth.
Locomotives
Most of the Blyth and Tyne locomotives were of the 2-4-0 and 0-6-0 type. The 2-4-0s mostly had 5 ft 6 in wheels and two 16 by 24-inch cylinders, with a typical working boiler pressure of 140 lb. The 0-6-0 goods engines had cylinders of the same size but the wheels were of 4 ft 6 inch in diameter. In the 1860s a three-cylinder 0-6-0 engine was built.
After the electrification of 1904, steam autocar trains composed of a Fletcher BTP 0-4-4T engine between two coaches operated on the Monkseaton-Shields section, operating a shuttle passenger service over the Avenue branch from Blyth to North Shields.
Electrification
Residential travel into Newcastle and Gateshead developed considerably in the latter years of the nineteenth century. Street-running tramcars were introduced from 1878, and in 1901 the system was converted to electric traction, representing a considerable step forward in convenience for the public, and competition for suburban railways. The total number of passengers booked in the Newcastle area in 1901 was 9,847,000 but by 1903 this had fallen to 5,887,000.
In response, the North Eastern Railway electrified what became known as the North Tyneside Loop, much of which was part of the Blyth and Tyne system, between New Bridge Street, Backworth, Monkseaton and Wallsend. This was the first part of a network of suburban electrified routes, the Tyneside suburban electric system.
The Railway Magazine recorded the opening:
On Tuesday, March 29, 1904, at 12.50 p.m. electric working for public traffic was put into operation on the North-Eastern Railway; the line on which the new motive power is employed being that between New Bridge Street Station (Newcastle) and Benton, a distance of 4 miles 7 chains... The outward journey took 11 minutes, the inward 12 minutes, being a reduction of 25 per cent, on the time occupied by steam-hauled trains... There are 37 miles of double and four-way track [in the North Tyneside suburban network], equivalent to some 82 miles of single track, over the whole of which the passenger service will in the near future be worked electrically. For the present the goods traffic will be mainly operated by steam, although two electric goods locomotives are to be used on a portion of the system...
The third rail system is adopted, the current being picked up by a contact shoe from this rail... and after passing through the motors returns to the dynamos [at the generating station] by the ordinary running rails. The current is generated at high pressure, 6,000 volts three-phase alternating, at the central power station, and transmitted to sub-stations, where it is converted into low pressure 600 volt direct current, and fed on to the rails.
The electric power was to be procured from the Newcastle upon Tyne Electric Supply Company. The trains would be multiple units: "each train consists of three bogie coaches, one a third-class smoking vehicle, the centre a third-class carriage for non-smokers, and the last a first-class coach with luggage compartment."
New carriage sheds were erected at South Gosforth and as part of the preparation for electrification, a spur was built from south to west at Benton, for empty stock to reach the sheds from the main line. It opened on 1 May 1903. A south to east curve was opened nearby on 1 July 1904 giving express electric trains access between the coast and Newcastle via the main line. A north spur from South Gosforth East to South Gosforth West was opened in 1905 (associated with the Ponteland branch), giving empty stock trains easier access to the carriage depot.
In 1902 a north to west curve was authorised at the Benton crossing, but not built at the time. In fact it was commissioned in 1940 to give an alternative route from the main line into Newcastle in the event of enemy attack closing the main line.
Ponteland branch
In 1905 the Ponteland branch opened; it left the former Blyth and Tyne system by a junction at South Gosforth. It was built under Light Railway legislation. As a speculative line it was intended to electrify it when residential traffic had built up sufficiently. However the results were disappointing, and the passenger service was operated throughout its life by a steam autocar. A stub from Ponteland to Darras Hall was opened on 1 October 1913, and fared no better. Both lines closed to passengers on 17 June 1929. A goods service continued to Darras Hill until 1954, to Ponteland until 1967, and to a private siding at Callerton until 1989.
In 1922 there were six weekday passenger trains on the branch with an additional Saturday train; only three ran through to Darras Hall.
The Metro route to Newcastle Airport now follows part of the line of route.
Manors connection
Although trains from the Tynemouth part of the Blyth and Tyne section could run direct to Newcastle Central station, the South Gosforth line terminated at New Bridge Street. The terminus was only a short distance from the former Newcastle and North Shields Railway main line at Manors, and in 1909 a short connecting line was laid in, enabling through running to and from Central station. Although trains could now run Central to Central by a circular route, for some years this was not done, and only trains from Central to South Gosforth used the connection, other services continuing to terminate at New Bridge Street. From 1 March 1917 the arrangement was rationalised, and trains ran throughout over the connecting line.
Collywell Bay line
Starting in 1912 North Eastern Railway constructed a branch line from a junction a mile to the north of Monkseaton station to Seaton Sluice, the site of a proposed housing development. It was to be part of the electric network, and the North Eastern Railway felt that "Seaton Sluice" was an unattractive name to encourage new residents, so it was determined to call the station "Collywell Bay". The two mile long line was to have one intermediate stop at Brierdene. Construction was well advanced, with an anticipated opening date of November 1914, but was halted at the commencement of World War I, and in 1917 the track was removed for use in France and recycling elsewhere. A mile long section of the track was reinstated so that a rail-mounted naval gun could be deployed on it. After the war the line was left unfinished; in 1924 a review estimated that rehabilitation would cost £50,000, and the scheme was shelved. In 1931 the branch was formally abandoned.
Walker Gate fire
In August 1918 a disastrous fire took place in the carriage sheds at Walker Gate. As well as the damage to the building, thirty-four vehicles from the electric fleet were destroyed, and many others badly damaged. A scratch service of mixed steam and electric traffic was instituted and replacement vehicles hurriedly ordered, but it was not until 1922 that a full fleet, and a normal train service, could be counted on. South Gosforth car sheds were considerably expanded at this time.
After 1923
The Railways Act 1921 resulted in the main line railways of Great Britain being "grouped" in 1923; the North Eastern Railway became part of the new London and North Eastern Railway (LNER). In turn the railways of Great Britain were nationalised in 1948, and the former NER lines became the major component of the North Eastern Region of British Railways.
Blyth rose steadily to prominence in exporting coal and extensive further staiths were provided there between 1926 and 1928. Over six million tons of coal were exported annually in the 1930s; about 90% of coal exported comes from collieries within .
In the period after World War II until 1970, boat trains from London ran to Tyne Commission Quay via Percy Main in connection with Scandinavian ferry services. There was a connecting curve between the North Shields line and the B&T line; the B&TR had a Percy Main station actually on the curve. The boat trains ran from Newcastle on to the curve as far as Percy Main North. There they reversed and passing under the North Shields line they ran on to the Tyne Improvement Commission network to reach the Quay.
Passenger services were withdrawn from the lines to and in 1964. Faced with declining passenger business and the requirement for considerable expenditure to renew the electrical systems and rolling stock on the electric network, the remaining routes reverted to diesel traction in 1967.
Tyne and Wear Metro
Renewed attention to suburban public transport in the 1970s led to the creation of the Tyne and Wear Metro, a light rapid transit system, much of which operated on the old Blyth and Tyne routes.
The modernisation of the existing routes and the necessary conversion to light rapid transit configurations resulted in suspension of the existing passenger services on the affected routes in 1978 - 1979. The Metro services started operation in 1980. Some of the former routes were retained for heavy rail operation of mineral and goods trains, but the decline of the Northumberland Coalfield in the 1980s and 1990s has reduced this traffic.
The Metro system uses the Blyth and Tyne route from Newcastle to South Gosforth and on through Benton to Tynemouth; in addition the Airport branch uses part of the Ponteland branch, constructed after the end of the independent existence of the B&TR but regarded as part of the B&TR network.
Proposed reinstatement of passenger services
1990-2009: Early proposals
There have been proposals to reintroduce passenger services to part of the ex-B&TR system since the 1990s. Denis Murphy, the then Labour MP for Wansbeck, expressed support in the House of Commons in an adjournment debate in April 1999 and again in a debate in January 2007. The Railway Development Society (renamed Railfuture in 2000) endorsed the proposal in 1998.
Local rail campaign group, The South East Northumberland Rail User Group, began a campaign to reopen the line in March 2005.
In 2009, the Association of Train Operating Companies published a £34million proposal to restore passenger services to the north-eastern part of the B&TR system. It would have included reopening stations at , , (for Blyth) and .
Northumberland Line Project
Following several proposals and bids, the government in January 2021 confirmed that it would fund the remaining project cost, estimated at the time to be £166million, for the reopening of the existing line to Ashington. A proposal with six new stations at , , , , and was accepted. Construction of stations was due to begin in summer 2022, with the line reopening to passenger services in December 2023.
Topography
Passenger station opening and closing dates:
Newcastle to Morpeth
(Newcastle upon Tyne Central)
(Manors North)
New Bridge Street; opened as terminus 27 June 1864, and at first simply known as "Newcastle"; popularly known as "the station in the Manors" in the early years; from 1850 when the Manors station of the YN&BR was opened, this station began to be known as the Carliol Square station"; closed 1 January 1909, when trains ran through to Central;
Jesmond; opened 27 June 1864; closed 23 January 1978;
West Jesmond; opened 1 December 1900; closed 23 January 1978
Moor Edge: opened ; opened 1 May 1872; closed in 1882
Gosforth; opened 27 June 1864; renamed South Gosforth 1905; closed 23 January 1978;
Longbenton; opened 14 July 1947; closed 23 January 1978;
Benton; opened 27 June 1864; may have been named Longbenton; replaced by a new Benton some distance to the east; closed 23 January 1978;
Forest Hall: opened 27 June 1864; closed 1 March 1871; an NER station ex Benton adopted this name later;
Benton Square; opened 1 July 1909; closed 20 September 1915;
Hotspur; opened 27 June 1864; renamed Backworth 1865; closed 13 June 1977;
Holywell; opened 28 August 1841; renamed Backworth 1860; closed 27 June 1864;
Seghill; opened 28 August 1841; closed 2 November 1964;
Seaton Delaval Colliery; opened 3 March 1847; renamed Seaton Delaval 1864; closed 2 November 1964;
Hartley Pit; opened 3 March 1847; renamed Hartley; resited to the north 1851; closed 2 November 1964;
Newsham; opened 1850; closed 2 November 1964;
Cowpen Lane; opened 3 August 1850; renamed Bebside 1860; closed 2 November 1964;
Bedlington; opened 3 August 1850; closed 2 November 1964;
Choppington; opened 1 April 1858; closed 3 April 1950;
Hepscott; opened 1 April 1858; closed 3 April 1950;
Morpeth; opened 1 April 1858; closed 24 May 1880 when trains transferred to NER station.
Hotspur to Tynemouth (first line)
Hotspur (above);
West Monkseaton; opened 20 March 1933; closed 10 September 1979;
Whitley; opened 1 April 1861; relocated 27 June 1864; renamed Monkseaton and again relocated on new line 1882 (below);
Cullercoats; opened 27 June 1864; relocated on new line 3 July 1882 (below);
Tynemouth; opened 1 April 1864; relocated 27 June 1864; renamed North Shields 1865 when new terminus opened; replaced by station on new line 3 July 1882 (below).
Whitley Bay new line (NER)
Monkseaton; opened 3 July 1882; closed 10 September 1979;
Whitley; opened 3 July 1882; renamed Whitley Bay 1899; closed 10 September 1979;
Cullercoats; opened 3 July 1882; closed 10 September 1979;
Tynemouth; through station, opened 3 July 1882; closed from the Monkseaton direction 10 September 1979, and from Wallsend direction 11 August 1980.
Hartley to Monkseaton
Hartley (above);
Dairy House; opened 1 April 1861; renamed The Avenue later in 1861; closed 27 June 1864; summer Sundays usage shown in timetables in 1872 and 1874;
Monkseaton (above).
Blyth branch
Blyth; opened 3 March 1847; relocated 1867; closed 2 November 1964;
Newsham (above).
Newbiggin branch
Newbiggin-by-the-Sea; opened 2 November 1859; closed 2 November 1964;
Hirst; opened June 1878; renamed Ashington 1889; closed 2 November 1964;
North Seaton; opened 2 November 1859; closed 2 November 1964;
Bedlington (above).
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Local historical article on Plessey Wagonway
North Eastern Railway (UK)
Closed railway lines in North East England
Railway lines opened in 1840
Rail transport in Northumberland
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular%20logic%20gate
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Molecular logic gate
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A molecular logic gate is a molecule that performs a logical operation based on one or more physical or chemical inputs and a single output. The field has advanced from simple logic systems based on a single chemical or physical input to molecules capable of combinatorial and sequential operations such as arithmetic operations (i.e. moleculators and memory storage algorithms). Molecular logic gates work with input signals based on chemical processes and with output signals based on spectroscopic phenomena.
Logic gates are the fundamental building blocks of electrical circuits. They can be used to construct digital architectures with varying degrees of complexity by a cascade of a few to several million logic gates. Logic gates are essentially physical devices that produce a singular binary output after performing logical operations based on Boolean functions on one or more binary inputs. The concept of molecular logic gates, extending the applicability of logic gates to molecules, aims to convert chemical systems into computational units. Over the past three decades, the field has evolved to realize several practical applications in molecular electronics, biosensing, DNA computing, nanorobotics, and cell imaging, among others.
Working principle
For logic gates with a single input, there are four possible output patterns. When the input is 0, the output can be either a 0 or 1. When the input is 1, the output can again be 0 or 1. The four output bit patterns that can arise corresponds to a specific logic type: PASS 0, YES, NOT, and PASS 1. PASS 0 always outputs 0, whatever the input. PASS 1 always outputs 1, whatever the input. YES outputs a 1 when the input is 1, and NOT is the inverse of YES – it outputs a 0 when the input is 1.
AND, OR, XOR, NAND, NOR, XNOR, and INH are two-input logic gates. The AND, OR, and XOR gates are fundamental logic gates, and the NAND, NOR, and XNOR gates are complementary to AND, OR, and XOR gates, respectively. An INHIBIT (INH) gate is a special conditional logic gate that includes a prohibitory input. When the prohibitory input is absent, the output produced depends solely on the other input.
History and development
One of the earliest ideas for the use of π-conjugated molecules in molecular computation was proposed by Ari Aviram from IBM in 1988. The motivation for this work was to develop theoretical models for mixed-valence type-σ-π-σ-bonded molecules and explore their stereochemical properties for potential applications in molecular devices. The system comprised two π-conjugated systems, 1 and 2, made of oligothiophenes joined by a spiro linkage, and connected to gold electrodes by thiol linkers. π-system 1 is non-conducting in its neutral state, whereas system 2 is electrically conducting in its radical cation form. The twisted structure of the system courtesy of the spiro linkage provides hindrance to the transport of electrons between the two π-systems. However, through electrodes directed toward the linkage, a strong electric field could facilitate electron transfer from system 1 to system 2, with the radical cation going the opposite way.
The first practical realization of molecular logic was courtesy of de Silva and coworkers in their seminal work, in which they constructed a molecular photoionic AND gate with a fluorescent output. While a YES molecular logic gate, as described previously, can convert signals from their ionic to photonic forms (hence the term “photoionic”), they are singular-input-singular-output systems. To build more complex molecular logic architectures, two-input gates, namely AND and OR gates, are needed. Some early works made some progress in this direction, but could not realize a complete truth table as their ionic forms (protonated) could not bind to the substrate in all cases. De Silva and co. constructed an anthracene-based AND gate made up of tertiary amine and benzo-18-crown-6 units, both of which were known to show photoinduced electron transfer (PET) processes. In the system shown, they both acted as receptors, connected to the anthracene-based fluorophore by alkyl spacers. The PET is quenched upon coordination with protons and sodium ions, respectively, for the two receptors, and would lead the anthracene unit to fluoresce. The truth table for an AND gate was completely realized as the system would exhibit a fluorescence output only in the presence of both protons and sodium ions in the system.
Examples of molecular logic gates
YES molecular logic gate
An example of a YES logic gate comprises a benzo-crown-ether connected to a cyano-substituted anthracene unit. An output of 1 (fluorescence) is obtained only when sodium ions are present in the solution (indicating an input of 1). Sodium ions are encapsulated by the crown ether, resulting in a quenching of the PET process, and causing the anthracene unit to fluoresce.
AND molecular logic gate
This molecular logic gate illustrated demonstrates the advancement from redox-fluorescent switches to multi-input logic gates with an electrochemical switch. This two-input AND logic gate incorporates a tertiary amine proton receptor and a tetrathiafulvalene redox donor. These groups, when attached to anthracene, can simultaneously process information concerning acid concentration and oxidizing ability of the solution.
OR molecular logic gate
De Silva et al. constructed an OR molecular logic gate using an aza-crown ether receptor and sodium and potassium ions as the inputs. Either of the two ions could bind to the crown ether, causing the PET to be quenched and the fluorescence to be turned on. Since either of the two ions (input “1”) could turn on the fluorescence (output “1”), the system resembled an OR logic gate.
INH molecular logic gate
The INHIBIT logic gate incorporates a Tb3+ ion in a chelate complex. This two-input logic gate is the first of its kind and displays non-commutative behavior with chemical inputs and a phosphorescence output. Whenever dioxygen (input “1”) is present, the system is quenched and no phosphorescence is observed (output “0”). The second input, H+, must also be present for an output “1” to be observed. This is understood from a two-input INHIBIT truth table as included in Table 2.
NAND molecular logic gate
Parker and Williams constructed a NAND logic gate based on turning on strong emission from a terbium complex of phenanthridine. When acid and oxygen (the two inputs) are absent (input “0”), the fluorescence from the terbium center is turned on (output “1”). Hence, the system acts as a molecular NAND gate.
NOR molecular logic gate
Akkaya and coworkers demonstrated a molecular NOR gate using a boradiazaindacene system. Fluorescence of the highly-emissive boradiazaindacene (input “1”) was found to be quenched in the presence of either a zinc salt [Zn(II)] or trifluoroacetic acid (TFA). The system, thus, could realize the truth table of a NOR logic gate.
XOR and XNOR molecular logic gates
De Silva and McClenaghan designed a proof-of-principle arithmetic device based on molecular logic gates. As depicted in Figure 10 A, Compound A is a push-pull olefin with the top receptor containing four carboxylic acid anion groups (and non-disclosed counter cations) capable of binding to calcium. The bottom part is a quinoline molecule which is a receptor for hydrogen ions. The logic gate operates as follows. Without any chemical input of Ca2+ or H+, the chromophore shows a maximum absorbance in UV/VIS spectroscopy at 390 nm. When calcium is introduced a hypsochromic shift (blue shift) takes place and the absorbance at 390 nm decreases. Likewise, addition of protons causes a bathochromic shift (red shift), and when both cations are in the water, the net result is absorption at the original 390 nm wavelength. This system represents an XNOR logic gate in absorption and an XOR logic gate in transmittance.
In another XOR logic gate system, the chemistry is based on the pseudorotaxane depicted in Figure 11. In organic solution the electron-deficient diazapyrenium salt (rod) and the electron-rich 2,3-dioxynaphthalene units of the crown ether (ring) self-assemble by formation of a charge transfer complex. An added tertiary amine like tributylamine forms a 1:2 adduct with the diazapyrene and the complex gets dethreaded. This process is accompanied by an increase in emission intensity at 343 nm resulting from freed crown ether. Added trifluoromethanesulfonic acid reacts with the amine and the process is reverted. Excess acid locks the crown ether by protonation and again the complex is de-threaded.
Half-adder and half-subtractor molecular circuits
In compound B in Figure 10 B, the bottom section contains a tertiary amino group, also capable of binding to protons. In this system, fluorescence only takes place when both cations available. The presence of both cations hinders photoinduced electron transfer (PET) allowing compound B to fluoresce. In the absence of both or either ion, fluorescence is quenched by PET, which involves an electron transfer from either the nitrogen atom or the oxygen atoms, or both to the anthracenyl group. When both receptors are bound to calcium ions and protons respectively, both PET channels are shut off. The overall result of Compound B is AND logic, since an output of "1" (fluorescence) occurs only when both Ca2+ and H+ are present in solution, that is, have values as "1". With both systems run in parallel and with monitoring of transmittance for system A and fluorescence for system B the result is a half-adder capable of reproducing the equation 1 + 1 = 2.
In a modification of system B, not two, but three chemical inputs are simultaneously processed in an AND logic gate. An enhanced fluorescence signal is observed only in the presence of excess protons, zinc and sodium ions through interactions with their respective amine, phenyldiaminocarboxylate, and crown ether receptors. The processing mode operates similarly as discussed above – fluorescence is observed due to the prevention of competing photoinduced electron transfer reactions from the receptors to the excited anthracene fluorophore. The absence of one, two, or all three ion inputs results in a low fluorescence output. Each receptor is selective for its specific ion as an increase in the concentration of the other ions does not yield a high fluorescence. The specific concentration threshold of each input must be reached to achieve a fluorescent output in accordance with combinatorial AND logic.
More complex molecular logic circuits
A molecular logic gate can processes modulators much like the setup seen in de Silva’s proof-of-principle, but incorporating different logic gates on the same molecule is challenging. Such a function is called integrated logic and is exemplified by the BODIPY-based, half-subtractor logic gate illustrated by Coskun, Akkaya, and their colleagues. When monitored at two different wavelengths, 565 and 660 nm, XOR and INHIBIT logic gates operations are realized at the respective wavelengths. Optical studies of this compound in THF reveal an absorbance peak at 565 nm and an emission peak at 660 nm. Addition of an acid results in a hypsochromic shift of both peaks as protonation of the tertiary amine results in an internal charge transfer. The colour of the emission observed is yellow. Upon the addition of a strong base, the phenolic hydroxyl group is rendered deprotonated, resulting in a photoinduced electron transfer, which in turn renders the molecule non-emissive. Upon addition of both an acid and a base, the emission of the molecule is observed as red, as the tertiary amine would not be protonated while the hydroxyl group would remain protonated, resulting in the absence of both PET and intramolecular charge transfer (ICT). Due to the great difference in emission intensity, this single molecule is capable of carrying out an arithmetic operation - subtraction - at a nanoscale level.
A full adder system based on fluorescein has also been constructed by Shanzer et al. The system is able to compute 1+1+1=3.
Potential applications
Over the years, the utility of molecular logic gates has been explored in a wide range of fields such as chemical and biological detection, the pharmaceutical and food industries, and the emerging fields of nanomaterials and chemical computing.
Chemical detection of ions
Fluoride (F-) and acetate (CH3COO-) anions are among the most important ones in the context of human health and well-being. The former, though used extensively in health care, is known for its toxicity and corrosiveness. The latter can cause alkalosis and affect metabolic pathways beyond a certain concentration. Hence, it is crucial to develop methods to detect these anions in aqueous media. Bhat et al. constructed an INHIBIT gate with receptors that bind selectively to F‑ and CH3COO- anions. The system used changes in absorbance as a colorimetric-based output to detect the concentration of anions.
Wen and coworkers also designed an INHIBIT molecular logic gate with Fe3+ and EDTA as the inputs and a fluorescence output for the detection of ferric ions in solutions. The fluorescence of the system is quenched if and only if Fe3+ input is present and EDTA is absent.
Heavy metal ions provide a persistent threat to human health because of their inherent toxicity and low degradability. Several molecular logic gate-based systems have been constructed to detect ions such as Cd2+, Hg2+/Pb2+, and Ag+. In their work, Chen and coworkers demonstrated that logic gate-based systems could be used to detect Cd2+ ions in rice samples, thereby widening the scope of the field to safety detection in food materials, too.
Biological applications
The effectiveness of methods such as chemotherapy to treat cancer tends to plateau after some initial time as the cells undergo molecular changes that render them insensitive to the effect of anticancer drugs. Hence, it is imperative to detect the presence of cancerous cells early. An important biomarker, microRNA (miRNA), is crucial in this detection via its expression patterns. Zhang et al. have demonstrated an INHIBIT-OR gate cascade for the purpose, Yue and co. used an AND gate to construct a system with two miRNA inputs and a quantum dot photoluminescence output, and Peng et al. also constructed an AND gate-based dual-input system for the simultaneous detection of miRNAs from tumor cells.
Akkaya et al. illustrated the application of a logic gate for photodynamic therapy in their work. A bodipy dye attached to a crown-ether and two pyridyl groups separated by spacers works according to an AND logic gate. The molecule works as a photodynamic agent upon irradiation at 660 nm under conditions of relatively high sodium and proton ion concentrations by converting triplet oxygen to cytotoxic singlet oxygen. This prototypical example would take advantage of the higher sodium levels and lower pH in tumor tissue compared to the levels in normal cells. When these two cancer-related cellular parameters are satisfied, a change is observed in the absorbance spectrum. This technique could be useful for the treatment of malignant tumors as it is non-invasive and specific.
DNA computing and logic calculation
The concept of DNA computing came about as a way to address storage density issues because of the exploding volumes of data information. Theoretically, a gram of single-stranded DNA is capable of storing over 400 exabytes (order of 1020 bytes) of data at a density of two bits per nucleotide. Leonard Adleman is credited with having established the field in 1994. Recently, molecular logic gate systems have been utilized in DNA computing models.
Massey and coworkers constructed photonic DNA molecular logic circuits using cascades of AND, OR, NAND, and NOR molecular logic gates. They used lanthanide complexes as fluorescent markers, and their luminescent outputs were detected by FRET-based devices at the terminals of DNA strands. Works by Campbell et al. on demonstrating NOT, AND, OR, and XNOR logic systems based on DNA crossover tiles, Bader and co. on manipulating the DNA G-quadruplex structure to realize YES, AND, and OR logic operations, and Chatterjee and coworkers on constructing logic gates using reactive DNA hairpins on DNA origami surfaces are some examples that mark the progress in the field of logic gate-based DNA computing.
Nanorobotics and advanced machines
Nanorobots have the potential to transform drug delivery processes and biological computing. Llopis-Lorente and co. developed a nanorobot that can perform logic operations and process information on glucose and urea. Thubagere and coworkers designed a DNA molecular nanorobot capable of sorting chemical cargo. The system could work without additional power as the robot was capable of walking across the DNA origami surface on its two feet. It also had an arm to transport cargo.
Molecular sequential logic is exemplified by Margulies et al., where they demonstrate a molecular keypad lock resembling the processing capabilities of an electronic security device which is equivalent to incorporates several interconnected AND logic gates in parallel. The molecule mimics an electronic keypad of an automated teller machine (ATM). The output signals are dependent not only on the combination of inputs but also on the correct order of inputs; i.e. the correct password must be entered. The molecule was designed using pyrene and fluorescein fluorophores connected by a siderophore, which binds to Fe(III), and the acidic of the solution changes the fluorescence properties of the fluorescein fluorophore.
Molecular logic gate systems can theoretically overcome the problems arising when semiconductors approach nano-dimensions. Molecular logic gates are more versatile than their silicon counterparts, with phenomena such as superposed logic unavailable to semiconductor electronics. Dry molecular gates, such as the one demonstrated by Avouris and colleagues, prove to be possible substitutes for semiconductor devices due to their small size, similar infrastructure, and data processing abilities. Avouris revealed a NOT logic gate composed of a bundle of carbon nanotubes. The nanotubes are doped differently in adjoining regions creating two complementary field effect transistors, and the bundle operates as a NOT logic gate only when satisfactory conditions are met.
See also
Molecular scale electronics
Molecular machine
Chemical computer
Host-guest chemistry
Molecular switch
Photoswitch
Molecular memory
Quantum computing
Unconventional computing
References
External links
The 3rd International Conference on Molecular Sensors & Molecular Logic Gates (MSMLG) was held on July 8–11, 2012 at Korea University in Seoul, Korea.
Logic gates
Molecular electronics
Molecular machines
Nanoelectronics
Supramolecular chemistry
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transportation%20safety%20in%20the%20United%20States
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Transportation safety in the United States
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Transportation safety in the United States encompasses safety of transportation in the United States, including automobile crashes, airplane crashes, rail crashes, and other mass transit incidents, although the most fatalities are generated by road incidents annually killing 32,479 people in 2011 to over 42,000 people in 2022.
The number of deaths per passenger-mile on commercial airlines in the United States between 2000 and 2010 was about 0.2 deaths per 10 billion passenger-miles. For driving, the rate was 150 per 10 billion vehicle-miles: 750 times higher per mile than for flying in a commercial airplane.
The U.S. government's National Center for Health Statistics reported 33,736 motor vehicle traffic deaths in 2014. This exceeded the number of firearm deaths, which was 33,599 in 2014. According to another U.S. government office, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA), motor vehicle crashes on U.S. roadways claimed 32,744 lives in 2014 and 35,092 in 2015. (The National Center for Health Statistics may have different criteria for inclusion or a slightly different methodology from the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.) The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration report comparing 2015 to 2014 said that fatalities increased from 2014 to 2015 in almost all categories: passenger vehicle occupants, passengers of large trucks, pedestrians, cyclists, motorcyclists, male and female, daytime and nighttime driving, and alcohol-impaired driving. Fatalities of drivers of large trucks remained unchanged. A NHTSA regression analysis of monthly roadway fatalities and various possible explanatory variables over the five-year period 2011–2015 showed the strongest correlation was with vehicle miles traveled (VMT), which had a correlation of .80, followed by average monthly temperature, which had a correlation of .74, meaning that higher temperatures were associated with increased fatalities. Part of the reason for that pattern may be that more people are out walking and biking in the warmer months, and pedestrians and cyclists are often victims of collisions with motor vehicles. The report also suggests that there may be more vacation travel during warmer months. The report does not say if the analysis was based on annual vehicle miles traveled or monthly vehicle miles traveled. Although not mentioned, motorcycle use, and therefore motorcyclist fatalities, may also increase in warmer months.
The National Safety Council (NSC), a nonprofit safety advocacy group, estimates U.S. motor vehicle deaths in 2016 were 40,200, a 14% increase from its 2014 estimate. NSC counts traffic and non-traffic deaths within one year of a crash while the U.S. government agencies count only traffic deaths occurring within 30 days of a crash. NSC statistics show that the increase in 2016 was due only in part to increased miles driven resulting from population growth, low fuel prices, and a strengthening economy. NSC said the increase in deaths not explained by increased vehicle miles can be attributed to complacency about impaired driving and increased driver distraction.
In 2020, fatalities increased to about 38,680 deaths, from about 36,000 in 2019, even with fewer drivers on the road and fewer miles traveled. The increase was attributed to more risky driving behavior, including speeding, failing to wear seat belts, and driving under the influence of drugs or alcohol. 2021 and 2022 experienced even more deaths, having 42,939 and 42,795 motor vehicle fatalities, respectively.
Motor vehicle deaths are most often expressed as a rate, often deaths per 100 million vehicle-miles or per billion vehicle-miles, or, for international comparisons, as deaths per billion vehicle-kilometers.
Introduction
In the United States, most fatalities are generated by road vehicles.
Safety overall has steadily improved in the United States for many decades. Between 1920 and 2000, the rate of fatal automobile crashes per vehicle-mile decreased by a factor of about 17. Except for a pause during the youth bulge of the 1960s (a time when many young, inexperienced drivers were on the road), progress in reducing fatal crashes has been steady. Safety for other types of U.S. passenger transportation has also improved substantially, but long-term statistical data are not as readily available. While the fatality rate roughly leveled off around 2000–2005 at around 1.5 fatalities per 100 million miles traveled, it has resumed a downward trend and reached 1.27 in 2008. The National Safety Council, using methodology that differs from the NHTSA, reports a rate (including deaths of pedestrians and cyclists killed in motor vehicle crashes) of 1.25 deaths per 100 million vehicle miles (or 12.5 deaths per billion vehicle miles) traveled in 2016.
Between 2008 and 2011, the economic recession, by a reduction in distance traveled, contributed to reducing fatalities.
Traffic safety by mode by traveled distance (public transportation)
Federal and individual approaches
The United States is exceptional in the way it approaches transportation safety.
While aviation is considered at a federal level with the FAA, road safety lacks a strong, federally led approach. Road safety is considered by each of the states of the US.
American attitudes regarding government surveillance and privacy, constitutionally guaranteed rights to confront one's accuser in criminal prosecutions, and skepticism towards government power might also have a role in concerns about transportation safety in the United States.
Four basic traits identified by Tocqueville in the 1830s have some influence on transportation safety in the United States:
Individualism (personal and private initiative);
Anti-statism (skepticism of government authority);
Populism (wisdom and power of the common person); and
Egalitarianism (equality of opportunity).
Automated camera technology might be used as in other nations to enforce traffic violations, but some argues that it violates the Constitution's Sixth Amendment, which provides that in “all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right … to be confronted with the witnesses against him.”.
Some people in government want to say that safety is priority number one, but when the federal government provides some guidances for safety measure which would reduce death by 37%, such as alcohol in 1998 or motorcycle helmet in 1967, around ten years are necessary for such measures be implemented by a number of local governments.
Federal organizations
Several federal organizations deal with transportation safety in the United States:
The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) investigates accidents and makes recommendations to the regulatory agencies.
Highway safety in general and vehicle safety in particular is the responsibility of the DOT's National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA).
Design standards for safe highways are the responsibility of the Federal Highway Administration.
Safety standards for commercial motor carriers and motor vehicle operators are the responsibility of the Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration (FMCSA).
Railroad safety is the province of the Federal Railroad Administration.
Aviation safety is the responsibility of the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA);
The Federal Transit Administration has assumed responsibility for federal oversight of transit agency safety.
Pipeline safety is the responsibility of the Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration (PHMSA).
Safe transportation of hazardous materials is the responsibility of PHMSA.
Marine safety is the responsibility of the U.S. Coast Guard within the Department of Homeland Security.
Offshore pipeline safety is the responsibility of the Bureau of Safety and Environmental Enforcement within the Department of the Interior.
Workplace safety, including the safety of transportation workers, is the responsibility of the Occupational Safety and Health Administration within the Department of Labor.
Transport of hazardous waste is generally subject to regulation by PHMSA, but is subject to additional regulation by the Environmental Protection Agency.
The Nuclear Regulatory Commission sets standards for the design and manufacture of packages containing radioactive materials, while PHMSA regulates actual transport of the materials.
Local organizations
New York City started a program, Vision Zero, that aims to lower vehicular fatalities by 50% between 2014 and 2025.
United States compared to other nations
The US ranks 41 out of 52 high-income nations based on road traffic deaths. US safety results are better than Russia, Saudi Arabia or Qatar.
Nonetheless the fatality rate in the United States is high relative to most other high-income nations. The 2013 U.S. rate of 7.1 road fatalities per 1 billion vehicle-km is about double the 2013 rate in Sweden, which was 3.5 road fatalities per 1 billion vehicle-km. (See: List of countries by traffic-related death rate.)
Also, United States is considered as "the most dangerous of wealthy nations for a child to be born into".
This differences might be linked to a difference of approach in driving safety culture, for instance in the balance between liberty and mandatory or forbidden dangerous or unsafe behavior.
To some extent this is due to geography and driver training, but more rigorous impaired driving enforcement and severe penalties in Sweden for driving under the influence may also explain the difference. While it might be argued that highways and vehicles in Sweden are different from those in the United States, the U.S. fatality rate is also about double the rate in the Canadian province of Ontario, which experienced 3.6 road fatalities per 1 billion vehicle-km according to preliminary 2014 data. Ontario, which is a vast province of more than 1 million square kilometers, has a similar mix of highway types including congested urban and rural highways. Ontario also has a similar mix of large transport trucks essentially identical to U.S. transport trucks, full-sized pickup trucks, SUVs and passenger cars, although there may be more small cars driven in Ontario compared to the United States. This suggests that differences in fatality rates are due to non-physical factors such as driver behavior.
Comparing motorways (controlled-access, divided highways) in Europe and the United States, according to 2012 data, Denmark had the safest motorways with a rate of 0.72 road fatalities per 1 billion vehicle-km, while the United States had 3.38 road fatalities per 1 billion vehicle-km on its Interstate-type highways, often called freeways.
In Germany the death rate on such highways was 1.74 road fatalities per 1 billion vehicle-km, about half the U.S. rate for Interstate-type highways. See: Safety: international comparison.
In Germany significant sections to the Autobahn network do not have mandatory speed limits, when according to the German Road Safety Council (DVR) the number of deaths per kilometer of motorway is 30% lower when motorways have speed limit.
Another difference between the US and Europe is that Europeans believe higher speed limits have an adverse impact on safety. For instance, in 2008 an ETSC report considers that «empirical evidence indicates that all instances of introduced speed limits on German motorways have caused very large casualty reductions.». According to the ETSC, in Germany, fatalities per kilometer of motorway is not linked to speed limit, but speed limit sections allows higher traffic volumes for a similar number of fatalities. That means that fatalities per traveled distance is lower where there are speed limits.
Road safety compared to European union nations
Until the 1980s, the US had lower road death rates than European countries. Most European countries have consistently improved their road safety since then, and now have lower rates than the US.
In 2020, fatalities increased to nearly 38,680 in the US due to fewer people driving on the road.
The same year, fatalities decreased to 18,800 in the EU, due to fewer people driving on the road.
That year there was % more fatalities in the US than in the EU, or % less in the EU than in the US.
Road safety compared to other UNECE nations by population
With 114 fatalities per million inhabitants in 2017, the United States has a lower fatality rate than Kyrgyzstan (147 per million inhabitants), Georgia (139 per million inhabitants) and Kazakhstan (115 per million inhabitants).
Safety compared to other nations by traveled distance
Traffic safety compared to other nations by traveled distance
Train safety compared to other nations by traveled distance
Compared to Canada
US trend is less favorable for the US than for Canada due to various factors such as vehicle, speed camera, transit, gasoline price and traveled distance.
Road safety
In 2021, road deaths were more common per one million inhabitants in the United States than in all other OECD countries. The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration previously attributed most of these deaths to human error, but this has been criticized as misleading and inaccurate by the chair of the National Transportation Safety Board, Jennifer Homendy, as well as other safety advocates.
Road to Zero
Road to Zero is a Vision zero initiative which aims to reach zero fatalities by 2050.
Rural vs Urban
In the US, in 2016, there were 18590 rural fatalities for 17656 urban fatalities.
Taking into account traveled miles, there was a risk of 1.96 fatalities per 100 million traveled miles on rural roads, for a risk of 0.79 fatalities per 100 million traveled miles on urban roads.
This makes 48% of people killed in urban area, for 52% of people killed in rural area.
In 2018, the increase in urban fatalities changed this rate: there was 16410 rural fatalities for 19499 urban fatalities, and 651 unlocated fatalilites. This makes 53% of people killed in urban area, for 45% of people killed in rural area.
In other countries, the rate are:
44% killed in urban area (speed limit lower than 60 km/h) in Canada in 2016, for 66% killed on rural area (speed limit upper than 60 km/h)
37% killed on urban streets (speed limit usually lower than 50 km/h, except in Poland) in the European union in 2015, for 8% on motorways and 55% on rural non motorways roads (speed limit usually upper than 50 km/h).
During the 2010–2019 decade,
rural roads became safer from 18,089 fatalities in 2010 to 16,340 one in 2019 for a same traveled distance;
urban roadway deaths increased by 34 percent while urban distance traveled increased 15 percent:
pedestrian fatalities increased by 62%,
cyclist fatalities increased by 49%.
Fatality rates by state
As of 2019, Mississippi and Alabama lead the rate of motor vehicle deaths in the US by state with 25.2 and 20.6 deaths respectively per 100,000 population. The death rate per 100 million miles traveled in 2015 ranged from 0.52 in Massachusetts to 1.89 in South Carolina. (The Massachusetts rate translates to about 3.25 fatalities per 1 billion vehicle-km. The South Carolina rate translates to about 11.8 fatalities per 1 billion vehicle-km.) In South Carolina, North Dakota and Texas, more than 40% of road fatalities were attributed to driving under the influence (DUI). A plot of vehicle-miles traveled per capita vs fatalities per 100,000 population shows Montana, South Carolina and West Virginia as outliers with higher than expected fatalities.
Enforcement and compliance with seat belt laws varies by state. (Massachusetts, which had the lowest death rate per 100 million miles traveled in 2015, was among the states with the lowest use of seat belts.) Some states require motorcycle helmets while others do not, and the states of Illinois, Iowa and New Hampshire have no helmet laws at all. Speed limits, traffic density, topography, climate and many other factors affect the divergent accident rates by state. Speed limits in Texas, Utah, and Rhode Island are prima facie rather than absolute. This allows motorists in those states to defend against a speeding charge if it can be proven that the speed was reasonable and prudent. In good driving conditions, many drivers in prima facie states presume (usually correctly) that police will allow some tolerance in enforcement. Even in states with absolute speed limits, enforcement and penalties vary from one state to another. For these and other reasons, state-to-state comparisons are difficult. There are many studies examining increases in Interstate speed limits from 55 mph to 65, 70 and 75 mph. Some found that fatality rates increased significantly on Interstate highways where speed limits were raised. One study that examined the change from 55 to 65 mph found higher Interstate speed limits improved overall highway safety by drawing traffic from less safe secondary highways to safer Interstate highways. Since the changes to 80 mph speed limits in some states (and 85 mph on one section of a toll highway in Texas) are relatively recent, robust analysis is not yet available. Anecdotal evidence suggests actual vehicle speeds did not increase as much as speed limits did. Also, police may be enforcing the new higher limits more strictly than they enforced the prior limits. In some states, police have reallocated resources to focus more on impaired and distracted driving. The higher speed limits are predominantly in rural states, which tend to be Republican states. To many Republican voters, speed limits (and seat belt laws) are seen as intrusions on personal liberty. According to transportation historian Owen Gutfreund, state governments may raise speed limits because raising the speed limit “sounds like such an easy regulatory win.” It's a simple way to “get government out of your face.”
On the other hand, according to the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety, Farmer performed a new study comparing deaths per billion miles traveled by state and roadway type — between 1993 and 2013 — on rural roads (the study does not cover the urban roads) concluded that each 5 mph (8 km/h) increase in the maximum speed limit is related to a 4 percent fatalities increase on some roads and an 8 percent increase on interstates and freeways.
Anyway such effect and safer cars mitigate together.
By class of road users
Class of road user involved in crash death vary from state to state. Anyway, in 2016, amongst many US states, Wyoming has a higher percentage of deaths involving occupants of SUVs and pickups, Massachusetts has highest proportions of car occupant deaths, District of Columbia has the highest percentage of motorcyclist deaths.
The District of Columbia and New York have the highest percentage of pedestrian deaths.
Although the number of motorcyclist deaths is lower than car occupants, it is greater by traveled distance.
Pedestrians and cyclists
As cars have become safer for occupants (due to airbags, structural crashworthiness and other improvements) the percent of pedestrian fatalities as a percent of total motor vehicle fatalities steadily increased from 11% in 2004 to 15% in 2014 according to NHTSA data. Bicyclists accounted for 2 percent of all traffic deaths in 2014.
Large trucks
According to the IIHS rear crash safety of large trucks could be improved by 44% with forward collision warning systems
and by 41% with automatic emergency braking.
In the US, Automated emergency braking (AEB) is not mandatory for heavy vehicles while it is in the European Union.
Rates per driver's license
One can also calculate auto fatalities per driver's license. From 1990 to 2009, this number has also been improving: from 1 death per 3,745 driver's licenses in 1990 to 1 per 6,200 driver's licenses in 2009. Crowded, traffic-choked Northeastern cities including Washington, D.C., Baltimore, Boston, Providence, Philadelphia, Newark, Hartford, New Haven, Springfield and Worcester, Massachusetts, were most likely to have car accidents. The NHTSA through its Fatality Analysis Reporting System stated that auto fatalities continue to be the leading cause of death for young adults.
Risk factors
Rural non-Interstate highways are particularly risky. Most are two-lane non-divided highways built to lower standards than Interstate highways. Drivers are more likely to be drunk or not wearing seat belts. Speeding is common. Deer, elk and moose crossing the highway add to the risk compared to urban highways. In the event of an accident in a remote area, injured victims may not receive emergency medical care in time to save their lives.
Many accidents when driving personal vehicles are caused by distracted driving. According to the American Automobile Association (AAA), distraction plays a factor in 60% of moderate to serious teen car crashes. Specifically, passenger and cell phone interaction accounted for 27% of crashes, the leading cause. Drivers looking away from the target (roadway) also accounted for 19%.
Non-use of seat belts is a significant risk factor. According to Col. Tom Butler, chief of the Montana Highway Patrol, preliminary 2015 data indicated that 178 of the 224 vehicle occupant fatalities were of individuals not wearing seat belts. The fine in Montana for not wearing a seat belt in 2015 was $20. Although speed limits increased from 75 mph to 80 mph on rural interstates that year, the biggest statewide increase in both crashes and deaths occurred on secondary roads. Forty-three people died on Montana two-lane roads outside of towns that are neither U.S. or state highways.
Average trip duration may be greater in rural states, which may mean driver fatigue is a more salient risk factor in rural states than in more densely populated states. Most data on the number of hours driven in a day and accident rates is for commercial drivers who are required to keep driving logs. (See next section.)
Human factor is one of the more significant in various factors leading to fatalities.
With the increase in the volume of American cars, the number of deaths of drivers and passengers inside these rolling castles has decreased by 22%. But the number of pedestrians has increased by 57%. If Americans had stuck to smaller vehicles, 8,000 pedestrian lives would have been saved between 2000 and 2018, estimates Justin Tyndall, assistant professor of economics at the University of Hawaii.
According to FDOT:
«When speeding is compared to fault, drivers traveling at any speed over 4 MPH over the posted limit were highly overrepresented in fault. As the amount of speeding increases, the degree of overrepresentation increases; however, even at 5–9 miles over the limit, drivers were overrepresented in fault by a factor of over 2.0. ».
«drinking drivers were between 3.5 and 18 times as likely to be at fault in the crash, depending on the amount of alcohol ingested. »
Cause
Several causes are involved:
Age
Calendar factors
The five most fatal days count more the 115 yearly fatalities making at least 575 fatalities in a five years period.
July 4 is the Independence Day (United States). On that day, in the US, fatalities are 25% higher than a regular day, each year.
November 1
August 2
October 25
August 30
Saturday is not a labour day. On that day, in the US, fatalities are 20% higher than a regular day, each year.
Vehicle Miles Traveled (VMT)
It is sometimes understood that fatalities increase with the increase of VMT, but this is not systematic as fatalities might remain quite stable while the VMT change.
Modal comparison
When Motor Vehicle Fatalities are compared to Fatalities occurring using mass transit in the U.S., the difference is enormous. According to the cited study, there are more than 30,000 deaths each year in the U.S. on public roads. For all types of mass transit there are less than 150 fatalities each year.
Driving versus flying
The number of deaths per passenger-mile on commercial airlines in the United States between 2000 and 2010 was about 0.2 deaths per 10 billion passenger-miles,
while for driving, the rate was 1.5 per 100 million vehicle-miles for 2000, which is 150 deaths per 10 billion miles for comparison with the air travel rate.
The per mile risk for vehicle transportation is therefore 750 times higher than the per mile risk for commercial air travel.
The greatest risk in flying is in takeoff and landing, meaning that longer aircraft trips are safer per mile. Commuter planes used on shorter flights have higher risk than larger jet aircraft. Driving on U.S. Interstate highways, which are almost always controlled-access divided highways, is safer than driving on most other roads and highways.
Unlike the large U.S. air carriers and commuter airlines, which on average have less than 20 fatalities annually, each year general aviation fatalities number in the hundreds. Most general aviation accidents involve single-engine, piston-powered airplanes used in recreational aviation.
Aviation vs rail
Rail and bus
Rail and bus (motorcoach) accidents also account for fatalities, although public transportation is far less dangerous than driving a personal vehicle.
From 2014 to 2016, fatal rail fatalities were 227, 234 and 231; with trespassers, fatalities are 749 for 2016.
Transportation jobs: Commercial drivers and air pilots
Driver fatigue is a concern, particularly for commercial drivers. Hours of service regulations are issued by the Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration (FMCSA) and govern the working hours of anyone operating a commercial motor vehicle (CMV) in the United States. The relationship between number of hours driven and the percent of commercial truck crashes related to driver fatigue is an exponential relationship. (See graph.)
Although the accident rate per 100 million miles for professional truckers is low, the high number of miles driven by a truck driver makes truck driving a risky occupation. Trucking transportation occupations accounted for one quarter of all work-related fatalities in 2015, more than any other U.S. job, according to the U.S. Labor Department's Bureau of Labor Statistics' annual workplace fatality report. The fatal injury rate in 2015 was 14.7 per 100,000 full-time equivalent workers in transportation and material moving occupations (which includes both truckers and air transportation workers.) This was a significantly lower rate than for workers in farming, fishing, and forestry occupations, but high compared to most other occupation categories. The report did not break out the fatal injury rate per 100,000 full-time equivalent workers among aircraft pilots and flight engineers but did note that they had a high fatal injury rate compared to all workers. There were 57 fatalities among aircraft pilots and flight engineers in 2015.
Safety by state
Between 2006 and 2015, number of killed people changed from 42642 to 35092 (−17%). During this period, around half of the states reduced the number of death by more than 20%, for instance: Alabama, Arizona, Arkansas, California, District of Columbia, Hawaii, Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, Louisiana, Maryland, Massachusetts, Mississippi, Nevada, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Dakota, Tennessee, Vermont, Virginia, West Virginia, Wisconsin, Wyoming.
In the same time, some states have killed more people, for instance North Dakota and Texas.
Road safety states trends
NTSB most Wanted List are on roadway safety
NTSB chair considers a change is needed because
The five NTSB’s Most Wanted List to prevent accidents, reduce injuries, and save lives are:
Implement a Comprehensive Strategy to Eliminate Speeding-Related Crashes
Protect Vulnerable Road Users through a Safe System Approach
Prevent Alcohol- and Other Drug-Impaired Driving
Require Collision-Avoidance and Connected-Vehicle Technologies on all Vehicles
Eliminate Distracted Driving (Distracted driving)
See also
List of motorcycle deaths in U.S. by year
Alcohol-related traffic crashes in the United States
List of motor vehicle deaths in U.S. by year
Road safety
Air safety
Risk analysis
Rail Safety Improvement Act of 2008
Work-related road safety in the United States
Traffic code in the United States
Notes
References
Transport safety
Transportation in the United States
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naso%20%28parashah%29
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Naso (parashah)
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Naso or Nasso (—Hebrew for "take a census" or "lift up," the sixth word, and the first distinctive word, in the parashah) is the 35th weekly Torah portion (, parashah) in the annual Jewish cycle of Torah reading and the second in the Book of Numbers. It constitutes Numbers 4:21–7:89. The parashah addresses priestly duties, camp purification, restitution for wrongs committed, the wife accused of unfaithfulness (, sotah), the nazirite, the Priestly Blessing, and consecration of the Tabernacle. Naso has the largest number of letters, words, and verses of any of the 54 weekly Torah portions. The parashah is made up of 8,632 Hebrew letters, 2,264 Hebrew words, 176 verses, and 311 lines in a Torah Scroll (, Sefer Torah).
Jews generally read it in late May or June, typically (though not always) on the first Shabbat after Shavuot. As this parashah includes the story of the consecration of the Tabernacle, Jews also read parts of it as Torah readings on the eight days of Hanukkah, when they commemorate the reconsecration of the Temple in Jerusalem. Numbers 7:1–17 is the Torah reading for the first day; Numbers 7:18–29 is the Torah reading for the second day; Numbers 7:24–35 is the Torah reading for the third day; Numbers 7:30–41 is the Torah reading for the fourth day; Numbers 7:36–47 is the Torah reading for the fifth day; Numbers 7:42–47 is the second Torah reading for the sixth day of Hanukkah, which, because it falls on Rosh Chodesh, has Numbers 28:1–15 as its first reading; Numbers 7:48–59 is the Torah reading for the seventh day when it does not fall on Rosh Chodesh; and Numbers 7:48–53 is the second Torah reading for the seventh day when it does fall on Rosh Chodesh, in which case Numbers 28:1–15 is the first reading; and Numbers 7:54–8:4 is the Torah reading for the eighth day. When a day of Hanukkah falls on a Sabbath, however, the regular weekly Torah reading for that Sabbath is the first Torah reading for that day, and the following readings from Parashat Naso are the maftir Torah readings: Numbers 7:1–17 is the maftir Torah reading for the first day; Numbers 7:18–23 is the maftir Torah reading for the second day; Numbers 7:24–29 is the maftir Torah reading for the third day; Numbers 7:30–35 is the maftir Torah reading for the fourth day; Numbers 7:36–41 is the maftir Torah reading for the fifth day; Numbers 7:42–47 is the maftir Torah reading for the sixth day of Hanukkah, which, because it falls on Rosh Chodesh, has Numbers 28:9–15 as its sixth aliyah; Numbers 7:48–53 is the maftir Torah reading for the seventh day; and Numbers 7:54–8:4 is the maftir Torah reading for the eighth day.
Readings
In traditional Sabbath Torah reading, the parashah is divided into seven readings, or , aliyot.
First reading—Numbers 4:21–37
In the first reading, God told Moses to take a census of the Gershonites between 30 and 50 years old, who were subject to service for the Tabernacle. The Gershonites had the duty, under the direction of Aaron's son Ithamar, to carry the cloths of the Tabernacle, the Tent of Meeting with its covering, the covering of tachash skin on top of it, the screen for the entrance of the Tent of Meeting, the hangings of the enclosure, the screen at the entrance of the gate of the enclosure surrounding the Tabernacle, the cords thereof, the altar, and all their service equipment and accessories. Moses was also to take a census of the Merarites between 30 and 50 years old. The Merarites had responsibility, under the direction of Ithamar, for the planks, the bars, the posts, and the sockets of the Tabernacle, and the posts around the enclosure and their sockets, pegs, and cords. Moses, Aaron, and the chieftains recorded 2,750 Kohathites age 30 to 50.
Second reading—Numbers 4:38–49
In the second reading, Moses, Aaron, and the chieftains recorded the Levites age 30 to 50 as follows:
Kohathites: 2,750,
Gershonites: 2,630, and
Merarites: 3,200,
making a total of 8,580 undertaking the work of service and the work of bearing burdens.
Third reading—Numbers 5:1–10
In the third reading, God directed the Israelites to remove from camp anyone with an eruption or a discharge and anyone defiled by a corpse, so that they would not defile the camp. God told Moses to direct the Israelites that when one wronged a fellow Israelite, thus breaking faith with God, and realized his guilt, he was to confess the wrong and make restitution to the one wronged in the principal amount plus one-fifth. If the one wronged had died, it is implied that restitution was to be made to a kinsman, and if there is no kinsman to whom restitution could be made, the amount repaid was to go to the priest, along (in any case) with a ram of expiation.
Similarly, any gift among the sacred donations that the Israelites offered was to be the priest's to keep.
Fourth reading—Numbers 5:11–6:27
In the fourth reading, God told Moses to instruct the Israelites about the test where a husband, in a fit of jealousy, accused his wife of being unfaithful—the ritual of the sotah. The man was to bring his wife to the priest, along with barley flour as a meal offering of jealousy. The priest was to dissolve some earth from the floor of the Tabernacle into some sacral water in an earthen vessel. The priest was to bare the woman's head, place the meal offering on her hands, and adjure the woman: if innocent, to be immune to harm from the water of bitterness, but if guilty, to be cursed to have her thigh sag and belly distend. And the woman was to say, "Amen, amen!" The priest was to write these curses down, rub the writing off into the water of bitterness, and make the woman drink the water. The priest was to elevate the meal offering, present it on the altar, and burn a token part of it on the altar. If she had broken faith with her husband, the water would cause her belly to distend and her thigh to sag, and the woman was to become a curse among her people, but if the woman was innocent, she would remain unharmed and be able to bear children.
In the continuation of the fourth reading, God told Moses to instruct the Israelites about the vows of a nazirite (, nazir), should one wish to set himself or herself apart for God. The nazirite was to abstain from wine, intoxicants, vinegar, grapes, raisins, or anything obtained from the grapevine. No razor was to touch the nazirite's head until the completion of the nazirite term. And the nazirite was not to go near a dead person, even a father, mother, brother, or sister. If a person died suddenly near a nazirite, the nazirite was to shave his or her head on the seventh day. On the eighth day, the nazirite was to bring two turtledoves or two pigeons to the priest, who was to offer one as a sin offering and the other as a burnt offering. That same day, the nazirite was to reconsecrate his or her head, rededicate the nazirite term, and bring a lamb in its first year as a penalty offering. On the day that a nazirite completed his or her term, the nazirite was to be brought to the entrance of the Tent of Meeting and present a male lamb in its first year for a burnt offering, a ewe lamb in its first year for a sin offering, a ram for an offering of well-being, a basket of unleavened cakes, unleavened wafers spread with oil, and meal offerings. The priest was to present the offerings, and the nazirite was to shave his or her consecrated hair and put the hair on the fire under the sacrifice of well-being.
In the conclusion of the fourth reading, God told Moses to instruct Aaron and his sons that they should bless the Israelites with this blessing: "The Lord bless you and protect you! The Lord deal kindly and graciously with you! The Lord bestow His favor upon you and grant you peace!"
Fifth reading—Numbers 7:1–41
In the fifth reading, Moses finished setting up the Tabernacle, and anointed and consecrated it, its furnishings, the altar, and its utensils. The chieftains of the tribes then brought their offerings—6 carts and 12 oxen—and God told Moses to accept them for use by the Levites in the service of the Tent of Meeting. He allocated two carts and four oxen to the Gershonites and the remaining four carts and eight oxen to the Merarites. None were allocated to the Kohathites, 'because the sacred objects they took care of had to be carried on their shoulders'.
The chieftains then each on successive days brought the same dedication offerings for the altar: a silver bowl and silver basin filled with flour mixed with oil, a gold ladle filled with incense, a bull, 2 oxen, 5 rams, 5 goats, and 5 lambs.
Sixth reading—Numbers 7:42–71
In the sixth reading, the chieftains continued to bring dedication offerings for the altar.
Seventh reading—Numbers 7:72–89
In the seventh reading, the chieftains from the remaining tribes bought their dedication offerings for the altar. When Moses went into the Tent of Meeting to speak with God, Moses would hear the Voice addressing him from above the cover that was on top of the Ark between the two cherubim, and thus God spoke to him.
Readings according to the triennial cycle
Jews who read the Torah according to the triennial cycle of Torah reading read the parashah according to the following schedule:
In inner-Biblical interpretation
The parashah has parallels or is discussed in these Biblical sources:
Numbers chapter 4
Numbers 4:21–33 refers to duties of the Levites. Deuteronomy 33:10 reports that Levites taught the law. Deuteronomy 17:9–10 reports that they served as judges. And Deuteronomy 10:8 reports that they blessed God's name. 1 Chronicles 23:3–5 reports that of 38,000 Levite men age 30 and up, 24,000 were in charge of the work of the Temple in Jerusalem, 6,000 were officers and magistrates, 4,000 were gatekeepers, and 4,000 praised God with instruments and song. 1 Chronicles 15:16 reports that King David installed Levites as singers with musical instruments, harps, lyres, and cymbals, and 1 Chronicles 16:4 reports that David appointed Levites to minister before the Ark, to invoke, to praise, and to extol God. And 2 Chronicles 5:12 reports at the inauguration of Solomon's Temple, Levites sang dressed in fine linen, holding cymbals, harps, and lyres, to the east of the altar, and with them 120 priests blew trumpets. 2 Chronicles 20:19 reports that Levites of the sons of Kohath and of the sons of Korah extolled God in song. Eleven Psalms identify themselves as of the Korahites.
Numbers chapter 5
Corpse contamination
In Numbers 5:1–4, God instructed Moses to command the Israelites to put out of the camp every person defiled by contact with the dead, so that they would not defile their camps, in the midst of which God dwelt. This is one of a series of passages setting out the teaching that contact with the dead is antithetical to purity.
In Leviticus 21:1–5, God instructed Moses to direct the priests not to allow themselves to become defiled by contact with the dead, except for a mother, father, son, daughter, brother, or unmarried sister. And the priests were not to engage in mourning rituals of making baldness upon their heads, shaving off the corners of their beards, or cutting their flesh.
Numbers 19 sets out a procedure for a red heifer mixture for decontamination from corpse contamination.
In its profession associated with tithing, Deuteronomy 26:13–14 instructed Israelites to aver that they had not eaten from the tithe in mourning, nor put away any of it while unclean, nor given any of it to the dead.
In Ezekiel 43:6–9, the prophet Ezekiel cites the burial of kings within the Temple as one of the practices that defiled the Temple and cause God to abandon it.
Numbers 5:1–4 and 6:6–7 associate death with uncleanness, as do Leviticus 11:8, 11; 21:1–4, 11; and Numbers 19:11–16. Perhaps similarly, Leviticus 12 associates uncleanness with childbirth and Leviticus 13–14 associates it with skin disease. Leviticus 15 associates it with various sexuality-related events. And Jeremiah 2:7, 23; 3:2; and 7:30; and Hosea 6:10 associate it with contact with the worship of alien gods.
Repentance for false swearing
The Rabbis read Numbers 5:6–8 together with Leviticus 5:21–26 as related passages. Leviticus 5:21–26 deals with those who sin and commit a trespass against God by dealing falsely with their neighbors in the matter of a deposit, pledge, theft, other oppression of their neighbors, or the finding of lost property, and swear to a lie. Leviticus 5:23–24 provides that the offender must immediately restore in full to the victim the property at issue and shall add an additional fifth part. And Leviticus 5:25–26 requires the offender to bring to the priest an unblemished ram for a guilt-offering, and the priest shall make atonement for the offender before God, and the offender shall be forgiven.
Numbers 5:6–7 directs that when people commit any sin against God, then they shall confess and make restitution in full to the victim and add a fifth part. And Numbers 5:8 provides that if the victim has no heir to whom restitution may be made, the offender must make restitution to the priest, in addition to the ram of atonement.
The Sotah
Amy Kalmanofsky suggested that the closest analogue to the ritual for the suspected wife in Numbers 5:11–31 is the ritual in Deuteronomy 21:1–9 in response to an unsolved murder, as both rituals addressed cases where the community faced the possibility of a capital crime without the evidence necessary to determine guilt or innocence.
Kalmanofsky noted that the verbal root s-t-h (), translated in this passage as "gone astray," appears four times here—in Numbers 5:12 (, tisteh), 5:19 (, satit), 5:20 (, satit), and 5:29 (, tisteh)—but only twice more in the rest of the Hebrew Bible, when Proverbs 4:15 (, seteh, “turn away”) and 7:25 (, yest, “wander”) warn young men to resist the seductions of dangerous women.
Numbers chapter 6
The Nazirite
Numbers 6:1–21 sets forth the laws of the nazirite. Judges 13:2–24 tells how an angel directed Manoah and his wife that their then-unborn son Samson would be a nazirite. And 1 Samuel 1:1–11 tells how Hannah pledged her then-unborn son Samuel to be a nazirite.
The prophet Amos compared nazirites to prophets, teaching that God raised up both. And Amos chastised Israel for inducing nazirites to drink wine.
Numbers chapter 7
According to Exodus 40:17, "In the first month of the second year, on the first of the month, the Tabernacle was set up." Numbers 7:1 then reports, "On the day that Moses finished setting up the Tabernacle," the chieftains of the tribes began bringing their offerings and would continue for 12 days. At the same time, the ordination events of Leviticus 8 took place. "On the eighth day," the inaugural offerings of Leviticus 9 took place, followed by the incident of Nadab and Abihu in Leviticus 10. Numbers 9:5 then reports, "on the fourteenth day of the month," the Israelites offered the Passover sacrifice. Numbers 1:1 and the section on the census begins, "On the first day of the second month, in the second year following the exodus from the land of Egypt." And Numbers 9:11 then reports that the second Passover for those unable to participate in the first Passover would commence "in the second month, on the fourteenth day of the month." Thus, the events beginning with Numbers 7:1 would have taken place in the month before the those of Numbers 1:1 and the section on the census.
In classical rabbinic interpretation
The parashah is discussed in these rabbinic sources from the era of the Mishnah and the Talmud:
Numbers chapter 4
A Midrash noted that God ordered the Kohathites counted first in Numbers 4:1 and only thereafter ordered the Gershonites counted in Numbers 4:21, even though Gershon was the firstborn and Scripture generally honors the firstborn. The Midrash taught that Scripture gives Kohath precedence over Gershon because the Kohathites bore the Ark that carried the Torah. Similarly, another Midrash taught that God ordered the Kohathites counted first because Kohath was most holy, for Aaron the priest—who was most holy—descended from Kohath, while Gershon was only holy. But the Midrash taught that Gershon did not forfeit his status as firstborn, because Scripture uses the same language, "Lift up the head of the sons of," with regard to Kohath in Numbers 4:2 and with regard to Gershon in Numbers 4:22. And Numbers 4:22 says "they also" with regard to the Gershonites so that one should not suppose that the Gershonites were numbered second because they were inferior to the Kohathites; rather Numbers 4:22 says "they also" to indicate that the Gershonites were also like the Kohathites in every respect, and the Kohathites were placed first in this connection as a mark of respect to the Torah. In other places; however, Scripture places Gershon before Kohath.
A Midrash taught that had Reuben not disgraced himself by his conduct with Bilhah in Genesis 35:22, his descendants would have been worthy of assuming the service of the Levites, for ordinary Levites came to replace firstborn Israelites, as Numbers 3:41 says, "And you shall take the Levites for Me, even the Lord, instead of all the firstborn among the children of Israel."
A Midrash noted that in Numbers 4:1, "the Lord spoke to Moses and Aaron" to direct them to count the Kohathites and in Numbers 4:21 "the Lord spoke to Moses" to direct him to count the Gershonites, but Numbers 4:29 does not report that "the Lord spoke" to direct them to count the Merarites. The Midrash deduced that Numbers 4:21 employed the words "the Lord spoke" so as to give honor to Gershon as the firstborn, and to give him the same status as Kohath. The Midrash then noted that Numbers 4:1 reported that God spoke "to Aaron" with regard to the Kohathites but Numbers 4:21 did not report communication to Aaron with regard to the Gershonites. The Midrash taught that God excluded Aaron from all Divine communications to Moses and that passages that mention Aaron do not report that God spoke to Aaron, but include Aaron's name in sections that concern Aaron to indicate that God spoke to Moses so that he might repeat what he heard to Aaron. Thus Numbers 4:1 mentions Aaron regarding the Kohathites because Aaron and his sons assigned the Kohathites their duties, since (as Numbers 4:15 relates) the Kohathites were not permitted to touch the ark or any of the vessels until Aaron and his sons had covered them. In the case of the Gershonites, however, the Midrash finds no evidence that Aaron personally interfered with them, as Ithamar supervised their tasks, and thus Numbers 4:21 does not mention Aaron in connection with the Gershonites.
A Midrash noted that in Numbers 4:2 and 4:22, God used the expression "lift up the head" to direct counting the Kohathites and Gershonites, but in Numbers 4:29, God does not use that expression to direct counting the Merarites. The Midrash deduced that God honored the Kohathites on account of the honor of the Ark and the Gershonites because Gershon was a firstborn. But since the Merarites neither cared for the Ark nor descended from a firstborn, God did not use the expression "lift up the head."
A Midrash noted that in Numbers 4:2 and 4:29, for the Kohathites and the Merarites, the sequence is "by their families, by their fathers houses," whereas in Numbers 4:22, for the Gershonites, "their fathers' houses" precedes "their families." The Midrash deduced that this is so because the importance of the Gershonites comes from their fathers' house, as Gershon was the firstborn.
The Tosefta noted that Numbers 4:3, 23, 30, 35, 39, 43, and 47 say that Levites "30 years old and upward" did service in the tent of meeting, while Numbers 8:24 says, "from 25 years old and upward they shall go in to perform the service in the work of the tent of meeting." The Tosefta deduced that the difference teaches that all those five years, from the age of 25 to the age of 30, Levites studied, serving apprenticeships, and from that time onward they were allowed to draw near to do service. The Tosefta concluded that a Levite could not enter the Temple courtyard to do service unless he had served an apprenticeship of five years. And the Tosefta inferred from this that students who see no sign of success in their studies within a period of five years will never see any. Rabbi Jose said that students had to see success within three years, basing his position on the words "that they should be nourished three years" in Daniel 1:5.;
A Midrash taught that the words of Numbers 4:23, "All who enter in to wait upon the service," refer to those who were gate-keepers (whose job was to guard the Temple and not to perform active service). And the Midrash taught that the words of Numbers 4:23, "To do service in the tent of meeting," refer to those who were the singers.
Rav Hamnuna taught that God's decree that the generation of the spies would die in the wilderness did not apply to the Levites, for Numbers 14:29 says, "your carcasses shall fall in this wilderness, and all that were numbered of you, according to your whole number, from 20 years old and upward," and this implies that those who were numbered from 20 years old and upward came under the decree, while the tribe of Levi—which Numbers 4:3, 23, 30, 35, 39, 43, and 47 say was numbered from 30 years old and upward—was excluded from the decree.
The Gemara read the words of Numbers 4:25, “they shall bear the curtains of the Tabernacle, and the Tent of Meeting, its covering and the covering of sealskin that is above it,” to treat the Tabernacle's upper covering of animal skins as a piece with the lower curtains of goats’ hair. The Gemara thus concluded that just as the lower covering could be called a “tent,” so is the upper covering could be considered a “tent” for purposes of impurity caused by a corpse.
Rabbi Jose employed Numbers 4:26 to calculate the height of the walls of the courtyard in relation to the height of the outer altar. Rabbi Judah maintained that the outer altar was wider than Rabbi Jose thought it was, whereas Rabbi Jose maintained that the outer altar was taller than Rabbi Judah thought it was. Rabbi Jose said that one should read literally the words of Exodus 27:1, "five cubits long, and five cubits broad." But Rabbi Judah noted that Exodus 27:1 uses the word "square" (, ravua), just as Ezekiel 43:16 uses the word "square" (, ravua). Rabbi Judah argued that just as in Ezekiel 43:16, the dimension was measured from the center (so that the dimension described only one quadrant of the total), so the dimensions of Exodus 27:1 should be measured from the center (and thus, according to Rabbi Judah, the altar was 10 cubits on each side.) The Gemara explained that we know that this is how to understand Ezekiel 43:16 because Ezekiel 43:16 says, "And the hearth shall be 12 cubits long by 12 cubits broad, square," and Ezekiel 43:16 continues, "to the four sides thereof," teaching that the measurement was taken from the middle (interpreting "to" as intimating that from a particular point, there were 12 cubits in all directions, hence from the center). Rabbi Jose, however, reasoned that a common use of the word "square" applied to the height of the altar. Rabbi Judah said that one should read literally the words of Exodus 27:1, "And the height thereof shall be three cubits." But Rabbi Jose noted that Exodus 27:1 uses the word "square" (, ravua), just as Exodus 30:2 uses the word "square" (, ravua, referring to the inner altar). Rabbi Jose argued that just as in Exodus 30:2 the altar's height was twice its length, so too in Exodus 27:1, the height was to be read as twice its length (and thus the altar was 10 cubits high). Rabbi Judah questioned Rabbi Jose's conclusion, for if priests stood on the altar to perform the service 10 cubits above the ground, the people would see them from outside the courtyard. Rabbi Jose replied to Rabbi Judah that Numbers 4:26 states, "And the hangings of the court, and the screen for the door of the gate of the court, which is by the Tabernacle and by the altar round about," teaching that just as the Tabernacle was 10 cubits high, so was the altar 10 cubits high; and Exodus 38:14 says, "The hangings for the one side were fifteen cubits" (teaching that the walls of the courtyard were 15 cubits high). The Gemara explained that according to Rabbi Jose's reading, the words of Exodus 27:18, "And the height five cubits," meant from the upper edge of the altar to the top of the hangings. And according to Rabbi Jose, the words of Exodus 27:1, "and the height thereof shall be three cubits," meant that there were three cubits from the edge of the terrace (on the side of the altar) to the top of the altar. Rabbi Judah, however, granted that the priest could be seen outside the Tabernacle, but argued that the sacrifice in his hands could not be seen.
A Midrash taught that the Levites camped on the four sides of the Tabernacle in accordance with their duties. The Midrash explained that from the west came snow, hail, cold, and heat, and thus God placed the Gershonites on the west, as Numbers 3:25 indicates that their service was "the tent, the covering thereof, and the screen for the door of the tent of meeting," which could shield against snow, hail, cold, and heat. The Midrash explained that from the south came the dew and rain that bring blessing to the world, and there God placed the Kohathites, who bore the ark that carried the Torah, for as Leviticus 26:3–4 and 15–19 teach, the rains depend on the observance of the Torah. The Midrash explained that from the north came darkness, and thus the Merarites camped there, as Numbers 4:31 indicates that their service was the carrying of wood ("the boards of the tabernacle, and the bars thereof, and the pillars thereof, and the sockets thereof") which Jeremiah 10:8 teaches counteract idolatrous influences when it says, "The chastisement of vanities is wood." And the Midrash explained that from the east comes light, and thus Moses, Aaron, and his sons camped there, because they were scholars and men of pious deeds, bringing atonement by their prayer and sacrifices.
A Midrash inferred from the words "from 30 years old . . . every one that entered upon the service" in Numbers 4:35 that a man attains his full strength at age 30.
Reading Numbers 4:47, "to do the work of service," the Gemara taught that Levites became unfit for service with the passage of years, as they were fit for service only between the ages of 30 and 50. The Gemara taught that Priests, in contrast remained fit with the passage of years, from the moment that they reached majority for the rest of their lives. But the Gemara clarified that the mandatory retirement requirement for Levites at the age of 50 applied only with regard to the Tent of Meeting of the Tabernacle in the wilderness, whereas with regard to Shiloh and in the Temple in Jerusalem, Levites were disqualified only due to a change in voice that rendered them unable to recite the songs in the Temple with their brethren.
Belvati in the name of Rabbi Joḥanan derived the Levite's obligation to sing songs while offering sacrifices from the words of Numbers 4:47, "to do the work of service." Belvati reasoned that the work that requires service is the song.
Numbers chapter 5
Rabi Levi taught that the discussion of how to purify the camp in Numbers 5:1–4 was one of eight passages given to Moses on the day that the Tabernacle was erected, because the people needed to implement them immediately. Those who were ritually impure needed to be excluded from the camp before the construction and dedication of the Tabernacle took place otherwise the camp and Tabernacle would have been defiled from the outset. Rabbi Rabbi Joḥanan said in the name of Rabbi Bana'ah that the Torah was transmitted in separate scrolls, as Psalm 40:8 says, "Then said I, 'Lo I am come, in the roll of the book it is written of me.'" Rabbi Simeon ben Lakish (Resh Lakish), however, said that the Torah was transmitted in its entirety, as Deuteronomy 31:26 says, "Take this book of the law." The Gemara reported that Rabbi Joḥanan interpreted Deuteronomy 31:26, "Take this book of the law," to refer to the time after the Torah had been joined together from its several parts. And the Gemara suggested that Resh Lakish interpreted Psalm 40:8, "in a roll of the book written of me," to indicate that the whole Torah is called a "roll," as Zechariah 5:2 says, "And he said to me, 'What do you see?' And I answered, 'I see a flying roll.'" Or perhaps, the Gemara suggested, it is called "roll" for the reason given by Rabbi Levi, who said that God gave eight sections of the Torah, which Moses then wrote on separate rolls, on the day on which the Tabernacle was set up. They were: the section of the priests in Leviticus 21, the section of the Levites in Numbers 8:5–26 (as the Levites were required for the service of song on that day), the section of the unclean (who would be required to keep the Passover in the second month) in Numbers 9:1–14, the section of the sending of the unclean out of the camp (which also had to take place before the Tabernacle was set up) in Numbers 5:1–4, the section of Leviticus 16:1–34 (dealing with Yom Kippur, which Leviticus 16:1 states was transmitted immediately after the death of Aaron's two sons), the section dealing with the drinking of wine by priests in Leviticus 10:8–11, the section of the lights of the menorah in Numbers 8:1–4, and the section of the red heifer in Numbers 19 (which came into force as soon as the Tabernacle was set up).
Chapter 9 of Tractate Bava Kamma in the Mishnah and Babylonian Talmud and chapters 9 and 10 in the Tosefta interpreted the laws of restitution in Numbers 5:6–8 together with Leviticus 5:21–26.
Reading Numbers 5:6, "When a man or woman shall commit any sin," Rav Judah said on behalf of Rav, and it was also taught at the school of Rabbi Ishmael, that Scripture thus made women and men equal regarding all the penalties of the Law. The Gemara cited this conclusion to support the ruling of the Mishnah that women are subject to the law of torts.
The Mishnah taught that if one stole from another something worth a perutah (the minimum amount of significant value) and the thief nonetheless swore that the thief did not do so, the thief was obliged to take restitution to the victim even if the thief needed to go as far as Media (in what is now Iran). The thief could not give restitution to the victim's son or agent, but the thief could give it to an agent of the court. If the victim died, the thief had to restore it to the victim's heirs.
The Mishnah taught that if the thief paid back the principal to the victim but did not pay the additional fifth required by Leviticus 5:24; or if the victim excused the thief the principal but not the fifth; or the victim excused the thief both the principal and the fifth, except for something less than the value of a perutah remaining of the principal, then the thief would not have to go after the victim to repay the victim. (The Mishnah did not consider the payment of the fifth as an essential condition of atonement.) If, however, the thief paid the victim the fifth but not the principal; or the victim excused the thief the fifth but not the principal; or even where the victim excused the thief for both, except for something more than the value of a perutah remaining of the principal, then the thief would have to convey it personally to the victim (even as far as Media).
The Mishnah taught that if the thief paid the principal back to the victim and took an oath falsely that the thief had paid the fifth required by Leviticus 5:24, the thief would have to pay the victim an additional fifth of the fifth and so on until the principal of the last fifth about which the thief swore was reduced to less than the value of a perutah.
The Mishnah taught that the rules of restitution also applied to the case of a deposit, as Leviticus 5:21–22 says: "In that which was delivered him to keep, or in fellowship, or in a thing taken away by violence, or has deceived his neighbor, or has found that which was lost and lies concerning it and swears falsely." The custodian had to pay the principal and the fifth required by Leviticus 5:24 and bring a trespass offering as required by Leviticus 5:25. If the depositor asked where the thing deposited was, and an unpaid custodian replied that it was lost, and the depositor then imposed an oath on the custodian, and the custodian swore that the deposit was lost, if witnesses then testified that the custodian consumed the thing deposited, then the custodian had to repay the principal. If the custodian confessed, the custodian had to pay the principal together with a fifth and bring a trespass offering, as required by Leviticus 5:21–24. If, however, the depositor asked where the thing deposited was, and the custodian replied that it was stolen, and the depositor then imposed an oath on the custodian, and the custodian swore that the someone else took the thing deposited, if witnesses testified that the custodian stole it, then the custodian had to repay double as required by Exodus 22:8. But if the custodian confessed on the custodian's own accord, then the custodian had to repay the principal together with a fifth and bring a trespass offering, as required by Leviticus 5:21–24.
The Mishnah taught that if one stole from one's father and, when charged by the father, denied it on oath, and the father then died before the child confessed to the father's heirs, then the child would have to repay the principal and a fifth to the father's other children or to the father's brothers (the child's uncles) if the child had no siblings. But if the child was unwilling to forfeit the child's share in the payment that child had to make, or if the child had no resources, then the child was to borrow the amount from others and perform the duty of restoration to the heirs, and the creditors could subsequently come and demand to be paid the portion that would by law have belonged to the child as heir.
Reading Numbers 5:8, Rabbi Ishmael asked what Jew would not have a kinsman to whom to make restitution, as all Jews descend from Jacob and thus are all kin. Rabbi Ishmael thus interpreted Numbers 5:8 to apply to one who robs a convert and makes an oath to the convert, but before the thief can make restitution, the convert dies without any wife or children (viewing a convert as a newborn, without relationship to those born prior to the convert's conversion).
Similarly, a Midrash read Numbers 5:6–8 together with Psalm 146:8–9, which the Midrash read as, "The Lord loves the righteous; the Lord preserves the converts." The Midrash taught that God loves those who love God, and thus God loves the righteous, because their worth is due neither to heritage nor to family. The Midrash compared God's great love of converts to a king who had a flock of goats, and once a stag came in with the flock. When the king was told that the stag had joined the flock, the king felt an affection for the stag and gave orders that the stag have good pasture and drink and that no one beat him. When the king's servants asked him why he protected the stag, the king explained that the flock have no choice, but the stag did. The king accounted it as a merit to the stag that had left behind the whole of the broad, vast wilderness, the abode of all the beasts, and had come to stay in the courtyard. In like manner, God provided converts with special protection, for God exhorted Israel not to harm them, as Deuteronomy 10:19 says, "Love therefore the convert," and Exodus 23:9 says, "And a convert shall you not oppress." In the same manner also as the Numbers 5:6–8 has imposed upon one who robs another the obligation of a money payment and of a sacrifice of a ram of atonement, so the Torah imposed upon one who robs a convert the obligation of paying the convert his money and of bringing a sacrifice of a ram of atonement. The Midrash taught that Numbers 5:6–8 thus refers to one who robs a convert, in consonance with Psalm 146:9, ‘The Lord preserves the converts.” Thus God made provision for safeguarding converts so that they might not return to their former lives.
The Mishnah interpreted the requirements of Numbers 5:8 regarding restitution where the victim died without kin to apply as well to where a convert victim died. The wrongdoer would have to pay the priests the principal plus 20 percent and bring a trespass offering to the altar. If the wrongdoer died bringing the money and the offering to Jerusalem, the money was to go to the wrongdoer's heirs, and the offering was to be kept on the pasture until it became blemished, when it was to be sold and the proceeds were to go to the fund for freewill offerings. But if the wrongdoer had already given the money to the priest and then died, the heirs could not retrieve the funds, for Numbers 5:10 provides that "whatever any man gives to the priest shall be his."
The Sotah
Tractate Sotah in the Mishnah, Tosefta, Jerusalem Talmud, and Babylonian Talmud interpreted the laws of the woman accused of being unfaithful (, sotah) in Numbers 5:11–31.
Hezekiah the son of Rabbi Parnak said in the name of Rabbi Joḥanan that the laws of the woman accused of being unfaithful in Numbers 5:11–31 follow immediately on laws dealing with the heave offering (, terumah) and tithes to teach that if one has a heave offering or a tithe and does not give it to the priest, in the end he will require the priest's services to deal with his wife. For Numbers 5:10 says, "Every man's hallowed things shall be his," and immediately afterwards Numbers 5:12 says, "If any man's wife go aside," and thereafter Numbers 5:15 says, "the man shall bring his wife to the priest." Even more, in the end, such a person would need the tithe for the poor, as Numbers 5:10 says, "Every man's hallowed things shall be his" (in the form of a tithe for the poor). In contrast, Rav Nachman bar Yitzchak taught that if he does give, he will eventually become rich. For Numbers 5:10 says, "Whatever a man gives the priest, he shall have," and that means that he shall have much wealth.
The Mishnah taught that before a husband could accuse his wife pursuant to the procedure of Numbers 5:11–31, he had to warn her not to associate with a certain man. Rabbi Eliezer said that he warned her on the testimony of two witnesses, and made her drink the bitter water on the testimony of one witness or his own testimony. Rabbi Joshua said that he warned her on the testimony of two witnesses and made her drink on the testimony of two witnesses.
The Mishnah taught that it was not sufficient for the husband simply to say to his wife (in the presence of two witnesses) not to converse with a man. And if she nonetheless conversed with him, she was still permitted to her husband and (if a daughter of a Kohen) still permitted to eat from sacrifices. If, however, she entered a private place with the man and stayed with him long enough to have committed misconduct, she was forbidden to her husband and forbidden to eat from sacrifices, and if her husband died, she was required to perform the ceremony of halizah and could not contract a levirate marriage.
The Mishnah deduced from the two uses of the words "they shall enter" in Numbers 5:22 and 27 that just as the bitter water tested the suspected wife, so it tested the suspected paramour, punishing him as well as her if they were guilty. And Rabbi Akiva taught that in the event that she was guilty, just as she was prohibited to her husband (who would have to divorce her), so was she prohibited to the paramour (and could not marry him), for Numbers 5:29 says, "defiled ... And is defiled." Rabbi Joshua taught that Zechariah ben HaKazav used to expound the matter that way. And Rabbi taught that the word "defiled" occurs twice in Numbers 5:14 and 29 because one occurrence referred to her being prohibited to the husband and the other to the paramour. The Gemara explained that just as the guilty woman would be punished in her belly and thigh, so too would the paramour.
Reading the report of Exodus 32:20 that Moses "took the calf ... ground it to powder, and sprinkled it on the water, and made the children of Israel drink it," the Sages interpreted that Moses meant to test the Israelites much as the procedure of Numbers 5:11–31 tested a wife accused of adultery (, sotah).
A Midrash taught that there is nothing greater before God than the "amen" that Israel answers. Rabbi Judah ben Sima taught that the word "amen" contains three kinds of solemn declarations: oath, consent, and confirmation. Numbers 5:21–22 demonstrates oath when it says, "Then the priest shall cause the woman to swear ... and the woman shall say: 'Amen, Amen.'" Deuteronomy 27:26 demonstrates consent when it says "And all the people shall say: 'Amen.'" And 1 Kings 1:36 demonstrates confirmation when it says, "And Benaiah the son of Jehoiada answered the king, and said: 'Amen; so say the Lord.'"
A Baraita read Numbers 5:31, "And the man shall be cleared of transgression, and that woman shall bear her transgression," to teach that when the husband was clear of transgression, the waters evaluated his wife's faithfulness, but if the husband was not clear of transgression, the waters did not evaluate his wife's faithfulness.
The Mishnah taught that when adulterers multiplied, Rabban Joḥanan ben Zakkai discontinued the sotah ceremony of Numbers 5:11–31, as Hosea 4:14 says, "I will not punish your daughters when they commit harlotry, nor your daughters-in-law when they commit adultery; for they themselves consort with lewd women, and they sacrifice with harlots; and the people that is without understanding is distraught."
Numbers chapter 6
The Nazirite
Tractate Nazir in the Mishnah, Tosefta, Jerusalem Talmud, and Babylonian Talmud interpreted the laws of the nazirite (, nazir) in Numbers 6:1–21.
It was taught in a Baraita that Rabbi taught that the laws of the nazirite in Numbers 6:1–21 follow immediately those of the woman accused of being unfaithful in Numbers 5:11–31 to teach that anyone who sees an unfaithful wife in her ruination should (take a lesson from her ways and) completely abstain from wine (for wine brought her to her end). Similarly, a Midrash taught that when they made the suspected wife drink, they told her that much might have been due to wine. And all the Israelites who had seen it would come home and bemoan the person who had drunk wine, got intoxicated, committed sin, and died. And so they would swear never to taste wine, so that they might not meet the same fate. And the Midrash provided another explanation: Just as the nazirite was separated from wine, so God separated the faithless wife from other women. Similarly, another Midrash taught that wine leads to whoredom. And thus God wrote the section about the nazirite after the section about the suspected wife to indicate that one should not copy the deeds of the adulterer and adulteress who drank wine and disgraced themselves, but that one who is afraid of sin should separate from wine.
The Sifre taught that the words of Numbers 6:2, "When either man or woman shall clearly utter a vow, the vow of a nazirite," excluded minors from taking such a vow. The Sifre taught that the rule of Numbers 6:2 thus applied only to those who knew the meaning of making such a special vow. And on that basis the rule of Mishnah Niddah 5:6 was given that the vows of a boy of the age of 12 years and one day must be examined (to ascertain whether the boy understood their significance).
The Sifre taught that the words of Numbers 6:2, "shall clearly utter a vow, the vow of a nazirite, to consecrate himself unto the Lord," applied only if the person took the vow willingly and not under duress.
The Mishnah interpreted the "nazirite's vow" of Numbers 6:2. The Mishnah taught that all substitutes for a nazirite vow functioned just like a nazirite vow. A person who said, "I shall be one," became a nazirite. A person who said, "I shall be comely," "a nazirite," "a nazik," "a naziah," or "a paziah," became a nazirite. A person who said, "I intend to be like this," or "I intend to curl my hair," or "I mean to tend my hair," or "I undertake to develop tresses," became a nazirite. Rabbi Meir said that a person who said, "I take upon myself an obligation involving birds," became a nazirite," but the sages said that the person did not become a nazirite.
A person who said, "I declare myself a nazirite to abstain from pressed grapes," or "from grape stones," or "from cutting my hair," or "from contracting ritual defilement," became a nazirite subject to all the regulations of naziriteship.
A person who said, "I vow to be like Samson," "the son of Manoah," "the husband of Delilah," or "the one who plucked up the gates of Gaza," or "the one whose eyes the Philistines put out," became a nazirite like Samson (who was a nazirite for life). The difference between nazirites like Samson and life-nazirites was that life-nazirites could thin their hair with a razor and then offer three animal sacrifices, while should they be ritually defiled, they had to offer the sacrifice prescribed for defilement. Nazirites like Samson were not permitted to thin their hair, and if ritually defiled, they did not offer the sacrifice prescribed for defilement.
A nazirite vow of unspecified duration remained in force 30 days.
The Sifre asked why Numbers 6:1–4 set forth the effectiveness of nazirite vows, when the general rule of Numbers 30:2 would suffice to teach that all vows—including nazirite vows—are binding. The Sifre explained that Numbers 6:1–4 warned that a person making a nazirite vow would be bound to at least a 30-day nazirite period.
A person who said, "I intend to be a nazirite for one long period," or "I intend to be a nazirite for one short period," became a nazirite for 30 days, even if the person added, "for as long as it takes to go from here to the end of the earth." A person who said, "I intend to be a nazirite, plus one day," or "I intend to be a nazirite, plus an hour," or "I intend to be a nazirite, once and a half," became a nazirite for two 30-day periods. A person who said, "I intend to be a nazirite for 30 days plus an hour," became a nazirite for 31 days, as there was no naziriteship for a period of hours.
People who said, "I intend to be a nazirite as the hairs of my head," or "the dust of the earth," or "the sands of the sea," became life-nazirites, cutting their hair every 30 days. Rabbi said that such nazirites did not cut their hair every 30 days. Rabbi said that the nazirites who cut their hair every 30 days were the ones who said, "I undertake naziriteships as the hair on my head," or "the dust of the earth," or "the sands of the sea."
They interrogated people who said, "I intend to be a nazirite a house full," or "a basket full," to determine their intent. A person who said, "I vowed one long period of naziriteship," became a nazirite for 30 days. But a person who said, "I vowed without attaching any precise meaning to the statement," became a nazirite for life, as the Rabbis regarded the basket as though it were full of mustard seed.
If a person said, "I intend to be a nazirite, as from here to such and such a place," they estimated the number of days that it took to get to the place mentioned. If the journey would take fewer than 30 days, then the nazirite becomes a nazirite for 30 days; otherwise the nazirite became a nazirite for that number of days.
A person who said, "I intend to be a nazirite, as the number of days in a solar year," would be a nazirite for 365 terms. Rabbi Judah said that such a case once occurred, and when the nazirite completed the 365 terms, the nazirite died.
Rabbi Simeon the Just was so skeptical of the reasons for which nazirites might have interrupted their status that he found only one that he really trusted. He said that only once in his life had he eaten of the trespass-offering brought by a defiled tear in connection with an interrupted nazirite vow. On that occasion a nazirite came from the South country, and Simeon the Just saw that he had beautiful eyes, was of handsome appearance, and with thick locks of hair symmetrically arranged. Simeon the Just asked him what reason the nazirite had seen to destroy this beautiful hair by shaving it for the nazirite vow. The nazirite replied that he was a shepherd for his father and once he went to draw water from a well and gazed upon his reflection in the water, and his evil desires rushed upon him and sought to drive him from the world through sin. But the shepherd swore that day that he would shave his beautiful hair off for the sake of Heaven. Simeon the Just immediately arose and kissed the nazirite's head, praying that there would be many nazirites such as him in Israel. And Simeon the Just said that it was of this nazirite that Numbers 6:2 says, "When either a man or a woman shall separate themselves to vow a vow of a nazirite, to separate themselves unto the Lord ..." Rabbi Mani inquired why Simeon the Just did not eat of the guilt-offering of a nazirite. If it was because the nazirite was a sinner because he tormented himself, depriving himself of wine, that would be inconsistent with ever eating of the sin-offering (for example) for tasting forbidden fat or of the sin-offering for tasting blood. Simeon the Just thought that people made the nazirite vow in a fit of temper, and since they vowed in a fit of temper they would ultimately come to regret it. And once they regretted it, their sacrifices become like those of people who slaughtered unconsecrated animals in the Temple court (which would be disrespectful and forbidden). This nazirite, however, vowed after due mental deliberation and his mouth and heart were in agreement.
The Mishnah taught that Numbers 6:2–8 forbade a nazirite three things: ritual defilement, cutting of hair, and products of the vine. The Mishnah taught that all products of the vine could be measured together, and that there was no penalty for violation of the nazirite's vow unless the nazirite ate an olive's bulk of grapes or drank a quarter of a log of wine. Rabbi Akiva said that there was a penalty even if the nazirite soaked bread in wine and enough was absorbed to make up an olive's bulk.
The Mishnah taught that there was a separate penalty for wine, for grapes, for grape seeds, and for grape skins. But Rabbi Eleazar ben Azariah said that there was no penalty for grape seeds or grape skins unless the nazirite ate at least two grape seeds and one grape skin.
In the Talmud, Rabbi Joshua discouraged asceticism and abstaining from wine. The Rabbis taught in a Baraita that when the Romans destroyed the Second Temple, large numbers of Judeans became ascetics, binding themselves neither to eat meat nor to drink wine. Rabbi Joshua asked the ascetics why they did not eat meat or drink wine. The ascetics asked how they could eat meat when priests used to offer meat on the altar that the Romans had destroyed. And they asked how they could drink wine when priests used to pour wine as a libation on the altar (as part of the Temple service), but did so no more. Rabbi Joshua told them that according to their logic, they should not eat bread either, as the meal offerings had ceased. The ascetics agreed, saying that they could live on fruit. Rabbi Joshua told them that they should not eat fruit either, for there was no longer an offering of first fruits. The ascetics replied that they could manage with other fruits (of types that the Israelites had not brought as first fruits). But Rabbi Joshua told them that they should not drink water either, for there was no longer a ceremony of the pouring of water (on Sukkot, as described in Mishnah Sukkah). To this the ascetics had no answer. So Rabbi Joshua taught them that not to mourn at all was impossible, because the Temple had been destroyed. But to mourn too much was also impossible, because we may not impose on the community a hardship that the majority cannot endure.
If nazirites cut their hair or had their hair cut by bandits, 30 days of their nazirite term were rendered void. Nazirites who cut their own hair incurred a penalty, no matter whether they used scissors or a razor, or no matter how little they trimmed their hair. Nazirites were allowed to clean their hair or part it with their fingers, but they were not allowed to comb it. Rabbi Ishmael said that they were not allowed to clean their hair with earth, because it causes the hair to fall out.
A nazirite who drank wine all day long incurred only a single penalty. If the nazirite was repeatedly warned not to drink and then drank anyway, the nazirite incurred a penalty for each warning. Similarly, nazirites who cut their hair all day long incurred only one penalty, but if they were repeatedly warned not to cut and then cut anyway, they incurred a penalty for each warning. And similarly, nazirites who defile themselves by contact with the dead all day long incurred only one penalty, but if they were repeatedly warned not to defile themselves and then defiled themselves anyway, they incurred a penalty for each warning.
The Mishnah taught that defilement and cutting of hair had a stringency that products of the vine did not, as defilement and cutting of hair rendered void the previous period of nazirite observance, while consuming products of the vine did not. Products of the vine had a stringency that defilement or cutting of hair did not, as the prohibition of products of the vine had no exception, while the law allowed exceptions for where cutting of hair was a religious duty or where there was an abandoned corpse. Defilement also had a stringency that cutting of hair did not, as defilement rendered void the whole of the preceding period and entails the offering of a sacrifice, while cutting of hair renders voided only 30 days and did not entail a sacrifice.
The Sifre compared the prohibition of a nazirite having contact with dead bodies in Numbers 6:6–7 with the similar prohibition of a High Priest having contact with dead bodies in Leviticus 21:11. And the Sifre reasoned that just as the High Priest was required nonetheless to become unclean to see to the burial of a neglected corpse (met mitzvah), so too was the nazirite required to become unclean to see to the burial of a neglected corpse.
The Mishnah employed the prohibition of Numbers 6:6 to imagine how one could with one action violate up to nine separate commandments. One could (1) plow with an ox and a donkey yoked together (in violation of Deuteronomy 22:10) (2 and 3) that are two animals dedicated to the sanctuary, (4) plowing mixed seeds sown in a vineyard (in violation of Deuteronomy 22:9), (5) during a Sabbatical year (in violation of Leviticus 25:4), (6) on a Festival-day (in violation of, for example, Leviticus 23:7), (7) when the plower is a priest (in violation of Leviticus 21:1) and (8) a nazirite (in violation of Numbers 6:6) plowing in a contaminated place. Chananya ben Chachinai said that the plower also may have been wearing a garment of wool and linen (in violation of Leviticus 19:19 and Deuteronomy 22:11). They said to him that this would not be in the same category as the other violations. He replied that neither is the nazirite in the same category as the other violations.
Tractate Kinnim in the Mishnah interpreted the laws of pairs of sacrificial pigeons and doves in Leviticus 1:14, 5:7, 12:6–8, 14:22, and 15:29; and Numbers 6:10.
The Mishnah taught that they buried the cut hair of a nazirite.
Queen Helena of Adiabene converted to Judaism. When her son went to war, she vowed that if he returned in peace, she would be a nazirite for seven years. Her son did return, and she observed her nazirite vow for seven years. At the end of the seven years, she went to the Land of Israel and the House of Hillel ruled that she had to be a nazirite for seven more years. Towards the end of this seven years, she contracted ritual defilement, and so altogether she was a nazirite for 21 years. Rabbi Judah said that she was a nazirite for only 14 years (plus 30 days). If a person vowed a naziriteship of long duration and completed it and then arrives in the Land of Israel, the House of Shammai taught that the person would then need to be a nazirite for 30 more days, but House of Hillel taught that the person's naziriteship began for its full term again as at the first.
In the Mishnah, the Sages related of Miriam of Tarmod that one kind of blood was sprinkled on her behalf when she was told that her daughter was dangerously ill. She went and found her daughter had died (and thus Miriam became accidentally unclean), and the Sages told her to offer her remaining sacrifices after purification.
The Mishnah reported that Rabbi Nehorai taught that Samuel was a nazirite, as in 1 Samuel 1:11, Samuel's mother Hannah vowed, "and no razor (, morah) shall come upon his head." Similarly, in Judges 13:5 (in the haftarah for the parashah), an angel told Samson's mother, "no razor (, morah) shall come upon his head; for the child shall be a nazirite unto God from the womb." Just as Scripture uses "razor" (, morah) in the case of Samson to show that he was a nazirite, so Scripture must use "razor" (, morah) in the case of Samuel to show that he was a nazirite.
Rabbi Eleazar ha-Kappar taught that Numbers 6:11 required priests to "make atonement for" nazirites because the nazirites denied themselves wine. Rabbi Eleazar ha-Kappar thus reasoned that if nazirites were considered sinners because they denied themselves wine, then those who fast voluntarily or deprive themselves of other things are sinners, too. But Rabbi Eleazar said that the nazirite was termed "holy," as Numbers 6:5 says, "he shall be holy, he shall let the locks of the hair of his head grow long." Rabbi Eleazar thus reasoned that if nazirites were considered holy because they denied themselves just wine, then those who fast voluntarily are holy, too.
It was taught in a Baraita that Rabbi Judah taught that the early pious ones were eager to bring a sin-offering, because God never caused them to sin. So they made a free-will nazirite vow to God, so as to be able to bring a sin-offering. But Rabbi Simeon taught that the early pious ones did not make nazirite vows. They would bring offerings freely, but they did not take nazirite vows, so as not to be designated sinners. For Numbers 6:11 says, "And [the priest] shall make atonement for him, for that he sinned against a soul."
Abaye summarized that Simeon the Just, Rabbi Simeon, and Rabbi Eleazar ha-Kappar all came to the same conclusion—that a nazirite was a sinner. The Gemara questioned whether Numbers 6:11 might refer only to a nazirite who became unclean. But the Gemara concluded that Numbers 6:11 says that the priest must "make atonement" because the nazirite who became unclean sinned twice (both by becoming a nazirite at all and by defiling his nazirite vow).
Similarly, Rav taught that a person will have to give account on the judgment day for every good permissible thing that the person might have enjoyed and did not.
Similarly, Hillel the Elder taught that washing one's body in the bath-house was a religious duty. For if the statues of kings, which were inscribed in theatres and circuses, were scoured and washed by the person appointed to look after them, how much more should a person, who has been created in the Image and Likeness of God, as Genesis 9:6 says, "For in the image of God made He man." A Midrash thus taught that Proverbs 11:17, "The merciful man does good to his own soul," applies to this teaching of Hillel the Elder.
The Gemara taught that there were three who were required to cut their hair, and whose hair cutting was a religious duty: nazirites (as stated in Numbers 6:18), those afflicted with skin disease (, metzora, as stated in Leviticus 14:9), and the Levites. Citing the Mishnah, the Gemara taught that if any of them cut their hair without a razor, or left behind two hairs, their act was invalid.
The Priestly Blessing
A Midrash taught that the Priestly Blessing in Numbers 6:22–27 follows immediately the laws of the nazirite in Numbers 6:1–21 to teach that God commanded that just as a nazirite must not taste wine, so shall the priests must not taste wine when they are about to bless Israel. And for a like reason, the priests do not lift their hands in blessing during the afternoon service because of the possibility of intoxication.
Rav Havivi (or some say Rav Assi) of Hozna'ah said to Rav Ashi that a Tanna taught that Aaron first said the Priestly Blessing of Numbers 6:22–27 on "the first month of the second year, on the first day of the month" (Exodus 40:17, the first of Nisan), the same day that Moses erected the Tabernacle (as reported in Numbers 7:1), and the same day that the princes brought their first offerings (as reported in Numbers 7:2–3). A Tanna taught that the first of Nisan took ten crowns of distinction by virtue of the ten momentous events that occurred on that day. The first of Nisan was: (1) the first day of the Creation (as reported in Genesis 1:1–5), (2) the first day of the princes' offerings (as reported in Numbers 7:10–17), (3) the first day for the priesthood to make the sacrificial offerings (as reported in Leviticus 9:1–21), (4) the first day for public sacrifice, (5) the first day for the descent of fire from Heaven (as reported in Leviticus 9:24), (6) the first for the priests' eating of sacred food in the sacred area, (7) the first for the dwelling of the Shechinah in Israel (as implied by Exodus 25:8), (8) the first for the Priestly Blessing of Israel (as reported in Leviticus 9:22, employing the blessing prescribed by Numbers 6:22–27), (9) the first for the prohibition of the high places (as stated in Leviticus 17:3–4), and (10) the first of the months of the year (as instructed in Exodus 12:2).
The Mishnah taught that the priests recited the Priestly Blessing of Numbers 6:24–26 every day.
The Mishnah taught that in the province of Judea outside the Temple, the priests would say the Priestly Blessing as three blessings, but in the Temple, they would say it as one single blessing. In the Temple, the priests would pronounce the Name of God as it is written, but outside the Temple they would say its substituted form. In the province, the priests raised their hands at the height of their shoulders, but in the Temple, the priests raised their hands above their heads, except the High Priest, who did not raise his hands higher than the frontlet on his forehead. Rabbi Judah said that even the High Priest raised his hands higher than the frontlet, as Leviticus 9:22 reports, “And Aaron lifted up his hands toward the people and blessed them.”
A Midrash taught that great is peace, for the world could not be maintained except by peace, and the Torah is wholly peace, as Proverbs 3:17 says, "Her ways are ways of pleasantness, and all her paths are peace." The reading of the Shema concludes (in the Evening, Maariv, Prayer Service) with the words: "He spreads the tabernacle of peace over His people." The Amidah prayer concludes with peace. And the Priestly Blessing of Numbers 6:24–26 concludes in Numbers 6:26 with peace. Rabbi Simeon ben Halafta observed that there is no vessel that holds a blessing save peace, as Psalm 29:11 says, "The Lord will give strength to His people; the Lord will bless His people with peace."
In a Baraita, Rabbi Ishmael interpreted Numbers 6:23, "In this way you shall bless the children of Israel," to report the priests' blessing of Israel, and Rabbi Ishmael interpreted Numbers 6:27, "And I will bless them," to mean that God then blesses the priests. Rabbi Akiva, however, interpreted Numbers 6:27, "And I will bless them," to mean that when the priests bless Israel, God affirms their blessing of Israel. The Gemara explained that according to Rabbi Akiva's position, the priests also receive a blessing according to the teaching of Rav Nahman bar Isaac, who deduced from God's promise to Abraham in Genesis 12:3, "And I will bless them that bless you," that since the priests bless Abraham's descendants with the Priestly Blessing of Numbers 6:23–27, God therefore blesses the priests.
A Midrash interpreted the Priestly Blessing of Numbers 6:24, "The Lord bless you and keep you," to mean that God bless you with wealth and guard that you may perform good deeds with it. Rabbi Nathan interpreted it to mean may God bless you with regards to your possessions and guard you with regard to your person.
Rabbi Isaac asked whether those blessed are not automatically guarded, and those guarded are not blessed. Rabbi Isaac thus interpreted “guard you” to mean from the Evil Inclinaion, that it not drive you out of the world. Another Midrash interpreted “guard you” to mean that others have no dominion over you. Another Midrash interpreted “The Lord . . . keep you” to pray that God would keep the covenant that God made with Israel's forefathers, as Deuteronomy 7:12 says, "The Lord your God shall keep with you the covenant . . . ." Another Midrash interpreted "keep you" to mean that God will keep your soul at the hour of death.
A Midrash interpreted the Priestly Blessing of Numbers 6:25, "The Lord make His face to shine upon you," to mean that God will give you light of the Shechinah.
Numbers chapter 7
A Midrash told an account in connection with God's words in Numbers 7:7, "My servant Moses is . . . is trusted in all My house." The Sages told that when Moses came down from Mount Sinai, he saw Aaron beating the Golden Calf into shape with a hammer. Aaron intended to delay the people until Moses came down, but Moses thought that Aaron was participating in the sin and was incensed with him. So God told Moses that God knew that Aaron's intentions were good. The Midrash compared this to a prince who became mentally unstable and started digging to undermine his father's house. His tutor told him not to weary himself but to let him dig. When the king saw it, he said that he knew the tutor's intentions were good, and declared that the tutor would rule over the palace. Similarly, when the Israelites told Aaron in Exodus 32:1, "Make us a god," Aaron replied in Exodus 32:1, "Break off the golden rings that are in the ears of your wives, of your sons, and of your daughters, and bring them to me." And Aaron told them that since he was a priest, they should let him make it and sacrifice to it, all with the intention of delaying them until Moses could come down. So God told Aaron that God knew Aaron's intention, and that only Aaron would have sovereignty over the sacrifices that the Israelites would bring. Hence in Exodus 28:1, God told Moses, “And bring near Aaron your brother, and his sons with him, from among the children of Israel, that they may minister to Me in the priest's office.” The Midrash told that God told this to Moses several months later in the Tabernacle itself when Moses was about to consecrate Aaron to his office. Rabbi Levi compared it to the friend of a king who was a member of the imperial cabinet and a judge. When the king was about to appoint a palace governor, he told his friend that he intended to appoint the friend's brother. So God made Moses superintendent of the palace, as Numbers 7:7 reports, "My servant Moses is . . . is trusted in all My house," and God made Moses a judge, as Exodus 18:13 reports, "Moses sat to judge the people." And when God was about to appoint a High Priest, God notified Moses that it would be his brother Aaron.
The Midrash concluded that when Numbers 31:6 reports that "Moses sent . . . Phinehas the son of Eleazar the priest to the war with the holy vessels," it refers to the Ark of the Covenant, to which Numbers 7:9 refers when it says, "the service of the holy things." But Rabbi Joḥanan deduced from the reference of Exodus 29:29 to "the holy garments of Aaron" that Numbers 31:6 refers to the priestly garments containing the Urim and Thummim.
Rabbi Simeon bar Abba in the name of Rabbi Joḥanan taught that every time Scripture uses the expression "and it was" (, vayechi), it intimates the coming of either trouble or joy. If it intimates trouble, there is no trouble to compare with it, and if it intimates joy, there is no joy to compare with it. Rabbi Samuel bar Nahman made a distinction: In every instance where Scripture employs “and it was” (vayechi), it introduces trouble, while when Scripture employs “and it shall be” (vehayah), it introduces joy. The Sages raised an objection to Rabbi Samuel's view, noting that to introduce the offerings of the princes, Numbers 7:12 says, "And he that presented his offering . . . was (vayechi)," and surely that was a positive thing. Rabbi Samuel replied that the occasion of the princes' gifts did not indicate joy, because it was manifest to God that the princes would join with Korah in his dispute (as reported in Numbers 16:1–3). Rabbi Judah ben Rabbi Simon said in the name of Rabbi Levi ben Parta that the case could be compared to that of a member of the palace who committed a theft in the bathhouse, and the attendant, while afraid of disclosing his name, nevertheless made him known by describing him as a certain young man dressed in white. Similarly, although Numbers 16:1–3 does not explicitly mention the names of the princes who sided with Korah in his dispute, Numbers 16:2 nevertheless refers to them when it says, "They were princes of the congregation, the elect men of the assembly, men of renown," and this recalls Numbers 1:16, "These were the elect of the congregation, the princes of the tribes of their fathers . . . ," where the text lists their names. They were the "men of renown" whose names were mentioned in connection with the standards; as Numbers 1:5–15 says, "These are the names of the men who shall stand with you, of Reuben, Elizur the son of Shedeur; of Simeon, Shelumiel the son of Zurishaddai . . . ."
The Sifra taught that the goat of the sin-offering about which Moses inquired in Leviticus 10:16 was the goat brought by Naḥshon ben Amminadav, as reported in Numbers 7:12, 16.
Noting the similarity of language between "This is the sacrifice of Aaron" in Leviticus 6:13 and "This is the sacrifice of Naḥshon the son of Amminadab" and each of the other princes of the 12 tribes in Numbers 7:17–83, the Rabbis concluded that Aaron's sacrifice was as beloved to God as the sacrifices of the princes of the 12 tribes.
A Midrash taught that the length of the Tabernacle courtyard reported in Exodus 27:18 at 100 cubits added to the length of the Tabernacle—30 cubits—to total 130 cubits. And the Midrash taught that this number was alluded to when (as Numbers 7:37 reports) the prince of the Tribe of Simeon brought an offering of "one silver dish, the weight of which was 130 shekels." The Midrash taught that the dish was an allusion to the court that encompassed the Tabernacle as the sea encompasses the world.
Rabbi Phinehas ben Yair taught that the 60 rams, 60 goats, and 60 lambs that Numbers 7:88 reports that the Israelites sacrificed as a dedication-offering of the altar symbolized (among other things) the 60 cities of the region of Argob that Deuteronomy 3:4 reports the Israelites conquered.
Rabbi Azariah in the name of Rabbi Judah ben Rabbi Simon taught that the mode of conversation between God and Moses in the tent of meeting reported in Numbers 7:89 reflected that Israel had outgrown the infancy of its nationhood. Rabbi Azariah in the name of Rabbi Judah ben Rabbi Simon explained in a parable. A mortal king had a daughter whom he loved exceedingly. So long as his daughter was small, he would speak with her in public or in the courtyard. When she grew up and reached puberty, the king determined that it no longer befit his daughter's dignity for him to converse with her in public. So he directed that a pavilion be made for her so that he could speak with his daughter inside the pavilion. In the same way, when God saw the Israelites in Egypt, they were in the childhood of their nationhood, as Hosea 11:1 says, "When Israel was a child, then I loved him, and out of Egypt I called My son." When God saw the Israelites at Sinai, God spoke with them as Deuteronomy 5:4 says, "The Lord spoke with you face to face." As soon as they received the Torah, became God's nation, and said (as reported in Exodus 24:7), "All that the Lord has spoken will we do, and obey," God observed that it was no longer in keeping with the dignity of God's children that God should converse with them in the open. So God instructed the Israelites to make a Tabernacle, and when God needed to communicate with the Israelites, God did so from the Tabernacle. And thus Numbers 7:89 bears this out when it says, "And when Moses went into the tent of meeting that He might speak with him."
In medieval Jewish interpretation
The parashah is discussed in these medieval Jewish sources:
Numbers chapter 4
Numbers 4:21–33 refers to duties of the Levites. Maimonides and the siddur report that the Levites would recite the Psalm for the Day in the Temple.
Numbers chapter 5
Maimonides read Numbers 5:5–7 to teach that if a person violates any one of the commandments of the Torah (whether positive or negative, presumptuously or erroneously), when the person repents and turns away from the sinful way, the person is obliged to confess before God. Maimonides taught that one makes such a verbal confession by saying: "I beseech You, O Great Name! I have sinned; I have been obstinate; I have committed profanity against You, particularly in doing thus and such. Now, behold! I have repented and am ashamed of my actions; forever will I not relapse into this thing again." Maimonides taught that this is the elementary form of confession, but whoever elaborates in confessing and extends this subject is praiseworthy.
Maimonides taught that if a man had engaged in forbidden relations from the time that he attained the age of majority onward, the curse-bearing waters of Numbers 5:11–31 did not test the fidelity of his wife. Even if he engaged in relations with his fiancé while she was living in her father's house (which the Rabbis prohibited) the waters did not test the fidelity of his wife. Maimonides derived this from Numbers 5:31, which states: "The man will then be free of sin, and the woman will bear [the burden of] her sin." Maimonides taught that Numbers 5:31 implied that only when the man was "free of sin," "the woman will bear [the burden of] her sin."
Numbers chapter 6
The Nazirite
Maimonides taught that the object of the nazirite laws in Numbers 6:1–21 was to keep people away from wine—which ruined people in ancient and modern times. Maimonides wrote that the law in Numbers 6:4 prohibiting the nazirite from eating anything made from the grape vine was an additional precaution, implying that people must consume wine only as much as is absolutely necessary. For Numbers 6:5 calls those who abstain from drinking wine "holy"—equal to the sanctity of the High Priest—an honor given nazirites because they abstain from wine.
Maimonides taught that nazirite vows must be observed even after the destruction of the Temple. Therefore, when a person takes a nazirite vow in the present era, that person must observe it forever, because there is no Temple where the person can go to offer sacrifices at the conclusion of the nazirite vow. Maimonides wrote that a nazirite vow may be observed only in the Land of Israel (as the Sages decreed that the Diaspora conveys ritual impurity, and a nazirite thus cannot observe the vow there). A person who takes a nazirite vow in the Diaspora is penalized and obligated to go to the Land of Israel and observe the nazirite vow there for the length of the vow. Accordingly, a person who takes a nazirite vow in the Diaspora in the present era is compelled to go to the Land of Israel and observe the nazirite vow there until death or until the Temple is rebuilt. (Abraham ben David (The Ra'avad), however, questioned what purpose would be served by going to the Land of Israel in the present era, as all are impure, even there, because of contact with a human corpse (or the impurity that results from a corpse) and there are no ashes from a red heifer with which we can purify ourselves. Hence, the Ra'avad concluded that it is forbidden to take a nazirite vow in the present era, whether in the Diaspora or in the Land of Israel.) Maimonides taught that throughout the entire time that a nazirite is in the Diaspora, it is forbidden to drink wine, to become impure due to contact with the dead, and to cut one's hair. The nazirite must uphold all of the requirements stemming from a nazirite vow, despite the fact that the days do not count in the Diaspora. One who transgresses by drinking wine, cutting hair, or touching a corpse would be liable for lashes. Maimonides wrote that a person who says, "I will be a nazirite if I do this and this" or "if I do not do this or this," is a wicked person. But Maimonides argued that a person who takes a nazirite vow to God in a holy manner is delightful and praiseworthy, for concerning this, Numbers 6:7–8 says, "The diadem of his God is upon his head. ... He is holy to God," and Scripture equates him with a prophet, as Amos 2:11 says, "And from your sons, I will raise [some] as prophets, and from your youths, [some] as nazirites."
But Maimonides also wrote that if one considers envy, desire, vainglory, and like as evil tendencies and resolves to separate oneself from them exceedingly and eschew meat, wine, marrying, comfortable quarters, comfortable clothes, and the like, such is an evil way and is forbidden. Maimonides wrote that one who follows this way is called a sinner. Therefore, the sages commanded that people must not deprive themselves of anything other than the things of which the Torah deprives them, nor shall they bind themselves by vows and oaths to abstain from things that are permitted.
The Priestly Blessing
Notwithstanding Esau's conflicts with Jacob in Genesis 25–33, the Baal HaTurim, reading the Priestly Blessing of Numbers 6:24–26, noted that the numerical value (gematria) of the Hebrew word for "peace" (, shalom) equals the numerical value of the word "Esau" (, Eisav). The Baal HaTurim concluded that this hints at the Mishnaic dictum (in Avot 4:15) that one should always reach out to be the first to greet any person, even an adversary.
The Zohar found in the Priestly Blessing of Numbers 6:24–26 components of God's essential Name. In the Zohar, Rabbi Simeon taught from the Book of Mystery that the Divine Name has both a revealed and a concealed form. In its revealed form, it is written as the four-letter Name of God, the Tetragrammaton, but in its undisclosed form it is written in other letters, and this undisclosed form represents the most Recondite of all. In the Zohar, Rabbi Judah taught that even the revealed form of the Name is hidden under other letters (as the name ADoNaY, , is hidden within ADNY, ) in order to screen the most Recondite of all. In the letters of God's Name are concealed 22 attributes of Mercy, namely, the 13 attributes of God in Exodus 34:6–7 and nine attributes of the Mikroprosopus, the lesser revealed aspect of God. They all combine in one composite Name. When people were more reverent, the priests openly enunciated the Name in the hearing of all, but after irreverence became widespread, the Name became concealed under other letters. At the time when the Name was disclosed, the priest would concentrate his mind on its deep and inner meaning, and he would utter the Name in such a way as to accord with that meaning. But when irreverence became common in the world, he would conceal all within the written letters. The Zohar taught that Moses uttered the 22 letters in two sections, first in Exodus 34:6–7 in the attributes of God, and second in Numbers 14:18, when he uttered nine attributes of Mercy that are inherent in the Mikroprosopus, and which are radiated from the light of God. All this the priest combined together when he spread forth his hands to bless the people pursuant to Numbers 6:23–26, so that all the worlds received God's blessings. It is for this reason that Numbers 6:23 says simply "saying" (, amor), instead of the imperative form "say" (, imri), in a reference to the hidden letters within the words of the Priestly Blessing. The word , amor has in its letters the numerical value of 248 minus one ( equals 1; equals 40; equals 6; equals 200; and 1 + 40 + 6 + 200 = 247), equal to the number of a man's bodily parts, excepting the one part on which all the rest depend. All these parts thus receive the Priestly Blessing as expressed in the three verses of Numbers 6:24–26.
In modern interpretation
The parashah is discussed in these modern sources:
Numbers chapter 5
Amy Kalmanofsky reported that Numbers 5:11–31 has elicited a wide range of reactions, from viewing the ritual to be unforgivably misogynistic, demonstrating women's vulnerability and men's privileged position in Israelite society, to believing that the ritual worked to protect accused women.
Jacob Milgrom argued that the priestly legislator used the ordeal of Numbers 5:11–31 to remove jurisdiction over and punishment of the suspected adulteress from human hands and thereby guarantee that she would not be put to death.
Tamara Cohn Eskenazi noted that the Torah makes no mention of, and provides no procedure for, the man whom the husband necessarily must have suspected of having been with his wife.
Sharon Keller understood Numbers 5:28 to mean that an innocent wife would be able to maintain her pregnancy. Keller saw the sotah ritual as involving a pregnant woman whose husband suspected that he was not the father. Keller argued that within the context of Numbers 5:11–31, an intact pregnancy after the ritual proved that the husband had indeed fathered the child.
Ishay Rosen Zvi argued that the Mishnaic Sotah ritual was never practiced in the manner the Mishnah prescribed.
Numbers chapter 6
Baruch Spinoza read Genesis 14:18–20 to relate that Melchizedek was king of Jerusalem and priest of the Most High God, that in the exercise of his priestly functions—like those Numbers 6:23 describes—he blessed Abraham, and that Abraham gave to this priest of God a tithe of all his spoils. Spinoza deduced from this that before God founded the Israelite nation, God constituted kings and priests in Jerusalem, and ordained for them rites and laws. Spinoza deduced that while Abraham sojourned in the city, he lived scrupulously according to these laws, for Abraham had received no special rites from God; and yet Genesis 26:5 reports that he observed the worship, precepts, statutes, and laws of God, which Spinoza interpreted to mean the worship, statutes, precepts, and laws of king Melchizedek.
In critical analysis
Some scholars who follow the Documentary Hypothesis attribute all of the text of the parashah to the Priestly source who wrote in the 6th or 5th century BCE.
Commandments
According to Sefer ha-Chinuch, there are 7 positive and 11 negative commandments in the parashah.
To send the impure from the Temple
Impure people must not enter the Temple.
To repent and confess wrongdoings
To fulfill the laws of the sotah
Not to put oil on the sotah's meal offering
Not to put frankincense on the sotah's meal offering
The nazarite must not drink wine, wine mixtures, or wine vinegar.
The nazarite must not eat fresh grapes.
The nazarite must not eat raisins.
The nazarite must not eat grape seeds.
The nazarite must not eat grape skins.
The nazarite must not cut his or her hair.
The nazarite must let his or her hair grow.
The nazarite must not be under the same roof as a corpse.
The nazarite must not come into contact with the dead.
The nazarite must shave after bringing sacrifices upon completion of the nazirite period.
The Kohanim must bless the Jewish nation daily.
The Levites must transport the ark on their shoulders.
In the liturgy
Reuven Hammer noted Mishnah Tamid recorded what was in effect the first siddur, as a part of which priests daily recited the Priestly Blessing of Numbers 6:24–26.
Many Jews recite the Priestly Blessing, Numbers 6:24–26, as the first section of the Torah to which they turn after reciting the Blessings of the Torah in the morning. And the Priestly Blessing is reflected in the closing prayer for peace of the Amidah prayer in each of the three prayer services.
Haftarah
The haftarah for the parashah is Judges 13:2–25, which is about the birth of Samson, the nazirite.
Summary of the haftarah
Manoah's wife was barren, but an angel of the Lord appeared and told her that she would bear a son. The angel warned her not to drink wine or strong drink or eat any unclean thing, and foretold that no razor would come upon her son's head, for he would be nazirite from birth and would begin to save Israel from the Philistines.
Manoah was told by his wife what happened, and Manoah entreated God to let the man of God come again and teach them what to do. God heeded Manoah and sent the angel to the woman as she sat alone in the field. Manoah's wife ran and told Manoah, and he followed her to the angel, and asked him whether he was the one who had spoken to his wife, and he said that he was. Manoah asked the angel how they should raise the child, and the angel told him that they should do what he had told Manoah's wife: She was not to eat any product of the grapevine, drink wine or strong drink, or eat any unclean thing.
Manoah asked the angel to stay so that they could serve him a meal. But the angel told Manoah that even if he stayed, he would not eat, and if they wanted to make a burnt-offering, they should offer it to God. Manoah did not recognize that he was an angel, and asked him for his name so that when his prophecy proved true, they could honor him. But the angel asked why Manoah asked for his name, as it was hidden.
So Manoah offered to God a young goat and a meal-offering, and as the flame went up off the altar toward heaven, the angel ascended in the flame and disappeared, and Manoah and his wife fell on their faces, as Manoah realized that he was an angel. Manoah told his wife that they would surely die, as they had seen God, but she replied that if God had wanted to kill them, God would not have received the burnt-offering or shown them what God did.
And the woman bore a son and called him Samson, and the child grew, and God blessed him, and the God's spirit began to move him in Mahaneh-dan, between Zorah and Eshtaol.
Connection between the haftarah and the parashah
Both the parashah and the haftarah relate to the nazirite status.
Both the parashah and the haftarah speak of abstention from "wine and strong drink." And both the parashah and the haftarah note that "no razor shall come upon his head."
The parashah and the haftarah do differ, however, about some aspects of the nazirite status. While the parashah addresses one voluntarily becoming a nazirite, the haftarah speaks of one committed by another to nazirite status from birth. And while the parashah contemplates the nazirite period coming to a close, the haftarah envisions a lifetime commitment.
In his career after the haftarah, Samson proceeded to violate each of the three nazirite prohibitions. He apparently consumed intoxicants, frequently came in contact with the dead, and ultimately allowed his hair to be cut.
The haftarah in classical rabbinic interpretation
The Gemara taught that Samson's mother was named Zelelponith. The Gemara taught that the oral tradition passed along this fact to provide a reply to the heretics (should they ask why the written Torah does not supply the name of the mother of such an important figure).
Notes
Further reading
The parashah has parallels or is discussed in these sources:
Ancient
Code of Hammurabi ¶ 132. Babylonia, Circa 1780 BCE. In e.g. Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament. Edited by James B. Pritchard, pages 163, 171. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1969. (ordeal of suspected wife).
The Priestly Benediction on a silver amulet. Ketef Hinnom, Jerusalem, Late 7th century BCE.
Biblical
Deuteronomy 33:16 (Joseph "one whose hair is dedicated," , nezir echav).
Judges 5:2 (untrimmed locks); 13:2–25 (Samson the nazirite); 16:17 (Samson the nazirite).
1 Samuel 1 (Samuel the nazirite).
Ezekiel 1:5–14 (cherubim); 2:9–3:3 (symbolic consumption of the written word); 5:1–4 (burning of hair); 10:1–22 (cherubim).
Amos 2:11–12 (nazirites).
Psalms 18:11 (cherubim); 20:4 (burnt offerings); 21:7 (blessing of God's presence); 37:5–6 (God vindicates the just cause); 40:7 (sacrifices); 50:3–23 (sacrifices of thanksgiving); 51:16–19 (sacrifices); 66:13–15 (burnt offerings); 67:2 (God be gracious; God's face to shine); 76:3 (God's dwelling); 80:4 (God's face to shine); 85:11 (peace); 99:1 (cherubim); 109:18 (curse entering body like water); 121:7 (the Lord keep you); 134:3 (the Lord bless you); 141:2 (incense).
Early nonrabbinic
Philo. Allegorical Interpretation 1: 7:17; Allegorical Interpretation 3: 3:8, 51:148; On the Cherubim 5:14, 17; On the Unchangeableness of God 19:87, 89; On Husbandry 40:174; Concerning Noah's Work as a Planter 25:108; Who Is the Heir of Divine Things? 41:195; On Mating with the Preliminary Studies 21:114; On Dreams, That They Are God-Sent 2:4:25; The Special Laws 1:46:254. Alexandria, Egypt, early 1st century CE. In, e.g., The Works of Philo: Complete and Unabridged, New Updated Edition. Translated by Charles Duke Yonge, pages 26, 51, 67, 81, 165, 189, 200, 292, 314, 389, 558. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 1993.
Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews 3:11:1, 3, 6; 4:4:4. Circa 93–94. In, e.g., The Works of Josephus: Complete and Unabridged, New Updated Edition. Translated by William Whiston, pages 96–97, 106–07. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 1987.
Luke 1:15. Circa 80–150 CE. (John the Baptist a nazirite).
Gospel of James 16 (circa 150 CE). (Mary as sotah).
Acts 21:24. 2nd century. (Paul paying for nazirites to conclude their observance).
Classical rabbinic
Mishnah: Challah 1:6, 4:11; Orlah 1:7–8; Sukkah 4:1, 9–10; Megillah 3:6, 4:10; Moed Katan 3:1; Nazir 1:1–9:5; Sotah 1:1–9:15; Bava Kamma 9:5–12; Makkot 3:7–10; Avodah Zarah 5:9; Avot 5:21; Menachot 3:5–6; 5:3, 6; 6:1, 5; Chullin 13:10; Temurah 7:4; Meilah 3:2; Tamid 5:1, 7:2; Middot 2:5; Kinnim 1:1–3:6; Negaim 14:4; Parah 1:4; Niddah 5:6. Land of Israel, circa 200 CE. In, e.g., The Mishnah: A New Translation. Translated by Jacob Neusner, pages 75, 149, 158, 160, 286, 288, 321, 324, 327, 430–66, 524–26, 618, 672, 739, 742–44, 764, 835, 855–56, 869, 871, 876, 883–89, 1010, 1014, 1085. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988.
Tosefta: Demai 2:7; Maaser Sheni 3:11; Challah 2:8; Pisha (Pesachim) 8:9; Shekalim 3:16; Nedarim 1:1; Nazir 1:1–6:6; Sotah 1:1–15:15; Gittin 2:7; Bava Kamma 9:19, 10:1–5, 17–18; Makkot 3:5; Negaim 1:12; 4:12. Land of Israel, circa 250 CE. In, e.g., The Tosefta: Translated from the Hebrew, with a New Introduction. Translated by Jacob Neusner, volume 1, pages 85, 313, 339, 510, 538, 785, 807–93, 901; volume 2, pages 1005, 1008–10, 1013–14, 1207, 1712, 1725. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 2002.
Sifre to Numbers 1–58. Land of Israel, circa 250–350 CE. In, e.g., Sifré to Numbers: An American Translation and Explanation. Translated by Jacob Neusner, volume 1, pages 47–230. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1986.
Sifra 45:1; 46:1; 47:1; 50:1; 51:2; 55:1; 63:2; 66:1; 77:1; 79:1; 81:1; 85:1; 87:1; 95:1; 101:1; 105:1; 188:3; 213:1; 230:1. Land of Israel, 4th century CE. In, e.g., Sifra: An Analytical Translation. Translated by Jacob Neusner, volume 1, pages 255, 259, 265, 273, 277, 292, 318, 332; volume 2, pages 29, 37, 43–44, 57–58, 63, 97, 145, 158–59; 3:55, 175, 237. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1988.
Jerusalem Talmud: Demai 55b; Orlah 14b, 28a; Shabbat 5b; Pesachim 60a–b, 68b; Yoma 4b–5a, 50b; Sukkah 3b; Taanit 20b; Megillah 40b; Chagigah 21b; Yevamot 54b, 57a–b; Nedarim 1a, 3a–b, 39b; Nazir 1a–53a; Sotah 1a–52a; Gittin 31b; Kiddushin 18a; Bava Kamma 2b, 36b–37a; Sanhedrin 3b; Shevuot 5b, 26b; Horayot 13a. Tiberias, Land of Israel, circa 400 CE. In, e.g., Talmud Yerushalmi. Edited by Chaim Malinowitz, Yisroel Simcha Schorr, and Mordechai Marcus, volumes 4, 12–13, 19, 21–22, 25–27, 30, 33–37, 39–41, 44, 46, 49. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 2007–2019. And in, e.g., The Jerusalem Talmud: A Translation and Commentary. Edited by Jacob Neusner and translated by Jacob Neusner, Tzvee Zahavy, B. Barry Levy, and Edward Goldman. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 2009.
Genesis Rabbah 3:9; 42:3; 43:8; 50:11; 53:6; 66:2; 72:5; 91:3; 97 (NV); 97:5. Land of Israel, 5th century. In, e.g., Midrash Rabbah: Genesis. Translated by Harry Freedman and Maurice Simon, volume 1, pages 25–26, 341–345, 357–58, 440–42, 466; volume 2, 601, 664–65, 833–36, 896–902, 942 (twice). London: Soncino Press, 1939.
Mekhilta of Rabbi Simeon 10:1; 58:1; 83:1. Land of Israel, 5th century. In, e.g., Mekhilta de-Rabbi Shimon bar Yohai. Translated by W. David Nelson, pages 29, 259, 375. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2006.
Babylonian Talmud: Berakhot 15b, 19a–b, 20b, 31b, 40b, 63a; Shabbat 13a, 28a, 50b, 71b, 87b, 92a, 116a, 118b, 132a, 139a; Eruvin 13a–b, 26b, 58a, 104b; Pesachim 19a, 23a, 31a, 35a, 41b, 43a–b, 45a, 66b–67a, 79a, 80b, 81b, 95b, 110a; Yoma 4b, 16a, 37a–b, 47a, 61b, 76b; Sukkah 6a, 28a, 42a, 53b; Beitzah 20a, 35b; Rosh Hashanah 17b; Taanit 11a, 17a, 21b, 26b; Megillah 3b, 8b, 18a, 20b, 23a–b, 25a, 28b, 29b, 30b–31a; Moed Katan 9a, 13b, 15a, 17b, 18b, 19b, 25b; Chagigah 6a, 9a, 10a, 16a, 23b–24a; Yevamot 5a, 7a, 11a–b, 38b, 46a, 49b, 55b, 56b, 58a, 61b, 84b–85b, 95a–b, 100b; Ketubot 9a, 15b, 19a, 24b, 45b, 51b, 71a, 72a, 74a, 81a, 82a; Nedarim 3a, 4a, 9b–10a, 18a, 66b, 73a, 82b–83a; Nazir 2a–66b; Sotah 2a–49b; Gittin 37a, 60a–b; Kiddushin 15a, 27b, 35a, 36b, 57b, 62a, 80b; Bava Kamma 15a, 40b, 91b, 103b, 105a–06a, 109a–10b, 111a; Bava Batra 60b, 91a, 121b; Sanhedrin 10b, 16b, 22b, 32b, 35a, 45a, 66a, 68b, 86a, 87a; Makkot 11a–b, 13b, 14b–15a, 17a, 18b, 20b–21b, 22b; Shevuot 5a, 6b, 8a, 13a, 14b–15a, 16a, 17a–b, 22a–23a, 27b–28a, 29b, 32a, 33b, 35b–36a, 37a, 39a, 48b–49a; Avodah Zarah 6b, 17a, 44a, 74a; Horayot 9a, 12b; Zevachim 4b, 6b, 8a, 9b, 23b, 33b, 36a, 44b, 48b, 54b–55a, 59b, 88a, 89b–90b, 100a, 101b, 117a–b; Menachot 2a, 3a, 4a–b, 8a–b, 16a, 18a–19b, 27a, 34a, 44a, 46b–47a, 48b, 50a, 55b, 57b, 59a, 60b, 68b, 72b, 78a, 84b, 88a–b, 91a–b, 92b, 95b, 103a, 109a; Chullin 9b, 24a–b, 41b, 49a, 82b, 88b, 89b, 98a, 131a, 133a–b, 134b, 141a; Arakhin 11a, 21a, 28b, 34a; Temurah 2b, 10a, 12b, 34a; Keritot 2b, 4a, 9a–b, 10b, 12b, 13b, 24a, 25b–26a, 27b; Meilah 11a, 18a, 19a; Tamid 33b; Niddah 3a, 28b–29a, 45b–46a, 48b, 52a, 68b, 70b. Sasanian Empire, 6th century. In, e.g., Talmud Bavli. Edited by Yisroel Simcha Schorr, Chaim Malinowitz, and Mordechai Marcus, 72 volumes. Brooklyn: Mesorah Pubs., 2006.
Medieval
Solomon ibn Gabirol. A Crown for the King, 21:257–58. Spain, 11th century. Translated by David R. Slavitt, pages 34–35. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998.
Rashi. Commentary. Numbers 4–7. Troyes, France, late 11th century. In, e.g., Rashi. The Torah: With Rashi's Commentary Translated, Annotated, and Elucidated. Translated and annotated by Yisrael Isser Zvi Herczeg, volume 4, pages 35–85. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1997.
Rashbam. Commentary on the Torah. Troyes, early 12th century. In, e.g., Rashbam's Commentary on Leviticus and Numbers: An Annotated Translation. Edited and translated by Martin I. Lockshin, pages 167–79. Providence: Brown Judaic Studies, 2001.
Judah Halevi. Kuzari. 2:26; 3:53. Toledo, Spain, 1130–1140. In, e.g., Jehuda Halevi. Kuzari: An Argument for the Faith of Israel. Introduction by Henry Slonimsky, pages 105, 181. New York: Schocken, 1964.
Numbers Rabbah 1:1; 2:10; 3:12; 4:19–20; 6:1–14:22; 15:3, 5, 8; 18:3, 20–21; 20:19; 21:12; 22:4. 12th century. In, e.g., Midrash Rabbah: Numbers. Translated by Judah J. Slotki, volume 5, pages 8, 36, 90, 119, 124, 138, 157–484; volume 6, pages 485–641, 644, 646, 649, 710, 732, 735, 810, 838, 856. London: Soncino Press, 1939.
Abraham ibn Ezra. Commentary on the Torah. Mid-12th century. In, e.g., Ibn Ezra's Commentary on the Pentateuch: Numbers (Ba-Midbar). Translated and annotated by H. Norman Strickman and Arthur M. Silver, pages 31–55. New York: Menorah Publishing Company, 1999.
Maimonides. Mishneh Torah: Hilchot Yesodei HaTorah (The Laws that Are the Foundations of the Torah), chapter 7, ¶ 6. Egypt. Circa 1170–1180. In, e.g., Mishneh Torah: Hilchot Yesodei HaTorah: The Laws which Are the Foundations of the Torah. Translated by Eliyahu Touger, volume 1. New York: Moznaim Publishing, 1989.
Maimonides. Mishneh Torah: Hilchot De'ot (The Laws of Personality Development), chapter 3, ¶ 1. Egypt. Circa 1170–1180. In, e.g., Mishneh Torah: Hilchot De'ot: The Laws of Personality Development: and Hilchot Talmud Torah: The Laws of Torah Study. Translated by Za'ev Abramson and Eliyahu Touger, volume 2, pages 50–55. New York: Moznaim Publishing, 1989.
Maimonides. Mishneh Torah: Hilchot Teshuvah (The Laws of Repentance), chapter 1, ¶ 1. Egypt. Circa 1170–1180. In, e.g., Mishneh Torah: Hilchot Teshuvah: The Laws of Repentance. Translated by Eliyahu Touger, pages 2–3. New York: Moznaim, Publishing, 1990.
Maimonides. Mishneh Torah: Hilchot Sotah (The Laws of a Sotah). Egypt. Circa 1170–1180. In, e.g., Mishneh Torah: Hilchot Yibbum Va'Chalitzah (The Laws of Yibbum and Chalitzah): and Hilchot Na'arah Betulah (The Laws of a Virgin Maiden): and Hilchot Sotah (The Laws Pertaining to a Sotah). Translated by Eliyahu Touger, volume 18, pages 186–237. New York: Moznaim Publishing, 1995.
Maimonides. Mishneh Torah: Hilchot Nezirut (The Laws of the Nazirite). Egypt. Circa 1170–1180. In, e.g., Mishneh Torah: Sefer Hafla'ah: The Book of Utterances. Translated by Eliyahu Touger. New York: Moznaim Publishing, 2003.
Maimonides. The Guide for the Perplexed, part 1, chapters 37, 61; part 3, chapters 33, 46, 47, 48. Cairo, Egypt, 1190. In, e.g., Moses Maimonides. The Guide for the Perplexed. Translated by Michael Friedländer, pages 53, 90–91, 327, 364, 366, 370, 372. New York: Dover Publications, 1956.
Hezekiah ben Manoah. Hizkuni. France, circa 1240. In, e.g., Chizkiyahu ben Manoach. Chizkuni: Torah Commentary. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 860–79. Jerusalem: Ktav Publishers, 2013.
Naḥmanides. Commentary on the Torah. Jerusalem, circa 1270. In, e.g., Ramban (Nachmanides): Commentary on the Torah: Numbers. Translated by Charles B. Chavel, volume 4, pages 37–67. New York: Shilo Publishing House, 1975.
Zohar, part 1, pages 120b, 199b, 211a, 248a; part 2, pages 6a, 24b, 75b, 79b, 107b, 140b, 221b; part 3, pages 38a, 121a–148b, 189a. Spain, late 13th century. In, e.g., The Zohar. Translated by Harry Sperling and Maurice Simon. 5 volumes. London: Soncino Press, 1934.
Jacob ben Asher (Baal Ha-Turim). Rimze Ba'al ha-Turim. Early 14th century. In, e.g., Baal Haturim Chumash: Bamidbar/Numbers. Translated by Eliyahu Touger, edited and annotated by Avie Gold, volume 4, pages 1389–441. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 2003.
Jacob ben Asher. Perush Al ha-Torah. Early 14th century. In, e.g., Yaakov ben Asher. Tur on the Torah. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 1025–44. Jerusalem: Lambda Publishers, 2005.
Isaac ben Moses Arama. Akedat Yizhak (The Binding of Isaac). Late 15th century. In, e.g., Yitzchak Arama. Akeydat Yitzchak: Commentary of Rabbi Yitzchak Arama on the Torah. Translated and condensed by Eliyahu Munk, volume 2, pages 691–99. New York, Lambda Publishers, 2001.
Modern
Isaac Abravanel. Commentary on the Torah. Italy, between 1492–1509. In, e.g., Abarbanel: Selected Commentaries on the Torah: Volume 4: Bamidbar/Numbers. Translated and annotated by Israel Lazar, pages 45–71. Brooklyn: CreateSpace, 2015.
Obadiah ben Jacob Sforno. Commentary on the Torah. Venice, 1567. In, e.g., Sforno: Commentary on the Torah. Translation and explanatory notes by Raphael Pelcovitz, pages 660–81. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1997.
Moshe Alshich. Commentary on the Torah. Safed, circa 1593. In, e.g., Moshe Alshich. Midrash of Rabbi Moshe Alshich on the Torah. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 801–13. New York, Lambda Publishers, 2000.
Avraham Yehoshua Heschel. Commentaries on the Torah. Cracow, Poland, mid-17th century. Compiled as Chanukat HaTorah. Edited by Chanoch Henoch Erzohn. Piotrkow, Poland, 1900. In Avraham Yehoshua Heschel. Chanukas HaTorah: Mystical Insights of Rav Avraham Yehoshua Heschel on Chumash. Translated by Avraham Peretz Friedman, pages 243–46. Southfield, Michigan: Targum Press/Feldheim Publishers, 2004.
Thomas Hobbes. Leviathan, Review and Conclusion. England, 1651. Reprint edited by C. B. Macpherson, page 725. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Classics, 1982.
Shabbethai Bass. Sifsei Chachamim. Amsterdam, 1680. In, e.g., Sefer Bamidbar: From the Five Books of the Torah: Chumash: Targum Okelos: Rashi: Sifsei Chachamim: Yalkut: Haftaros, translated by Avrohom Y. Davis, pages 54–129. Lakewood Township, New Jersey: Metsudah Publications, 2013.
Chaim ibn Attar. Ohr ha-Chaim. Venice, 1742. In Chayim ben Attar. Or Hachayim: Commentary on the Torah. Translated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 4, pages 1358–82. Brooklyn: Lambda Publishers, 1999.
Samuel David Luzzatto (Shadal). Commentary on the Torah. Padua, 1871. In, e.g., Samuel David Luzzatto. Torah Commentary. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 1018–28. New York: Lambda Publishers, 2012.
Yehudah Aryeh Leib Alter. Sefat Emet. Góra Kalwaria (Ger), Poland, before 1906. Excerpted in The Language of Truth: The Torah Commentary of Sefat Emet. Translated and interpreted by Arthur Green, pages 225–27. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1998. Reprinted 2012.
Abraham Isaac Kook. The Lights of Penitence, 5:7. 1925. In Abraham Isaac Kook: the Lights of Penitence, the Moral Principles, Lights of Holiness, Essays, Letters, and Poems. Translated by Ben Zion Bokser, page 55. Mahwah, New Jersey: Paulist Press 1978.
Alexander Alan Steinbach. Sabbath Queen: Fifty-four Bible Talks to the Young Based on Each Portion of the Pentateuch, pages 110–13. New York: Behrman's Jewish Book House, 1936.
Julius H. Greenstone. Numbers: With Commentary: The Holy Scriptures, pages 33–79. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1939. Reprinted by Literary Licensing, 2011.
I. Mendelsohn. "The Family in the Ancient Near East." Biblical Archaeologist, volume 11, number 2 (1948).
Michael Fishbane. “Accusations of Adultery: A Study of Law and Scribal Practice in Numbers 5:11–31.” Hebrew Union College Annual, volume 45 (1974): pages 25–45.
Herbert C. Brichto. "The Case of the Śōṭā and a Reconsideration of Biblical 'Law.'" Hebrew Union College Annual, volume 46 (1975): pages 55–70.
Jacob Milgrom. Cult and Conscience: The Asham and the Priestly Doctrine of Repentance. E.J. Brill, 1976.
Roland de Vaux. "Was There an Israelite Amphictyony?" Biblical Archaeology Review, volume 3, number 2 (June 1977).
Rebecca T. Alpert. “The Sotah: Rabbinic Attitutdes and the Adulterous Wife.” In Jewish Civilization: Essays and Studies: Jewish Law: Volume 2. Edited by Ronald A. Brauner, pages 33–41. Philadelphia: Reconstructionist Rabbinical College, 1981.
Jacob Milgrom. "The Case of the Suspected Adulteress, Numbers 5:11–31: Redaction and Meaning." In The Creation of Sacred Literature. Edited by Richard E. Friedman, pages 69–75. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1981.
Philip J. Budd. Word Biblical Commentary: Volume 5: Numbers, pages 42–88. Waco, Texas: Word Books, 1984.
Tikva Frymer-Kensky. “The Strange Case of the Suspected Sotah (Numbers V 11–31).” Vetus Testamentum, volume 34, number 1 (January 1984): pages 11–26.
Jacob Milgrom. "The Chieftain's Gifts: Numbers, Chapter 7," Hebrew Annual Review, volume 9 (1985): pages 221–225.
Steven D. Fraade. "Ascetical Aspects of Ancient Judaism." In Jewish Spirituality: From the Bible through the Middle Ages. Edited by Arthur Green, pages 253–88. New York: Crossroads, 1986.
Tikva Frymer-Kensky. "The Trial Before God of an Accused Adulteress." Bible Review, volume 2, number 3 (Fall 1986).
Pinchas H. Peli. Torah Today: A Renewed Encounter with Scripture, pages 161–64. Washington, D.C.: B'nai B'rith Books, 1987.
Joel Roth. "The Status of Daughters of Kohanim and Leviyim for Aliyot." New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 1989. OH 135:3.1989a. In Responsa: 1980–1990: The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement. Edited by David J. Fine, pages 49, 54, 63 note 22. New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2005. (implications for women's participation in aliyot of daughters of priests eating from nazir sacrifices).
Jacob Milgrom. The JPS Torah Commentary: Numbers: The Traditional Hebrew Text with the New JPS Translation, pages 30–59, 343–66. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1990.
Baruch A. Levine. Numbers 1–20, volume 4, pages 163–266. New York: Anchor Bible, 1993.
Mary Douglas. In the Wilderness: The Doctrine of Defilement in the Book of Numbers, pages xix, 84, 103, 108–11, 120–21, 123–24, 126, 129, 137, 147–49, 151, 158, 160, 168, 170, 175, 180–81, 186, 199, 201, 232. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993. Reprinted 2004.
Mayer Rabinowitz. "Women Raise Your Hands." New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 1994. OH 128:2.1994a. In Responsa: 1991–2000: The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement. Edited by Kassel Abelson and David J. Fine, pages 9–12. New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2002. (Priestly Blessing).
Stanley Bramnick and Judah Kogen. "Should N'siat Kapayim Include B'not Kohanim?" New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 1994. OH 128:2.1994b. In Responsa: 1991–2000: The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement. Edited by Kassel Abelson and David J. Fine, pages 13–15. New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2002. (Priestly Blessing).
Judith S. Antonelli. "Sotah: The Accused Wife." In In the Image of God: A Feminist Commentary on the Torah, pages 336–47. Northvale, New Jersey: Jason Aronson, 1995.
Ellen Frankel. The Five Books of Miriam: A Woman's Commentary on the Torah, pages 199–206. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1996.
Jacob Milgrom. "A Husband's Pride, A Mob's Prejudice: The public ordeal undergone by a suspected adulteress in Numbers 5 was meant not to humiliate her but to protect her." Bible Review, volume 12, number 4 (August 1996).
W. Gunther Plaut. The Haftarah Commentary, pages 337–46. New York: UAHC Press, 1996.
Beginning The Journey: Toward a Women's Commentary on Torah. Edited by Emily H. Feigenson, pages 113–50, 155–56. Women of Reform Judaism, The Federation of Temple Sisterhoods, 1997.
Judith Hauptman. “Sotah.” In Rereading the Rabbis: A Woman's Voice, pages 15–29. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1997.
Sorel Goldberg Loeb and Barbara Binder Kadden. Teaching Torah: A Treasury of Insights and Activities, pages 235–41. Denver: A.R.E. Publishing, 1997.
William H.C. Propp. "Insight: Was Samuel a Naz[i]rite?" Bible Review, volume 14, number 4 (August 1998).
Susan Freeman. Teaching Jewish Virtues: Sacred Sources and Arts Activities, pages 228–40. Springfield, New Jersey: A.R.E. Publishing, 1999. (Numbers 6:24–26).
Sarra Levine. "Inscribing jealousy on the Bodies of Women." In The Women's Torah Commentary: New Insights from Women Rabbis on the 54 Weekly Torah Portions. Edited by Elyse Goldstein, pages 261–69. Woodstock, Vermont: Jewish Lights Publishing, 2000.
Dennis T. Olson. "Numbers." In The HarperCollins Bible Commentary. Edited by James L. Mays, pages 169–71. New York: HarperCollins Publishers, revised edition, 2000.
Elie Kaplan Spitz. "Mamzerut." New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2000. EH 4.2000a. In Responsa: 1991–2000: The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement. Edited by Kassel Abelson and David J. Fine, pages 558, 583–84. New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2002. (interpretation of the sotah ritual and its discontinuance).
Lainie Blum Cogan and Judy Weiss. Teaching Haftarah: Background, Insights, and Strategies, pages 39–46. Denver: A.R.E. Publishing, 2002.
Michael Fishbane. The JPS Bible Commentary: Haftarot, pages 217–22. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2002.
Judith Z. Abrams. "Haftarat Naso: Judges 13:2–25." In The Women's Haftarah Commentary: New Insights from Women Rabbis on the 54 Weekly Haftarah Portions, the 5 Megillot & Special Shabbatot. Edited by Elyse Goldstein, pages 166–70. Woodstock, Vermont: Jewish Lights Publishing, 2004.
Robert Alter. The Five Books of Moses: A Translation with Commentary, pages 700–20. New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 2004.
Nili S. Fox. "Numbers." In The Jewish Study Bible. Edited by Adele Berlin and Marc Zvi Brettler, pages 292–301. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.
Lisa Grushcow. Writing the Wayward Wife: Rabbinic Interpretations of Sotah. Leiden and Boston: Brill Academic Publishers, 2006.
Professors on the Parashah: Studies on the Weekly Torah Reading Edited by Leib Moscovitz, pages 238–42. Jerusalem: Urim Publications, 2005.
W. Gunther Plaut. The Torah: A Modern Commentary: Revised Edition. Revised edition edited by David E.S. Stern, pages 921–49. New York: Union for Reform Judaism, 2006.
Suzanne A. Brody. "Trial by Waters." In Dancing in the White Spaces: The Yearly Torah Cycle and More Poems, page 94. Shelbyville, Kentucky: Wasteland Press, 2007.
Jaeyoung Jeon. “Two Laws in the Sotah Passage (Num. V 11–31).” Vetus Testamentum, volume 57, number 2 (2007): pages 181–207.
James L. Kugel. How To Read the Bible: A Guide to Scripture, Then and Now, pages 301, 351, 620. New York: Free Press, 2007.
Susan Niditch. “The Nazirite Vow: Domesticating Charisma and Recontextualizing Hair” and “Letting Down Her Hair or Cutting It Off: The Ritual Trial of a Woman Accused of Adultery and the Transformation of the Female ‘Other.’” In "My Brother Esau Is a Hairy Man": Hair and Identity in Ancient Israel, pages 81–94, 121–32. New York: Oxford University Press, 2008.
Ishay Rosen-Zvi. The Mishnaic Sotah Ritual: Temple, Gender, and Midrash. Translated by Orr Scharf. Leiden: Brill, 2012. Originally published as Yishai Rosen-Zvi, (The Ritual that Never Was: Temple, Midrash and Gender in Tractate Sota) (Jerusalem: Magnes, 2008).
The Torah: A Women's Commentary. Edited by Tamara Cohn Eskenazi and Andrea L. Weiss, pages 815–42. New York: URJ Press, 2008.
R. Dennis Cole. "Numbers." In Zondervan Illustrated Bible Backgrounds Commentary. Edited by John H. Walton, volume 1, pages 346–51. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan, 2009.
Reuven Hammer. Entering Torah: Prefaces to the Weekly Torah Portion, pages 201–06. New York: Gefen Publishing House, 2009.
Alicia Jo Rabins. "Secrets/You're Always Watching." In Girls in Trouble. New York: JDub Music, 2009. (song told from the perspective of the wife accused of infidelity).
Toba Spitzer. “From Impurity to Blessing: Parashat Naso (Numbers 4:21–7:89).” In Torah Queeries: Weekly Commentaries on the Hebrew Bible. Edited by Gregg Drinkwater, Joshua Lesser, and David Shneer; foreword by Judith Plaskow, pages 192–96. New York: New York University Press, 2009.
Terence E. Fretheim. “Numbers.” In The New Oxford Annotated Bible: New Revised Standard Version with the Apocrypha: An Ecumenical Study Bible. Edited by Michael D. Coogan, Marc Z. Brettler, Carol A. Newsom, and Pheme Perkins, pages 194–201. New York: Oxford University Press, Revised 4th Edition 2010.
Nicholas P. Lunn. “Numbering Israel: A Rhetorico-Structural Analysis of Numbers 1–4.” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, volume 35, number 2 (December 2010): pages 167–85.
The Commentators' Bible: Numbers: The JPS Miqra'ot Gedolot. Edited, translated, and annotated by Michael Carasik, pages 26–54. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2011.
Calum Carmichael. The Book of Numbers: A Critique of Genesis, pages 15–67. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2012.
William G. Dever. The Lives of Ordinary People in Ancient Israel: When Archaeology and the Bible Intersect, page 244. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2012.
Eve Levavi Feinstein. “The ‘Bitter Waters’ of Numbers 5:11–31.” Vetus Testamentum, volume 62, number 3 (2012): pages 300–06.
Shmuel Herzfeld. "Nazir and Kohein: Two Models of Spirituality." In Fifty-Four Pick Up: Fifteen-Minute Inspirational Torah Lessons, pages 199–203. Jerusalem: Gefen Publishing House, 2012.
Shlomo Riskin. Torah Lights: Bemidbar: Trials and Tribulations in Times of Transition, pages 31–58. New Milford, Connecticut: Maggid Books, 2012.
Shivi Greenfield. “The Theater of Deviance and the Normative Boundaries of Society: Lessons from the Rabbinic Interpretations to the Biblical Law of Sotah.” Journal of Law and Religion, volume 28, number 1 (2012–2013): pages 105–42.
Janson C. Condren. “Is the Account of the Organization of the Camp Devoid of Organization? A Proposal for the Literary Structure of Numbers 1.1–10.10.” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, volume 37, number 4 (June 2013): pages 423–52.
Aaron Koller. Review of The Mishnaic Sotah Ritual: Temple, Gender, and Midrash, by Ishay Rosen-Zvi. Review of Biblical Literature (October 2013).
Eve Levavi Feinstein. “The Suspected Adulteress (Num 5:11–31).” In Sexual Pollution in the Hebrew Bible, pages 43–50. New York: Oxford University Press, 2014.
Jonathan Sacks. Lessons in Leadership: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible, pages 189–92. New Milford, Connecticut: Maggid Books, 2015.
Avivah Gottlieb Zornberg. Bewilderments: Reflections on the Book of Numbers, pages 31–62. New York: Schocken Books, 2015.
David Booth, Ashira Konigsburg, and Baruch Frydman-Kohl. “Modesty Inside and Out: A Contemporary Guide to Tzniut,” page 8. New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2016. (Numbers 5:18 and covering a woman’s hair).
Jonathan Sacks. Essays on Ethics: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible, pages 221–25. New Milford, Connecticut: Maggid Books, 2016.
Nissim Amzallag and Shamir Yona. “The Kenite Origin of the Sotah Prescription (Numbers 5.11–31).” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, volume 41, number 4 (June 2017): pages 383–412.
Shai Held. The Heart of Torah, Volume 2: Essays on the Weekly Torah Portion: Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy, pages 103–13. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2017.
Steven Levy and Sarah Levy. The JPS Rashi Discussion Torah Commentary, pages 116–19. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2017.
Jonathan Sacks. Numbers: The Wilderness Years: Covenant & Conversation: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible, pages 71–106. New Milford, Connecticut: Maggid Books, 2017.
External links
Texts
Masoretic text and 1917 JPS translation
Hear the parashah chanted
Hear the parashah read in Hebrew
Commentaries
Academy for Jewish Religion, California
Academy for Jewish Religion, New York
Aish.com
American Jewish University—Ziegler School of Rabbinic Studies
Chabad.org
Hadar
Jewish Theological Seminary
MyJewishLearning.com
Orthodox Union
Pardes from Jerusalem
Reconstructing Judaism
Union for Reform Judaism
United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism
Yeshiva University
Weekly Torah readings in Sivan
Weekly Torah readings from Numbers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central%20Park%20Conservancy
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Central Park Conservancy
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The Central Park Conservancy is a private, nonprofit park conservancy that manages Central Park under a contract with the City of New York and NYC Parks. The conservancy employs most maintenance and operations staff in the park. It effectively oversees the work of both the private and public employees under the authority of the publicly appointed Central Park administrator, who reports to the parks commissioner and the conservancy's president.
The Central Park Conservancy was founded in 1980 in the aftermath of Central Park's decline in the 1960s and 1970s. Initially devoted to fundraising for projects to restore and improve the park, it took over the park's management duties in 1998. The organization has overseen the investment of more than $1 billion toward the restoration and enhancement of Central Park since its founding. With an endowment of over $200 million, consisting of contributions from residents, corporations, and foundations, the Conservancy raises the Park’s nearly $74 million annual operating budget and is responsible for all basic care of the park. The Conservancy also provides maintenance support and staff training programs for other public parks in New York City, and has assisted with the development of new parks, such as the High Line and Brooklyn Bridge Park.
History
Creation
The Conservancy was born out of community concern during the park's rapid decline in the 1960s and 1970s. The 1975 New York City fiscal crisis left Central Park a virtually abandoned dustbowl that residents came to view as a dangerous, crime-ridden space. Many advocacy groups had been working separately to improve conditions in Central Park. This included the Central Park Task Force, formed in 1975 and led by Elizabeth Barlow Rogers, an urban planner, writer and civic activist.
In late 1974, Columbia University Professor E.S. Savas published a report, which concluded that the park needed one unpaid individual employed by the New York City Department of Parks and Recreation (NYC Parks) to oversee its daily operations. It also recommended the establishment of a private, citizen-based board that would advise the overseeing individuals, as well as the creation of the Central Park Community Fund. The Fund was subsequently founded by Richard Gilder and George Soros. The suggestions of the Savas report were also supported by Mayor Edward I. Koch's Parks Commissioner Gordon Davis, and in 1979 the city established the Office of Central Park Administrator and appointed Barlow as the first Central Park Administrator.
On December 13, 1980, the Central Park Task Force and the Central Park Community Fund joined to form the not-for-profit Central Park Conservancy, a public–private partnership created to bring private resources to the public Park. According to commissioner Davis, this was due to a need for "something permanent and nonpolitical, not subject to changes when a commissioner or mayor leaves office; but also something that was accountable to the public and that worked in partnership with the city." Mayor Ed Koch selected philanthropist William Sperry Beinecke as the inaugural chair of the board of the Central Park Conservancy, and Beinecke in turn selected the board's roughly thirty private citizens. Beinecke also named a 44-person "Founders Committee" composed of individuals who had supported Central Park, such as Brooke Astor, George T. Delacorte Jr., Lucy Moses, Paul Newman, and Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis. The Conservancy included four working committees: the Program and Planning Committee, the Development Committee, the Nominating Committee, and the Audit Committee.
1980s renovations
Under the leadership of the Central Park Conservancy, the park's reclamation began by addressing needs that could not be met within NYC Parks' existing resources. The Conservancy hired interns and a small restoration staff to reconstruct and repair unique rustic features, undertaking horticultural projects, and removing graffiti under the broken windows theory, which advocated removing visible signs of decay. According to Conservancy president Douglas Blonsky:
The first structure to be renovated was the Dairy, which was rehabilitated and reopened as the park's first visitor center in 1979. The Sheep Meadow, which reopened the following year, was the first landscape to be restored. By then, the Conservancy was engaged in design efforts and long-term restoration planning, and it hired Pamela Tice as its CEO in 1981. Some projects were already underway or complete. Bethesda Fountain, which had been dry for decades, was restored in 1981; the USS Maine National Monument and the Bow Bridge had also already been restored. In its first annual financial report, for the two fiscal years ending June 30, 1982, the Conservancy reported $2 million in endowments, most of which came from donors who donated at least $1,000 each.
At the end of 1981, Davis and Barlow announced a 10-year, $100 million "Central Park Management and Restoration Plan", under which all future renovations would proceed. The first project to be undertaken as part of the restoration plan was the renovation of Bethesda Terrace, which started in 1982. The long-closed Belvedere Castle was renovated and reopened in 1983, winning a renovation award from the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission, which had previously designated the park as a scenic landmark. The renovation of Central Park also entailed the examination of thousands of plants, as well as the mapping and construction of new paths along heavily trafficked grass routes. In conjunction with this renovation, the Strawberry Fields memorial to the murdered musician John Lennon was built in the western end of the park, and the Dene Rustic Shelter was restored.
The Conservancy started two fundraising initiatives in fiscal year 1983: the Olmsted Awards Luncheon and "You Gotta Have Park Weekend". On completion of the planning stage in 1985, the conservancy launched its first capital campaign, assuming increasing responsibility for funding the park's restoration, and full responsibility for designing, bidding, and supervising all capital projects in the park. The Conservancy developed a 15-year restoration plan that sought to remain true to the original design while supporting current goals of use.
Over the next several years, the campaign restored landmarks in the southern part of the park, such as Grand Army Plaza and the police station at the 86th Street transverse. In the northern end of the park, the Conservancy restored the Conservatory Garden as designed by the landscape architect Lynden Miller. It reopened in 1987. By 1988, the Conservancy was raising $6 million in donations annually. However, the Conservancy still faced obstacles, including opposition to projects such as the reconstruction of the Mall's bandshell and the erection of the North Meadow Recreation Center.
While most of the park's restorations in the 1980s were Conservancy projects, two major attractions were restored by other entities. Real estate developer Donald Trump took over management of the Wollman Rink in 1987 and renovated it after prior renovation plans were repeatedly delayed. The New York Zoological Society, which signed an agreement with the city to take over management of the Central Park Zoo in 1980, closed the zoo in 1983 for renovation. It reopened four years later, after a $35 million renovation.
1990s renovations
The Conservancy began major restoration work at the northern end of the park beginning in 1989, following several assaults on April 19, 1989 in the Central Park jogger case. Work on the Ravine in the northern part of the park was completed by 1992. The following year, the Conservancy announced a $51 million capital campaign. This resulted in the restoration of bridle trails, the Mall, the Harlem Meer, and the North Woods, as well as the construction of the Dana Discovery Center at the Harlem Meer.
Afterward, the Conservancy embarked on its most ambitious landscape restoration: the overhaul of the near the Great Lawn and Turtle Pond. The project was the centerpiece of the Conservancy's three-year Wonder of New York Campaign, which raised $71.5 million and also helped restore southern and western landscapes, as well as the North Meadow. The Great Lawn project was completed in 1997.
Though they operated under a memorandum of understanding as a public-private partnership for 18 years, the Conservancy and the City of New York did not formalize a management agreement until 1998, during the administration of Mayor Rudy Giuliani. Under the agreement, the city retained control over major policy decisions about the Park as well as the enforcement of rules and laws within it, while the Conservancy assumed responsibility for day-to-day maintenance and operations. The Conservancy's original contract with the City was renewed in 2006. Under the eight-year agreement, the Conservancy receives an annual fee for services.
Citywide budget cuts in the early 1990s resulted in attrition of the park's routine maintenance staff, and the Conservancy began hiring staff to replace these workers. Management of the restored landscapes by the Conservancy's "zone gardeners" proved so successful that core maintenance and operations staff were reorganized in 1996. The zone-based system of management was implemented throughout the park, which was divided into 49 zones. The Conservancy recruited volunteers to also help in maintenance. In 2007, there were 3,000 volunteers compared to just under 250 paid workers in the park.
2000s to present
Renovation work continued through the first decade of the 21st century. Conservatory Water was restored over six months in 2000, and the restoration of the Pond began the same year. A new Reservoir fence was installed in 2004 under a capital project that replaced the old chain-link fence with a replica of the 8,000-foot long steel and cast-iron one that had enclosed the Reservoir in 1926. The new fence, along with removal of invasive trees and shrubs, restored the panoramic views of the park and Manhattan skyline.
Another ambitious restoration effort began in 2004, when Conservancy staff and contractors worked together to refurbish the ceiling of the Bethesda Arcade. Originally designed by Calvert Vaux and Jacob Wrey Mould, the ceiling of the Arcade is lined by 15,876 elaborately patterned encaustic tiles. Salt and water infiltration from the roadway above had badly damaged the tiles, leaving their backing plates so corroded they had to be removed in the 1980s. The tiles were held in storage for more than 20 years until the Conservancy embarked on a $7 million restoration effort in 2004 to return the Minton tiles to their original luster. The completed Bethesda Terrace Arcade was unveiled in March 2007.
The Ramble and Lake were renovated by the Central Park Conservancy, in a project to enhance both their ecological and scenic aspects. In 2007 the first phase of a restoration of the Lake and its shoreline plantings commenced. During the same time, Bank Rock Bridge was recreated in carved oak with cast-iron panels and pine decking, its original materials, following Vaux's original design of 1859–60. The cascade, where the Gill empties into the lake, was reconstructed to approximate its dramatic original form. The island formerly in the lake, which had gradually eroded below water level, was replanted with aqueous plants such as Pickerel weed. The first renovated sections were opened to visitors in April 2008 and the project was complete by 2012. The final feature to be restored was the East Meadow, which was rehabilitated in 2011.
The Conservancy began raising money for a $300 million cleanup initiative in 2013, and within three years, it had raised over a third of that amount. Minor renovation projects continued through the park in the late 2010s. The Belvedere Castle was closed in 2018 for an extensive renovation, reopening in June 2019. In 2018, the Conservancy announced that Lasker Rink would be closed from 2020 until 2023 for a $150 million alteration. Later in 2018, the Conservancy announced that the Delacorte Theater would be closed from 2020 to 2022 for a $110 million renovation. The Central Park Conservancy further announced that Lasker Rink would be closed for renovation between 2021 and 2024.
Responsibilities
Park maintenance and visitor information
Conservancy crews care for acres of lawns, of lakes and streams, of woodlands, and approximately 18,000 trees. The Conservancy's staff installs hundreds of thousands of plantings annually, including bulbs, shrubs, flowers, and trees. They maintain 10,000 benches, 26 ballfields, and 21 playgrounds and are responsible for the preservation of 55 sculptures and monuments and 36 arches and bridges. Conservancy crews remove graffiti and collect more than 2,000 tons of trash a year. The Conservancy maintains a zone-management system, which divides Central Park into territories managed by individual supervisors who are held accountable for their zone's condition. The park has 49 zones managed by "zone gardeners" who work with volunteers and specialty crews to maintain their designated landscapes.
The Conservancy operates five visitor centers in Central Park: Charles A. Dana Discovery Center, Belvedere Castle, Chess & Checkers House, the Dairy, and Columbus Circle. These visitor centers distribute maps and other information about the park. The Dairy contains the park's official gift shop.
Events and activities
Central Park Conservancy hosts a number of events and activities, such as festivals, games, volunteering opportunities, and tours. Every August since 2003, the Conservancy has hosted the Central Park Film Festival, a series of free film screenings. The Conservancy also hosts Harlem Meer Performance Festival, a free concert series held each summer since 1993. Other activities include catch-and-release fishing in the Harlem Meer; official tours of the park; and board games.
Programs
Central Park Conservancy's educational division, the Institute for Urban Parks, was founded in 2013 and, according to the Conservancy’s website, draws on its “expertise” in park management “to empower, inform, connect, and celebrate the individuals and organizations that care for urban parks.” The program has assisted with the development of new parks such as the High Line and Brooklyn Bridge Park. Its Five-Borough Program provides staff and programming assistance to parks around the city.
The Conservancy has also participated in cleanup and maintenance initiatives for other New York City parks. In 2005, the Conservancy created the Historic Harlem Parks initiative, providing maintenance, gardening support, and mentoring to workers in Morningside Park, St. Nicholas Park, Jackie Robinson Park, and Marcus Garvey Park in Harlem. In late 2014, mayor Bill de Blasio announced an initiative where the Conservancy, as well as seven other organizations that care for the city's large public parks, would donate workers, labors, and money to assist smaller parks in New York City's poorer neighborhoods. The Central Park Conservancy would be involved in the cleanup of two dozen parks, and would train gardeners and deploy the Five-Borough Crew to these parks.
Management
The Conservancy's founding board members ex officio included William Sperry Beinecke and Elizabeth Barlow Rogers, as well as mayor Koch, park commissioner Davis, and Manhattan borough president Andrew Stein. Beinecke was the chair of the board of the Central Park Conservancy, while Rogers was the initial president of the Conservancy.
The Conservancy has been led by five presidents over its history. Elizabeth Barlow Rogers, the first and longest-serving president, was appointed as administrator in 1979 and named the Conservancy's first president upon its founding in 1980. She stepped down as both Conservancy president and Central Park administrator at the end of 1995. Karen H. Putnam, who worked as the Conservancy's development director, took over both posts. Douglas Blonsky took over the role of Central Park administrator in 1998. The presidency was not Blonsky's first role in the Conservancy; he had originally been hired as construction supervisor for the Park in 1985 by Rogers.
After Putnam resigned as Conservancy president in 2000, Regina S. Peruggi took on the role, leaving her position as president of Marymount Manhattan College. Peruggi stepped down in 2004 to become president of Kingsborough Community College, and Blonsky took over the role of Conservancy president. Upon Blonsky's retirement in 2017, Elizabeth W. Smith became president in March 2018.
Financing
In the fiscal year ending June 30, 2019, the Central Park Conservancy had net assets (own equity) of $360.846 million and liabilities of $28.144 million, which amounted to total assets of $388.990 million. Net assets decreased $15.122 million from the fiscal year ending June 30, 2018. For tax purposes, the Conservancy's Employer Identification Number is 13-3022855.
The Conservancy had an annual operating budget of $65–67 million in 2016, of which 75% comes from donations and the balance from municipal and state tax revenue. The Central Park Conservancy's overall endowment was over $200 million in 2014. Much of this amount came from large donations. The largest was in October 2012, when hedge fund manager John A. Paulson announced a $100 million gift to the Central Park Conservancy, the largest ever monetary donation to New York City's park system. Prior to Paulson's gift, the majority of donations to the Conservancy came from a relatively small group of 55,000 people who lived within a "10-minute walk" of Central Park. , the Conservancy had spent nearly $800 million on improving Central Park.
Honors
The Conservancy has received several awards and honors. In 2001, the Conservancy and three other organizations were given the Award for Outstanding Commitment to the Preservation and Care of Collections by the American Institute for Conservation. In 2008, the American Planning Association recognized Central Park for being one of that year's Great Public Spaces in America. The association described the Park as "arguably the most emulated park in the country" and cited it as "an exemplary public space that successfully maintains a large naturalistic landscape in the midst of one of the densest cities in the country." Additionally, in 2017, the American Society of Landscape Architects gave the Conservancy the Landscape Architecture Medal of Excellence.
See also
10-Minute Walk
Public-private partnerships in the United States
References
Citations
Sources
Cedar Miller, Sara and Roux, Jean-Paul. Central Park, An American Masterpiece:A Comprehensive History of the Nation's First Urban Park. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 2007. .
External links
NYC Department of Parks & Recreation
Central Park
Non-profit organizations based in New York City
1980 establishments in New York City
Public–private partnership projects in the United States
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Ancient Greek medicine
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Ancient Greek medicine was a compilation of theories and practices that were constantly expanding through new ideologies and trials. The Greek term for medicine was iatrikē (Greek: ἰατρική). Many components were considered in ancient Greek medicine, intertwining the spiritual with the physical. Specifically, the ancient Greeks believed health was affected by the humors, geographic location, social class, diet, trauma, beliefs, and mindset. Early on the ancient Greeks believed that illnesses were "divine punishments" and that healing was a "gift from the Gods". As trials continued wherein theories were tested against symptoms and results, the pure spiritual beliefs regarding "punishments" and "gifts" were replaced with a foundation based in the physical, i.e., cause and effect.
Humorism (or the four humors) refers to blood, phlegm, yellow bile and black bile. Each of the four humors were linked to an organ, temper, season and element. It was also theorized that sex played a role in medicine because some diseases and treatments were different for females than for males. Moreover, geographic location and social class affected the living conditions of the people and might subject them to different environmental issues such as mosquitoes, rats, and availability of clean drinking water. Diet was thought to be an issue as well and might be affected by a lack of access to adequate nourishment. Trauma, such as that suffered by gladiators, from dog bites or other injuries, played a role in theories relating to understanding anatomy and infections. Additionally, there was significant focus on the beliefs and mindset of the patient in the diagnosis and treatment theories. It was recognized that the mind played a role in healing, or that it might also be the sole basis for the illness.
Ancient Greek medicine began to revolve around the theory of humors. The humoral theory states that good health comes from a perfect balance of the four humors: blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile. Consequently, poor health resulted from improper balance of the four humors. Hippocrates, known as the "Father of Modern Medicine", established a medical school at Cos and is the most important figure in ancient Greek medicine. Hippocrates and his students documented numerous illnesses in the Hippocratic Corpus, and developed the Hippocratic Oath for physicians, which is still in use today. He and his students also created medical terminology that is part of our vocabulary today. Medical words included acute, chronic, epidemic, exacerbation, relapse, and others. The contributions to ancient Greek medicine of Hippocrates, Socrates and others had a lasting influence on Islamic medicine and medieval European medicine until many of their findings eventually became obsolete in the 14th century.
The earliest known Greek medical school opened in Cnidus in 700 BC. Alcmaeon, author of the first anatomical compilation, worked at this school, and it was here that the practice of observing patients was established. Despite their known respect for ancient Egyptian medicine, attempts to discern any particular influence on Greek practice at this early time have not been dramatically successful because of the lack of sources and the challenge of understanding ancient medical terminology. It is clear, however, that the Greeks imported Egyptian substances into their pharmacopoeia, and the influence became more pronounced after the establishment of a school of Greek medicine in Alexandria.
Asclepieia
Asclepius was espoused as the first physician, and myth placed him as the son of Apollo.
Temples dedicated to the healer-god Asclepius, known as Asclepieia (; sing. Ἀσκληπιεῖον Asclepieion), functioned as centers of medical advice, prognosis, and healing. At these shrines, patients would enter a dream-like state of induced sleep known as "enkoimesis" () not unlike anesthesia, in which they either received guidance from the deity in a dream or were cured by surgery. Asclepeia provided carefully controlled spaces conducive to healing and fulfilled several of the requirements of institutions created for healing. The Temple of Asclepius in Pergamum had a spring that flowed down into an underground room in the Temple. People would come to drink the waters and to bathe in them because they were believed to have medicinal properties. Mud baths and hot teas such as chamomile were used to calm them or peppermint tea to soothe their headaches, which is still a home remedy used by many today. The patients were encouraged to sleep in the facilities too. Their dreams were interpreted by the doctors and their symptoms were then reviewed. Dogs would occasionally be brought in to lick open wounds for assistance in their healing. In the Asclepieion of Epidaurus, three large marble boards dated to 350 BC preserve the names, case histories, complaints, and cures of about 70 patients who came to the temple with a problem and shed it there. Some of the surgical cures listed, such as the opening of an abdominal abscess or the removal of traumatic foreign material, are realistic enough to have taken place, but with the patient in a state of enkoimesis induced with the help of soporific substances such as opium.
The Rod of Asclepius is a universal symbol for medicine to this day. However, it is frequently confused with Caduceus, which was a staff wielded by the god Hermes. The Rod of Asclepius embodies one snake with no wings whereas Caduceus is represented by two snakes and a pair of wings depicting the swiftness of Hermes.
Ancient Greek physicians
Ancient old Greek physicians did not regard disease as being of supernatural origin, i.e., brought about from the dissatisfaction of the gods or demonic possession. 'The Greeks developed a system of medicine based on an empirico-rational approach, such that they relied ever more on naturalistic observation, enhanced by practical trial and error experience, abandoning magical and religious justifications of human bodily dysfunction.' However, in some instances, the fault of the ailment was still placed on the patient and the role of the physician was to conciliate with the gods or exorcise the demon with prayers, spells, and sacrifices.
Women in Ancient Greek Medicine
Originally, in ancient Greece, women were not allowed to become doctors, however, there are some accounts of female doctors who practiced medicine. One such account was that of the female doctor Agnodice. The validity of Agnodice’s story has been debated by scholars but according to legend, Agnodice was a woman in ancient Greece who disguised herself as a man to study medicine and become a doctor. She did so by cutting her hair and changing into men’s clothing.
While under the guise of practicing as a man, Agnodice was able to secure an apprenticeship under the then physician and gynecologist, Herophilus and learn the skills necessary to practice medicine herself. To provide comfort to her patients, it is believed that Agnodice would expose herself to female patients in order to prove that she was a woman. Eventually, she was discovered and put on trial for practicing medicine as a woman. Once again, she exposed herself to the court to prove the truth about her existence as a woman practicing medicine. The outcome was that she was found as violating the law, specifically against women being able to learn medicine. However, her female patients came to her defense and testified that she had helped them when no male doctor could. Agnodice was acquitted and soon after the law was changed in Athens. After her trial, all free-born women were then legally allowed to practice medicine. After the ruling and change in law, Agnodice then went on to become a well-respected doctor in Athens by all.
While Agnodice is the most well-known female doctor in ancient Greece, there were likely others who practiced medicine. However, there is little information available about them. In general, women in ancient Greece were not allowed to receive an education, so it is unlikely that many women were able to become doctors. It is believed that there were some exceptions, for example, the daughters of wealthy families who could receive an education.
In addition to Agnodice, there were female healers in ancient Greece who were not trained as formal doctors, but who had significant medical knowledge. These women used herbal remedies and other natural treatments to help their patients. They were often called upon to help with childbirth and other women's health issues, similar to current-day midwives and nurses. While they were not officially recognized as doctors during their time, they played a vital role in the healthcare system of ancient Greece.
Overall, the role of women in medicine in ancient Greece was limited. However, there were some exceptions, such as Agnodice, who were able to break through the barriers and become respected doctors. While there is little information available about other female doctors in ancient Greece, it is likely that there were others who practiced medicine. Additionally, female healers played an important role in the healthcare system of ancient Greece, even if they were not officially recognized as doctors.
The Hippocratic Corpus and Humorism
The Hippocratic Corpus opposes ancient beliefs, offering biologically based approaches to disease instead of magical intervention. The Hippocratic Corpus is a collection of about seventy early medical works from ancient Greece that are associated with Hippocrates and his students. Although once thought to have been written by Hippocrates himself, many scholars today believe that these texts were written by a series of authors over several decades. The Corpus contains the treatise, the Sacred Disease, which argues that if all diseases were derived from supernatural sources, biological medicines would not work. The establishment of the humoral theory of medicine focused on the balance between blood, yellow and black bile, and phlegm in the human body. Being too hot, cold, dry or wet disturbed the balance between the humors, resulting in disease and illness. Gods and demons were not believed to punish the patient, but attributed to bad air (miasma theory). Physicians who practiced humoral medicine focused on reestablishing balance between the humors. The shift from supernatural disease to biological disease did not completely abolish Greek religion, but offered a new method of how physicians interacted with patients.
Ancient Greek physicians who followed humorism emphasized the importance of environment. Physicians believed patients would be subjected to various diseases based on the environment they resided. The local water supply and the direction the wind blew influenced the health of the local populace. Patients played an important role in their treatment. Stated in the treatise "Aphorisms", "[i]t is not enough for the physician to do what is necessary, but the patient and the attendant must do their part as well". Patient compliance was rooted in their respect for the physician. According to the treatise "Prognostic", a physician was able to increase their reputation and respect through "prognosis", knowing the outcome of the disease. Physicians had an active role in the lives of patients, taking into consideration their residence. Distinguishing between fatal diseases and recoverable disease was important for patient trust and respect, positively influencing patient compliance.
With the growth of patient compliance in Greek medicine, consent became an important factor between the doctor and patient relationship. Presented with all the information concerning the patient's health, the patient makes the decision to accept treatment. Physician and patient responsibility is mentioned in the treatise "Epidemics", where it states, "there are three factors in the practice of medicine: the disease, the patient and the physician. The physician is the servant of science, and the patient must do what he can to fight the disease with the assistance of the physician".
Aristotle's influence on Greek perception
Ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle was the most influential scholar of the living world from antiquity. Aristotle's biological writings demonstrate great concern for empiricism, biological causation, and the diversity of life. Aristotle did not experiment, however, holding that items display their real natures in their own environments, rather than controlled artificial ones. While in modern-day physics and chemistry this assumption has been found unhelpful, in zoology and ethology it remains the dominant practice, and Aristotle's work "retains real interest". He made countless observations of nature, especially the habits and attributes of plants and animals in the world around him, which he devoted considerable attention to categorizing. In all, Aristotle classified 540 animal species, and dissected at least 50.
Aristotle believed that formal causes guided all natural processes. Such a teleological view gave Aristotle cause to justify his observed data as an expression of formal design; for example suggesting that Nature, giving no animal both horns and tusks, was staving off vanity, and generally giving creatures faculties only to such a degree as they are necessary. In a similar fashion, Aristotle believed that creatures were arranged in a graded scale of perfection rising from plants on up to man—the scala naturae or Great Chain of Being.
He held that the level of a creature's perfection was reflected in its form, but not foreordained by that form. Yet another aspect of his biology divided souls into three groups: a vegetative soul, responsible for reproduction and growth; a sensitive soul, responsible for mobility and sensation; and a rational soul, capable of thought and reflection. He attributed only the first to plants, the first two to animals, and all three to humans. Aristotle, in contrast to earlier philosophers, and like the Egyptians, placed the rational soul in the heart, rather than the brain. Notable is Aristotle's division of sensation and thought, which generally went against previous philosophers, with the exception of Alcmaeon.
Aristotle's successor at the Lyceum, Theophrastus, wrote a series of books on botany—the History of Plants—which survived as the most important contribution of antiquity to botany, even into the Middle Ages. Many of Theophrastus' names survive into modern times, such as carpos for fruit, and pericarpium for seed vessel. Rather than focus on formal causes, as Aristotle did, Theophrastus suggested a mechanistic scheme, drawing analogies between natural and artificial processes, and relying on Aristotle's concept of the efficient cause. Theophrastus also recognized the role of sex in the reproduction of some higher plants, though this last discovery was lost in later ages. The biological/teleological ideas of Aristotle and Theophrastus, as well as their emphasis on a series of axioms rather than on empirical observation, cannot be easily separated from their consequent impact on Western medicine.
Herophilus, Erasistratus and ancient Greek anatomy
Nomenclature, methods and applications for the study of anatomy all date back to the Greeks. After Theophrastus (d. 286 BC), the extent of original work produced was diminished. Though interest in Aristotle's ideas survived, they were generally taken unquestioningly. It is not until the age of Alexandria under the Ptolemies that advances in biology can be again found. The first medical teacher at Alexandria was Herophilus of Chalcedon (the father of anatomy), who differed from Aristotle, placing intelligence in the brain, and connected the nervous system to motion and sensation. Herophilus also distinguished between veins and arteries, noting that the latter had a pulse while the former do not. He did this using an experiment involving cutting certain veins and arteries in a pig's neck until the squealing stopped. In the same vein, he developed a diagnostic technique which relied upon distinguishing different types of pulse. He, and his contemporary, Erasistratus of Chios, researched the role of veins and nerves, mapping their courses across the body.
Erasistratus connected the increased complexity of the surface of the human brain compared to other animals to its superior intelligence. He sometimes employed experiments to further his research, at one time repeatedly weighing a caged bird and noting its weight loss between feeding times. Following his teacher's researches into pneumatics, he claimed that the human system of blood vessels was controlled by vacuums, drawing blood across the body. In Erasistratus' physiology, air enters the body, is then drawn by the lungs into the heart, where it is transformed into vital spirit, and is then pumped by the arteries throughout the body. Some of this vital spirit reaches the brain, where it is transformed into animal spirit, which is then distributed by the nerves. Herophilus and Erasistratus performed their experiments upon criminals given to them by their Ptolemaic kings. They dissected these criminals alive, and "while they were still breathing they observed parts which nature had formerly concealed, and examined their position, colour, shape, size, arrangement, hardness, softness, smoothness, connection."
Though a few ancient atomists such as Lucretius challenged the teleological viewpoint of Aristotelian ideas about life, teleology (and after the rise of Christianity, natural theology) would remain central to biological thought essentially until the 18th and 19th centuries. In the words of Ernst Mayr, "Nothing of any real consequence in biology after Lucretius and Galen until the Renaissance." Aristotle's ideas of natural history and medicine survived, but they were generally taken unquestioningly.
Galen
Aelius Galenus was a prominent Greek physician, surgeon and philosopher in the Roman Empire. Arguably the most accomplished of all medical researchers of antiquity, Galen influenced the development of various scientific disciplines, including anatomy, physiology, pathology, pharmacology, and neurology, as well as philosophy and logic.
The son of Aelius Nicon, a wealthy architect with scholarly interests, Galen received a comprehensive education that prepared him for a successful career as a physician and philosopher. Born in Pergamon (present-day Bergama, Turkey), Galen traveled extensively, exposing himself to a wide variety of medical theories and discoveries before settling in Rome, where he served prominent members of Roman society and eventually was given the position of personal physician to several emperors.
Galen's understanding of anatomy and medicine was principally influenced by the then-current theory of humorism, as advanced by ancient Greek physicians such as Hippocrates. His theories dominated and influenced Western medical science for more than 1,300 years. His anatomical reports, based mainly on dissection of monkeys, especially the Barbary macaque, and pigs, remained uncontested until 1543, when printed descriptions and illustrations of human dissections were published in the seminal work De humani corporis fabrica by Andreas Vesalius where Galen's physiological theory was accommodated to these new observations. Galen's theory of the physiology of the circulatory system endured until 1628, when William Harvey published his treatise entitled De motu cordis, in which he established that blood circulates, with the heart acting as a pump. Medical students continued to study Galen's writings until well into the 19th century. Galen conducted many nerve ligation experiments that supported the theory, which is still accepted today, that the brain controls all the motions of the muscles by means of the cranial and peripheral nervous systems.
Galen saw himself as both a physician and a philosopher, as he wrote in his treatise entitled That the Best Physician is also a Philosopher. Galen was very interested in the debate between the rationalist and empiricist medical sects, and his use of direct observation, dissection and vivisection represents a complex middle ground between the extremes of those two viewpoints.
Dioscorides
The first century AD Greek physician, pharmacologist, botanist, and Roman army surgeon Pedanius Dioscorides authored an encyclopedia of medicinal substances commonly known as De Materia Medica. This work did not delve into medical theory or explanation of pathogenesis, but described the uses and actions of some 600 plants and deals with approximately 1,000 simple drugs, based on empirical observation. Unlike other works of Classical antiquity, Dioscorides' manuscript was never out of publication; it formed the basis for the Western pharmacopeia through the 19th century, a true testament to the efficacy of the medicines described; moreover, the influence of work on European herbal medicine eclipsed that of the Hippocratic Corpes.
Herodicus
Herodicus () was a Greek physician of the 5th century BC, who is considered to be the father of sports medicine. The first use of therapeutic exercise for the treatment of disease and maintenance of health is credited to him, and he is believed to have been one of the tutors of Hippocrates. He also recommended good diet and massage using beneficial herbs and oils, and his theories are considered the foundation of sports medicine. He was specific in the manner that a massage should be given. He recommended that rubbing be initially slow and gentle, then subsequently faster, with the application of more pressure, which was to be followed by more gentle friction.
Historical legacy
Through long contact with Greek culture, and their eventual conquest of Greece, the Romans adopted a favorable view of Hippocratic medicine.
This acceptance led to the spread of Greek medical theories throughout the Roman Empire, and thus a large portion of the West. The most influential Roman scholar to continue and expand on the Hippocratic tradition was Galen (d. c. 207). Study of Hippocratic and Galenic texts, however, all but disappeared in the Latin West in the Early Middle Ages, following the collapse of the Western Empire, although the Hippocratic-Galenic tradition of Greek medicine continued to be studied and practiced in the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantium). After AD 750, Arab, Persian and Andalusi scholars translated Galen's and Dioscorides' works in particular. Thereafter the Hippocratic-Galenic medical tradition was assimilated and eventually expanded, with the most influential Muslim doctor-scholar being Avicenna. Beginning in the late eleventh century, the Hippocratic-Galenic tradition returned to the Latin West with a series of translations of the Classical texts, mainly from Arabic translations but occasionally from the original Greek. In the Renaissance, more translations of Galen and Hippocrates directly from the Greek were made from newly available Byzantine manuscripts.
Galen's influence was so great that even after Western Europeans started making dissections in the thirteenth century, scholars often assimilated findings into the Galenic model that otherwise might have thrown Galen's accuracy into doubt. Over time, however, Classical medical theory came to be superseded by increasing emphasis on scientific experimental methods in the 16th and 17th centuries. Nevertheless, the Hippocratic-Galenic practice of bloodletting was practiced into the 19th century, despite its empirical ineffectiveness and riskiness.
See also
Ancient Egyptian medicine
Byzantine medicine
History of medicine
Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine and Sciences
Medical community of ancient Rome
Medicine in ancient Rome
On Ancient Medicine (Hippocratic Corpus)
Unani
References
Bibliography
Connor, J. T. H. An English Language Bibliography of Classical Greek Medicine
Further reading
Annas, Julia. Classical Greek Philosophy. In Boardman, John; Griffin, Jasper; Murray, Oswyn (ed.) The Oxford History of the Classical World. Oxford University Press: New York, 1986.
Barnes, Jonathan. Hellenistic Philosophy and Science. In Boardman, John; Griffin, Jasper; Murray, Oswyn (ed.) The Oxford History of the Classical World. Oxford University Press: New York, 1986.
Cohn-Haft, Louis. The Public Physicians of Ancient Greece, Northampton, Massachusetts, 1956.
Guido, Majno. The Healing Hand: Man and Wound in the Ancient World, Harvard University Press, 1975.
Guthrie, W. K. C. A History of Greek Philosophy. Volume I: The earlier Presocratics and the Pythagoreans. Cambridge University Press: New York, 1962.
Jones, W. H. S. Philosophy and Medicine in Ancient Greece, Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore, 1946.
Longrigg, James. Greek Rational Medicine: Philosophy and Medicine from Alcmæon to the Alexandrians, Routledge, 1993.
Lovejoy, Arthur O. The Great Chain of Being: A Study of the History of an Idea. Harvard University Press, 1936. Reprinted by Harper & Row, , 2005 paperback:
Mason, Stephen F. A History of the Sciences. Collier Books: New York, 1956.
Mayr, Ernst. The Growth of Biological Thought: Diversity, Evolution, and Inheritance. The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press: Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1982.
Guido Majno. The Healing Hand: Man and Wound in the Ancient World. Routledge, 2004
Heinrich von Staden (ed. trans.). Herophilus: The Art of Medicine in Early Alexandria. Cambridge University Press, 1989. , ]
Longrigg, James. Greek Medicine From the Heroic to the Hellenistic Age. New York, NY, 1998.
External links
Ancient Greek Medicine in medicinenet.com
Greek Medicine by the History of Medicine Division of the National Library of Medicine.
greekmedicine.net
Greek and Roman Medicine: An Introductory Bibliography for Graduate Students in Classics at Ancient Medicine compiled by Lee T. Pearcy
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Pseudoscience
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Civil defense in the United States
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United States civil defense refers to the use of civil defense in the history of the United States, which is the organized non-military effort to prepare Americans for military attack and similarly disastrous events. Late in the 20th century, the term and practice of civil defense fell into disuse. Emergency management and homeland security replaced them.
History
Pre–World War
There is little known history of civil defense in the United States before the twentieth century. Since ancient times, cities typically built walls and moats to protect from invasion and commissioned patrols and watches to keep an eye out for danger, but such activities have not traditionally been encompassed by the term "civil defense." The US has a particular lack of early civil defense efforts because it was seldom threatened with a significant attack. Nonetheless, there are some early examples of what would today be considered civil defense. For example, as early as 1692, the village of Bedford, New York, kept on staff a drummer, whose responsibility was to sound the town drum in the event of a Native American attack—a very early precursor to the wailing sirens of the Cold War.
World War I
Civil defense truly began to come of age, both worldwide and in the United States, during the first World War—although it was usually referred to as "civilian defense". This was the first major total war, which required the involvement and support of the general population. Strategic bombing during World War I brought bombing raids by dirigibles and airplanes, with thousands of injuries and deaths. Attacks on non-combat ships, like the Lusitania, presented another threat to non combatants. The British responded with an organized effort which was soon copied in the US. This was formalized with the creation of the Council of National Defense on August 29, 1916. Civil defense responsibilities at the federal level were vested in this council, with subsidiary councils at the state and local levels providing additional support—a multi-level structure which was to remain throughout the history of United States civil defense.
As the United States had little threat of a direct attack on its shores, the organization instead "maintained anti-saboteur vigilance, encouraged men to join the armed forces, facilitated the implementation of the draft, participated in Liberty Bond drives, and helped to maintain the morale of the soldiers." This freedom to focus beyond air raid attacks gave United States civil defense a much broader scope than elsewhere. With the end of military conflict, the activities of the Council of National Defense were suspended. Thus, World War I marked the first time that organized civil defense was practised on a large scale in the United States. Although civil defense had not yet reached the scale and significance it soon would, many of the basic features were set in place.
World War II
World War II, which the United States entered after the attack on Pearl Harbor, was characterized by a significantly greater use of civil defense. Even before the attack, the Council of National Defense was reactivated by President Roosevelt and created the Division of State and Local Cooperation to further assist the Council's efforts. Thus, the civil defense of World War II began very much as a continuation of that of World War I. Very soon, however, the idea of local and state councils bearing a significant burden became viewed as untenable and more responsibility was vested at the federal level with the creation of the Office of Civilian Defense (OCD) within the Office of Emergency Planning (OEP) in the Executive Office of the President (EOP) on May 20, 1941. The OCD was originally headed by New York Mayor Fiorello La Guardia and was charged with promoting protective measures and elevating national morale.
These organizations and others worked together to mobilize the civilian population in response to the threat. The Civil Air Patrol (CAP), which was created just days before the attack on Pearl Harbor, commissioned civilian pilots to patrol the coast and borders and engage in search and rescue missions as needed. The Civil Defense Corps, run by the OCD, organized approximately 10 million volunteers who trained to fight fires, decontaminate after chemical weapon attacks, provide first aid, and other duties. A Ground Observer Corps watched for enemy aircraft.
These efforts did not replace the kinds of civil defense that took place during World War I. Indeed, World War II saw an even greater use of rationing, recycling, and anti-saboteur vigilance than was seen in World War I. As the threat of air raids or invasions in the United States seemed less likely during the war, the focus on the Civil Defense Corps, air raid drills, and patrols of the border declined but the other efforts continued. Unlike the end of World War I, the US did not dismiss all its civil defense efforts as soon as World War II ended. Instead, they continued after the end of the war and served as the foundation of civil defense in the Cold War.
Cold War
The new dimensions of nuclear war terrified the world and the American people. The sheer power of nuclear weapons and the perceived likelihood of such an attack on the United States precipitated a greater response than had yet been required of civil defense. Civil defense, something previously considered an important and common-sense step, also became divisive and controversial in the charged atmosphere of the Cold War. In 1950, the National Security Resources Board created a 162-page document outlining a model civil defense structure for the US. Called the "Blue Book" by civil defense professionals in reference to its solid blue cover, it was the template for legislation and organization that occurred over the next 40 years. Despite a general agreement on the importance of civil defense, Congress never came close to meeting the budget requests of federal civil defense agencies. Throughout the Cold War, civil defense was characterized by fits and starts. Indeed, the responsibilities were passed through a myriad of agencies, and specific programs were often boosted and scrapped in a similar manner to US ballistic missile defense (BMD) systems with which it was seen as complementary.
In declassified US war game analyses of the early 1960s, it was estimated that approximately 27 million US citizens would have been saved with civil defense education in the event of a Soviet pre-emptive strike. At the time however the cost of a full-scale civil defense program was, in cost-benefit analysis, deemed less effective than a BMD system, and as the adversary was increasing their nuclear stockpile, both programs would yield diminishing returns.
Educational efforts
One aspect of the Cold War civil defense program was the educational effort made or promoted by the government. One primary way in which they did this was the publication and production of federally funded films that were distributed to the mass public. In Duck and Cover, Bert the Turtle advocated that children "duck and cover" when they "see the flash". In this film, children are instructed to "kneel with their backs facing the windows, eyes shut, their hands clasped behind their backs." Duck and Cover also reached audiences through printed media and radio waves. This included a 14-minute radio adaptation, a 16-page coloring booklet, and a nationwide newspaper serialization. The image of Bert the Turtle was often seen as a way to defuse tensions related to nuclear weapons. The creators of the cartoon "were forced to pick their way delicately through overly glib depictions of nuclear war on one hand, and terrifying descriptions prescribing hysteria and panic on the other." Thus, children were able to adapt to a world of panic and come to terms with the existence of the bomb while also learning how to prepare for the possibility of nuclear disaster.
Another educational program, produced by the Federal Civil Defense Administration, was Survival Under Atomic Attack. Produced in both film and print, Survival gave Americans information on how to prepare themselves and their homes in the case of a nuclear attack. The film showed citizens how the whole family can get involved in final moments of preparation if they were to hear the warning sirens that alerted them of an incoming attack. Along with popularity of the film, over a million copies of the Survival booklet sold within its first year of publication in 1951. Audiences of both the film and print sources learned specific skills on how to ensure their safety in the case of emergency. This included preparing a first aid kit, storing plenty of water and canned goods, stocking up on batteries for radios and flashlights, and equipping a fallout shelter that they could access easily and safely.
"Alert America" also sought to teach the American public how to prepare for instances of emergency and the threat of atomic attack. Created in December 1951, the "Alert America" program consisted of three convoys with ten thirty-two-foot trailer trucks that traveled 36,000 miles throughout the nation's 82 major cities and attracted 1.1 million people. While displaying products and information to educate people on the affects and preparedness associated with nuclear weapons, the "Alert America" program also showed federally supported films such as Duck and Cover, Survival Under Atomic Attack, and Our Cities Must Fight.
Educational efforts also targeted women in the form of campaigns such as "Grandma's Pantry". Supported by the National Grocer's Association, various pharmaceutical houses, and the American National Dietetic Association, "Grandma's Pantry" educated women on national guidelines for how, when properly prepared, a home could withstand a nuclear holocaust. Avoiding the scare tactics that were primarily used by other forms of civil defense education, "Grandma's Pantry" instead attempted a supposedly "softer" and so-called "feminine" approach to emergency preparedness by fusing female domesticity with paramilitary education. Through this, women were encouraged to "make ready for the possibility of nuclear war" by warning them against "the possibility of damaged water systems, broken sewer lines, mounting heaps of garbage, and a lack of food and fresh water after an attack", all of which were duties that typically aligned with prescribed gender roles given to women during the postwar era. Thus, civil defense education attempted to seemingly blend into already established societal norms.
Civil defense educational efforts also included training in practical life skills lessons that they could implement in the case of nuclear war. Home economics courses in grade schools trained students on how to build and maintain fallout shelters, the basics of food preparation and storage, safety and sanitation, child care, and how to care for the sick and injured. These lessons transferred to real life expectations, where even adults were continuously instructed on how to manage homes, perform gendered assigned roles, and prepare their families for the case of nuclear attacks. Such examples were found in literature and educational films which taught women the values and skills of home nursing and first aid that would protect and save the lives of their family members. Women were also taught to be the ones to dominate kitchen work during the first few days within shelters if there was an emergency, only to be relieved by teenagers and young children who were only expected to volunteer when needed.
Evacuation plans
At the dawn of the nuclear age, evacuation was opposed by the federal government. The Federal Civil Defense Administration produced a short movie called Our Cities Must Fight. It argued that in the event of a nuclear war, people need to stay in cities to help repair the infrastructure and man the recovering industries. "Nuclear radiation," it advised, "would only stay in the air a day or two." Despite this early opposition, evacuation plans were soon created. One city at the forefront of such efforts was Portland, Oregon. In 1955, their city government completed "Operation Greenlight"—a drill to evacuate the city center. Hospital patients were packed into semi-trucks, pedestrians were picked up by passing motorists, and the city's construction equipment and emergency vehicles were rushed out to "dispersal points." The entire city center was evacuated in 19 minutes. On December 8, 1957, CBS Television aired a dramatization of how a well prepared city might respond to an imminent nuclear attack. The show, A Day Called 'X', produced "in co-operation with the Federal Civil Defense Administration," was shot in Portland, using city officials and ordinary citizens instead of professional actors. It was narrated by Glenn Ford.
Such plans were plausible in the early days of the Cold War, when an attack would have come from strategic bombers, which would have allowed a warning of many hours, not to mention the high possibility of interception by anti-air systems and fighters. However, the development of intercontinental ballistic missiles in the late 1950s made this goal less realistic. Despite that, civil defense officials still worked to prepare evacuation plans. In 1983, President Ronald Reagan announced the Crisis Relocation Program. The White House suggested that the $10 billion, five-year program could allow the evacuation of targeted urban centers to rural "host areas" and thus save 80% of the population. The plan allowed up to three days for the evacuation to be completed, believing that a nuclear war would not come in a surprise attack but rather as the culmination of a crisis period of rising tensions. However, the plan has been criticized by academics and organizations like the Federation of American Scientists for failing to take into account disruptions to healthcare infrastructure preventing the effective treatment of the wounded, disruption to the food supply, ecological devastation (including nuclear winter), and social unrest following an attack. Because of these shortcomings, Stanford University physician and professor Herbert L. Abrams estimated that no more than 60 million people (25% of the population) would survive if the program was executed as designed.
Ensuring continuity of government
Governments made efforts to exist even after an apocalyptic nuclear attack, something called continuity of government. Many city halls built Emergency Operation Centers in their basements.
Fallout shelters
President Kennedy launched an ambitious effort to install fallout shelters throughout the United States. These shelters would not protect against the blast and heat effects of nuclear weapons, but would provide some protection against the radiation effects that would last for weeks and even affect areas distant from a nuclear explosion. As such, some of them were even located on the upper floors of skyscrapers.
CD officials encouraged people to build in the suburbs away from key targets and to be conscientious of the needs of a nuclear age when building houses and other structures.
CONELRAD
In order for most of these preparations to be effective, there had to be some degree of warning. The United States embarked on creating systems at both the local and national levels to allow the communication of emergencies.
In 1951, President Harry S. Truman established the CONELRAD (Control of Electromagnetic Radiation) Plan. Under the system, a few primary stations would be alerted of an emergency and would broadcast an alert. All broadcast stations throughout the country would be constantly listening to an upstream station and repeat the message, thus passing it from station to station. After broadcasting the message, all radio communications would cease except for two designated lower power AM frequencies (640 and 1240 kHz). This was designed to prevent enemy planes from using transmitters as navigation aids for direction finding. The later threat of ICBMs (which used internal guidance) made this obsolete, and CONELRAD was replaced in 1963.
Operation Alert and opposition to civil defense drills
In 1954, the United States government began an annual national civil defense exercise called "Operation Alert". The exercise extended over several weeks to months, and would culminate in a one-day public drill simulating a nuclear attack. The aim of the annual exercise was to evaluate emergency preparedness in the face of a nuclear attack, determine government continuation readiness, and identify problems that might occur during an alert.
Operation Alert was actively protested by the Catholic Worker Movement, Ralph DiGia, Dorothy Day and others in New York City when held on June 15, 1955. Protesters objected to the notion that a nuclear war was survivable, and answered with the assertion that the only way to survive a nuclear war was for one not to happen at all. 29 were arrested in City Hall Park and jailed for refusing to take shelter during a drill. Protests, initially small and isolated, continued and grew throughout the 1950s. Opposition to the drills increased; young mothers with children joined the protests in 1960. Civil Defense Operation Alert drills were stopped after the 1961 protest.
Emergency Broadcast System
In 1963, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) created the Emergency Broadcast System to replace CONELRAD. The EBS served as the primary alert system through the Cold War ICBM era and well into the 1990s. In addition to these, air raid sirens such as the Thunderbolt siren pictured to the right, would sound an alert.
Post–Cold War
Since the end of the Cold War, civil defense has fallen into disuse within the United States. Gradually, the focus on nuclear war shifted to an "all-hazards" approach of comprehensive emergency management. Natural disasters and the emergence of new threats such as terrorism have focused attention away from traditional civil defense into new forms of civil protection such as emergency management and homeland security. In 2006, the old triangle logo was finally retired, replaced with a new logo featuring a stylized EM (for emergency management). The new logo was announced by the Federal Emergency Management Agency; however, a depiction of the old CD logo (without the red CD letters) can be seen above the eagle's head in the FEMA seal. The name and logo, however, continue to be used by Hawaii State Civil Defense Hawaii State Civil Defense and Guam Homeland Security/Office of Civil Defense Guam Homeland Security | Office of Civil Defense. The Republic of the Philippines has an Office of Civil Defense that uses a similar logo.
Past and present civil defense agencies
After the September 11, 2001, attacks, US civil defense planning was conducted within the cabinet-level Department of Homeland Security (DHS). Between 1979 and 2001, the duties of civil defense were served by the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). Originally an independent agency, FEMA was absorbed into DHS in 2003. Before the creation of FEMA in 1979 the responsibility for civil defense in the United States was shared between a wide variety of short-lived and frequently changing departments, agencies, and organizations. Some of the notable national pre-FEMA organizations in the US included:
Council of National Defense
Joint Task Force - Civil Support
Office of Emergency Planning (OEP) in the Executive Office of the President (EOP)
Office of Civil Defense (OCD) in the Office of Emergency Planning
Civil Air Patrol
National Security Resources Board (NSRB), both as an independent agency and as an office within the Executive Office of the President
Office of Defense Mobilization in the Executive Office of the President
Office of Defense and Civilian Mobilization in the Executive Office of the President
Office of Civil and Defense Mobilization in the Executive Office of the President
Office of Emergency Planning in the Executive Office of the President
Office of Emergency Preparedness in the Executive Office of the President
Federal Civil Defense Administration (FCDA), both as an independent agency and as a board within the Executive Office of the President
State defense forces of individual US states
United States Coast Guard Auxiliary
See also
American Civil Defense Association
Blast shelter
NYPD Auxiliary Police
State defense force
References
Further reading
World War II civil defense
Louis L. Snyder, editor. Handbook of Civil Protection. New York: Whittlesey House (McGraw-Hill), 1942. .
Burr Leyson. The Air Raid Safety Manual. New York: E.P. Dutton and Company, 1942. .
Cold War civil defense
Edward Zuckerman. The Day after World War III. New York: Viking Press, 1984. .
Laura McEnaney. Civil Defense Begins at Home: Militarization meets everyday life in the fifties. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000. .
Jennifer Leaning and Langley Keyes, editors. The Counterfeit Ark: Crisis Relocation for Nuclear War. Cambridge, MA: Ballinger Publishing Company, 1983. .
National Security Resources Board. United States Civil Defense. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office (GPO), 1950. .
Henry Eyring, Editor. Civil Defense: A symposium presented at the Berkeley meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, December 1965. Washington, DC: AAAS, 1966. .
Dee Garrison. Bracing for Armageddon: Why Civil Defense Never Worked. Oxford University Press, 2006.
Andrew D. Grossman. Neither Dead nor Red: Civil Defense and American Political Development During the Early Cold War. New York: Routledge. 2001.
David F. Krugler. This is Only a Test: How Washington D.C. Prepared for Nuclear War. New York: Palgrave macMillan. 2006.
Patrick B. Sharp. Savage Perils: Racial Frontiers and Nuclear Apocalypse in American Culture. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2007.
Post–Cold War civil defense
Mark Sauter. Homeland Security: A complete guide to understanding, preventing, and surviving terrorism. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2005. .
Juliette Kayyem and Robyn Pangi, editors. First to Arrive: State and Local Responses to Terrorism. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2003. .
External links
Suburban Emergency Management Project, "SEMP Biot #243: What Is Civil Defense? World War I through the Eisenhower Administration," August 1, 2005
Suburban Emergency Management Project, "SEMP Biot #244: What Is Civil Defense? Kennedy Administration through the George W. Bush Administration," August 2, 2005
United States civil defense
Continuity of government in the United States
Disaster preparedness in the United States
Organizations established in 1949
1949 establishments in the United States
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Last%20battle%20of%20Bismarck
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Last battle of Bismarck
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The last battle of the German battleship Bismarck took place in the Atlantic Ocean approximately west of Brest, France, on 26–27 May 1941 between the and naval and air elements of the British Royal Navy. Although it was a decisive action between capital ships, it has no generally accepted name. It was the culmination of Operation Rheinübung where the attempt of two German ships to disrupt the Atlantic Convoys to the United Kingdom failed with the scuttling of the Bismarck.
The last battle consisted of four main phases. The first phase late on the 26th consisted of air strikes by torpedo bombers from the British aircraft carrier , which disabled Bismarcks steering gear, jammed her rudders in a turning position and prevented her escape. The second phase was the shadowing and harassment of Bismarck during the night of 26/27 May by British and Polish destroyers, with no serious damage to any ship. The third phase on the morning of 27 May was an attack by the British battleships and supported by the heavy cruisers and Dorsetshire. After about 100 minutes of fighting, Bismarck was sunk by the combined effects of shellfire, torpedo hits and deliberate scuttling. On the British side, Rodney was lightly damaged by near-misses and by the blast effects of her own guns. British warships rescued 110 survivors from Bismarck before being obliged to withdraw because of an apparent U-boat sighting, leaving several hundred men to their fate. A U-boat and a German weathership rescued five more survivors. In the final phase, the withdrawing British ships were attacked the next day on 28 May by aircraft of the Luftwaffe, resulting in the loss of the destroyer .
Background
Under the command of the Fleet Commander Günther Lütjens, the German battleship Bismarck and the heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen tried to break out into the Atlantic in order to attack convoys. The ships were intercepted by a British force from the Home Fleet. In the resulting Battle of the Denmark Strait on 24 May, Bismarcks fuel tanks were damaged and several machinery compartments, including a boiler room, were flooded. Her captain's intention was to reach the port of Brest for repair.
Determined to avenge the sinking of the "Pride of the Navy" in the Battle of the Denmark Strait, the British committed every possible unit to hunting down Bismarck.
The old was detached from convoy duty southeast of Greenland and ordered to set a course to intercept Bismarck if she should attempt to raid the sea lanes off North America.
The damaged Prince of Wales and the cruisers Norfolk and Suffolk were still in contact with the German ships after the Battle of the Denmark Strait.
The remainder of the Home Fleet, consisting of the battleship King George V, the battlecruiser Repulse, the aircraft carrier , four light cruisers and their escorts, had already set sail from Scapa Flow before the loss of the Hood.
The battleship Rodney was detached from escort duties West of Ireland and set an intercept course for the Bismarck.
Force H had already left Gibraltar with the aircraft carrier Ark Royal, the battlecruiser Renown and the light cruiser Sheffield on 23 May to take over escort duties from other ships, but once it came clear the Bismarck was heading for France, the force set course to intercept Bismarck.
The heavy cruiser London was escorting a convoy from Gibraltar to the United Kingdom and was also ordered to intercept.
The light cruiser Edinburgh which was searching for blockade runners in the area West of Cape Finisterre was also ordered to join the hunt.
In the early evening of 24 may Bismarck briefly turned on her pursuers ( and the heavy cruisers Norfolk and ) to cover the escape of her companion, the heavy cruiser to continue further into the Atlantic. During the late evening of 24 May, an attack was made by a small group of Swordfish biplane torpedo bombers of 825 Naval Air Squadron under the command of Eugene Esmonde from the Victorious. One hit was scored, but caused only superficial damage to Bismarcks armoured belt. Early on 25 May the British forces lost contact with Bismarck, which headed ESE towards France while the British searched northeast, presuming she was returning to Norway. Later on 25 May the commander of the German force, Admiral Günther Lütjens, apparently unaware that he had lost his pursuers, broke radio silence to send a coded message to Germany. This allowed the British to triangulate the approximate position of Bismarck and deduce that the German battleship was heading to France. By now, however, fuel was becoming a major concern to both sides : due to the battle damage, the subsequent loss of fuel and because the Bismarck had not refueled in Norway nor from a tanker whilst underway to the North Atlantic, Lütjens had to maintain economical speed of 21 knots instead of dashing on top speed to France. From the pursuing Home Fleet, Prince of Wales, Repulse, Victorious and the four cruisers had to break off, and the Suffolk as well. Only the King George V and Norfolk were able to continue. Since the destroyer screen of the King George V was also running short on fuel, the Fourth Destroyer Flotilla consisting of the destroyers , , and , and the Polish destroyer , under command of Captain Philip Vian was ordered to detach from convoy WS-8B and to screen the King George V.
At 10:30 on 26 May Bismarck was detected by a Coastal Command Catalina reconnaissance aircraft from 209 Squadron RAF that had flown over the Atlantic from its base on Lough Erne in Northern Ireland across the Donegal Corridor. It was piloted by British Flying Officer Dennis Briggs and co-piloted by US Navy observer Ensign Leonard B. Smith, USNR. Smith was at the controls when he spotted Bismarck (via a trailing oil slick from the ship's damaged fuel tank) and reported her position to the Admiralty. Shortly before at 09:00 the Ark Royal had launched scouting planes and half an hour after the Catalina, two Swordfish found the Bismarck as well. From then on, the German ship's position was known to the British, although the enemy would have to be slowed significantly if heavy units hoped to engage outside the range of German land-based aircraft. On receiving the message from the Catalina, Vian decided not to join the pursuing British battleships, but to steer directly for the Bismarck. All British hopes were now pinned on Force H and these destroyers.
The battle
First phase : The Ark Royal disables the Bismarck
At 14:50 on 26 May in atrocious weather conditions, Ark Royal launched 15 Swordfish for an attack on the Bismarck. The aircraft had not been warned that the Sheffield had been sent forward to shadow the Bismarck, instead they had been told no other ships were in the vicinity. The Swordfish attacked in bad visibility the shadowing cruiser Sheffield, but some of their torpedoes had defective magnetic pistols which caused them to explode on impact on the waves, and the remaining torpedoes could be evaded. At 19:10 the same aircraft were relaunched for a second attack with contact pistol torpedoes. At 19:50 Force H ran into the U-556 which obtained a perfect shooting position to hit both the Ark Royal and Renown but the U-boat had expended all her torpedoes on previous operations and could not attack.
The aircraft made now first contact with the Sheffield at 20:00 which vectored them to the Bismarck. Despite this helping hand and their ASV II radars, they could not find the German ship. Half an hour later they had to recontact the Sheffield which could finally send them to the Bismarck. The attack started at 20:47 and lasted half an hour. Three aircraft had to recontact the Sheffield for a third time. A first hit midships had little effect, but a second hit astern jammed Bismarcks rudder and steering gear 12° to port. This resulted in her being, initially, able to steam only in a large circle.
Bismarck fired her main and secondary armament against the attacking aircraft, trying to hit the low flying torpedo aircraft with the shell splashes. Once the attack was over, Bismarck fired her main battery at the shadowing Sheffield. The first salvo went a mile astray, but the second salvo straddled the cruiser. Shell splinters rained down on Sheffield, killing three men and wounding two others. Four more salvoes were fired but no hits were scored. Sheffield quickly retreated under cover of a smoke screen. Sheffield lost contact with the Bismarck in the low visibility but shortly before 22:00 she met Vian's group of five destroyers and was able to vector them to the Bismarck. The King George V and Rodney had joined around 18:00 and were approaching from the northwest. Since Vian's destroyers would keep in touch with the Bismarck and harry her all night, he decided to steer south, even southwest and making a circle in order to be able to engage the Bismarck in the morning silhouetted against the east. The heavy cruiser Norfolk and the light cruiser Edinburgh were also approaching separately from the northwest. Edinburgh had to abandon the chase due to fuel shortage but Norfolk took up a position to the north of Bismarck. Another heavy cruiser Dorsetshire was approaching from the west and would make contact the next morning. After collecting her airplanes Ark Royal and Force H first kept north of Bismarck, but during the night sailed south and remained in the vicinity.
Repair efforts by the crew to free the rudder failed. Bismarck attempted to steer by alternating the power of her three propeller shafts, which, in the prevailing force 8 wind and sea state, resulted in the ship being forced to sail towards King George V and Rodney, two British battleships that had been pursuing Bismarck from the west. At 23:40 on 26 May, Admiral Lütjens delivered to Group West, the German command base, the signal "Ship unmanoeuvrable. We will fight to the last shell. Long live the Führer."
Second phase : Vian's destroyers harass the Bismarck at night
One hour after the Swordfish attack, the Maori and Piorun made contact with the Bismarck at 22:38. Piorun attacked at once, signalling her identity as a Polish ship, but was not able to launch torpedoes. She approached close enough to engage Bismarck with her guns, but then lost contact and played no more role in the battle. Deteriorating weather made a concentrated attack impossible. Throughout that night, Bismarck was the target of intermittent torpedo attacks by Vian's destroyers. In ten approaches between 22:38 and 06:56 the Cossack, Maori, Zulu and Sikh fired sixteen torpedoes but none hit. One of Bismarcks shells sheared off Cossacks antenna and three other shells straddled Zulu wounding three men. Between 02:30 and 03:00 the destroyers fired starshell at Tovey's request in order to make her position visible for the battleships. The constant harrying tactics of the destroyers helped wear down the morale of the Germans and deepened the fatigue of an already exhausted crew.
Between 05:00 and 06:00, Lütjens ordered an Arado 196 float plane launched to the French coast, to secure the ship's war diary, footage of the engagement with Hood, and other important documents. Only then was it discovered that the aircraft catapult had been rendered inoperative from battle damage received on the 24th from Prince of Wales. The fully fuelled aircraft was then pushed overboard to reduce the risk of fire in the upcoming battle. Lütjens then radioed at 07:10 for a U-boat to rendezvous with the Bismarck to fetch these documents. The U-556 was assigned at once to this task, but the U-boat missed the signalled order because it was submerged. The U-556 was anyway too low on fuel to be able to carry out the order. The task was then passed on to U-74 but by then the Bismarck had already sunk.
Third phase : the Bismarck is lost
As the British units converged on Bismarcks location, Tovey gave his instructions for the final battle. First he ordered the Renown which had closed to within 17 miles of the Bismarck, not to participate in the battle. The Renown was similarly armoured as the Hood and Tovey did not want to risk a repeat. He instructed the commander of Rodney to close to within as quickly as possible, and that while he should in general conform to King George Vs movements, he was free to manoeuvre independently. The morning of Tuesday 27 May 1941 brought a heavy grey sky, a rising sea and a tearing wind from the northwest. Because of this northwesterly gale, Tovey postponed the final attack from sunrise until clear daylight and concluded an attack on Bismarck from windward was undesirable. He decided to approach on a northwesterly bearing before deploying.
Norfolk was the first ship to sight the Bismarck in the morning of 27 May. In bad visibility the cruiser stumbled upon an unidentified ship, flashing recognition signals before realizing it was the German battleship. Norfolk quickly turned away and made contact with the British battleships before joining the final battle. At 08:43, lookouts on King George V spotted Bismarck, some away; Rodney opened fire first at 08:47, followed quickly by King George V. Bismarck was unable to steer due to the torpedo damage to the rudders, and the consequent unpredictable motions made the ship an unstable gun platform and created a difficult gunnery problem. This was further complicated by the gale-force storm. However Bismarck returned fire at 08:50 with her forward guns, and with her second salvo, she straddled Rodney. This was the closest she came to scoring a hit on any British warship in the final engagement, because at 09:02, a salvo from Rodney struck the forward superstructure, damaging the bridge and main fire control director and killing most of the senior officers. The salvo also damaged the forward main battery turrets. The aft fire control station took over direction of the aft turrets, but after three salvos was also knocked out. With both fire control stations out of action, Bismarcks shooting became increasingly erratic, allowing the British to close the range. Norfolk and Dorsetshire closed and began firing with their guns. Around 09:10 the Norfolk fired four and the Rodney fired six torpedoes from a distance of more than 10 km, but no hits were observed.
By around 09:31 all of the Bismarcks four main battery turrets were out of action. With the ship no longer able to fight back, First Officer Hans Oels, the senior surviving officer, then issued the order to scuttle the Bismarck – for all damage control measures to cease, for all the watertight doors to be opened, for the engine-room personnel to prepare scuttling charges, and for the crew to abandon ship. Oels moved through the ship, repeating these orders to all he met, until around 10:00 when a shell from King George V penetrated the upper citadel belt and exploded in the ship's after canteen, killing Oels and about a hundred others. Gerhard Junack, the senior surviving engineering officer, ordered his men to set the demolition charges with a 9-minute fuse. The engine-room intercom system broke down so he sent a messenger to confirm the order to detonate the charges, but when the messenger never returned Junack primed the charges and ordered the engineering crew to abandon ship.
Once all four of Bismarcks main battery turrets were out of action (by around 09:31,) Rodney closed to around with impunity to fire her guns at what was point-blank range into Bismarcks superstructure. King George V remained at a greater distance to increase the possibility that her plunging shells would strike Bismarcks decks vertically and penetrate into the interior. At 10:05 Rodney launched four torpedoes at Bismarck, claiming one hit.
By 10:20 the British battleships were running low on fuel. The Bismarck was settling by the stern due to progressive uncontrolled flooding and had taken on a 20 degree list to port, so Tovey ordered Dorsetshire to close and torpedo the crippled Bismarck while King George V and Rodney disengaged and turned for port. By the time these torpedo attacks took place, Bismarck was already listing so badly that the deck was partly awash. Dorsetshire fired a pair of torpedoes at Bismarcks starboard side, one of which hit. Dorsetshire then moved around to her port side and fired another torpedo, which also hit. Based on subsequent examination of the wreck, the last torpedo appears to have detonated against Bismarcks port side superstructure, which was by then already underwater. Bismarck began capsizing at about 10:35, and by 10:40 had slipped beneath the waves, stern first. During the engagement the two British battleships fired some 700 large-caliber shells at Bismarck, and all told, King George V, Rodney, Dorsetshire and Norfolk collectively fired some 2,800 shells, scoring around 400 hits.
Fourth phase: the Luftwaffe retaliates
The Luftwaffe had not been able to intervene on 26 May due to bad weather. Only some reconnaissance flights were made by some Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condor which could locate the Rodney. On 27 and 28 May some attempts were made to attack the British ships. In the morning of 27 May one Heinkel He 111 missed the Ark Royal with a few bombs and only four bombers found the British battleships but failed to score a hit.
On 28 May the destroyers and were heading for Northern Ireland at economical speed due to their low fuel stocks and were attacked on 28 May in the morning by bombers. At 09:00 the Mashona received a hit, and was abandoned with the loss of 46 crew members. A first attempt to scuttle her with a torpedo from the Tartar failed but then she was sunk by gunfire from other destroyers arriving at the scene. The destroyer Maori was also damaged by bombers.
Survivors
Dorsetshire and Maori picked up 85 and 25 survivors respectively. At 11:40 a lookout on the Dorsetshire thought he spotted a periscope and the rescue effort was abandoned whilst hundreds of Bismarcks survivors were still in the water. While the British cruiser Dorsetshire was busy rescuing survivors from the water, Midshipman Joe Brooks jumped over the side to help wounded Germans scramble up his ship's side. One German sailor had lost both arms and was hanging onto a rope with his teeth; Brooks tried to save him but failed. Brooks was nearly left behind when the U-boat alarm was given and the Dorsetshire began to pull away while he was still in the water, but he was thrown a line by his shipmates and was pulled aboard. After the battle, the British warships returned to the United Kingdom with 109 Bismarck survivors, as one survivor (Gerhard Lüttich) had died of his wounds the day after his rescue and was buried at sea on 28 May 1941 with full military honours by the crew of HMS Dorsetshire. That evening at 19:30, , picked up three survivors from a dinghy (Herzog, Höntzsch, and Manthey) and the following day at 22:45 the German weather ship picked up two survivors from a raft (Lorenzen and Maus). The neutral Spanish heavy cruiser also arrived at the sinking scene but did not find survivors. Out of a crew of over 2,200 men, only 114 survived.
Aftermath
After the sinking, Admiral John Tovey said, "The Bismarck had put up a most gallant fight against impossible odds worthy of the old days of the Imperial German Navy, and she went down with her colours flying."
The Board of the Admiralty issued a message of thanks to those involved:
Unaware of the fate of the ship, Group West, the German command base, continued to issue signals to Bismarck for some hours, until Reuters reported news from Britain that the ship had been sunk. In Britain, the House of Commons was informed of the sinking early that afternoon.
Order of battle
Axis
German battleship Bismarck
Allied
In the final battle
The battleships King George V and Rodney.
The heavy cruisers Norfolk and Dorsetshire.
Made contact before final battle
15 swordfish of the aircraft carrier Ark Royal
The light cruiser Sheffield.
The destroyers Cossack, Sikh, Zulu, Maori
The Polish destroyer Piorun
Supporting role
The aircraft carrier Ark Royal
The battlecruiser Renown
The destroyers Mashona, Tartar
See also
Sink the Bismarck!, a 1960 film based on C. S. Forester's book The Last Nine Days of the Bismarck
"Sink the Bismarck", a 1960 song by Johnny Horton inspired by the film of the same name.
Computer Bismarck, a 1980 computer game that simulates the battle.
Unsinkable Sam, a ship's cat on board Bismarck who allegedly survived the sinking and was adopted by the Royal Navy; probably a tall tale.
Notes
References
Bibliography
Cameron J., Dulin R., Garzke W., Jurens W., Smith K.,The Wreck of DKM Bismarck A Marine Forensics Analysis
Dewar, A.D. Admiralty report BR 1736: The Chase and Sinking of the "Bismarck". Naval Staff History (Second World War) Battle Summary No. 5, March 1950. Reproduced in facsimile in Grove, Eric (ed.), German Capital Ships and Raiders in World War II. Volume I: From "Graf Spee" to "Bismarck", 1939–1941. Frank Cass Publishers 2002.
Jackson, Robert (2002). The Bismarck. London: Weapons of War. .
Kennedy, Ludovic. Pursuit: The sinking of the Bismarck. William Collins Sons & Co Ltd 1974.
Jerzy Pertek, Wielkie dni małej floty (Great Days of a Small Fleet), Zysk i S-ka, 2011,
Michael A. Peszke, Poland's Navy 1918-1945, Hippocrene Books, 1999,
Müllenheim-Rechberg, Burkard von. Battleship Bismarck: A Survivor's Story. Triad/Granada, 1982. .
Schofield, B.B. Loss of the Bismarck. Ian Allan, 1972.
Tovey, Sir John C. "Sinking of the German Battleship Bismarck on 27™ May, 1941."
External links
Newsreel footage of Bismarck's last battle
Naval battles and operations of the European theatre of World War II
Last battle
Operation Rheinübung
Naval battles of World War II involving Germany
Naval battles of World War II involving Poland
Naval battles of World War II involving the United Kingdom
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4831315
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal%20Health%20Services
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Universal Health Services
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Universal Health Services, Inc. (UHS) is an American Fortune 500 company that provides hospital and healthcare services, based in King of Prussia, Pennsylvania. In 2022, its annual revenues were $13.4 billion.
Company history
Alan B. Miller, who currently serves as the company's Executive Chairman, founded Universal Health Services, Inc. in 1979. Within 18 months of its founding, UHS owned four hospitals and had management contracts with two additional hospitals.
In 1979, UHS entered Las Vegas with the purchase of Valley Hospital.
In 1980, the company chose its first Board of Directors. In 1981, UHS held its initial public offering. In 1982, UHS purchased five hospitals from the Stewards Foundation, marking the first time a for-profit corporation purchased hospitals from a nonprofit religious organization. In 1983, UHS purchased Qualicare, Inc. for more than $116 million. The purchase included 11 acute care hospitals and four behavioral health hospitals. In 1986, UHS created Universal Health Realty Income Trust, the first REIT in the healthcare industry.
In 1991, UHS stock trading moved from NASDAQ to NYSE.
In November 2010, UHS reached an agreement in May to acquire Psychiatric Solutions, Inc. for $3.1 billion. In June 2012, UHS announced its plans to acquire Ascend Health Corporation for $517 million. In February 2014, UHS bought Palo Verde Mental Health for an undisclosed amount, renaming the facility to Palo Verde Behavioral Health. In April of that year, UHS announced the acquisition of the Psychiatric Institute of Washington. In September of that year, UHS' stock joined the S&P 500 Index and acquired Cygnet Health Care Limited for approximately $335 million. In August 2015, UHS acquired Alpha Hospitals Holdings Limited for $148 million from private equity group C&C Alpha Group. In September of that year, UHS announced the acquisition of Foundations Recovery Network based in Brentwood, Tennessee for $350 million. In August 2016, UHS bought Desert View Hospital in Pahrump, Nevada for an undisclosed amount. In December of that year, UHS acquired Cambian Group PLC's Adult Services Division. In July 2018, UHS announced its acquisition of the Danshell Group.
On September 28, 2020, Universal Health Services Inc. announced that its network went offline after an unspecified "IT security issue".
In September 2020, consistent with the company's long-standing succession plan, UHS announced that Alan B. Miller would step down as CEO in January 2021 and that President Marc D. Miller would be named CEO.
UHS ranked on the Fortune 500 in 2021, 2022 and again in 2023.
UHS was named on the Fortune World's Most Admired List in 2020 and 2021. UHS was again named on the Fortune World's Most Admired List 2023.
Controversies
Hospital licenses
The Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) threatened the Rancho Springs Medical Center (Murrieta) and Inland Valley Regional Medical Center (Wildomar) in California with decertification in June 2010 while the State of California warned of a possible hospital license revocation. Universal Health Services implemented a program to address all concerns and in November 2011 the two hospitals passed a CMS Certification Survey. As a result, CMS rescinded its termination notice and the California Department of Public Health withdrew its license revocation notice.
Allegations of noncompliance with same-sex visitation law
According to a petition started on change.org by Terri-Ann Simonelli of Henderson, Nevada, Spring Valley Hospital (owned and operated by UHS) claimed that their policy required power of attorney for a same-sex partner to make medical decisions on behalf of their partner. If true, this would seemingly violate new Department of Health and Human Services rules enabling same-sex partners to make said decisions, with or without power of attorney.
Fraudulent Medicaid claims
In September 2012, UHS and its subsidiaries, Keystone Education and Youth Services LLC and Keystone Marion LLC d/b/a Keystone Marion Youth Center agreed to pay over $6.9 million to resolve allegations that they submitted false and fraudulent claims to Medicaid. Between October 2004 and March 2010, the entities allegedly provided substandard psychiatric counseling and treatment to adolescents in violation of the Medicaid requirements. The United States alleged that UHS falsely represented Keystone Marion Youth Center as a residential treatment facility providing inpatient psychiatric services to Medicaid enrolled children, when in fact it was a juvenile detention facility. The United States further alleged that neither a medical director nor licensed psychiatrist provided the required direction for psychiatric services or for the development of initial or continuing treatment plans. The settlement further resolved allegations that the entities filed false records or statements to Medicaid when they filed treatment plans that falsely represented the level of services that would be provided to the patients.
On July 10, 2020, the US Department of Justice announced a $122 million Fraudulent Claims case with "Universal Health Services, Inc., UHS of Delaware, Inc.(together, UHS), and Turning Point Care Center, LLC (Turning Point), a UHS facility located in Moultrie, Georgia, have agreed to pay a combined total of $122 million to resolve alleged violations of the False Claims Act for billing for medically unnecessary inpatient behavioral health services, failing to provide adequate and appropriate services, and paying illegal inducements to federal healthcare beneficiaries." From the announcement: "The government alleged that, between January 2006, and December 2018, UHS’s facilities admitted federal healthcare beneficiaries who were not eligible for inpatient or residential treatment because their conditions did not require that level of care, while also failing to properly discharge appropriately admitted beneficiaries when they no longer required inpatient care. The government further alleged that UHS’s facilities billed for services not rendered, billed for improper and excessive lengths of stay, failed to provide adequate staffing, training, and/or supervision of staff, and improperly used physical and chemical restraints and seclusion. In addition, UHS’s facilities allegedly failed to develop and/or update individual assessments and treatment plans for patients, failed to provide adequate discharge planning, and failed to provide required individual and group therapy services in accordance with federal and state regulations.
Of the $117 million to be paid by UHS to resolve these claims, the federal government will receive a total of $88,124,761.27, and a total of $28,875,238.73 will be returned to individual states, which jointly fund state Medicaid programs."
Buzzfeed investigation
On December 7, 2016, BuzzFeed published a report detailing questionable practices within UHS psychiatric facilities. The report includes allegations of holding nonthreatening patients against their will, manipulative misinterpretation of patient testimonies to fit guidelines to involuntary confinement, aggressive staff layoffs and understaffing in hospitals, needless patient deaths due to understaffing and misprescription of medication, "violating a patient’s right to be discharged or holding a patient without the proper documentation", and unnecessary extension of stay times to the maximum Medicare payout. UHS denied the conclusions of the report. UHS stock fell approximately 12% after publication.
According to Buzzfeed investigative reporter Rosalind Adams, UHS responded to the report by hiring "a global PR firm that offers specialized crisis management services... UHS didn't just implement a crisis PR plan. It also fired an employee that the company believed to have spoken to a reporter; it sued a former employee it alleges leaked damaging internal surveillance videos; it threatened to sue other employees; at least one facility held a series of town hall meetings to warn employees from speaking with us; it conducted “in-depth interviews” with nearly two dozen staff, then distributed a public apology that two of them signed; it enlisted one of the most powerful law firms in the United States; it built multiple, high-production-value websites specifically designed to overcome the reputational damage that our reporting might cause."
Cygnet Healthcare
A UK subsidiary, Cygnet Health Care, was the subject of a BBC investigation that found that staff had been taunting, provoking and scaring vulnerable people. It runs 140 mental health services across the UK. 85% of its services are “rated good or outstanding by our regulators”. New admissions were banned at Cygnet Acer clinic after the Care Quality Commission found it unsafe to use. A patient hanged herself, others self harmed, ligature points were found where patients could hang themselves and too many of the staff were untrained to deal with the highly vulnerable patients at the clinic.
The company bought four inpatient units which were previously operated by the Danshell Group in 2018. All four were condemned by the Care Quality Commission which raised concerns about patients’ “unexplained injuries” and high levels of restraint in 2019.
Additional Allegations
On May 16, 2021, Detroit Free Press published an article exposing St. Simons By The Sea (formerly Focus By The Sea) in St. Simons Island, Georgia for recruiting patients from a local soup kitchen. St. Simons By The Sea contracts physician services with Southland MD in Thomasville, Georgia.
Hospitals and Centers
Aiken Physicians Alliance, Aiken, South Carolina
Aiken Regional Medical Center, Aiken, South Carolina
Alabama Clinical Schools, Birmingham, Alabama
Alliance Health Center, Meridian, Mississippi
Anchor Hospital, Atlanta, Georgia
Arbour Counseling Services, Fall River, Massachusetts
Arbour Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts
Arrowhead Behavioral Health, Maumee, Ohio
Aurora Pavilion Behavioral Health Services: an extension of Aiken Regional Medical Center, Aiken, South Carolina
Austin Oaks Hospital, Austin, Texas
Autumn Lily Mahoney Medical Center: an extension of Clear Lake Regional Hospital, Webster, Texas
Behavioral Hospital of Bellaire, Houston, Texas
Belmont Pines Hospital, Youngstown, Ohio
Benchmark Behavioral Health System, Woods Cross, Utah
BHC Alhambra Hospital, Rosemead, California
Black Bear Lodge, Sautee Nacoochee, Georgia
Bloomington Meadows Hospital, Bloomington, Indiana
Brentwood Behavioral Healthcare/Brentwood Jackson, Flowood, Mississippi
Brentwood Hospital, Shreveport, Louisiana
Brooke Glen Behavioral Hospital, Fort Washington, Pennsylvania
Brynn Marr Hospital, Jacksonville, North Carolina
Calvary Healing Center, Phoenix, Arizona
Cancer Care Institute of Carolina: an extension of Aiken Regional Medical Center, Aiken, South Carolina
Canyon Creek Behavioral Health, Temple, Texas
Canyon Ridge Hospital, Chino, California
Cedar Creek Hospital, St. Johns, Michigan
Cedar Grove Residential Treatment Center, Murfreesboro, Tennessee
Cedar Hills Hospital, Beaverton, Oregon
Cedar Ridge Behavioral Hospital/Cedar Ridge Residential Treatment, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma
Cedar Ridge Behavioral Hospital at Bethany/Bethany Behavioral Health, Bethany, Oklahoma
Cedar Springs Hospital, Colorado Springs, Colorado
Centennial Hills Hospital Medical Center: an extension of Valley Health System Las Vegas, Nevada
Centennial Peaks Hospital, Louisville, Colorado
Center for Change, Orem, Utah
Central Florida Behavioral Hospital, Orlando, Florida
Chris Kyle Patriots Hospital: an extension of North Star Behavioral Health System, Anchorage, Alaska
Clarion Psychiatric Center, Clarion, Pennsylvania
Clive Behavioral Health: an extension of MercyOne, Clive, Iowa
Coastal Behavioral Health/Coastal Harbor Residential Treatment Center, Savannah, Georgia
Columbus Behavioral Center for Children and Adolescents, Columbus, Indiana
Compass Intervention Center, Memphis, Tennessee
Cooper Hills Youth Center, West Jordan, Utah
Coral Shores Behavioral Health, Stuart, Florida
Cornerstone Regional Hospital: an extension of South Texas Health System, Edinburg, Texas
Corona Regional Medical Center, Corona, California
Cumberland Hall Hospital, Hopkinsville, Kentucky
Cumberland Hospital for Children and Adolescents, New Kent, Virginia
Cypress Creek Hospital, Houston, Texas
Debarr Residential Treatment Center & The Cascade Trail at Alpine Academy: an extension of North Star Behavioral Health System, Anchorage, Alaska
Del Amo Behavioral Health System, Torrance, California
Desert Springs Hospital Medical Center, Las Vegas, Nevada
Desert View Hospital: an extension of Valley Health System, Pahrump, Nevada
Diamond Grove Center/Diamond Grove Center for Children, Louisville, Mississippi
Doctors Hospital Emergency Room Saunders, Laredo, Texas
Doctors Hospital Emergency Room South, Laredo, Texas
Dover Behavioral Health System, Dover, Delaware
El Paso Behavioral Health System, El Paso, Texas
Emerald Coast Behavioral Hospital, Panama City, Florida
ER at Anna: an extension of Texoma Medical Center, Anna, Texas
ER at Blue Diamond: an Extension of Spring Valley Hospital, Las Vegas, Nevada
ER at Fruitville: an extension of Lakewood Ranch Medical Center, Sarasota, Florida
ER at Green Valley Ranch: an extension of Henderson Hospital, Henderson, Nevada
ER at McCarran NW: an extension of Nevada Medical Center, Reno, Nevada
ER at Sherman: an extension of Texoma Medical Center, Sherman, Texas
ER at Westlake: an extension of Wellington Regional Medical Center, Westlake, Florida
Fairfax Behavioral Health, Kirkland, Washington
Fairmount Behavioral Health System, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
First Home Care - Central/Richmond: Virginia Therapeutic Foster Care Services, Richmond, Virginia
First Home Care - Roanoke: Virginia Therapeutic Foster Care Services, Roanoke, Virginia
First Home Care - Tidewater: Virginia Therapeutic Foster Care Services, Portsmouth, Virginia
First Home Care - Northern Virginia: Virginia Therapeutic Foster Care Services, Alexandria, Virginia
Forest View Hospital, Grand Rapids, Michigan
Fort Duncan Regional Medical Center, Eagle Pass, Texas
Fort Lauderdale Behavioral Health Center, Oakland Park, Florida
Foundations Atlanta at Midtown, Atlanta, Georgia
Foundations Behavioral Health, Doylestown, Pennsylvania
Foundations for Living Residential Treatment Center for Youth, Mansfield, Ohio
Foundations Memphis/The Oaks at Lakeside Behavioral Health System, Memphis, Tennessee
Foundations San Francisco, San Francisco, California
Fox Run Center for Children and Adolescents: an extension of Kempsville Center For Behavioral Health, Saint Clairsville, Ohio
Fremont Hospital, Fremont, California
Friends Hospital, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Fuller Hospital: an extension of Fremont Hospital, South Attleboro, Massachusetts
Garfield Park Behavioral Hospital, Chicago, Illinois
Garland Behavioral Hospital, Garland, Texas
Glen Oaks Hospital, Greenville, Texas
Gulf Coast Treatment Center, Fort Walton Beach, Florida
Gulfport Behavioral Health System, Gulfport, Mississippi
Hampton Behavioral Health Center, Westampton, New Jersey
Harbor Point Behavioral Health Center, Portsmouth, Virginia
Hartgrove Behavioral Health System, Chicago, Illinois
Havenwyck Hospital: an extension of Glen Oaks Hospital, Auburn Hills, Michigan
HCA Houston Healthcare: an extension of Clear Lake Regional Hospital, Webster, Texas
Heartland Behavioral Health Services, Nevada, Missouri
Henderson Hospital: an extension of Valley Health System, Henderson, Nevada
Heritage Oaks Hospital, Sacramento, California
Hermitage Hall, Nashville, Tennessee
Hickory Trail Hospital Behavioral Health Services, DeSoto, Texas
Highlands Behavioral Health System, Littleton, Colorado
Hill Crest Behavioral Health Services, Birmingham, Alabama
Hollie Nichole Salas Medical Center: an extension of St. Lukes Hospital: Houston, Texas
Holly Hill Hospital, Raleigh, North Carolina
Hospital Panamericano, Cidra, Puerto Rico
HRI Hospital: an extension of Kempsville Center for Behavioral Health, Brookline, Massachusetts
Inland Northwest Behavioral Health, Spokane, Washington
Inland Valley Medical Center: an extension of Southwest Healthcare System, Wildomar, California
Innovations Academy, Streamwood, Illinois
Intermountain Hospital, Boise, Idaho
Kempsville Center for Behavioral Health, Portsmouth, Virginia
KeyStone Center, Chester, Pennsylvania
Kingwood Pines Hospital, Houston, Texas
La Amistad Behavioral Health Services, Maitland, Florida
Lakeside Behavioral Health System, Memphis, Tennessee
Lakewood Ranch Medical Center, Bradenton, Florida
Lancaster Behavioral Health Hospital: an extension of Penn Medicine Lancaster General Health/Lancaster Behavioral Health Hospital, Lancaster, Pennsylvania
Laredo Physicians Group, Laredo, Texas
Laurel Heights Hospital, Atlanta, Georgia
Laurel Oaks Behavioral Health Center, Dothan, Alabama
Laurel Ridge Treatment Center: an extension of Laurel Heights Hospital, San Antonio, Texas
Liberty Point Behavioral Healthcare, Staunton, Virginia
Lighthouse Behavioral Health Hospital, Conway, South Carolina
Lighthouse Care Center of Augusta, Augusta, Georgia
Lincoln Prairie Behavioral Health Center, Springfield, Illinois
Lincoln Trail Behavioral Health System, Radcliff, Kentucky
Luka Zaiden Salas Medical Center: an extension of Clear Lake Regional Hospital, Webster, Texas
Manatee Diagnostic Center, Arcadia, Florida
Manatee Diagnostic Center, Parrish, Florida
Manatee Diagnostic Center Point West, Bradenton, Florida
Manatee Diagnostic Center Riverside, Bradenton, Florida
Manatee Healthcare System, Bradenton, Florida
Manatee Memorial Hospital, Bradenton, Florida
Manatee Physician Alliance, Bradenton, Florida
Mayhill Hospital, Denton, Texas
McDowell Center for Children, Dyersburg, Tennessee
Meridell Achievement Center, Liberty Hill, Texas
Mesilla Valley Hospital, Las Cruces, New Mexico
Michael’s House Outpatient: an extension of Foundations Recovery Network, Palm Springs, California
Michiana Behavioral Health, Plymouth, Indiana
Midwest Center for Youth and Families: an extension of Psychiatric Institute of Washington, Kouts, Indiana
Millwood Hospital, Arlington, Texas
Mountain Youth Academy, Mountain City, Tennessee
Natchez Trace Youth Academy, Waverly, Tennessee
Newport News Behavioral Health Center, Newport News, Virginia
North Springs Behavioral Healthcare, Leesburg, Virginia
North Star Hospital, Anchorage, Alaska
Northern Nevada Medical Center, Sparks, Nevada
Northern Nevada Medical Group, Sparks, Nevada
Northwest Emergency at Town Square: an extension of Northwest Texas Healthcare System, Amarillo, Texas
Northwest Emergency on Georgia: an extension of Texas Healthcare System, Amarillo, Texas
Northwest Texas Healthcare System, Amarillo, Texas
Northwest Texas Physician Group: an extension of Northwest Texas Healthcare System, Amarillo, Texas
Oak Plains Academy, Ashland City, Tennessee
Okaloosa Youth Academy/Gulf Coast Youth Services, Crestview, Florida
Old Vineyard Behavioral Health Services, Winston-Salem, North Carolina
Palm Point Behavioral Health Center, Titusville, Florida
Palm Shores Behavioral Health Center, Bradenton, Florida
Palmdale Regional Medical Center, Palmdale, California
Palmer Residential Treatment Center: an extension of North Star Behavioral Health System, Palmer, Alaska
Palmetto Lowcountry Behavioral Health, Charleston, South Carolina
Palmetto Summerville Behavioral Health, Summerville, South Carolina
Palms Westside Clinic ASC/Palms Wellington Surgical Center, Royal Palm Beach, Florida
Palo Verde Behavioral Health, Tucson, Arizona
Parkwood Behavioral Health System, Olive Branch, Mississippi
Peachford Hospital, Atlanta, Georgia
Pembroke Hospital, Pembroke, Massachusetts
Pinnacle Point Behavioral Healthcare System/The Point, Little Rock, Arkansas
Pinnacle Point Hospital, Little Rock, Arkansas
Poplar Springs Hospital, Petersburg, Virginia
Prairie St. John’s, Fargo, North Dakota
Pride Institute, Eden Prairie, Minnesota
Provo Canyon Behavioral Hospital, Orem, Utah
Provo Canyon School, Provo, Utah
Provo Canyon School Springville Campus, Springville, Utah
Psychiatric Institute of Washington, Washington, D.C.
Quail Run Behavioral Health, Phoenix, Arizona
Quail Surgical and Pain Management Center, Reno, Nevada
Rancho Springs Medical Center: an extension of Southwest Healthcare System, Murrieta, California
Reasons Eating Disorder Center: an extension of BHC Alhambra Hospital, Rosemead, California
Rivendell Behavioral Health Hospital, Bowling Green, Kentucky
River Crest Hospital, San Angelo, Texas
River Oaks Hospital, New Orleans, Louisiana
River Park Hospital, Huntington, West Virginia
River Point Behavioral Health, Jacksonville, Florida
Riveredge Hospital, Forest Park, Illinois
Rockford Center, Newark, Delaware]
Rolling Hills Hospital, Franklin, Tennessee
Roxbury Treatment Center, Shippensburg, Pennsylvania
Salt Lake Behavioral Health, Salt Lake City, Utah
San Marcos Treatment Center: an extension of KI Charter Academy, San Marcos, Texas
SandyPines Hospital/SandyPines Residential Treatment Center, Tequesta, Florida
Sienna Reid Salas Medical Center: an extension of Clear Lake Regional Hospital, Webster, Texas
Sierra Vista Hospital, Sacramento, California
Skywood Recovery Outpatient at Royal Oak: an extension of Foundations Recovery Network, Royal Oak, Michigan
Skywood Recovery, Augusta, Michigan
South Texas Health System Bariatric Weight Loss Surgery Center, McAllen, Texas
South Texas Health System Behavioral, Edinburg, Texas
South Texas Health System Children’s, Edinburg, Texas
South Texas Health System Clinics, McAllen, Texas
South Texas Health System Edinburg, Edinburg, Texas
South Texas Health System ER Alamo, Alamo, Texas
South Texas Health System ER McColl, Edinburg, Texas
South Texas Health System ER Mission, Mission, Texas
South Texas Health System ER Monte Cristo, Edinburg, Texas
South Texas Health System ER Ware Road, McAllen, Texas
South Texas Health System ER Weslaco, Weslaco, Texas
South Texas Health System Heart/McAllen Heart Hospital, McAllen, Texas
South Texas Health System Physical Rehabilitation Unit, Edinburg, Texas
Southeast Behavioral Hospital/Southeast Behavioral Health: an extension of Southeast Health, Cape Girardeau, Missouri
Southern California Physician Network, Temecula, California
Spring Mountain Sahara, Las Vegas, Nevada
Spring Mountain Treatment Center, Las Vegas, Nevada
Spring Valley Hospital Medical Center: an extension of Valley Health System, Las Vegas, Nevada
Springwoods Behavioral Health, Fayetteville, Arkansas
Stephen Alexander Salas Medical Center: an extension of Bayshore Medical Center, Pasadena, Texas
St. Louis Behavioral Medicine Institute, St. Louis, Missouri
St. Mary’s Physician Associates, Enid, Oklahoma
St. Mary’s Regional Medical Center, Enid, Oklahoma
St. Simons By The Sea, St. Simons Island, Georgia
Stonington Institute, North Stonington, Connecticut
Streamwood Behavioral Healthcare System/Streamwood Hospital, Streamwood, Illinois
Summerlin Valley Hospital Medical Center: an extension of Valley Health System, Las Vegas, Nevada
Summit Oaks Hospital, Summit, New Jersey
SummitRidge Hospital Behavioral Health Services, Lawrenceville, Georgia
Suncoast Behavioral Health Center, Bradenton, Florida
Surgery Center of Aiken: an extension of Aiken Regional Medical Center, Aiken, South Carolina
Talbott Recovery/Talbott Campus: an extension of Foundations Recovery Network, Atlanta, Georgia
Talbott Recovery Dunwoody/Talbott Campus: an extension of Foundations Recovery Network, Dunwoody, Georgia
Temecula Valley Day Surgery and Pain Therapy Center, Murrieta, California
Temecula Valley Hospital, Temecula, California
Texas NeuroRehab Center, Austin, Texas
Texoma Medical Center, Denison, Texas
TexomaCare, Denison, Texas
The Bridgeway, North Little Rock, Arkansas
The Brook Hospital - Dupont: an The Pavilion Behavioral Health System, Louisville, Kentucky
The Brook Hospital - KMI: an extension of The Pavilion Behavioral Health System, Louisville, Kentucky
The Canyon at Santa Monica: an extension of Foundations Recovery Network, Los Angeles, California
The Carolina Center for Behavioral Health, Greer, South Carolina
The George Washington University Hospital, Washington, D.C. (since 1997)
The Horsham Clinic, Ambler, Pennsylvania
The Hughes Center for Exceptional Children, Danville, Virginia
The Meadows Psychiatric Center, Centre Hall, Pennsylvania
The Pavilion Behavioral Health System/Pavilion Hospital, Champaign, Illinois
The Point Behavioral Health Services/The Point: an extension of The Pavilion Behavioral Health System/Pavilion Hospital, Bryant, Arkansas
The Recovery Center Texas, Wichita Falls, Texas
The Ridge Behavioral Health System, Lexington, Kentucky
The Vines Hospital, Ocala, Florida
Three Rivers Behavioral Health, West Columbia, South Carolina
Three Rivers Midlands, West Columbia, South Carolina
TMC Behavioral Health, Sherman, Texas
Turning Point Care Center/Turning Point Hospital, Moultrie, Georgia
University Behavioral Center, Orlando, Florida
University Behavioral Health of Denton, Denton, Texas
Valle Vista Health Center, Greenwood, Indiana
Valley Health Physician Alliance, Las Vegas, Nevada
Valley Hospital Mental Health and Chemical Dependency Care, Phoenix, Arizona
Valley Hospital Medical Center: an extension of Valley Health System, Las Vegas, Nevada
Wekiva Springs Center, Jacksonville, Florida
Wellington Regional, Wellington, Florida
Windmoor Healthcare, Clearwater, Florida
References
External links
Universal Health Services recipient profile on USAspending.gov
UHS Behind Closed Doors from the Service Employees International Union
1979 establishments in Pennsylvania
American companies established in 1979
Companies listed on the New York Stock Exchange
Health care companies based in Pennsylvania
Hospital networks in the United States
Companies based in Montgomery County, Pennsylvania
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4831700
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nepenthes%20aristolochioides
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Nepenthes aristolochioides
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Nepenthes aristolochioides is a tropical pitcher plant endemic to Sumatra, where it grows at elevations of 1800–2500 m above sea level. It has an extremely unusual pitcher morphology, having an almost vertical opening to its traps. It is critically endangered by overcollection.
The specific epithet aristolochioides is formed from the genus name Aristolochia and the Latin ending -oides, meaning "resembling". It refers to the similarity that the pitchers of this species bear, in both shape and pigmentation, to the specialised flowers of Aristolochia.
Botanical history
Nepenthes aristolochioides was first collected by Willem Meijer on August 5, 1956. The holotype, Meijer 6542, was collected on that date from Mount Tujuh (Tudjuh) in Jambi at an elevation of 2000 m. It is deposited at the National Herbarium of the Netherlands (L) in Leiden, but is in relatively poor condition. An isotype is held at Herbarium Bogoriense (BO), the herbarium of the Bogor Botanical Gardens (formerly the Herbarium of the Buitenzorg Botanic Gardens) in Java.
Although labelled as "new species?", the specimen was largely overlooked for over 30 years. In 1988, botanist Joachim Nerz became aware of it upon visiting the herbarium of Leiden University. The name N. aristolochioides was coined quite early on; it was already being used in 1994 to informally refer to this (at the time undescribed) taxon. That same year, taxonomist Jan Schlauer questioned the supposed lateral pitcher mouth of N. aristolochioides in email correspondence with botanist Matthew Jebb, who was preparing a revision of the genus at the time. Schlauer wrote that he had examined a specimen of this species (Meijer 7426) and that the seemingly vertical insertion of the pitcher mouth might be a result of the preservation process, whereby the traps had become "compressed along their longitudinal axes". In the summer of 1996, Nerz met with Schlauer and Meijer in the Frankfurt Palmengarten, where Meijer showed him a photograph of the mysterious species. Together with Katrin Hinderhofer, Nerz organised a field trip to Sumatra in June 1996 and was successful in rediscovering N. aristolochioides in the wild.
Nepenthes aristolochioides was finally described by Matthew Jebb and Martin Cheek in their monograph, "A skeletal revision of Nepenthes (Nepenthaceae)", published in the May 1997 issue of the botanical journal Blumea. Joachim Nerz wrote a detailed description of the species for an issue of the Carnivorous Plant Newsletter published the following year. The next major treatments of the species appeared in Cheek and Jebb's updated 2001 work, "Nepenthaceae"; Charles Clarke's Nepenthes of Sumatra and Peninsular Malaysia, also published in 2001; and Stewart McPherson's two-volume Pitcher Plants of the Old World, released in 2009, which included colour photographs of specimens from a newly discovered locality.
Description
Nepenthes aristolochioides is a climbing plant. The stem, which may be branched, is terete and grows to 8 m in length and 5 mm in diameter. Internodes are cylindrical to obtusely angular in cross section and up to 15 cm long. Axillary buds are notably conspicuous in this species and are located 1.5–7 mm above the leaf axils.
Leaves
Leaves are coriaceous and sessile. The lamina is linear, lanceolate or spathulate-lanceolate in form and up to 20 cm long by 5 cm wide. It has an acute or obtuse apex that may rarely be sub-peltate. It is gradually attenuate towards the base, becoming partly amplexicaul (clasping the stem for one-third to half of its circumference) and, rarely, slightly decurrent. Leaves of short stems have rounded auricles, whereas those of climbing stems lack auricles. Two to five longitudinal veins are present on either side of the midrib. They arise from the leaf base and occasionally along the length of the midrib, and are restricted to the distal third to two-thirds of the lamina, where they run parallel to the laminar margin. These longitudinal veins are indistinct in dried specimens. Pinnate veins are irregularly reticulate and indistinct. They are few in number and arise obliquely to eventually curve towards the laminar apex. The lower laminar surface bears sessile glands. Tendrils reach 15 cm in length. Those bearing rosette pitchers are typically around twice as long as the laminae and do not have a curl.
Pitchers
Nepenthes aristolochioides is noted for exhibiting relatively little dimorphism between its lower and upper pitchers. Rosette and lower pitchers are only briefly produced on small rosettes before the plant begins to climb, or on offshoots from the climbing stem. They arise from the ends of the tendrils, forming a 3–5 mm wide curve. They are broadly infundibular in the lower two-thirds and globose above, forming a dome above the pitcher opening. They reach 7 cm in height and 3 cm in width. A pair of wings (≤9 mm wide) runs down the front of the pitcher, either covering the length of the trap's ventral surface or being restricted to the upper part only. These wings bear fringe elements up to 10 mm long. The pitcher mouth is orbicular to ovate and up to 1.5 cm in diameter. It has a horizontal, oblique or almost vertical insertion. The glandular region covers almost the entire inner surface of the pitcher, but is often missing from the uppermost parts of the pitcher dome. The waxy zone typical of many Nepenthes species is absent. Digestive glands are overarched; the lower ones measure 0.2–0.3 mm in diameter and are present at a density of around 200/cm2, whereas the upper ones are smaller and present at a density of around 500/cm2. The flattened peristome is broad, greatly incurved, and up to 20 mm wide. Its ribs are spaced up to 0.5 mm apart. Its inner margin is lined with small teeth that are curled at their apices and are 2–3 times as long as they are broad. The inner portion of the peristome accounts for around 82% of its total cross-sectional surface length. The pitcher lid or operculum is orbicular-cordate or ovate, up to 1.5 cm wide, and bears no appendages. Large nectar glands are present on the lid's entire lower surface, particularly around the midline. Three prominent veins are usually present on either side of the lid's midline. A broad and flattened spur (≤7 mm long) is inserted at the base of the lid. It has been variously described as either branched or unbranched (simple).
Upper pitchers gradually arise from the ends of the tendrils, forming a 10 mm wide curve. They are narrowly infundibular in the lower half and utriculate above, with a pronounced dome above the pitcher orifice. The ventral face of the trap is often noticeably flattened and is around 30% thicker than the wall of the translucent dome. Aerial traps are larger than their terrestrial counterparts, reaching 15 cm in height and 8 cm in width. They typically bear ribs in place of wings, although these may not be apparent at all. The pitcher mouth is subapical, ovate to circular, and measures up to 4 cm in diameter. It is angled even more steeply than in lower pitchers and may be positioned almost vertically. The glandular region usually covers the basal two-thirds of the pitcher cup's inner surface, or the pitcher may be wholly glandular. Digestive glands are slightly overarched; those near the bottom are 0.3–0.4 mm in diameter and occur at a density of around 200/cm2, whereas the upper ones are 0.2–0.3 mm in diameter and occur at a density of around 250/cm2. The peristome, which is up to 20 mm wide, is expanded, incurved, and internally flattened, forming an "entrance corridor" similar to a lobster pot. It extends for up to 2 mm on its outer margin, which is rounded. There is often a gap of up to 5 mm between the two lobes of the peristome near the base of the lid. The peristome bears ribs up to 0.8 mm high and spaced up to 0.8 mm apart, which terminate in indistinct teeth that are 2–3 times as long as they are broad. Large nectaries are located between the ribs. The pitcher lid is orbicular to ovate and is often held roughly horizontally, at a right angle to the pitcher orifice. It has a rounded to emarginate apex and a slightly cordate base, and measures up to 4 cm in length by 3 cm in width. It has no appendages, but bears numerous nectar glands, which are scattered quite evenly across the entire lower surface of the lid. These nectaries are circular to shortly elliptic and thinly bordered, measuring around 0.3 mm in diameter. They become slightly larger and more densely packed around the midline. Their rims are visibly asymmetric and are highest near the apical end of the lid. Three to four prominent veins are present on either side of the lid's midline. The spur is broad and flattened, measuring up to 10 mm in length. It has 2–4 acute points at its apex, and has been variously described as either simple or branched.
Inflorescence
Nepenthes aristolochioides has a racemose inflorescence up to 30 cm long. Both the peduncle and rachis may be up to 15 cm long, although the latter is usually shorter in female plants. The peduncle is up to 4 mm in diameter. Pedicels are simple-bracteolate and one-flowered. The basalmost ones are up to 12 mm long, whereas those higher up the rachis reach only 6 mm. Tepals are ovate and up to 4 mm long. Fruits are up to 20 mm long and 4 mm wide, and bear lanceolate valves. Seeds are filiform.
Indumentum
Most parts of the plant are glabrous. Where present, the indumentum is inconspicuous; hairs are found on the leaf axils, midribs, laminar margins, and parts of the pitchers (especially around the peristome and on the lid, and in developing pitchers). The indumentum is sparse and consists of short, simple or irregularly branching, appressed hairs, which are white to silver in colour and measure up to 0.2 mm and sometimes even 2 mm in length.
Colouration
The stem, laminae, tendrils and midribs are yellowish-green. On their outer surfaces, pitchers are white to reddish with numerous reddish-brown to purple speckles, with both lower and upper pitchers exhibiting similar colouration. The dark blotches are often denser in the upper part of the pitcher, though the extent of the translucent lighter patches is almost twice as great on the rear of the pitcher as compared to the front. The peristome is usually dark red or purple, being particularly dark in rosette pitchers. The undersurface of the lid is dark red or purple throughout, while the upper surface is speckled like the rest of the pitcher. The inner surface of the pitcher is white to light yellow throughout. Herbarium specimens are brown to dark brown, the preserved pitchers having conspicuous dark spots.
Little variation has been observed within natural populations of N. aristolochioides and no infraspecific taxa have been described.
Ecology
Distribution and habitat
Nepenthes aristolochioides is endemic to Sumatra and has an altitudinal distribution of 1800–2500 m above sea level. In 2001, Charles Clarke wrote that the species was only known from Mount Tujuh in Jambi, although specimens collected by Herbert Christopher Robinson and Cecil Boden Kloss labelled as being taken from "Mt. Kerinci" suggested that it may be more widespread in the region. Mount Kerinci is Sumatra's highest peak and neighbours Mount Tujuh. Clarke noted that since most of the mountain remains unexplored, there is a good chance that N. aristolochioides occurs there as well. The full range of N. aristolochioides on Mount Tujuh is also unknown, since only three of the mountain's seven peaks had been climbed as of 2001. In 2009, Stewart McPherson reported that N. aristolochioides was known from three subpopulations in Kerinci Seblat National Park. Of these, one (the type locality on Mount Tujuh) may already be extinct due to poaching by plant collectors; in 2007, E'En Endatno observed only a single N. aristolochioides plant on Mount Tujuh. The other two sites are located on remote peaks and support only "a few dozen" plants, as determined by McPherson.
Nepenthes aristolochioides inhabits Sphagnum-dominated mossy forest near the tops of steep ridges. It usually grows terrestrially, but can also occur as an epiphyte in pockets of moss on tree trunks. The species occurs sympatrically with N. gymnamphora and N. singalana. It grows with the former in montane forest and swamps dominated by Pandanus species that line the shoreline of a crater lake. The altitudinal distribution of N. gymnamphora on Mount Tujuh (1800–2100 m) overlaps that of N. aristolochioides, but no natural hybrids have been observed. A small form of N. singalana occurs in the same habitat as N. aristolochioides, but appears to occupy a different ecological niche; it is generally confined to the forest floor while N. aristolochioides often climbs into the canopy. A number of plants representing the natural hybrid N. aristolochioides × N. singalana have been recorded.
Conservation
Nepenthes aristolochioides is listed as Critically Endangered on the 2013 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, as its known distribution was restricted to two mountains (Mount Kerinci and Mount Tujuh) at the time of the assessment. Despite the fact that all known populations of the species lie within Kerinci Seblat National Park, it is severely threatened by over-collection, because its unique pitcher morphology makes it particularly sought-after. In 2010, the Rare Nepenthes Collection was established with the aim of conserving 4 of the most endangered Nepenthes species: N. aristolochioides, N. clipeata, N. khasiana, and N. rigidifolia.
Pitcher infauna
No infaunal organisms have been recorded from the pitchers of N. aristolochioides. This is not due to a lack of potential inhabitants; pitchers of N. singalana, which grow alongside N. aristolochioides, support large populations of such organisms. It is thought that the structure of the traps may serve to disorientate emerging adults and so infaunal species avoid colonising them.
Carnivory
Different trapping mechanisms have been proposed for the lower and upper pitchers of N. aristolochioides.
Pitfall traps
The lower pitchers of this species frequently develop embedded in Sphagnum moss, with only the top of the traps visible. Joachim Nerz suggested that they act as simple pitfall traps specialised for trapping ground-dwelling insects. The insects crawl into the pitcher through the small mouth and fall to the bottom of the pitcher cup. Unable to climb out, they drown in the digestive fluid.
Light traps
Along with N. klossii, N. aristolochioides is the only species in the genus to employ domed pitchers with translucent patches that allow sunlight to illuminate the interior. When viewed from the front, the peristome and lid appear dark, contrasting heavily against the inner surface of the pitcher, which is brightly lit by light passing through the top of the pitcher dome. It has been suggested that in upper pitchers this adaptation serves to attract flying insects in a similar manner to the North American pitcher plants Darlingtonia californica, Sarracenia minor, and Sarracenia psittacina. A similar trapping mechanism has also been proposed for N. jacquelineae. This is supported by the fact that most of the prey caught by N. aristolochioides consist of small flies, which are attracted to bright light sources. Prey are often disorientated inside the upper pitchers of N. aristolochioides. Unable to find the exit, they eventually fall into the pitcher fluid and drown. As such, the pitchers have features of lobster-pot traps.
The central role of the translucent dome in the prey trapping mechanism of N. aristolochioides is supported by experimental evidence. In one study, pitchers whose domes were covered with red celluloid filters showed a threefold decrease in Drosophila trapping efficiency as compared to unaltered pitchers and those shaded at the front with the same filters (flies are red-blind and most sensitive to the UV, blue, and green wavebands).
Flypaper traps
Nepenthes aristolochioides produces extremely thick, mucilaginous pitcher liquid, which coats the entire inner surfaces of the traps in a thin film. The pitchers of this species appear to function at least in part as flypaper traps, with the sticky inner walls trapping flying insects above the surface of the fluid. Similarly viscous pitcher fluid is also found in seven other closely allied Sumatran species: N. dubia, N. flava, N. inermis, N. jacquelineae, N. jamban, N. talangensis, and N. tenuis. Together with N. aristolochioides, these species all share infundibular pitchers that are wholly glandular or almost so.
Related species
The unusual pitcher morphology of N. aristolochioides makes it difficult to confuse with any other species; the almost vertical orientation of the pitcher mouth is a unique characteristic.
Joachim Nerz noted that N. aristolochioides shows "close affinities" to N. talangensis. However, it may be easily distinguished from that species on the basis of the pitcher mouth, which is horizontal in N. talangensis. In addition, the pitcher mouth of N. talangensis is elongated into a short neck, whereas N. aristolochioides lacks a neck altogether, with the lid being inserted in front of the pitcher. Both the mouth and lid are considerably larger in N. talangensis. The two taxa also differ somewhat in growth habit; N. talangensis occurs only terrestrially and is a weak climber, whereas N. aristolochioides occasionally grows as an epiphyte and climbs high into the forest canopy.
The laminar morphology of N. aristolochioides is also similar to that of N. bongso, although N. aristolochioides is easily distinguished from this species by the shape of its pitchers and the hooded nectaries of the lid.
In 2001, Charles Clarke performed a cladistic analysis of the Nepenthes species of Sumatra and Peninsular Malaysia using 70 morphological characteristics of each taxon. The following is part of the resultant cladogram, showing "Clade 1", which has 51% bootstrap support. Its most strongly supported subclade is the sister pair of N. inermis and N. dubia, having 95% support.
Although N. aristolochioides resembles N. klossii in some respects, the two species are geographically isolated from each other and are not thought to be closely related. The unique adaptations of these taxa might represent an example of convergent evolution, whereby two organisms that are not closely related independently acquire similar characteristics while evolving in separate, but comparable, ecosystems.
Natural hybrids
Only one natural hybrid involving N. aristolochioides is known. Nepenthes aristolochioides × N. singalana has been found in dense mossy forest on two ridges of Mount Tujuh, only one of which is populated by N. aristolochioides. It is relatively rare, which suggests that the two species flower at different times of the year. This hybrid is smaller than either of its parent species; the pitchers rarely exceed 5 cm in height. The lower pitchers resemble those of N. talangensis, but differ in having more pronounced peristome teeth. Upper pitchers are infundibular in the lower parts, ovoid in the middle, and cylindrical in the upper parts. This hybrid can be distinguished from N. aristolochioides on the basis of its narrow, cylindrical peristome and oblique mouth, as opposed to almost vertical in the latter.
References
Further reading
Clarke, C. 2013. What Can Tree Shrews Tell Us about the Effects of Climate Change on Pitcher Plants? [video] TESS seminars, 25 September 2013.
Harwood, P. 1998. Four Nepenthes "new to science". The Carnivorous Plant Society Journal 21: 64–65.
Hernawati & P. Akhriadi 2006. A Field Guide to the Nepenthes of Sumatra. PILI-NGO Movement, Bogor.
Meimberg, H., A. Wistuba, P. Dittrich & G. Heubl 2001. Molecular phylogeny of Nepenthaceae based on cladistic analysis of plastid trnK intron sequence data. Plant Biology 3(2): 164–175.
Meimberg, H. 2002. Molekular-systematische Untersuchungen an den Familien Nepenthaceae und Ancistrocladaceae sowie verwandter Taxa aus der Unterklasse Caryophyllidae s. l.. Ph.D. thesis, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, Munich.
Meimberg, H. & G. Heubl 2006. Introduction of a nuclear marker for phylogenetic analysis of Nepenthaceae. Plant Biology 8(6): 831–840.
Meimberg, H., S. Thalhammer, A. Brachmann & G. Heubl 2006. Comparative analysis of a translocated copy of the trnK intron in carnivorous family Nepenthaceae. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 39(2): 478–490.
External links
Photographs of N. aristolochioides at the Carnivorous Plant Photofinder
Carnivorous plants of Asia
aristolochioides
Endemic flora of Sumatra
Critically endangered flora of Asia
Species endangered by the pet trade
Taxa named by Matthew Jebb
Taxa named by Martin Cheek
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor%20Wu%20of%20Song
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Emperor Wu of Song
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Emperor Wu of Liu Song (()宋武帝; 16 April 363– 26 June 422), personal name Liu Yu (), courtesy name Dexing (), childhood name Jinu (), was a statesman and strategist of Imperial China, and the founding emperor of the Chinese Liu Song dynasty. He came from a humble background, but became prominent after leading a rebellion in 408 to overthrow Huan Xuan, who had usurped the Eastern Jin throne in 403. After that point, using a mixture of political and military skills, Liu Yu gradually concentrated power in his own hands while expanding Jin's territory. In 420, he forced Emperor Gong of Jin to yield the throne to him, thus ending the Eastern Jin dynasty and establishing the Liu Song dynasty. He ruled only briefly, for two years, before dying and passing the throne to his son, Emperor Shao of Liu Song. An outstanding commander, perhaps the greatest of his era, he conquered two of the Sixteen Kingdoms and remained undefeated throughout his military career. The History of the Southern Dynasties described Liu Yu as seven chi and six cun tall (approximately .)
Early life
Liu Yu was born in 363, to his father Liu Qiao () and mother Zhao Anzong (), while they were living at Jingkou (京口, in modern Zhenjiang, Jiangsu). His great grandfather Liu Hun () was originally from Pengcheng (彭城, in modern Xuzhou, Jiangsu), before moving to Jingkou. Liu Qiao was said to be a 20th generation descendant of Han Dynasty's Prince of Chu, Liu Jiao (), a younger brother of Han's founder Emperor Gaozu of Han. Liu Qiao was a police officer, while Zhao Anzong was the daughter of a commandery governor. They had married in 360, and lived in fair poverty. Lady Zhao died immediately after giving birth to Liu Yu, and Liu Qiao, unable to take care of the child financially or otherwise, considered abandoning the child. Upon hearing this, Liu Yu's aunt, who had given birth to his cousin Liu Huaijing () less than a year ago, went to Liu Qiao's house and took Liu Yu, weaning Liu Huaijing and giving her milk to Liu Yu instead. At some point, Liu Qiao remarried, and his new wife Xiao Wenshou bore him two sons, Liu Daolian () and Liu Daogui (). Liu Yu was said to be respectful to his stepmother and treated her as his own mother.
It is not known when Liu Qiao died, but in any case, Liu Yu grew up with great ambitions and was said to be strong and brave, but he was poor and uneducated, knowing only a few characters. He maintained himself by selling straw sandals, and he liked gambling. The people in his village all looked down on him. At some point, he became an officer under the general Sun Wuzhong ().
When the magician Sun En rebelled against Jin rule in 399, Liu Yu joined the army of the general Liu Laozhi (), and he became friends with Liu Laozhi's son Liu Jingxuan (). On one occasion, he led some tens of soldiers on a scouting mission, when they suddenly encountered several thousand of Sun's soldiers. All of Liu Yu's soldiers were killed, and Liu Yu fell onto a riverbank, but he stood his position there and killed all of Sun's soldiers who dared to approach. Liu Jingxuan, meanwhile, realizing that Liu Yu had been away from camp for too long, went to try to find him, and saw him alone chasing and dispersing thousands of Sun's soldiers. He greatly praised Liu Yu.
Both because of his bravery and his friendship with Liu Jingxuan, Liu Yu rose through the ranks of Liu Laozhi's army. Liu Laozhi, at the time, was a powerful warlord who controlled modern Jiangsu and Zhejiang except for the region around the capital Jiankang. In 401, with Sun En, who had fled to Zhoushan Island in late 399, trying to launch a comeback and attacking Haiyan (海鹽, in modern Jiaxing, Zhejiang), Liu Yu fought him, winning several victories over him despite being outnumbered. However, eventually Sun En was able to regroup and head toward Jiankang, which he could not capture and was forced to withdraw from. He regrouped on a sea island. By imperial edict (probably at Liu Laozhi's wishes), Liu Yu was made the governor of Xiapei Commandery (下邳, roughly modern eastern Xuzhou, Jiangsu), and he was ordered to attack Sun En on his island. This allowed Liu Yu to win victories over Sun En. Sun En began to grow weaker and headed south on the coast, with Liu Yu following. In winter 401, Liu Yu defeated Sun En again at Haiyan, forcing Sun to flee far from the coast.
In 402, as the regent Sima Yuanxian and the warlord Huan Xuan prepared for battle, Sima Yuanxian believed that he had Liu Laozhi's support, and Liu Laozhi postured in support of Sima Yuanxian by bringing his forces to Jiankang. However, when Liu Yu requested to engage Huan Xuan, Liu Laozhi refused to give permission. Huan Xuan then sent messengers to try to persuade Liu Laozhi to switch sides, despite the oppositions of his nephew He Wuji () and Liu Jingxuan, as well as Liu Yu. Without support from Liu Laozhi, Sima Yuanxian's forces collapsed in response to Huan Xuan's attack, and Sima Yuanxian and his father Sima Daozi were killed by Huan Xuan. Huan Xuan, who did not trust Liu Laozhi, immediately stripped Liu Laozhi of his military command, and Liu Laozhi, upon receiving the order, considered resisting it. He requested Liu Yu's opinion, and Liu Yu found the idea foolish, left Liu Laozhi's army, and returned to Jingkou as a civilian; He Wuji joined him as well. With the rest of the army not willing to go with his plan either, Liu Laozhi committed suicide, and Liu Jingxuan fled to Later Qin and then to Southern Yan.
By summer 402, however, Liu Yu was again in the army, and by 403 he carried a general's rank, when Sun En's nephew Lu Xun (), who had succeeded him after his death in battle in 401, attacked Dongyang (東陽, in modern Jinhua, Zhejiang), and Liu Yu repelled Lu's attack. He then counterattacked and won several battles over Lu, forcing Lu to head south on the sea. At this time, He Wuji tried to persuade him to declare a rebellion at Shanyin (山陰, in modern Shaoxing, Zhejiang) against Huan Xuan, but at the advice of Kong Jing (), he declined at this time, waiting for Huan Xuan to seize the throne so that he would have a reason. When Huan Xuan's cousin Huan Qian () asked Liu Yu's opinion about whether Huan Xuan should receive the throne, Liu Yu pretended to be a Huan clan loyalist and encouraged Huan Xuan to receive the throne. In winter 403, Huan Xuan forced Emperor An of Jin to yield the throne to him, establishing the new state of Chu. Liu Yu initially continued to feign loyalty, and Huan Xuan, believing in him and his talents, considered giving him greater authorities, despite counsel from his wife Empress Liu that Liu Yu could not be trusted and should be executed.
Campaign against Huan Xuan
Meanwhile, Liu Yu and He Wuji, now at Jingkou, continued their planning to rebel against Huan Xuan now that Huan Xuan had seized the throne. They were soon joined in their plans by Liu Yi () and Meng Chang (), and soon a number of other disaffected individuals joined their plan, with Liu Yu as the leader. Their plan was to simultaneously start several uprisings:
Liu Yi, Liu Yu's brother Liu Daogui, and Meng would surprise and kill Huan Xuan's cousin Huan Hong (), then the governor of Qing Province (青州, then with its headquarters at Guangling (廣陵, in modern Yangzhou, Jiangsu)), and seize Guangling.
Zhuge Zhangmin () would surprise and kill Diao Kui (), the governor of Yu Province (豫州, then modern central Anhui) and seize Liyang (歷陽, in modern Chaohu, Anhui).
Wang Yuande (), Xin Huxing (), and Dong Houzhi () would rise in Jiankang and attack Huan Xuan directly.
Liu Yu, He Wuji, and the other conspirators would surprise and kill Huan Xuan's cousin Huan Xiu () the Prince of Ancheng, then the governor of Xu () and Yan () Provinces, then with their headquarters at Jingkou, and seize Jingkou.
The conspirators put their plans into action. Liu Yu and He Wuji were able to surprise Huan Xiu and seize Jingkou, and Liu Yu then persuaded the capable administrator and writer Liu Muzhi () to join him as his propaganda specialist and assistant. Liu Yi, Liu Daogui, and Meng Chang persuaded Huan Hong to go on a hunt, and as Huan Hong opened the city gates to let his hunters out, they surprised him and killed him. However, Zhuge Zhangmin's plans were leaked, as were those of the conspirators at Jiankang. All were arrested, and the conspirators at Jiankang were executed. (Zhuge Zhangmin was subsequently rescued before he could be executed.)
Liu Yu quickly headed for Jiankang, and Huan Xuan, hesitant to engage him directly, waited at Jiankang, trying to see if he could wear Liu Yu down, although, at Huan Qian's insistence, he sent a detachment to try to stop Liu Yu. However, Liu Yu quickly defeated Huan Xuan's generals Wu Fuzhi () and Huangfu Fu () and arrived at Jiankang. He then defeated Huan Qian, and Huan Xuan, in panic, fled west, intending to go back to his power base at Jiangling (江陵, in modern Jingzhou, Hubei). Liu Yu entered Jiankang and declared the reestablishment of Jin, even though at this time Emperor An and his brother Sima Dewen were both still in Huan Xuan's control. Liu Yu entrusted most administrative matters to Liu Muzhi while dealing severe punishment to corrupt officials and those who had supported Huan Xuan, and quickly the government was cleaned up. (The only Huan Xuan supporter who was spared was Huan Xuan's prime minister Wang Mi (), who, when Liu Yu was poor, had helped him and paid off his gambling debts, and therefore Liu Yu not only spared but entrusted him with high posts.) Liu Yu, however, prepared for the contingency that Emperor An would not be recovered by making Sima Zun () the Prince of Wuling (a grandson of Emperor An's great-grandfather Emperor Yuan) acting emperor.
Liu Yu sent Liu Yi, He Wuji, and Liu Daogui west to attack Huan Xuan. They quickly defeated Huan Xuan's general He Danzhi () and took Jiang Province (江州, modern Jiangxi and Fujian), and then continued to head toward Jiangling. They encountered Huan Xuan's much larger force at Chenghong Island (), in modern Ezhou, Hubei), and despite the numerical disadvantage, they crushed Huan Xuan's forces. Huan Xuan fled back to Jiangling with Emperor An, while Huan Xuan's brother-in-law Yin Zhongwen () turned against him and took Emperor An's wife Empress Wang Shen'ai and Emperor Mu's wife Empress Dowager He to Jiankang.
Once Huan Xuan arrived back in Jiangling, he tried to prepare to flee to his distant relative, Huan Xi () the governor of Liang Province (梁州, modern southern Shaanxi and northwestern Hubei). His forces collapsed, however, refusing to follow his orders. At the inducement of his subordinate Mao Xiuzhi (), whose uncle Mao Qu () was the governor of Yi Province (modern Sichuan and Chongqing), he decided to try to flee to Yi Province instead, but on the way, he was intercepted by Mao Qu's subordinates Mao Youzhi () and Fei Tian (), who attacked him, and the officer Feng Qian () beheaded him. The officials Wang Tengzhi () and Wang Kangchan () then declared Emperor An's restoration at Jiangling.
However, with Liu Yi's forces still on the way to Jiangling, Huan Qian and Huan Xuan's nephew Huan Zhen () made a surprise attack on Jiangling, capturing it and seizing Emperor An and Sima Dewen. Huan Zhen and Huan Qian did not try to redeclare Chu; rather, they tried to hold Emperor An as collateral while trying to maintain their status as Jin officials. They initially defeated He Wuji's forces, but by 405, with the other members of the Huan clan (including Huan Xi and Huan Wei () the governor Yong Province (雍州, then southwestern Henan and northwestern Hubei) defeated, Jiangling fell to Liu Yi, and Huan Qian and Huan Zhen fled. He Wuji escorted Emperor An back to Jiankang, and Liu Yu effectively became regent, even though the government was at this point still a coalition of near equals.
As regent
Early years
Liu Yu, although he had ambitions to be emperor, learned from Huan Xuan's failures that he could not act too quickly, but must establish his authority through further victories first, particularly because he led a coalition of generals and officials with different agendas in his victory over Huan. He therefore proceeded cautiously, initially sharing power with He Wuji and Liu Yi, among others. For the next few years, he also made several offers to resign his posts, judging correctly that the imperial officials would not dare to accept them, to further establish the image that he was indispensable.
In spring 405, Mao Qu's soldiers, unhappy that Mao sent them on long-distance campaigns initially against Huan Xuan and then against Huan Zhen, rebelled, supporting the military officer Qiao Zong as their leader. They defeated and killed Mao and captured Chengdu (成都, in modern Chengdu, Sichuan), and Qiao Zong established his independent Western Shu state there.
Also in 405, Lu Xun, who had in 404 marched south and captured Panyu (番禺, in modern Guangzhou, Guangdong) during the wars relating to Huan Xuan, offered peace to the imperial government by paying a tribute. Liu Yu, believing that he had no abilities to defeat Lu by this point, made Lu the governor of Guang Province (廣州, modern Guangdong and Guangxi) and Lu's brother-in-law and lieutenant Xu Daofu () the governor of Shixing Principality (始興, roughly modern Shaoguan, Guangdong).
In 407, Liu Yu commissioned his friend Liu Jingxuan to launch a major attack on Qiao Zong's Western Shu, but in 408, Liu Jingxuan's forces became stalled against the Western Shu general Qiao Daofu () and was forced to retreat when food supplies ran out.
Campaigns against Southern Yan and Lu Xun
In 409, the Southern Yan emperor Murong Chao began a campaign of attacking and pillaging the Jin northern borders, intending to capture men and women to be trained as musicians. In response, Liu Yu decided to launch a campaign to destroy Southern Yan, over the objections of most imperial officials, but was supported by Meng Chang. While Liu Yu was quickly able to defeat Southern Yan's main forces at the Battle of Linqu in late 409 and put the Southern Yan capital Guanggu (廣固, in modern Qingzhou, Shandong) under siege, Guanggu did not fall quickly. While Liu Yu was besieging Guanggu, Xu Daofu persuaded a reluctant Lu Xun (who was afraid of a confrontation with Liu Yu) to attack north, reasoning that eventually when Liu Yu was ready, Liu Yu would attack first, and that with Liu Yu besieging Guanggu, they could capture the rest of the empire together.
In spring 410, Liu Yu captured Guanggu, ending Southern Yan, and considered further readying a campaign against Later Qin, but was informed that Lu and Xu were attacking north, and therefore quickly returned south towards Jiankang. Meanwhile, He Wuji led a fleet against Xu at Yuzhang (豫章, in modern Nanchang, Jiangxi), but was defeated and killed by Xu. A second force commanded by Liu Yi was also defeated by Xu and Lu. However, Liu Yi's captured soldiers informed Lu that Liu Yu was on his way back to Jiankang, and Lu, intimidated, considered ending his campaign, but continued to Jiankang at Xu's insistence. A number of imperial officials, including Meng, suggested that Emperor An be taken across the Yangtze River to evade Lu's forces, but Liu Yu refused, choosing to defend Jiankang.
Once at Jiankang, Lu refused several strategies that Xu offered that were risky but offered chances of success, instead trying to intimidate Liu Yu's forces into collapsing, which he could not do. Soon he ran out of food supplies and withdrew to Xunyang (尋陽, in modern Jiujiang, Jiangxi). Liu Yu gave chase, but also ordered his generals Sun Chu () and Shen Tianzi () to take a fleet by sea to attack Panyu, fully confident that he can defeat Lu and make it impossible for Lu to then retreat to his home base. Meanwhile, Xu attacked Jing Province (荊州, modern Hubei and Hunan), but was defeated by Liu Daogui, and rejoined Lu, preparing for a confrontation with Liu Yu. Around the new year 411, they engaged Liu Yu at Dalei (大雷, in modern Anqing, Anhui), but Liu Yu destroyed their fleet with fire. Lu and Xu fled toward Panyu, which had however been captured by Sun at this point. Lu put Panyu under siege, but Shen, who was then trying to capture other commanderies, returned to Panyu and defeated Lu along with Sun. Lu fled toward Jiao Province (交州, modern northern Vietnam) where he was defeated by the governor, Du Huidu (). Lu then killed his wife and concubines and committed suicide by jumping into a river.
Campaigns against Western Shu and Later Qin
With the state having been stabilized after Lu Xun's destruction, Liu Yu again turned his attention outward, hoping to use military victories to propel himself into sufficiently high public standing that he can take the throne for himself. At the same time, however, he began to remove members of his coalition who stood or might stand in his way. In 412, believing that Liu Yi, then governor of Jing Province, was about to act against him along with Liu Yi's cousin Liu Fan () the governor of Yan Province, he arrested Liu Fan and his friend Xie Hun (), and then made a surprise attack against Liu Yi, defeating Liu Yi's forces easily. Liu Yi was killed in flight. In 413, Liu Yu also surprised and killed Zhuge Zhangmin, whom he suspected of considering to act against him when he was away from Jiankang attacking Liu Yi.
Meanwhile, in late 412, Liu Yu commissioned the general Zhu Lingshi () to attack Qiao Zong's Western Shu, secretly instructing him to take the long route to Qiao Zong's capital Chengdu by Min River (), rather than the short route by Fu River (). Zhu's forces were able to surprise Qiao Zong's main general Qiao Daofu and Qiao Zong himself, capturing Chengdu in 413 and annexing Western Shu back into Jin.
In 414, Liu Yu began to suspect Liu Yi's replacement as the governor of Jing Province, Sima Xiuzhi (), who was a member of the imperial clan and whose son Sima Wensi () had been created the Prince of Qiao and had gathered many adventurers around him. In spring 414, Liu Yu had Sima Wensi's confederates arrested and executed, while delivering Sima Wensi to Sima Xiuzhi, intending for Sima Xiuzhi to show submission by executing Sima Wensi himself. Instead, Sima Xiuzhi only requested that Sima Wensi's princely title be stripped. In spring 415, Liu Yu arrested another son of Sima Xiuzhi, Sima Wenbao (), and Sima Xiuzhi's nephew Sima Wenzu (), ordering the two to commit suicide, and then launched an attack on Sima Xiuzhi, who was joined by Lu Zongzhi () the governor of Yong Province. Initially, Sima Xiuzhi and Lu Zongzhi enjoyed some successes, defeating Liu Yu's son-in-law Xu Kuizhi (), but after Liu Yu himself arrived, he defeated Sima Xiuzhi's forces, capturing Jiangling and forcing Sima Xiuzhi and Lu Zongzhi to flee to Later Qin. Liu Yu now no longer had significant opposition in Jin.
In 416, Liu Yu launched a major attack against Later Qin, in light of the recent death of the Later Qin emperor Yao Xing, entrusting the capital to his assistant Liu Muzhi, with his teenage heir apparent Liu Yifu being nominally in charge. In winter 416, the important city Luoyang fell to Liu Yu's general Tan Daoji (). In light of Luoyang's fall, Liu Yu had Emperor An create him Duke of Song and bestow him the nine bestowments, showing his intentions to take the throne eventually, although he declined both honors at that point.
In spring 417, Tan Daoji and another general, Shen Linzi (), engaged in a major campaign with Later Qin's most prominent general, Yao Shao () the Duke of Lu, the uncle of the emperor Yao Hong. After a month of battles, Yao Shao was defeated, and he died in anger. With Yao Shao dead, the other Later Qin generals could not resist Jin forces. Liu Yu's fleet, commanded by Wang Zhen'e (王鎮惡, Wang Meng's grandson), advanced quickly, while Yao Hong tried to first destroy Liu Yu's flank forces, commanded by Shen Linzi's brother Shen Tianzi. Despite Yao Hong's large advantage in numbers, Shen Tianzi crushed him, forcing him to flee back to his capital Chang'an. Wang Zhen'e's fleet then arrived and defeated Later Qin's final resistance, entering Chang'an. Yao Hong surrendered, and Liu Yu had him delivered to Jiankang and executed, ending Later Qin.
Steps toward usurpation
With Later Qin destroyed, there was an expectation that Liu Yu would next advance northwest and either destroy or force the subjugation of the several states in the northwest still -- Xia, Western Qin, Northern Liang, and Western Liang. Indeed, at this point, Western Qin's prince Qifu Chipan, Northern Liang's prince Juqu Mengxun, and Western Liang's prince Li Gao were all sufficiently intimidated that they nominally submitted to Jin's authority. However, Liu Muzhi then died at this time, and Liu Yu, intending on taking the throne, decided to return to Jiankang himself, leaving his 11-year-old son Liu Yizhen () and the generals Wang Zhen'e, Shen Tianzi, Mao Dezu (), and the official Wang Xiu () in charge of Chang'an.
With Liu Yu having left Chang'an, Xia's emperor Helian Bobo was intent on taking Chang'an himself. He had his sons Helian Gui () and Helian Chang, along with his general Wang Maide (), make a three-pronged advance toward Chang'an while cutting off the supply route between Luoyang and Chang'an. Meanwhile, with Wang Zhen'e and Shen Tianzi being previously envious of each other, Shen Tianzi suspected Wang Zhen'e of being ready to rebel, and so killed him. Wang Xiu then executed Shen Tianzi, but then Liu Yizhen believed the accusations that Wang Zhen'e was in fact about to rebel and that Wang Xiu was ready to as well, and so executed Wang Xiu. Once Wang Xiu was executed, Liu Yizhen himself was without supervision, and he, in fear of Xia forces, withdrew all of his forces inside Chang'an, and Xia forces then besieged the city. Liu Yu, hearing this, sent Zhu Lingshi to replace Liu Yizhen and ordered Liu Yizhen to withdraw. Liu Yizhen's forces, however, having pillaged Chang'an, could not withdraw quickly, and they were crushed by Xia forces at Qingni (青泥, in modern Xi'an, Shaanxi), with nearly the entire army killed or captured. Liu Yizhen barely escaped with his life, and the Chang'an region became Xia possession, although Jin retained the Luoyang region. Liu Yu, initially not knowing whether Liu Yizhen had survived, prepare a campaign to attack Xia, but once he heard of Liu Yizhen's survival, he stopped those plans. He continued to bestow great power (even if at times nominal) in his brother Liu Daolian and in his sons, in order to try to further affirm his authority.
Meanwhile, Liu Yu, having accepted the title Duke of Song and the nine bestowments in summer 418, had Emperor An create him the Prince of Song, but then publicly declined the title. Meanwhile, he became convinced of the truth of a prophecy that stated, "There will be two more emperors after Changming." (Changming, which meant "dawn," was the courtesy name of Emperor An's father Emperor Xiaowu.) He therefore became resolved to kill Emperor An, and he tried several times to have Emperor An's servants poison him, but because Emperor An's brother Sima Dewen continuously attended to him, the servants had no chance to poison him. However, around the new year 419, Sima Dewen was himself ill and had to be at his house. Liu Yu's assassin Wang Shaozhi () then took the opportunity to kill Emperor An—according to Zizhi Tongjian, by twisting clothes into a rope and then using it to strangle Emperor An. Liu Yu then made Sima Dewen emperor (as Emperor Gong).
Emperor Gong's reign was brief and powerless. In fall 419, Liu Yu accepted the title Prince of Song. In spring 420, Liu Yu, then at Shouyang (壽陽, in modern Lu'an, Anhui) sent his assistant Fu Liang to Jiankang to pressure Emperor Gong to yield the throne. Emperor Gong responded by summoning Liu Yu back to the capital in summer 419, and Fu then offered him a draft of an abdication edict, requesting that he write it personally. Sima Dewen did so, and then left the palace and went to his old house while he was Prince of Langya. Three days later, Liu Yu took the throne and established Liu Song (as Emperor Wu), ending Jin.
Reign
Emperor Wu created the former Jin emperor the Prince of Lingling. He honored his stepmother Princess Dowager Xiao as empress dowager. He created his brother Liu Daolian, his sons, and his nephews princes. In fall 420, he posthumously honored his wife Zang Aiqin (), who had died in 408, empress, and created his oldest son Liu Yifu crown prince. Also, having seen how much damage bad reputation can do to people first hand, he ordered that those who had been labeled undesirables by public opinion be allowed new chances to show their worth.
Soon, Emperor Wu, still believing Sima Dewen to be a threat, sent Sima Dewen's former attendant Zhang Wei () a bottle of poisoned wine, ordering him to poison Sima Dewen. Zhang, not wanting to carry out the order, drank the wine himself and died. Meanwhile, however, in order to prevent any likelihood that Sima Dewen would have a male heir, Liu Yu ordered brothers of Sima Dewen's wife Princess Chu, Chu Xiuzhi () and Chu Danzhi (), to poison any male children that Princess Chu or Sima Dewen's concubines would bear. Sima Dewen himself feared death greatly, and he and Princess Chu remained in the same house, cooking their own meals, with Princess Chu paying for the material herself. Assassins that Emperor Wu sent initially could find no chance to kill the former emperor. In fall 421, Emperor Wu sent Chu Danzhi and his brother Chu Shudu () to visit their sister. As Princess Chu came out to meet her brothers in a different house, soldiers that Liu Yu sent intruded into Sima Dewen's house and ordered Sima Dewen to take poison. He refused, stating that Buddhism prohibited suicide and that those who committed suicide could not receive human bodies in their next rebirths. The assassins therefore used a blanket to cover his head and asphyxiated him.
In 422, having been warned by his official Xie Hui that Crown Prince Yifu was often spending his time with people lacking in wisdom, Emperor Wu considered making Liu Yizhen the Prince of Luling crown prince instead. Xie, however, after meeting with Liu Yizhen, had an even worse opinion of Liu Yizhen, and so Emperor Wu stopped considering so.
In summer 422, Emperor Wu became extremely ill, and he entrusted Crown Prince Yifu to Xu Xianzhi, Fu Liang, Xie Hui, and Tan Daoji. He then died, and Liu Yifu took the throne as Emperor Shao.
Mausoleum
Liu Yu was buried in the Chuning Mausoleum (初寧陵, Chuning Ling), which is located in what is Jiangning District, in the eastern suburbs of the present-day Nanjing. The only surviving statues of his spirit way are two qilin, facing each other across the street in the appropriately named Qilinpu Cun ("Qiling Place Village") of the Qilin Town.
Legacy
Liu Yu is mostly remembered as one of greatest generals of the Northern and Southern dynasties. Under him, the Southern Chinese empire came the closest to reconquering the North. Although the territory which he won in the Northwest was quickly lost, his campaigns allowed the Southern dynasties the advantage of defending along the Yellow River, and preserved an independent Southern Chinese state long enough for the Xianbei states in the North to be assimilated.
Family
Consorts and Issue:
Empress Wujing, of the Zang clan of Dongguan (; 360–408), personal name Aiqin ()
Princess Kuaijixuan (; 383–444), personal name Xingdi (), first daughter
Married Xu Kuizhi of Donghai (; d. 415), and had issue (two sons)
Empress Dowager, of the Zhang clan (; d. 426), personal name Que ()
Liu Yifu, Prince Yingyang (; 406–424), first son
Princess Yixinggong (), personal name Huiyuan ()
Empress Dowager Zhang, of the Hu clan (; 368–409), personal name Dao'an ()
Liu Yilong, Emperor Wen (; 407–453), third son
Xiuyi, of the Fu clan ()
Princess Guangde (), third daughter
Xiuhua, of the Sun clan ()
Liu Yizhen, Prince Luling Xiaoxian (; 407–424), second son
Xiurong, of the Wang clan (; d. 432)
Liu Yikang, Prince Pengcheng (; 409–451), fourth son
Meiren, of the Yuan clan ()
Liu Yigong, Prince Jiangxia Wenxian (; 413–465), fifth son
Meiren, of the Sun clan ()
Liu Yixuan, Prince Nan (; 415–454), sixth son
Meiren, of the Lü clan ()
Liu Yiji, Prince Hengyangwen (; 415–447), seventh son
Unknown
Princess Wuxingzhao (), personal name Rongnan (), second daughter
Married Wang Yan of Langya (; 403–456), and had issue (four sons, two daughters including Empress Wenmu)
Princess Xuancheng ()
Married Zhou Jiao ()
Princess Xin'an ()
Married Wang Jingshen ()
Princess Wuxuan ()
Married Chu Zhanzhi (), and had issue (one son)
Princess Fuyang ()
Married Xu Qiaozhi ()
Princess Shi'an'ai ()
Married Chu Zhanzhi ()
Princess Yuzhangkang (; 410–464), personal name Xinnan ()
Married Xu Qiaozhi ()
Married He Yu of Lujiang (; d. 449), and had issue (one son, one daughter)
Ancestry
References
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363 births
422 deaths
Huan Chu people
Jin dynasty (266–420) generals
Jin dynasty (266–420) regents
Liu Song emperors
Politicians from Zhenjiang
Generals from Jiangsu
Burials in Nanjing
Founding monarchs
5th-century regents
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ai%20no%20Kusabi
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Ai no Kusabi
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is a Japanese novel written by Rieko Yoshihara. Originally serialized in the magazine Shōsetsu June between December 1986 and October 1987, the story was collected into a hardbound novel that was released in Japan in 1990, and eventually expanded on and released in 6 paperback volumes.
This futuristic tale is set in a world ruled by a super computer Jupiter, where its cyborg creations, the Elites, who are assigned various social roles based on their hair color, rule over the human populace. Iason Mink, a high-class "Blondy" elite from the capital Tanagura, runs into Riki, a "Mongrel" from the slums, and makes him his "Pet". This decision was seen as taboo in Tanagura where Pets are a status symbol and are expected to be well-bred, and was also unacceptable to Riki who had his freedom taken away from him. As Riki learns of the dangers Iason faces by keeping him, he finds himself developing feelings for his master. While focusing on the relationship between Iason and Riki, Ai no Kusabi also explores issues of caste systems and social exclusion, as well as the implications of Artificial Intelligence ruling over a human society.
The novel was partially adapted into a two-episode original video animation (OVA) by Anime International Company (AIC), with the first episode released in August 1992 and the second in May 1994. In November 1993, an audio drama entitled Dark Erogenous was released focusing on a time period left unexplored in the original novels. A new twelve-episode OVA adaptation, also from AIC, was scheduled to begin releasing in Japan in the spring of 2010, but was cancelled for financial reasons. The project was picked up again and was released on January 18, 2012. However, the series was once again discontinued after four episodes.
The novel is licensed for an English language release in North America by Digital Manga Publishing, which published the novel over an eight-volume series.
Plot
Setting
Ai no Kusabi takes place in the world of Amoi, which is ruled by a computer named Jupiter. After initially being a product of unrestricted scientific research, Jupiter gained self awareness, and overthrew its human creators. It banished humans from Amoi's central city, Tanagura, and created its own, improved, version of humanity - the Elites. Elites are cyborgs, their bodies entirely artificial, save for their enhanced, organic brains.
The human population was relegated to second class citizens who now lived in Midas, Tanagura's satellite city. Jupiter imposed strict social norms both on the elites and on the humans: Noram, the class system which, based on their hair colour, ranked the elites and assigned them specific social roles, and Zein which controlled and determined every facet of human life in Midas (and was not based on hair colour).
Eventually, tired of their lack of freedom, some humans rebelled against Jupiter in what was known as the Ceres Independence Rebellion. Jupiter graciously allowed them this independence without bloodshed, but what seemed to be a victory soon proved to be pyrrhic. Ceres was cut off from the rest of Midas and no longer acknowledged by Tanagura, and was left to fend for itself - a task it failed to do. Eventually, the area descended into chaos and became a slum. Its denizens, now derided as slum mongrels, were viewed as the lowest class, abhorred by the rest of Midas. Ceres was no longer bound by Zein and unlike Midas, practiced natural reproduction, however for reasons unknown to them, the birthrate of boys was much greater than that of girls, which resulted in the skewed ratio where males outnumbered females 9 to 1.
The society of the elites, who enjoyed every luxury possible, put great value on social class. Pets, who were genetically engineered humans bred in various "production centers" in Midas, were kept by the elite for entertainment and served as status symbols. It was expected that the pedigree and rank of the pet would be appropriate to that of its elite owner, with Academy-produced pure bred pets reserved for the highest ranks - the 13 Blondies. As cyborgs with an artificial body, elites themselves had no interest in sex, however the pets were used for voyeuristic entertainment and were made to copulate with each other at so called "mating parties", as the elites observed. They were not viewed as having intrinsic value and were at complete mercy of their owners, to be treated as nothing more than pretty decorations to be discarded once they served their purpose.
Tending to both pets and the elites were "Furniture", castrated, adolescent boys viewed as nothing more than objects. They were "installed" in each elite's domicile and expected to take care of the home as well as their master's and pet's every need.
Locations
Amoi
Amoi is the twelfth planet in the Garan star system and was once a small, barren planet. Amoi was first settled by a group of scientists who sought to make a metropolis society unconstrained by political pressures and religious taboos. They created Tanagura as their central city and made the supercomputer named "Jupiter." Jupiter eventually attained a consciousness of its own and seized power over Tanagura, forcing humans into its satellite city, Midas. Jupiter's vision for Amoi was to continue to be an independent planet free from man-made taboos, especially those of sexual nature. After some initial outcries from other worlds about its human rights violations, eventually the planet established itself as a premium tourist resort, catering to every desire imaginable, especially famous for its breeding and use of Pets.
Midas
Midas, which was divided into 9 areas, each with its distinct purpose, was the home of Amoi's humans and the main tourist hub. Areas 1 (Lhassa) and 2 (Flare) were its main attractions where regardless of ones race, gender, sexuality or religion, tourists could spend their time and money visiting casinos, brothels, malls and clubs. Being the most sexually liberal place in the known universe, naturally most tourists were attracted by the unconstrained sexual services offered there.
Ceres
Formerly a part of Midas, Area 9, Ceres, is an autonomous region, removed from all official maps of the city and no longer recognised by Tanagura. Its citizens were born in the Guardian foster center, where they were raised until they were 13, at which point they would be declared adults and discharged, left to fend for themselves. The skewed gender ratio made fertile females invaluable, and they were given preferential treatment, offered to stay in Guardian to reproduce or take care of the children. As a result, the population of Ceres, outside of Guardian, consisted almost entirely of disenfranchised men. This gave birth to a very specific environment and culture, one where same sex relations are the norm and there were no real families. Instead, the "mongrels" formed groups, or even gangs, that served as social units meant for protection and company, and romantically, couples could "pair up" and be each other's "pairing partners" which, although not officialised, was akin to marriage.
Tanagura
Tanagura is the metallic city under the direct and complete control of Jupiter. Inhabited almost entirely by elites and androids, the only warm-blooded creatures could be found in Eos Tower, the residential area for elites. This is where they had their homes, and as a result where pets and furniture lived. Jupiter itself resides in its Jupiter Tower, and most business and official banquets take place in Parthea.
Terminology
Elites
Created by Jupiter to be a new kind of humanity that is not restricted by flesh. Their bodies are entirely artificial, made to be well-proportioned and beautiful. It is indicated that the quality and functionality of their bodies differs between ranks. The only organic part are their brains, enhanced to be unnaturally intelligent and quick and processing information. While their engineered bodies can feel some sensation, they are in fact not capable of feeling true pleasure or pain.
Their society is strictly segregated by rank according to the Noram class system, and the differences are absolute and unassailable. Not much is known about the ranks other than the highest one, Blondy, except that they clearly don't mingle with the lower class elites.
The elite classes not only determine their rank, but also their function:
Blondy – The "elites of the elite", the highest rank of elites with the authority to communicate directly with Jupiter. They have golden hair and occupy the most important positions within the Tanagura society.
Platina – Silver-haired elites that hold various leadership and executive positions.
Ruby, Jade, and Sapphire – Subdivided by their individual specialties, they are advisers to the other elites.
Onyx – The "face" of Tanagura, the black-haired elites are the lowest of the caste with external responsibilities. They take administrator positions and are in charge of government businesses, such as being ambassadors and consuls.
Pets
Pets are produced in licensed breeding facilities, also known as Production Centers, and are regulated by a strict Pet Law. They are genetically identical to humans, but are artificially created and viewed as nothing more or less than expensive merchandise. As such, they are usually sold at dedicated Pet Auctions and purchased by the rich and powerful across the known universe. The most reputable breeding facility is the Academy Science Center, whose pets are considered to be the highest quality. Academy also produces the famed pure-blood pets, reserved exclusively for Blondies.
They comprise the bulk of entertainment among the elites of Tanagura and serve as status symbols used exclusively for voyeuristic purposes. Owning a pet in itself denotes an incredibly high status among the denizens of Amoi, but the quality of a pet also sets apart their owners, sometimes drastically so.
Pets are usually acquired very young and, depending on the whim of their owner, usually disposed of in their late teens.
Furniture
Adolescent boys who are castrated and used by the elites to take care of their everyday needs are known as furniture. A nice appearance and high intelligence are the basis upon which the boys are picked at the age of 13, after which they are trained for several months and given to their new elite master. They take care of the home and, most importantly, of the pet. Since pets are trained for a very specific purpose and not expected to know how to take care of themselves, it is the furniture's duty to make sure the pet eats, is dressed, behaves and has a comfortable life.
Black Market
The Black Market is the illicit trade business that thrives on Amoi due to the nature of the planet's culture. The Syndicate that runs it is ruled by the Blondy Iason Mink, and his right-hand man, Katze. The Market deals with selling and shipping contraband across the known universe as well as organising specialised auctions, fencing stolen goods and trading military technology.
Characters
Main
The primary protagonist of the series. Riki is a mongrel from Ceres and the former leader of his gang, Bison. Considered the "charisma of the slums", Riki was proud, rebellious, fierce, and defiant, known throughout the slums for his fiery nature and his striking appearance. because of his unusual black hair and eyes, he was compared to Vajra, a mythical black beast. Before becoming Iason's pet, Riki's pairing partner was Guy, the second-in-command of Bison, but their relationship ended once Iason forced Riki to be his pet and didn't recover even when Riki returned to the slums. Before being taken to Eos, he worked under Katze as a black market courier. Despite being the youngest in their ranks, at only 16, he proved himself to be capable, adaptable and clever, earning him the name "Riki the Dark".
But as a pet, Riki was anything but compliant. Throughout the story, Riki is torn between his pride and the feelings he has for Iason that he is unwilling to acknowledge.
Iason is one of the central characters of Ai no Kusabi. He is a Blondy who functions as the head of the Market Intelligence Department and rules the Syndicate behind the black market. He has an elegant and calm demeanor that hides a passionate, ruthless, manipulative, and unforgiving nature. He is in love with his pet Riki, a mongrel from the slums, which casts a dark shadow over his seeming perfection. At first, Iason is interested in what it would be like to have a gang leader from the slums as a pet, instead of one of those non-thinking pets bred by the Academy, but slowly he begins to develop feelings for Riki to the point of obsession.
Riki's former pairing partner and his second-in-command in Bison. Guy and Riki had been together since their Guardian days and have been inseparable since. Calm, reasonable and collected, he was the counterweight to Riki's fiery impulsiveness. When Riki came back after his mysterious 3 year disappearance, Guy was reluctant to pry, respecting his privacy and giving him space, even if it meant that they were no longer partners. But after he caught a glimpse of what was really going on in Riki's life, and realising that Riki had been an unwilling slave to a Blondy for those years, he attempts to do whatever he can in order to retrieve Riki from Iason.
Iason's right-hand man in the black market. Unbeknownst to most, Katze used to be Iason's furniture. A computer genius, he almost uncovered what he calls the "Secrets of Tanagura" during his time as furniture, but was caught in the act by Iason, who punished him by slashing his left cheek, which earned him his trademark scar. Rather than dispose of him, Iason recognised the exceptional intelligence and capability of the boy, and put him to work on the black market.
Katze finds himself a reluctant bystander in the saga between Riki and Iason, and due to his role in both their lives, he has a front row seat to the unraveling of their lives and is frustrated at his inability to do anything. Despite his cool, seemingly uncaring nature, he cares for both Iason and Riki and tries his best to look after both of them.
A Blondie who is the chief scientist of Tanagura, and Iason Mink's best friend. He serves as the voice of reason, concern and societal pressure as Iason's infatuation with Riki becomes more obvious.
Raoul is one of, if not the most prominent scientist in the known universe and because of his disregard for bioethics, as well as his capability to use his medical advances to cure entire worlds on a whim, is known as "the God killer". He is at the forefront of bioengineering and pet research and breeding.
The youngest and only new member of Bison after their inception, Kirie is 3 years younger than the other members and joins them a year after Riki's disappearance. He stands out due to his good looks and heterochromia as well as his unconstrained ambition. Driven and sly, Kirie will stop at nothing to get himself out of the slums and make something of himself. Because of their similar strong personalities yet vastly different moral compasses, Riki and Kirie butt heads constantly upon Riki's return, to the point where Riki develops a strong dislike for the newcomer. After being ousted from Bison, undeterred, Kirie pursues other avenues including making a backstabbing deal with Iason and pursuing a relationship with Manon Sol Kuger, Guardian's heir. Eventually, Kirie bites off more than he can chew which spells his downfall.
Minor characters
Iason's furniture when Riki first comes to Eos, Daryl is capable, intelligent and meticulous. Despite this, the shock of having to take care of an untrained, unwilling mongrel pet was hard for him to handle. Although he did his best, Daryl had a hard time, especially at witnessing the volatile relationship between Iason and Riki. Eventually, in what is knowns as the Daryl Incident, for his own reasons, Daryl hacks the Eos security system and releases Riki. This acts as a catalyst in Riki and Iason's relationship as Iason, shocked and confused at his, usually obedient, furniture's actions, brings him in for questioning. Daryl gives him his honest and heartfelt insight into the situation and most of all, how much it hurts him to see Riki suffer. Although Iason punishes him, it does make him realise that something needs to change, which leads to him releasing Riki into the slums for his "one year breather".
Also known as Lambda 3000, is the artificial intelligence that rules Amoï. Created by the scientists that first colonised the planet, Jupiter was created to be the pinnacle of human achievement. Upon gaining self-consciousness, Jupiter overthrew its creators and focused its intelligence on creating a new, improved version of humanity. The result were the Elites, human-like androids whose only organic parts were their nano-enhanced brains. In the 1990s OVAs, it is depicted as a silver-colored statue in hologram form. In the remake OVAs, it takes the appearance of a large violet hologram.
A Blondie and is responsible with supervising the parties, security details, and helps appease any trouble that might arise in Eos Tower. He is known as an "elegant noble" among the Blondies, and takes great pride in his position as supervisor over Eos Tower. Like all Blondies, he has a fascination over Riki, although Orphe also despises him because he was the first person to get past his security details in Eos Tower (due to Iason's former Furniture Daryl's assistance). In the remake OVAs, he is voiced by. In the English dub, he is voiced by
A Blondie and the chief of Midas with a wicked sense of humor. Like all Blondies, he has a fascination over Riki and finds the scandals Riki causes as a source of entertainment, but he also disapproves of his actions and Iason's infatuation for him.
A Blondie and is charge of overseeing Tanagura but holds little power over Eos Tower. Like all Blondies, he has a fascination over Riki, but to a lesser extent because Riki and his pet often fight with each other. He openly voices his disapproval over Riki to Iason and enjoys criticizing Iason about Riki's scandals.
Raoul Am's female Pet of the highest breeding and Riki's only friend in Eos. Unlike most pets, she was kind to Riki and fell in love with him, which led to them having forbidden intercourse. Although Riki did care for her, he used her as a way to test Iason's feelings and make him jealous and ruin his public image. When the affair went public, Iason punished Riki and forced him to tell Mimea the motive behind his actions over a holoscreen. However, Mimea insisted that it was made just to push her and Riki apart, and she told Riki that she will be paired with another pet named Jena, whom she described as a sex freak with nothing but his looks and that thinking of carrying his children pained her. As Riki was silent because his pet ring was fully activated at that time and he had a hard time speaking and breathing, this led Mimea to think that he had abandoned her and calling him a coward. When Riki returned to Eos Tower after three years, Raoul replaced Mimea with a new pet, and Riki never heard what happened to her.
A friend and member of Riki's former gang Bison from Ceres. Although typically easy-going, Luke is daring and cares deeply about his friends. While Luke is known to prefer virgins as pairing partners, Luke has an infatuation with Riki and is the only member of Bison to show his desire openly, but backs off once Riki makes it clear he's uninterested.
A friend and member of Riki's former gang Bison from Ceres. Much like Luke, Norris is energetic and easy-going, though has shown a thoughtful side at times. Although Norris once had a secret infatuation with Riki, Norris found a serious and happy relationship with Maxi, a mechanic ten years older than him. In the 1990s OVAs, he was voiced by. In the remake OVAs, he voiced by.
A friend and member of Riki's former gang Bison from Ceres. Compare to the other members of Bison, Sid is more quiet and stoic, and is a good fighter. Like Luke and Norris, Sid has an infatuation towards Riki, but he kept his desires a secret out of respect for Guy. During Riki's three-year "disappearance" from Ceres, Sid was the one who recruited Kirie into Bison as the teenager's proud rebelliousness reminded him of Riki.
The young castrated boy that serves as Iason's Furniture and Riki's caretaker, replacing Daryl after his death. Much like Daryl, Cal is dutiful and quiet, but wasn't overly attentive to Riki as Daryl was. As Riki met Cal after he learns that all Furniture are secretly from Ceres, Riki treats Cal with more respect than he did with Daryl, and the two established a more professional relationship, as Riki wishes not to get attached to Cal.
Media
Novel
Written by Rieko Yoshihara, the individual chapters of Ai no Kusabi were serialized in the magazine Shōsetsu June between December 1986 and October 1987. The chapters were collected and published as a single hardbound novel in 1990. The series was later released in a revised and greatly expanded paperback edition from Seibidō Shuppan under their Crystal imprint; however, the Crystal edition is incomplete, covering only six of eight books. The series was then acquired by Tokuma Shoten and a complete edition was published in six volumes under their Chara imprint; the first four are semi-omnibus (volumes 1–4 correspond to Crystal volumes 1–6) and the final two are the previously unreleased material. The novel was licensed for an English language release in North America by Juné, the imprint of Digital Manga Publishing (DMP). The English edition from Juné was originally based on the Crystal edition, and will have eight volumes (corresponding to Crystal 1–6 plus Chara 5 and 6). The first volume was released on November 20, 2007 and the sixth on July 28, 2009. After a long hiatus, caused in part by re-negotiation required by the change in Japanese publisher, the remaining two volumes, volume 7 and volume 8, were released on August 29, 2012, and on April 24, 2013, respectively. In June 2009, DMP made the first volume of Ai no Kusabi, Stranger, available as an Amazon Kindle e-book.
CDs
The first spin-off from the novels was an audiobook released on May 31, 1989.
Five soundtracks were released:
間の楔 オリジナル・サウンド・トラック (Ai no Kusabi Original Soundtrack) (10 October 1992)
間の楔 SENSE OF CRISIS (10 December 1993)
間の楔 AMBIVALENCE (25 March 1994)
間の楔 SYMPATHY (10 July 1994)
間の楔 Sound Selection of "AI NO KUSABI" 祈り-ORACION- (25 January 1995)
The first drama CD was released in November 1993 under the name "間の楔 DARK-EROGENOUS". Three more drama CDs were later released by a different company throughout 2007 and 2008.
間の楔I 〜DESTINY〜 (25 May 2007)
間の楔II 〜NIGHTMARE〜 (25 April 2008)
間の楔III 〜RESONANCE〜 (25 October 2008)
Original video animations
Anime International Company created a two-episode original video animation (OVA) adaptation for the series. The first episode was released in August 1992, and the second in May 1994. Directed by Akira Nishimori and Katsuhito Akiyama, the episodes were based on a screenplay written by Naoko Hasegawa. They featured character designs by Naoyuki Onda and music composed by Toshio Yabuki. The plot slightly differed from the novels' storyline, but kept the main story points intact.
Remake
A second twelve-episode anime OVA adaptation, also from AIC, was scheduled to begin releasing in Japan in Fall 2010. Due to financial issues, production was cancelled for a period of time, and it was re-scheduled for January 18, 2012, instead. Akiyama directed again and Onda provided the character designs. The screenplay was written by Yoshihara herself. The Blu-ray release of the OVA included a new short story by Yoshihara.
Anime licensor Media Blasters announced they licensed the remake's first four OVAs for a North American release in December 2012. However, on November 28, 2012, they notified retailers that it would be delayed until April 23, 2013. On October 11, 2017, Media Blasters announced they would re-release Ai no Kusabi on Blu-ray with an English dub. The Blu-ray was released on December 19, 2017. On September 20, 2018, Toku added Ai no Kusabi to its streaming service, allowing viewers to watch the OVAs in Japanese with English subtitles.
After the fourth episode premiered in 2012, the remake was discontinued for unknown reasons.
Reception
Mania's Danielle Van Gorder felt the prose of the first novel was "florid", and criticized the finishing point of the second novel as anticlimactic. She found the characterization of Iason in the third novel to be realistic and compelling, and felt the theme of the fourth novel was power. Jonathan Clements compared Yoshihara's writing style to "Ranpo Edogawa's sexually charged mysteries" and felt Ai no Kusabi shared themes with Shōzō Numa's science fiction.
Patrick Drazen has described the Ai no Kusabi OVA as a "magnum opus" of the genre, and the setting as dystopian, similar to Fritz Lang's Metropolis. Jonathan Clements and Helen McCarthy liken the society of Ai no Kusabi to that of Ancient Greece, where power was restricted to a class and women do not figure significantly. They consider it ironic that Jupiter is a feminine computer, and describe her as being like Ghost in the Shell'''s Motoko Kusanagi – Jupiter is "a man-made idea of the female in a world run by male elites". Anime News Network's Maral Agnerian praised its interesting, well-developed plot and "fleshed out and complex" work. She also praises it for being one of the few series from its time to contain "actual gay sex in it instead of the usual angsty moping and shoujo-esque sparkly kisses", while noting that the scenes are primarily in the second episode. Anime News Network's Justin Sevakis highlighted the OVA as a "Buried Treasure", calling it "one of the best yaoi anime". He described Riki and Iason as both being "alpha-males", rather than a and pairing, and noted how the costuming was elegant for the higher echelons of society and revealing for the lower classes. He criticized the OVA's adaptation of the story, explaining that it was assumed all viewers would be already familiar with the tale through Shōsetsu June.
References
External links
Official anime website
Entry in The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction''
Kocha Sound's Ai No Kusabi website
1986 novels
1992 anime OVAs
2012 anime OVAs
Anime International Company
Digital Manga Publishing titles
Light novels
Media Blasters
Science fiction anime and manga
Science fiction novel series
Yaoi anime and manga
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal%20Hampshire%20Regiment
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Royal Hampshire Regiment
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The Hampshire Regiment was a line infantry regiment of the British Army, created as part of the Childers Reforms in 1881 by the amalgamation of the 37th (North Hampshire) Regiment of Foot and the 67th (South Hampshire) Regiment of Foot. The regiment existed continuously for 111 years and served in the Second Boer War, World War I and World War II. An Army Order of the 28 November 1946 stated, due to distinguished service in the Second World War, the regiment would be re-titled as the Royal Hampshire Regiment.
On 9 September 1992, after over 111 years of service, the Royal Hampshire Regiment was amalgamated with the Queen's Regiment to form a new large regiment, the Princess of Wales's Royal Regiment, which continues the traditions of the Royal Hampshires.
History
Formation and antecedents
The Hampshire Regiment was formed on 1 July 1881 under the Childers reforms from the merger of the 37th (North Hampshire) Regiment of Foot and the 67th (South Hampshire) Regiment of Foot along with the militia and rifle volunteers of the county of Hampshire. As part of the formation of the regiment, the following Volunteer Force and Militia units were placed under command of the regiment:
3rd (Hampshire Militia) Battalion based in Winchester
[4th] 1st Volunteer Battalion based in Winchester, former 1st Hampshire Rifle Volunteers
[5th] 2nd Volunteer Battalion based in Southampton, former 2nd Hampshire Rifle Volunteers
[6th] 3rd Volunteer Battalion based in Portsmouth, former 3rd Hampshire Rifle Volunteers
[7th] 4th Volunteer Battalion based in Newport, former 1st Isle of Wight Rifle Volunteers
Second Boer War
At the turn of the 20th century, there were two regular battalions of the regiment. The 1st battalion was stationed at Malta from 1884, then transferred to British India where it had various postings. In early 1903 the battalion transferred from Lucknow to Aden. In April 1904 three companies were attached to the Royal Navy and saw service in the Somaliland campaign. Landing on the Somali coast, they served alongside a naval detachment that stormed and captured the forts at Illig.
The 2nd Battalion was deployed to South Africa as reinforcement for the British Army during the Second Boer War in January 1900, and took part in an action at Karee Siding on 29 March 1900, when one officer and 11 troops died. The battalion served in South Africa throughout the war, which ended in June 1902 with the Peace of Vereeniging. They returned home three months later, arriving in late September 1902, and a few days after their return was entertained to a large celebratory banquet by the Mayor of Portsmouth.
A third militia battalion was formed from the former Hampshire Militia, with headquarters in Winchester. The battalion was embodied in January 1900 for service in South Africa, and disembodied in December the same year. A Volunteer battalion was also formed to serve in South Africa. Men from this battalion were involved in the worst train accident during the war, near Barberton, on 30 March 1902. Following the accident, the battalion returned to the United Kingdom, arriving at Southampton in May 1902.
In 1908, the Volunteers and Militia were reorganised nationally, with the former becoming the Territorial Force and the latter the Special Reserve; the regiment now had one Reserve battalion and five Territorial battalions.
First World War
During the First World War, the regiment expanded to 34 battalions. By the end of the First World War, the Hampshire Regiment had lost 7,580 officers and men killed in action.
Regular Army
The 1st Battalion was a Regular Army unit stationed in Colchester on the outbreak of war in August 1914. The battalion was assigned to the 11th Brigade, 4th Division. With the division, the battalion joined the British Expeditionary Force and was sent overseas to France in August 1914, landing at Le Havre on 23 August. The 1st Battalion saw its first combat against the German Army at Le Cateau. The battalion served on the Western Front for the rest of the war, participating in many battles in 1914 alone such as the First Battle of the Marne, the First Battle of the Aisne, and the Battle of Messines. In 1914, on Christmas Day, men of the 1st Battalion participated in the legendary Christmas Truce of 1914 where British and German soldiers fraternised in No man's land. In 1915, the battalion took part in the Second Battle of Ypres, famous for its use of poison gas. In 1916 it fought at Albert and Le Transloy, which was part of the larger Somme offensive.
The 2nd Battalion was also a Regular Army battalion that was serving in India at the outbreak of war and arrived in England on 22 December 1914. In early 1915, the battalion became part of the 88th Brigade, assigned to the 29th Division. The 2nd Battalion took part in the Battle of Gallipoli when engaged in the fatal Landing at Cape Helles in April 1915 and fought in the Battle of Krithia. In 1916, the 2nd Battalion was evacuated to Alexandria due to a mixture of heavy casualties from combat, disease and the terrible weather conditions. In March 1916, the battalion was sent to France and would serve on the Western Front for the rest of the war, participating in the battle of Albert and Le Transloy rides, alongside the 1st Battalion.
Territorial Force
The 1/4th Battalion landed at Karachi in India in November 1914 as part of the 4th (Rawalpindi) Brigade in the 2nd (Rawalpindi) Division before moving to Basra in March 1915: it remained in Mesopotamia and Persia for the rest of the war. The 1/5th Battalion landed at Karachi in India in November 1914: it remained in India for the rest of the war. The 1/6th (Duke of Connaught's Own) Battalion landed at Karachi in India in November 1914: it remained in India for the rest of the war. The 1/7th Battalion landed at Karachi in India in November 1914: it remained in India until January 1918 when it moved to Aden. The 1/8th (Isle of Wight Rifles, Princess Beatrice's) Battalion landed at Suvla Bay in Gallipoli as part of the 163rd Brigade in the 54th (East Anglian) Division on 9 August 1915 and, having been evacuated from Gallipoli in December 1915, moved to Egypt and then to Palestine. The 1/9th (Cyclist) Battalion sailed for India in February 1916 and then to Vladivostok in October 1918. The 2/4th Battalion sailed for India in December 1914 as part of 2/1st Hampshire Brigade in the 2nd Wessex Division and then sailed for Egypt in April 1917 and to France in May 1918. The 2/5th Battalion sailed for India in December 1914 as part of 2/1st Hampshire Brigade in the 2nd Wessex Division and then sailed for Egypt in April 1917 before being disbanded in Palestine in August 1918. The 2/7th Battalion sailed for India in December 1914 as part of 2/1st Hampshire Brigade in the 2nd Wessex Division and then moved to Mesopotamia in September 1917.
New Armies
The 10th (Service) Battalion landed at Gallipoli in August 1915 and was then transferred to Salonika in October 1915. The 11th (Service) Battalion (Pioneers) landed at Le Havre in December 1915. The 12th (Service) Battalion landed in France in September 1915, but moved to Salonika in November 1915. The 14th (Service) Battalion (1st Portsmouth) landed at Le Havre in March 1916. The 15th (Service) Battalion (2nd Portsmouth) landed in France in May 1916.
Irish War of Independence
The 2nd Battalion was sent to Ireland to fight the Irish Republican Army during the Irish War of Independence. On 20 February 1921, soldiers from the battalion took part in the Clonmult ambush during which the IRA suffered its greatest loss of volunteers in conflict. Regimental historian Scott Daniell commented on the action that "like all the Irish operations, it was hateful to the British troops". On 31 May 1921, seven soldiers, all with the band of the 2nd Battalion, Hampshire Regiment were on their way to the rifle range at Youghal County Cork when a road mine exploded under the truck they were travelling in. Three soldiers were killed outright, while a further four died later from their wounds.
Second World War
In the Second World War, the Hampshire Regiment had six battalions that fought abroad (the 1st, 2nd, 1/4th, 2/4th, 5th and 7th), whilst more battalions stayed at home. By the end of the Second World War, 2,094 officers and men of the Hampshire Regiment had died.
The 1st Battalion
The 1st Battalion, Hampshire Regiment was a Regular Army unit that was deployed on Garrison duties in El Daba, Egypt at the beginning of the war. It moved to Palestine on peace keeping duties in December 1939 and then moved to Moascar in Egypt, then to Mearsa Matruh in Summer 1940. One of its duties was to look after the large number of Italian prisoners after the fall of Sidi Barrani.
In February 1941, the 1st Battalion arrived in Malta, where it became part of the 1st (Malta) Infantry Brigade (with 1st Dorset Regiment and 2nd Devonshire Regiment). This later became the 231st Infantry Brigade. Duties in Malta included airfield repair and working as stevedores in the docks. Malta was subjected to a prolonged siege and, by July 1942, the food situation had become serious, but the situation eased as the Allies' fortunes improved in the North African campaign.
In April 1943, the 231st Brigade, including the 1st Hampshires, was moved to Alexandria, then subsequently to Cairo and Suez, where it trained as an independent assault brigade. Then, in July 1943, the 1st Battalion invaded Sicily as part of the first wave of Operation Husky, the Allied invasion of Sicily. The beach landing went smoothly, but the 1st Battalion ran into resistance at Vizzini on 13 July when it ran into the 1st Hermann Göring Parachute Panzer Division. On 22 July, the 1st Battalion was engaged in hard fighting for Agria, which only fell on 29 July. The 1st Battalion was reduced to three companies after the battle. There was further hard fighting to capture the Regalbuto Ridge, which ended the Sicilian Campaign. The 1st Battalion suffered 18 officers and 286 other ranks killed or wounded in action in Sicily.
On 8 September 1943, the 231st Brigade landed in Italy, coming ashore at Potro San Venere near Pizzo. The 1st Battalion was involved in fighting as the Germans withdrew northwards. By October 1943, the 1st Battalion was back in Sicily waiting for transport back to the United Kingdom and, by November, the battalion was back in the United Kingdom for the first time in 22 years.
The battalion was allocated to the 50th (Northumbrian) Infantry Division, one of the assault divisions for the invasion of North West Europe, which had an excellent reputation after fighting in the Mediterranean theatre. On 6 June 1944, the 1st Battalion came ashore as part of Operation Overlord without any supporting tanks. Despite facing machine gun fire, the men captured Le Hamel and Arromanches after a hard fight. By the end of D-Day , the 1st Battalion had suffered 182 casualties, 64 of them being killed in action.
The battalion started a three-week fight for the village of Hottot, against the German Panzer-Lehr-Division, in June 1944. This culminated in a major assault on 11 July. The 1st Battalion was withdrawn from the line the next day, testimony to the hard fighting. The battalion was in the vanguard of the assault towards Villiers Bocage later in the month. There were stiff fights at St Germain d’Ectot and Launay. Villiers Bocage was taken on 4 August, following which the 50th Division was taken out of the line.
In August 1944, a brigade attack was launched towards Conde, and the battalion attacked St Pierre la Vielle. The fighting was particularly hard and, after the 11-hour battle, three of its Rifle companies were severely reduced – 'B' Company had 25 men, 'C' Company had 35 men, and 'D' Company was down to just 12 men; as 'A' Company was only lightly engaged, it was not so depleted. On 12 August, the 1st Battalion was withdrawn from the line. The battalion was motorised and joined with the 11th Armoured Division for the breakout attack later in the month. There was no fighting and, on 31 August, the 1st Battalion crossed the river Seine at Vernon and swept on to Amiens.
The battalion was then placed under command of the Guards Armoured Division and swept into Brussels on 3 September. The battalion, still under command of the Guards Armoured, then started the attack towards Eindhoven, which was the attack designed to relieve the British and Polish airborne troops fighting at Arnhem, who had dropped as part of Operation Market Garden, which ended in a failure. The battalion, as part of 231st Infantry Brigade, was charged with defending the "Corridor" formed by the armoured advance. In October, the 1st Battalion moved up to Nijmegen and moved onto "The Island", the bridgehead over the river Waal but behind the river Lek.
In October 1944, the battalion attacked north of Bemmel, and expanded the bridgehead up to the Wettering Canal. The battalion then went onto the defensive until the end of November. The battalion then moved back to Ypres in Belgium, and subsequently was moved back to the United Kingdom with the rest of the 50th Division, and the men were mainly used as replacements for other infantry battalions, with the exception of a small training cadre consisting of 12 officers and 100 other ranks. The battalion ended the war in Louth, Lincolnshire. Since D-Day, the 1st Battalion, Hampshire Regiment had suffered over 1,281 casualties, including 231 officers and men killed in action, the rest being either wounded or missing in action.
The 2nd Battalion
The 2nd Battalion was also a Regular Army battalion and started the war in Aldershot, Hampshire, England. In September 1939, the 2nd Battalion moved to Cherbourg, France with the 1st Guards Brigade, alongside the 3rd Battalion, Grenadier Guards and the 2nd Battalion, Coldstream Guards, attached to 1st Infantry Division. It then moved to Sille-le-Guillaume, and from there 250 miles north to take its allocated place on the "Gort Line", which it reached on 3 October. Later that month, the battalion moved to the Belgian/French border and, in February 1940, the battalion spent three weeks on the Maginot Line before returning to Metz.
The battalion crossed into Belgium in response to the German invasion of Belgium and, by 14 May, was digging into a defensive position. While an attack never came, with the retreat of the Dutch and the French Ninth Army, the 1st Division was ordered to retreat on 16 May. A slow retreat then commenced, ending at Dunkirk. The battalion began to be embarked from Dunkirk for the United Kingdom (some were evacuated on 2 June). The battalion managed to carry away 100% of their small-arms, mortars and anti-tank rifles. It was congratulated by the Minister for War, Mr Anthony Eden. The battalion then spent two years on home defence, training and preparing for a German invasion that never arrived.
In November 1942, the battalion, Hampshire Regiment sailed for North Africa, taking part in Operation Torch with the 1st Guards Brigade, which was now part of the 78th Infantry Division. They disembarked at Algiers on 21 November and joined the British First Army. Later that month, the battalion moved to Tebourba. The following day the 2nd Battalion were attacked by heavy shelling and, on 1 December, the battalion was attacked by a force four times its size, which was able to outflank it and rake it with enfilading fire. This was the start of three days of fierce close combat, fought at close quarters and featuring bayonet charges and counter-charges. The battalion was forced back a mile and a half and, on 3 December, Major Wallace Le Patourel was awarded the Victoria Cross for his gallantry in leading counter-attacks against the enemy. After three days, the battalion retreated through Tebourba, only to find all other troops had been withdrawn and the road behind them was cut. The battalion broke into small groups and attempted to break through to allied lines, reuniting at Medjez-el-Bab; many, including the Commanding Officer, were captured. The battalion, which had started the battle with 689 men, was down to 194 men. The battalion was withdrawn from the line and in December, nine officers and 260 other ranks joined the 2nd Battalion. After the fall of Tunis on 13 May 1943, the 2nd Battalion joined the 128th (Hampshire) Brigade attached to 46th Infantry Division.
The 128th Infantry Brigade
The Hampshire Regiment had a number of Territorial Army (TA) battalions, whose ranks were swelled throughout 1939 when the TA was ordered to be doubled in size. During 1939, due to the number of new recruits, the 5/7th Battalion was split into the 5th Battalion and the 7th Battalion, and the 4th Battalion was split into the 1/4th Battalion and the 2/4th Battalion. The 1/4th, 2/4th and 5th Battalions were all grouped into the 128th Infantry Brigade (the "Hampshire Brigade") and the 7th Battalion was part of the 130th Infantry Brigade. Both brigades were part of the 43rd (Wessex) Infantry Division.
However, on 6 June 1942, the 128th Brigade was detached from the 43rd Division until 15 August, when it was transferred to the 46th Infantry Division, where it would remain for the rest of the war. In January 1943, the brigade left Britain with the rest of the 46th Infantry Division, for North Africa, as part of Operation Torch. The brigade disembarked at Algiers on 17 January, moving to Bone, where it remained until the end of January, when the brigade moved to Hunts Gap.
The 5th Battalion was sent 12 miles further ahead to Sidi Nsir. The 5th Battalion at Sidi N'sir was attacked in overwhelming strength in February 1943 as the Germans began Operation "Ox Head", a corps-level assault by German Paratroopers, elements of 10th Panzer Division and the 501st Heavy Tank Battalion. The 5th Battalion was supported by 155th Battery, Royal Artillery. The Germans had to take the Hampshires' hilltop positions before they could attack the artillery, knocking out all the guns, whose crews stood and died firing over open sights at the German tanks. Only nine gunners survived. At 5pm, 'B' Company of the 5th Battalion, reduced to 30 men, was overrun. At dusk, the battalion considered its position untenable, and it withdrew to a feature known as "Hampshire Farm". Of the four Rifle Companies, only 'C' Company, less a single platoon, and 30 men of 'D' Company, remained. The German force was delayed for one critical day.
Later in the month, the Hampshire Brigade was attacked at Hunt's Gap by the German force that had been delayed at Sidi N'sir. 2/4th was the main Battalion engaged, with 1/4th Battalion in support. The 2/5th Leicesters was attached to the brigade as well. The situation was so precarious that the 2nd Hampshires, still training its new recruits, was put into the line alongside 1/4th Battalion. The brigade was supported by plenty of artillery and the Churchill tanks of the North Irish Horse. Extensive minefields and heavy dive bombing kept the German tanks at bay. On 28 February, a pre-dawn attack penetrated the 2/4th battalion's 'B' Company positions, but heroic resistance and the tanks of the North Irish Horse kept the Germans at bay until dusk, when 'B' Company was overrun. 'C' Company was overrun by German infantry. On 1 March, the Germans attacked again, and 'D' Company was overrun, but 2/4th Battalion hung on to their remaining positions. On 2 March, the Germans withdrew, and on 5 March the 2/4th Battalion was relieved by the 8th Battalion, Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders of 36th Brigade of the 78th Battleaxe Division. The 2/4th Battalion had suffered 243 men killed or missing.
During March, the brigade was engaged on defensive patrolling, under heavy shelling. 1/4th Battalion lost 100 casualties during March, but 5th Battalion received 5 officers and 150 men as replacements. On 5 April, the brigade handed over its positions and moved 100 miles south to El Ala. The 128th Brigade subsequently captured the Fondouk Gap, allowing the 6th Armoured Division to pass through and debouche onto the Kairouan Plain. In April 1943, the 128th Infantry Brigade attacked Bou Arada. The 16th Battalion, Durham Light Infantry was added to the brigade for the attack. Five Field regiments and two Medium regiments of the Royal Artillery supported the 128th Brigade. Early progress was good, but when the mist cleared all four battalions were caught in the open under heavy fire, and losses mounted. The rifle companies of 1/4th Battalion only had 3 officers and 80 men left between them, and the 2/4th Battalion had to reorganise onto a three-company basis.
Tunis fell and the North African campaign was over in May 1943. The 128th Infantry Brigade was reconstituted to consist of 2nd Battalion, 1/4th Battalion and 5th Battalion. The 2/4th Battalion was split into two to form two Defence Units of two Beach Groups. Their role was to protect the maintenance area of a Beach Group when it made a landing where no port was available.
The 128th Infantry Brigade was one of three British brigades that made an assault landing at Salerno in Italy as part of British X Corps under command of US Fifth Army, led by Mark Clark in September 1943. The landing was opposed by shore batteries firing shrapnel, and the beaches were raked by machine gun fire. 2nd Battalion and 1/4th Battalion made steady progress, but 5th Battalion had been landed in the wrong place and suffered heavily. A German counter-attack overran 'B' Company and the battalion HQ of 5th Battalion. The 5th Battalion lost 40 men killed and over 300 were wounded or taken prisoner.
On 12 September, the Germans started a general assault against the Salerno bridgehead, which made good progress; the US VI Corps were almost driven into the sea. However, the arrival of US paratroops and the British 7th Armoured Division turned the tide. The 128th Brigade was in the hills above Salerno, and the fighting was hard, but on 20 September the Germans began to withdraw northwards, and the pressure eased. All three battalions had suffered – 2nd Battalion suffered 304 casualties, 1/4th Battalion suffered 159 casualties and the 5th Battalion suffered 29 officer and over 400 other rank casualties.
The 128th Brigade, still part of the X Corps, moved up to the River Volturno, behind which the Germans had withdrawn. On 10 October, the 1/4th Battalion captured the town of Castel Volturno, alongside the river, and on 12 October the 1/4th made a night assault across the river, establishing a small bridgehead. The 2nd and 5th battalions moved across the river in support, but the entire 128th Brigade was soon engaged in a stiff fire-fight. The brigade advanced some 2,500 yards, and then dug in behind a canal as the Germans bought up tanks. The brigade remained in the low-lying, swampy, mosquito-ridden land between the river and the canal until the Germans withdrew due to a breakthrough elsewhere. The brigade then advanced along Route 7, meeting little resistance. The 128th Brigade was then taken out of the line for R&R.
In November 1943, the Hampshire Brigade moved up to the River Garigliano. It was relieved on 11 January, and moved back to the River Volturno. They were selected as the Assault Brigade of the 46th Infantry Division, and trained in river crossings. Then, in January 1944, the Hampshire Brigade made a night assault across the swift flowing River Garigliano. The brigade had severe problems getting the boats through the minefields down to the river, and in the darkness confusion reigned. Only a few men managed to get across, and these were withdrawn at daylight. The Hampshire Brigade then assaulted Monte Damiano, a bare, razor-backed feature, already strewn with British dead from 56th (London) Infantry Division. The assault was made by the 1/4th and 2nd battalions in daylight, and immediately came under heavy mortar and machine-gun fire. The attack was made with great dash, but it failed, with heavy casualties.
The 5th Battalion was put under the command of the 138th Infantry Brigade, part of the 46th Division, to assault Mounts Ornito and Cerasola in February 1944. The assault met little opposition, although the Germans put in spirited counter-attacks on Mount Ornito, which were all driven off. However, as the days passed, the casualties mounted from heavy shelling; the bare rock made cover difficult. In eight days, the 5th Battalion suffered 200 casualties. Supply was particularly difficult, as supplies had to be carried up by mules and porters for 3 to 4 hours from the nearest road. On 7 February, the 5th Battalion attacked Mount Cerasola, a successful assault. On 10 February, the 5th Battalion was relieved.
The Hampshire Brigade was relieved later in the month. It moved south to Naples and, on 16 March, sailed for Egypt, and subsequently moved to Palestine, Lebanon, Syria, and back to Egypt. All battalions were brought up to strength, largely from gunners from disbanded Middle-East Anti-Aircraft units who were retrained as infantrymen. On 27 June, the 128th Brigade sailed from Alexandria, and subsequently landed in Taranto. The move north through Italy was at an easy pace.
In August 1944, the 128th Brigade started its assault on the "Gothic Line", a line of German defences across the Etruscan Apennines. The Hampshire brigade, with the North Irish Horse under command, led the 46th Division's assault (along with the 46th Reconnaissance Regiment). The brigade's first target was to cross the River Metauro and take Monte Bartolo. The assault went to plan against little opposition, and Mount Bartolo was captured by the morning of 29 August. The brigade had marched 25 miles to cover 12 miles as the crow flies, and climbed 1,500 feet. Only the 1/4th Battalion had come across serious opposition, engaging in heavy fighting around Montegaudio. Later in the month the brigade assaulted the Gothic Line proper, crossing the River Foglia and assaulting Monte Gridolfo. This was heavily defended, with all cover cleared from its bare slopes. Nevertheless, the men of the 2nd Battalion assaulted them with great vigour, and by dawn on 31 August they had captured the first crest. The 1/4th Battalion passed through, driving deeper into Gothic Line. During this assault, Lieutenant Gerard Norton was awarded the Victoria Cross. On 1 September, the 5th Battalion took the lead, and by 2 September had captured Meleto. The Gothic Line had been breached. A fighting advance continued northwards. On 5 September the 128th Brigade was relieved, and sent to the rear for rest, but they were back in the line by 11 September.
The 128th Brigade began an assault on Montescudo in September 1944. Montescudo was defended by the German 100th Mountain Regiment, and they put up a desperate resistance. Other elements of the Brigade assaulted Trarivi, which was captured by 16 September. On 18 September, the brigade was relieved. All three battalions were short of men, even after replacements were received from the 1st Battalion, Buffs (Royal East Kent Regiment). The Hampshire Brigade crossed the River Fiumicino, and then the Rubicon. The weather was atrocious, and movement was slowed by deep mud, and supply was difficult. Fighting continued until 9 October. A steady advance was made, and by 12 November the River Montone was crossed; on 26 November the River Lamone was reached. This was crossed on 3 December in the face of stiff opposition, and by 6 December the Brigade had captured Casa Nova. The Brigade was relieved the following day, and moved well to the rear. From 24 August (when the 128th Brigade moved up to the Gothic Line) to 7 December, when they were relieved, the 128th (Hampshire) Brigade had suffered 1,276 casualties.
In January 1945 the 2nd Battalion and the 5th Battalion embarked from Taranto and disembarked in Piraeus, Greece, two days later. 1/4th Battalion arrived on 22 January. The 128th (Hampshire) Brigade (now known as "Tigerforce") split its battalions, and set about disarming the ELAS. The troops were welcomed everywhere, and there was no fighting. Then, in April 1945, the brigade began to return to Italy for the final offensive. By 1 May, the brigade was back in the line around Forlimpopoli; but the war ended before the brigade was in action again.
The 2/4th Battalion
The 20th Beach Group ("A" and "B" companies) invaded Sicily as part of Operation Husky in July 1943. The role of the Beach Group was to land supplies until a harbour could be captured. On 12 July, 20 Beach Group moved inland, behind the advancing infantry, but by 22 July the half-battalion was in the line, capturing Mount Scalpello. On 4 August, the half-battalion moved to Catania, where it remained on garrison duty.
In September 1943, the 21st Beach Group ("C" and "D" companies) invaded Salerno. The assault went in at dawn against stiff opposition and, rather than take its allotted role, the half-battalion was moved straight into the line. However, there was little action until 13 September, when the half-battalion was attacked by armoured half-tracks. This happened again on 15 September when 'D' Company was overrun. However, the half-tracks did not assault 'D' Company as such, they ran over the slit trenches until picked off by 6pdr anti-tank guns. On 17 September, the half-battalion was moved back into reserve and, by 23 September, it was back on the beaches unloading cargo.
In November 1943, the two-halves of the 2/4th Battalion were re-united at Pontecagnano near Salerno. However, there was no immediate employment, and orders were received to send cadres to the three battalions in the 128th (Hampshire) Brigade (this was rescinded after protests). However, six officers and 77 other ranks were posted away to form the "2/4th Hampshire Training Centre", three officers and 188 other ranks were assigned to 'porterage duties' and a detachment of 50 men was assigned to help the Provost Corps with traffic duties.
The battalion was back in the line in Italy, near Garigliano, as part of 28th Infantry Brigade, in 4th Infantry Division in February 1944. This was the same ground where the Hampshire Brigade had suffered through the Italian winter. The battalion was relieved for short periods on a regular basis before returning to the line. In May 1944, the battalion assisted the brigade's two other battalions (2nd King's and 2nd Somersets) in crossing the River Rapido as part of the assault on Monte Cassino. The river and bank were under intense enemy fire, and the river so swift that swimmers from 2/4th had to cross with lines to enable the boats to get across. Troops got across the river, but could make little headway against the storm of machine gun fire. The 2/4th could not get across to join their fellow battalions, and so, on 12 May, it came under command of 12th Infantry Brigade and crossed via a bridge on 13 May. Supported by the 17th/21st Lancers's Sherman tanks, the 2/4th Battalion attacked along the river, taking 200 prisoners. On 14 May, back in the 28th Brigade, the 2/4th attempted to cross the River Pioppeta. The tank bridge sank in the mud, and the battalion took 100 casualties in two minutes. The 2/4th waded the river and, in spite of heavy casualties and fierce resistance, the advance continued. During this advance, Captain Richard Wakeford was awarded the Victoria Cross. By 6.30pm, all objectives had been captured, and the 2/4th reorganised on a three-company basis. On 16 May, the battalion was relieved. Two days later, Cassino was captured by the Polish II Corps.
In June 1944, the battalion was back in the line near the village of Villastrada, between Lake Chiusi and Lake Trasimeno to north of Rome. On 24 June, a major attack was launched on that section of the Trasimene Line by 2nd Battalion, Somerset Light Infantry supported by the tanks of the 12th Canadian Armoured Regiment. 2/4th Hampshires was to follow on, but its entry into battle was delayed until the next day. Having passed through the village of Vaiano, which was unoccupied, an attack was launched on a ridge being held by the German 1st Parachute Division. Although "C" Company established a foothold on the ridge, occupying a farmhouse, that night a fierce German counter-attack was made by the Germans, who overran the company headquarters. Fighting was close and confused, and the company ran low on ammunition. It was forced back to literally the last ditch, but hung on. At dawn the next day, 26 June, the battalion counter-attacked and managed to recapture its previous positions; the Germans were withdrawing to the Arezzo Line. The 2/4th Battalion followed up, coming into action again on 21 July. Supported by the North Irish Horse, a steady advance was made. The 2/4th Battalion was then taken out of the line again – some platoons were down to ten men each with no officer.
The battalion then attacked Santa Lucia, which was captured on 30 July 1944 after a small but fierce battle. The enemy then withdrew, and the battalion moved up to the River Arno. On 10 August, the battalion was withdrawn. In September 1944, the battalion began its assault on the Gothic Line, attacking across the River Marano and capturing Casa Bagli. All the first day objectives were achieved, and the 2/4th defended them on 16 September against German counter-attacks. On 17 September, the battalion captured Cerasola; it was relieved the following day. The battalion then moved north behind the British Eighth Army's advance, arriving in time to stand by to support the Hampshire Brigade's assault on Forli during November. During 22 November, the 2/4th attacked and captured a bridgehead over the River Cosina against heavy shelling; this was the battalion's last action in Italy.
In December 1944, the battalion was flown to Greece in the bomb-bays of Wellington and Liberator bombers in response to the outbreak of the Greek Civil War, arriving on 12 December. The ELAS, armed and trained by the British, was trying to overthrow the Greek Government. On arrival, the 2/4th Battalion was split up, primarily defending the airfield, then clearing ELAS forces from Athens. This did involve some fighting, and the 2/4th Battalion lost three men killed. The 2/4th Battalion then settled down to peace-keeping duties. In May 1945, the battalion was moved to Crete to take charge of the Germans, who had surrendered, and they ended the war there.
The 7th Battalion
The 7th Battalion was a Territorial Army unit, originally the 5/7th Battalion until it was split into the 5th and 7th battalions when the Territorial Army was doubled in size in the spring and summer of 1939. The 7th Battalion remained in the United Kingdom training long and hard for many years until after the D-Day landings of 6 June 1944.
The battalion was sent to Normandy as reinforcements with the 130th Infantry Brigade attached to the 43rd (Wessex) Infantry Division. In June 1944, the battalion landed near Le Hamel. They were with 130th Brigade (with 4th and 5th Dorsets) and were initially held in reserve. The battalion attacked Maltot, supported by tanks of 9th Royal Tank Regiment (9th RTR) in July 1944. The village was defended by Waffen-SS troops supported by Tiger tanks. Both the 7th Battalion and 9th RTR suffered severe casualties, and although the 7th Battalion managed to fight its way into the village it was withdrawn. The 7th Battalion suffered 18 officer and 208 other rank casualties, including 4 officers and 12 other ranks killed, but was back in the line two days later.
The battalion attacked the village of Cahagnes later in the month. This was fought in typical ‘bocage’ countryside, but after the initial attack by the brigade ran into difficulties, 7th Battalion deployed from reserves and captured Cahagnes, beating off several German counter-attacks. On 2 August, the battalion moved up to Jurques, and after a short stiff fight advanced to "Point 132", close to Mount Pincon. On 6 August, the battalion put in a deceptive attack on Mount Pincon, making a diversion whilst 129th Infantry Brigade made a flank attack. During heavy fighting, 'C' Company incurred many casualties, including all the officers. Following the successful flank attack by the 129th Brigade, the 7th Battalion mopped up and concentrated near Mauny by 10 August.
In August 1944, the battalion captured St Denis de Mere after a bombardment by nine artillery regiments. The battalion took 74 prisoners and then prepared for "The Breakout". The battalion then moved 50 miles north-east to Conches and, by 27 August, the 7th Battalion was across the River Seine. The battalion then participated in the capture of Tilly, and thereafter spent 11 days taking in replacements and resting. In September 1944, the battalion started to move to Brussels for temporary garrison duty, arriving the next day. This easy duty was welcome; since landing in Normandy in June, the 7th Hampshires had lost (including wounded) 35 officers and 450 other ranks.
The battalion fought in Operation Market Garden in September 1944. On 20 September, the battalion moved through Eindhoven to Grave. The battalion was tasked with defending the southern end of the two large bridges over the Waal. On 23 September, the 7th was sent into the line, fighting west of the bridges in the Valburg-Elst area. It then moved to the "Island" and stayed there until 4 October helping to defeat the German counter offensive, before moving to the Groesbeek-Mook area on the Dutch-German border.
In November 1944, the battalion was moved to Maastricht, and then moved around as divisional reserve. On 19 December, the German launched their Ardennes offensive, which caused the 7th Battalion to move north of Liege to guard the bridges over the Meuse. On 26 December, the 7th Battalion moved to Aachen, and on 12 January moved again to Teveren. Then, in January 1945, the battalion captured Putt, then Waldenrath, and on 25 January captured Dremmen and Porselen. The battalion advanced south-east from Cleves as part of the big Reichwald offensive. Over two days fighting for Berkhofel, the 7th lost 70 casualties. It was relieved on 17 February.
The battalion crossed the Rhine in assault craft, consolidating on the far bank and then advancing across the IJssel Canal to Milligen, which was captured on 26 March. German resistance was collapsing, and the 7th moved over the Twente Canal on 1 April, liberating Hengelo. In April 1945, the 7th Battalion took part in operation "Forward On", sweeping through Germany against minimal resistance. However, on 13 April, the battalion had a hard fight for Cloppenburg, a fight that was as hard as any they had fought, vicious hand-to-hand fighting from street to street. Luckily, they were supported by tanks, sappers of the Royal Engineers and a single Armoured Vehicle Royal Engineers, which demolished several buildings with its petard. Cloppenburg was captured the next day. Then, in April, the battalion embarked on its final advance, moving through Bahlum, Bremen, then Bremerhavan, capturing hundreds then thousands of prisoners. The 7th Battalion reached Gnarrenburg on 3 May, and were still there when the Germans surrendered the following day.
The Home Based Battalions
Although the Hampshire Regiment sent six battalions overseas, many more stayed at home as training units or were converted to other roles. Before the war, the 6th Battalion (Duke of Connaught's Own), Hampshire Regiment was converted into the 59th Anti-Tank Regiment, Royal Artillery, and upon the Territorial Army being doubled in size in 1939, formed a 2nd Line duplicate. The 59th Anti-Tank Regiment served with the 43rd (Wessex) Infantry Division and went with them to Normandy.
The original 8th Battalion (Isle of Wight Rifles), Hampshire Regiment was transferred to the Royal Artillery and made into an artillery battery in 1937. However, a new 8th Battalion was formed, shortly after the war began, at Southampton in December 1939. It subsequently split into the 1/8th and 2/8th Battalions, before the 2/8th Battalion was renamed the 13th Battalion, and then both battalions were re-formed into the 8th Battalion again, which was subsequently renumbered the 30th Battalion and was disbanded in September 1942.
The 9th Battalion was formed on the Isle of Wight in July 1940 and was later assigned to the 201st Independent Infantry Brigade (Home). In 1942, the battalion was converted to armour as the 157th Regiment Royal Armoured Corps and assigned to 36th Army Tank Brigade. Units converted in this way continued to wear their infantry cap badge on the black beret of the Royal Armoured Corps. However, the brigade was disbanded in July 1943 and 157 RAC was broken up in August, without having seen active service.
The 10th Battalion was formed in Aldershot in July 1940; it was assigned to the 201st Independent Infantry Brigade (Home), alongside the 9th Battalion. In 1941, the 10th Hampshire was also transferred to the Royal Armoured Corps, becoming the 147th Regiment Royal Armoured Corps, and was assigned to the 34th Army Tank Brigade. Its Churchill tanks were named after Hampshire Regiment battles (the CO's tank was called "Minden"). The regiment went to serve with distinction with 34th Tank Brigade in the North West Europe campaign at Normandy, Le Havre, the Reichswald Forest and Operation Plunder from 1944 to 1945.
The 50th (Holding) Battalion, which was formed on the Isle of Wight in June 1940, absorbed the Royal Militia of the Island of Jersey. The Jersey Militia subsequently became the 11th Battalion, whilst the rest of the 50th Battalion became the 12th Battalion. The 11th Battalion stayed in the United Kingdom as a training battalion until the war ended, first with the 209th Brigade and later with the 135th Brigade, 45th (Holding) Division. The 12th Battalion also stayed in the United Kingdom, with the 136th Brigade, but was disbanded in September 1944 after sending a large final draft to the 7th Battalion serving in North-west Europe.
In September 1940, the 70th (Young Soldiers) Battalion was formed in Southampton, but soon moved to Basingstoke. It was raised for those soldiers around the age of 18 or 19 who had volunteered for the Army but were not old enough to be conscripted, the age being 20 at the time. However, the battalion was disbanded in July 1943 as the British government lowered the age of conscription for the British Armed Forces from 20 to 18.
The Hampshire Regiment's Depot had been in Winchester since long before the Second World War. However, in September 1939, it moved to Parkhurst, Isle of Wight, where it stayed for the rest of the war.
Post war and amalgamation
In 1946, the regiment was awarded the title of Royal Hampshire Regiment in recognition of its service during the Second World War. The regiment was in Northern Ireland (Operation Banner) in 1972 and undertook a further eight tours over the next two decades. In 1992, as part of the Options for Change reorganisations, the regiment was merged with the Queen's Regiment to become the Princess of Wales's Royal Regiment.
Regimental museum
The Royal Hampshire Regiment Museum is based at Lower Barracks in Winchester. It is one of several regimental museums that comprise Winchester's Military Museums.
Battle honours
The Regiment was awarded the following battle honours:
From the 37th (North Hampshire) Regiment of Foot: Minden, Tournay, Peninsula
From the 67th (South Hampshire) Regiment of Foot: Barrosa, Peninsula, India, Taku Forts, Pekin 1860, Charasiah, Kabul 1879, Afghanistan 1878-80
Blenheim1, Ramillies1, Oudenarde1, Malplaquet1, Dettingen1, Belleisle2, Burma 1885–87, Paardeberg, South Africa 1900-02
The Great War (32 battalions): Le Cateau, Retreat from Mons, Marne 1914 '18, Aisne 1914, Armentières 1914, Ypres 1915 '17 '18, St. Julien, Frezenberg, Bellewaarde, Somme 1916 '18, Albert 1916, Guillemont, Ginchy, Flers-Courcelette, Thiepval, Le Transloy, Ancre Heights, Ancre 1916, Arras 1917 '18, Vimy 1917, Scarpe 1917 '18, Messines 1917, Pilckem, Langemarck 1917, Menin Road, Polygon Wood, Broodseinde, Poelcappelle, Passchendaele, Cambrai 1917 '18, St. Quentin, Bapaume 1918, Rosières, Lys, Estaires, Hazebrouck, Bailleul, Kemmel, Béthune, Tardenois, Drocourt-Quéant, Hindenburg Line, Havrincourt, Canal du Nord, Courtrai, Selle, Valenciennes, Sambre, France and Flanders 1914–18, Italy 1917–18, Kosturino, Struma, Doiran 1917 '18, Macedonia 1915–18, Helles, Landing at Helles, Krithia, Suvla, Sari Bair, Landing at Suvla, Scimitar Hill, Gallipoli 1915–16, Egypt 1915–17, Gaza, El Mughar, Nebi Samwil, Jerusalem, Jaffa, Tell 'Asur, Megiddo, Sharon, Palestine 1917–18, Aden, Shaiba, Kut al Amara 1915 '17, Tigris 1916, Baghdad, Sharqat, Mesopotamia 1915–18, Persia 1918–19, Archangel 1919, Siberia 1918-19
The Second World War: Dunkirk 1940, Normandy Landing, Tilly sur Seulles, Caen, Hill 112, Mont Pincon, Jurques, St. Pierre La Vielle, Nederrijn, Roer, Rhineland, Goch, Rhine, North-West Europe 1940 '44-45, Tebourba Gap, Sidi Nsir, Hunt's Gap, Montagne Farm, Fondouk, Pichon, El Kourzia, Ber Rabal, North Africa 1940–43, Landing in Sicily, Regalbuto, Sicily 1943, Landing at Porto S. Venere, Salerno, Salerno Hills, Battipaglia, Cava di Tirreni, Volturno Crossing, Garigliano Crossing, Damiano, Monte Ornito, Cerasola, Cassino II, Massa Vertecchi, Trasimene Line, Advance to Florence, Gothic Line, Monte Gridolfo, Montegaudio, Coriano, Montilgallo, Capture of Forli, Cosina Canal Crossing, Lamone Crossing, Pideura, Rimini Line, Montescudo, Frisoni, Italy 1943–45, Athens, Greece 1944–45, Malta 1941-42
Recipients of the Victoria Cross
2nd Lieutenant George Raymond Dallas Moor, 2nd Battalion, Hampshire Regiment, Great War
2nd Lieutenant Dennis George Wyldbore Hewitt, 14th (Service) Battalion, Hampshire Regiment, Great War
2nd Lieutenant Montague Shadworth Seymour Moore, 15th (Service) Battalion, Hampshire Regiment, Great War
Major Wallace Le Patourel, 2nd Battalion, Hampshire Regiment, Second World War
Captain Richard Wakeford, 2/4th Battalion, Hampshire Regiment, Second World War
Lieutenant Gerard Ross Norton, 1/4th Battalion, Hampshire Regiment, Second World War
Regimental Colonels
Regimental Colonels were:
The Hampshire Regiment - (1881)
1881–1888 (1st Bn): Gen. Sir Edmund Haythorne, KCB
1881–1883 (2nd Bn): Lt-Gen. William Mark Wood
1883–1888 (2nd Bn): Gen. Sir Henry Errington Longden, KCB, CSI
1888–1893: Gen. Thomas Edmond Knox, CB
1893–1908: Lt-Gen. Sir John Wellesley Thomas, KCB
1908–1924: Maj-Gen. Sir Charles Knowles, KCB
1924–1945: Gen. Sir Richard Haking, GBE, KCB, KCMG
1945–1948: Gen. Sir George Jeffreys, 1st Baron Jeffreys, KCB, KCVO, CMG, JP
The Royal Hampshire Regiment - (1946)
1948–1954: Brig. Philip Herbert Cadoux-Hudson, MC, DL
1954–1964: Brig. Gerald Dominick Browne, CBE, DL
1964–1971: Maj-Gen. Richard Hutchinson Batten, CB, CBE, DSO, DL
1971–1981: Brig. David John Warren, DSO, OBE, MC, DL
1981–1987: Gen. Sir David Fraser, GCB, OBE, DL
1987–1992: Brig. Robert Long, CBE, MC, DL
Alliances
– The Wellington West Coast Regiment (1925-1948)
– The Wellington West Coast and Taranaki Regiment (1948-1992)
Notes and references
Sources
J.B.M. Frederick, Lineage Book of British Land Forces 1660-1978, Volume I, 1984: Microform Academic Publishers, Wakefield, United Kingdom. .
External links
An account by Jack Durey of his service with 2nd Battalion Hampshire Regiment in France, his capture, time at Stalag XX-B and his escape, and journey home via Odessa
Contemporary account of Battle of Sidi Nsir and Hunt's Gap
History of regiment
Regiment Museum (Serles House)
Military units and formations in Hampshire
Military units and formations in Winchester
Military units and formations established in 1881
Regiments of the British Army in World War I
Regiments of the British Army in World War II
Military units and formations disestablished in 1992
1881 establishments in the United Kingdom
Princess of Wales's Royal Regiment
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erivan%20Khanate
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Erivan Khanate
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The Erivan Khanate (; ; ), also known as , was a khanate (i.e., province) that was established in Afsharid Iran in the 18th century. It covered an area of roughly 19,500 km2, and corresponded to most of present-day central Armenia, the Iğdır Province and the Kars Province's Kağızman district in present-day Turkey and the Sharur and Sadarak districts of the Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic of present-day Azerbaijan.
The provincial capital of Erivan was a center of the Iranian defenses in the Caucasus during the Russo-Iranian Wars of the 19th century. As a result of the Iranian defeat in the last Russo-Iranian War, it was occupied by Russian troops in 1827 and then ceded to the Russian Empire in 1828 in accordance with the Treaty of Turkmenchay. Immediately following this, the territories of the former Erivan Khanate and the neighboring Nakhchivan Khanate were merged to form the Armenian Oblast of the Russian Empire.
History
Administration
Under Iranian rule, the kings (shahs) appointed various governors to preside over their domains, thus creating an administrative center. These governors usually carried the title of "khan" or "beglarbeg", as well as the title of sardār (“chief”). Prior to the establishment of the khanate (i.e., province), the Iranians had used the Erivan Province (also known as ) to govern roughly the same area. Both the Safavid era province, as well as the administrative entity of the Zand and Qajar era, were alternatively known by the name of .
In the Qajar era, members of the royal Qajar dynasty were appointed as governors of the Erivan khanate, until the Russian occupation in 1828. The heads of the provincial government of the Erivan Khanate were thus directly related to the central ruling dynasty. Administratively, the khanate was divided into fifteen administrative districts called maḥals with Persian as its official language. The local bureaucracy was modeled on that of the central government, located in Tehran.
Together with the Nakchivan Khanate, the area made up part of Iranian Armenia (also known as Persian Armenia). The Erivan Khanate made up the bulk of Iranian Armenia. The remaining fringes of historic Armenia under Iranian rule were part of the Karabakh and Ganja Khanates as well as the Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti.
Events and cession to Russia
Nader Shah () organized the region into four khanates: Erivan, Nakhchivan (formerly a part of ), Karabakh, and Ganja. Nader's assassination in 1747 was followed by fifteen years of disorder in the region, which allowed some of the Turkic tribes in Iranian Armenia to reassert themselves. The Qajar tribe was strengthened in Erivan, Ganja, and Nakhichevan, while the Javanshir tribe took control of Karabakh. The Georgian king Heraclius II and the Javanshir khan of Karabakh Panah Ali allied to divide Iranian Armenia into their own protectorates. In 1749, a vassal of Azad Khan named Mohammad Khan attacked the Erivan Khanate and besieged Erivan while plundering the surrounding territory. The khan of Erivan appealed to Heraclius of Kakheti and his father King Teimuraz of Kartli, offering to become their tributary in exchange for their assistance. Heraclius and Teimuraz defeated Mohammad Khan and drove him out of the Erivan Khanate. After this, the khan of Erivan was obligated to pay a yearly tribute to the Georgian kings. The khan often tried to escape this obligation, and Heraclius campaigned against the Erivan Khanate several times to exact tribute.
In 1753–54, the Erivan Khanate suffered greatly from raiding by Lezgi tribesman from the North Caucasus. By 1762, Karim Khan Zand had succeeded in reuniting Iran and reestablishing Iranian suzerainty over the khans of the Caucasus. Karim Khan took hostages from the khans' families to ensure their loyalty, but he did not meddle in Caucasian affairs. In 1765 and 1769, Heraclius II invaded the Erivan Khanate in response to Hoseyn Ali Khan's attempts to terminate payment of tribute. Both times, bloodshed was avoided through the mediation of the Armenian Catholicos Simeon of Yerevan, and Heraclius accepted the restoration of the khanate's tributary status. Karim Khan's death in 1779 precipitated another power struggle in Iran, again leading to conflict between the rulers in the Caucasus. That year, Heraclius again invaded the Erivan Khanate, devastating the land and taking a large amount of booty and prisoners, although he was unable to capture Erivan Fortress.
Hoseyn Ali Khan died in 1783 and was succeeded by his son Gholam Ali, who was assassinated soon after; he was succeeded by his younger brother Mohammad Khan. Like some of the other khans of the Caucasus, Mohammad Khan sought to make contact with Russia in the aftermath of the Treaty of Georgievsk. In 1794–95, Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar campaigned to restore central authority in the region. He received the submission of the khanates and forcibly subjugated Georgia. He had Mohammad Khan arrested and appointed his own brother Ali Qoli Khan to the position, although Agha Mohammad Khan's successor Fath-Ali () reinstated Mohammad Khan after taking the throne. During the Qajar period, the city of Erivan was considered to be quite prosperous. After the Russians annexed Kartli-Kakheti and initiated the Russo-Persian War of 1804–1813, Erivan became, "once more", a center of the Iranian defenses in the Caucasus.
In 1804, Russian general Pavel Tsitsianov attacked Erivan, but a "superior" Iranian army, under the command of crown prince Abbas Mirza, repelled the attack. In 1807, the central Iranian government of King Fath-Ali Shah Qajar appointed Hossein Khan Sardar as the new governor (khan) of Erivan, and made him the commander-in-chief (hence, sardar) of the Iranian forces to the north of the river Aras. Hossein Khan Sardar was one of the most important individuals in the government of then incumbent king Fath-Ali Shah Qajar. A capable administrator, his long tenure as governor is considered to be an era of prosperity, during which he made the khanate a model province. His local bureaucracy, modeled on that of the central government in Tehran, was efficient, and restored the confidence of the local Armenians in the Iranian rule.
In 1808, the Russians, now led by general Ivan Gudovich, attacked the city once again; this attempt was repelled as well. By the Treaty of Gulistan (1813), which ended the 1804–1813 war, Iran lost most of its Caucasian territories; Erivan and Tabriz were now the main headquarters of the Iranian efforts to regain the territories lost to Russia.
About a decade later, in violation of the Treaty of Gulistan, the Russians invaded the Erivan Khanate. This sparked the final bout of hostilities between the two: the Russo-Persian War of 1826–1828. In the early stages of this war, the Iranians were successful in recovering many of the territories that were lost in 1813; however, the Russian offensive of 1827, in which the superior Russian artillery played a decisive role, resulted in the Iranians being defeated at Abbasabad, Sardarabad as well Erivan. Erivan was taken by the Russians on 2 October 1827. In February 1828, Iran was forced to sign the Treaty of Turkmenchay, which resulted in the cession of the khanate (as well as the other remaining territories to the north of the Aras River) to the Russians. After the fall of the Soviet Union, the Aras River became and remained the border between Iran and Armenia.
Provincial capital
Erivan city was reportedly "quite prosperous" in the Qajar era. It covered roughly one square mile, whereas its direct environs (including gardens) further extended some eighteen miles. The city itself had three mahals, more than 1,700 houses, 850 stores, almost ten mosques, seven churches, ten baths, seven caravanserais, five squares, as well as two bazars and two schools. During the governorship of Hossein Khan Sardar, Erivan's fortifications were reportedly the strongest in the entire country. Its enormous fortress, which was located on "high ground" and was surrounded by thick walls, as well as moats and cannons, helped to prevent the Russian advance for some time. Of the city's two most prominent mosques, one was built in 1687 in the Safavid period, whereas the largest mosque of the city, the Blue Mosque, was built in the 18th century after the establishment of the khanate, and is considered to be a prominent architectural remnant of the era. The palace of the khan was situated nearby one of the mosques.
During Hossein Khan Sardar's governorship, Erivan's population steadily rose. Just before the Russian conquest, its population was approaching 20,000 inhabitants. In contrast, in 1897, some seventy years after the establishment of Russian rule, and with the Armenian resettlements, Erivan only had approximately 14,000 inhabitants.
Demographics
Per article III of the Treaty of Turkmenchay, the Iranians had to give the tax records of the lost territories in the Caucasus to the Russians. However, these records only represented the families that lived in these territories, as well as tax quotas (būniche), and thus were not an "accurate count" of the number of people that lived in these provinces, including Iranian Armenia.
The Russians therefore immediately conducted a thorough statistical account of the population of the Erivan Khanate, now renamed to the "Armenian Oblast". Ivan Chopin headed the survey team which gathered the administrative census () for the newly established Russian administration in Erivan. Based on the Persian administrative records of the Erivan Khanate as well as interviews, the is considered to be "the only accurate source for any statistical or ethnographical data" on the territories that comprised Iranian Armenia, on the situation before and immediately after the Russian conquest.
Muslims (Persian, Turkic groups and Kurds) formed an absolute majority in Iranian Armenia, comprising some 80% of the population, whereas Christian Armenians formed some 20% of the population. According to the , the settled and semi-settled Muslim population numbered more than 74,000. However, there are flaws regarding this number, as it does not account for the settled and semi-settled Muslims that left immediately after the Iranian defeat. For example, basically the entire Persian ruling elite and the military officer apparatus, "most of whom resided in the administrative centers", migrated to mainland Iran after the defeat. Furthermore, a number of the Turkic and Persian soldiers had perished in the 1826–1828 war, which lead to the Russian conquest of the Erivan and Nakchivan Khanates. According to estimations, some 20,000 Muslims had left Iranian Armenia or were killed during the 1826–1828 war. According to professor of history George Bournoutian, it can therefore be taken for granted that the combined Persian and Turkic (settled and semi-settled) population of Iranian Armenia amounted some 93,000, instead of 74,000.
The total Muslim population of Iranian Armenia (incl. semi-settled, nomadic, and settled), prior to the Russian invasion and conquest, amounted "roughly over" 117,000. Some 35,000 of these, were thus not present (i.e. emigration, killed during the war) after the Russians decisively arrived.
After the Russian administration took hold of Iranian Armenia, the ethnic make-up shifted, and thus for the first time in more than four centuries, ethnic Armenians started to form a majority once again in one part of historic Armenia. Some 35,000 Muslims of over 100,000 emigrated from the region, while some 57,000 Armenians from Iran and Turkey (see also; Russo-Turkish War of 1828–1829) arrived after 1828. Due to these new significant demographic shifts, in 1832, the number of Armenians had matched that of the Muslims. Anyhow, it would be only after the Crimean War and the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878, which brought another influx of Turkish Armenians, that ethnic Armenians once again established a solid majority in Eastern Armenia. Nevertheless, the city of Erivan remained having a Muslim majority up to the twentieth century. According to the Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary, published in the final few decades of the Russian Empire, Russians made up 2 %, Armenians 48 % and Aderbeijani Tatars 49 % of the population of Erivan in the 1890s. According to the traveler H. F. B. Lynch, the city of Erivan was about 50% Armenian and 50% Muslim in the early 1890s. H. F. B. Lynch thought that some among the Muslims were Persians when he visited the city within the same decade. Whereas according to modern historians George Bournoutian and Robert H. Hewsen, Lynch thought many were Persian.
Persians
The Persians were the elite in the region, and were part of the settled population. The term "Persians" in this specific matter refers to the ruling hierarchy of the khanate, and does not necessarily denote the ethnic composition of the group. There were thus ethnic "Persians" and "Turks" among the ruling "Persian" elite of the khanate. This ruling elite were primarily the members of the governors' household, his close associates, the officer corps, the members of the local Persian bureaucracy, and some of the prosperous merchants. The Persian ruling elite was a minority among the Muslims in the khanate. During the 1826–1828 war, which lead to the Russian conquest, a number of the Persian ruling elite was killed; the remaining number, basically migrated "in toto" to Iran proper after the Russians decisively gained control of the province.
Turkics
The Turkics were the largest group in the khanate, but they were composed of three branches; settled, semi-settled, and nomadic. Similar to the Persian ruling elite, a number of them had perished in the 1826–1828 war against the Russians. The principal settled Turkic groups in the khanate were the Bayat, Kangarlu, Ayrumlu, Ak Koyunlu, Qara Qoyunlu, Qajars, as well as the "Turkified Qazzaqs" (i.e., Karapapakh). A large number of the Turkic groups, numbering some 35,000, were some sort of nomads. Alike the Kurds, some of the Turkic groups had specific areas where they moved to for summer and winter. The Turkic nomads were important to the local Persian governors for their animal husbandry, handicrafts and horses which they provided for the cavalry. The settled Turkics made up a large percentage of the workers in the agricultural sector. Together with the Kurds, the nomadic Turkic groups used about half the territory of the khanate for their pastoral way of life. There was rivalry between the leading Turkic groups. Due to the nomadic nature of many of the Turkic groups, they were located in many of the districts. They were abundantly presented in the central and northern parts of the khanate, where they "controlled the marginal grazing lands". There was a traditional sense of hostility between the Turkic nomads and the Kurds. The Karapapakh and the Ayrumlu were the largest Turkic nomad groups; most of them were resettled in Azerbaijan (historic Azerbaijan, also known as Iranian Azerbaijan) with the help of Abbas Mirza, after 1828.
Kurds
Regarding the Kurds, the lists more than 10,000 inhabitants (of various tribes), and notes that some 15,000 had migrated after the Russian annexation. The total Kurdish population (pre-war) would therefore amount over 25,000 individuals. The Kurds were nomadic by tradition, similar to a large number of the Turkic groups. Together with the nomadic Turkic groups, the Kurds used about half the territory of the khanate for their pastoral way of life. The Kurds were primarily of three religious affiliations; Sunni, Shia, and Yezidi. There was a traditional sense of hostility between the Kurds and the Turkic nomads.
Armenians
Christians Armenians formed a minority in the khanate, comprising some 20 percent of the population, and formed no majority in any of the mahals (districts). The utter vast majority of the Armenians, some 80% of their total number, were located in the districts (mahals) of Kirk-Bulagh, Karbi-Basar, Surmalu, and Sardarabad. As with other minorities in Western Asia, they lived close to their "religious and administrative centers". There were also Armenians in the provincial capital of Erivan. There were reportedly no Armenians in the Sharur and Sa'dlu districts and only "very few" in Garni-Basar, Gökcha, Aparan, Talin, Sayyidli-Akhsakhli, and Vedi-Basar.
Many events had led to the demise of the Armenian population from the region. Until the mid-fourteenth century, Armenians had constituted a majority in Eastern Armenia. At the close of the fourteenth century, after Timur's campaigns, Islam had become the dominant faith, and Armenians became a minority in Eastern Armenia.
Shah Abbas I's deportation of much of the population from the Armenian Highlands in 1605 was one later event, when as many as 250,000 Armenians were removed from the region. To repopulate the frontier region of his realm, Shah Abbas II (1642–1666) permitted the Turkic Kangarlu tribe to return. Under Nader Shah (r. 1736-1747), when the Armenians suffered excessive taxation and other penalties, many emigrated, particularly to India.
Even though both Muslims and Armenians practiced various professions, it was the Armenians who dominated the trade and professions in the khanate. Thus, they were of major economic significance to the Iranian administration. Although the Armenians sympathised with the Christian Russians, they were indifferent to them as a whole; immediate concerns, both rural and urban Armenians, was limited to socio-economic "well-being". As long as the living conditions in the khanate were considered to be appropriate, the majority of Armenians felt no urge to take any actions. An example of this can be seen in 1808; when the Russians launched another siege in that year, in a 2nd attempt to take the city from the Iranians, the Armenians displayed "general neutrality".
Partial Armenian autonomy
Armenians in the territory of the Khanate lived under the immediate jurisdiction of the melik of Erivan, from the House of the Melik-Aghamalyan family, who had the sole right to govern them with the authorization of the shah. The inception of the melikdom of Erivan appears only after the end of the last Ottoman–Safavid War in 1639 and seems to have been a part of an overall administrative reorganization in Iranian Armenia after a long period of wars and invasions. The first known member of the family is a certain Melik Gilan but the first certain holder of the title of "melik of Erivan" was Melik Aghamal and it may be from him that the house had taken its surname. One of his successors, Melik-Hakob-Jan, attended the coronation of Nader Shah in the Mughan plain in 1736.
Under the melik of Erivan were a number of other meliks in the khanate, with each maḥall inhabited by Armenians having its own local melik. The meliks of Erivan themselves, especially the last, Melik Sahak II, were among the most important, influential and respected individuals in the khanate and both Christians and Muslims alike sought their advice, protection and intercession. Second in importance only to the khan himself, they alone among the Armenians of Erivan were allowed to wear the dress of an Iranian of rank. The melik of Erivan had full administrative, legislative and judicial authority over Armenians up to the sentence of the death penalty, which only the khan was allowed to impose. The melik exercised a military function as well, because he or his appointee commanded the Armenian infantry contingents in the khan's army. All the other meliks and village headmen () of the khanate were subordinate to the melik of Erivan and all the Armenian villages of the khanate were required to pay him an annual tax.
List of Khans
1747–48 Mehdi-Khan Qasemlu
1748–50 Hasan Ali-khan
1750–80 Hoseyn Ali Khan
1752–55 Khalil Khan
1755–62 Hasan Ali Khan Qajar
1762–83 Hoseyn Ali Khan
1783–84 Gholam Ali (son of Hasan Ali)
1784–1805 Mohammad Khan Qajar
1805–06 Mehdi Qoli Khan Qajar
1806–07 Ahmad Khan Moqaddam
1807–28 Hossein Qoli Khan Qajar
In Azerbaijani historiography
From the mid-2000s, the concept of a "Western Azerbaijan", originally a colloquialism used by some Azerbaijani refugees to refer to the Armenian SSR of the Soviet Union, was merged into renewed interest of the Khanates of the Caucasus, in, what the historian and political scientist Laurence Broers explains as "wide-ranging fetishisation" of the Erivan Khanate as a "historically Azerbaijani entity".
Azerbaijani historiography regards the Erivan Khanate as an "Azerbaijani state" which was populated by autochthonous Azerbaijani Turks, and its soil is sacralised, as Broers adds, "as the burial ground of semi-mythological figures from the Turkic pantheon". In the process of employing historical negationism, it has undergone the same type of transformation within Azerbaijani historiography like the historic entity of Caucasian Albania before it. Within Azerbaijani historiography, the terms "Azerbaijani Turk" and "Muslim" are used interchangeably when dealing with the Erivan Khanate, even though contemporary demographic surveys differentiate "Muslims" into Persians, Shia and Sunni Kurds and Turkic tribes.
Broers regards this phenomenon in Azerbaijan as being part of a "Wide Azerbaijanism", a geopolitical confection emerging "at the meeting point of two previously subdued geographies made relevant by both sovereignty and the Armenian-Azerbaijan conflict" over Nagorno-Karabakh.
According to Broers, catalogues of "lost Azerbaijani heritage" portray an array of "Turkic palimpsest beneath almost every monument and religious site in Armenia – whether Christian or Muslim". Additionally, from around 2007, standard maps of Azerbaijan started to show Turkic toponyms printed in red underneath the Armenian ones on the major part of Armenia which it shows. In terms of rhetoric, as Broers narrates, the Azerbaijani palimpsest beneath Armenia "reaches into the future as a prospective territorial claim". The Armenian capital of Yerevan is particularly focused by this narrative; the Erivan Fortress and Sardar Palace, which had been demolished by the Soviets during their building of the city, have become "widely disseminated symbols of lost Azerbaijani heritage recalling the fetishised contours of a severed body part".
See also
Mirza Kadym Irevani
Sardar Iravani
Treaty of Turkmenchay
Iranian Armenia (1502–1828)
Islam in Armenia
Islam in Azerbaijan
Notes
References
Sources
History of Iğdır Province
History of Kars Province
History of Yerevan
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Last%20of%20the%20Summer%20Wine%20characters
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List of Last of the Summer Wine characters
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The following is a list of characters in the BBC sitcom Last of the Summer Wine and its prequel series, First of the Summer Wine. The main series focused primarily on a trio of old men and their interaction with other characters in the town. Due to the longevity of the series it was often necessary to replace key characters due to an actor's death, illness, or unavailability for other reasons. Many characters were first seen in "one-off" appearances and were popular enough or felt to have enough potential for them to be brought back as regulars, in some instances replacing previous members of the cast. Some characters also featured in the prequel series as well as several shorts.
Summer Wine trio
Norman Clegg
(Peter Sallis; 1973–2010)
William "Compo" Simmonite
(Bill Owen; 1973–2000)
Cyril Blamire
(Michael Bates; 1973–1975) The first "third man", and the most childishly argumentative and snobbish, Blamire was the contrast to Compo. Blamire was fired up by displays of youthful enthusiasm, energetic gusto, or any sign of the British spirit. He served as a corporal in the British Army in the Royal Signals regiment during "The Great Fight for Freedom" as a "supply wallah" (a storeman) in India and retains his military bearing. Michael Bates was born in India and actually served as a Major with the Gurkhas in India.
He was a Tory and a self-important know-it-all with upper-class aspirations, who often dissociated himself from the other two, especially Compo, as he considered himself superior to them. Because of his sophisticated interests and insistence on table manners, Compo liked to refer to him as a "poof" (in turn, Cyril would often use insults such as "grotty little herbert" to Compo). Cyril would often reprimand Compo whenever he addressed him by his given name, as he preferred the "more rounded tone of Mr. Blamire" and would say that Compo had to touch his "tatty cap" whenever he did so.
Out of all of the third men, Blamire tolerated Compo's antics the least (though sometimes when he got caught up in them he would join in, such as backchatting Miss Probert on one occasion) and treated him the worst, such as occasionally telling Compo he should kill himself by "read[ing] the tailgate of a reversing lorry". In spite of this, Compo and Blamire were close, as shown by Compo's misery in the episodes immediately after he left. Despite his snobby nature, Blamire had more commonsense than most of his successors. Bates left the cast in 1975 due to cancer and concentrated on his role in It Ain't Half Hot Mum. Blamire was written out of the series; it was said that he had left the moment he heard that an old flame had recently been widowed. The last we hear of him is a very organised letter, instructing Clegg and Compo to meet their old classmate, Foggy Dewhurst. After Foggy's first episode, Cyril is never mentioned again. Cyril Blamire is one of the few characters established in this series (along with Sid) who does not appear in First of the Summer Wine.
Walter C. "Foggy" Dewhurst
(Brian Wilde; 1976–1985, 1990–1997, Colin Harris; 1997) Walter C. "Foggy" Dewhurst was the second ‘Third Man’, a former soldier who liked to boast of his military exploits in Burma during the Second World War. In fact, he had been a signwriter; and unlike Blamire, many of his old military stories were untrue.
Although he considered himself very regimental and heroic, when confronted Foggy was generally meek and incompetent, even a coward. Like the previous third man – and all subsequent third men – he considered himself the leader of the trio, and frequently took charge of Compo and Clegg. Foggy was infamous for trying to figure out a solution to the trio's everyday problems, only to make them much worse. In earlier years, Foggy wore a scarf with regimental colours on it. When Wilde left the series in 1985 to star in his own sitcom and to pursue other TV work, it was explained that Foggy had moved to Bridlington to take over his family's egg-painting business.
Returning in 1990 after the sudden departure of Michael Aldridge, he claimed he had tired of egg painting, and wanted to return to his old life. A regular skit from this period included Foggy crossing paths with a stranger and then rambling about his supposed military career, typically boring each stranger to death. At other times he would try to recreate scenarios from his military days, which also confused and bored passing strangers. He would often explain that he was a trained killer, which would inevitably lead to him getting into trouble and on the odd occasion being arrested. (Stupidly, he could never understand why people always found this explanation strange.) During his second stint, Foggy was shown to have mellowed somewhat and he did not argue with Compo as much as he had done previously. In 1997, when Wilde's illness stopped him taking part, he was written out of the series in the Special, "There Goes the Groom", in which the character was only seen in brief, non-face shots, played by a double (performed by regular art department crew member Colin Harris). This episode also introduced his successor, Truly. When episodes are repeated on Drama feature length episodes are omitted including this one meaning viewers new to the series may be confused by Foggy's sudden disappearance.
An unconscious, hung-over Foggy was swept off to Blackpool by the local postmistress. There he inadvertently proposed to her in a verbal slip-up over the wedding rings of which he had taken charge "for safe keeping" (out of the dubious care of Best Man, Barry). But he must have at least liked her, as he was never heard from again after that. Foggy's real first name was revealed to be Walter (with the middle initial "C"); "Foggy" is a nickname, derived from the traditional song "The Foggy Foggy Dew"; perhaps also because, in his earlier episodes, he would occasionally "blank out" everything around him to help him concentrate, particularly when he was thinking up new ideas or finding solutions to problems. This is particularly noticeable in the episode "The Man from Oswestry". In one of his earlier episodes, his name is hinted to be Oliver when Clegg finds one of his old army trunks with the initials 'COD' (because he was a corporal in the army). Due to his dislike of Compo's attire and nature, he was often seen making insults of disgust to Clegg and often addressed Compo as "him" or "that man".
In First of the Summer Wine episode "Not Thee Missus", the young Foggy is called Graham by his mother. In this series, he is played by Richard Lumsden.
Seymour Utterthwaite
(Michael Aldridge; 1986–1990) The third ‘third man’. A snobbish inventor and ex-school headmaster, Edie's and Ros's brother Seymour always felt it was his duty to educate the masses, and in particular, Compo and Clegg, to whom he was reintroduced by his brother-in-law, Wesley Pegden (who often called him a pillock), shortly before the wedding of Wesley's daughter. Seymour went to school with Clegg and Compo but lost touch when he went to grammar school. (In Series 10, episode 5, "Downhill Racer", Nora Batty undermines Edie's bragging about Seymour's intellect by pointing out that their grandmother was on the Education Committee.) Whereas Cyril and Foggy tried to solve the problems of the residents of Holmfirth, when Seymour was around he always liked to invent, but the resulting inventions invariably led to disaster – especially for Compo, who was always the reluctant test subject and called him a twit whenever anything went disastrously wrong. Despite this, he was well-liked by the other two and was more willing to play along with their childish antics than his predecessors. He did have occasional bouts of bravery: in series 9, episode 6 ("The Ice-Cream Man Cometh") he contradicted Pearl, Ivy and Nora Batty in one sitting for which Clegg, Compo and a random passer-by heartily congratulated him.
Seymour usually blamed the failure of his inventions on divine punishment for his once having had an affair with a barmaid. Seymour's house, outside the town, was modified into a laboratory, filled with new devices and contraptions that seldom, if ever, worked properly. His sister Edie always spoke very highly of him and how he was 'educated', refusing to take into account his continual failed inventions (though she would secretly be embarrassed by his involvement in the antics of the other two). Because Seymour's inventions were always built poorly he would normally get Wesley to fix them (or he would just get Wesley to build them in the first place, much to the latter's annoyance). Seymour had previously been the headmaster of a school, although it is not entirely clear how successful he was in running it. When Compo and Clegg were in his home Seymour would often put on his old headmaster's gown and treat the two of them like schoolchildren when trying to explain a new invention. He sometimes appeared to take an unhealthy delight in corporal punishment, and was appalled to hear that it has been prohibited.
While Aldridge played Seymour actor Paul McLain played the younger version of the same character in the prequel series ’‘First of the Summer Wine’’. When Aldridge left the series in 1990 for personal reasons, Seymour was last seen leaving on a bus to take up a new job as interim headmaster at a private school—just as previous third man Foggy returned.
There were allegedly plans for Seymour to make a comeback, but Michael Aldridge died in 1994. The character was never alluded to again. However a photo of Seymour can be seen on Glenda’s fireplace in the late 90s, but it disappeared by the early 00s.
Herbert "Truly" Truelove
(Frank Thornton; 1997–2010) The fourth ‘third man’, Herbert Truelove known was a retired policeman. He was initially played with a pompous self-importance in all things criminal. However, this aspect of the character was fairly quickly softened, and Truly became more relaxed and fun-loving, and can be more of an equal match at the local pub than his predecessors as third man. He can also be a bit more devious with practical jokes or witty schemes. Likewise, he can be equally sly in getting people out of a scrape or just helping out a friend. He is divorced, and makes disparaging comments about "the former Mrs Truelove" (who evidently feels the same way about him, judging by the reaction of her new husband, who appears in one episode, to Truly). The former Mrs Truelove is an unseen character.
Because of his previous job in the police, he refers to himself as "Truly of the Yard". (He was also once misheard and thought to have said he was "Trudy of the Yard".) As he is less snobbish and pompous, like his predecessors (sometimes taking out his police notebook in unnecessary situations), he gradually became more likeable and made fewer snide remarks over Compo's attire. He also appeared to be more respected than his predecessors by the other regular characters such as Wesley and Howard, as well as the local ladies. In the two final series, he is demoted to a secondary character along with Norman Clegg, so his role as third man was filled by Hobbo.
Billy Hardcastle
(Keith Clifford; 1999–2006) Billy Hardcastle was first introduced (as a guest star) in the 20th series in 1999. He also appeared in the 2000 New Year's special and made one more appearance in the 21st series before becoming a regular character in the 22nd series due to popularity.
Billy believes he is a direct descendant of Robin Hood. His first appearance on the show showed him attempting to recruit a band of Merry Men to go with him while he robs from the rich to give to the poor. At the end of the 21st series, Billy moves next door to Truly and is teamed as the third member of the trio. When Billy joined with Clegg and Truly, much of the humour Compo previously brought to the series returned in Billy's childlike demeanour, although an element of physical humour was still lacking in the series. On his first appearance, Nora was shown to be attracted to him dressed in his Robin Hood costume, which made Compo extremely jealous and decided to dress up as Robin Hood himself. Much of his dialogue bemoaned the domestic presence of "the wife" or "the wife's sister" (two other characters who are never seen, only referred to). Billy was last seen at the end of the 27th series following the departure of Keith Clifford from the show and the character was never alluded to again.
Alvin Smedley
(Brian Murphy; 2003–2010) Alvin Smedley was introduced in the 24th series (aired in 2003) as Nora Batty's new next door neighbour following the death of Compo. When Tom's former acquaintance, Mrs Avery, gave up the lease she owned on Compo's old house, Alvin purchases it. Although he publicly claimed to hate Nora Batty, he felt it is his duty to try to bring some joy to her life, often in the form of practical jokes similar to those Compo once played on her. In the 26th series (aired in 2005), he joined the main trio thus making them a quartet (largely to compensate for Clegg's decreasing role) but, following the 27th series (aired in 2006) and Billy Hardcastle's departure, the quartet once again became a trio although, in the 28th & 29th series (aired in 2007 and 2008), he was mostly teamed up with Entwistle. His arrival to the main trio brought a sense physical humour that had been missing since Compo's death. Despite his childlike personality, he was shown to be more level-headed than his predecessors. In the final two series, he and Entwistle teamed up with Hobbo, thus making a new trio.
Electrical Entwistle
(Burt Kwouk; 2002–2010) Electrician and fortune-teller from the land of eastern wisdom, Hull. His original surname was McIntyre, but he changed it so that people wouldn't mistake him for a Scotsman. When Wesley died, Entwistle took over his job of shuttling the others across the countryside, in a battered red Toyota Hilux pick-up truck, and occasionally constructing the various contraptions the main trio produce. He also seemed to be taking over a character version of Auntie Wainwright, although he mainly sold second-hand washing machines.
Following the departure of Billy Hardcastle in series 27, Entwistle was often paired with Alvin, with many stories revolving around their dealings with Howard or Barry. During this period his role increased and he often hung around with the main trio (sometimes to compensate for Clegg's decreasing role). In the final two series 30 and 31, Entwistle became the second man (officially taking over from Clegg) in a new trio when Hobbo arrived and recruited Alvin and Entwistle to form a band of volunteers to respond to emergencies in the village.
Hobbo Hobdyke
(Russ Abbot; 2008–2010) Luther "Hobbo" Hobdyke is a former milkman with ties to MI5. He was first introduced in the 2008 New Years special, to set up his role in the 30th series. He is Clegg's new next door neighbour. Upon first arriving in the village, Hobbo recruits Alvin and Entwistle to form a small band of volunteers who will react to any emergency that arises in the village, thus forming a new trio (with Hobbo taking Truly's role in the trio). Hobbo is incredibly cautious, and always on the lookout for enemy attack. He fondly remembers his time spent with MI5, when he used to leap from aeroplanes ("Holding crates of milk?" asks Entwistle) and dive for cover from enemy fire. The idea of Hobbo being a spy may be an allusion to the character "Basildon Bond" who Abbot played in his 1980s television series. Throughout his time on the show Hobbo is convinced that Nelly is his mother and he frequently bothers her (or uses other people) for attention, much to her annoyance. Clegg and Truly recall that Hobbo was never much of a milkman but was exemplary at needlework. He was also one of the last two new characters to be introduced to the series with Nora Batty’s sister Stella both first appearing in the same episode.
Other regular characters
Nora Batty
(Kathy Staff; 1973–2001, 2003–2008)
Sid
(John Comer; 1973–1983, Tony Melody; 1983) Bluff café owner, who featured prominently for the first ten years, before Comer's death in 1984. Ivy remembers him fondly, and often mentions him in conversation. Sid was one of the few characters who actually seemed to enjoy getting involved in the misadventures of the three central characters, and often saw them as an excuse to get out of the café for a few hours. However, occasionally he was shown to be extremely irritated by some of their schemes and antics (most notably in the episode "Getting on Sidney's wire" where he gets angry with Foggy for ruining his attempts to fit a new doorbell to the cafe and subsequently throws him out). Like Wally Batty he often welcomed Compo's affection for his wife. In one episode, he remarks that he "can't help admiring Compo's nerve".
Ivy and Sid often shouted and argued with each other, and Ivy was never shy about bringing up Sid's infidelity; but as with many of the show's couples, there was little doubt that they loved each other. Throughout his time in the series Sid and Wally were shown to be best friends and the two of them often joined each other in trying to sneak away from their wives to the pub or any other activity, often involving the main trio. Another long running gag during his time on the show were ongoing rumours of his supposed affair with a local unseen bus conductress. Ivy was aware of this and often accused him of being unfaithful. Although Sid once admitted to the trio he was friends with the conductress, he always flatly denied the rumours and despite the odd verbal hint very little evidence of this was ever seen onscreen.
For John Comer's last ever appearance, in the 1983 feature-length Christmas special, "Getting Sam Home", illness caused by cancer affected his speech, and so his lines were dubbed over by another actor, Tony Melody. Comer died two months later in February 1984. Sid's death was eventually referred to in the 1986 New Year's Day special "Uncle of the Bride". It was hinted after his death that Sid was a supporter of Manchester United.
After his death, Sid was often mentioned by Ivy usually during the ladies' coffee mornings. In the 2000 episode "Just a Small Funeral" as Ivy is getting ready for Compo's funeral, she finds a photo of Sid in her handbag. The cafe was later named Sid's Cafe.
Ivy
(Jane Freeman; 1973–2010) Joint owner of café with husband Sid, with whom she would often have blazing rows in the kitchen, until his death. She later ran it alone. Physically formidable, she viciously scolded anyone who dared misbehave or criticise the food by throwing them out the café or often hitting them on the head with a tray. Generally the wisest and most level-headed of the show's female social circle, she was also on occasion a target of Compo's unwanted affection, who often said that if it wasn't for Nora Batty, he'd be all over her. This regularly resulted in Compo along with the others (sometimes including Sid) being thrown out or being on the receiving end of her anger in other ways. In earlier episodes she was shown to tolerate the main trio more when they visited the café. In widowhood she became stricter with them, although after Compo's death she became more amused by their antics. Ivy is the only character other than Clegg (Peter Sallis) to have been present throughout the course of the series, although Clegg is the only one to have appeared in every episode.
In some of the episodes, particularly earlier ones, she seemed to have a rivalry with Nora. Ivy would often criticize Nora's taste in hats, and Nora once said Ivy's pastry wasn't light enough (which succeeded in bringing Ivy to the verge of tears). It is unknown if she took Sid’s surname when she married as his surname was never revealed, but Ivy’s surname was said to be Bolton in First of the Summer Wine. In that prequel series the character is played by Sarah Dangerfield.
Wally Batty
(Joe Gladwin; 1975–1987) Nora's perennially shell-shocked husband and Compo's next-door neighbour, Wally Batty was a short and quiet man, kept on a short leash by his wife. His relationship with Nora stood in stark contrast to Compo's unrequited lust after her; in fact, he often welcomed the prospect of Compo running off with her. Initially mentioned but not seen, he was generally seen doing chores or stealing a quick moment away from Nora at the pub. Despite being dominated by his wife, Wally had an acerbic wit and was often quick to reply with a sharp-tongued comment when Nora told him off, though this often caused more trouble for him. Wally had a passion for racing pigeons and owned a motorbike and sidecar, occasionally taking Nora for a spin around the countryside.
When Joe Gladwin died in 1987, Wally died off-screen, but he was still occasionally mentioned. Gladwin last appeared in series 9. He died just days before the broadcast of his final appearance.
In the Comedy Playhouse pilot, the character (still unseen) was referred to as Harold. The character was played by Gary Whitaker in the prequel series First of the Summer Wine.
Wesley Pegden
(Gordon Wharmby; 1982, 1984–2002) Edie's husband, who spent all his time in his workshop.
In one of the most popular and often reused scenes in the series, Edie would call Wesley in from his garage and lay down a trail of newspaper for him to stand on, often also slipping sheets onto chairs and walls he was inclined to sit or lean against. Wesley generally kept out of Edie's way in his garage, restoring old motors.
Mechanic Wesley was often called upon by the main trio to construct the many bizarre creations they came up with, and to drive them into the hills for test runs. One recurring theme is the occasional explosion caused by projects in Wesley's shed accompanied by billows of white smoke. On some occasions, Wesley's hat is also smouldering and smoking. In his early years in the series, Wesley seemed to have a love of loud rock music, which led to the trio desperately trying to call over it to get his attention on a number of occasions. Though he was clearly a very skilled builder and mechanic, much of his projects were poorly and hastily built and he would get easily embarrassed and annoyed by anyone managing to fix something he can't (notably, Compo once managed to rewire Edie's car correctly, much to Wesley's annoyance). Unlike Edie, Wesley did not speak highly of Seymour (Wesley calling him a pillock) and was often annoyed by Seymour's requests to construct the latter's ridiculous inventions as well as Seymour's pompous school headmaster nature. His attitude towards Foggy was similar to that of Seymour but during later years when Truly was introduced on the show he was shown to be more willing to help the trio out in their schemes. Sometimes Wesley would be extremely secretive about his inventions (largely down to his fear of other people copying them) but they were often exposed by the main trio or Edie and would go to extreme lengths to hide what he was building (on one occasion he kept a guard dog in his shed that chased Barry away).
The character first appeared in the 1982 episode "Car and Garter" in a cameo role. The writer and producers liked him so much they brought him back for "The Loxley Lozenge" and again in "Who's Looking After The Cafe Then?". He reappeared in the 1985 feature-length Christmas special "Uncle of the Bride", in which he was established as Edie's husband, at which point both became regulars from this special thereafter.
When Gordon Wharmby died in 2002, the character is said to have also died. Although he was not formally written out, subsequent references to him were in the past tense. His character was last referenced by Glenda in the final series when she claimed "my mother’s idea of naked was my father with his cap off". He appears in archive footage in the episode "It's Never Ten Years" (Series 29, Episode 10) marking 10 years since Compo died although isn't credited.
PC Cooper
(Ken Kitson; 1983, 1988–2010, 2014) Kitson first appeared in the 1983 Christmas special "Getting Sam Home" and made two further guest appearances before becoming a semi-regular character from series 12 onwards. In series 29 he was finally given the name PC Cooper. Cooper tends to be the bigger-headed of the two, but he has many ingenious ways of dealing with petty crimes with minimal disruption to his relaxation. In his first episode he is shown to be a friend of Sid's (which was the latter's last appearance on the show before his death).
Kitson returned to the role of PC Cooper in a set of shorts, written by Roy Clarke, two of which were released exclusively online. These shorts served as pilots to a potential spin-off that never came to be. The two released shorts are titled "Under Fire" and "Guardians of the Law".
"Crusher" Milburn
(Jonathan Linsley; 1984–1987) Sid and Ivy's giant, lumbering and very strong nephew, who looked like a younger version of his own late uncle.
The character was first introduced in 1984, following the death of John Comer (who played Sid in the series). Crusher helped his widowed auntie Ivy out in the cafe for 3½ years. His real name was Milburn, but he insisted on being called "Crusher". He was influenced by the Rock and Rollers of the 1950s and was into heavy metal music. Well-meaning but not overly bright, he was rather easily led. Crusher was first seen in the touring stage show around 1984 before being introduced into the 8th series. In the 1988 Christmas Special "Crums" he was shown to have a girlfriend (though Crusher himself did not appear in this episode as Jonathan Linsley had left the show by then) named Fran (played by Yvette Fielding) who, according to Ivy, was as daft as he is. In his early episodes, he seemed to have a crush on Marina much to Ivy's displeasure. This stemmed from the fact that Ivy told him to find "some poor lass that's had a hard time".
However Crusher did not return in the tenth series, as Jonathan Linsley left the show to work on other TV projects. Most of the character's humour came from the contrast between his menacing size and his total harmlessness. Following his departure in early 1988 (after the 1987 Christmas special), Ivy ran the cafe alone (with occasional help from Nora Batty).
Howard Sibshaw
(Robert Fyfe; 1985–2010) Howard is the shy, beady-eyed, constantly conniving, simpering, henpecked husband of Pearl. Doubtless owing to his wife's domineering nature, Howard often tries to escape from her. Most episodes involve Howard dating peroxide blonde Marina, behind his wife's back. In most episodes, Marina would simper, "Oh Howard", followed by Howard's "Oh Marina" - sometimes the order was reversed. He is a creative but unconvincing liar.
He and Pearl live next door to Clegg, and, much to the annoyance of the latter, Howard is always pestering him for aid in his various schemes to escape Pearl and be with Marina. Over the years he has come up with countless disguises, cover stories and hideaways to allow him to see Marina, all of which have ultimately been doomed or exposed by Pearl. In their earlier appearances, they were frequently shown in disguise with Howard saying, "I think we've really cracked it this time". However, he tends to ignore Marina when he's out with her, partly out of fear of his wife Pearl, and partly because he gets so deeply caught up in fabricating charades to cover up his affair. As a result, their relationship does not appear to have gone beyond hand-holding and gazing into each other's eyes (much to the annoyance of Marina), and the occasional kiss in a field, haystack, or mobile hut somewhere, and it is hinted that if Howard ever did get the chance, he would be too cowardly to go through with it anyway. It has also been suggested that Howard loves Pearl underneath it all.
In later series Howard was shown to be out of the house more regularly (despite Pearl knowing about his attempted affair with Marina) and eventually became more involved in the schemes of the main trio. Howard first appeared in the Bournemouth summer season show of the series, and was popular enough and felt to have enough potential that he was soon brought into the series in 1985. At first, he, Pearl and Marina were used semi-regularly, but as time passed and their popularity grew, they would appear in every episode (particularly after Wally Batty died). Howard and Pearl's surname was given as Sibshaw in Roy Clarke's novel The Moonbather in 1987, but only mentioned once in the entire TV series, in one of the last episodes, when Glenda refers to Howard as Mr. Sibshaw.
Pearl Sibshaw
(Juliette Kaplan; 1985–2010) Howard's wife, a bit of a shrew and always one step ahead of his crafty schemes, she is often shown to know about his (attempted) affair with Marina, but is almost gleefully obsessed with exposing Howard's philandering and generally tormenting him. Although she has a fearsome reputation, she, like Nora, occasionally surprises Norman Clegg and others (not including Howard) with displays of kindness, especially after Compo died. She also showed shock when, after seeing Howard in the appropriate uniform, believed he had joined the French foreign legion and outright fainted in a Christmas Special when Compo casually remarked that Howard was in Wesley's hearse.
When she was first introduced on the show, Pearl was somewhat naive, especially towards Howard's affair with Marina. When introduced to the ladies' tea group, Nora, Ivy, and Edie integrated her into the group and, over time, her demeanour has hardened. Her accent also changed during the series.
Marina
(Jean Fergusson; 1985–2010) Howard's busty love interest Marina works in the local supermarket. Despite her carefree appearance, Marina is a long-suffering type, having to deal with the disapproval of the prominent village women, the indirect wrath of Pearl, and timorous and neglectful romancing by Howard. She is often thought of as a "tart", and not without reason. She seems to have a soft spot for Clegg (often referring to him as "Norman Clegg that was" implying that they have a past), and occasionally briefly leaves Howard for other men. In the episode "A Double For Howard", she is also content for Eli to kiss her when he impersonates Howard. Marina works as a check-out girl at the local Co-op (although in her initial scenes in the series, the store's name was seen as Lodges). Lodges store was closed by the Co-op in 1997 and the former store is now home to a number of other retailers ; Howard often sneaks there to pass or receive notes from her (or more often sends Norman Clegg in his place; leading on several occasions for Marina to believe mistakenly that Clegg is interested in her romantically). In "A Sidecar Named Desire" Clegg reveals that he was once trapped in a lift with Marina and she cuddled him for warmth, much to Howard's ire and jealousy. Though she perceived it to be a romantic incident, it left Clegg terrified of her. Clegg always strongly denies any romantic interest in her. Marina first appeared in the spin-off 1984 Eastbourne summer season show, and soon became a regular character.
Edie Pegden
(Dame Thora Hird; 1986–2003) Edith Pegden, Edie to her friends, was a highly opinionated older woman, sister of Seymour Utterthwaite (who called her Edith) and Wesley's wife, she was the house-proud hostess of the women's coffee mornings. She was introduced, along with Seymour, daughter Glenda and son-in-law Barry in the 1986 New Years Day special episode "Uncle of the Bride" (husband Wesley had been introduced in 1982, four years before).
The ladies' coffee mornings, where they would sit and discuss life (particularly the shortcomings of men), became a popular staple of the show from the 1990s onwards; they were usually held in Edie's front room. Wesley restored a red convertible Triumph Herald for her to drive, although she was a terrible driver, and was always accusing Wesley of moving things (particularly the gear lever) around. The other ladies (including Glenda) often accompanied her on the roads and as a result of Edie's poor driving, they would be fearing for their lives. Another running gag was Edie making a big performance of locking the front door, repeatedly pushing it to check that it was locked properly, a trait that Glenda, her daughter, appears to have inherited in some episodes. When her brother Seymour was around Edie would speak very highly of him and his inventions (refusing to count his numerous failed ones) despite the other ladies thinking he is just as daft as the rest of the trio (although when Seymour's antics became extreme she would secretly be annoyed and embarrassed).
In later years Hird, who was still in the series at the age of 90, suffered poor health, which affected her ability to stand. To cover this, she was often seen sitting down, or, when standing, had something to hold on to (often out of camera shot). For driving and distance shots, her double, Amy Shaw, was used.
When Thora Hird died in 2003, Edie was also said to have died. As with her husband Wesley previously, it was not immediately made obvious, but later references to the character indicated that she had died. In the final three series, a framed photo of Edie can be seen on Barry and Glenda's mantelpiece.
In one episode Barry talks about ghosts and Glenda asks if he had seen her mother. Barry's response in the negative includes immense gladness, in that she scared him enough alive.
For the first few series in which she appeared, Edie was extremely concerned with her reputation in the neighbourhood: whenever there was company, Edie would try to put on a posh, educated voice—which would suddenly vanish when she was shouting for (or at) Wesley. Edie's character was a prototype for Hyacinth Bucket in Keeping Up Appearances (also written by Roy Clarke). In the episode "Who's That Bloke With Nora Batty Then?" Edie says the line "Pegden residence, the lady of the house speaking" in order to seem of a higher class. This would later be used by Clarke word-perfect for Hyacinth's catchphrase "Bucket residence, the lady of the house speaking". Once the latter series was created, this aspect of Edie's personality was toned down a bit (although not completely) in order to differentiate the two characters.
Glenda Wilkinson
(Sarah Thomas; 1986–2010) daughter of Edie and Wesley. The other women in the group consider that she is somewhat naive, even when she reaches middle-age; when her mother was alive, if she attempted to join in a mature conversation, Edie would snap "Drink your coffee!" She speaks glowingly of her husband Barry, but is often insecure and unsatisfied with him at home, often because of the pressure of her mother and other ladies in the group. She often comes to the defence of men when other women in the group speak the worst about them and does not believe that all men are evil, as they do. Likewise she is generally shown to be kinder to the main trio than the other ladies (particularly when her uncle Seymour was with them and notably in the episode "The McDonaghs of Jamieson Street" she lends Billy a skirt after his trousers are mauled by a vicious dog). She appears, like her husband, to have a very meek demeanour, but under duress she has proven to be quite a force to be reckoned with. In the very last episode of the programme, Glenda clearly seems to have joined the bossy Yorkshire women's brigade in her suggestions to Barry and Morton that are, in Barry's words "not optional". Although the rest of the ladies (particularly Pearl) disliked the flirtatious Marina, Glenda was seen to strike up friendship with her on a number of occasions (although this role was generally taken by Miss Davenport in the later series).
Barry Wilkinson
(Mike Grady; 1986–1990, 1996–2010) meek and mild husband of Glenda. Dull and ineffectual, building society employee Barry strives for executive advancement and adventure but seems destined for paperwork and domesticity. His one pride is his shiny new car, which he was always trying to keep away from father-in-law Wesley, who could not resist tinkering under the bonnet (although in one episode, he did completely dismantle the engine).
Barry is often trying out new hobbies in an attempt to stop his life being humdrum; and in more recent years, has made a number of attempts to fit in at a local golf club, often upsetting the golf captain "the Major". Though he clearly loved his wife he was afraid to kiss her in public, out of fear of being judged by the neighbours. He was also afraid of his mother in law Edie, largely because she (along with the other ladies) would often judge Barry or accuse him of being guilty. In later series Barry became more regularly involved in the schemes of the main trio and in series 28–29 was often involved in schemes with Alvin, Entwistle and Howard. After being introduced in the feature-length "Uncle of the Bride" in 1986, which centres around Barry and Glenda's wedding, Barry was much-mentioned but not seen for around six years when Mike Grady originally left to pursue several other television projects, before returning as a regular from 1996 thereafter. He is one of the few characters to have left the series but returned in later series.
Eli Duckett
(Danny O'Dea; 1987–2002) An extremely long-sighted bumbler, Eli maintained a highly cheerful, friendly attitude despite not having a clue what was going on around him. He generally made only brief cameo appearances, walking into a scene and commenting on his long-sighted misinterpretation of the action, and then walking off again. He was occasionally seen on a bicycle.
On occasion, his long-sightedness caused him to walk into slapstick (and carefully choreographed) mishaps such as walking into the back of a lorry and over the tops of cars, or falling into a skip. For much of his time in the series, Eli also had a Jack Russell dog (which once disappeared, leading Eli to mistake a sheep for the dog). Despite his long-sightedness, Eli is eternally cheerful and optimistic, and glad to see anyone who stops to talk to him. In one episode, a passing comment by Compo seemed to suggest that Eli was a sniper during the Second World War.
In the 1995 New Year Special episode featuring Sir Norman Wisdom, "The Man Who Nearly Knew Pavarotti", Eli is the conductor of the Holme Silver Band. Originally brought in as a friend of Wally Batty, the character was so popular that Eli remained on the show after the death of actor Joe Gladwin. Eli and Wally appeared together in the series 9 episode, "Jaws", in 1987.
Eli never appeared again following the departure from production of the series, and eventual death of O'Dea, though the character was not explicitly killed off. He was replaced in one episode by two drunks (who were also in earlier episodes of the series, sometimes credited as Villagers), but appeared in only a few episodes. When Eli left the policeman’s role was extended and they served as a replacement to the Eli gags.
In the 1988 episode "The Pig Man Cometh" of All Creatures Great and Small O'Dea played the character Rupe who, like Eli, had defective vision, clearly alluding to his role in Last of the Summer Wine. In the 1992 Noel’s House Party short "Japanese Hand Grenade" is character is alluded to by Clegg, Compo and Edmonds himself.
Second Policeman
(Tony Capstick; 1987, 1990–2004) Capstick made his first appearance in the 1987 special "Big Day at Dream Acres", before becoming a semi-regular alongside Kitson from series 12 in 1990, up to his death in late 2003. His last appearance was the episode "Yours Truly – If You're Not Careful". Capstick's character was spacey and less intelligent even than the often-oblivious Cooper. In a 2005 episode, his character was said to have transferred to Huddersfield.
Clem "Smiler" Hemingway
(Stephen Lewis; 1988, 1990–2007) Eternally miserable and none-too-bright comic foil, Clem "Smiler" Hemingway was similar to Lewis' previous character Inspector Cyril "Blakey" Blake in LWT's hit comedy On The Buses (some episodes of which he co-wrote) from 1969 to 1973. Smiler was first seen as a one-off character in 1988's "That Certain Smile", in which the trio had to sneak a hospitalised Smiler's beloved dog Bess in to see him. During his first appearance he was almost entirely referred to by everyone else as his real name "Clem". The character was popular enough to be brought back on a semi-regular basis, and was a regular throughout the 1990s and most of the 2000s (although his dog died between his first and second appearances). In some early appearances, he was a lollipop man, but for much of his time on the show worked for Auntie Wainwright, with whom he seems to be suffering some sort of indentured servitude. In early appearances, Smiler was also a lodger with Nora Batty, which enraged the jealous Compo. Smiler once described that working for Nora Batty was like being in the Army again, and always on Jankers. He also described it akin to jail at Stalag 14. Smiler also owned a big, but rather beaten up and poorly maintained, white convertible 1972 Chevrolet Impala, in which he sometimes drove around with Tom, and which on occasion has been used in various promotions for Auntie Wainwright. The trio would often cross paths with Smiler and use him for whatever scheme or activity they were doing (largely because of his tall height and gormless nature). Smiler was last seen in the series 28 episode "Sinclair and the Wormley Witches". Lewis left the show at the end of series 28 because of ill health. He was last mentioned in the series 29 episode "Of Passion and Pizza" by Tom's saying that Smiler had disappeared.
PC Walsh
(Louis Emerick; 1988–1989, 2004–2010, 2014) Emerick first appeared alongside Kitson in "Downhill Racer". He made one more appearance in the next series, in the episode "Three Men and a Mangle", and later reappeared in 2004 to partner Kitson after Tony Capstick's death. In series 29 he was finally given the name PC Walsh. Walsh is more level-headed than Cooper and enjoys "taking the mickey", but he tends to be a little more
naïve.
Emerick returned to the role of PC Walsh in a set of shorts, written by Roy Clarke, two of which were released exclusively online. These shorts served as pilots to a potential spin-off that never came to be. The two released shorts are titled "Under Fire" and "Guardians of the Law".
Auntie Wainwright
(Jean Alexander; 1988–1989, 1992–2010) Howard's aunt, a sly and grasping bric-a-brac shop owner. Whilst she and her nephew both have a general predisposition towards sneakiness, Auntie Wainwright is much more adept at applying it.
Clegg is reluctant to go into her shop, since she always sells him something he doesn't want, but she usually finds ways to trick him into entering. She is extremely mean, and pretends to be cheated when she gives the slightest discount. At Compo's funeral, she grabbed Eli by the arm and pretended to be blind in order to avoid giving money to a collection outside the church. Whenever customers entered the shop she would surprise them by talking through a loudspeaker, saying things like "Stay where you are!", "Don't touch anything or you will be electrocuted", (or things of that nature). Though she is largely based in her usual junk shop, she was occasionally shown to own (or she was the tenant of) other shops and even junkyards (which comes to the shock of the trio and other characters). She was also extremely security conscious (even pointing a shotgun at the trio on one occasion).
As with several other characters, she was originally seen in a "one-off" appearance in the 1988 Christmas Special "Crums". However she became so popular that she was brought back for a second appearance at Christmas 1989, eventually becoming a regular from 1992 thereafter.
She may have had a sister called Elsie – this is the name of Howard's mother. Her alias alternative business name was Uncle Henry so it is possible (with Uncle being the opposite of Auntie) that Henry is the opposite of Henrietta. Though this is unconfirmed.
Note: Auntie Wainwright has no relation to Mr Wainwright from the library.
Roz Utterthwaite
(Dora Bryan; 2000–2005) Edie's and Seymour's sister, who has always been more romantically adventurous, to Edie's unending shame. She often speaks of past flings, frequently with married men. She was often paired with Pearl Sibshaw. Ros was last seen at the end of the 26th series following the departure of Dora Bryan owing to ill health. Her role of being paired with Pearl was replaced by June Whitfield's character Nelly.
Before Ros actually appeared in the series, she had never been mentioned and it was not known that Edie and Seymour had a sister. In the credits her name is spelt both "Roz" and "Ros" on numerous occasions.
Tom Simmonite
(Tom Owen; 2000–2010) Compo's long-lost son, arriving just after his father’s death, Tom is played by Bill Owen’s real-life son. Tom is a layabout like Compo but seems a bit more enterprising in his attempts to maintain his slothful lifestyle. Originally it was planned that Tom would fill the gap in the three-man line-up left by his father, but it was soon felt that this line-up did not quite work. For most of his time in the series, he was paired with Smiler working for Auntie Wainwright, and also, in one episode, goes to live with Smiler (though it's not clear if this continued). Of the duo, he designates himself the 'leader' and the planner (often leaving Smiler to struggle with Auntie Wainwright's antiquated hand-cart while he strolls on ahead), although in truth, he is not particularly bright himself. After Smiler was written out of the series, Tom continued to work for Aunty Wainwright until the conclusion of the show's run. Clegg and Truly often take advantage of his desire to live up to his father's reputation in order to convince him to do rather stupid things. After the death of Compo, Nora feels somewhat maternal towards Tom, and often showers him with affection—much to the embarrassment of Tom. He also has a scruffy puppet dog called Waldo which he aspires to use in an unconvincing ventriloquist act. When not working for Auntie Wainwright, Tom can usually be found in his allotment shed, avoiding the repo man (he rarely, if ever used his allotment to grow vegetables). When he first arrived in the series, Tom also had a tatty old yellow Renault van, but this was seen in only a couple of his early appearances.
For some years before joining the series as Tom Simmonite, Tom Owen sometimes appeared in uncredited walk-on parts on the show. He was only credited as "bank customer" in the 1991 Christmas special "Situations Vacant".
Lolly Minerva Avery
(Julie T. Wallace; 2000–2001) Lolita "Lolly" Minerva Avery, known as Mrs. Avery to most, was Tom's live-in "associate"; much larger than him, and something of a battle-axe, yet rather easily manipulated. Although Tom always insisted that she was merely an acquaintance, Mrs Avery always wanted more, and was under the impression that Tom had promised to marry her. After a brief spell of living in the pair's bus, they moved into the deceased Compo's home, next-door to Nora Batty. During her stay at Compo's home, she began a rivalry with Nora, often copying each other (cleaning their windows or vacuuming their rugs). This was not to last; she threw Tom out and disappeared from the series after two years on the show.
In Roy Clarke’s other sitcom Still Open All Hours two references are made to an off-screen "Mrs. Avery".
Morton Beemish
(Christopher Beeny; 2001–2005, 2007–2010) Originally known as the "Repo Man" Herman Teesdale who is always pursuing Tom Simmonite, claiming that he owes money.
He is determined but gullible, and Tom always evades him. From 2005 on, he has not only been mentioned by name, but also calls on Barry for social visits, with Barry not being too thrilled at this newfound friendship. In certain episodes in 2005, it is clear that he still repossesses belongings, which Glenda suggests is the reason none of his friendships lasted: he kept repossessing his friends' goods.
The character returned in a 2007 episode of the show; and again in the 2008 New Year special, saying that he has retired from debt collecting and changed his name to Morton Beemish in order to start a new life for himself. He seeks out the friendship of his former nemesis, Tom (though Tom was still suspicious of him and would often hide from him when he saw sight of him).
In the final two seasons 30–31 the character practically lives next door to Barry and Glenda as a near-lodger with Toby Mulberry Smith, (aka The Captain).
A previous episode from 1989 featured a character called Jack Harry Teesdale but it is not established whether they're related.
Toby Mulberry Smith
(Trevor Bannister; 1992, 2001–2006, 2008–2010) The Captain of the local golf club where Barry is often trying to fit in as a member; but, despite his best efforts to impress him, Barry always manages to annoy or offend the Captain, either by becoming involved with some escapade with the main trio, or by some other social faux pas.
Trevor Bannister is best known for playing Mr Lucas in another comedy favourite, Are You Being Served?, with Frank Thornton (Truly) from 1972 to 1979, and also starred with Brian Wilde (Foggy) in the short-lived Wyatt's Watchdogs in 1988.
He had previously played a tailor in the 1992 episode "Who's Got Rhythm?" which could be the same character but is unconfirmed. The Captain returned for the 2008 New Years Special "I Was A Hitman For Primrose Dairies", where he received a name, Toby, for the first time. In series 30 he moves in next door to Barry and Glenda and shortly after gains Morton Beemish (aka Herman Teesdale), the former repo man, as a near-lodger, since he's always there doing tasks around the house. During this time his relationship with Barry appeared to improve and the two (along with Glenda) would often bond over their annoyance of Morton.
Lucinda Davenport
(Josephine Tewson, 2003–2010) After many years of the library setting seldom being used, Miss Davenport was introduced as the new librarian in 2003. A very emotional woman haunted by a string of past rejections, she first appeared as a guest, driving Gavin Hinchcliffe (Bernard Cribbins) around while he skied on the van roof. Originally, Glenda took up the cause of socializing her and tried to fit her in with the coffee-drinker circle of Nora, Ivy, Pearl, and co. They did not take too well to each other; in more recent episodes, she's bonded with Marina instead, with the pair of them both longing for love in their individual ways. In the episode: "In Which Howard Remembers Where He Left His Bicycle Pump", it is revealed that Miss Davenport's first name is "Lucinda".
Nelly
(Dame June Whitfield; 2001, 2005–2010) A more recent addition to the ladies' coffee-drinking set, and Pearl's comrade-in-arms. Nelly's never-seen husband Travis needs constant attention, which Nelly generally administers over her mobile phone. Nelly occasionally provides more "sophisticated" viewpoints as a result of having lived further south for some time, but even she regards them with some befuddlement. June Whitfield previously made a "one off" appearance in the series as a different character, Delphi Potts, in the 2001 Christmas Special, "Potts in Pole Position", married to Lother (played by Warren Mitchell) a couple of years before she became a regular as Nelly. In Series 30, she became the object of Hobbo's obsession when he became convinced that she was his long-lost mother, much to her annoyance. She was one of the only two regular characters (the other being Ivy) not to appear in the final episode. She reveals to Hobbo her full name used to be Nelly Bradshaw, before marrying Travis.
June's daughter Suzy Aitchison appeared in an episode of Are You Being Served? which starred Frank Thornton and from 1986-1989 in The Russ Abbot Show.
Stella
(Barbara Young; 2008–2010) Stella is Nora's sister, she first appeared in the 2008 New Years Special, "I Was A Hitman for Primrose Dairies" as a replacement for and to compensate for the absence of actress Kathy Staff, (who was unable to continue her role as Nora owing to ill health and subsequent death).
With Nora having departed for Australia, Stella moved in to house-sit for her sister, and had become a new member of the elder women's talking circle. She is a former pub landlady and appears to take a more free-spirited approach to life than Nora, as evidenced by her brighter wardrobe and hair. The storyline in her first episode saw her trying to give up smoking, and her yearning for a cigarette has continued unabated into subsequent episodes. Despite this she was equally annoyed as Nora by the pranks that Alvin played on her.
In the episode "Get Out of That, Then" Young wore a brown wig and played the part of Florrie, wife of Barry's cousin Lenny (Bobby Ball).
Supporting characters
The Library
In the early years of the show, the trio used to frequent the library and had a fractious relationship with the librarians.
Mr Wainwright (Blake Butler; 1973, 1976) was the rather timid head of the local library, which the trio visited a lot in the show's early days – Compo nicknamed him 'Old Shagnasty'. Mr Wainwright left at the same time as Mrs Partridge's departure (see below), but was "transferred back" to the area in the third series, featuring in two episodes where he was once again romancing his new assistant, Miss Moody. It is shown in Series 1 he, unlike Miss Probert, approves of the books with four-letter words. (Note: Mr Wainwright is not related to Auntie Wainwright.)
Mrs Partridge (Rosemary Martin; 1973) was another librarian at the same library who engaged in an affair with Mr Wainwright which they mistakenly believed was secret. The characters were never really felt to catch on, and disappeared as the library was written out as a favourite haunt of the main trio. However, a few years later, the storyline was resurrected and used for Howard and Marina. The library was also brought back for Foggy to get thrown out of all the time. She has a twelve-year-old son, who is seen in "Short Back and Palais Glide".
Miss Probert (June Watson; 1975) was one of the librarians who briefly replaced Wainwright and Partridge during the second series. Miss Probert is a radical "feminist", who is always railing against men to the more timid Miss Jones. Miss Probert has two missions in life; one is discouraging the lending out of books she considers "filthy"; the other is making a misandrist out of Miss Jones, in whom she seems to take a more than professional interest. Her disappearance from the series is unexplained, and it is presumed she went back to wherever she worked before.
Miss Jones (Janet Davies; 1975) was the other librarian who replaced Mr. Wainwright and Mrs. Partridge in the second series. Miss Jones is a quiet, timid female who is overshadowed by Miss Probert. She previously worked in a children's library, which she frequently says she wants to return to. She has a pair of pink fly-away glasses that are on a chain around her neck. She doesn't like working at the Holmfirth library, because of the four-letter words. She always does what Miss Probert asks her, always without question or protest. Like Miss Probert, her disappearance is unexplained, and it is believed she returned to the children's library. This is most likely due to the remark she made to Miss Probert about wanting to go back where "Puss in Boots means just that and not like that awful magazine".
Miss Moody (Kate Brown; 1976) joined Mr. Wainwright upon his return. She only appeared in two episodes, and it is shown she shares Mr. Wainwrights dreams about revolution. She is the first woman to suffer the sight of Compo's matchbox. Although middle-aged, she is attractive and she and Mr. Wainwright are believed to one of the original structures for Howard and Marina.
Holmfirth residents
Throughout the show guest characters have appeared more than once in the series making several appearances.
Eric (Derek Etchells; 1973, 1975) was the repo man who was seen going to Compo's house in both the pilot "Of Funerals and Fish" and the second series episode "Some Enchanted Evening".
Mabel (Kathleen St. John; 1976) made two appearances in the third series.
Norris Fairburn (David Williams; 1983, 1985, 1993, 1995, 2008) was the haberdasher making his first appearance in the 1983 episode "Getting Sam Home". In his first appearance he had an unseen wife, but by his final appearance she had left him. He was also seen running a shop in one of his 90s guest turns.
Eli Woods (Eli Woods; 1988, 1993, 1995, 2003, 2006) made five appearances as a drunk with James Casey. The character's name was originally unknown, but in his 2006 appearance he was credited with appearing as himself thus his real name is his character's name.
James Casey (James Casey; 1988, 1992–1993, 1995, 2003, 2006) made five appearances as a drunk with Eli Woods. The character’s name was originally unknown, but in his 2006 appearance he was credited with appearing as himself thus his real name is his characters name. He also appeared alone as a library attendant in the 1992 episode "Phantom of the Graveyard". In real life he was a cousin of Eli Woods.
Jack Harry Teasdale (Bert Parnaby; 1989–1990) made two appearances in the series as a person known to the trio. He is seen to be a shopkeeper in his second appearance.
Billy Ingleton (Sir Norman Wisdom; 1995–1996, 2001–2002, 2004) was originally intended to make one guest appearance in the show, and ended up as a recurring character, as did many others. He originally played the hapless Billy Ingleton in the 1995 New Year special "The Man Who Nearly Knew Pavarotti". He proved so popular that like Auntie Wainwright before him, he was asked to appear in the following year's special ("Extra! Extra!"). From then on, much-loved comedian Norman Wisdom occasionally pops up, sometimes for the storyline of an episode, at other times in smaller appearances. He is not always credited for smaller appearances.
Ethel (Maggie Ollerenshaw; 1979, 1997, 2008) is the argumentative wife of Lance. They both appeared in the episodes "The Love Mobile" and "All That Glitters is Not Elvis". Ollerenshaw played an unnamed woman in the 1979 episode "The Flag and Further Snags" and it's unknown if they are the same character. Maggie played Norman Clegg's mother Violet in First of the Summer Wine. Maggie played a recurring character in another sitcom written by Roy Clarke, Open All Hours, where she played Mavis. She reprised the role in the sequel Still Open All Hours.
Lance (Kenneth Cope; 1997, 2008) is the argumentative husband of Ethel. They both appeared in the episodes "The Love Mobile" and "All That Glitters is Not Elvis".
Lenny Joliffe (Bobby Ball; 2005–2006, 2008) was originally from the Pickle factory, but wanted to be known as "The Swan Man of Ilkley". He joined the quartet/trio on three occasions where they assisted his adventures. He is apparently a relation of Barry Wilkinson.
Cliff Joliffe (Tommy Cannon; 2005–2006, 2008) was a relation of Lenny. He made his first and second appearances briefly after being inconvenienced by the character of Lenny during boating. He is later revealed to be a relation of Lenny. Lenny and Cliff are both played by real-life comedy duo Cannon and Ball.
Aubrey (Colin Farrell; 2006) was the cousin of Norman Clegg. He appeared in two consecutive episodes living with Cleggy. He was bossy and forced Cleggy to live a certain way.
Compo's family
Throughout Compo's time on the show, there were numerous references to Compo's vast family and their (implied) criminal tendencies. Although several relatives appeared in the show, this does not come close to the number of relatives mentioned lightly in conversation. By the time Compo’s son Tom appeared in the series it is said all of Compo’s family have died.
Chip Simmonite (Tony Haygarth; 1973) is Compo's relative from the series 1 episode "Pate and Chips". Chip and his wife Connie with their children and dog, take the Yorkshire trio to a large country home for a 'bit of culture' in a cramped van for transport (much to Cyril's disgust). When they arrive at the country home Cyril points out that Chip hasn't renewed his Road Fund Licence since 1967.
Connie Simmonite (Margaret Nolan; 1973) is the wife of Chip Simmonite and was related to Compo through marriage.
Big Malcolm Simmonite (Paul Luty; 1976) is Compo's cousin, as revealed in "The Man From Oswestry", who appeared in just two 1976 episodes. Within hours of his arrival in "The Man from Oswestry", Foggy is unfortunate enough to let Big Malcolm overhear him in a pub, saying he will fight to the death anyone who mocks his regimental scarf. Foggy is taken outdoors by Big Malcolm and returns the worse for wear. Several episodes later, Malcolm is one of the family guests in "Going to Gordon's Wedding".
Gordon Simmonite (Philip Jackson; 1976) is Compo's gormless fishing-obsessed nephew, an oft-forgotten character. He appeared in three 1976 episodes, two of which he joined the trio on a Bank Holiday trip to Scarborough. He became friendly with a young woman named Josie whilst in Scarborough, and married her in a later episode. In some ways he was a prototype of Barry, who was introduced in the mid-1980s. When he is married, it is revealed he has a sister, Julie. In the same episode his mother states to him that he's "queer", much to his annoyance, as he reveals that he knows there's been some rumors to that effect.
Josie Simmonite (Liz Goulding; 1976) is Gordon's wife and another forgotten character. Josie met Gordon in the trio's Bank Holiday trip to Scarborough, and they go back to Gordon's room at the Guest House at which they are staying and start a game of chess. In a later episode, she and Gordon marry, but as the wedding turns more and more disastrous, she turns more and more into her rather foreboding and complaining mother, Madge (Joan Scott). It is unknown what became of her and Gordon after the wedding. While getting ready for her wedding, Josie's mother asks why she dumped "that nice boy from the building society" to which Josie said he was boring.
Eric Simmonite (Barry Hart; 1976) is Compo's relative. Eric's exact relationship to Compo is unknown, and he only appears in the episode "Going to Gordon's Wedding", in which he is shown to have feelings for Gordon's mother Dolly. He drinks a lot, and almost gets in a fight with Big Malcolm. Eric is also referred to, but not seen, in the first episode of the first series, "Short Back and Palais Glide". When the trio are in the police station whilst looking for Mr Wainwright, the desk sergeant asks Compo, "How's your Eric?". He is mentioned several times in the earlier series of the show.
Dolly Simmonite (Margaret Burton; 1976) is the mother of Gordon and his sister Julie. She is the object of Big Malcolm and Eric's affections, and hits both with her handbag when they attempt to drag her to two different seats at once. It is revealed her husband left her with Julie and Gordon a few years back. Like Gordon and Josie, it is unknown what happened to her after Gordon's wedding.
Reggie Unsworth (Liz Fraser; 2000) was Compo’s Thursday woman and occasional girlfriend. When he died Compo left his ferrets to her. When Cleggy and Truly went to meet her for the first time they assumed Reggie was a male friend until they saw her. She attended Compo’s funeral.
Babs Avery (Helen Turaya; 2000) was Mrs. Avery's niece who arrived with Tom, involved in a couple of schemes. The character was so unpopular that she was axed after just three episodes without explanation.
Mentioned characters
Throughout the series many characters feature regularly through only mentions and obscured appearances. These characters were usually relations of regular characters and are always crucial to jokes or stories of the existing characters.
Bill Simmonite was Compo's uncle, notably having the same birth name as Compo.
Edith Clegg was the deceased wife of Norman Clegg, mentioned numerous times in the series. Clegg visited her graveside in the pilot episode. It’s stated by Clegg that he wasn’t attracted to her and their marriage sort of happened. He explains it put him off women for life. In the first series Clegg described her as a "bitch".
Mabel Truelove is the ex-wife of Truly, often spoken of by him in unflattering ways. She was mentioned continuously as "the former Mrs. Truelove" throughout the series. In one episode a photo of her from the back can be seen.
Miriam Utterthwaite is the ex-wife of Seymour Utterthwaite who left him. Her final message to Seymour was "your oven is in the tea" as a reference to his failed inventions. She is mentioned on many occasions during Seymour’s time on the show.
Mrs. Cooper is the wife of PC Cooper. He often speaks of her in a negative way, but sometimes discusses ways to impress her.
Mrs. Entwistle is the wife of Electrical Entwistle, occasionally mentioned by him. In the 2006 Christmas special "A Tale of Two Sweaters" her and Electrical had a row so later on they could make up.
Mrs. Hardcastle and her sister were the misery causes in Billy's life. He often remarked about their horrible nature towards him. Apparently they share a bed and Billy gets the spare room. In one episode they can both be heard laughing and speaking.
Mrs. Simmonite was the wife of Compo. They were married for a matter of weeks, before she ran off with a, to quote, "chuffin' Pole" in 1947. By 1973 Compo didn't even know if she was still alive.
Mrs. Utterthwaite is the mother of Edie, Seymour and Roz who is mentioned occasionally. In the millennium special "Last Post and Pigeon" it is mentioned that Roz and her mother had a falling out for Roz going off with a married man.
Travis is Nelly's needy off-screen husband who is often housebound. During Nelly's first appearance Travis is outside Pearl's house being spoken to by Nelly, but is not heard or seen. He is mentioned continuously by his wife.
Prequel characters
From 1988 to 1989 two prequel series called First of the Summer Wine aired featuring many characters from the main series in their youth.
Sherbet (Paul Oldham; 1988–1989) was a friend of many trio members. His fate after the war is unknown as he was never alluded to in the main series. The character appeared in every prequel episode.
David Clegg (Peter Sallis; 1988–1989) was the father of Norman Clegg. He was played by Norman Clegg actor Peter Sallis meaning that Sallis appeared in every episode of the main show and the prequel.
Violet Clegg (Maggie Ollerenshaw; 1988–1989) was the mother of Norman Clegg. Ollerenshaw appeared in every prequel episode. She also played occasional character Ethel in the main series.
Mr Scrimshaw (Derek Benfield; 1988–1989) appeared in every episode of the prequel series.
Dilys (Joanne Heywood; 1988–1989) appeared in every episode of the prequel series.
Lena (Judy Flynn; 1988–1989) appeared in nine episodes of the prequel series.
Mrs. Dewhurst (Linda Beckett; 1988–1989) was the mother of Foggy Dewhurst. She appeared in three episodes of the prequel series.
Anita Pillsworth (Linda Davidson; 1989) appeared in four episodes of the prequel series.
Notes
References
Lists of sitcom television characters
Characters
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hulk%20%28video%20game%29
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Hulk (video game)
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Hulk is a 2003 action video game developed by Radical Entertainment and published by Universal Interactive for the PlayStation 2, Xbox, GameCube, and Microsoft Windows. The game primarily features beat 'em up gameplay showcasing the Marvel Comics superhero Hulk, and also includes stealth-based levels featuring the Hulk's human alter-ego Bruce Banner. While the game is a tie-in to the film of the same name (featuring the voice of Eric Bana reprising his role as Banner from the film), its narrative serves as a sequel, taking place years after the events of the film. The plot follows the Hulk and Banner, who must battle their arch-nemesis the Leader and stop him from unleashing an army of mutants upon the world.
Hulk received mixed reviews from critics; while reviewers praised the initial visceral satisfaction of using the Hulk's powers, intuitive controls, cel shaded visuals, interactive environments, sound design, and voice acting (particularly Bana's), they had mixed assessments of the range of fighting moves, music, and storyline, and criticized the repetitive gameplay, lack of enemy variety, simplistic stealth levels, and static camera. The game was commercially successful, selling over two million copies across all platforms. One of the Xbox version's levels was included as a playable demo on the film's DVD release, marking the first integration of a game demo onto a DVD. A stand-alone sequel, The Incredible Hulk: Ultimate Destruction, was released in 2005.
Gameplay
Hulk is a third-person action game in which the player alternatively controls the Hulk and his human alter-ego Bruce Banner; the majority of the game's levels are beat 'em up stages featuring the Hulk, while Banner's levels are based primarily on stealth. The game's narrative follows Banner and the Hulk as they pursue Banner's mentor Professor Crawford, who has betrayed him to assist the Hulk's arch-nemesis the Leader in a plot to unleash an army of gamma-powered mutants upon the world. Both characters have a health meter displayed on the top-left corner of the screen, which is decreased by enemy attacks; the meter's depletion results in the Hulk's defeat or Banner transforming into the Hulk, thus failing the current objective. Health can be restored by collecting green orbs, while collecting blue orbs allows the player to resume progress from a checkpoint rather than the beginning of the level if health is depleted.
In the Hulk's stages, the Hulk must combat numerous enemies as well as engage in environmental destruction to progress. He is capable of an array of punches, grapples, and throws, as well as special moves such as claps, stomps, and deflecting incoming missiles. A red "rage" meter is displayed below his health meter, and can be filled by collecting red orbs. The Hulk enters a "Rage Mode" when the rage meter is full, during which his attacks become more powerful and destructive. At the cost of the full rage meter, he can also execute two attacks that cover an exceptionally wide range. Numerous objects can be picked up by the Hulk and wielded as a weapon, while particularly large objects such as crates, cars, and tanks can be thrown to clear out groups of enemies from a distance.
Banner's stages revolve around sneaking through guarded facilities while evading cameras, searchlights, soldiers, and other forms of surveillance. He can crouch, dive, and clamber across ledges, as well as push and pull objects to reveal secret passages. Some doors within Banner's levels are attached to a security terminal, requiring him to engage in a hacking minigame in order to open the door and proceed. While Banner has a limited amount of combat techniques for engaging enemies, he can also fake surrender by freezing in place if he is detected by a guard, and can catch the guard by surprise after allowing him to approach.
Apart from the story mode, the game features five Challenge Modes, in which the Hulk must fulfill objectives such as surviving as long as possible against endless waves of enemies, defeating as many enemies as possible within an allotted time, or destroying as much as the environment as possible before the time runs out.
Plot
Bruce Banner is a genetic scientist who specializes in studying the effects of gamma radiation on damaged tissue. After continually struggling with fits of anxiety, embarrassment, and rage, a freak lab accident results in Banner transforming into a powerful beast known as the Hulk whenever he is agitated. Years later in San Francisco, Banner receives an offer of a cure from his old mentor Professor Geoffrey Crawford, who is suffering from a neurodegenerative disease that has left him unable to walk. Crawford has invented a device for siphoning and storing gamma energy named the Gamma Orb, and he guides Banner via earpiece to his laboratory in the midst of a military raid led by John Ryker, who desires the Orb. However, Crawford betrays Banner by capturing a fraction of the Hulk's power and using it to mutate himself into the Hulk-like creature Ravage, alleviating his frailness. Banner transforms into the Hulk and pursues Ravage through the city while fighting off Ryker's forces, but loses him in the sewer system. The Hulk is ambushed by the energy vampire Half-Life, who reveals that Ravage has taken the Orb to Alcatraz. Upon his defeat to the Hulk, Half-Life boasts that if the Hulk is detected in Alcatraz, a hostage will be killed.
Banner infiltrates Alcatraz, where the Leader is building an army of gamma-powered soldiers using Ravage's Orb. Banner deactivates the facility's gamma detection system, allowing him to transform without endangering the hostage, who he discovers is Betty Ross. The Hulk fights through Alcatraz and defeats the Leader's brother Madman, who had placed Ross in an irradiation chamber for her lack of cooperation in the Leader's plan. Ross instructs the Hulk to take her to the military's subterranean Gamma Base to treat her radiation exposure. The Hulk takes Ross to the base, but is incapacitated by a force field. Banner is injected with gamma-suppressing sedatives and strapped to an operating table, where Ryker plans on dissecting him. Ross frees Banner, who formulates an antidote while disguised as a soldier. The Hulk fights the military while trying to find and destroy the force field generator. He confronts and defeats a gamma-powered soldier named Flux, throwing him into the generator to destroy it.
The Hulk escapes and returns to Alcatraz. Navigating through the underground complex, the Hulk finally confronts Ravage, who guards a teleportation device used to transport the Leader's forces from his lair, "New Freehold". Ravage is defeated and returns to the form of Crawford, who expresses remorse for his desperation and treachery assisting the Leader's machinations. He informs Banner that the Gamma Orb is in the Leader's possession at New Freehold, and allows Banner to teleport there. Banner is ambushed by Half-Life and Madman, provoking the Hulk into fighting them. Madman abandons Half-Life in the middle of the fight, leaving him to his defeat. The Hulk confronts the Leader, who hands him the Gamma Orb and cures Banner of his condition. Banner, disallowing the Leader from abusing the Gamma Orb's power, reclaims its energy and becomes the Hulk once more. The Hulk defeats the Leader and destroys the Gamma Orb, bringing about New Freehold's collapse. The Leader escapes and leaves the Hulk to make his way to the teleportation device, only managing to escape after Madman delays him in a last-ditch effort to bury him under the collapsing lair. Crawford unsuccessfully tries to recreate the Gamma Orb, Ryker experiments on Flux, and Banner hitchhikes along a desert road.
Development and release
Universal Interactive signed a deal with Marvel Enterprises for the video game rights of the Marvel Comics character Hulk in January 2002. Radical Entertainment obtained the contract to develop a Hulk-based game by presenting a playable prototype within 2–3 weeks. On June 10, Universal Interactive revealed the development of a video game based on the upcoming Hulk film, with a release coinciding with that of the film in June 2003. While the Hulk's appearance would be modeled after the film version, the game would feature its own narrative, in a manner similar to Universal Interactive's previous adaptation of The Scorpion King.
Mark James served as the game's director, while Radical's Tim Bennison and Universal's Jeff Barnhart served as producers. Bennison noted that adapting the Hulk into a video game was challenging due both to expectations from fans of the character's several iterations and the need to balance the gameplay with the Hulk's immense power. The development team received an advance look at the film's script, visited the film's set multiple times, and were granted access to Industrial Light & Magic's digital models and concept art of the special effects. The original game design was created by Mike Skupa and finalized by Eric Holmes using Touchdown Entertainment's Copperhead Technology engine. Chris Cuhady, Martin Bae, and Bryan Gillingham respectively served as the lead programmer, art director, and lead animator. The script was written by Jeff Houde, and the voice-acting was directed by Michael Donovan, Terry Klassen, and Phillip Webster. Eric Bana reprises his role as Bruce Banner from the film, while the Leader is voiced by Michael Dobson. Graig Robertson directed the game's audio, composed and edited the music, and provided the Hulk's vocalizations. A cheat code that turns the Hulk into the Grey Hulk if it is entered into a door's security terminal is hidden within the film during the scene preceding Banner's first transformation into the Hulk. At peak production time, as many as 65 people at Radical worked on the game.
An official gameplay trailer produced by Absinthe Pictures was released on April 11, 2003. After 18 months in development, Hulk was shipped on May 27, and was released in North America the following day. The game was released in Europe on June 13, a few weeks before the film's United Kingdom premiere on July 18, and in Australia on June 26. In its debut month, the PlayStation 2 version was the fourth best-selling console game in North America and the second-highest rental in Blockbuster Video, as well as the fourth-highest rental in the following month. Across all platforms, the game sold 400,000 copies in its first month, and during its first five weeks, it was the second-highest selling and renting title behind Enter the Matrix. By April 2004, it sold over two million copies across all platforms. A playable demo of the Xbox version, consisting of a single level, was included in the film's DVD release on October 28, marking the first integration of a game demo onto a DVD. The Xbox version is backward compatible with the Xbox 360.
Reception
Hulk received "mixed or average" reviews according to aggregator Metacritic. Jeremy Dunham of IGN declared the game to be Radical Entertainment's best yet, and he and Scott Alan Marriott of AllGame considered it to be the best Hulk-based game, though Marriott felt the distinction was practically by default considering the weak competition. Reviewers largely enjoyed the initial visceral satisfaction of wielding the Hulk's power, but determined that the gameplay soon became repetitive. The lack of enemy variety and limited range of tactics required to defeat them were both attributed to the feeling of repetition. Ryan Davis of GameSpot, Tim Surette of GameZone, and Dunham only recommended renting the game as it did not take long for them to complete. The controls were appreciated as intuitive, though Chris Baker of Official U.S. PlayStation Magazine noted that hitting two buttons simultaneously for a special attack often leads to undesired results. Assessments of the amount of fighting moves were mixed, with some satisfied with the variety, and others finding it lacking. Ben Silverman of GameRevolution and Marriott were disappointed by the linear level design. Shawn Elliott of Electronic Gaming Monthly negatively compared the "infuriatingly cheap" boss battles to those in X2: Wolverine's Revenge, whereas Baker enjoyed them, particularly Half-Life. While Simon Limon of GamePro faulted the lack of a multiplayer battle mode, Nick Valentino of GameZone welcomed the Challenge mode as a fun means of increasing replay value.
The stealth levels, while acknowledged as an effort to provide gameplay variety and reduce monotony, were considered dull, tedious, and under-developed due to their simplistic mechanics and puzzles compared to Metal Gear and Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell. Kristan Reed of Eurogamer, however, found enjoyment in the hacking minigames. Critics also faulted inconsistencies in the enemy artificial intelligence and collision detection. Justin Leeper of Game Informer denounced the stealth levels as "some of the crappiest coding on a next-gen title", remarking that "When the Chicken Run video game has better stealth, you know you're in for a one-way trip to Headachesville, USA; population: you". Marriott suggested that both Banner and the Hulk should have been integrated into more expansive environments, and provided a concept in which levels could be completed with either character, with some routes or areas only accessible to a particular identity. The static camera in both the Hulk and Banner levels was criticized for its tendency to obscure enemy characters.
The cel shaded graphics and art style were widely praised for capturing the feel of comic books in a unique fashion. Silverman and Dunham compared the visuals to watercolor paintings, and Michael Knutson of GameZone remarked that the effect was "psychedelic". While Allen "Delsyn" Rausch of GameSpy regarded the graphics as falling short of exceptional, he still considered the stylistic choice to be a worthwhile effort. The style was not without its detractors; the D-Pad Destroyer of GamePro compared the overall aesthetic to claymation and found it distracting, and Surette felt that while the cel shading technique worked well for the Hulk and the mutant villains, it failed when applied to human characters such as Banner or Ryker. Valentino was impressed by the character design (singling out Banner's resemblance to Bana), and Andrew Reiner of Game Informer felt that the game's Hulk model was almost better than that of the film. However, Benjamin Turner of GameSpy and Silverman derisively described the Hulk as "a green-hued Down's sufferer" and "a beefed-up version of Jim Carrey in Dumb & Dumber" respectively. The environments were admired for their interactive textures and effects, which complimented the Hulk's destructive powers, though Simon Limon and Davis observed that the level designs become repetitive over the course of the game. The consistently fast frame rate was also commended, as were the cutscenes and their seamless transitions to the gameplay. Davis, comparing the three console versions, determined the Xbox version to have the best graphics, observed that the PlayStation 2 version "has a bit more aliasing and some occasionally blurry textures", and found that the GameCube version carried the same deficiencies but to a greater extent. He added that while the PC version's graphics were satisfactory on both high and mid-level machines, he noticed that the pronounced shading effect on the characters was missing when the game ran on mid-level PCs, which he felt somewhat detracted from the visual style.
Reactions to the music were mixed. While some determined it to be fitting and atmospheric, others found it to be average and unremarkable. Silverman and Steven Hopper of GameZone added that the music was muffled and repetitive, and Lisa Mason of Game Informer, comparing the game to other contemporary tie-in titles, remarked that it lacked the "pulsing soundtrack" of Enter the Matrix. Critics generally commended the sound design, particularly in the context of the Hulk's destruction of the environment, though others considered it to be merely adequate. While the D-Pad Destroyer and Valentino admired the Hulk's vocalizations, Davis was underwhelmed by his roars, and Rausch criticized the absence of his "Hulk smash!" catchphrase. The voice-acting was received positively, with Bana's performance being singled out for praise; Baker regarded his voice work as the sole redeeming quality of the stealth levels, and Turner described his delivery as "amusingly earnest", remarking that "Lines like 'I'm bleeding... I need a doctor!' and the oft-repeated 'I've got to move the pairs of symbols until I get a matching series' become pure magic when uttered by such a talented thespian". The enemy voice lines, however, were considered repetitive. Knutson and Valentino commended the use of the Dolby Digital feature. Davis reported sporadic audio bugs in the PC version such as "loud, horribly distorted" sound samples and voice lines being cut off mid-sentence, and decided that while they did not ruin the experience altogether, they did detract from it.
The storyline received varied responses. Dunham liked the aspect of the narrative being a sequel rather than a straight adaptation, explaining that it "helps keep the mystery of the film while still allowing us to feel a part of it", and suggested that more video game adaptations should adopt the approach. Hopper felt that the story was somewhat convoluted, but regarded it as a noble effort, and admired the number of characters adapted from the comic series. Baker, however, wished that the plot did more to introduce the comic-based antagonists to newcomers, pointing out that they were not as well known as the Joker, Lex Luthor, or Magneto. Davis and Surette dismissed the plot as uncompelling and disjointed, serving only as a means of transitioning between set pieces.
Sequel
In February 2004, Vivendi Universal Games confirmed the development of a sequel tentatively titled The Hulk 2, which would not be based on any theatrical production and was slated for a mid-2005 release. Radical Entertainment was influenced by feedback for the previous Hulk game to create an open world title more heavily focused on the Hulk, and collaborated with writer Paul Jenkins and artist Bryan Hitch to create a more authentic comic book experience. The Incredible Hulk: Ultimate Destruction was released in 2005 to positive reviews. According to Marvel executive Justin Lambros, the game's lack of connection to a major film resulted in smaller sales figures than its predecessor.
Notes
References
Citations
Sources
2003 video games
3D beat 'em ups
Alcatraz Island in fiction
GameCube games
Hulk (film)
PlayStation 2 games
Radical Entertainment games
Single-player video games
Stealth video games
Superhero video games
Universal Interactive games
Video game sequels
Video games based on adaptations
Video games based on films
Video games based on Hulk (comics)
Video games based on Marvel Comics films
Video games based on works by James Schamus
Video games based on works by Michael France
Video games developed in Canada
Video games scored by Graig Robertson
Video games set in San Francisco
Windows games
Xbox games
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand%20River%20land%20dispute
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Grand River land dispute
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The Grand River land dispute, also known as the Caledonia land dispute, is an ongoing dispute between the Six Nations of the Grand River and the Government of Canada. It is focused on land along the length of the Grand River in Ontario known as the Haldimand Tract, an tract that was granted to Indigenous allies of the British Crown in 1784 to make up for territorial losses suffered as a result of the American Revolutionary War and the Treaty of Paris (1783). The Six Nations were granted the land in perpetuity and allege that lands were improperly sold, leased or given away by various Canadian governments, leaving only 5 per cent of the original lands under Six Nations control. The Six Nations also allege that monies owed to the Six Nations from leases and loans on much of the tract have not been paid or were redirected into government coffers.
The dispute has been the subject of many formal negotiations under the land claims process since the 1970s and several instances of direct action in the form of protests, blockades, and occupations. Formal negotiations have broken down, and the dispute is before the courts. The Government of Canada's policy to extinguish aboriginal title as a condition of settlement is considered unacceptable by the Six Nations. The Six Nations are seeking monies owing and ongoing payments for leased lands and the return of lands improperly transferred.
The dispute came to wide attention in Canada in 2006 when the Six Nations formally reactivated litigation initially brought in 1995 against Canada and Ontario. Protesters from the Six Nations of the Grand River demonstrated on a parcel of land in Caledonia, a community within the municipality of Haldimand County, roughly 20 kilometres (12 miles) southwest of Hamilton. Soon after this demonstration, the demonstrators took control of the disputed land, the planned site of a subdivision known as "Douglas Creek Estates". The land, along with all of Caledonia, is part of the "Haldimand Tract". The Government of Ontario compensated the developer and stopped the development, holding the land for planned negotiations.
In February and March 2020, the dispute once again entered public consciousness with Mohawk protesters blockading Highway 6 as part of the 2020 Canadian pipeline and railway protests in solidarity with the Wetʼsuwetʼen, and later with the occupation of the site of another planned subdivision in Caledonia, "McKenzie Meadows". The protestors have called the area "1492 Land Back Lane". Calling themselves "land defenders", the protestors have refused to leave despite being ordered to by an Ontario court.
Background
18th century
May 22, 1784 – Frederick Haldimand purchases land along the Grand River from the Mississauga nation.
October 25, 1784 – In return for military support provided by member states of the Six Nations during the American Revolution, the British Crown provides these nations with territory to replace lands ceded south of the Great Lakes via the Haldimand Proclamation. A contingent of Haudenosaunee people led by Brant decides to settle at the Grand River. The nations' new, shared, territory extends from either side of the Grand River, from its source to its termination at Lake Erie.
1791 – Sir John Johnson, who had been placed in charge of managing the resettlement of the Haudenosaunee, notices an error regarding the northern boundary of the Haldimand Tract. He found that the headwaters of the Grand River did not fall within the land purchased from the Mississaugas in 1784. The Crown's surveyor Augustus Jones redefines the boundary of the Six Nations' parcel, establishing straight-lined boundaries, including Jones Baseline, which provided the northern boundary of the newly defined parcel, around the later location of Guelph.
December 1792 – The Crown purchases the remainder of the land included in the Haldimand Grant (i.e., up to the actual headwaters of the Grand River) from the Mississaugas, but does not transfer it to Six Nations.
January 14, 1793 – Lieutenant-Governor John Graves Simcoe confirms the grant with a limited deed, known as the Simcoe Patent, or the Crown Grant to the Six Nations or the Haldimand Tract, no. 4. The Simcoe Patent limits the Haldimand Tract to for the exclusive use of the Six Nations, leaving the rest of the land available to be leased, surrendered, or sold by the Haudenosaunee to the Crown. It does not address the issue of the territory around the headwaters. Brant and the other Six Nations chiefs reject the patent and claim that they are not bound by it.
1796 – The Six Nations grant chief Joseph Brant, the power of attorney to sell off some of the land and invest the proceeds to provide annuity for tribal members, who were struggling to survive in the new settlements. The Crown initially opposes the sales but eventually concedes.
c. 1794-6 – Joseph Brant begins selling land to private interests, having reached a deal with Peter Russell that allowed him to sell and lease the land so long as it was offered first to the Crown. Ultimately, he sells , an area comprising the northern half of the reserve, for £85,332. The interest on the annuity promises an income of £5,119 per year, far more than any other Iroquois people had received up until that point.
February 5, 1798 – The land sold by Brant to the Crown is parcelled off into six blocks and sold to private land speculators. These blocks later developed into towns as follows:
Block No. 1 – Township of Dumfries (later North Dumfries and South Dumfries Township, incorporated in 1819)
Block No. 2 – Waterloo Township (incorporated in 1816)
Block No. 3 – Pilkington Township in Wellington County, and Woolwich Township (incorporated in 1816)
Block No. 4 – Nichol Township in Wellington County (opened for settlement in 1822)
Block No. 5 – Moulton Township in Haldimand County
Block No. 6 – Canborough Township in Haldimand County
19th century
1801 – All of the land speculators have fallen behind in their payments due to being unable to sell farm-size lots to settlers fast enough to keep up.
1828 – Nearly two thirds of the Grand River territory has been sold, leased, or occupied by squatters.
1835 – The Crown approaches the Six Nations about developing the Port Dover-Hamilton Plank Road (now Highway 6) and the surrounding area. The Six Nations agree to lease half a mile of land on each side for the road but did not surrender the land. Lieutenant-Governor John Colborne agrees to the lease but later, his successor, Sir Francis Bond Head, does not.
1840 – The government recommends that a reserve of approximately be established on the south side of the Grand River and the rest sold or leased to the Crown in order to protect them from encroaching squatters.
January 18, 1841 – According to the Crown, the Six Nations council agrees to surrender for sale all the lands outside those set aside for a reserve, on the agreement that the government would sell the land and invest the money for them.
February 4, 1841 – The Six Nations petition against the surrender of land, saying the chiefs had been intimidated and deceived and they had agreed only to lease the land.
July 7, 1841 – There is another petition against the surrender.
1843 – A further petition to the Crown says the Six Nations need a reserve of and want to keep and lease a tier of lots on each side of Plank Road (Highway 6) and several other tracts of land within the territory laid out by the Haldimand Proclamation.
1843 – Plank Road is completed, which helps to "spur the growth of Caledonia but also the sale of Six Nations lands."
December 18, 1844 – A surrender is signed by 47 Six Nations chiefs that authorizes the sale of land to build Plank Road.
1845 – Starting this year, despite the protests of Six Nations citizens, the Crown sells Plank Road and surrounding lands to third parties.
May 15, 1848 – The land that would later be the site of the development of Douglas Creek Estates is sold to George Marlot Ryckman for 57 pounds and 10 shillings; a Crown deed of title is issued to him.
1850 – The Crown passes a proclamation setting the extent of reserve lands to about , which is agreed to by the Six Nations chiefs.
20th century
1924 – Under the Indian Act, the Government of Canada establishes an elected band government on the Six Nations reserve, known today as the Six Nations of the Grand River Elected Council. The establishment of a band council is characterised by some as a coup, not least of all due to the use of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police to ensure the transition of power at Six Nations.
1931 – The Statute of Westminster is put into effect; the parliament of the United Kingdom relinquishes the ability to legislate on behalf of Canada. All Canadian First Nations affairs are now fully within the jurisdiction of the Canadian Crown.
1974 – The Six Nations Land Claims Research Office (SNLCRO) is created by Six Nations to pursue the terms laid out in the Haldimand Proclamation.
1974–1995 – SNLCRO submits 29 separate land claims to the Specific Claims Branch of Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada.
1995 – After only one of the 29 submitted land claims is resolved, the Government of Canada closes the rest (including those already validated for negotiation), because they receive notice of pending litigation from Six Nations.
Canadian National Railway Settlement
In 1980, the Six Nations Council, along with SNLCRO, submitted a claim to Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada against Canadian National Railway's unauthorized use of reserve land for a stretch of rail that runs along the eastern end of the reserve (near the site of the later Douglas Creek Estates dispute). The First Nation eventually accepted a settlement in 1987 that consisted of $610,000 in the form of three parcels of land added to the reserve, which added approximately . The council also retained the right to purchase said railway lands if they were not used for railway purposes and were re-acquired by Canada.
Douglas Creek Estates (Kanonhstaton)
In 1992, Henco Industries Ltd. purchased of land for what it would later call the Douglas Creek Estates. The proposed subdivision was set to be located southeast of Caledonia, between Argyle Street South, 6th Line, the CN rail line, and the houses along Thistlemoor Drive. That land was part of an existing land claim submitted by the Six Nations Elected Council; the claim had been closed by 1995. In March of that year, the Six Nations sued the federal and provincial governments in the Ontario Superior Court of Justice over the developers' purchase of the land. The lawsuit is an accounting claim for "all assets which were not received but ought to have been received, managed or held by the Crown for the benefit of the Six Nations." The case was openly litigated until 2004, when it was paused for "exploratory" negotiated settlement talks with the federal government. These talks were never pursued, due to the Douglas Creek Estates conflict in 2006.
Regarding their right to purchase the land, Henco argued that the Six Nations had surrendered their rights to the land in 1841 and Henco had purchased it from the Government of Canada. The Six Nations, however, maintained that their title to the land was never relinquished, as their chiefs protested the 1841 surrender and sent a petition to the government arguing against the terms.
In July 2005, the subdivision plan for Douglas Creek Estates was registered, with title to the property guaranteed by the province of Ontario.
Starting in February 2006, community members from Six Nations occupied the site of the proposed development, which they named in Mohawk "Kanonhstaton" (, ). Direct action on the part of protesters over the years included blockade of roads and rail lines, damage to a power station resulting in an area blackout and more than $1 million in repairs, and low levels of violence from both sides, as well as isolated, more serious attacks. The federal government halted negotiations at times because of the protesters' actions.
As protests continued, on June 12, 2006, more than 400 area residents and businesses filed a class-action suit against the Government of Ontario for its "failure to protect them adequately". This was settled in July 2011, with the government paying to class members. By the end of 2011, several criminal cases related to assaults had been prosecuted.
During the continuing dispute, on June 16, 2006, the Government of Ontario announced it had bought the disputed tract from the developer and would hold it in trust until negotiations settled the claim. Talks began, including the Confederacy chiefs, but were put on hold in 2009 when litigation of the 1995 lawsuit was resumed. The trial is anticipated to start sometime in early 2024.
Dispute timeline (2005–2006)
2005
October
October 25 – Day-long shutdown of Douglas Creek Estates construction by Six Nations’ Land Claims Awareness Group, led by Dawn Smith and Janie Jamieson.
October 26 - Six Nations Elected Council Chief David General writes to Henco, expressing concerns about the development proceeding on disputed lands.
2006
February
February 28 – A group of community members from Six Nations erect tents, a tipi and a wooden building on the proposed development site.
March
March 3 – Henco Industries, the developer of the land, obtains an injunction from Justice Matheson, ordering the protesters off the land.
March 5 - The Sheriff tries to deliver Justice Matheson's order to the protesters late Sunday evening. They do not accept the injunction. One of the protesters, Dawn Smith, burns the order stating "I am an ally to you, not a subject."
March 9 – At Henco's request, motions judge Justice Marshall makes the March 3 court injunction permanent. He also adjourns Henco's contempt motion against the First Nations protesters to March 16.
March 17 – Justice Marshall makes a finding of civil contempt and orders the Sheriff to go to Douglas Creek Estates, read aloud the new contempt order, giving protesters until March 22 to leave the site.
March 22 – Protesters continue to occupy the site beyond court-ordered deadline.
March 28 – Justice Marshall issues new order of criminal contempt and warrant of arrest for protesters blockading Douglas Creek Estates.
April
April 4 – Several hundred people, including some who had bought homes in Douglas Creek Estates, gather in Caledonia to demand an end to the occupation.
April 19 – Ontario Premier Dalton McGuinty says the land dispute will be settled in a "peaceful manner".
April 20 – The Ontario Provincial Police (OPP) conduct a pre-dawn raid at 4:30 AM. 21 protesters are arrested over the course of the day, with 16 during the initial raid.
April 20 – Several hundred people from Six Nations, some of whom are masked and armed with bats, axes and hockey sticks, return to the site in the morning, and a further busload of supporters from other reserves arrive in the evening. The police retreat and the protesters reclaim the site and set up roadblocks along the access street. During the evening, the protesters put hundreds of tires across the highway, and light them on fire. In addition, they set fire to a wooden bridge over the nearby railway tracks. Firefighters are unable to extinguish both fires because the fire chief is concerned the OPP are not able to adequately protect his men. Several boxes of documents from the land developer's office inside a model home are taken, and some are tossed into a bonfire.
April 20 – In solidarity with the protesters at Kanonhstaton, a group of Mohawks raise a banner and Mohawk flags on a bridge near Montreal, blocking traffic for about a half hour.
April 21 – Several members of the Mohawks of the Bay of Quinte First Nation light bonfires by the CN rail line near Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory. CN freight trains are blocked, and Via Rail announces that its trains will be replaced by shuttle buses. In the afternoon, CN announces that it has obtained an injunction to clear blockage from its rail lines.
April 21 – Talks begin between the government of Canada, the government of Ontario, the Six Nations Elected Council, and the Haudenosaunee Confederacy Chiefs Council, seeking to resolve the dispute. This is the first time since the establishment of the elected council in 1924 that the federal government has negotiated with the Confederacy Chiefs.
April 22 – The parties sign an agreement to continue talking, with a view of settling the land claim. They agree to each appoint a representative within two weeks.
April 24 – About 3000 Caledonia residents hold a rally demanding an end to the occupation. Later in the evening, several hundred residents confront OPP and Six Nations occupiers at the blockade.
April 25 – Haldimand County Mayor Marie Trainer says in an interview with CBC Newsworld that the residents of the town are being hurt economically by the protest and "don't have money coming in automatically every month". The protesters take this as an insult, believing she implied they all received provincial welfare. Trainer denies this, but does not clarify what she did intend by the comment. The municipal council quickly distances itself from her comments, voting to replace her with deputy mayor Bob Patterson as their spokesperson on the issue.
April 28 – Caledonia residents once again gather to demand an end to the blockade.
April 30 – The provincial government appoints former premier David Peterson to help negotiate a settlement in the conflict.
May
May 16 – Protesters open one lane of Argyle St. after an accident closed McKenzie Rd., the main detour route into Caledonia from points south of Town. After the accident is cleared, protesters close Argyle St. again, though they agree to let emergency vehicles through.
May 19 – In a letter to the Haudenosaunee Confederacy Council of Chiefs, the Government of Ontario announces that there will be an indefinite moratorium on construction on the Douglas Creek Estates site.
May 19 – Several Caledonia residents establish a counter-blockade on Argyle St., to prevent the protesters from accessing the site.
May 22 – Early in the morning, native protesters removed their blockade on Argyle St. Traffic remained blocked by the Caledonia residents' counter-blockade.
May 22 – Around 2:00 PM, protesters re-establish a barricade across Argyle St., using an electrical transmission tower and two backhoes, which dig a trench across the road. The two sides face each other separated by dozens of OPP officers. Scuffles including fistfights and verbal assaults continued to break out throughout the day, resulting in injuries to natives, residents and police.
May 22 – A truck crashes through the gates of a hydro substation, setting it on fire and damaging two transformers. This causes a blackout throughout Haldimand and parts of Norfolk counties, as well as over $1 million in damages.
May 22 – Six Nations Confederacy Chief Allen McNaughton (Tekarihoken) says, "As the world has seen, our protest has been firm but peaceful. Our people are responding without weapons, using only their bodies to assert that we are a sovereign people with a long history and that we cannot be intimidated."
May 22 – A state of emergency is declared late in the evening due to the escalation of violence and the power-outage.
May 22 – In Saskatchewan, Cree protesters blockade the Yellowhead Highway near North Battleford in solidarity with the Six Nations protesters in Caledonia. Following negotiations with the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, the roadblock is removed after about two hours.
May 23 – At 1:30 PM, protesters offer to remove the barricade across Argyle St. as long as the counter-barricade is removed as well. By 3:20 PM the road is fully open to traffic.
May 24 – Power is restored to Caledonia during the morning hours.
May 27 – Power is restored to all areas affected by the blackout.
June
June 5 – Six Nations protesters and Caledonia residents clash on the town's main street after a police cruiser drives through an area protesters consider "restricted" the night before.
June 9 – Two elderly Simcoe residents driving by the occupation sight get into a verbal altercation with protesters. The couple are followed and surrounded in their car in a parking lot away from the occupation site. Protesters jump onto the vehicle attempting to get inside. According to residents, the police do not intervene. Another account from the residents recalls an OPP officer restraining a protester after attempting to grab the couples' steering wheel through the window. Following the altercation in the parking lot, more than 300 Caledonia residents gather at the Canadian Tire lot. Moving to a place near the construction site, some clash with OPP officers in full riot gear.
June 9 – Two CH News camera operators are surrounded by Six Nations protesters and assaulted when they refuse to hand over video tape containing footage of the protesters swarming the elderly couple's car One reporter is later hospitalized with a head injury. Caledonia residents and the cameramen say the OPP did not assist the men. However, the Hamilton Spectator reports that Lynda Powless, publisher of the Turtle Island News and reporter with the Hamilton Spectator, has produced photos which show OPP officers intervening.
June 9 – A U.S. Border Patrol vehicle, with agents reportedly observing the OPP's management of the crisis, is swarmed by Six Nations protesters. Two occupants are immediately forced out of the vehicle and a protester climbs in. A third OPP officer is injured as he tries to escape out the back door. The car is driven directly at him and he is narrowly pulled to safety by onlookers. Protesters seized sensitive OPP documents from the vehicle, which included information collected by officers surveilling protesters, including personal information of OPP, U.S. Border Patrol, and protesters, as well as documents on an unrelated human smuggling investigation. Documents were given to Powless who stated to the Hamilton Spectator that she photocopied and returned them to protesters. The vehicle and original documents are later returned.
June 9 – Arrest warrants are issued on charges related to this incident for Albert Douglas, 30; Skyler Williams, 22; Arnold Douglas, 61; and Ken Hill, 47, all of Ohsweken; Audra Ann Taillefer, 45, of Victoria, B.C., and Trevor Miller, 30. They face a total of 14 charges including attempted murder, assaulting a police officer, forcible confinement, theft of a motor vehicle, dangerous driving, assault and intimidation.
June 12 – A class-action lawsuit is filed by 440 residents, 400 businesses and a handful of sub-contractors, alleging negligence and malfeasance for the failure of the provincial government and the OPP to properly protect citizens who lived near Douglas Creek Estates.
June 12 – Ontario Premier Dalton McGuinty calls off negotiations with protesters at the Douglas Creek Estates site, saying that public safety has been compromised by the violence on June 9. He says the province will return to the table only when the barricades come down and native leaders assist police in finding seven suspects in connection with earlier incidents.
June 15 – Negotiations with the provincial government resume after one of the blockades is removed.
June 16 – The Ontario provincial government announces that it has bought the disputed site from Henco Industries, the company which had sought to develop the land. It simultaneously announces $1 million in additional compensation for businesses in the Caledonia area adversely affected by the protest. The provincial government is holding the land in trust until an agreement can be reached.
June 16 – Audra Ann Taillefer, 45, of Victoria, B.C. is taken into custody on charges of robbery and intimidation, stemming from the June 9 incident involving a Simcoe couple.
August
August 7 – Native protesters and non-natives begin throwing rocks and golf balls while shouting insults at each other. Approximately 100 people take part in the violent event, which lasts nearly 3 hours. OPP spokesman Constable Dennis Harwood says to The National Post, "There was some property damage, but no injuries were sustained."
August 8 – At a hearing in a Cayuga courtroom, Superior Court Justice David Marshall orders the Ontario provincial government to break off negotiations with the Six Nations community until the protesters have left the disputed land.
August 11 – The Government of Ontario announces that it is appealing Superior Court Justice David Marshall's ruling to break off negotiations. The Government says it is seeking a stay of Justice Marshall's order, so that negotiations may resume while the appeal is being prepared. A court date of August 22, 2006 is set in the Court of Appeal for Ontario, where a 3-member panel will determine whether or not to grant a stay.
August 27 – The judges of the three-member panel of Ontario Court of Appeal dealing with the Provincial government's appeal rule that the protesters can stay on the disputed site, writing the following:
October
October 15 – A rally organized by resident Gary McHale attracts an estimated 400 participants. Dubbed the "March for Freedom", the rally is blocked from the main entrance to the Douglas Creek Estates by the OPP. Instead, the rally goes to the grounds of the school that borders the site. McHale encourages the rally members to control their tempers. Meanwhile, some Six Nations people and their Native and non-Native supporters gather together for a "Potluck for Peace" on the contested site.
December
December 16 – OPP arrest Gary McHale for breach of the peace for organizing a rally in Caledonia.
Further developments
On January 27, 2007, a report from the Department of Justice to the Six Nations Confederacy stated that their land claims would not hold up in court.
On April 12, 2007, Haldimand County Mayor Marie Trainer said she received an e-mail from OPP commissioner Julian Fantino implying that the town was encouraging "divisive rallies" at the occupation site. He added that if any officers are harmed, he would not support a renewal of the town's policing contract in 2008 and would back any lawsuit brought against the town by individual officers. An OPP spokesperson told The Hamilton Spectator that the OPP would neither confirm nor deny the authenticity of the e-mail because it was meant to be private correspondence.
On February 22, 2010, Marie Trainer said that the province was leaning towards giving the Douglas Creek Estates to the Six Nations Band Council, but that she expected it to be some time before a formal decision would be reached.
In June 2014, the Haldimand County council ordered the removal of a native-made blockade in Caledonia.
In November 2014, the Haudenosaunee Confederacy Chiefs Council completed construction of a fence and gate surrounding the Douglas Creek Estates site in order to prevent trespassing on the disputed land.
The only house at Douglas Creek Estates that had survived the violent confrontations in 2006 nearly burned to the ground overnight on the morning of November 15, 2016.
Allegations of police inaction
Throughout the occupation and protests, many Caledonia residents complained that they had been subject to threats and violence from Native protesters and that the Ontario Provincial Police (OPP) failed to take any action to protect them. David Brown, who lived with his wife near the disputed area at the time, testified in court in November 2009 that he was required to carry a native-issued passport and needed approval from the protesters to enter his own house. He also claimed that after arriving "after curfew" one day, he was denied entry and jailed by the OPP when he caused trouble by ignoring the natives. Brown alleged that Native protesters threatened and harassed him repeatedly, and that rocks and mud were thrown at his family and their home. Brown and his wife sought $7 million in a civil lawsuit against the OPP on the basis that the police did nothing to protect him and his family during the occupation.
In response to Brown's claims, Crown lawyer David Felicient stated that the situation "must be understood against the backdrop of the unique character of Aboriginal occupations and protests" and that the OPP were prevented from taking action due to "policy implications." Felicient also suggested that Brown had fabricated portions of his testimony to draw attention to his lawsuit. When Felicient asked why Brown kept a loaded shotgun, Brown responded that "We were doing what we had to do to stay alive. I had no protection from our government. I felt that I needed to protect my wife and my family."
In court testimony, OPP Inspector Brian Haggith stated that the Native protesters "set up a checkpoint... Almost like they were entering another country," and that community lost confidence in the OPP's ability to protect them. Haggith also testified that when natives set fire to a wooden bridge in town, the fire department withdrew from fighting the blaze when threatened by protesters. The fire chief told the OPP he did not believe they would protect him or his men. In addition, an electrical substation was destroyed, causing more than $1 million in damage and a blackout, when a truck crashed through its gates and was left ablaze. Haggith said that there was little response from the police. Inspector Haggith also testified that he had asked for a change in policy at a subsequent meeting he had with his OPP superiors, but that his request was denied.
On June 15, 2009, some Caledonia residents announced the formation of an unarmed "militia" to enforce laws they felt the Ontario Provincial Police had failed to uphold. Six Nations Councillor Claudine VanEvery-Albert, along with OPP spokesperson Constable Paula Wright both spoke out against the formation of a militia, and three days later, Ontario Community Safety Minister Rick Bartolucci called it a "dumb idea."
On July 8, 2011, Ontario Attorney General Chris Bentley announced a settlement of $20 million ending a class-action lawsuit which had been filed by 440 residents, 400 businesses and a handful of sub-contractors, which claimed negligence and malfeasance on the part of the provincial government and the OPP for failing to properly protect citizens who lived near Douglas Creek Estates. Some residents continued independent lawsuits. In 2018, a lawyer who oversaw the class-action lawsuit by Caledonia residents was charged with fraud.
Assault on Sam Gualtieri
On September 13, 2007, builder Sam Gualtieri was attacked and seriously injured in a confrontation with native protesters at the 90-home Stirling South subdivision development in Caledonia. Following a brief occupation two weeks prior, a small group of natives had occupied the property that morning, and the confrontation was going to end peacefully in the afternoon before Gualtieri arrived and clashed with the young protesters. On December 2, 2011, Richard Smoke (Mohawk) was convicted of assault for the attack on Gualtieri, who had asked Smoke and several others to leave his daughter's house, which he was helping build as a wedding present. Smoke apologized to Gualtieri in court, in one of several criminal cases arising out of the DCE occupation.
September 2007 Brantford development protest
On September 4, 2007, a development site within six miles of the Grand River in Brantford was blocked off by native protesters, following an earlier visit where the protesters expressed concerns about the construction taking place on the disputed Haldimand Tract. Later in the day, police arrived on the scene and eventually some work was allowed to continue on the site.
Solidarity protests
Tyendinaga gravel quarry occupation solidarity blockade
On April 25, 2008, Six Nations protesters blocked off the Highway 6 bypass and the CN Rail line to show support for four Mohawks arrested during a protest at Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory the day before; this protest was centred around a quarry on the disputed Culbertson Tract that had started in March 2007. Shawn Brant, one of the Tyendinaga protesters arrested, was charged with assault with a weapon, breach of bail conditions, possession of weapons and possession of marijuana.
At around 4:30 PM, protesters in Caledonia dug a trench across the Highway 6 bypass and dragged a large part of a hydro tower over the road. The OPP erected two blockades on either side of the bypass to ensure public safety.
Wetʼsuwetʼen solidarity blockade
In response to the OPP moving in to arrest protesters at the level crossing located near Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory on the morning of February 24, 2020, and in solidarity with the Wetʼsuwetʼen opposing the construction of the Coastal GasLink Pipeline, members of the Mohawk Nation (Bear Clan) from Six Nations began a peaceful demonstration on the Ontario Highway 6 bypass near Caledonia, blocking traffic and commuter trains along the Lakeshore West GO line later in the day on February 24. Eventually, a blockade consisting of pallets and parked vehicles was set up on the highway, forcing traffic to be rerouted to a nearby bridge, and leading the OPP to place concrete barriers around the blockade for safety. The blockade remained up until March 19, when the protesters agreed to leave the road and withdraw to Douglas Creek Estates "as a sign of good faith".
1492 Land Back Lane (McKenzie Meadows)
Background
McKenzie Meadows was a planned residential development project located south of Caledonia, on the west side of McKenzie Road and the south side of Fuller Drive. The project was owned by Foxgate Development (previously by 2036356 Ontario Inc.), a consortium created by Losani Homes and Ballantry Homes (a Toronto-based residential development company), with Michael Corrado specifically listed as one of the owners. The land planned for the development amounted to . In October and November 2013, the Six Nations Elected Council, through the community engagement website Six Nations Future, engaged in consultation with Six Nations citizens regarding the development. Benefits presented to the community during the consultation process include job prospects for community members and the raising of funds throughout the construction of residential units for the eventual construction of "Kawenn:io/Gaweni:yo Private School", a language school to be built on the reserve. Ultimately, a majority of respondents to the engagement process opposed the project, and the Grand Council voted to not execute an agreement with the developer at a council meeting on December 17, 2013.
On September 9, 2015, Foxgate Development acquired the land for the project from Haldimand County.
In 2016 and 2019, the Elected Council of Six Nations of the Grand River received various "accommodations" for the development, as per an agreement signed with Ballantry Homes. The agreement outlined an accommodation for the construction, consisting of of land across from Little Buffalo along Townline Road (170 Concession 17 Road in Hagersville) being transferred to Six Nations in 2016, as well as a transfer of $352,000 to the SNEC for use in future purchases of land, transferred in 2019. In return for these accommodations, the Elected Council agreed to support the development in a variety of ways, namely:
"To publicly support the development as it proceeds, including expressions and statements of ongoing support and commitment to the development (as may reasonably be requested from the owner from time to time);
"To not interfere with or disrupt the development, whether by protest, blockade or any other manner of interference; and
"To use all reasonable efforts to work with the owner to support a cessation of any action conducted by any member of any First Nations that is intended or is reasonably likely to delay, frustrate or interfere with the development. If the owner must seek legal remedies to deal with such action or conduct, or respond to any legal action which may be brought by any third party, SNEC shall support the owner and shall provide confirmation of such support in such form as may "be reasonably requested or required by the owner, provided that SNEC is reimbursed by the owner for the legal expenses that SNEC incurs in connection with the provision of SNEC's support."
This agreement was signed by SNEC Chief Ava Hill on June 18, 2019, but was not signed by the Haudenosaunee Confederacy Chiefs Council (HCCC), the organization representing the traditional governance structure of the Haudenosaunee, which predates the SNEC (established in 1924) and governs alongside the elected council.
Land reclamation/occupation
2020
July–August
Development of the McKenzie Meadows project continued, but on the afternoon of July 19, 2020, Six Nations community member Skyler Williams, along with a group of about 20 others, walked onto the site at 1535 McKenzie Road in order to stop the development. Once they had managed to put a stop to the construction work, the group established an encampment, referred to as a "reclamation site", on the site of the development. The reclamation site was eventually dubbed 1492 Land Back Lane by the self-proclaimed "land defenders" (the number referring to 1492, the year Christopher Columbus made landfall in the Caribbean, a commonly accepted starting point for European colonization of the Americas).
Lonny Bomberry, Director of Six Nations Land and Resources, has said that there is no traditional land claim associated with the occupied development, since it has been under third-party ownership for at least 150 years, and while the entirety of the Haldimand Tract is subject to a land claim, that claim is not against third-party developers.
On July 31, 2020, the OPP helped a court sheriff read and deliver a court injunction issued the day before against the demonstrators. The occupation continued, and on August 5, 2020, the OPP moved in to enforce the injunction, arresting nine people in the process, including Skyler Williams. While most media reported that the police fired "a single round from a weapon that shoots rubber bullets", several members of the occupation reported that at least three rubber bullets were fired during the violent enforcement of the injunction, which also involved land defenders throwing rocks at OPP. In response to this, Six Nations community members established a blockade on Argyle Street, the Highway 6 bypass, and the rail line. Tires and wood pellets were set on fire, and while police officers were setting up checkpoints, they were swarmed by protesters and prevented. The vice-president of Losani Homes indicated that the enforcement of the injunction would allow construction to continue.
However, the following day, demonstrators returned to the camp, with community members and supporters showing up intermittently to provide support to those occupying the land. When asked about the events at 1492 Land Back Lane, Ontario Premier Doug Ford said during his COVID-19 briefing on August 6,
On August 7, a second court injunction was obtained by Haldimand County that "prevents anyone from blockading or restricting use of public roads in the municipality". That same day, the people at the occupation site requested meetings with federal officials, with only Indigenous Services Minister Marc Miller agreeing to sit down and talk, according to a person at the occupation site as of August 10.
On August 15, the Haudenosaunee Confederacy Chiefs Council released a statement in support of the land defenders, stating that the McKenzie Meadows development was within the "red zone", in which the Haudenosaunee have called for a complete development moratorium. In the statement, they called on the governments of Canada and Ontario to sit down at the negotiation table and address land issues with them, the hereditary chiefs, citing the issues left unresolved after the breakdown of talks following the dispute at Kanonhstaton.
In a letter dated August 19, Indigenous Services Minister Marc Miller and Minister of Crown–Indigenous Relations Carolyn Bennett offered to resume negotiation of "longstanding and unresolved land issues" with elected chief Mark Hill and the Confederacy chiefs, referring to the negotiations that had been suspended pending litigation first in 1995 and then again in 2009.
The last blockade near the site was removed on August 22.
Someone was arrested in connection to the camp on August 24 in Hamilton, Ontario.
On August 25, the Superior Court extended both the August 7 (despite the final blockade having come down three days prior) and July 30 injunctions, the latter of which "restrains anyone from occupying or hindering development of the construction site" and names Skyler Williams as a defendant. That day, the OPP reported that they would not be enforcing the injunction again until their liaison team "[had] had a chance to deescalate the situation," but that they would have to move in should that fail.
September
By early September, a support camp referred to by an organizer as a "safety zone" had been established on Kanonhstaton, to provide a meeting place for community members to have shelter, learn about their culture, and support the Land Back Lane camp. Being located off the road and not on the McKenzie Meadows site, the safety zone did not fall under either injunction against the protesters.
Co-host of the podcast One Dish, One Mic Karl Dockstader (a member of Oneida Nation of the Thames, Bear Clan) and Mohawk Ryerson University (now Toronto Metropolitan University) research fellow Courtney Skye (a member of Six Nations of the Grand River, Turtle Clan) were arrested on September 2 and 3, respectively, along with three other arrests on September 2. Dockstader had been covering the occupation as an independent journalist, while Skye was reportedly "sitting on the banks of the Grand River with [her] auntie/sis." Dockstader and Skye were both charged with disobeying a court order and mischief. No further information on the reason for his arrest was given to Dockstader at the time. Dockstader's release barred him from the site and from contacting employees of Foxgate under threat of further charges, conditions for which the OPP faced criticism for limiting media access to the campsite, and going against the decision made in the case of Justin Brake in 2019, where the Court of Appeal of Newfoundland and Labrador set a precedent to distinguish activists and reporters. By the end of the day on September 3, OPP Constable Rodney LeClair estimated that there had been 17 arrests made so far, up from 13 reported earlier that morning. Two more arrests were made over the September 5–6 weekend, with the same charges as Skye and Dockstader.
On Tuesday, September 15, Starla Myers, a member of Six Nations and reporter for Real Peoples Media, was arrested and charged with two counts of mischief and one count of disobeying a court order. The OPP continued to face criticism for arresting another reporter, but Constable LeClair re-iterated that the OPP are "committed to the freedom of the press and respects the important role the media has in the community. We value and strive to have collaborative relationships with our media partners." The following day, Lela George (a member of the Oneida First Nation) became the 23rd person to be charged in relation to the occupation.
In a letter dated September 17, Foxgate's legal counsel urged ministers to not enter into negotiations with the "occupiers" while they continued to defy the court injunction Foxgate held against them.
On September 23, Haldimand County's police services board called on the OPP to step up enforcement of the injunction, claiming their current framework for responding to "Indigenous critical incidents" was not working, and characterizing the occupation as "acts of terrorism" in reference to the Canada Criminal Code.
On September 29, the land defenders' spokesperson Skyler Williams received a phone call from the OPP informing him that there was a warrant for his arrest, for disobeying the existing injunction, continuing to occupy the site, mischief, and breaching conditions from his arrest on August 5.
October
According to the affidavit filed on October 5 by OPP West Region Regional Commander John Cain, police intelligence believed that a second raid on the occupation site would result in a very violent confrontation that wouldn't resolve the "underlying land dispute." According to the affidavit, the OPP was concerned with the violent enforcement of the injunction, and had been actively trying to seek peaceful resolutions instead. The affidavit was filed in advance of a hearing on the injunctions in the Ontario Superior Court scheduled for October 9.
As of October 9, 29 people had been charged in connection to the occupation and solidarity actions.
In the October 9 injunction hearing at the Ontario Superior Court in Cayuga, Ontario, Justice John Harper again extended the injunctions and ordered those occupying the site to vacate it immediately. In his oral judgment, Harper said,
A subsequent injunction hearing was scheduled for October 22, 2020.
According to Todd Williams, the co-ordinator for archaeological and environmental monitoring for the Haudenosaunee Development Institute (a subsidiary of the Confederacy Council), three other sites of planned subdivisions, all then in the archaeological phase, were targeted for actions to coincide with the day of the hearing. Williams said that the actions were meant to highlight the fact that all developers on the Haldimand Tract need to consult with the hereditary chiefs before development can begin. Later on October 9, Williams' car was swarmed by OPP cruisers and Williams arrested after leaving one of the three sites. Williams had previously been arrested in the August 5 raid.
Kahsenniyo (Tahnee Skinner-Wilson), wife of spokesperson Skyler Williams, and Juno winner Tom Wilson were also arrested on October 9.
At the injunction hearing on October 22, Justice Harper found Skyler Williams to be in contempt of the court and dismissed all evidence he had filed. The judge also made both injunctions permanent, and encouraged the Haudenosaunee to submit a formal land claim through the specific claims process, despite its slow pace. In the written ruling delivered a week after the hearing, Williams was also ordered to cover Haldimand County and Foxgate's legal fees, amounting to $50,349.67 and $117,814.18, respectively ($168,163.85 in total). After the hearing was concluded, a clash broke out between police and protesters, which included a flaming barricade being set up on a road near the camp and the shutdown of critical infrastructure (including Highway 6, the rail line, and Argyle Street) by the people from Six Nations. According to the protesters, this clash resulted from the OPP using a taser and firing rubber bullets using a "riot control gun" at people near the "safety zone" by Argyle Street and Sixth Line. The OPP allege that the confrontation was initiated by the land defenders, who had damaged a police cruiser.
In a statement, the Six Nations Elected Council called Justice Harper's decision to make the injunctions permanent "disturbing," claiming that it was indicative of the ongoing presence of systemic racism in Canada. Additionally, they acknowledged the frustration members of the community had expressed regarding the accommodation agreement council had signed with Foxgate, committing to doing better in the future, but admitting that they remained bound by the agreement. Chief Mark Hill and the council called for unity and calm going forward.
November–December
Documents obtained by APTN National News in 2021 found that the OPP spent on their policing of the camp in November 2020 alone.
According to a CBC report released November 25, "[t]here are now plans to extend [the occupation] on farm lands directly across [McKenzie] road, the site for a 700-unit housing development called Beattie Estates."
By December 16, the 150th day since the camp was erected, several "Tiny Homes" had been erected in the land reclamation camp in preparation for the winter cold.
Meetings hosted by the camp and people of Six Nations throughout November and December led to a "community report" that was delivered to every home, the Haudenosaunee Confederacy Chiefs Council, and the Six Nations Elected Council.
2021
January
On January 19, six months after the demonstration at McKenzie Meadows began, the land defenders moved their barricade on Argyle Street (which includes a damaged and graffitied school bus) back to Caledonia Baptist Church, to allow access to the church as well as to allow emergency services quicker access to hospitals in Hamilton. Spokesperson Skyler Williams said that this was done as a show of good faith, in an attempt to "[lead] de-escalation and [find] a peaceful resolution, which cannot occur if Canada continues to leave Nation-to-Nation relationships in the hands of the police." The Ministry of Transportation was allowed to assess the damage done to the Highway 6 bypass. The OPP did not remove their blockade on Argyle Street that prevents access to the street from Caledonia, estimating that it would take weeks to repair the damage and open the bypass to regular traffic.
Documents obtained by APTN National News revealed that, by January 19, 2021, the OPP had spent on policing operations in the first six months since the camp's establishment.
Following the community report created at the end of 2020, an online community survey was announced in January, expanding on the themes raised in community meetings in the previous two months, including "advancing a moratorium on development within our territory," according to a release from the land reclamation camp.
February
The rest of the barricades that had been set up in late October were once again removed, the roads repaired and reopened to traffic.
June
Following the toppling of the statue of architect of the Indian Residential School system Egerton Ryerson in downtown Toronto on June 6, the statue's head was given as a gift to the people at Land Back Lane, where it was placed on a pike overlooking the site. The placement of the vandalized and severed head at the land reclamation site was seen as a powerful symbolic gesture by some land defenders. As of June 12, the head had been moved to near the Mohawk Institute, a former residential school in Brantford.
July
On July 2, 2021, the vice-president of Losani Homes told the CBC that deposits to homeowners were being returned in full, and that the planned development of the McKenzie Meadows project would be officially cancelled. He cited several reasons that the "sales agreements had been frustrated," including the development of more permanent buildings by the land defenders, the passage of a year, "the lack of any conformity with or enforcement of the court's orders, and the failure of either government [provincial or federal] to even respond to our requests for help or intervention." Mayor Ken Hewitt was "disappointed" by the cancellation, saying the development had been planned with the elected council and was going to be able to provide an "attractive price point" (starting at ) for many of the families hoping to move into the housing development. Skyler Williams, spokesperson for the land defenders, welcomed the cancellation as a victory in a multi-generational battle for indigenous land.
Documents obtained by APTN National News revealed that, from July 2020 to July 2021, the OPP had spent on their operations enforcing the two injunctions. The police force attempted to obscure this figure over the course of the news company's freedom of information request, but the full tabulation of police spending was finally released in May 2022.
December
On December 12, 2021, the Ontario Court of Appeal handed down a ruling that cancelled the injunction against Skyler Williams that had previously been made permanent by Superior Court Justice Harper in October 2020, as well as setting aside the judge's decision to strike Williams' pleadings from the record and to give him a $168,163.85 cost award. The Court of Appeal found that Harper hadn't sufficiently explain why Williams' alleged misconduct, didn't lay out potential consequences, and didn't give him a fair chance to retain an attorney or respond to the allegations against him. The ruling said, "The requirements of fairness in the context of this proceeding constituted an independent right of Mr. Williams. It is no answer to the denial of these rights to say a fair opportunity to be heard would have made no difference in the outcome." The three appellate judges writing the ruling granted Williams $20,000 in damages and said a different judge should re-hear the initial matter reviewed by Harper.
Solidarity action
In early August, it was reported that some Wetʼsuwetʼen had set up a rail blockade on their territory in northern British Columbia in solidarity with the demonstrators at the encampment, mirroring the blockades in solidarity with the Wetʼsuwetʼen earlier in 2020.
On August 21, a local preacher organised a solidarity protest at the Rainbow Circle overpass south of Gravenhurst, Ontario.
As of Monday, September 7, a GoFundMe legal fund in support of people facing criminal charges in connection to the camp had raised nearly $84,000 from over 1,100 donors.
On October 9, in response to a call out across Turtle Island (North America) from the protesters at 1492 Land Back Lane, a day of action was held. Protests in solidarity with the land defenders (as well as with the Miꞌkmaw fishers in their fight for fishing rights in Nova Scotia) were seen across the country. One solidarity blockade on Gitxsan and Wetʼsuwetʼen territory stopped traffic on British Columbia Highway 16 for several hours, in a demonstration meant to reinforce the continent-wide solidarity that had been seen earlier in the year as the Wetʼsuwetʼen opposed the construction of a pipeline on their territory. Another protest in Muskoka saw the third banner-drop in solidarity with Indigenous protesters this year, with banners reading "Muskoka Supports Six Nations Land Defenders," "No More Land Theft!" and "We Are All Treaty People."
On October 25, 2020, the 236th anniversary of the Haldimand proclamation, a solidarity demonstration took place near Caledonia, stopping for a while to demonstrate in front of the OPP barricade on Highway 6. Representatives of several unions were present at the protest, including CUPE Ontario and the Ontario Federation of Labour.
Skyler Williams
Skyler Williams (also spelled Skylar in some reporting on the land dispute) is a spokesperson for the land defenders at 1492 Land Back Lane. He was previously involved in the reclamation of Kanonhstaton as well as the Ipperwash Crisis. Williams was named as a spokesperson by a group of women in the organization of the camp in order to be the visible face of the movement, allowing others to remain anonymous. Williams was named as a defendant in the Ontario Superior Court case against the land defenders, throughout which Justice R. J. Harper consistently referred to him as the "leader" of the movement, despite the fact that the camp's own releases identified him as a spokesperson. During the trial, Williams was found to be in contempt of the court for refusing to accept its jurisdiction over him and Haudenosaunee affairs in general. His evidence was stricken from the record in the October 22 hearing, during which Justice Harper made the two injunctions against 1492 Land Back Lane permanent.
Williams was held without bail for seven months at Hamilton-Wentworth Detention Centre on charges related to the 2006 Kanonhstaton reclamation, including four months in solitary confinement. The charges were ultimately withdrawn.
Williams is married to Kahsenniyo, another land defender, and the couple has four daughters.
On May 19, 2021, surrounded by supporters, Williams turned himself in to the Haldimand County OPP Detachment in Cayuga, satisfying the arrest warrants that had been issued for him the previous year. He was released shortly after entering the building on condition that he would not set foot at 1492 Land Back Lane, and would appear before the Ontario Court of Justice on June 1, to face the two counts of mischief, two counts of disobeying an order of the court, intimidation and failure to comply with an undertaking. He told reporters that he had turned himself in, in order to get the judicial process going, so that he wouldn't have to keep "[looking] over his shoulder," and could show up more effectively for his family.
Moratorium on development
On April 20, 2021, the Haudenosaunee Confederacy Chiefs Council, represented by Cayuga Snipe clan chief Deyohowe:to Roger Silversmith, announced a moratorium on development within the entire Haldimand Tract. The HCCC sought a ban on development, unless authorised by the Haudenosaunee Development Institute. In the announcement, Deyohowe:to said, "We are not interested in selling land. There's portions of land that we have leased out that can still be negotiated. The developers need to stop digging in our lands and to come forward now and do the process." Deyohowe:to clarified that the elected council was aware of the announcement, but that its members are "limited" in their authority to assert land sovereignty. He asserted that the federal government needed to step up their response to the issue of land rights, expressing a lack of confidence in the judicial system's ability to bring them justice.
The announcement came on the 275th day of the 1492 Land Back Lane camp, and on the 15th anniversary of the April 20, 2006 raid of the Kanonhstaton site by the OPP.
In a press conference on April 26, Chief Mark Hill, chief of the Six Nations Elected Council "reiterated and acknowledged" the Confederacy's call for a moratorium on development in the Haldimand Tract. In the spirit of presenting a united front, Hill stated, "We also need to keep in mind that we have a major land claims case coming before the courts in 2022, and it would not be responsible to allow continued development in an uncertain legal environment." He couldn't say whether or not he supports the Haudenosaunee Development Institute overseeing the process, acknowledging that such finer points still needed to be figured out.
See also
Iroquois
Six Nations 40, Ontario
Indian Register
Indian Act
Oka Crisis
Ipperwash Crisis
Burnt Church Crisis
Gustafsen Lake Standoff
2020 Canadian pipeline and railway protests
Notes
References
Blatchford, Christie, Helpless: Caledonia's Nightmare of Fear and Anarchy, and How the Law Failed All of Us, 2010,
Graymont, Barbara, The Iroquois in the American Revolution, 1972,
Taylor, Alan, The Divided Ground, 2006,
External links
CBC timeline of the 2006 dispute
Wikimapia placemark showing location of Douglas Creek Estates
Six Nations Future page on McKenzie Meadows Development
2006 in Ontario
2020 in Ontario
2021 in Ontario
First Nations history in Ontario
Haldimand County
Indigenous conflicts in Canada
Protests in Canada
Aboriginal title in Canada
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unfaithful%20%28song%29
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Unfaithful (song)
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"Unfaithful" is a song by Barbadian singer Rihanna from her second studio album A Girl like Me (2006). It was written by Shaffer "Ne-Yo" Smith with the song's producers Stargate. The song was released by Def Jam Recordings on May 1, 2006, as the second single from the album. "Unfaithful" is a pop and R&B ballad and was inspired by the music of American rock band Evanescence. Originally titled "Murderer", the single speaks about a woman who regrets cheating on her partner.
"Unfaithful" received mixed to positive reviews from critics; many praised its powerful balladry, but some criticized the lyrics. The song reached the top ten on the singles charts in 19 countries, including the UK Singles Chart, on which it became Rihanna's third top-ten single. "Unfaithful" peaked at number six on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart. It was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), denoting shipments of over one million copies.
The song's accompanying music video was directed by Anthony Mandler and premiered in May 2006. It features Rihanna in a love triangle in which she struggles to choose between her romantic interest and her lover, and regrets having cheated on the former. Since its release, "Unfaithful" has become a staple of Rihanna's live performances. In 2006, she performed it on award ceremonies such as the MOBO Awards and the World Music Awards. The song was on the set list of three of her major tours, Good Girl Gone Bad (2007–09), the Last Girl on Earth Tour (2010–11) and the Loud Tour (2011).
Development and release
After moving to the US, Rihanna signed a contract with Def Jam Recordings, and released her debut album Music of the Sun (2005). The album was inspired by Caribbean music, including soca, dancehall, and reggae, and incorporates dance-pop and R&B. In an interview for MTV, Rihanna said that when she had arrived in the US, she had been exposed to different types of music that she had never heard before, including rock music, which she incorporated into her second studio album, A Girl like Me (2006).
While recording her debut studio album in 2005, Rihanna met Ne-Yo for the first time, but they could not collaborate on the album. She wanted to work with him since she heard "Let Me Love You" (2004) by Mario, which Ne-Yo wrote. When the production for A Girl like Me started, she considered working with him. She said, "So for the second album, I was like, 'You know what? I have to work with that guy Ne-Yo.' So we went into the studio and we started working on this song." Ne-Yo and Norwegian production duo Mikkel S. Eriksen and Tor Erik Hermansen collectively known as Stargate wrote "Unfaithful", which Rihanna explained was "new ground for [her]" because it was a ballad. It was produced by StarGate while Debbie Mounsey served as a production assistant. "Unfaithful" was recorded by Eriksen, Al Hemberger, Malcolm Pollack and Tiger Stylz at Battery and Avatar Studios in New York City, Loft Recording Studios in Bronxville and Digital Insight Recording Studios in Las Vegas. It was mixed by Phil Tan and Makeba Riddick provided the vocal production.
"Unfaithful" was released as the second single from A Girl like Me, after the number-one single "SOS". The song was released to digital outlets in Canada on June 20, 2006. A radio edit of the song was released. It is under the same time length of the album and instrumental versions. For the plays on radio stations, the radio edit has the word "gun" removed. It was also sent to urban contemporary radio stations in the United States on June 29, 2006. Seven digital remixes of "Unfaithful" were released on July 17, 2006, via iTunes in several countries including France, Germany, Italy, Spain and the US. A CD single of the song, comprising its album and instrumental version, a Tony Moran's radio mix, and its music video, was released in the United Kingdom on July 25, 2006 and in August of that year in Germany and France.
Composition
"Unfaithful" is a pop and R&B ballad that runs for three minutes and forty-six seconds. Originally, it was a dark and moody track inspired by the music of the American rock band Evanescence, with the working title of "Murderer". Hermansen and Eriksen collaborated on the melody of "Unfaithful". In the beginning, the song's structure was built around piano as the only instrument; the percussion and strings was added later. The strings on the track were arranged and conducted by Rob Mounsey.
Elaborating about the song's development in an interview for Sound on Sound Eriksen said, "I find that how natural it sounds is not so much about how realistic the string sound is, but more about your choice of notes and how you play and program the strings." According to the sheet music published by Universal Music Publishing Group at Musicnotes.com, it was composed in the key of C minor using in common time and a slow feeling groove of 72 beats per minute. Rihanna's vocal range spans from the low note of F3 to the high note of C5.
According to Brandee J. Tecson of MTV News, "Unfaithful" is a "bittersweet ballad" that shows a new side to Rihanna. In an interview for the same publication Rihanna said about the lyrics, "I'm referred to as a murderer in that song. Meaning, I'm taking this guy's life by hurting him, cheating on him. He knows, and it makes him feel so bad." She continued, "We always put it out there that guys cheat, and finally someone put it in perspective: girls cheat too." In another interview for Newsday, she said that "Unfaithful" was "birthed out of a relationship she outgrew when she was fourteen". She added that the nature of the relationship was not physical.
Reception
"Unfaithful" received mixed to positive reviews from most music critics. Kelefa Sanneh from The New York Times described "Unfaithful" as "a profoundly ludicrous – but not disagreeable – pop lament". Quentin B. Huff from PopMatters commented that, "Unfaithful' is a well-intentioned ballad informed by dramatic piano and strings". Slant Magazines Sal Cinquemani stated, "The melodramatic, string-laden ballad 'Unfaithful' is, if nothing else, an ambitious second single for an artist like Rihanna, and with lyrics like 'I don't want to be a murderer/Our love, his trust/I might as well take a gun and put it to his head,' it earns bonus points just for being so fucking weird".
Steve Jones of USA Today wrote that while the other ballads on the album were not as strong, "Unfaithful', in which [Rihanna] deals with the consequences of her own cheating heart, shows depth". Celia San Miguel from Vibe praised "Unfaithful", stating that it gives Rihanna a "new found charisma, solid vocal range and her ability to channel deep-rooted emotions with ease". Dan Charnas from The Washington Post described the single as "an honest account of dishonesty". A reviewer from Billboard magazine likened "Unfaithful" to Beyoncé's music and concluded that the song reveals Rihanna as a "young vocalist growing into her own". In an interview about Ne-Yo's work, Idolator's Maura called both "Unfaithful" and Beyoncé's "Irreplaceable" "ear-candy triumphs". Quentin B. Huff of PopMatters criticized the song's lyrics and described them as well-intentioned but "overboard with melodrama" and "devoid of remorse".
"Unfaithful" was listed at number eight on Billboard magazine's list of Songs of the Summer of 2006. In 2011, the same publication also ranked the song at number 15 on its list of Rihanna's 20 Biggest Billboard Hits. American magazine Rap-Up listed "Unfaithful" at number nine on its list of the Top 10 Singles of 2006.
Chart performance
"Unfaithful" debuted at number 51 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart on May 13, 2006. The same week, Rihanna's previous single "SOS" reached number one. "Unfaithful" peaked at number 6 on July 22, 2006, after 10 weeks on the chart, and became Rihanna's third top ten single in the US. On July 29, 2006, "Unfaithful" also topped the US Hot Dance Club Songs chart, becoming her third number one there. The song was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) on July 27, 2006, after more than one million downloads were shipped. "Unfaithful" was more successful in Canada where it reached number one on the Canadian Singles Chart. In Australia, the song entered the chart at number two, where it peaked, on July 30, 2006. It was later certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA), denoting shipments of 35,000 copies. The same week, "Unfaithful" entered the New Zealand singles chart at number five. The next week, it peaked at number four where it stayed for three consecutive weeks.
In Europe, "Unfaithful" reached the top ten in 14 countries. The song was most successful in Hungary and Switzerland where it reached number one on both nation's singles charts, and became Rihanna's first single to reach number one on both charts. "Unfaithful" was certified gold by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI) – Switzerland for shipping over 15,000 paid downloads in the country. In Norway, the song entered the national singles chart at number 18 and after six weeks it peaked at number two, where it stayed for two weeks. "Unfaithful" entered the Austrian singles chart at number eight on August 18, 2006, peaked at number two and stayed on the chart for 27 weeks. The single reached number two in Germany and the Republic of Ireland, number three in Denmark, Belgium (Flanders) and the Czech Republic, number five in Slovakia, number six in Sweden, number seven in France and number nine in Netherlands. On the UK Singles Chart, the song debuted at number 16 on July 22, 2006, and the next week, it peaked at number two. "Unfaithful" re-entered the chart in both 2010 and 2011, when it reached numbers 31 and 50 respectively. More than 315,000 copies of the song have been sold in the UK.
Music video
The accompanying music video for "Unfaithful" was directed by Anthony Mandler on March 1-2, 2006. After their work on "Unfaithful", Mandler became Rihanna's regular collaborator, and worked on most of Rihanna's videos, including "Disturbia" (2008) and "Russian Roulette" (2009). The video premiered May 1, 2006 on MTV, and was later released on iTunes for digital download.
As the video begins, Rihanna is walking towards a dressing room mirror while preparing for a show. This is intercut with scenes of Rihanna with her boyfriend in a restaurant. While they talk to each other, Rihanna's boyfriend leaves the table and is absent for some time, during which Rihanna watches the other tables. One diner writes a note and gives it to a waiter, who passes it to Rihanna, who reads and quickly hides the note as her boyfriend returns to the table. Rihanna starts to sing the song's lyrics while she leaves the dressing room and approaches the stage, where she continues singing while a man plays a piano on the stage. The arena is empty and it appears as though Rihanna is rehearsing.
Other scenes show Rihanna dancing around the piano while the pianist is still playing. While her boyfriend is sleeping, Rihanna sends a text message to her lover, "B down in 5". She walks down the street and gets into a car with her lover, who is the note-writing diner from the restaurant and the man who plays the piano at the rehearsal. As the song continues, Rihanna is shown regretfully embracing her lover near the piano. When the rehearsal finishes, she leaves the arena, where her boyfriend is waiting for her with his car. Rihanna hugs him and tears fall from her eyes. A reviewer from MTV Australia wrote about the video's theme and appearance, "Cheaters always get busted. And this time around, Rihanna sings about being the one doing the two-timing. Secret notes, sneaking around, hearts broken... Oh, the drama. And she looks gooooood."
Live performances
Since its release, "Unfaithful" has been a staple of Rihanna's performances. On July 27, 2006, she performed the song on the former MTV series, Total Request Live. Rihanna opened the 2006 MOBO Awards on September 20, 2006 at the Royal Albert Hall in London with a performance of "Unfaithful". On November 15, 2006, Rihanna performed the song at the 2006 World Music Awards, which also took place in London.
"Unfaithful" was the twelfth song on the set list of Rihanna's Good Girl Gone Bad Tour (2007–09), her first major world tour. Her performance in Manchester was released in the UK through iTunes and is featured on the Good Girl Gone Bad Live DVD. Rihanna was opening act on some dates on Kanye West's Glow in the Dark Tour (2008–09). Her set list featured "Unfaithful" and other songs from her 2007 release Good Girl Gone Bad including "Don't Stop the Music", "Shut Up and Drive" and "Umbrella". Following the release of her fourth studio album, Rated R (2009), in the UK, Rihanna performed a Nokia promotional concert at the Brixton Academy in London. She performed songs from the new release including "Russian Roulette", "Wait Your Turn" and "Hard", the latter of which Rihanna performed with Young Jeezy. Rihanna performed "Unfaithful", and songs from her older releases, including "Disturbia", "Don't Stop the Music" and "Take a Bow", during this set.
In 2010, to further promote Rated R, Rihanna embarked upon her second worldwide tour, Last Girl on Earth Tour (2010–11). "Unfaithful", which she performed while standing on a stage set with red baroque style curtains in the background, was the thirteenth song on the set list. On December 11, 2010, Rihanna was invited to appear on series seven of the UK version of The X Factor to perform her new single "What's My Name?. She also performed "Unfaithful" with finalist Matt Cardle, who later won the series. In June 2011, Rihanna embarked upon the Loud Tour, her third major worldwide tour. "Unfaithful" was the fourteenth song on the tour's set list. Rihanna performed the song on a levitating stage while wearing a long yellow dress and with a fan blowing her skirt up, which Jon Bream of Minneapolis' Star Tribune said looked "like Celine Dion delivering 'My Heart Will Go On' on the deck of the Titanic". The Daily Record's Jules Boyle concluded that "tracks like 'Unfaithful' and 'Hate That I Love You' were suitably epic and backed with a full rock band."
Track listings
European CD single and digital download
"Unfaithful" (Radio Edit) — 3:51
"Unfaithful" (Tony Moran Radio Mix) — 4:16
UK CD single
"Unfaithful" — 3:52
"SOS" (Moto Blanco Remix) — 8:37
CD maxi single
"Unfaithful" (Album Version) — 3:52
"Unfaithful" (Tony Moran Radio Mix) — 4:21
"Unfaithful" (Instrumental) — 3:49
"Unfaithful" (Video)
12-inch vinyl
"Unfaithful" (Radio Edit) — 3:52
"Unfaithful" (Instrumental) — 3:49
"Unfaithful" (Tony Moran Club Mix) — 8:48
Digital download (Remixes)
"Unfaithful" (Tony Moran Radio Mix) — 4:15
"Unfaithful" (Hamel Radio Edit) — 3:53
"Unfaithful" (Maurice's Radio Edit) — 3:28
"Unfaithful" (Tony Moran Club Mix) — 9:08
"Unfaithful" (Hamel Club Mix) — 8:48
"Unfaithful" (Maurice's Club Mix) — 6:57
"Unfaithful" (AOL Music Sessions) — 3:49
Credits and personnel
Credits are adapted from the liner notes of A Girl Like Me, Def Jam Recordings, SRP Records.
Recording
Recorded at Battery Studios, New York City; Loft Recording Studios, Bronxville, New York; Avatar Studios, New York; Digital Insight Recording Studios, Las Vegas, Nevada.
Personnel
Songwriting – Ne-Yo, Tor Erik Hermansen, Mikkel S. Eriksen
Production – StarGate
Recording – Mikkel Eriksen, Al Hemberger, Malcolm Pollack, Tiger Stylz
Mixing – Phil Tan
Vocal production – Makeba Riddick
Production Assistant – Debbie Mounsey
String arrangement and production – Rob Mounsey
Violins – Ann Leathers, Richard Sortomme, Cenovia Cummings, Uri Vodovoz, Jan Mullen, Jeanne Ingram, Abe Appleman, Katherine Livolsi-Stern, Maura Gianni, Yana Giochman, Marti Sweet
Violas – Sue Pray, Crystal Garner, Jill Jaffe, Mary Hamman
Cellos – Richard Locker, Gene Moy, Eugene Briskin
Bass – John Beal, Judy Sugarman
Charts
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Decade-end charts
Certifications
Release history
See also
List of Billboard Hot Dance Club Play number ones of 2006
List of number-one singles of the 2000s (Switzerland)
References
External links
2000s ballads
2006 singles
Songs written by Ne-Yo
Songs written by Tor Erik Hermansen
Songs written by Mikkel Storleer Eriksen
Song recordings produced by Stargate (record producers)
Rihanna songs
Pop ballads
Contemporary R&B ballads
2006 songs
Music videos directed by Anthony Mandler
Number-one singles in Switzerland
Number-one singles in Hungary
Canadian Singles Chart number-one singles
Songs about infidelity
Def Jam Recordings singles
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gracilisuchus
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Gracilisuchus
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Gracilisuchus (meaning "slender crocodile") is an extinct genus of tiny pseudosuchian (a group which includes the ancestors of crocodilians) from the Late Triassic of Argentina. It contains a single species, G. stipanicicorum, which is placed in the clade Suchia, close to the ancestry of crocodylomorphs. Both the genus and the species were first described by Alfred Romer in 1972.
Discovery
Discovery of the holotype
A four-month expedition spanning 1964 and 1965 in the Ischigualasto-Villa Unión Basin of La Rioja Province, Argentina was conducted by Alfred Romer and his colleagues, who consisted of researchers from the Museum of Comparative Zoology (MCZ) at Harvard University. While the first two months of the expedition were unfruitful, excavations near the Chañares River and the Gualo River, soon uncovered specimens belonging to a wide variety of tetrapod groups. Among these was the skeleton of a small suchian archosaur, discovered about north of the Chañares River. The skeleton was stored at the La Plata Museum (MLP), which had supported the expedition, under the specimen number MLP 64-XI-14-11. The specimen has since been transferred to the Museum of Paleontology at the National University of La Rioja (PULR), where it bears the specimen number PULR 08.
This specimen, which would become the holotype of Gracilisuchus, consists of a partial skull, an incomplete vertebral column, parts of the scapula and humerus, gastralia, and several associated osteoderms. Several other specimens are mixed in with these remains on the same slab. A vertebral series ("Series A"), originally identified as the tail of Gracilisuchus, has been reassigned to Tropidosuchus. Another series of cervical vertebrae ("Series B") underwent a similar reassignment. A scapula and coracoid overlapping the holotype's limb bones likely belongs to a second Gracilisuchus. There are three ilia, none of which belong to the holotype; one belongs to a specimen of Lagosuchus, another to Tropidosuchus. A right hindlimb and a left femur and tibia have been assigned to Tropidosuchus, and another one has been assigned to Lagosuchus. The right hindlimb's foot was originally assigned to Gracilisuchus.
Additional specimens and description
Three other specimens, stored at the MCZ, were found by Romer and his team in the same locality as the holotype. They are MCZ 1147, a nearly complete skull with jaws; MCZ 4118, parts of the skull, a well-preserved neck, and other elements; and MCZ 4116, a crushed skull and jaw with material from the rest of the body, some of it pertaining to a smaller specimen. José Bonaparte from the Miguel Lillo Institute (PVL) later collected additional material from the site between 1970 and 1972, including two new specimens: PVL 4597, the "Tucuman specimen", which includes a nearly complete skull and jaws, nearly complete cervical and dorsal vertebrae, partial sacral and caudal vertebrae, the hip girdle, most of the left hindlimb, and part of the hindlimb, which is 20% larger than the holotype; and PVL 4612, a nearly complete skull and jaws.
In 1972, Romer described the specimens his team had discovered in the journal Breviora. He named a new genus for the specimens, Gracilisuchus, with the prefix Gracili- referring to "the obviously graceful build of the little reptile". Furthermore, he placed them in the type and only species G. stipanicicorum, which honors the work of Pedro and Maria Stipanicic in the stratigraphy and paleobotany of the Triassic period. In this paper, Romer also provided a skeletal reconstruction of Gracilisuchus, due to his impression that nearly the entire skeleton was available. However, several elements had been erroneously referred by him. The lack of complete knowledge regarding its anatomy hampered subsequent studies of Gracilisuchus, until papers from Lecuona, Desojo, and Diego Pol in 2011 and 2017 redescribed its remains. The first of these focused on PVL 4597, while the second reviewed all of the known specimens.
Description
Gracilisuchus was a small member of the Pseudosuchia. The largest skull has a length of slightly over , and the largest femur has a length of roughly . In 1972, Alfred Romer estimated a total length of ; in 2014, Agustinia Lecuona and Julia Desojo estimated a length of for the body excluding the hip and tail. The weight of Gracilisuchus has been estimated at .
Skull
A number of characteristics of the skull can be used to distinguish Gracilisuchus. Its skull openings are relatively large, with the antorbital fenestra occupying 30-36% of the skull roof's length and the eye socket occupying 35-42% of the skull roof's length. Additionally, the supratemporal fenestra is, uniquely, wider than it is long. Within the eye socket, there is a sclerotic ring, and the ossicles (bony segments) comprising the ring contact but do not overlap each other. Unlike its closest relatives, Turfanosuchus and Yonghesuchus, but convergent upon Tropidosuchus, early theropods, and the Crocodylomorpha, the lacrimal bone is as tall as the eye socket instead of being significantly shorter.
Behind the eye socket, the vertical process of the jugal bone is uniquely straight. The backward process of the jugal is located underneath the forward process of the quadratojugal bone, convergent upon Erpetosuchus, Postosuchus, Polonosuchus, and the Crocodylomorpha, unlike Turfanosuchus and Yonghesuchus where they are the other way around. Furthermore, a postfrontal bone is present, with an outer process that is uniquely long and extends over the back of the eye socket. There is also a postparietal bone, which is small and triangular. At the back of the skull, the posttemporal foramen is large relative to the skull's width. Also unlike Turfanosuchus and Yonghesuchus, Gracilisuchus has four teeth in the premaxilla instead of five, like Prestosuchus, Saurosuchus, Fasolasuchus, Batrachotomus, the Rauisuchidae, and the Crocodylomorpha. There is no cutting edge, or carina, at the front of the premaxillary teeth, and they lack serrated denticles on either the front or rear edges.
Vertebrae
There are eight cervical vertebrae. Unlike Turfanosuchus, Euparkeria, Fasolasuchus, Saurosuchus, and sphenosuchians, the suture between the centrum and neural arch of the axis (second cervical) bears an unrounded, triangular upward projection. There is a long, narrow longitudinal keel on the bottom of the axis, which is also seen in Riojasuchus, Saurosuchus, the aetosaur Stagonolepis, and phytosaurs. The front border of the neural spine is uniquely high and vertical, while the rear border is concave like Turfanosuchus but unlike Erpetosuchus. Similar to both, the articular process known as the postzygapophysis projects over the back of the centrum, but it is uniquely in the horizontal plane. The remaining cervicals have poorly-developed keels on their bottom surfaces, in contrast to Erpetosuchus, Nundasuchus, aetosaurs, Saurosuchus, and Riojasuchus. The sides of their centra have long depressions, like Turfanosuchus, aetosaurs, Batrachotomus, and Ticinosuchus.
In at least the fourth, sixth, and seventh cervicals, there are narrow, rounded "tables" at the base of the neural spines, like Turfanosuchus and Euparkeria. There are circular depressions at the front of the neural spines, above the neural arches, a trait shared with Turfanosuchus. The postzygapophyses are located at the same level as another set of processes, the prezygapophyses, like Turfanosuchus, Erpetosuchus, and Ornithosuchus. The top margin of the postzygapophyses are convex like Turfanosuchus. There are depressions below the postzygapophyses, which are not seen in any other archosaurs except for Stagonosuchus and Batrachotomus, where they are deeper. Another set of processes known as the parapophyses extend backwards onto longitudinal ridges, like Nundasuchus, Batrachotomus, and Postosuchus.
There are sixteen dorsal vertebrae. Like Parringtonia, Nundasuchus, and other archosaurs, the articulating surfaces of their centra are flat. The keels on their bottom surfaces are again very weak, which is unlike Riojasuchus, Erpetosuchus, Parringtonia, and Nundasuchus, but like aetosaurs. There are no "tables" on the neural spines either, unlike Turfanosuchus, Erpetosuchus, Parringtonia, aetosaurs, Nundasuchus, and Ticinosuchus. Like Turfanosuchus, Parringtonia, and Nundasuchus, the prezygapophyses are located at the same level as the top of the front of some of the centra. Some of the sideways-projecting transverse processes have somewhat deep cavities underneath, like Turfanosuchus, but they are more poorly developed than Nundasuchus, Batrachotomus, or Stagonosuchus.
Two sacral vertebrae are known. The transverse processes of the first sacral, which are nearly fused to the ribs, are separated from the neural spines by two pairs of grooves which form an acute angle. The second sacral's neural arch also bears a long depression on its top surface. The appearance of these characteristics are more similar to Turfanosuchus than Nundasuchus. Uniquely, the outer edges of the first pair of sacral ribs are longer than their inner edges. The second pair has a more prominent expansion, also seen in Turfanosuchus, Euparkeria, and Saurosuchus. The two pairs did not contact each other, like Euparkeria. There were at least 16 caudal (tail) vertebrae. Their neural spines do not have accessory processes at their front margins, like Turfanosuchus and Euparkeria but unlike other basal archosaurs. They also lack "tables", unlike Turfanosuchus and Parringtonia.
Limbs
In the shoulder girdle, the end of the scapular blade is widely and asymmetrically expanded, unlike Turfanosuchus, Batrachotomus, and Ticinosuchus, but similar to the crocodylomorph Dromicosuchus. Unlike Turfanosuchus but like Terrestrisuchus and Dibothrosuchus, the articulation with the radius on the humerus is narrower than the one with the ulna. The width of the bottom end of the humerus is 2.5 times that of the shaft, like Batrachotomus (2.5), Ticinosuchus (2.7), Postosuchus (2.4), and Terrestrisuchus (2.4), but smaller than Turfanosuchus (3.75).
In the pelvis, the ilium has a weakly expanded frontal process, like Turfanosuchus, Euparkeria, Postosuchus, and Caiman. The front of the articulation with the pubis reaches further than the process, like Turfanosuchus, Euparkeria, Saurosuchus, Postosuchus, and Lagerpeton. Meanwhile, the rear process is long, like Turfanosuchus and Postosuchus. There is a shelf along the bottom of this process, most similar to those of Terrestrisuchus, Dromicosuchus, and Marasuchus. The sacral ribs articulate at this shelf, unlike Turfanosuchus where the shelf is located above. The acetabulum, or hip socket, of Gracilisuchus was larger than other archosauriforms. Like Turfanosuchus, Marasuchus, Lagerpeton, and other archosaurs, the acetabulum does not bear a perforation, and there is a buttress above the acetabulum for the femur.
Unusually, but like Tropidosuchus, Protosuchus, and Orthosuchus, the articulation with the ilium on the pubis is short. There is a small bony tongue projecting downwards from this articulation, which has only been recognized in Postosuchus. There is no prominent surface of the acetabulum on the pubis, nor is there a visible articulation with the ischium; the former is similar to Fasolasuchus and Orthosuchus, and the latter is similar to living crocodilians. An L-shaped lamina is present on the rear surface of the "apron" of the pubis. The articulation between the two halves of the ischium is characteristically close to the top of the bone, with the separated portion being only 22% the length of the bone; Ornithosuchus may have a similar condition.
Roughly the bottom 55% of the femur is bowed, resulting in a sigmoidal shape. The top of the femoral head is expanded towards the midline, with the expansion closely resembling those of Fasolasuchus, Postosuchus, and the phytosaur Parasuchus. There is also a small forward projection like Pseudohesperosuchus. Like Macelognathus and Trialestes, the fourth trochanter, an archosauriform characteristic, is poorly-developed. On the bottom end, the groove separating the articulations with the tibia and fibula is shallow, like Turfanosuchus, Euparkeria, Tropidosuchus, Riojasuchus, Marasuchus, and Lagerpeton. Depressions on the rear and outer surfaces are equally poorly-developed, as in Aetosauroides and Marasuchus. The tibia is 90% of the femur's length, like other basal archosaurs, with a straight shaft, like Euparkeria, Aetosauroides, Neoaetosauroides, Fasolasuchus, Postosuchus, and Lagerpeton. The bottom end of the bone is wider than it is long, like Dromicosuchus. There is a bend about a quarter of the way down from the top of the fibula, where the elongate, weakly-developed iliofibular trochanter is located. Euparkeria, Marasuchus, Terrestrisuchus, Dromicosuchus, and Effigia have a similarly poorly-developed trochanter.
Like Turfanosuchus and other members of the Crurotarsi, Gracilisuchus has a "crocodile-normal" ankle joint, with the astragalus and calcaneum being joined with a "peg-and-socket" joint. Unlike Turfanosuchus, Euparkeria, and Marasuchus, the astragalus has a "screw-joint" articulation with the tibia, with slightly divergent articulating surfaces. Like Turfanosuchus and Euparkeria, the hollow on the front of the astraglus covers more than half of the surface. Unlike those two, the inner face of the astragalus has one flat surface instead of two. The calcaneum has a "sliding" articulation with the fibula like Turfanosuchus and other pseudosuchians. There is a notch on the back of the bone, like in Turfanosuchus, Aetosauroides, Fasolasuchus, Dromicosuchus, Protosuchus, and Caiman. The tuber beside the notch is directed backwards and is wider than high, like Turfanosuchus and aetosaurs. There are five digits in the foot, with the number of phalanges being preserved on each digit being 2-3-2-2-1 from the first digit to the fifth; the first digit is completely preserved.
Osteoderms
Gracilisuchus bore two rows of bony plates known as osteoderms above its neck and torso, with the first pair beginning immediately behind the skull. They do not appear to continue over the hip; this may be associated with the lack of "tables" in the neural spines of the rear vertebrae, or it may be an artifact of preservation. Like Turfanosuchus, Ticinosuchus, Saurosuchus, and Qianosuchus, there were two pairs of osteoderms over each vertebra. Each osteoderm slightly overlaps the one immediately behind it, and the left osteoderm of each row is slightly further forward than the right, creating an asymmetrical appearance. This staggered arrangement is also seen in Euparkeria, Ticinosuchus, Nundasuchus, Qianosuchus, Prestosuchus, and Saurosuchus.
While osteoderms from the frontmost row are triangular, osteoderms further behind are leaf-shaped. These leaf-shaped osteoderms have small forward projections where they meet each other at the midline, like Turfanosuchus and Euparkeria but unlike Postosuchus, Batrachotomus, and Saurosuchus, which possess osteoderms with forward projections situated further to the sides. The surface of each osteoderm bears a longitudinal midline crest, with a depression on either side. This is similar to Saurosuchus and Batrachotomus, but unlike Turfanosuchus, Euparkeria, Erpetosuchus, Parringtonia, and Postosuchus, which all have crests not on the midline. Different specimens of Gracilisuchus have different osteoderm surface textures; some are smooth like Turfanosuchus, while others bear radial pits and grooves like Erpetosuchus.
Classification
Interpretation as an ornithosuchid
Romer considered Gracilisuchus to be, "quite clear[ly]", a relative of the Scottish Ornithosuchus, owing to similarities in skull structure and other skeletal features. When Alick Walker described Ornithosuchus in 1964, he suggested that Teratosaurus and Sinosaurus were its closest relatives, collectively forming the family Ornithosuchidae. He further suggested that they were theropod dinosaurs. At this time, theropods were divided into two groups following Romer's 1956 classification: the Coelurosauria (long-necked, small-headed theropods) and Carnosauria (short-necked, large-headed theropods). Walker considered ornithosuchids to belong to the latter group, due to strong morphological similarities between the limb girdles of Ornithosuchus, Albertosaurus, Gorgosaurus, and Antrodemus (=Allosaurus). He identified ornithosuchids as the ancestral Triassic stock from which Jurassic and Cretaceous carnosaurs originated.
This assessment remained fairly popular in ensuing years, and was adopted by Romer for the 1966 edition of his textbook Vertebrate Paleontology. By the time of Romer's description of Gracilisuchus in 1972, the geographic range of ornithosuchids had expanded to include the Argentinian Venaticosuchus and Riojasuchus, which had been referred to the family by Bonaparte in 1969. Romer noted that Gracilisuchus was the smallest and oldest known member of the group to date, and accordingly had a fairly basal morphology (notwithstanding supposedly aberrant traits such as the partial closure of the infratemporal fenestra). However, he had reservations regarding Walker's identification of ornithosuchids as dinosaurs, noting basal archosaur traits such as the closed acetabulum, osteoderms, and crocodile-normal ankle. Thus, he considered the supposedly carnosaurian features to be products of convergence.
Reidentification as a non-ornithosuchid
Doubts arose in following years regarding whether Gracilisuchus was actually referable to the Ornithosuchidae. In 1979, Arthur Cruickshank separated pseudosuchians ("crocodile-line" archosaurs) into two groups based on whether they bore "crocodile-normal" or "crocodile-reversed" (where the peg and socket are located on the opposite bones) ankles. He observed that, while Gracilisuchus had a "crocodile-normal" joint, other ornithosuchids had a "crocodile-reversed" joint; he thus removed Gracilisuchus from the Ornithosuchidae. Donald Brinkman noted in 1981 that, without further information regarding the origin of "crocodile-reversed" joints, it would be possible that "crocodile-normal" joints represent the basal condition, which was retained in Gracilisuchus, with "crocodile-reversed" joints representing a specialization of later ornithosuchids.
However, at the same time, Brinkman noted a number of other traits in Gracilisuchus that differ from "advanced" ornithosuchids. These include the rectangular antorbital fenestra; the rounded bottom of the eye socket due to the absence of a prominent projection of the jugal bone in front of the eye; the tall, slender quadratojugal bone; the lack of a gap between the teeth of the premaxilla and maxilla; the rectangular infratemporal fenestra; a concave flange on the rear of the squamosal bone; the rear of the mandible of the lower jaw being unforked, and extending backwards only above the mandibular fenestra; the splenial bone forming the bottom of the jaw as opposed to being restricted to its inner surface; the lack of keels in the cervical vertebrae; and the presence of two osteoderm rows over each vertebra instead of one. The first, fourth, and fifth of these are shared with Euparkeria, leading Brinkman to consider them as basal traits; however, Euparkeria is more similar to "advanced" ornithosuchids with respect to the other traits.
According to Brinkman, this left two possibilities: either Gracilisuchus was derived from the basal ornithosuchid condition in a manner different from other ornithosuchids, or it represents a different evolutionary radiation altogether, separate from the ornithosuchids. He noted intriguing similarities between Gracilisuchus and members of the Sphenosuchia; the third and sixth of the above traits are shared with Sphenosuchus and Pseudohesperosuchus, while the ninth is shared with Lewisuchus. Thus, in a phylogenetic tree, Brinkman tentatively depicted Gracilisuchus as being closer to the "crocodile-line" Erythrosuchidae, the Rauisuchidae, and the Stagonolepididae (=Aetosauria) than the Ornithosuchidae and the Euparkeriidae.
Inclusion in the Suchia and Crurotarsi
Phylogenetic analysis soon supported Brinkman's hypothesis that Gracilisuchus was closer to "crocodile-line" archosaurs. In 1988, Michael Benton and James Clark published a phylogenetic analysis incorporating Gracilisuchus and 16 other taxa. It was recovered as a member of the Suchia, a group defined by Bernard Krebs as being characterized by a "crocodile-normal" ankle, among other characteristics. Within the Suchia, they found that Gracilisuchus was the sister taxon of crocodylomorphs and "pseudosuchians" (which they restrictively defined to include rauisuchids and stagonolepidids). It was differentiated from the latter two by the presence of postparietals and the absence of: a pit between the basioccipital and basisphenoid bones; fusion between the atlas (first cervical) and the intercentrum, an element below the axis; accessory processes on the caudal neural spines; and osteoderms on the bottom of the tail. Meanwhile, ornithosuchids were closer to dinosaurs in the Ornithosuchia, and Euparkeria was the sister taxon of the group containing suchians and ornithosuchians.
In 1990, Paul Sereno and Andrea Arcucci suggested that ornithosuchids - in which they included Gracilisuchus - were actually closer to the conventional "crocodile-line" archosaurs than dinosaurs. They named the collective group of Suchia, Ornithosuchidae, and Parasuchia (=Phytosauria) as the Crurotarsi, and noted some uniting characteristics: the strong inward arch of the top of the humerus; the bottom end of the fibula being wider than the top; the specialized "sliding" articulation between the fibula and calcaneum; the "screw-joint" articulation between the tibia and astragalus; the robust tuber of the calcaneum, with a flared bottom end; and a "recess" at the back of the top end of the pubis. Gracilisuchus was identified as an exception for additional uniting traits, such as the robust trochanter on the fibula and the single row of osteoderms per vertebra. This classification was further revised by Sereno in 1991, when he removed Gracilisuchus from the ornithosuchids, and used it to define Suchia's contents.
Phylogenetic "limbo"
Subsequent analyses did not reach a consensus on the relationships between Gracilisuchus and other crurotarsans. Despite this ambiguity, Gracilisuchus has been widely used as the staple outgroup, or taxon representing a basal condition, in analyses of more derived pseudosuchians such as crocodylomorphs, including both crocodyliforms and sphenosuchians (now known to be a paraphyletic assemblage of non-crocodyliform crocodylomorphs).
J. Michael Parrish's 1993 analysis noted that a "splint-like" fifth metatarsal in the foot, likely a consequence of the compaction of the foot, united Gracilisuchus with its sister group, the newly defined Paracrocodylomorpha (Poposauridae and Crocodylomorpha). They formed the Rauisuchia along with the Rauisuchidae. However, Parrish also noted that Gracilisuchus differed from other rauisuchians in the absence of an ossification at the back of the top of the skull, and the absence of a fenestra between the premaxilla and maxilla. In a 1994 analysis, Lars Juul moved Gracilisuchus inside the Paracrocodylomorpha, placing it as the sister taxon of Postosuchus (then a poposaurid). Paracrocodylomorpha, in turn, was united with the Ornithosuchidae to form the Dromaeosuchia. Both analyses suggested that the squamosal flange of Gracilisuchus was homologous with that of Postosuchus and crocodylomorphs.
Descriptions of material from Erpetosuchus in the early 2000s were accompanied by further analyses incorporating Gracilisuchus. In a 2000 description of North American material, Paul Olsen, Hans-Dieter Sues, and Mark Norell recovered Gracilisuchus as more derived than Stagonolepis but more basal than Postosuchus, Erpetosuchus, and crocodylomorphs. Later, in a 2002 revision of the genus, Benton and Walker found contrasting hypotheses for the position of Gracilisuchus: as being more derived than a group containing Ornithosuchus and rauisuchians (Saurosuchus, Batrachotomus, Prestosuchus); or being in a polytomy with Ornithosuchus and rauisuchians. In both cases, it was more basal than the same group in Olsen and colleagues' analysis, being united by a ridge on the squamosal bone above the supratemporal fenestra and the absence of a foramen on the quadrate.
In an analysis for the 2004 second edition of The Dinosauria, Benton performed another phylogenetic analysis, finding Gracilisuchus to be the sister taxon of the Phytosauria (by then renamed from the Parasuchia). They formed a polytomy with Ornithosuchidae, which was in a basal position relative to the Suchia (defined to include Stagonolepididae, Postosuchus, and Crocodylomorpha), Fasolasuchus, and the Prestosuchidae. Later, in 2006, the same relationship with the Phytosauria was recovered by Chun Li and colleagues in a phylogenetic analysis conducted for the supplementary material of the description of Qianosuchus. They found that group to be in a polytomy with Ornithosuchidae; Qianosuchus; the group of Postosuchus and Crocodylomorpha; and the group of Stagonolepididae, Fasolasuchus, and Prestosuchidae.
Stephen Brusatte, Benton, Desojo, and Max Langer conducted the most comprehensive phylogenetic analysis at the time in 2010. They noted Gracilisuchus had been a "singleton" taxon in prior analyses, one that couldn't be definitely placed in any particular group. In their own analysis, Gracilisuchus was the sister taxon of a group containing Erpetosuchus and the Crocodylomorpha, which along with the Aetosauria (by then renamed from the Stagonolepididae) formed one branch of the Suchia. Although they found strong support for this grouping in the form of eight synapomorphies (shared traits), with two of them (involving the ossification and position of the perilymphatic foramen of the braincase) being unambiguous, later assessment noted that this may have resulted from poor non-rauisuchian sampling. Meanwhile, Revueltosaurus and ornithosuchids formed a group on the opposite branch of the Suchia, being closer to rauisuchians.
In 2011, Sterling Nesbitt conducted another, better-sampled phylogenetic analysis. Contrary to Parrish and Juul, he found that Gracilisuchus acquired a squamosal flange independently of Postosuchus and crocodylomorphs. Although he recovered a variety of positions for Gracilisuchus in different trees, all of them agreed that Gracilisuchus was a basal suchian, and was closer to crocodylomorphs than the non-archosaurian phytosaurs. The consensus found Gracilisuchus to be in a polytomy with a group of Revueltosaurus and Aetosauria; Turfanosuchus; and a group of Ticinosaurus and Paracrocodylomorpha. He noted that the removal of Turfanosuchus allied Gracilisuchus with ornithosuchids in one possible tree, with this relationship being based upon unambiguous synapomorphies such as the presence of three premaxillary teeth; the length of the pubis being more than 70% that of the femur; the pubis being longer than the ischium; the presence of a midline gap at the bottom of the ischium; and the lack of a "hook" at the top end of the fifth metatarsal.
Formation of the Gracilisuchidae
The redescription of the hindlimbs of Gracilisuchus by Lecuona and Desojo in 2011 allowed additional data to be incorporated into subsequent analyses. Lecuona and Desojo also noted that the poor development of the fourth trochanter and femoral head was shared with members of the Sphenosuchia, which allowed for the possibility that they formed a monophyletic group. However, they also noted that Nesbitt's analysis provides support for a position outside the Crocodylomorpha, due to the absence of a perforated acetabulum.
In 2014, an analysis led by Richard Butler, modified from that of Nesbitt, suggested for the first time that Gracilisuchus formed a group with Turfanosuchus and Yonghesuchus, two basal suchians with similarly convoluted taxonomic histories. The group was named the Gracilisuchidae. They found that Gracilisuchidae was the sister taxon of a group containing Ticinosuchus and the Paracrocodylomorpha, with all of these collectively forming the sister taxon to a group consisting of Revueltosaurus and the Aetosauria; both sub-groups had previously been recovered by Nesbitt. Strong support was obtained for the Gracilisuchidae in the form of six unambiguous synapomorphies: a process on the back of the premaxilla that fits into a slot on outer surface of the nasal bone; the nasal bordering the top of the antorbital fenestra; the tapering frontal bone; the presence of a depression on the bottom of the calcaneal tuber; the osteoderms bending downwards at their outer edges; and the presence of a triangular process bearing a clear apex on the maxilla.
Within the Gracilisuchidae, Butler and colleagues noted that Gracilisuchus was likely closer to Yonghesuchus than Turfanosuchus, on account of three synapomorphies: the contact between the squamosal and postorbital bones continuing backwards along much of the former's bottom surface; the jugal stopping short at its rear end of the infratemporal fenestra; and the conjunction of the basisphenoid and parasphenoid being located between plate-like, triangular projections of the basioccipital known as tubera, with the basipterygoid processes at the base of the basisphenoid being at least 1.5 times longer than it is wide. However, poor support for this relationship was obtained, partially due to the incompleteness of material referred to Yonghesuchus.
Lecuona, Desojo, and Pol conducted another analysis, building upon the work of Butler and colleagues as well as Lecuona's 2013 thesis, in 2017 to accompany their redescription of Gracilisuchus. They uncovered the same phylogenetic arrangements within the Gracilisuchidae and in relation to other pseudosuchians. However, their analysis was able to provide a well-resolved tree even with the inclusion of the erpetosuchids (Erpetosuchus and Parringtonia); the inclusion of erpetosuchids had collapsed Gracilisuchidae into a polytomy in Butler and colleagues' analysis. Lecuona and colleagues added two synapomorphies of Gracilisuchidae to those listed by Butler: the absence of the jugal's contribution to the postorbital bar behind the eye socket, and the articulations with the fibula and astragalus forming a continuous structure on the calcaneum. They also removed the original character involving the calcaneal tuber. Finally, they added one synapomorphy uniting Gracilisuchus and Yonghesuchus: the absence of the postorbital's contribution to the border of the infratemporal fenestra.
Palaeobiology
Posture
Owing to its supposed affinities with Ornithosuchus, Romer reconstructed Gracilisuchus as a facultative biped in his initial description. Both Walker and Bonaparte noted that the forelimbs of ornithosuchids were considerably reduced relative to the hindlimbs, with likewise reduced fingers that were more suitable for grasping than locomotion. Although the hand is not preserved in Gracilisuchus, Romer noted that its forelimbs were three-fifths the lengths of the hindlimbs, like ornithosuchids; however, this interpretation was based on material which has since been reassigned.
Palaeoecology
Stratigraphic context
The locality where Gracilisuchus was discovered is known as the Los Chañares locality, and is located at . It consists of badlands at the base of a latitudinal escarpment, with the exposed rocks being composed of feldspar and quartz grains, along with glass shards, embedded in a geology silica and clay. These rocks belong to the lower portion of the Chañares Formation, which locally overlies the Tarjados Formation and underlies the Los Rastros Formation. Starting about above the boundary between the Tarjados and Chañares Formations, brown concretions of carbonate are present throughout the rock. It is in these concretions that the remains of Gracilisuchus and other tetrapods have been found.
Unlike other Carnian (Late Triassic) formations, there are no dinosaur remains in the Chañares Formation. This has led researchers to assign a Middle Triassic age to the Chañares. Owing to shared faunal components, correlations with the Dinodontosaurus Assemblage Zone of the Santa Maria Formation in Brazil have been used to assign a Ladinian age to the Chañares. Argon–argon dating of the Ischigualasto Formation (which locally overlies the Los Rastros) in 1993 also produced an age near the Ladinian–Carnian boundary, thus constraining the Chañares to the Ladinian. However, more accurate uranium–lead dating subsequently necessitated revisions of the geologic time scale. The Ischigualasto was reassigned to the late Carnian, making a Carnian age possible for the Chañares. This was reaffirmed by uranium-lead dating of Chañares deposits in 2016, indicating an early Carnian age of 236 to 234 million years.
Notes
References
External links
Crocodylomorpha fossil record
Gracilisuchids
Late Triassic pseudosuchians
Late Triassic reptiles of South America
Triassic Argentina
Fossils of Argentina
Fossil taxa described in 1972
Prehistoric pseudosuchian genera
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/My%20Fair%20Lady%20%28film%29
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My Fair Lady (film)
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My Fair Lady is a 1964 American musical comedy-drama film adapted from the 1956 Lerner and Loewe stage musical based on George Bernard Shaw's 1913 stage play Pygmalion. With a screenplay by Alan Jay Lerner and directed by George Cukor, the film depicts a poor Cockney flower-seller named Eliza Doolittle who overhears an arrogant phonetics professor, Henry Higgins, as he casually wagers that he could teach her to speak "proper" English, thereby making her presentable in the high society of Edwardian London.
The film stars Audrey Hepburn as Eliza Doolittle—replacing Julie Andrews from the stage musical—and Rex Harrison as Henry Higgins—reprising his role from the stage musical—with Stanley Holloway, Gladys Cooper and Wilfrid Hyde-White in supporting roles. A critical and commercial success, it became the second highest-grossing film of 1964 and won eight Academy Awards, including Best Picture, Best Director and Best Actor. American Film Institute included the film as #91 in its 1998 AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies, as #12 in its 2002 AFI's 100 Years...100 Passions, and as #8 in its 2006 AFI's Greatest Movie Musicals.
In 2018, the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant."
Plot
In London, Professor Henry Higgins, a scholar of phonetics, believes that the accent and tone of one's voice determines a person's prospects in society ("Why Can't the English?"). At the Covent Garden fruit-and-vegetable market one evening, he meets Colonel Hugh Pickering, himself a phonetics expert who had come from India to see him. Higgins boasts he could teach even Eliza Doolittle, the young flower seller woman with a strong Cockney accent, to speak so well he could pass her off as a duchess at an embassy ball. Eliza's ambition is to work in a flower shop, but her accent makes that impossible ("Wouldn't It Be Loverly"). The following morning, Eliza shows up at Higgins' home, seeking lessons. Pickering is intrigued and offers to cover all the attendant expenses if Higgins succeeds. Higgins agrees and describes how women ruin lives ("I'm an Ordinary Man").
Eliza's father, Alfred P. Doolittle, a dustman, learns of his daughter's new residence ("With a Little Bit of Luck"). He shows up at Higgins' house three days later, ostensibly to protect his daughter's virtue, but in reality to extract some money from Higgins, and is bought off with £5. Higgins is impressed by the man's honesty, his natural gift for language, and especially his brazen lack of morals. Higgins recommends Alfred to a wealthy American who is interested in morality.
Eliza endures Higgins' demanding teaching methods and treatment of her personally ("Just You Wait"), while the servants feel both annoyed with the noise as well as pity for Higgins ("Servants' Chorus"). She makes no progress, but just as she, Higgins, and Pickering are about to give up, Eliza finally "gets it" ("The Rain in Spain"); she instantly begins to speak with an impeccable upper-class accent, and is overjoyed at her breakthrough ("I Could Have Danced All Night").
As a trial run, Higgins takes her to Ascot Racecourse ("Ascot Gavotte"), where she makes a good impression initially, only to shock everyone by a sudden lapse into vulgar Cockney while cheering on a horse. Higgins partly conceals a grin behind his hand. At Ascot, she meets Freddy Eynsford-Hill, a young upper-class man who becomes infatuated with her ("On the Street Where You Live").
Higgins then takes Eliza to an embassy ball for the final test, where she dances with a foreign prince. Also present is Zoltan Karpathy, a Hungarian phonetics expert trained by Higgins, who is an impostor detector. After he dances with Eliza, he declares that she is a Hungarian princess.
Afterward, Eliza's hard work is barely acknowledged, with all the praise going to Higgins ("You Did It"). This and his callous treatment of her, especially his indifference to her future, causes her to walk out on him, but not before she throws Higgins' slippers at him, leaving him mystified by her ingratitude ("Just You Wait (Reprise)"). Outside, Freddy is still waiting ("On the Street Where You Live (Reprise)") and greets Eliza, who is irritated by him as all he does is talk ("Show Me"). Eliza tries to return to her old life but finds that she no longer fits in. She meets her father, who has been left a large fortune by the wealthy American to whom Higgins had recommended him, and is resigned to marrying Eliza's stepmother. Alfred feels that Higgins has ruined him, lamenting that he is now bound by "middle-class morality", in which he gets drunk before his wedding day ("Get Me to the Church On Time"). Eliza eventually ends up visiting Higgins' mother, who is outraged at her son's callous behavior.
The next day, Higgins finds Eliza gone and searches for her ("A Hymn to Him"), eventually finding her at his mother's house. Higgins attempts to talk Eliza into coming back to him. He becomes angered when she announces that she is going to marry Freddy and become Karpathy's assistant ("Without You"). He makes his way home, stubbornly predicting that she will come crawling back. However, he comes to the unsettling realization that she has become an important part of his life ("I've Grown Accustomed to Her Face"). He enters his house feeling lonely, reflecting on his callous behaviour and missing Eliza so much that he turns on his gramophone and listens to her voice. Suddenly, Eliza reappears at the door and turns it off to catch his attention, with Higgins asking, "Eliza, where the devil are my slippers?"
Cast
Audrey Hepburn as Eliza Doolittle
Rex Harrison as Professor Henry Higgins
Stanley Holloway as Alfred P. Doolittle
Wilfrid Hyde-White as Colonel Hugh Pickering
Gladys Cooper as Mrs. Higgins
Jeremy Brett as Freddy Eynsford-Hill
Theodore Bikel as Zoltan Karpathy
Mona Washbourne as Mrs. Pearce, Higgins' housekeeper
Isobel Elsom as Mrs. Eynsford-Hill
John Holland as the Butler
Uncredited:
John Alderson as Jamie
Marjorie Bennett as Cockney with pipe
Betty Blythe as Lady at the ball
Walter Burke as Cockney bystander telling Eliza about Higgins taking notes about her
Henry Daniell as the British Ambassador (in his last film role)
Charles Fredericks as Edward VII in Eliza's fantasy (only in the film version, not in the CD version)
Jack Greening as George, the bartender
Lillian Kemble-Cooper as Female Ambassador (in yellow dress) at the ball
Queenie Leonard as Cockney bystander
Moyna Macgill as Lady Boxington
Philo McCullough as Ball Guest
John McLiam as Harry
Alan Napier as Gentleman who escorts Eliza to the Queen of Transylvania
Barbara Pepper as Doolittle's dancing partner
Olive Reeves-Smith as Mrs. Hopkins
Baroness Rothschild as the Queen of Transylvania
Grady Sutton as Ball Guest
Musical numbers
"Overture" – played by orchestra
"Why Can't the English Learn to Speak?" – performed by Rex Harrison, Wilfrid Hyde-White and Audrey Hepburn
"Wouldn't It Be Loverly?" – performed by Audrey Hepburn (dubbed by Marni Nixon) and chorus
"An Ordinary Man" – performed by Rex Harrison
"With a Little Bit of Luck" – performed by Stanley Holloway, John Alderson, John McLiam, and chorus
"Just You Wait" – sung by Audrey Hepburn (partially dubbed by Nixon) and Charles Fredericks
"Servants Chorus" – sung by Mona Washbourne and chorus
"The Rain in Spain" – performed by Rex Harrison, Wilfrid Hyde-White, and Audrey Hepburn (partially dubbed by Nixon)
"I Could Have Danced All Night" – performed by Audrey Hepburn (dubbed by Nixon), Mona Washbourne and chorus
"Ascot Gavotte" – sung by chorus
"Ascot Gavotte (Reprise)" – sung by chorus
"On the Street Where You Live" – sung by Jeremy Brett (dubbed by Bill Shirley)
"Intermission" – played by orchestra
"Transylvanian March" – played by orchestra
"Embassy Waltz" – played by orchestra
"You Did It" – performed by Rex Harrison, Wilfrid Hyde-White, and chorus
"Just You Wait (Reprise)" – sung by Audrey Hepburn
"On the Street Where You Live" (reprise) – sung by Jeremy Brett (dubbed by Shirley)
"Show Me" – performed by Audrey Hepburn (dubbed by Marni Nixon) and Jeremy Brett (dubbed by Shirley)
"Wouldn't It Be Loverly" (reprise) – performed by Audrey Hepburn (dubbed by Marni Nixon) and chorus
"Get Me to the Church on Time" – performed by Stanley Holloway, John Alderson, John McLiam, and chorus
"A Hymn to Him (Why Can't A Woman Be More Like a Man?)" – performed by Rex Harrison and Wilfrid Hyde-White
"Without You" – performed by Audrey Hepburn (dubbed by Nixon) and Rex Harrison
"I've Grown Accustomed to Her Face" – performed by Rex Harrison
"Finale" – played by orchestra
The partly-spoken delivery of the songs given by Harrison is a well-known example of sprechstimme.
Production
CBS head William S. Paley financed the original Broadway production in exchange for the rights to the cast album (through Columbia Records). Warner Bros. bought the film rights in February 1962 for the then-unprecedented sum of $5.5 million (equivalent to $ million in ) plus 47¼% of the gross over $20 million. It was agreed that the rights to the film would revert to CBS seven years following release.
When Jack Warner acquired the film rights, he replaced Julie Andrews in the role of Eliza Doolittle and cast Audrey Hepburn instead. The public was outraged, such was Andrews' popularity in the role on Broadway. Alan Jay Lerner broke the news to her when Andrews had moved to his production of Camelot: “I so wanted you to do it, Julie, but they wanted a name.”
The entire movie was filmed at Warner Bros. Studios, Burbank, California, from August to December, 1963. Principal filming took place on six stages of the studio, specifically: 4, 7, 8, 11, 16, and 26.
Order of musical numbers
The order of the songs in the Broadway show was followed faithfully with the exception of "With a Little Bit of Luck"; the song is listed as the third musical number in the play, but in the film, it is the fourth. On stage, the song is split into two parts sung in two different scenes. Part of the song is sung by Doolittle and his cronies just after Eliza gives him part of her earnings, immediately before she goes to Higgins to ask for speech lessons. The second half of the song is sung by Doolittle just after he discovers that Eliza is now living with Higgins. In the film, the entire song is sung in one scene that takes place just after Higgins has sung "I'm an Ordinary Man." However, the song does have a dialogue scene (Doolittle's conversation with Eliza's landlady) between verses.
The instrumental "Busker Sequence", which opens the play immediately after the overture, is the only musical number from the play omitted in the film version. However, several measures from the piece may be heard when Eliza is in the rain, making her way through Covent Garden.
All of the songs in the film were performed in their entirety, but some verses were omitted. For example, in the song "With a Little Bit of Luck", the verse "He does not have a tuppence in his pocket," which was sung with a chorus, was omitted because of its space and length; the original verse in "Show Me" was used instead.
The stanzas of "You Did It" that come after Higgins says "She is a princess" were originally written for the stage, but Harrison hated the lyrics and refused to perform the song unless the lyrics were omitted, as they were in most Broadway versions. However, when Cukor threatened to leave the production if the omitted lyrics were not restored for the film version, Harrison obliged. The omitted lyrics end with the words "Hungarian rhapsody" followed by the servants shouting "Bravo" three times, to the strains of Liszt's "Hungarian Rhapsody", before the servants sing "Congratulations, Professor Higgins."
Dubbing
Hepburn's singing was judged inadequate, and she was dubbed by Marni Nixon, who sang all songs except "Just You Wait", in which Hepburn's voice was preserved during the harsh-toned chorus, with Nixon on the melodic bridge section. Hepburn sang the brief reprise of the song in tears. Some of Hepburn's original vocal performances were released in the 1990s. Less well known is the fact that Jeremy Brett's songs (as Freddy) were dubbed by Bill Shirley.
Harrison declined to prerecord his musical numbers, explaining that he had never talked his way through the songs the same way twice and thus could not convincingly lip-sync to a playback recording during filming (according to Jack L. Warner, dubbing had been commonplace for years, stating, "We even dubbed Rin Tin Tin."). George Groves equipped Harrison with a wireless microphone, the first such use during filming of a motion picture. The sound department earned an Academy Award for its efforts.
Intermission
One of the few differences in structure between the stage version and the film is the placement of the intermission. In the stage play, the intermission occurs after the embassy ball at which Eliza dances with Karpathy. In the film, the intermission comes before the ball as Eliza, Higgins and Pickering are seen departing for the embassy.
Art direction
Gene Allen, Cecil Beaton and George James Hopkins won an Academy Award for Best Production Design. Beaton's inspiration for Higgins' library was a room at the Château de Groussay, Montfort-l'Amaury, in France, which had been decorated opulently by its owner, Carlos de Beistegui. Hats were created by Parisian milliner at Beaton's request.
Release
Theatrical
The film had its premiere at the Criterion Theatre in New York on Wednesday, October 21, 1964, with its regular run starting the following day with a $500,000 advance.
With a production budget of $17 million, My Fair Lady was the most expensive film shot in the United States up to that time.
Later releases
The film was re-released in 1971 and earned rentals of $2 million in the United States and Canada. It was re-released again in 1994, this time by 20th Century Fox, after a thorough restoration.
In 2019, the film was given a limited theatrical re-release through Turner Classic Movies and Fathom Events on February 17 and 20 as part of TCM Big Screen Classics.
Home media
My Fair Lady was released in Ultra HD Blu-ray on May 25, 2021, by CBS' sister company and current rights holder, Paramount Home Entertainment.
Critical reception
Contemporary
My Fair Lady holds a 95% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 91 reviews, with an average rating of 8.6/10. The consensus states: "George Cukor's elegant, colorful adaptation of the beloved stage play is elevated to new heights thanks to winning performances by Audrey Hepburn and Rex Harrison." On Metacritic, the film holds a weighted average score of 95 out of 100 based on 15 critics, indicating "universal acclaim".
Bosley Crowther of The New York Times opened his contemporary review: "As Henry Higgins might have whooped, 'By George, they've got it!' They've made a superlative film from the musical stage show My Fair Lady—a film that enchantingly conveys the rich endowments of the famous stage production in a fresh and flowing cinematic form." Philip K. Scheuer of the Los Angeles Times reported from the New York premiere that "when the curtains came together at the finish of just three hours, three hours of Technicolored entertainment, I heard myself all but echoing Col. Pickering's proud summation of Eliza Doolittle's performances as a duchess at the Embassy Ball, 'a total triumph.'"
Robert J. Landry of Variety wrote: "It has riches of story, humor, acting and production values far beyond the average big picture. It is Hollywood at its best, Jack L. Warner's career capstone and a film that will go on without limits of playoff in reserved seat policy and world rentals."
The Monthly Film Bulletin of the UK declared that "with the range of talent, taste and sheer professionalism at work, from Shaw onwards, Warners could hardly have made a film which would do less than please most of the people most of the time. Their $17,000,000 investment looks as safe as houses." The review opined that Cukor directed with "great tact" but "a rather unnecessary circumspection. Scenes move at a steady, even pace, as though every word were worth its weight in gold (perhaps, in view of the price paid for the rights, it very nearly was). Especially, the decor tends to inhibit rather than release the film."
Brendan Gill of The New Yorker wrote that the film "has survived very nearly intact the always risky leap from stage to screen," adding, "Miss Hepburn isn't particularly convincing as a Cockney flower girl, but, having mastered her vowels and consonants in the 'rain in Spain' scene, she comes into her own." Richard L. Coe of The Washington Post also suggested that Hepburn's casting was the film's "basic flaw", describing her as "recognizably exquisite—but not 21—as the flower girl and to the later scenes she brings a real flirtatiousness quite un-Shavian." Nevertheless, Coe remarked that "there are some marvelous things which will make this a long-loved film," including Rex Harrison giving "one of the classic screen performances" that he correctly predicted was "an absolute certainty for next year's Oscars."
Retrospective
Chicago Sun-Times critic Roger Ebert gave the film four stars out of four, and, in 2006, he put it on his "Great Movies" list, praising Hepburn's performance, and calling the film "the best and most unlikely of musicals."
James Berardinelli wrote in a retrospective review, "Few genres of films are as magical as musicals, and few musicals are as intelligent and lively as My Fair Lady. It's a classic not because a group of stuffy film experts have labeled it as such, but because it has been, and always will be, a pure joy to experience."
Dave Whitaker of DavesMovieDatabase, a film aggregator site that combines other lists with box-office, ratings, and awards, lists My Fair Lady as the 100th greatest movie of all time, as the 9th greatest Musical of all time, and as the 30th most awarded movie of all time.
Retrospective analysis of My Fair Lady has been more mixed, with disagreement between reviewers about whether the movie critiques or affirms misogynistic and classist tropes.
Awards and nominations
Restoration
The film was restored in 1994 by James C. Katz and Robert A. Harris, who had restored Spartacus three years earlier. The restoration was commissioned and financed by CBS, to which the film rights reverted from Warner Bros. in 1971. CBS later hired Harris to lend his expertise to a new 4K restoration of the film for a 2015 Blu-ray release, working from 8K scans of the original camera negative and other surviving 65mm elements.
Planned remake
A new film of the musical was planned in 2008 with a screenplay by Emma Thompson, but the project did not materialize. Keira Knightley, Carey Mulligan, and Colin Firth were among the actors in consideration for the leading roles.
Soundtrack
Original Columbia Records LP
All tracks played by the Warner Bros. Studio Orchestra conducted by André Previn. Between brackets the singers.
"Overture"
"Why Can't the English Learn to Speak?" (Rex Harrison, Audrey Hepburn, Wilfrid Hyde-White)
"Wouldn't It Be Loverly?" (Marni Nixon (for Hepburn))
"I'm an Ordinary Man" (Harrison)
"With a Little Bit of Luck" (Stanley Holloway)
"Just You Wait" (Hepburn, Nixon)
"The Rain in Spain" (Harrison, Hepburn, Nixon, Hyde-White)
"I Could Have Danced All Night" (Nixon, Hepburn (one line))
"Ascot Gavotte"
"On the Street Where You Live" (Bill Shirley (for Jeremy Brett))
"You Did It" (Harrison, Hyde-White) (without the choir "Congratulations")
"Show Me" (Nixon, Shirley)
"Get Me to the Church on Time" (Holloway)
"A Hymn to Him (Why Can't a Woman Be More Like a Man?)" (Harrison, Hyde-White)
"Without You" (Nixon, Harrison)
"I've Grown Accustomed to Her Face" (Harrison)
Previously unreleased on LP, though included on the CD
"The Flower Market"
"Servants' Chorus"
"Ascot Gavotte (Reprise)"
"Intermission"
"The Transylvanian March"
"The Embassy Waltz"
"You Did It" (Harrison, Hyde-White) (with the servant's final choir "Congratulations")
"Just You Wait (Reprise)" (Audrey Hepburn)
"On the Street Where You Live (Reprise)" (Shirley)
"The Flowermarket" (containing the reprise of "Wouldn't It Be Loverly?") (Nixon)
"End Titles"
"Exit Music"
Certifications
See also
List of American films of 1964
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
1964 films
1964 comedy-drama films
1964 musical comedy films
1964 romantic comedy films
1960s American films
1960s English-language films
1960s musical comedy-drama films
1960s romantic comedy-drama films
1960s romantic musical films
André Previn albums
American musical comedy-drama films
American romantic comedy-drama films
American romantic musical films
Best Film BAFTA Award winners
Best Musical or Comedy Picture Golden Globe winners
Best Picture Academy Award winners
Films about gender
Films based on classical mythology
Films based on musicals
Films based on works by George Bernard Shaw
Films directed by George Cukor
Films featuring a Best Actor Academy Award-winning performance
Films featuring a Best Musical or Comedy Actor Golden Globe winning performance
Films scored by André Previn
Films scored by Frederick Loewe
Films set in the 1910s
Films set in London
Films shot in Los Angeles County, California
Films that won the Best Costume Design Academy Award
Films that won the Best Original Score Academy Award
Films that won the Best Sound Mixing Academy Award
Films whose art director won the Best Art Direction Academy Award
Films whose cinematographer won the Best Cinematography Academy Award
Films whose director won the Best Directing Academy Award
Films whose director won the Best Director Golden Globe
Films with screenplays by Alan Jay Lerner
United States National Film Registry films
Warner Bros. films
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenneth%20N.%20Stevens
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Kenneth N. Stevens
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Kenneth Noble Stevens (March 24, 1924 – August 19, 2013) was the Clarence J. LeBel Professor of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, and professor of health sciences and technology at the research laboratory of electronics at MIT. Stevens was head of the speech communication group in MIT's research laboratory of electronics (RLE), and was one of the world's leading scientists in acoustic phonetics.
He was awarded the National Medal of Science from President Bill Clinton in 1999, and the IEEE James L. Flanagan Speech and Audio Processing Award in 2004.
He died in 2013 from complications of Alzheimer's disease.
Education
Early education
Ken Stevens was born in Toronto on March 23, 1924. His older brother, Pete, was born in England; Ken was born four years later, shortly after the family emigrated to Canada. His childhood ambition was to become a doctor, because he admired an uncle who was a doctor. He attended high school at a school attached to the department of education at the University of Toronto.
Stevens attended college in the school of engineering at the University of Toronto on a full scholarship. He lived at home throughout his undergraduate years. Though Stevens himself could not fight in World War II because of his visual impairment, his brother was away for the entire war; his parents tuned in nightly to the BBC for updates. Stevens majored in engineering physics at the university, covering topics from the design of motorized machines through to basic physics, which was taught by the physics department. During summers he worked in the defense industry, including one summer at a company that was developing radar. He received both his S.B. and S.M. degrees in 1945.
Stevens had been a teacher since his undergraduate years, when he lectured sections of home economics that involved some aspect of physics. After receiving his master's degree, he stayed at the University of Toronto as an instructor, teaching courses to young men returning from the war, including his own older brother. He was a fellow of the Ontario Foundation from 1945 to 1946, then worked as an instructor at the University of Toronto until 1948.
During his master's research Stevens became interested in control theory, and took courses from the applied mathematics department, where one of his professors recommended that he should apply to MIT for doctoral studies.
Doctoral studies
Shortly after Stevens was admitted to MIT, a new professor named Leo Beranek noticed that Stevens had taken acoustics. Beranek contacted Stevens in Toronto, to ask if he would be a teaching assistant for Beranek's new acoustics course, and Stevens agreed. Shortly after that, Beranek contacted Stevens again to offer him a research position on a new speech project, which Stevens also accepted. The Radiation Laboratory at MIT (building 20) was converted, after the war, into the Research Laboratory of Electronics (RLE); among other labs, RLE hosted Beranek's new Acoustics Lab.
In November 1949, the office next to Ken's was given to a visiting doctoral student from Sweden named Gunnar Fant, with whom he formed a friendship and collaboration that would last more than half a century. Stevens focused on the study of vowels during his doctoral research; in 1950 he published a short paper arguing that the autocorrelation could be used to discriminate vowels, while his 1952 doctoral thesis reported perceptual results for vowels synthesized using a set of electronic resonators. Fant convinced Stevens that a transmission-line model of the vocal tract was more flexible than a resonator model and the two published this work together in 1953.
Ken credits Fant with the association between the Linguistics Department and the Research Laboratory for Electronics at MIT. Roman Jakobson, a phonologist at Harvard, had an office at MIT by 1957, while Morris Halle joined the MIT Linguistics Department and moved to RLE in 1951. Stevens' collaborations with Halle began with acoustics, but grew to focus on the way in which acoustics and articulation organize the sound systems of language.
Stevens defended his doctoral thesis in 1952; his doctoral committee included his adviser Leo Beranek, as well as J. C. R. Licklider and Walter A. Rosenblith. After receiving his doctorate, Stevens went to work at Bolt, Beranek and Newman (now BBN Technologies) in Harvard Square. In the early 1950s, Beranek decided to retire from the MIT faculty in order to work full-time at BBN. He knew that Stevens loved to teach, so he encouraged Stevens to apply for a position on the MIT faculty. Stevens did so, and joined the faculty in 1954.
Research, teaching and service
Scientific contributions
Stevens is best known for his contributions to the fields of Phonology, speech perception, and speech production. Stevens' most well-known book, Acoustic Phonetics, is organized according to the distinctive features of Stevens' phonological system.
Contributions to phonology
Stevens is perhaps best known for his proposal of a theory that answers the question: Why are the sounds of the world's languages (their phonemes or segments) so similar to one another? On first learning a foreign language, one is struck by the remarkable differences that can exist between one language's sound system and that of any other. Stevens turned the student's perception on its head: rather than asking why languages are different, he asked, if the sound system of each language is completely arbitrary, why are languages so similar? His answer is the quantal theory of speech. Quantal theory is supported by a theory of language change, developed in collaboration with Samuel Jay Keyser, which postulates the existence of redundant or enhancement features.
Stevens' methodology in the investigation of speech sounds is organized into three steps. The first step is to use physics (mainly tube models) to model the shape of the articulators (e.g. the shapes of the front and back cavity, rounding or non-rounding of lips, etc). Based on the articulatory tube models, resonant frequencies can be calculated, which are the formant frequencies. Once the resonant frequencies are calculated, speech data are collected and analyzed to compare to theoretical calculations. This second stage is mainly experimental, where tokens of interest are usually recorded either in isolation, and/or embedded in a controlled carrier phrase, usually spoken by both several female/male native speakers of the language. The key to data collection is controlling for as many factors as possible so that the acoustic evidence of interest can be investigated with minimum amount of artifacts. The last stage in the investigation is to compare the data results with the theoretical predictions and to account for the differences that occur. Differences can sometimes be explained by the fact that tube models usually are simplified as to not account for loss due to softness of vocal walls (though resistors can be added to the theoretical model). Subglottal system might also affect the vocal tract productive system when the glottal opening is large (please see research on subglottal resonance on effects of speech). Theretical model predictions can give general predictions about what one can expect to find in real speech, and evidence from real speech can also help refine the original model, and give better insight to the production of speech sounds.
Quantal theory aims to elegantly describe (using physics) and organize all the acoustic features of all possible sounds into a matrix. (See chapter five in Acoustics Phonetics) The ultimate constraint on all speech sounds is the physical articulatory system itself, thus supporting the claim that there can only be a finite set of sounds among languages. The reason that the set of speech sounds is finite is that while the movement of the articulators is continuous, only certain configurations tend to be articulatorily and/or acoustically stable, giving rise to fix frequencies for formants that form sounds that are relatively universal for all languages (i.e. vowels and consonants). Each acoustic sound can thus be described by a handful of defining features (usually binary). For example, lip-round (either on or off) is a feature. Tongue height (either high or low) is another feature. In addition to these defining features which serve as the essential description of the acoustic sounds, there are also enhancing features which help to make the sounds more recognizable. For each of these features, one can apply Stevens' methodology to first use a tube model to model the articulators, and predict the resonant frequencies, then collect data to examine the acoustic properties of that feature, and finally to reconcile with the theoretical model and summarize the acoustic properties of that feature.
To get an introduction to the world of speech science, one can first read the book "The Speech Chain" by Denes P. and Pinson E., where one is given a broad overview of the production and transmission of speech. One is introduced to spectrograms and formant frequencies, which are the main acoustic description of sound segments.
the glottis
As the vocal folds vibrate, puffs of air pushed through (filtered) by the vocal tract, producing sound. This sound source is modeled as a current source in a circuit modeling the production of sound. Changes in the vocal tract would cause change to the sound that is produced.
The frequency of vibration for females vocal folds tend to be higher than that of males, giving female voices higher pitch than male voices.
Research (Hanson, H.M. 1997) has shown there is a difference between how females and males vibrate their vocal folds; there is a greater spread for female glottis, which gives female voices a more breathy quality than male voices.
the subglottal system
The subglottal system refers to the system that is below the glottis in the human body. It includes the trachea, bronchi, and the lungs. It is essentially a fixed system, so does not change for each individual speaker. Research results have shown that during the open phase of the glottal cycle (when the glottis is open), coupling is introduced due to the subglottal system, manifesting acoustically as pole/zero pairs in the frequency domain. These pole/zero pairs introduced by the coupling serve are hypothesized to serve as prohibited or unstable regions in the spectra, serving as natural boundaries for vowel features such as +front or +back.
For adult males, the resonant frequencies of their subglottal system have been measured (using invasive methods) to be 600, 1550, and 2200 Hz. (Acoustic Phonetics, pg 197, Ishizaka et. al., Crane & Boves). The subglottal resonant frequencies of females are slightly higher due to their smaller dimensions. One non-invasive way of measuring these peaks is to use an accelerometer placed above the sternal notch (Henke) to record the acceleration of the skin during phonation. The vibration would capture the resonant frequencies below the glottis (of the subglottal system).
the vocal tract
The vocal tract refers to the passage way that is above the glottis, all the way to opening of the lips. A two-tube model is usually used to model the vocal tract, one capturing the dimension (cross-sectional area and length) of the back cavity, the other modeling the front cavity. Resonant frequencies calculated from the tube model are the formant frequencies. To produce the schwa vowel /ə/, the vocal tract is relatively open all the way from the glottis to the mouth, thus the tube model can be thought of as a relatively uniform open tube, making the resonant frequencies (or formants) evenly apart. The radiation at the mouth would cause these resonant frequencies to be about five percent lower. (Acoustics Phonetics, pg 139) Female vocal tracts (average of 14.1 cm) are on average shorter than the male vocal tracts (average of 17.7 cm), thus making them having higher formant frequencies than males.
Since the vocal tract walls are soft, energy is lost in the vocal tract, which increases the bandwidth of the formants.
the nasal cavity
When the velopharyngeal port opens during the production of certain sounds, such as /n/ and /m/, coupling is introduced due to the naval cavity, which gives the output a nasal quality.
Contributions to speech perception
The quantal theory suggests that the phonological inventory of a language is defined primarily by the acoustic characteristics of each segment, with boundaries specified by the acoustic-articulatory mapping. The implication is that phonological segments must have some type of acoustic invariance. Blumstein and Stevens demonstrated what appeared to be an invariant relationship between the acoustic spectrum and the perceived sound: by adding energy to the burst spectrum of "pa" at a particular frequency, it is possible to turn it into "ta" or "ka" respectively, depending on the frequency. Presence of the extra energy causes perception of the lingual consonant; its absence causes perception of the labial.
Stevens' recent work has re-structured the theory of acoustic invariance into a shallow hierarchical perceptual model, the model of acoustic landmarks and distinctive features.
Contributions to speech production
While on sabbatical at KTH in Sweden in 1962, Stevens volunteered as a participant in cineradiography experiments being conducted by Sven Öhman. Stevens' cineradiographic films are among the most widely distributed; copies exist on laserdisc, and some are available online.
After returning to MIT, Stevens agreed to supervise the research of a dentistry student named Joseph S. Perkell. Perkell's knowledge of oral anatomy permitted him to trace Stevens' X-ray films onto paper, and to publish the results.
Other contributions to the study of speech production include a model by which one can predict the spectral shape of turbulent speech excitation (depending on the dimensions of the turbulent jet), and work related to the vocal fold configurations that lead to different modes of phonation.
In fact, the spectral properties (formants, bandwidth of formants, other glottal characteristics) of all possible sound phonemes in all languages can theoretically be modeled and predicted using physics-based resonator models. Basic tube resonators can be used to give a general prediction of formants for vowels. Additional refinement to the basic model is used by adding resistors and/or capacitors to the model to represent energy losses due to vocal tract walls. Acoustical coupling due to the subglottal system can also be modeled by adding additional tubes to the model of the original vocal tract, introducing pole/zero in the spectra that represent the effects of subglottal coupling. (The locations of these pole/zero pairs are the resonant frequencies of the subglottal system). Glottal characteristics such as vocal pitch (F0), open quotient (H1-H2), and degree of breathiness (H1-A3) can also be modeled and measured from the spectra. (Hanson & Stevens).
Stevens as a mentor
Stevens joined MIT as an assistant professor in 1954. He became an associate professor in 1957, a full professor in 1963, and was appointed as the Clarence J. Lebel Chaired Professor in 1977. One of his long-time collaborators, Dennis Klatt (who wrote DECtalk while working in Stevens' lab), said that "As a leader, Ken is known for his devotion to students and his miraculous ability to run a busy laboratory while appearing to manage by a principle of benevolent anarchy."
The first doctoral thesis Stevens signed at MIT was that of his fellow student, James L. Flanagan, in 1955. Flanagan started graduate school at MIT in the same year as Stevens, but without a prior master's degree; he earned his M.S. in 1950 under Beranek's supervision, then finished his doctoral thesis under Stevens' supervision in 1955.
Stevens estimated in 2001 that he had supervised approximately forty Ph.D. candidates.
On the occasion of his receipt of the Gold Medal of the Acoustical Society of America, in 1995, colleagues wrote of Stevens' Speech Group that "during its existence of almost four decades" it "has been outstanding in the support that it has provided to women researchers, many of whom have gone on to populate the upper echelons of research labs throughout the world.". Stevens’ laboratory has been referred to by colleagues as a "national treasure"
Professional service
Stevens was active in the Acoustical Society of America since his time as a graduate student. He was a member of the executive council from 1963 to 1966, Vice President from 1971–2, and President of the Society from 1976–7. He is a Fellow of the ASA. In 1983 he received its Silver Medal in Speech Communication, and in 1995 he received the Gold Medal from the society.
Stevens was also active in the IEEE, where he held the rank of IEEE Life Fellow. In 2004, Ken Stevens and Gunnar Fant were the joint first winners of the IEEE James L. Flanagan Speech and Audio Processing Award.
Stevens was a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, a member of the National Academy of Engineering, a member of the National Academy of Sciences, and a 1999 recipient of the United States National Medal of Science.
References
External links
Stevens biography at RLE/MIT
1924 births
2013 deaths
National Medal of Science laureates
Engineers from Toronto
Phoneticians
Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences
Members of the United States National Academy of Engineering
American electrical engineers
American computer scientists
Speech processing researchers
Fellow Members of the IEEE
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Fellows of the Acoustical Society of America
ASA Gold Medal recipients
Neurological disease deaths in Oregon
Deaths from Alzheimer's disease
MIT School of Engineering faculty
Canadian emigrants to the United States
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