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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry%20of%20Jesus
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Ministry of Jesus
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The ministry of Jesus, in the canonical gospels, begins with his baptism in the countryside of Roman Judea and Transjordan, near the River Jordan by John the Baptist, and ends in Jerusalem, following the Last Supper with his disciples. The Gospel of Luke () states that Jesus was "about 30 years of age" at the start of his ministry. A chronology of Jesus typically sets the date of the start of his ministry at around AD 27–29 and the end in the range AD 30–36.
Jesus' early Galilean ministry begins when after his baptism, he goes back to Galilee from his temptation in the Judaean Desert. In this early period, he preaches around Galilee and recruits his first disciples who begin to travel with him and eventually form the core of the early Church as it is believed that the Apostles dispersed from Jerusalem to found the apostolic sees. The major Galilean ministry which begins in Matthew 8 includes the commissioning of the Twelve Apostles, and covers most of the ministry of Jesus in Galilee. The final Galilean ministry begins after the beheading of John the Baptist as Jesus prepares to go to Jerusalem.
In the later Judean ministry Jesus starts his final journey to Jerusalem through Judea. As Jesus travels towards Jerusalem, in the later Perean ministry, about one third the way down from the Sea of Galilee (actually a freshwater lake) along the River Jordan, he returns to the area where he was baptized.
The final ministry in Jerusalem is sometimes called the Passion week and begins with Jesus' triumphal entry into Jerusalem. The gospels provide more details about the final ministry than the other periods, devoting about one third of their text to the last week of the life of Jesus in Jerusalem.
Overview
The gospel accounts place the beginning of Jesus' ministry in the countryside of Roman Judea, near the River Jordan.
The gospels present John the Baptist's ministry as the precursor to that of Jesus and the baptism of Jesus as marking the beginning of Jesus' ministry, after which Jesus travels, preaches and performs miracles. Jesus's baptism is generally considered the beginning and the Last Supper with his disciples in Jerusalem as the end of his ministry. However, some authors also consider the period between the Resurrection and the Ascension part of the ministry of Jesus.
Luke states that Jesus was "about 30 years of age" at the start of his ministry. There have been different approaches to estimating the date of the start of the ministry of Jesus. One approach, based on combining information from the Gospel of Luke with historical data about Emperor Tiberius yields a date around 28–29 AD/CE, while a second independent approach based on statements in the Gospel of John along with historical information from Josephus about the Temple in Jerusalem leads to a date around AD 27–29.
In the New Testament, the date of the Last Supper is very close before the date of the crucifixion of Jesus (hence its name). Scholarly estimates for the date of the crucifixion generally fall in the range AD 30–36.
The three Synoptic Gospels refer to just one passover, specifically the Passover at the end of Jesus's ministry when he is crucified (with the exception of Luke's Gospel, which narrates a visit of the Holy Family for Passover when Jesus is twelve years old). There are three references to Passovers in John's Gospel: 2:13, 6:4, and 12:1. Some contend that the Gospel of John refers to only two actual Passovers, one at the beginning of Jesus's ministry and the second at the end of Jesus's ministry, and that the third reference to Passover is only a forecasting of the second Passover in the Gospel of John. But much scholarship recognizes that a lot of time passes between 6:4, "the Passover . . . was at hand," and 12:1, "Six days before the Passover, Jesus came to Bethany..," especially at the beginning of Chapter 7 which even includes another feast (Booths/Tabernacles), and then again at 10:22 another season passes as well as the Feast of Dedication.
This third reference to a passover in the Gospel of John is why many suggest that Jesus's ministry was a period of about three years. Scholars that support a three-year ministry, such as Köstenberger state that the Gospel of John simply provides a more detailed account.
During the ministry of Jesus, the tetrarch ruling over Galilee and Perea in this period was Herod Antipas, who obtained the position upon the division of the territories following the death of Herod the Great in 4 BC.
Baptism and early ministry
The gospels present John the Baptist's ministry as the precursor to that of Jesus and the Baptism of Jesus as marking the beginning of Jesus' ministry.
In his sermon in , delivered in the house of Cornelius the centurion, Apostle Peter gives an overview of the ministry of Jesus, and refers to what had happened "throughout all Judaea, beginning from Galilee, after the baptism which John preached" and that Jesus whom "God anointed with the Holy Spirit and with power" had gone about "doing good".
specifies the location where John was baptizing as "Bethany beyond the Jordan". This is not the village Bethany just east of Jerusalem, but the town of Bethabara in Perea. Perea is the province east of the Jordan, across the southern part of Samaria, and although the New Testament does not mention Perea by name, implicitly refers to it again when it states that John was baptising in Enon near Salim, "because there was much water there". First-century historian Flavius Josephus also wrote in the Antiquities of the Jews (18 5.2) that John the Baptist was imprisoned and then killed in Machaerus on the border of Perea.
and indicate possible activities of Jesus near the Jordan River around the time of his baptism, as does the initial encounter with the disciples of John the Baptist in , where "two disciples heard him speak, and they followed Jesus". Assuming that there were two incidences of Cleansing of the Temple, which was located in Jerusalem, a possible reference to an early Judean ministry may be .
Ministry in Galilee
Early Galilean ministry
The Early Galilean ministry begins when, according to Matthew, Jesus goes back to Galilee from the Judean desert, after rebuffing the temptation of Satan. In this early period, Jesus preaches around Galilee and, in , his first disciples encounter him, begin to travel with him and eventually form the core of the early Church.
The Gospel of John includes the Wedding at Cana as the first miracle of Jesus taking place in this early period of ministry, with his return to Galilee. A few villages in Galilee (e.g. Kafr Kanna) have been suggested as the location of Cana.
The return of Jesus to Galilee follows the arrest of John the Baptist. The early teachings of Jesus result in his rejection at his hometown when in Jesus says in a Synagogue: "No prophet is acceptable in his own country" and the people reject him.
In this early period, Jesus' reputation begins to spread throughout Galilee. In and , Jesus goes to Capernaum, where people are "astonished at his teaching; for his word was with authority", in the Exorcism at the Synagogue in Capernaum episode, which is followed by healing the mother of Peter's wife.
includes the first Miraculous draught of fishes episode in which Jesus tells Peter, "now on you will catch men". Peter leaves his net and, along with him, James and John, the sons of Zebedee, follows Jesus as disciples thereafter.
This period includes the Sermon on the Mount, one of the major discourses of Jesus in Matthew, and the Sermon on the Plain in the Gospel of Luke. The Sermon on the Mount, which covers chapters 5, 6 and 7 of the Gospel of Matthew, is the first of the Five Discourses of Matthew and is the longest piece of teaching from Jesus in the New Testament. It encapsulates many of the moral teachings of Jesus and includes the Beatitudes and the widely recited Lord's Prayer.
The Beatitudes are expressed as eight blessings in the Sermon on the Mount in Matthew, and four similar blessings appear in the Sermon on the Plain in Luke, where they are followed by four woes that mirror the blessings. The Beatitudes present the highest ideals of the teachings of Jesus on mercy, spirituality and compassion.
Major Galilean ministry
The Major Galilean ministry, also called the Great Galilean ministry, begins in Matthew 8, after the Sermon on the Mount and refers to activities up to the death of John the Baptist.
The beginnings of this period include The Centurion's Servant () and Calming the storm (), both dealing with the theme of faith and fear. When the Centurion shows faith in Jesus by requesting a "healing at a distance", Jesus commends him for his exceptional faith. On the other hand, when his own disciples show fear of a storm on the Sea of Galilee, Jesus instructs them to have more faith, after he orders the storm to stop.
In this period, Jesus is still gathering the twelve apostles, and the Calling of Matthew takes place in . The conflicts and criticism between Jesus and the Pharisees continue, e.g. they criticize Jesus for associating with "publicans and sinners", whereby Jesus responds: "It is not healthy who need a doctor, but the sick. I have not come to call the righteous, but sinners to repentance."
Commissioning the twelve Apostles relates the initial selection of the twelve Apostles among the disciples of Jesus. Jesus goes out to a mountainside to pray, and after spending the night praying to God, in the morning he calls his disciples and chooses twelve of them.
In the Mission Discourse, Jesus instructs the twelve apostles who are named in to carry no belongings as they travel from city to city and preach. Separately, relates the Seventy Disciples, where Jesus appoints a larger number of disciples and sends them out in pairs with the Missionary's Mandate to go into villages before Jesus' arrival there.
In two messengers from John the Baptist arrive to ask Jesus if he is the expected Messiah, or "shall we wait for another?" Jesus replies, "Go back and report to John what you hear and see: The blind receive sight, the lame walk". Following this, Jesus begins to speak to the crowds about the Baptist.
This period is rich in parables and teachings and includes the Parabolic discourse, which provides many of the parables for the Kingdom of Heaven, beginning in . These include the parables of The Sower, The Tares, The Mustard Seed and The Leaven, addressed to the public at large, as well as The Hidden Treasure, The Pearl and Drawing in the Net.
At the end of the Major Galilean ministry, Jesus returns to his hometown, Nazareth. His wisdom is recognised there, questioned, and rejected.
Final Galilean ministry
The Final Galilean ministry begins after the death of John the Baptist, and includes the Feeding the 5000 and Walking on water episodes, both in . After hearing of the Baptist's death, Jesus withdraws by boat privately to a solitary place near Bethsaida, where he addresses the crowds who had followed him on foot from the towns, and feeds them all with "five loaves and two fish" supplied by a boy.
Following this, the gospels present the Walking on water episode in , and as an important step in developing the relationship between Jesus and his disciples, at this stage of his ministry. The episode emphasizes the importance of faith by stating that, when he attempted to walk on water, Peter began to sink when he lost faith and became afraid. At the end of the episode, the disciples increase their faith in Jesus, and, in Matthew 14:33, they say: "Of a truth thou art the Son of God".
Major teachings in this period include the Discourse on Defilement in and where, in response to a complaint from the Pharisees, Jesus states: "What goes into a man's mouth does not make him 'unclean,' but what comes out of his mouth, that is what makes him 'unclean.'".
Following this episode, Jesus withdraws into the "parts of Tyre and Sidon" near the Mediterranean Sea, where the Canaanite woman's daughter episode takes place in and . This episode is an example of how Jesus emphasizes the value of faith, telling the woman: "Woman, you have great faith! Your request is granted." The importance of faith is also emphasized in the Cleansing ten lepers episode in .
In the Gospel of Mark, after passing through Sidon, Jesus enters the region of the Decapolis, a group of ten cities south-east of Galilee, where the Healing the deaf mute miracle is reported in . After the healing, the disciples say: "He even makes the deaf hear and the mute speak." The episode is the last in a series of narrated miracles which builds up to Peter's proclamation of Jesus as Christ in .
Judea and Perea to Jerusalem
Later Judean ministry
In this period, Jesus starts his final journey to Jerusalem by going around Samaria, through Perea and on through Judea to Jerusalem. At the beginning of this period, Jesus predicts his death for the first time, and this prediction then builds up to the other two episodes, the final prediction being just before Jesus enters Jerusalem for the last time, the week of his crucifixion. In and , Jesus teaches his disciples that "the Son of Man must suffer many things and be rejected by the elders, chief priests and teachers of the law, and that he must be killed and after three days rise again.
Later in this period, at about the middle of each of the three Synoptic Gospels, two related episodes mark a turning point in the ministry of Jesus: the Confession of Peter and the Transfiguration of Jesus. These episodes begin in Caesarea Philippi, just north of the Sea of Galilee, at the beginning of the final journey to Jerusalem which ends in the Passion and Resurrection of Jesus. These episodes mark the beginnings of the gradual disclosure of the identity of Jesus as the Messiah to his disciples; and his prediction of his own suffering and death.
Peter's Confession begins as a dialogue between Jesus and his disciples in , and . Jesus asks his disciples: But who do you say that I am? Simon Peter answers him: You are the Christ, the Son of the living God. In , Jesus blesses Peter for his answer, and states: "flesh and blood hath not revealed it unto thee, but my Father who is in heaven." In blessing Peter, Jesus not only accepts the titles Christ and Son of God, which Peter attributes to him, but declares the proclamation a divine revelation by stating that his Father in Heaven had revealed it to Peter. In this assertion, by endorsing both titles as divine revelation, Jesus unequivocally declares himself to be both Christ and the Son of God.
In the Gospel of Matthew, following this episode, Jesus also selects Peter as the leader of the Apostles, and states that "upon this rock, I will build my church".
In Jesus then continues:
"That thou art Peter, and upon this rock, I will build my church". The word "church" (ekklesia in Greek) as used here, appears in the Gospels only once more, in , and refers to the community of believers at the time.
Later Perean ministry
Following the proclamation by Peter, the account of the Transfiguration of Jesus is the next major event and appears in , and . Jesus takes Peter and two other apostles with him and goes up to a mountain, which is not named. Once on the mountain, states that Jesus "was transfigured before them; his face shining as the sun, and his garments became white as the light." At that point, the prophets Elijah and Moses appear and Jesus begins to talk to them. Luke is specific in describing Jesus in a state of glory, with referring to "they saw his glory". A bright cloud appears around them, and a voice from the cloud states: "This is my beloved Son, with whom I am well pleased; listen to him".
The Transfiguration not only supports the identity of Jesus as the Son of God, (as in his Baptism), but the statement "listen to him" identifies him as the messenger and mouth-piece of God. The significance is enhanced by the presence of Elijah and Moses, for it indicates to the apostles that Jesus is the voice of God, and, instead of Elijah or Moses, he should be listened to, by virtue of his filial relationship with God. echoes the same message: at the Transfiguration, God assigns to Jesus a special "honor and glory" and it is the turning point at which God exalts Jesus above all other powers in creation.
Many of the episodes in the Later Judean ministry are from the Gospel of Luke but, in general, these sequence of episodes in Luke do not provide enough geographical information to determine Perea, though scholars generally assume that the route Jesus followed from Galilee to Jerusalem passed through Perea. However, the Gospel of John does state that he returned to the area where he was baptized, and states that "many people believed in him beyond the Jordan", saying "all things whatsoever John spake of this man were true". The area where Jesus was baptised is inferred as the vicinity of the Perea area, given the activities of the Baptist in Bethabara and Ænon in John and .
This period of ministry includes the Discourse on the Church, in which Jesus anticipates a future community of followers and explains the role of his apostles in leading it. It includes the parables of The Lost Sheep and The Unforgiving Servant in Matthew 18, which also refer to the Kingdom of Heaven. The general theme of the discourse is the anticipation of a future community of followers, and the role of his apostles in leading it.
Addressing his apostles in , Jesus states: "Truly, I say to you, whatever you bind on earth shall be bound in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven". The discourse emphasizes the importance of humility and self-sacrifice as the high virtues within the anticipated community. It teaches that in the Kingdom of God, it is personal humility that matters, not social prominence and clout.
At the end of this period, the Gospel of John includes the Raising of Lazarus episode in , in which Jesus brings Lazarus of Bethany back to life four days after his burial. In the Gospel of John, the raising of Lazarus is the climax of the "seven signs" which gradually confirm the identity of Jesus as the Son of God and the expected Messiah. It is also a pivotal episode which starts the chain of events that leads to the crowds seeking Jesus on his Triumphal entry into Jerusalem—leading to the decision of Caiaphas and the Sanhedrin to plan to kill Jesus (Crucifixion of Jesus).
Final ministry in Jerusalem
The final ministry in Jerusalem is traditionally called the Passion and begins with Jesus' triumphal entry into Jerusalem early in the week that includes the Last Supper and is liturgically marked as Holy Week. The gospels pay special attention to the account of the last week of the life of Jesus in Jerusalem, and the narrative amounts to about one third of the text of the four gospels, showing its theological significance in Christian thought in the Early Church.
Before arriving in Jerusalem, in , after raising Lazarus from the dead, crowds gather around Jesus and believe in him, and the next day the multitudes that had gathered for the feast in Jerusalem welcome Jesus as he descends from the Mount of Olives towards Jerusalem in
, , and . In as Jesus approaches Jerusalem, he looks at the city and weeps over it, foretelling the suffering that awaits the city.
In the three Synoptic Gospels, entry into Jerusalem is followed by the Cleansing of the Temple episode, in which Jesus expels the money changers from the Temple, accusing them of turning the Temple to a den of thieves through their commercial activities. This is the only account of Jesus using physical force in any of the Gospels. The synoptics include a number of well known parables and sermons such as the Widow's mite and the Second Coming Prophecy during the week that follows.
In that week, the synoptics also narrate conflicts between Jesus and the elders of the Jews, in episodes such as the Authority of Jesus Questioned and the Woes of the Pharisees, in which Jesus criticizes their hypocrisy. Judas Iscariot, one of the twelve apostles, approaches the Jewish elders and performs the "Bargain of Judas" in which he accepts to betray Jesus and hand him over to the elders. Matthew specifies the price as thirty silver coins.
In Matthew 24, Mark 13 and Luke 21, Jesus provides a Discourse on the End Times, which is also called the Olivet Discourse because it was given on the Mount of Olives. The discourse is mostly about judgment and the expected conduct of the followers of Jesus, and the need for vigilance by the followers in view of the coming judgment. The discourse is generally viewed as referring both to the coming destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem, as well as the End Times and Second Coming of Christ, but the many scholarly opinions about which verses refer to which event remain divided.
A key episode in the final part of the ministry of Jesus is the Last Supper, which includes the Institution of the Eucharist. In , , during the last supper, Jesus takes bread, breaks it and gives it to the disciples, saying: "This is my body which is given for you". He also gives them "the cup" to drink, saying this is his blood. While it may have been fermented, none of the biblical accounts refer to it as wine, but rather as "the fruit of the vine" or "the cup".
In , Paul the Apostle refers to the Last Supper. concludes the Last Supper with a long, three chapter sermon known as the Farewell discourse which prepares the disciples for the departure of Jesus.
See also
Gospels and theology
Christ myth theory
Gospel harmony
Historical Jesus
Jesus Seminar
Jesus in Christianity
Life of Christ in art
Life of Jesus in the New Testament
Miracles of Jesus
Parables of Jesus
Associated places
Al-Maghtas
Qasr el Yahud
Notes
References
Citations
Life of Jesus in the New Testament
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1st%20Reconnaissance%20Battalion
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1st Reconnaissance Battalion
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1st Reconnaissance Battalion (abbreviated as 1st Recon Bn) is a reconnaissance battalion in the United States Marine Corps. It is a stand-alone battalion with no parent regiment. Instead, it falls directly under the command of the 1st Marine Division. 1st Recon Bn is located at Marine Corps Base Camp Pendleton in San Diego, California.
1st Recon Battalion was reactivated on July 5, 2000, as part of Marine Corps Commandant General James L. Jones' mission to revitalize Marine Corps reconnaissance.
Mission and training
The mission of 1st Reconnaissance Battalion is to provide task-organized forces in order to conduct amphibious reconnaissance, ground reconnaissance, battlespace shaping operations, raids, and specialized insertion and extraction.
Organization
1st Reconnaissance Battalion currently consists of five companies. The companies (except for headquarters and service company) each consist of two platoons. The standard breakdown of the four subsequent companies consists of a reconnaissance and surveillance platoon and a VBSS platoon. Platoons are further divided into three reconnaissance teams, a jump team, dive team and mobility team. A reconnaissance team consists of 6 to 8 Reconnaissance Marines and Special Amphibious Reconnaissance Corpsman (SARC). While ideal and established doctrine, this organizational structure can be modified by battalion or company commanding officers as they see fit.
Headquarters and Service Company
Alpha Company
Bravo Company
Charlie Company
Force Company
History
When the 1st and 2nd Marine Divisions were created in 1941, each had a Scout Company 7 officers and 132 NCOs and enlisted men divided into a headquarters unit and three platoons. The unit had M3 Scout Cars and a motorcycle platoon.
World War II
In 1941, Lieutenant Colonel William "Wild Bill" Whaling (not to be confused with OSS Director William J. Donovan), the executive officer of 5th Marine Regiment visualized and perceived the use for specialized missions encompassing reconnaissance at the division-level, which would be conducted above the normal infantry battalion-level in scouting and patrolling. He recommended to General Alexander Vandegrift the need of a special "Scout and Sniper unit" for the 1st Marine Division's operations on Guadalcanal. Upon approval, by February 1, each of the three companies were created for each regiment.
New Britain, December 1943
Forming the southern of the Bismarck Sea and the Bismarck Archipelago, the island of New Britain was focused for seizure by General MacArthur as it would mean control of the Vitiaz and Dampier Straits. Planning began and decision was made to first seize Arawe Peninsula, an island, a town, a plantation and the Japanese occupation forces situated on the southern coast, sixty miles south across island from Cape Gloucester. Cape Gloucester was tasked for seizure by Major General William H. Rupertus, the landing force commander of the northern elements.
General Rupertus turned to his scout company's chief, 1st Lieutenant John D. Bradbeer, to lead a team of several Marine scouts to conduct amphibious reconnaissance patrols of New Britain. D-Day was determined on December 26, 1943. They landed on New Britain on September 24, 1943, at night by rubber boats from three PT boats #110, #325 and #327 of Motor Torepedo Boat Squadron 21, bringing Royal Australian Navy Lieutenant Kirkwall Smith, a former Australian coastwatcher who knew the area, and two natives.
For nine days, they paddled throughout the prospective landing beaches, locating coastal-defense guns, sketched the beaches and evaded the Japanese patrols in the area. Upon time of return to their PT boat pickup, they could not establish radio contact, so they paddled out into the Dampier Strait until they were able to get contact by radio to arrange recovery. Bradbeer's patrol were able to uncover that Japanese troop strength on New Britain was about seventy-five hundred men.
Forty-five days later of November 1943, Bradbeer accompanied Lieutenants Firm and Smith, and Ensign Gipe (a Navy hydrographer) and their small team and again landed from three PT boats on other proposed beaches. However, never landing on the proposed landing beach, it was quickly negated due to the cliffs just inland from the beach.
By December 26, 1943, six days prior to D-Day, or D-6, Bradbeer and 1st Lieutenant Joseph A.L. Fournier split the recon patrol, taking their six Marines to reconnoiter remaining portions of the island; Bradbeer and his team went north, Fournier's team reconned the south. Hours later, they both confirmed the usability of the selected landing beaches, reporting them only lightly defended. Momentarily within a few more hours both teams were recovered by their PT boats. While returning, a Japanese barge opened fire onto Bradbeer's PT boat, injuring three of the PT crew personnel. US Navy Lieutenant Paul T. Rennell, the PT boat's captain, was able to break contact and evade the Japanese safely. The reconnaissance they provided was the third and the last preliminary amphibious reconnaissance for the New Britain operation.
Peleliu and the Palaus, September 1944
The III Amphibious Corps, led by Major General Geiger tasked MGen Rupertus's 1st Marine Division for the main assault landing on Peleliu. Originally, the 1st Tank Battalion's scout company were part of the "floating reserve", but was ordered ashore on D-Day, September 15, 1944. Early in the afternoon, the Company D (Scout) reinforced Colonel Herman Hanneken's 7th Marines to cover the 5th Marines. The island was declared secured on November 27.
Northern Okinawa, April 1945
On April 3, 1945, 1st Marine Division sent their scout company in front of their zone of action along the boundary of the 6th Marine Division to their north. The recon company, commanded by 1st Lieutenant Robert J. Powell, Jr., traversed by motorized patrols to the eastern shore of Okinawa, reaching the base of Katchin Peninsula by 1300. They received further orders to advance north up the east coast toward Hiazaonna. Along the way they encountered a lightly held tank trap, then returned to 1st Marine Division before dark. Colonel Edward Snedeker 7th Marine Regiment followed the recon action report of 1st Marine Division's Company D (Scout) and pushed across the island to the town of Hiazaonna, reaching it at 1830 on April 3, 1945.
Korean War
A selected platoon of Kenny Houghton's 1st Marine Division Reconnaissance Company was dispatched to Korea as part of 1st Marine Brigade (5th and 11th Marines) landing at Pusan. The remainder of the Company arrived with the remainder of the Division, and all landed at Inchon. Recon Marines from the 2nd Marine Division Recon later arrived to augment the reconnaissance unit including Lieutenant "Bull" Francis Kraince. Barry Crossman was the Executive Officer.
The organization was quickly altered from an amphibious unit of nine-man boat teams to a motorized unit of four-man jeep teams utilizing jeeps loaned by the United States Army. Using these vehicles the Company dispatched motorized patrols on a deep reconnaissance to scout from Wonsan and Hungnam to Huksori, an enemy supply depot some forty miles distant. An element of the Company acted as a point for Tobin's B/1/5 push on August 13, 1950, travelling by jeep about a mile forward of the infantry force.
In January 1951, the unit dispatched patrols to search out guerrillas in the Andong area and later, on one occasion, stayed concealed in a town for two nights tracing enemy cavalry and infantry patrols, and ended up by directing air strikes on them.
Marines from the 1st Recon Company made seven raids into North Korea from the , one of which was conducted 12—16 August 1950, in which a combined force of sixteen Marines and twenty-five Navy Underwater Demolition Teams raided the Posung-Myon area destroying three tunnels and two railway bridges without losing one man.
Deactivated in June 1953 and reactivated in 1958
Interim Years
Cuban Missile Crisis
1st Reconnaissance Battalion (Forward) deployed to Guantanamo Bay Naval Base, Cuba and Haiti in October–November 1962 to await the invasion of Cuba. Upon the resolution of the Cuban Missile Crisis, the battalion returned to MCB Camp Pendleton.
Vietnam War
Operation Kansas, June 1966
By June 1966, the 1st Marine Division had plans to expand its assigned Tactical Area of Responsibility (TAOR) southward from Da Nang to Tam Kỳ, the capital of the Quảng Tín Province. Pressure from the Military Assistance Command, Vietnam (MACV) had placed Brigadier General William A. Stiles, the assistant division commander (ADC), position to respond by conceiving an operation by ordering an extensive reconnaissance effort between Da Nang and Tam Ky.
BGen. Stiles had divided the operation into two phases. The first phase was to send in his recon assets in an area in the vicinity of the Hiệp Đức District. The division's intelligence (D-2) section had sources of a headquarters of the People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) 2nd Division lying somewhere near the western border of I Corps in the Quế Sơn Valley. The second phase consisted of a massive exploitation of the recon team's findings, by sending in a joint show-of-force; four infantry battalions from the 1st Marine Division and the ARVN 2nd Division.
On the afternoon of June 13, a thirteen-man recon team, accompanied by the command group, of 1st Recon Battalion landed by helicopters in the middle of the Quế Sơn Valley onto the small mountain of Nui Loc Son. In the course of the next 24-hours, six more recon teams were deployed in different strategic positioning sites, ringing the valley. This enabled the teams to actively report on enemy activity, and if possible, forward observe for either air strikes or artillery fire. Up to eight battalions were on full standby— four battalions of Marines and ARVN each, ready to deploy against any hostile forces encountered. One recon team worked their way south of Hiệp Đức after they set up positions along the heavily wooded Hill 555. They spotted several groups of PAVN of varying size that appeared to be training in the area.
The next day on June 14, a scout dog accompanying an enemy patrol caught scent of the nearby Marines and the patrol advanced towards their position; the recon team's leader immediately called for an extraction. A helicopter was inbound within minutes and the team hastily scrambled aboard and were safely flown back to Chu Lai Base Area.
The other five recon teams remained undetected and continued reporting on the enemy for the next two days, until the moment Team 2 spotted a large enemy formation as they took up positions on Nui Vu hill, at the east end of the valley. Staff Sergeant Jimmie E. Howard (a decorated Korean War veteran), called in numerous fire coordination support, from an ARVN artillery battery located at an Army Special Forces camp 7 km to the south.
The PAVN quickly adapted when they realized the barrage of artillery fire was more than mere coincidence; a battalion-size force was heading toward Nui Vu. On the night of June 15, a Special Forces team spotted the advancing enemy presence and alerted headquarters. However, they relayed the information too late. SSgt Howard had heard the enemy forces approach them as they amassed below them at the bottom of the hill. While the next few hours were quiet, by midnight, several of Howard's men spotted silhouettes as dozens of PAVN soldiers furtively climbed up the hill in the darkness. The PAVN instigated the fight by throwing grenades at the Marines. Greatly outnumbered, Howard's men held off the attackers.
Howard understood that they would soon be overwhelmed and radioed to his commander, Lt. Colonel Arthur J. Sullivan, for an immediate extraction. A short time later, the UH-34s were inbound. However, the helicopters were under immediate attack from machine gun fires, forcing them to return. Sullivan relayed the bad news back to Howard that they would not be able to be extracted until daylight.
Throughout the night, close air support, artillery strikes, and gunship fire support pounded the enemy, but the PAVN launched three strong attacks against Team 2. By 04:00 on 16 June, six out of eighteen Marines were killed in action and Howard was temporary immobilized from shrapnel wounds. Every other man was hit at least once. While they were suffering from ammunition shortages, some recon Marines resorted to throwing rocks at the enemy, others managed to pick up captured AK-47 rifles.
By dawn, Company C of 1st Battalion, 5th Marine Regiment (1/5) landed at the base of Nui Vu and reinforced recon Team 2. The Marines of 1/5 forced their way up the small mountain through scattered but strong resistance to reach Howard and his recon team. Howard and the surviving Marines were immediately evacuated; however, Charlie Company of 1/5 continued to battle for control of Nui Vu. The PAVN finally disengaged and withdrew, leaving 42 dead.
The first phase of Operation Kansas had ended, however, the second phase of the operation was changed. On June 17, the day before the first assault was scheduled, General Walt advised Gen. Stiles that the ARVN units would be unavailable due to the Buddhist Uprising in Huế. Although aware of the circumstances, both Generals Walt and Stiles decided to continue the effort. Overall, the recon teams reported over 141 sightings of enemy forces. The second phase of the operation commenced artillery and air strikes, dispersing the enemy. Operation Kansas ended on June 22, 1966.
Operation Washington, July 1966
On 6 July 1966, Lieutenant Colonel Arthur J. Sullivan, battalion commander of 1st Recon Battalion, moved his battalion headquarters to Hau Doc, a location 25 km west of Chu Lai. For eight days his recon teams covered four-hundred square kilometers of his area of operation (AO); sighting forty-six PAVN that were scattered throughout the dense, rugged double- and triple- canopy jungle terrain, roughly ranging of 200 soldiers at most. The ground combat and supporting elements resulted only in thirteen PAVN killed, with four prisoners. Because of the poor results, General Lewis J. Fields, the commanding general of the Chu Lai TOAR, ended the operation on July 14, 1966.
September 1967
On 5 September 1967, Nine Paratroopers [8 USMC and 1 Navy HM2] 1st Force Recon Company, 1st Recon Battalion, 1st Marine Division parachuted into "Happy Valley" southwest of Da Nang, Quanh Nam Provience Against North Vietnam/Viet Cong supply centers. Because of unexpected high winds the mission could not be completed and the members Evacuated. Loses were 3 injured and 1 MIA.
Operation Scott Orchard, April 1971
Operation Scott Orchard was the last major 1st Marine Division operation of the Vietnam War, issued by the 1st Marine Division commander, MG Charles F. Widdecke. The operation began when Marines of 1st Recon Bn. commenced a heliborne assault into abandoned Fire Support Base (FSB) Dagger at 10:45 on 7 April 1971. After the brief firefight, the fire support base was declared secured. The plan was to reopen FSB Dagger in the Quế Sơn mountains by emplacing a provisional composite battery of 105-mm and 155-mm howitzers from the 1st Battalion, 11th Marines (1/11). FSB Dagger was used the previous autumn during Operation Catawba Falls. The intelligence sources from MACV had included reports of American prisoners-of-war were being held at an isolated camp in the mountainous region of the Quảng Nam Province, however no prisoners were found, contact was minimal and only abandoned base camps were discovered. The operation concluded on 12 April, the Marines had killed 4 PAVN/VC and captured 1 and 12 weapons.
The last elements of the battalion left South Vietnam on 13 May 1971.
Persian Gulf War
In 1990—1991, the 1st Reconnaissance Battalion participated in the Persian Gulf War. Upon returning from the Gulf War plans were enacted to break up 1st Reconnaissance Battalion and spread it out to AAV's, 1st Marines and 5th Marines. In June 1992 Alpha Company was moved and attached to Headquarters Battalion 1st Marine Division. Bravo Company was moved and attached to Headquarters Battalion 5th Marine Division. Charlie company was moved to the Marine Corps 8 wheeled amphibious assault vehicle (AAV) unit, forming LAR (Light Armored Reconnaissance). Delta Company was disbanded and folded into Charlie Company. Reconnaissance Company 5th Marines deployed as a company to Somalia in January 1993 and was spread around Somalia conducting reconnaissance and surveillance operations in Mogadishu, Biadoa and Bardere to help stop the flow of weapons being brought in by militant groups. Reconnaissance Company 5th Marines returned to Somalia on deployment multiple times in the next 5 years. Reconnaissance Company 1st Marines and Reconnaissance Company 5th Marines were brought back together in 2000 to reform 1st Reconnaissance Battalion in Camp Margarita, Camp Pendleton Ca, with only 50 unfilled billets on its first day.
Invasion of Iraq
In January 2003, the battalion deployed to Kuwait in support of Operation Enduring Freedom. The 1st Reconnaissance Battalion participated in the 2003 invasion of Iraq from March 2003 to June 2003. The battalion redeployed to Iraq for Operation Iraqi Freedom from February 2004 to October 2004, where it took part in Operation Vigilant Resolve; September 2005 to April 2006, March 2007 to October 2007, and October 2008 to April 2009. In January 2006, the 1st Reconnaissance Battalion was in the national news for leading Operation Green Trident, which discovered over ten metric tons of insurgent munitions, hidden in caches throughout a large area south of Fallujah in the Euphrates River Valley. Marines of 1st Recon told military reporters that about 90 percent of their time in Operation Iraqi Freedom was spent in mounted patrols, using their Humvees.
Afghanistan
The 1st Recon were also deployed to Helmand Province, Afghanistan in 2010 where they produced 300+ enemy KIA, did not lose a single man in their seven-month deployment and was regarded as "The deadliest battalion in Afghanistan right now" by Lt. Gen James Mattis.
The unit conducted a battalion-sized helicopter insert into the area of Trek Nawa, operating for 32 days straight, away from friendly lines, during that period there was contact with Taliban forces for 28 of those days using tactics and offensive action that stunned the local enemy forces. Following the missions in Trek Nawa and surrounding areas, the battalion deployed two companies to the Upper Sangin River Valley.
In February 2012, there was controversy when a September 2010 photograph was published showing members of Charlie Company, 1st Reconnaissance Battalion, posing in front of a flag with a logo resembling that of the German Schutzstaffel while serving in Afghanistan.
Notable Marines
Medal of Honor recipients
SSgt Jimmie E. Howard, Vietnam War, 16 June 1966.
PFC Ralph H. Johnson, Vietnam War, 5 March 1968 (posthumously)
Navy Cross recipients
Cpl Ricardo C. Binns, Vietnam War, 16 June 1966
Capt Brent L. Morel, Global War on Terror, Operation Iraqi Freedom, 7 April 2004 (posthumously)
GySgt Brian M. Blonder, Global War on Terror, Operation Enduring Freedom, Afghanistan, 8 August 2008
Cpl James R. Solis, Santa Paula, CA. Corporal Solis was one of the only Marines in history to score a near perfect score on Edson Range (M-16A2 Service Rifle) with a final tally of 249 points out of a possible 250. During the Invasion Of Panama (Operation Just Cause) he saved the lives of 18 fellow Marines by maintaining a steady rate of well thought-out sniper fire which allowed the 18 pinned-down Marines to be airlifted to safety. Through meritorious mast he was awarded the Combat Action Ribbon, Bronze Star, Silver Star, Purple Heart, and Navy Cross for gallantry under fire. As a sniper he acquired 48 confirmed kills. [Military Times/Hall of Valor].
Other Notable Marines
Col Wheeler L. Baker, commander from 1983 to 1985
MSgt Brad Colbert, served during the Iraq War.
Capt Nathaniel Fick, served during the Iraq War.
See also
Generation Kill (TV series)
List of United States Marine Corps battalions
Organization of the United States Marine Corps
References
Further reading
Redding, Daniel J. [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/news/2005/05/mil-050512-usmc04.htm 1st Recon Battalion retraces techniques before returning to Iraq"],Marine Corps News, April 22, 2005.
Redding, Daniel J. "All about amphib", Marine Corps News", June 2, 2005.
Generation Kill by Evan Wright
One Bullet Away: The Making of a Marine Officer by Nathaniel Fick
External links
1st Recon Bn website
1st Reconnaissance Battalion, GlobalSecurity.org. (URL accessed April 15, 2006)
1st Recon Battalion Association
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1st Marine Division (United States)
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Dimmer (band)
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Dimmer was the name under which New Zealand musician Shayne Carter (formerly of Straitjacket Fits, The DoubleHappys, and Bored Games) recorded and played music from 1994. It began as an umbrella name for jam sessions and short-lived band line-ups, then home recordings, then an ensemble with various members and guests. This evolution led to more settled four-piece rock band (especially from 2006 to 2010, when only the bassist changed). At least 41 musicians have been acknowledged as playing a part in Dimmer over 18 years, with Carter the only permanent fixture.
The last Dimmer recordings were made in 2009, with the band playing live shows through 2010. A short farewell tour announced the end of the band in 2012, and Carter began recording under his own name after that. Reformed and reformatted versions of Dimmer have occasionally played live shows, drawing on all four Dimmer albums, since 2018.
All four of Dimmer's albums were admired by critics, and all earned multiple New Zealand Music Award nominations. Non-album singles were released in 1995 and 1996, with debut album I Believe You Are A Star not following until 2001. In 2004 You've Got To Hear The Music was named New Zealand's Best Rock Album for the year, and Dimmer named Best Group. There My Dear saw Carter return to playing and recording with a live rock band in 2006, and return to the national album charts. Final album Degrees of Existence (2009) was recorded by the longest-lasting version of the band.
Early years (1994-96)
Dunedin
Straitjacket Fits split in 1994, "brought low by the vagaries of the international music industry". Interviewed in 2012, Shayne Carter said that "I was completely over rock. The Dimmer thing was totally anti-rock and I became interested in not only the groove thing but doing quiet music as well."
Carter moved back to Dunedin, later saying that he "dropped out, I suppose" and "wanted to get grounded after all my running around". While there, he began using the name Dimmer as "an umbrella thing...with me as the common denominator". The first Dimmer music came from jam sessions in Dunedin. Carter explained in 2012 that "I used the name Dimmer because I thought using your own name was really uncool."
For a short while, a three-piece version of Dimmer coalesced, with Peter Jefferies (This Kind of Punishment, Nocturnal Projections) on drums and Lou Allison on bass. Carter and Jefferies had collaborated on singles before – "Randolph's Going Home" in 1986, and "Knocked Out Or Thereabouts" in 1992.
I still wanted to rock when I formed Dimmer, because I needed to exorcise myself. I built a new set of songs with Lou and Peter. It's a thing with me to start from scratch with every new band. I have to contradict whatever I've just said and I also need to prove that I have somewhere left to go.
– Shayne Carter, Dead People I Have Known, 2019
On 17 June 1994 this line-up debuted with an "abrasive and deliberately uncommercial" seven-song set at the Empire Hotel. Reviewer Grant McDougall said that "Dimmer's songs are all about dynamics, explosive and meteoric. They starkly show for the first time ever what Carter can actually do by himself without the restrictions of having to complement another guitarist." The band toured New Zealand in August that year.
After August's tour, Allison moved back to the UK and Carter also broke with Peter Jefferies. "Peter was as talented as me...but I didn't want to share the table anymore."
"Crystalator" (b/w "Dawn's Coming In")
Dimmer's first official release, the 7" "Crystalator" single was recorded by Carter, Jefferies and Allison in 1994 and released in 1995 by Flying Nun (New Zealand) and Sub Pop (USA).
I put down a song with Lou on the bass and Peter Jefferies on the drums...at Fish Street Studios. [...] Peter's beat was murderous and Lou played a single note. I was exploring a new minimalism, trying to boil music down to a quintessential truth. 'Crytalator' is one of my favourite songs, even if it's an instrumental. In it, I hear anger, lamenting, and a giant "Fuck you" to [Straitjacket Fits record labels] Mushroom, Arista, and anyone else who'd suppressed me."
– Shayne Carter, Dead People I Have Known, 2019
"Crystalator" is an instrumental track. The New Zealand Herald describes it as "mangled noise... that ratcheted up and let rip with a barbed guitar riff". Flying Nun founder Roger Sheppard said that the song "sounds rollickingly amazing in that strident 'here I am, listen to me' way that only an instrumental can communicate. Who needs words when a guitar can spit out these sorts of sounds." The b-side was "Dawn's Coming In", which Carter says is "strong as well, even though with its hushed restraint it was totally the opposite of 'Crystalator'."
Both these tracks were also released on Flying Nun compilations. "Crystalator" appeared on Pop Eyed in 1996, and in 2005 "Dawn's Coming In" was included in Where in the World Is Wendy Broccoli? A collection of out of print Flying Nun singles 1981–1996 (along with "Knocked Out Or Thereabouts").
An early version of the Dimmer song "Seed" appeared on Star Trackers, a cassette that was given away with issue 4 of Australian label Spunk Records' Spunkzine in winter 1995. It was credited to Shayne Carter as a solo artist. ("Seed" would later be rerecorded for I Believe You Are A Star.)
Through the second half of the 1990s "[there was] the odd Dunedin solo gig but, for the most part, Shayne Carter disappeared from the public eye." Carter has called the period from 1995 "a lost weekend that actually lasted for six years".
"Don't Make Me Buy Out Your Silence"
After the dissolution of the "Crystalator" line-up, Carter continued jamming with Dunedin musicians. One short-lived line-up included bassist Chris Heazlewood (King Loser) and drummer Matt Middleton, who released what Carter caller "a series of near-genius cassettes" under the name Crude. Middleton soon moved to Melbourne.
A four-piece line-up of Carter, Heazlewood, Cameron Bain (guitar) and Robbie Yeats (drums, The Dead C) began sessions that were intended to result in a debut Dimmer album. Carter called this "the baddest early version of Dimmer", but the sessions ended in what he described as "tears, soap operas, that kinda stuff" and resulted in only a short EP. "Don't Make Me Buy Out Your Silence" was the only official release from this phase of Dimmer.
The song "Don't Make Me Buy Out Your Silence" was "partly inspired by Tricky" and written to capture a sense of paranoia. In 1996 it came out as a 7" vinyl release (with "Pacer" as a b-side), and as a three-track CD EP (which added "On the Road", a cover of "On the Road Again" by Canned Heat). This was the last Flying Nun release of Dimmer's, originally credited only to Carter. These credits changed ten years later when, as There My Dear bonus tracks, "Don't Make Me Buy Out Your Silence" acknowledged Bain and "Pacer" credited all band members.
None of the early Dimmer line-ups lasted long. In Carter's telling, Chris Heazlewood "became a dick. He...wrote 'Ace of Spades' on his scrawny chest when he played at the Big Day Out. He told people it was okay he was in with Carter because he was going to 'fuck it up'. I wondered if he was jealous, or if he resented me... He left Dimmer by rubbishing me on the internet, which hurt because he was showboating at my expense. I didn't speak to him for years, even after he apologised."
A video for "Don't Make Me Buy Out Your Silence" received NZ On Air funding and was directed by Steve Morrison.
No more music was released by Dimmer until 1999's "Evolution" single. In 2007 all five tracks from the "Crystalator" and "Don't Make Me Buy Out Your Silence" singles were included as bonus tracks on an Australian release of 2006 album There My Dear.
Collaborative albums (1997-2006)
1997–2001: I Believe You Are A Star
Carter moved to Auckland in 1997 and, inspired by "new music [including] avant-electronica and whatever else was fresh and non-mainstream", switched from playing rock music to producing tracks on Pro Tools.
"After I put out the first album, there’s all this 'it doesn't sound like Straitjacket Fits'. Well, no, it doesn't. That's why I quit the band – because I didn't want to be doing that. [...It] actually took me five or six years to put together. That came on the back of the Straitjackets, and I think I was disillusioned with the whole music thing at the time. I wanted to figure out a lot of things in my head."
- Shayne Carter, 2009
Most of the writing and recording that eventually became Dimmer's first album ("[the song] "Smoke"...took about four years to write") took place at Carter's homes over a number of years, with drummer Gary Sullivan (JPSE, Chug, The Stereo Bus) the other main participant. At least one song, "Seed", predated Carter's move to Auckland, an early version of it having been one of the tracks recorded in the mainly-abandoned Dunedin sessions of 1995.
Locations for Carter and Sullivan's sessions included the former Ponsonby Road premises of the store Beautiful Music, then later Norfolk Street, where Carter spent an advance from Sony Records to have either a shipping container or Portacom building (depending on which recollection of Carter's you trust) installed in his backyard by crane.
In 1999 the first release from these sessions, "Evolution", came out as a CD single with "Sad Guy" and the Tryhard Remix of "Evolution" as b-sides. The song's video featured Carter's father playing an older version of Shayne. It was directed by Darryl Ward and funded by NZ On Air.
It was two years before Dimmer's debut album, I Believe You Are A Star, which included "Evolution" and a reworked "Seed", was released in 2001. The writing and production of all but one track ("Sad Guy") are solely credited to Carter. Five other musicians (including Bic Runga) appear in what The Listener called "hardly essential cameos". The album had a seven-week run in the New Zealand album charts, starting at #17 and getting as high as #13.
Videos were made for "Seed", "I Believe You Are a Star", and "Drop You Off". In 2018, I Believe You Are A Star was released on vinyl for the first time. At the time Carter said he still considered it the best album he'd ever made.
Critical reception
I Believe You Are A Star received high critical acclaim, including a 5-star review from the New Zealand Herald that called it "a dark wonder", "a great album", and "one to which all other New Zealand albums in 2001 will be compared". It was especially noted for its electronic feel, "introverted minimalism" and its contrast to the rock music Carter had made before. As reviewer Nick Bollinger put it in The Listener, "Carter could have ridden the momentum they [Straitjacket Fits] created by promptly launching another axe-wielding line-up. Instead he cleared the decks, and began a long process of finding, and then refining, a whole other concept. ... The computer is the primary compositional tool here. Harmonic figures circle repetitively, vocal lines are spare and dislocated in an electronic landscape. Like hip-hop, the music seems to be led by the rhythms." Gary Steel's review in Metro magazine called it "possibly one of the most original, daring, and outrageously well-defined pieces of musical art to have emanated from this country".
Released seven years after the last Straitjacket Fits record, I Believe You Are A Star is described by music historian John Dix as "one of the great New Zealand 'comeback' albums", and by music critic Gary Steel (writing in 2016) as Carter's "masterpiece". At the 2002 New Zealand Music Awards Dimmer was nominated for Best Music Video (for "Seed") and Best Album Art.
At the 2001 bNet NZ Music Awards the album won Best Rock Release and Carter was named Most Outstanding Musician, although that trophy was lost at the ceremony.
2003–06: You've Got To Hear The Music and All Looks the Same at Night
While working on the next Dimmer album, Carter listened to "heaps of Miles Davis and Thelonious Monk", which became a point of contention with his record label, Sony. In an interview with Pavement magazine, Carter said "I went up there [to Sony] one day and I got to raid the closets [...] I grabbed Thelonious Monk because they had a lot of Monk records. One of the people who is quite highly powered in that company was quite upset by the fact I was grabbing Thelonious Monk instead of Creed records because that's what I should be aiming for. To me, that pretty much summed up the whole opposites mentality."
Sony dropped Dimmer before the second album, leaving Carter feeling "like a failure". He shifted to Festival Mushroom Records.
Inspired by jazz musicians like Monk and Davis, Carter decided that on his next album he "wanted to hear mistakes and fumbly human stuff. I wanted it to sound like a bunch of tunes that people could sit around and clap their hands to". Not wanting this album to take as long as the first, he had written most of the songs "in a month last year [2003]". The release was delayed while Dimmer changed record companies.
You've Got To Hear The Music was released in 2004. Stylistic differences with I Believe You Are a Star included instrumentation – Carter recorded himself on acoustic guitar and used "real drums on all the tracks" – and the number (and range) of players included. This album featured 19 musicians other than Carter, included backing vocals from Anika Moa and a returning Bic Runga, strings arranged by Graeme Downes, and (on "Getting What You Give") the Fat Freddy's Drop horn section.
The album name came from a conversation Carter and Gary Sullivan had about The Third Man.
Music videos were made for "Getting What You Give", "Come Here", and "Case". NZ On Screen calls "Case"'s video a "piece of stop motion cleverness" for which "at least 3,080 Polaroid photographs appear to have been taken".
By this time, Dimmer had seen Carter collaborate with more than two dozen other musicians but he still described it as "essentially [...] a solo project. [...] It doesn't seem cool if it just has your name there. It seems cooler to have some sort of umbrella, something that makes it a bit more enigmatic." You've Got To Hear the Music was the last Dimmer recording project to fit this description.
A live Dimmer performance broadcast on Radio New Zealand in 2004 featured Carter, Anika Moa (guitar/vocals), Willy Scott (drums), Ned Ngatae (guitar), Mike Hall (bass), Andy Morton (keyboards), and Heather Mansfield (glockenspiel). Mansfield was the only one not to have played on the album, although she would appear on 2006's There My Dear. They played songs from You've Got to Hear the Music and I Believe You Are a Star.
You've Got To Hear The Music: Critical reception and awards
Music critics met You've Got To Hear The Music positively. Common themes included positive comparisons to I Believe You Are A Star and praise for Carter continuing to produce styles of music different to his previous work.
John Dix describes You've Got To Hear The Music as "another evolutionary step – as different to its predecessor as Dimmer is to Straitjacket Fits." In a four-star New Zealand Herald review Russell Baillie called the album "not quite as gripping or experimental as its predecessor", but said that "with its bent grooves and odd wiring, You've Got To Hear the Music is an album that stays intriguing on repeat listens." Writing for The Listener, Nick Bollinger declared the album Carter's "masterpiece". Compared to I Believe You Are A Star, he saw it as "more generous, both melodically and emotionally". He noted the influence of black American music, as well as Carter's increased mastery of electronic music production and return to "real" songwriting. In sum, Bollinger wrote, "Dimmer's second album has a depth and soul that others don't come near".
Audioculture notes its "pronounced soul and groove influences", while in MZ Musician magazine, Jacob Connor noted that "Dimmer's electro-folk musings simmer to a laconic groove", and said that "a restrained elegance makes the music replayable". He concluded that the album is "a rewarding recording from a national treasure."
At that year's New Zealand Music Awards it won Best Rock Album, and Dimmer was named Best Group (as well as being nominated for Album of the Year, Single of the Year ("Getting What You Give"), Best Cover Art, and Best Music Video). The album spent five weeks in the New Zealand top 40 album charts, peaking at #19, and earned Gold certification.
All Looks the Same at Night compilation
In 2006 a compilation of tracks selected from Dimmer's first two albums was released internationally by Rogue Records. All Looks the Same at Night included one disc of 13 songs, and one of seven music videos.
Rock band years (2006-2012)
2006: There My Dear
Following the Straitjacket Fits reunion tour of 2005, Carter returned to playing guitar with more traditional rock line-ups.
"My first albums as Dimmer were quiet and introverted as a kickback against all that rock glory. But Dimmer’s been going a while now and when I went back and felt that rock glory, I thoroughly enjoyed it".
- Shayne Carter, September 2006
Despite changing away from the electronic music-making approach of the first two Dimmer albums, Carter kept the name for this new phase. By this time the only previous Dimmer release to come from a rock-style line-up, the Flying Nun singles, were 10 and 11 years old. Carter later said that "for a while there, I rejected my past. I’ve kind of come full circle and embraced it again."
In 2006 Carter put together a Dimmer line-up that he described as "pretty much a pick-up band": guitarist James Duncan (SJD, Punches), drummer Dino (Constantine) Karlis (HDU), and bassist Justyn Pilbrow (Elemeno P). He had songs that he'd already written on guitar, and after "two or three weeks' rehearsal" the band recorded the third Dimmer album, There My Dear, in a local bowling club.
"I’m not a computer programmer. I couldn’t be fucked doing drum patterns, and all that kind of stuff. The songs were quite raw, and I didn’t want to overdo it. I just wrote it, put together a band and taught them the songs and we recorded it live."- Shayne Carter, September 2006
Among eight guest musicians Anika Moa and Bic Runga returned as backing vocalists and Don McGlashan played euphonium on two tracks.
There My Dear was released by Warner Music NZ, debuting at number 7 on New Zealand's album charts (Dimmer's first and only top-ten placing, and the start of a seven-week run) and receiving two nominations at the 2007 New Zealand Music Awards, both in technical categories. Aspects of the album, most obviously its title and thematic origins in a relationship break-up, were inspired by Marvin Gaye's Here My Dear. Videos were made for singles "Don't Even See Me" and "You're Only Leaving Hurt", the latter directed by Gary Sullivan (who appeared on every Dimmer album except this one) and granted $5,000 from NZ On Air.
In a four-star review for the New Zealand Herald, Scott Kara said: "This is a break-up album which at first may seem too maudlin, both musically and emotionally. [...But] then there's Carter. He's not so brooding on There My Dear, his guitar lurches and breathes to full effect...And his songwriting is tops...Carter is often held up as New Zealand rock royalty. On There My Dear he confirms himself as a soul man as well. Although they're sad break-up songs, Carter sounds pretty happy to be playing them. It's a feelgood album with a soul kind of feeling." Critic Simon Sweetman called it "one of the great break-up albums", and in The Listener Nick Bollinger called it "Dimmer's broken-hearted masterpiece".
In 2007, label Longtime Listener released a version of There My Dear in Australia (LSNR82007). As well as the full album, this release also included five bonus tracks – the entirety of the "Crystalator" and "Don't Make Me Buy Out Your Silence" singles of the 1990s. Until this neither single had been available on CD (although "Crystalator" and "Dawn's Coming In" had been on different Flying Nun compilations).
2007–12 Degrees of Existence, the Last Train to Brockville, and band break-up
After There My Dear was released, bassist Justyn Pilbrow was replaced by Kelly Steven (later known as Kelly Sherrod). She had been a member of Voom and was already James Duncan's bandmate in the duo Punches, the two having first played together in The Pencils. Carter, Duncan, Steven, and Karlis remained together until Karils' departure in 2009.
Their 2007 trip to the US, which included shows with the Brian Jonestown Massacre and at South By Southwest, was Dimmer's first tour outside New Zealand – Carter hadn't played in America since Straitjacket Fits in 1993. Shows in Australia followed in November that year. Dimmer continued performing live into 2009, appearing at Auckland's Homegrown festival in March. Comparing 2009's Dimmer to the incarnation that had recorded There My Dear, Carter called it "a far more confident band, and a far more together band. We are actually quite close as people."
The same four began recording Dimmer's fourth and final album, Degrees of Existence, in Auckland in 2008. Sessions lasted until 2009. Karlis moved to Berlin during recording, so Michael (Mikie) Prain (Die! Die! Die!) and original drummer Gary Sullivan played on two tracks each. The album was released in July 2009 and Sullivan stayed with the band for the touring that followed, including dates in the USA.
Degrees of Existence spent four weeks in the New Zealand album charts, peaking at #18 in August 2009. It was selected by the New Zealand Herald's music reviewers as the year's second-best album. Amplifier called it "possibly the best album Mr Carter and co have released", and placed it (along with guitarist James Duncan's solo release, Hello-Fi) in the Top Twenty Albums of 2009. Critic Graham Reid said Degrees of Existence was "better and more consistent than that Dimmer debut [I Believe You Are a Star] and also than most of the Fits' later material...A real keeper of depth and intensity." The titular single "Degrees of Existence" was shortlisted for the 2009 APRA Silver Scroll Award (Dermarnia Lloyd of Cloudboy performed it at the ceremony) and the next year Degrees of Existence was nominated for Best Rock Album at the New Zealand Music Awards.
Last Train to Brockville (2011) and Dimmer's "final" shows (2012)
In 2011, Carter's 'Last Train to Brockville' tour saw him play songs from his full career – Bored Games, The DoubleHappys, Straitjacket Fits, and Dimmer – with backing from Sullivan on drums and bassist Vaughan Williams. At the time Carter said that he had been composing melodies – "about 50 pieces of music" – which he expected to lead to another Dimmer album.
Before this putative fifth album ever happened, in 2012, Carter decided to end Dimmer and operate under his own name. A four-piece consisting of the 'Brockville' trio plus James Duncan played Dimmer's two "final" live shows in Auckland and Wellington.
After Dimmer
Shayne Carter was part of The Adults in 2011 and 2012, the year he also announced plans for a "piano album". Offsider by Shayne P Carter was released in 2016. Also in 2016 he began playing shows with Don McGlashan (Blam Blam Blam, The Front Lawn, The Mutton Birds), a musical partnership that led to Carter playing in McGlashan's band The Others alongside James Duncan in 2021.
James Duncan recorded his second solo album, Vanishing, in Berlin and released it in 2012. He also remained part of SJD's band, and teamed up with Carter again in 2016, this time playing bass for the 'Offsider' tour of New Zealand. In 2021 Duncan and Carter recorded and, but for covid-related cancelations, would have toured as members of The Others, Don McGlashan's band.
Gary Sullivan remains a key collaborator with Carter, drumming on the Offsider album and on the tour that followed its release. In 2011–12 the pair had both been a part of The Adults, a project led by Jon Toogood and also including former Dimmer recruits Anika Moa and Nick Roughan.
Dino Karlis joined Brian Jonestown Massacre. He plays drums and percussion on the albums Revelation, which was recorded in Berlin 2012–14, and Musique de Film Imaginé. He also remains part of HDU, the members of which reunite occasionally.
Kelly Sherrod (née Steven) moved to Nashville, and was based there while she and James Duncan (who was still in Auckland) worked on the first Punches album in 2011. She joined Ryan Bingham's band in 2012. Her solo project Proteins of Magic began 2021, and toured New Zealand as a support act to Dimmer in 2022.
Justyn Pilbrow left Elemeno P in 2009. By the time they reunited in 2017 he was working in Los Angeles as a music producer.
Reunions, tours, and live album (2018-)
"When I was younger, I thought reunion tours were quite undignified. But I'm older now, and I've decided that they're actually extremely dignified if done the right way."- Shayne Carter, November 2018
"Dimmer and special guests", King's Arms, February 2018
The imminent closure of Auckland venue the King's Arms in 2018 led to a one-off Dimmer performance by Carter, Sullivan, Williams and Duncan – the same four who played 2012's "final" shows. It was one of the King's Arms' last performances. At the same gig, on 9 February 2018, Carter also reunited with Straitjacket Fits bandmates John Collie and Mark Petersen to play songs from that band's catalogue. Bass (originally played by David Wood) was shared by Williams and Duncan. This was billed as "special guests" rather than a Straitjacket Fits performance.
Dimmer and Straitjacket Fits, November–December 2018
The same band line-ups from February's one-off show played five more dates in Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch and Dunedin near the end of the year. Unlike February's show, this tour saw the name Straitjacket Fits used.
I Believe You Are A Star 20th/21st anniversary tour, 2022
The 20th anniversary of I Believe You Are A Star fell in 2021. A planned tour was cancelled due to the covid pandemic and was rescheduled for September-October 2022 with shows in Wellington, Christchurch, Auckland and Dunedin.
Proteins of Magic, a solo project of former Dimmer bassist Kelly Sherrod, was a support act.
An expanded seven-member band had been announced for 2021, but neither Nick Roughan nor Lachlan Anderson (Die! Die! Die!) could commit to the 2022 tour. Roughan, who contributed to Dimmer's first three albums and would have been playing keyboards and live electronics, was replaced by Durham Fenwick (Green Grove). Bassist Anderson would have been new to Dimmer, but instead James Duncan shifted from guitar to bass. Louisa Nicklin (guitar/vocals) and Neive Strang (percussion/vocals) were new additions alongside stalwarts Shayne Carter and Gary Sullivan (drums).
Live at the Hollywood
The three nights that the band played in Auckland in 2022 were recorded by RNZ. A selection have been turned into the album Live at the Hollywood, which is due for release in October 2023 and will be the release from Shayne Carter's new label, Crystalator Records.
The Hollywood line-up will tour New Zealand again in November and December 2023.
Credited Dimmer members and musicians
Other than Shayne Carter, more than 40 musicians have been involved in Dimmer in some way. 38 are credited on Dimmer recordings. The scale of their contributions run from full band members in 2006–09, to 24 people who appeared on only one or two songs. Others never recorded with the band but have played in live shows since Dimmer stopped releasing albums.
Early Dunedin years, including the Flying Nun singles (1995–1996)
Acknowledged but never recorded
Matt Middleton, drums
"Crystalator" b/w "Dawn's Coming In"
Lou Allison, bass
Peter Jefferies, drums
"Don't Make Me Buy Out Your Silence"
Uncredited on the original release, but named on the There My Dear CD that included these songs as bonus tracks. Also played in the abandoned album sessions of 1996.
Cameron Bain, guitar ("Don't Make Me Buy Out Your Silence", "Pacer")
Chris Heazlewood, bass ("Pacer")
Robbie Yeats, drums ("Pacer")
Band members (from 2006)
Non-band members credited on albums (2001–2009)
This table excludes band members listed above for There My Dear and Degrees of Existence.Ordered by number of separate releases played on, then by total songs. Numbers represent the tracks on which each musician played.''
Discography
Albums
Compilation
Singles
References
New Zealand indie rock groups
Flying Nun Records artists
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4759423
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evangelical%20Lutheran%20Church%20in%20Lithuania
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Evangelical Lutheran Church in Lithuania
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The Evangelical Lutheran Church in Lithuania (, ELCL) is a Lutheran church body comprising congregations in Lithuania. The ELCL is a member of the Porvoo Communion and the Lutheran World Federation.
In 2018 the ELCL reported having 19,000 active members. There are 52 congregations, and around 30 ordained clergy, including the bishop and two deacons. The current bishop () of the church is the Rt Revd Mindaugas Sabutis.
Around 0.56% of the population of Lithuania are members of the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Lithuania.
The abbreviated name for the church is in Latin, Unitas Lithuaniae or in Polish, Jednota Litewska (Lithuanian church provincial union).
History
Lutheranism in the Grand Duchy
The Evangelical Lutheran Church of Lithuania dates back to the Reformation, when Kaunas, a large town in Lithuania, accepted the Augsburg Confession in 1550. In the 16th century Lutheranism started to spread from the two German-controlled neighbouring states of Livonia to the north and the Protestant formerly monastic, Teutonic State of Prussia to its south.
A united reformed church organization in Lithuania's church province can be counted from the year 1557 at the Synod in Vilnius on December 14 of that year. From that year the Synod met regularly forming all the church provinces of The Grand Duchy of Lithuania, at first from two and later growing to six districts and representative district synods. It sent its representatives to the General Polish/Lithuanian Synods; however in its administration it was in fact a self-governing Church. The first Superintendent was Simonas Zacijus (Szymon Zacjusz, approx 1507–1591).
In 1565 the anti- Trinitarian Lithuanian Brotherhood who rejected the learning of the Trinity separated from the church.
The parish network covered nearly all of The Grand Duchy. Its district centers were Vilnius, Kedainai, Biržai, Slucke, Kojdanove and Zabludove later Izabeline.
Prussian Lithuania
Since 1945 the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Lithuania has included Lutheran congregations in the formerly German Klaipėda Region, the northern part of Lithuania Minor, where Lutheranism dates back to 1525. The majority of Prussian Lithuanians living in East Prussia and in Memelland (what is now the Klaipėda Region of modern Lithuania) were members of the Evangelical Church of the old-Prussian Union, and most of them were resettled in the Federal Republic of Germany along with the rest of the East Prussian German inhabitants after World War II.
Since 1525 Lutheranism started spreading among Lithuanians in Lithuania Minor, which comprised about a quarter of Ducal Prussia, the first state to officially adopt Lutheranism as state religion. Ducal Prussia emerged from the Roman Catholic Teutonic Prussia, which, however, only had superficially missioned the rural, mostly Lithuanian population and thus only erected few churches.
The Prussian Lithuanians were only thoroughly Christianised starting with the Reformation in Prussia, the Prussian estates established the Lutheran Church in Prussia by the Church Order decided on 10 December 1525. Already on 18 January 1524 Bishop George I of Pomesania (and Samland), who had converted to Lutheranism in 1523, ordered to only use native languages at baptisms. The widespread pagan worship of Perkūnas, symbolised by the goat buck, was forbidden in the same year, and repeated in 1540. The Church Order provided for visitations of the parishioners and pastors, first carried out by Bishop George I in 1538. The principal usage of the native language secured the survival of the Lithuanian language in Prussia.
In 1544 Albert, Duke of Prussia founded the Albertina University, Königsberg in Prussia/Karaliaučius, which became the principal educational establishment for Lutheran pastors and theologians of Lithuanian language. At the same time the Counter-Reformation reduced the number of Protestants in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (Lithuania proper). Right in 1544 Duke Albert appointed Lutheran pastors, who had fled anti-Protestant oppression in the Grand Duchy, as professors at the Albertina, namely Stanislovas Rapolionis (who finished his doctorate at Wittenberg University with a ducal scholarship) and Abraomas Kulvietis (exiled 1542).
More refugees from Lithuania proper followed and became pastors in various parishes, such as Martynas Mažvydas, who published the Lutheran Catechismusa Prasty Szadei in 1547. Among the first native Prussian Lithuanian pastors were Johannes Bretke/Jonas Bretkūnas (pastoring in Labiau/Labguva (Polessk) and later in Königsberg), who published a Lithuanian hymnal in 1589, and wrote the first Lithuanian translation of the Bible between 1590 and 1591. Thus the Reformation brought to Lithuania Minor and Lithuania proper the first printed book in the Lithuanian language, the Lutheran Catechism (1547), and later (1591) the first Lithuanian Bible, which was not printed before the 18th century, however.
Counter Reformation and decline of the Church
With the dwindling of Protestantism in Lithuania proper after the 17th century, the Prussian Lithuanian Lutheran clergy consisted mostly of natives, many of German language, who had learned Lithuanian only as a second language.
In 1525, the Lutheran church had churches in only nine places in Lithuania Minor, to wit Gerdau/Girdava (Zheleznodorozhny), Insterburg/Įsrutis (Chernyakhovsk), Memel/Klaipėda (three churches, one of Lithuanian language), Puschdorf-Stablack/Stablaukis (Stabławki), Ragnit/Ragainė (Neman), Saalau/Želva (Kamenskoye), Tapiau/Tepliava (Gvardeysk), Tilsit/Tilžė (Sovetsk), and Wehlau/Vėluva (Znamensk). By 1531, more parishes had been founded; several of them were supervised by an archpriest (later called superintendent) on behalf of the bishop or the Pomesanian Consistory (est. in 1602 in Saalfeld in Prussia/Zaalfeld (Zalewo)), after giving up the episcopate in 1587).
Between 1529 and 1600, 31 Lutheran churches, mostly simple structures, were erected in Lithuania Minor. By the end of the 17th century, the number of Lutheran parishes in Lithuania Minor reached 112, with 68 offering Lithuanian services before the great plague (1709–1711), which killed about half the population and reduced the parishes with Lithuanian services to 59. In most parishes with services in Lithuanian and German, the same pastor served both language groups. Only in the cities of Königsberg (Church of St. Nicholas, Steindamm; Lithuanian Church of St. Elisabeth, and Sackheim), Memel, and Tilsit were separate churches exclusively used for parishes of Lithuanian language. Between 1700 and 1918, another 51, usually more massive, churches were erected.
In order to restaff orphaned pastorates after the plague, King Frederick William I of Prussia established two departments: in 1718, the Lithuanian Seminary (, closed in 1944) at Albertina, and in 1727, another one (Halės lietuvių kalbos seminaras) at the University of Halle upon Saale, closed in 1740. Johann Jakob Quandt, who also published a Lithuanian bible, a milestone in Lithuanian language standardization that was translated by him and a team of nine other theologians, was the first head of the seminary at Albertina.
The king established a fund granting scholarships for eight students at Albertina and free food for twelve students in Halle. Kristijonas Donelaitis, alumnus of Albertina Lithuanian Seminary and Lutheran pastor, became a famous poet who wrote a masterpiece of early Lithuanian literature. Daniel Klein, another Albertina alumni and pastor of Tilsit, wrote the first grammar book of the Lithuanian language and hymns, 36 of which are still in use in the Lithuanian Lutheran church today. Consistorial Councillor Ludwig Rhesa/Liudvikas Rėza, an Albertina alumni and professor leading the Lithuanian Seminary since 1810, distinguished himself as a collector and publisher of Lithuanian poems and re-editions of the Lithuanian bible in 1824.
The archpriests of Lithuania Minor were based in Tilsit (as of 1547), Ragnit (as of 1554), Insterburg (as of 1575), Schaaken in Prussia/Šakiai (Niekrasovo) (as of 1590), Memel (as of 1592), Wehlau (as of 1608), and Labiau (as of 1707). In 1751, the Pomesanian and Sambian consistories were merged in the Prussian Consistory in Königsberg, led by general superintendents since 1812. By the mid-1720s, the rising number of Lutheran parishes were organised in inspections (renamed Kirchenkreis in the 19th century; i.e. deaneries), such as in Stallupönen/Stalupėnai (Nesterov), Fischhausen/Žuvininkai (Primorsk), Schaaken in Prussia, Labiau, Insterburg, Tilsist, Ragnit and Memel.
The overall number of Prussian parishes with Lithuanian service rose to 92 in the course of the 18th and 19th centuries due to the ongoing establishment of new churches, while services in Lithuanian were given up in many parishes, rather in the south than in the north of Lithuania Minor, due to the assimilation of Lithuanian speakers to German.
After the plague, the depopulated areas were also resettled with Lutheran refugees of German language from Salzburg. So by the second half of the 19th century the number of parishes offering Lithuanian services had shrunk to 67 (116,998 parishioners), with an additional seven Roman Catholic parishes (3,395 faithful), mostly of immigrants from Lithuania proper, and five Baptist congregations of Lithuanian language (with 400 congregants).
By 1913 only 45 parishes offered Lutheran services in Lithuanian, in part a consequence of the banning of Lithuanian as a school language in Germany in 1873. So the Pietist laymen group called sakytojai (, i.e. lay preacher traditionally holding prayer hours in private homes before the actual service in Lithuanian, during the prior German service would take place; cf. also Shtundists) kept the Lithuanian language from vanishing.
Lithuanian Lutheranism between the wars
Before World War II there were 80 Evangelical Lutheran Church in Lithuania congregations in Lithuania proper, and 72 pastors were serving about 25,000 members. Whereas in the Klaipėda Region (a Lithuanian autonomous region between 1924 and 1939) 40 pastors, many maintaining services in Lithuanian, served about 137,750 mostly Lutheran parishioners (among them 35,650 Prussian Lithuanians) in 1930.
However, the parishes in the Klaipėda Region remained members of the Ecclesiastical Province of East Prussia until 1925, a subsection of the Evangelical Church of the old-Prussian Union, a church of united administration of Lutheran and Reformed congregations founded in 1817 by combining the Lutheran and Reformed churches in then Prussia. The parishes formed the Memel deanery, the Heydekrug/Šilutė deanery and the new Pogegen/Pagėgiai deanery, comprising since 1919 those parishes of the deanery of Tilsit, itself remaining with Germany, which were located north of the Memel/Nemunas river and thus disentangled.
After the nationalist demagoguery following the cession of the Klaipėda Region (northern Lithuania Minor), first a League of Nations mandate, after World War I, only nine Lutheran parishes continued Lithuanian services in the southern and central part of Lithuania Minor, which remained with Germany, but were mostly forbidden after the Nazi takeover in 1933.
On 30 July 1919 a majority of 82 synodals from Klaipėda Region decided to keep the jurisdiction with the Ecclesiastical Province of East Prussia against two votes for a separation and 15 abstentions. However, after the Lithuanian annexation of the region, not hindered by the protecting powers combined in the Council of Ambassadors, the Lithuanian government demanded the separation of the Protestant church, announcing it would otherwise withhold the salaries of the clergy.
The majority of the regional clergy and the Evangelical Supreme Ecclesiastical Council (Evangelischer Oberkirchenrat, EOK), the old-Prussian executive body, resisted this plan.
Therefore, Viktoras Gailius, Land Director of the Klaipėda Region addressed the EOK in Berlin, which sent envoys to Memel, in order to conclude a contract on the future of the old-Prussian Lutheran parishes and the one single Reformed congregation in Memel city, on 27 and 29 September 1923. But an agreement turned out impossible.
Superintendent Franz Gregor of Memel deanery preferred the regional synodal federation to be a subsection of the East Prussian ecclesiastical province, whereas the faction of sakytojai laymen within the regional Lutheran parishes, forming since 1919 the mostly Lithuanian-language unofficial Klaipėda Regional Synod (), demanded – also incited by the Lithuanian central government – under the government-appointed leader Pastor Valentinas Gailius (Ruß/Rusnė) an independent church body.
However, Gailius, whom the Lithuanian government had granted the title general superintendent, failed to win the pastors and parishioners to also elect him general superintendent. His many decrees were simply ignored in the parishes, who considered his officiating an illegitimate intrusion of government interferment into affairs of ecclesiastical autonomy. The consistory in Königsberg, still the competent directing body, deposed him as pastor.
So in April and June 1924 Gailius twice convened the Lithuanianian-language unofficial Klaipėda Regional Synod and formed a preliminary executive body for an independent church. However, the majority of the pastors and of the elected representatives of the parishioners rejected his approach. Embittered Gailius finally resigned.
In 1925 then the Klaipėda Directorate sent for their part a delegation, including independists and proponents wishing to upkeep the connection with the old-Prussian church, in order to negotiate with the EOK in Berlin. After negotiations between April 18 to 23, and again July 16 to 18, 1925 the Agreement concerning the Evangelical Church of the Memel Territory () was concluded and signed on July 23.
Both parties had stipulated that the Lutheran parishes and the single Reformed congregation in Memel should form the Regional Synodal Federation of the Memel Territory () with its own consistory led by an elected general superintendent. This regional synodal federation then formed an old-Prussian ecclesiastical province of its own, disentangled from that of East Prussia. The federation was independent from any government interference by the Lithuanian central government or the Klaipėda Directorate. In 1926 first elections were held for the regional synod, and the synodals elected Gregor the first general superintendent and church councillors for the executive body, the consistory in Memel, which constituted in 1927. When in 1933 Gregor retired Otto Obereigner, the former Superintendent of Pogegen deanery, succeeded him.
German and Lithuanian were equally to be used in preaching and every pastor was to master both languages. Until 1 January 1932 also foreign pastors were allowed be employed. However, in 1923 the native language of 37 out of 40 pastors in the Klaipėda Region was German, and only three were native speakers of Lithuanian. In 1936 their number had shrunk to two, with the pastors being German native speakers mostly only able to passively understand and read Lithuanian.
With the formation of the German Evangelical Church on 14 July 1933, uniting all German Protestant regional churches under Nazi government and German Christian movement pressure, members of the Memel consistory agreed to further collaborate with the Berlin-based EOK within the new federation, whereas the Lithuanian central government refused to allow the regional Protestant representatives to join conventions of the German Evangelical Church.
The central government doubted the further validity of the concordat of 1925 since it considered the old-Prussian church to have changed its legal identity. However, on 26 August 1933 the EOK assured that the old-Prussian church persisted so that the central government refrained from cancelling the concordat.
In 1934 the central government-appointed governor in the Klaipėda Region expelled nine pastors bearing German citizenship in 1934, causing Nazi Germany to protest. After 1935 Lithuania accounted for Hitler’s rising power and rather maintained a low profile in the controversy on affairs in the Klaipėda Region.
With Lithuania ceding Klaipėda Region with effect of 22 March 1939, after the German ultimatum to Lithuania, again not hindered by the protecting powers of the Council of Ambassadors, the majority of the parishioners welcomed the return to Germany. The EOK sent telegrammes to the parishes thanking them for maintaining the union with the old-Prussian church in the prior years, suggesting this union evidenced their German attitude. On 1 May 1939 the regional synodal federation was abolished and its parishes reintegrated into the Ecclesiastical Province of East Prussia.
Post war development
By the end of 1944, when the Soviet Red Army approached the Klaipėda region, the Nazi authorities ordered civilians to evacuate the endangered areas. However, the evacuation started too late since the Red Army approached much faster than expected and could cut off the territorial connection with German-held territories by January 26, 1945. Many refugees perished due to Soviet low-flying strafing attacks.
Rescued were mostly those who managed to flee before the Soviets via land or by sea vessels into the areas conquered by the Britons and Americans. Among them the pastors A. Keleris, J. Pauperas, M. Preikšaitis, O. Stanaitis, A. Trakis, and J. Urdse, who recollected Lithuanian parishes and reorganised Lithuanian pastoring in the western zones of Allied-occupied Germany. Together with 65,000 refugees from Lithuania proper, mostly Roman Catholic, who made their way to the western zones, 158 schools of Lithuanian language were founded there until 1948.
With the emigration of many Lithuanians to overseas or the assimilation of the remaining Lithuanians and Prussian Lithuanians, who hold German citizenship, in West Germany the number shrunk to a mere one, Litauisches Gymnasium/Vasario 16-osios gimnazija (Lithuanian High School) in Lampertheim in Hesse. Until 1990 this high and boarding school remained the only Lithuanian school in the non-Communist countries, attended by several known exiled Lithuanians.
The remaining inhabitants of Lithuania Minor underwent terrible years under the Soviet annexation, especially those in the Russian Kaliningrad oblast. They were generally robbed and plundered, many imprisoned in labour camps, some deported to Siberia, and generally refused any access to ordinary food supplies causing most of them to perish.
An exception were those Prussian Lithuanians surviving in or returning to the Klaipėda Region, which became part of Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic on 7 April 1948. They could return to their homes, which, however, had often been taken by immigrants from Lithuania proper. There were generally considered second class citizens.
The Lutheran parishes in the Klaipėda Region were revitalised by the laymen sakytojai, since all pastors had perished or remained exiled in the west. The first Lutheran service is recorded for 9 January 1945 in Priekulė (Prökuls). With time 27 Lutheran parishes were registered in all of Lithuania, with 12 located in the Klaipėda Region, to wit in Katyčiai (Koadjuthen), Kintai (Kinten), Klaipėda (Memel), Lauksargiai (Launen), Pašyšiai (Passon-Reisgen), Plikiai (Plicken), Priekulė, Ramučiai (Ramutten), Saugai (Sausgallen), Šilutė (Heydekrug), Vanagai (Wannaggen), Vyžiai (Wiekschnen). They form a part of the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Lithuania since.
When in 1958 the Soviet Union allowed Prussian Lithuanians to revert for their prior annulled German citizenship many emigrated to West Germany until 1967. So after war-related death toll and flight, perishing under Soviet post-war occupation, and the emigration in the 1950s and 1960s a mere 7,000 to 8,000 of the 137,750 mostly Lutheran Protestants (among them 35,650 Prussian Lithuanians; as of 1930) continued to live in the Klaipėda Region.
During the changes of World War II, also many congregation members from Lithuania proper emigrated, were exiled, or were killed. The churches that remained without pastors were closed and used for other purposes or were destroyed. During Soviet occupation of Lithuania proper from 1940 to 1941 and again 1944 to 1990, religious instruction was forbidden and church membership entailed public penalties.
With Lithuanian independence in 1990, the ELCL began to receive back church buildings and properties that in Soviet times were nationalised and used for various profane purposes. Churches and property were returned throughout the 1990s.
Primates
Jonas Kalvanas (1976-1995)
Jonas Viktoras Kalvanas (1995-2003)
Mindaugas Sabutis (2004-present)
Relations with other churches
Since 1989, there has been a partnership with North Elbian Evangelical Lutheran Church, now Evangelical Lutheran Church in Northern Germany.
Reflecting its conservative confessional Lutheran stance, the ELCL declared itself in full fellowship with the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod, from the United States, in 2000.
See also
Religion in Lithuania
External links
Official website
Notes
Lutheran World Federation members
Christian denominations in Lithuania
Lutheranism in Europe
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4759545
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocket%20engine%20nozzle
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Rocket engine nozzle
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A rocket engine nozzle is a propelling nozzle (usually of the de Laval type) used in a rocket engine to expand and accelerate combustion products to high supersonic velocities.
Simply: propellants pressurized by either pumps or high pressure ullage gas to anywhere between two and several hundred atmospheres are injected into a combustion chamber to burn, and the combustion chamber leads into a nozzle which converts the energy contained in high pressure, high temperature combustion products into kinetic energy by accelerating the gas to high velocity and near-ambient pressure.
History
Simple bell-shaped nozzles were developed in the 1500s. The de Laval nozzle was originally developed in the 19th century by Gustaf de Laval for use in steam turbines. It was first used in an early rocket engine developed by Robert Goddard, one of the fathers of modern rocketry. It has since been used in almost all rocket engines, including Walter Thiel's implementation, which made possible Germany's V-2 rocket.
Atmospheric use
The optimal size of a rocket engine nozzle is achieved when the exit pressure equals ambient (atmospheric) pressure, which decreases with increasing altitude. The reason for this is as follows: using a quasi-one-dimensional approximation of the flow, if ambient pressure is higher than the exit pressure, it decreases the net thrust produced by the rocket, which can be seen through a force-balance analysis. If ambient pressure is lower, while the force balance indicates that the thrust will increase, the isentropic Mach relations show that the area ratio of the nozzle could have been greater, which would result in a higher exit velocity of the propellant, increasing thrust. For rockets traveling from the Earth to orbit, a simple nozzle design is only optimal at one altitude, losing efficiency and wasting fuel at other altitudes.
Just past the throat, the pressure of the gas is higher than ambient pressure and needs to be lowered between the throat and the nozzle exit by expansion. If the pressure of the exhaust leaving the nozzle exit is still above ambient pressure, then a nozzle is said to be underexpanded; if the exhaust is below ambient pressure, then it is overexpanded.
Slight overexpansion causes a slight reduction in efficiency, but otherwise does little harm. However, if the exit pressure is less than approximately 40% that of ambient, then "flow separation" occurs. This can cause exhaust instabilities that can cause damage to the nozzle, control difficulties of the vehicle or the engine, and in more extreme cases, destruction of the engine.
In some cases, it is desirable for reliability and safety reasons to ignite a rocket engine on the ground that will be used all the way to orbit. For optimal liftoff performance, the pressure of the gases exiting nozzle should be at sea-level pressure when the rocket is near sea level (at takeoff). However, a nozzle designed for sea-level operation will quickly lose efficiency at higher altitudes. In a multi-stage design, the second stage rocket engine is primarily designed for use at high altitudes, only providing additional thrust after the first-stage engine performs the initial liftoff. In this case, designers will usually opt for an overexpanded nozzle (at sea level) design for the second stage, making it more efficient at higher altitudes, where the ambient pressure is lower. This was the technique employed on the Space Shuttle's overexpanded (at sea level) main engines (SSMEs), which spent most of their powered trajectory in near-vacuum, while the shuttle's two sea-level efficient solid rocket boosters provided the majority of the initial liftoff thrust. In the vacuum of space virtually all nozzles are underexpanded because to fully expand the gas's the nozzle would have to be infinitely long, as a result engineers have to choose a design which will take advantage of the extra expansion (thrust and efficiency) whilst also not adding excessive weight and compromising the vehicle's performance.
Vacuum use
For nozzles that are used in vacuum or at very high altitude, it is impossible to match ambient pressure; rather, nozzles with larger area ratio are usually more efficient. However, a very long nozzle has significant mass, a drawback in and of itself. A length that optimises overall vehicle performance typically has to be found. Additionally, as the temperature of the gas in the nozzle decreases, some components of the exhaust gases (such as water vapour from the combustion process) may condense or even freeze. This is highly undesirable and needs to be avoided.
Magnetic nozzles have been proposed for some types of propulsion (for example, Variable Specific Impulse Magnetoplasma Rocket, VASIMR), in which the flow of plasma or ions are directed by magnetic fields instead of walls made of solid materials. These can be advantageous, since a magnetic field itself cannot melt, and the plasma temperatures can reach millions of kelvins. However, there are often thermal design challenges presented by the coils themselves, particularly if superconducting coils are used to form the throat and expansion fields.
de Laval nozzle in 1 dimension
The analysis of gas flow through de Laval nozzles involves a number of concepts and simplifying assumptions:
The combustion gas is assumed to be an ideal gas.
The gas flow is isentropic; i.e., at constant entropy, as the result of the assumption of non-viscous fluid, and adiabatic process.
The gas flow rate is constant (i.e., steady) during the period of the propellant burn.
The gas flow is non-turbulent and axisymmetric from gas inlet to exhaust gas exit (i.e., along the nozzle's axis of symmetry).
The flow is compressible as the fluid is a gas.
As the combustion gas enters the rocket nozzle, it is traveling at subsonic velocities. As the throat constricts, the gas is forced to accelerate until at the nozzle throat, where the cross-sectional area is the least, the linear velocity becomes sonic. From the throat the cross-sectional area then increases, the gas expands and the linear velocity becomes progressively more supersonic.
The linear velocity of the exiting exhaust gases can be calculated using the following equation
where:
{| border="0" cellpadding="2"
|-
!style="text-align: right"| ,
|style="text-align: left" | absolute temperature of gas at inlet (K)
|-
!style="text-align: right"|
|style="text-align: left" | ≈ 8314.5J/kmol·K, universal gas law constant
|-
!style="text-align: right"| ,
|style="text-align: left" | molecular mass or weight of gas (kg/kmol)
|-
!style="text-align: right"|
|style="text-align: left" | , isentropic expansion factor
|-
!style="text-align: right"| ,
|style="text-align: left" | specific heat capacity, under constant pressure, of gas
|-
!style="text-align: right"| ,
|style="text-align: left" | specific heat capacity, under constant volume, of gas
|-
!style="text-align: right"| ,
|style="text-align: left" | velocity of gas at the nozzle exit plane (m/s)
|-
!style="text-align: right"| ,
|style="text-align: left" | absolute pressure of gas at the nozzle exit plane (Pa)
|-
!style="text-align: right"| ,
|style="text-align: left" | absolute pressure of gas at inlet (Pa)
|}
Some typical values of the exhaust gas velocity ve for rocket engines burning various propellants are:
1.7 to 2.9 km/s (3800 to 6500 mi/h) for liquid monopropellants
2.9 to 4.5 km/s (6500 to 10100 mi/h) for liquid bipropellants
2.1 to 3.2 km/s (4700 to 7200 mi/h) for solid propellants
As a note of interest, ve is sometimes referred to as the ideal exhaust gas velocity because it based on the assumption that the exhaust gas behaves as an ideal gas.
As an example calculation using the above equation, assume that the propellant combustion gases are: at an absolute pressure entering the nozzle of p = 7.0MPa and exit the rocket exhaust at an absolute pressure of pe = 0.1MPa; at an absolute temperature of T = 3500K; with an isentropic expansion factor of γ = 1.22 and a molar mass of M = 22 kg/kmol. Using those values in the above equation yields an exhaust velocity ve = 2802 m/s or 2.80 km/s which is consistent with above typical values.
The technical literature can be very confusing because many authors fail to explain whether they are using the universal gas law constant R which applies to any ideal gas or whether they are using the gas law constant Rs which only applies to a specific individual gas. The relationship between the two constants is Rs = R/M, where R is the universal gas constant, and M is the molar mass of the gas.
Specific impulse
Thrust is the force that moves a rocket through the air or space. Thrust is generated by the propulsion system of the rocket through the application of Newton's third law of motion: "For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction". A gas or working fluid is accelerated out the rear of the rocket engine nozzle, and the rocket is accelerated in the opposite direction. The thrust of a rocket engine nozzle can be defined as:
the term in brackets is known as equivalent velocity,
The specific impulse is the ratio of the thrust produced to the weight flow of the propellants. It is a measure of the fuel efficiency of a rocket engine. In English Engineering units it can be obtained as
where:
{| border="0" cellpadding="2"
|-
!align=right| ,
|align=left | gross thrust of rocket engine (N)
|-
!align=right| ,
|align=left | mass flow rate of gas (kg/s)
|-
!align=right| ,
|align=left | velocity of gas at nozzle exhaust (m/s)
|-
!align=right| ,
|align=left | pressure of gas at nozzle exhaust (Pa)
|-
!align=right| ,
|align=left | external ambient, or free stream, pressure (Pa)
|-
!align=right| ,
|align=left | cross-sectional area of nozzle exhaust (m2)
|-
!align=right| ,
|align=left | equivalent (or effective) velocity of gas at nozzle exhaust (m/s)
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!align=right| ,
|align=left | specific impulse (s)
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!align=right| ,
|align=left | standard gravity (at sea level on Earth); approximately 9.807 m/s
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For a perfectly expanded nozzle case, where , the formula becomes
In cases where this may not be so, since for a rocket nozzle is proportional to , it is possible to define a constant quantity that is the vacuum for any given engine thus:
and hence:
which is simply the vacuum thrust minus the force of the ambient atmospheric pressure acting over the exit plane.
Essentially then, for rocket nozzles, the ambient pressure acting on the engine cancels except over the exit plane of the rocket engine in a rearward direction, while the exhaust jet generates forward thrust.
Aerostatic back-pressure and optimal expansion
As the gas travels down the expansion part of the nozzle, the pressure and temperature decrease, while the speed of the gas increases.
The supersonic nature of the exhaust jet means that the pressure of the exhaust can be significantly different from ambient pressure—the outside air is unable to equalize the pressure upstream due to the very high jet velocity. Therefore, for supersonic nozzles, it is actually possible for the pressure of the gas exiting the nozzle to be significantly below or very greatly above ambient pressure.
If the exit pressure is too low, then the jet can separate from the nozzle. This is often unstable, and the jet will generally cause large off-axis thrusts and may mechanically damage the nozzle.
This separation generally occurs if the exit pressure drops below roughly 30-45% of ambient, but separation may be delayed to far lower pressures if the nozzle is designed to increase the pressure at the rim, as is achieved with the Space Shuttle Main Engine (SSME) (1-2 psi at 15 psi ambient).
In addition, as the rocket engine starts up or throttles, the chamber pressure varies, and this generates different levels of efficiency. At low chamber pressures the engine is almost inevitably going to be grossly over-expanded.
Optimal shape
The ratio of the area of the narrowest part of the nozzle to the exit plane area is mainly what determines how efficiently the expansion of the exhaust gases is converted into linear velocity, the exhaust velocity, and therefore the thrust of the rocket engine. The gas properties have an effect as well.
The shape of the nozzle also modestly affects how efficiently the expansion of the exhaust gases is converted into linear motion. The simplest nozzle shape has a ~15° cone half-angle, which is about 98% efficient. Smaller angles give very slightly higher efficiency, larger angles give lower efficiency.
More complex shapes of revolution are frequently used, such as bell nozzles or parabolic shapes. These give perhaps 1% higher efficiency than the cone nozzle and can be shorter and lighter. They are widely used on launch vehicles and other rockets where weight is at a premium. They are, of course, harder to fabricate, so are typically more costly.
There is also a theoretically optimal nozzle shape for maximal exhaust speed. However, a shorter bell shape is typically used, which gives better overall performance due to its much lower weight, shorter length, lower drag losses, and only very marginally lower exhaust speed.
Other design aspects affect the efficiency of a rocket nozzle. The nozzle's throat should have a smooth radius. The internal angle that narrows to the throat also has an effect on the overall efficiency, but this is small. The exit angle of the nozzle needs to be as small as possible (about 12°) in order to minimize the chances of separation problems at low exit pressures.
Advanced designs
A number of more sophisticated designs have been proposed for altitude compensation and other uses.
Nozzles with an atmospheric boundary include:
expansion-deflection nozzle,
plug nozzle,
aerospike,
single-expansion ramp nozzle (SERN), a linear expansion nozzle, where the gas pressure transfers work only on one side and which could be described as a single-sided aerospike nozzle.
Each of these allows the supersonic flow to adapt to the ambient pressure by expanding or contracting, thereby changing the exit ratio so that it is at (or near) optimal exit pressure for the corresponding altitude. The plug and aerospike nozzles are very similar in that they are radial in-flow designs but plug nozzles feature a solid centerbody (sometimes truncated) and aerospike nozzles have a "base-bleed" of gases to simulate a solid center-body. ED nozzles are radial out-flow nozzles with the flow deflected by a center pintle.
Controlled flow-separation nozzles include:
expanding nozzle,
bell nozzles with a removable insert,
stepped nozzles, or dual-bell nozzles.
These are generally very similar to bell nozzles but include an insert or mechanism by which the exit area ratio can be increased as ambient pressure is reduced.
Dual-mode nozzles include:
dual-expander nozzle,
dual-throat nozzle.
These have either two throats or two thrust chambers (with corresponding throats). The central throat is of a standard design and is surrounded by an annular throat, which exhausts gases from the same (dual-throat) or a separate (dual-expander) thrust chamber. Both throats would, in either case, discharge into a bell nozzle. At higher altitudes, where the ambient pressure is lower, the central nozzle would be shut off, reducing the throat area and thereby increasing the nozzle area ratio. These designs require additional complexity, but an advantage of having two thrust chambers is that they can be configured to burn different propellants or different fuel mixture ratios. Similarly, Aerojet has also designed a nozzle called the "Thrust Augmented Nozzle", which injects propellant and oxidiser directly into the nozzle section for combustion, allowing larger area ratio nozzles to be used deeper in an atmosphere than they would without augmentation due to effects of flow separation. They would again allow multiple propellants to be used (such as RP-1), further increasing thrust.
Liquid injection thrust vectoring nozzles are another advanced design that allow pitch and yaw control from un-gimbaled nozzles. India's PSLV calls its design "Secondary Injection Thrust Vector Control System"; strontium perchlorate is injected through various fluid paths in the nozzle to achieve the desired control. Some ICBMs and boosters, such as the Titan IIIC and Minuteman II, use similar designs.
See also
Choked flow – when a gas velocity reaches the speed of sound in the gas as it flows through a restriction
De Laval nozzle – a convergent-divergent nozzle designed to produce supersonic speeds
Dual-thrust rocket motors
Giovanni Battista Venturi
Jet engine – engines propelled by jets (including rockets)
Multistage rocket
NK-33 – Russian rocket engine
Pulse jet engine
Pulsed rocket motor
Reaction Engines Skylon – a single-stage-to-orbit spaceplane powered by hybrid air-breathing/internal-oxygen engine (Reaction Engines SABRE)
Rocket – rocket vehicles
Rocket engines – used to propel rocket vehicles
SERN, Single-expansion ramp nozzle – a non-axisymmetric aerospike
Shock diamonds – the visible bands formed in the exhaust of rocket engines
Solid-fuel rocket
Spacecraft propulsion
Specific impulse – a measure of exhaust speed
Staged combustion cycle (rocket) – a type of rocket engine
Venturi effect
References
External links
Exhaust gas velocity calculator
NASA Space Vehicle Design Criteria, Liquid Rocket Engine Nozzles
NASA's "Beginners' Guide to Rockets"
The Aerospike Engine
Richard Nakka's Experimental Rocketry Web Site
"Rocket Propulsion" on Robert Braeuning's Web Site
Free Design Tool for Liquid Rocket Engine Thermodynamic Analysis
Nozzles
Rocket propulsion
Pyrotechnics
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JYP%20Entertainment
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JYP Entertainment
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JYP Entertainment Corporation () is a South Korean multinational entertainment and record label conglomerate founded in 1997 by J. Y. Park. It is one of the largest entertainment companies in South Korea, and operates as a record label, talent agency, music production company, event management company, concert production company, and music publishing house. In addition, the company operates various subsidiary ventures and divisions worldwide.
Notable artists under the agency include the groups 2PM, Day6, Twice, Boy Story, Stray Kids, Itzy, NiziU, Xdinary Heroes, Nmixx, and Vcha.
History
1997–1999: Formation and first generation K-pop artist
JYP Entertainment was founded in 1997 by South Korean singer-songwriter Park Jin-young (named after his stage name, J. Y. Park) as Tae-Hong Planning Corporation, which eventually became JYP Entertainment in 2001. In 1997, the company signed its first artist and female solo artist, Pearl.
In 1999, entertainment company SidusHQ introduced the future members of boy band Groove Over Dose (g.o.d) to Park as their producer and mentor. In cooperation with SidusHQ, JYP oversaw the formation of g.o.d, which would make their debut appearance on January 13, 1999. While the group itself was managed by SidusHQ, their first album, Chapter 1, was produced by Park.
2000–2009: Early success and second generation K-pop artists
In December 2000, JYP signed Rain as a trainee, who made his debut two years later in May 2002. Rain would then rise to become a commercial success throughout and beyond Asia, which was seen when his third studio album, It's Raining, went on to record cumulative sales of over 1 million copies in seven Asian countries, including Korea.
On December 27, 2002, the company's first boy group was a four-member vocal oriented group Noel, but they failed to attract popularity. JYP then turned its focus towards the duo brothers One Two in 2003. In 2004, after the boy band g.o.d.'s group contract with SidusHQ ended, they signed a contract with JYP.
Other notable artists that debuted under JYP from the years 2000 to 2005 include Park Ji-yoon, Byul, Lim Jeong-hee, Ryanga Rhanga, and Ivy.
In May 2006, JYP formed its first girl group, Wonder Girls, who became a commercial success and was the first South Korean group to enter the Billboard Hot 100 in 2009 when their song "Nobody" charted at No. 76. Their success lead to a management deal with the Jonas Group, which allowed the Wonder Girls to open the Jonas Brothers's world tour in select cities.
In 2007, Rain left JYP and established his own agency called J. Tune Entertainment, but stated that he kept his collaborative relationship with J. Y. Park.
In 2008, the competitive reality series Hot Blood Men was created, pitting two teams of male trainees against each other for the chance to debut. The winning group, One Day, was later split into two boy bands, 2PM and 2AM; both debuted that same year. 2AM was jointly contracted with Big Hit Entertainment. Later in October, JYP opened the JYP Beijing Center as their China branch. In that same year, the Creative Artists Agency (CAA) included JYP in its roster of high-profile clientele.
Expanding its endeavors into the drama production industry following in the footsteps of SM Entertainment Group's SM C&C and CJ E&M (now CJ ENM)'s Studio Dragon, JYP jointly established the TV drama production company Holym with KEYEAST Entertainment in June 2009. Holym later announced its first major TV drama production, Dream High, in 2010.
2010–2017: Joint ventures and third generation K-pop artists
In March 2010, JYP made a joint venture with SM Entertainment, YG Entertainment, Star Empire, Media Line, CAN Entertainment and Music Factory Entertainment to establish KMP Holdings, the official distributor of releases from these companies. On December 28, 2010, it was announced that JYP has become the largest shareholder of J. Tune Entertainment. The subsidiary AQ Entertainment was later formed and introduced the Chinese-Korean girl group Miss A.
In November 2011, the US-based subsidiary JYP Creative was established and it was reported that Park invested approximately US$1.2 million in the branch. However, after a year of operation, the company reportedly saw a net loss of around US$1.5 million by the end of 2012, forcing the CEO to liquidate the branch and close all US operations, including the New York branch. The same year, Park Jimin, winner of the competitive TV series K-pop Star, and Baek Yerin, a female trainee and contestant on the show Star King, debuted as the duo 15&.
In 2012, JYP Pictures signed a contract with China Eastern Performing Arts Group to co-produce a movie Hold Your Hand, featuring actors who belonged to JYP.
On June 20, 2013, the plan to merge the publicly listed JYP Entertainment (which houses artists such as 2PM, 2AM and Wonder Girls) and the non-listed JYP (which houses artists such as J. Y. Park, Sunmi, Park Ji-min, Baek Ye-rin and Lee Jung-jin) as a single company was announced. The shareholders' meeting regarding the merger was held on September 13. The meeting concluded with the approval of the merger, effective starting from October 17. Thus, artists under the non-listed JYP will become part of the post-merger JYP Entertainment. In addition, Miss A and Baek A-yeon, who had been part of the now defunct AQ Entertainment—as the result of the merger, also joined JYP Entertainment. On August 25, 2013, it was revealed that JYP and KeyEast Entertainment reached an agreement to terminate their joint production enterprise, Holym. On November 17, 2013, JYPt partnered with Smile Gate to promote the game Crossfire with 2PM and Miss A.
In January 2014, the seven talent agencies behind KMP Holdings formed a collective bond partnership and bought 13.48% of KT Music's stocks, leaving KT Corporation with only 49.99%. That same month, Got7, the label's first boy group since the debut of 2PM and 2AM in 2008, made their debut. 2AM's joint contract of Big Hit with JYP expired later that April, after which three of the 2AM members returned to JYP, while member Lee Chang-min stayed with Big Hit in order to continue with his solo career and as part of the duo Homme. In late August, JYP Pictures and Dongyang World Culture Communication produced the drama Dream Knight, starring Got7 members. Season three K-pop Star winner Bernard Park signed a contract with JYP to start his solo career, eventually making his debut on October 6, 2014. On December 17, 2014, it was reported that J.Y. Park sold the company's HQ building in Cheongdam-dong, Seoul to Choi Ki-won, the sister of SK Group's chairman Choi Tae-won, for about $7 million, on the term that JYP will still use the building for three years on rent.
The subsidiary Studio J was formed on January 9, 2015, in line with JYP's goal to "promote free and deep artists that create authentic music rather than appealing to the mainstream demand." The first artist on Studio J's roster was G. Soul, who debuted on the same day. In March 2015, it was announced that 2AM members Seulong and Jinwoon departed from JYP Entertainment because of their contract expiration, while Jo Kwon renewed his contract. Despite this development, the company stated that 2AM remained intact and will be promoting as a group in a similar set-up as that of boy band g.o.d. On April 15, JYP signed a contract with Jax Coco, a Hong Kong-based coconut product company. Under the agreement, JYP and Jax Coco planned to launch coconut oil, coconut flakes, and other related products at major department stores and supermarkets in South Korea. Two groups were formed by JYP later in 2015: the rock band Day6 which debuted on September 7, and the girl group Twice, whose members were chosen from the competitive reality show Sixteen, and debuted on October 20.
Venturing into the Chinese market, JYP established a music distribution partnership with China Music Corporation on February 19, 2016. This was followed by JYP jointly establishing Beijing Xin Sheng Entertainment Co. Ltd. with Tencent Music Entertainment in the same year, which oversaw the debut of the Chinese boy band Boy Story. Got7 member Jackson Wang later announced his solo endeavors in the country.
On July 1, 2017, JYP acquired a property worth 20.2 billion KRW (US$18 million) in Seongnae-dong, Gangdong District, Seoul to be used as its new office. A partnership with DailyMotion, Europe's largest video platform, was also signed to open its artist channel on its platform to secure a more global fan base.
2018–2020: Further success and fourth generation K-pop artists
On January 31, 2018, it was reported that JYP entered into a music business agreement with SM Entertainment, Big Hit Entertainment, and SK Telecom to launch a new music platform which will utilize various new technologies such as artificial intelligence and 5G networking. SK Telecom affiliate Iriver will be responsible for handling the music distribution of the three entertainment companies. In line with this agreement, the music platform FLO was launched. In the first half of 2018, JYP became the second largest entertainment company in South Korea when their total market capitalization surpassed YG Entertainment, largely due to the success of Twice and Got7. It was the first time that JYP had placed second among the Big 3 companies, with SM retaining the top position.
On March 26, 2018, JYP debuted a new boy group called Stray Kids, named after the 2017 reality show of the same name. In May 2018, JYP became the only Korean entertainment company to rank in Financial Times magazine's "FT 1000: High-Growth Companies Asia-Pacific" list, charting at No. 177 out of all 1000 companies and No. 12 out of all 104 Korean companies. On August 30, 2018, it was reported that JYPE's shares closed at 31,300 KRW (US$28.20), pushing the company's market capitalization to 1.09 trillion KRW (US$980.26 million), exceeding that of SM Entertainment's 1.08 trillion KRW (US$971.27 million). With this, JYP became the largest among the Big 3 K-pop labels. On November 1, 2018, JYP launched a new program with Mnet named Super Intern, which showcased the intern process at JYP, but the main goal was to turn the interns into permanent marketing management staff for each division of artists. The show started to air on Mnet TV on January 24, 2019.
On January 21, 2019, JYP announced they would be debuting a new girl group named Itzy. On the same day, the group's official YouTube account was created and the label's official channel shared a video trailer unveiling the five members. On February 12, the group released their debut single album, It'z Different, with its lead single "Dalla Dalla". On January 29, 2019, JYP announced their plans of creating a Japanese girl group, under their vision "JYP 2.0: Globalization By Localization". Auditions for this new girl group took place in 8 Japanese cities, Hawaii, and Los Angeles, for females aged between 15 and 22 years old. This project was eventually dubbed as Nizi Project, a survival documentary series featuring 20 contestants was aired weekly on Hulu Japan from January 31 to June 26, 2020, and distributed internationally through JYP's official YouTube channel. On the final episode of Nizi Project, the finalized line-up for the new girl group, which was given the name NiziU, was revealed to the public. The group is announced to have partnered with Sony Music Japan for album sales and group management during its activities in Japan. NiziU made their official Japanese debut on December 2, 2020. On March 11, 2019, JYP reached a new partnership with Sony Music Entertainment's The Orchard. JYP will distribute both digital and physical releases to key markets in the US, Europe, and beyond through The Orchard in order to "expand the label's presence around the world." On June 8, 2019, it was announced that Fanling Culture Media (JYP China) trainee Yao Chen placed 5th in the finale of Produce Camp 2019 with 10,764,262 votes and has successfully made the final lineup of project group R1SE after participating in the survival show. The group made their debut on the same day. On June 17, JYP and Make-A-Wish Korea signed a memorandum of understanding (MOU) to help support children's wishes under JYP's "Every Dream Matters!" (EDM) campaign as part of their corporate social responsibility. Under the agreement, JYP will be carrying out various social responsibility activities with its artists, employees, and fans in order to support campaigns and initiatives for children with incurable diseases. On July 24, 2019, JYP announced they will be closing their acting division and some of their actors will be moving to Npio Entertainment, a start-up company created by JYP Vice President Pyo Jong-rok. With their announcement, JYP consequently revealed that their popular actors such as Jang Hee-ryung, Park Si-eun, and Ryu Won will not be staying on board with the new jointly managed label.
On January 6, 2020, Shinhan Card announced that it has collaborated with JYP to release a 'JYP Fan's EDM Check Card' (JYP Check Cards). Certain percentages of the amount used when making payments at JYP's domestic and international affiliates using the check cards are donated to Make-A-Wish Korea in line with the company's EDM campaign. The check cards are available in four types: JYP, Got7, Day6 and Twice. On February 24, it was announced that JYP entered into a "strategic partnership" with Republic Records, with Twice being signed under the label for American promotions. On August 4, 2020, JYP announced its collaboration with SM to establish Beyond LIVE Corporation (BLC), a joint company for virtual concerts. BLC was formed in order to develop the online concert series Beyond Live, with the goal of further growing the platform into an international online concerts brand. Later, in an interview with Forbes released on August 31, J.Y. Park shared that there are talks for a girl-group competition show based in America similar to that of Sixteen and Nizi Project. It was reported on November 17, 2020, that JYP Entertainment invested 5 billion KRW in Naver Z, the developer of the online avatar app Zepeto.
2021–present: Recent developments
On January 10, 2021, it was reported that all the members of Got7 were leaving the company upon the completion of their 7-year contract. On April 26, 2021, it was reported that the company and Psy's P Nation would collaborate to form a new boy group each in Loud, which premiered on June 5 on SBS. Afterwards on July 12, JYP announced the second season of Nizi Project as a Global Boys Audition. On November 1, JYP announced their new rock band Xdinary Heroes, which released their debut digital single "Happy Death Day" on December 6. Then on January 26, 2022, JYP announced that they would be debuting a new girl group named Nmixx on February 22, with their debut single album, Ad Mare.
On February 10, 2022, JYP expanded their strategic partnership with Republic Records after Twice started to succeed in the United States. Following the announcement, Republic signed Stray Kids and Itzy under the label for American promotions. In April 2022, it was reported that the market cap of JYPE had soared from 1.33 trillion KRW in the previous year to 2.24 trillion KRW, an increase of 1 trillion KRW in the first three months of 2022. The Korea Exchange reported that the company's stock prices soared to 66,200 KRW on April 8, breaking its all-time record and marking the first time that JYP Entertainment has entered the 60,000 KRW range since its listing in August 2001. On July 12, 2022, all members of Twice renewed their contracts with JYP Entertainment. On September 26, 2022, all members of Day6 also renewed their contracts with the label.
Joint ventures
Music distribution
JYP Entertainment's records are distributed worldwide by The Orchard since March 2019.
KMP Holdings and KT Music
In March 2010, KMP Holdings was established via a joint venture between JYP, SM Entertainment, YG Entertainment, Star Empire, Media Line, CAN Entertainment, and Music Factory Entertainment. KMP Holdings was acquired by KT Music in November 2012, and in June 2013, KT Music absorbed KMP's distribution network. In January 2014, the seven talent agencies behind KMP Holdings formed a collective bond partnership and bought 13.48% of KT Music's stocks, leaving KT Corporation with 49.99%.
United Asia Management
In 2011, JYP joined forces with SM, YG, KeyEast, AMENT, and Star J Entertainment to form United Asia Management in an effort to promote Korean pop music internationally.
FLO
On January 31, 2018, Iriver announced its entry into the Korean music industry. Together with parent company SK Telecom and music labels SM, JYP and Big Hit Entertainment, the company launched a new online music store, FLO, in the second half of 2018.
Beijing Shinsung Entertainment
On April 5, 2017, Ocean Music and JYP jointly established the Beijing Xin Sheng Entertainment Co., Ltd. for indoor recreational facilities operation, organization of cultural and artistic exchanges, film and television planning, and other aspects of cooperation. A few months later, Park Jin-young, Jackson Wang, Fei, and a 10-year-old JYP Chinese trainee went to China to record a roadshow-style audition show to recruit more trainees with the goal of creating a hip-hop oriented Chinese boy group. The name of the show was "Guaishushu Is Coming", and the concept was to travel across different cities with large-scale auditions and then have a final round to select the members who will be trained in Korea.
NCC Entertainment (NCC Station)
NCC is a jointly produced management team by Tencent Music Corporation and JYP Beijing Cultural Exchange Ltd located in Beijing, China. Currently, it is working to promote its Chinese artists more despite the ban placed on Korean entertainment and to further promote Boy Story, a new Chinese boy group, in China.
Labels
Branches
JYP Beijing Cultural Exchange Ltd (JYPE China): The Chinese division of JYP, and the company's first official external branch in China. It was opened in 2008 and has two subsidiaries:
Fanling Culture Media Ltd
Beijing Shisung Ent. Ltd (joint venture with Tencent)
(NCC) New Creative Culture
JYP Entertainment USA Inc: The American division of JYP. It was established in 2008.
JYP Entertainment Japan Inc: The Japanese division of JYP. It was established in 2009.
JYP Entertainment Hong Kong Ltd: The Hong Kong division of JYP. It was established in 2017.
Divisions
JYP Publishing Corp: An affiliated company of JYP founded in February 2008 which houses record producers and songwriters under the label.
JYP Foods Inc: JYP Foods Incorporated was founded in 2010.
Studio J Bar was created on June 2, 2016, as a collaboration between JYP and Y1975, a well-known bar in the Chungdam District.
The Street is a brunch café owned by JYP. It has two branches: the main branch is located nearby the JYP Entertainment office building, and the other branch is located in the Gyeongridan area in Itaewon. The café is mostly used for interviews or meetings held by J.Y.Park and other artists under JYP.
JYP Actors: The company's acting division which was founded in 2011 and was led by JYP vice-president Pyo Jong-rok. As of September 1, 2019, JYP Actors has become defunct with its actors moving into a new start-up company established by Pyo Jong-rok called Npio Entertainment.
JYP Pictures: The company's film and TV drama production division that was founded in March 2011 along with other subsidiaries.
JYP Pictures Co., Ltd Korea, established in 2013. It became defunct as of September 1, 2019
JYP Pictures Co., Ltd China, established in 2014.
Subsidiaries/sub-labels
J. Tune Entertainment: A South Korean record label and entertainment company founded by former JYP artist Rain in November 2007, it was announced in December 2010 that JYP had become the largest shareholder of J. Tune Entertainment. In December 2013, J. Tune Entertainment was fully merged into JYP.
Studio J: An in-house label established by J. Y. Park in January 2015 with the goal of putting focus on independent artists outside of the mainstream K-pop aesthetic. The singer G. Soul was revealed to be the first artist under Studio J. Currently, the subsidiary houses the rock bands, Day6 and Xdinary Heroes.
SQU4D: A division of JYP Entertainment, it is the latter's fourth (hence the number "4" in its name) artist management label. Led by Lee Ji-young (the first woman to head a JYP Entertainment artist management division since its foundation), it currently houses Nmixx.
Philanthropy
On March 18, 2011, JYP donated US$300,000 for Japanese disaster relief. On October 24, 2011, JYP Entertainment and 2PM donated US$130,000 for flood victims in Thailand.
During the COVID-19 pandemic, JYP donated US$410,000 to the Community Chest of Korea on February 28, 2020.
On March 8, 2022, JYP made a donation millions to the Hope Bridge Disaster Relief Association to help the victims of the massive wildfire that started in Uljin, Gyeongbuk and has spread to Samcheok, Gangwon.
On February 12, 2023, JYP donated 500 million won to help 2023 Turkey–Syria earthquake, by donating money through World Vision.
Artists
All artists under JYP Entertainment are collectively known as JYP Nation.
Korea
Recording artists
Groups
2PM
Twice
Stray Kids
Itzy
JYP Loud
Soloists
J. Y. Park
Jang Woo-young
Jun. K
Lee Jun-ho
Nichkhun
Nayeon
Jihyo
Independent artists
Studio J
Bands
Day6
Xdinary Heroes
Sub-units
Day6 (Even of Day)
Soloists
Young K
Dowoon
Wonpil
SQU4D
Nmixx
China
New Creative Content Entertainment
Boy Story
Fanling Culture Media Ltd.
Yao Chen
Japan
JYPE Japan Inc
NiziU (co-managed with Sony Music Japan)
America
JYPE USA Inc
Vcha
JYP Publishing
Producers
J. Y. Park "The Asiansoul"
Armadillo (Kim Keun-woo)
Frants
Hong Ji-sang
Dr.JO
Honey Pot
Cho Hyun-kyung
Park Yong-woon
Joohyo
Toyo
Woo Rhee (Rainstone)
Tigersoul
Garden
Lee Hae-sol
Kim Mong-e
Versachoi
HotSauce
Yang Jeong-sik
Lee Dal
Kobee
Jowul of Princess Disease
Kim Seung-soo
Woo Min Lee (collapsedone)
Noday
Paul Thompson (Marz)
Ragoon IM
Sim Eun-jee
Song Ji-wook
Raphael
Tommy Park
Choreographers
Jonte' Moaning
Lia Kim
Hyojin Lee-yong
Park Nam-yong
Tomoya Minase
WooNg (Kim Hyung-woong)
Kiel Tutin
Actors
In July 2019, the agency announced changes to its actor management division, confirming that it would be jointly managing together with the new start-up company Npio Entertainment. It was decided that actors Yoon Park, Shin Eun-soo, Kang Hoon, Shin Ye-eun, Kim Dong-hee, and Lee Chan-sun are staying in the agency for the remainder of their contract periods. All other actors ended their contracts by mutual agreement.
Former artists
Former musicians
Pearl (1997–2000)
g.o.d (2003–2005)
Danny Ahn (2003–2005)
Yoon Kye-sang (2003–2005)
Kim Tae-woo (1998–2006)
Son Ho-young (2003–2006)
Joon Park (2003–2006)
Park Ji-yoon (2000–2003)
Noel (2002–2007)
Jeon Woo-sung (2002–2007)
Lee Sang-gon (2002–2007)
Na Sung-ho (2002–2007)
Kang Kyun-sung (2002–2007)
Rain (2002–2007)
Byul (2002–2006)
Lim Jeong-hee (2005–2012)
Wonder Girls (2007–2017)
Hyuna (2006–2008)
Sohee (2006–2013)
Sunye (2006–2015)
Sunmi (2006–2017)
Yeeun (2006–2017)
Yubin (2007–2020)
Hyerim (2010–2020)
2PM
Jay Park (2008–2010)
Ok Taec-yeon (2008–2017)
Hwang Chan-sung (2008–2022)
2AM (2008–2010, 2014–2017)
Lee Chang-min (2008–2010, 2014–2015)
Jeong Jin-woon (2008–2010, 2014–2015)
Lim Seul-ong (2008–2010, 2014–2015)
Jo Kwon (2008–2010, 2014–2017)
Joo (2008–2015)
San E (2010–2013)
Miss A (2010–2017)
Jia (2010–2016)
Min (2010–2017)
Fei (2010–2018)
Suzy (2010–2019)
15& (2012–2019)
Park Jimin (2012–2019)
Baek Yerin (2012–2019)
Baek A-yeon (2012–2019)
JJ Project (2012–2021)
Got7 (2014–2021)
Mark (2014–2021)
JB (2012–2021)
Jackson (2014–2021)
Jinyoung (2012–2021)
Youngjae (2014–2021)
BamBam (2014–2021)
Yugyeom (2014–2021)
G.Soul (2015–2017)
Day6
Jae (2015–2021)
Im Jun-hyeok (2015–2016)
Jeon Somi (2014–2018)
Stray Kids
Woojin (2017–2019)
Jus2 (2019–2021)
Bernard Park (2014–2022)
Nmixx
Jinni (2022)
Former actors and actresses
Cho Yi-hyun (2018–2019)
Choi Woo-shik (2012–2018)
Jang Dong-ju
Jang Hee-ryung
Jung Gun-joo
Kang Yoon-je
Kim Ha-eun (2007–2008)
Kim Ji-min
Kim Jong-mun
Kim Ye-won (2015–2018)
Kim Yu-an
Lee Gi-hyuk
Lee Ji-hyun
Lee Jung-jin (2012–2016)
Min Hyo-rin (2014–2017)
Nam Sung-jun
Park Gyu-young (2015–2019)
Park Ji-bin (2015–2017)
Park Joo-hyung
Park Si-eun (2017–2019)
Ryu Won
Song Ha-yoon (2013–2019)
Wei Daxun (2014–2017)
Yeon Jung-hoon (2011)
Discography
Concerts
JYP Nation 2010 "Team Play"
December 24, 2010: Seoul (Olympic Gymnastics Arena)
JYP Nation 2011
August 17–18, 2011: Saitama (Saitama Super Arena)
JYP Nation 2012
August 4, 2012: Seoul (Olympic Gymnastics Arena)
August 18–19, 2012: Tokyo (Yoyogi National Gymnasium)
JYP Nation 2014 "One Mic"
August 9–10, 2014: Seoul (Jamsil Gymnasium)
August 30, 2014: Hong Kong (AsiaWorld-Expo)
September 5–7, 2014: Tokyo (Yoyogi National Gymnasium)
December 13, 2014: Bangkok (Impact Arena, Muang Thong Thani)
JYP Nation 2016 "Mix & Match"
August 6, 2016: Seoul (Jamsil Gymnasium)
September 2–4, 2016: Tokyo (Yoyogi National Gymnasium)
Filmography
Film
2015: I Wanna Hold Your Hand
2019: Homme Fatale
Television
2011: KBS2 Dream High
2012: KBS2 Dream High 2
2017: JTBC The Package
2018: JTBC The Third Charm
2019: JTBC Chocolate
Web drama
2015: Dream Knight
2016: Touching You
2016: Romantic Boss
2017: Magic School
Programs
2006: MTV Wonder Girls (creation of Wonder Girls)
2008: Hot Blood Men (creation of One Day, further split into 2PM and 2AM)
2012: MTV Diary (reality show for JJ Project)
2014: Real GOT7 (reality show for Got7)
2015: Sixteen (creation of Twice)
2017: Stray Kids (creation of Stray Kids)
2019: Super Intern (creation of full-time JYP Entertainment employees)
2020: Nizi Project (creation of NiziU)
2021: Loud (creation of new boy group)
2023: A2K (America2Korea) (creation of Vcha)
2023: Nizi Project Season 2 (creation of new Japanese boy group)
Notes
References
External links
Companies based in Seoul
Companies listed on KOSDAQ
Contemporary R&B record labels
Electronic dance music record labels
Hip hop record labels
Music publishing companies of South Korea
K-pop record labels
Publishing companies established in 1997
Record labels established in 1997
South Korean brands
South Korean record labels
Sony Music
Synth-pop record labels
Talent agencies of South Korea
South Korean companies established in 1997
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20newspapers%20in%20New%20York%20%28state%29
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List of newspapers in New York (state)
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This is a list of newspapers in New York state. For periodicals specific to New York City, see List of New York City newspapers and magazines.
Daily newspapersThis is a list of daily newspapers currently published in New York. For weekly newspapers, see List of newspapers in New York.
AM New York – New York City
The Buffalo News – Buffalo
The Citizen – Auburn
Columbia Daily Spectator – New York City
The Cornell Daily Sun – Ithaca
Daily Freeman – Kingston
The Daily Gazette – Schenectady
Daily Messenger – Canandaigua
The Daily News – Batavia
The Daily Orange – Syracuse
The Daily Star – Oneonta
Democrat and Chronicle – Rochester
The Epoch Times – New York City
The Evening Tribune – Hornell
The Ithaca Journal – Ithaca
The Journal News – White Plains
The Leader – Corning
The Leader-Herald – Gloversville
Lockport Union-Sun & Journal – Lockport
New York Daily News – New York City
New York Law Journal – New York State
New York Post – New York City
The New York Times – New York City
Newsday – Melville
Niagara Gazette – Niagara Falls
Observer – Dunkirk
Observer-Dispatch – Utica
Olean Times Herald – Olean
Open Air PM – New York City
The Post-Journal – Jamestown
The Post-Standard – Syracuse
The Post-Star – Glens Falls
Poughkeepsie Journal – Poughkeepsie
Press & Sun Bulletin – Binghamton
Press-Republican – Plattsburgh
The Record – Troy
The Register Star – Hudson
Salamanca Press – Salamanca
The Saratogian – Saratoga Springs
Star-Gazette – Elmira
Staten Island Advance – Staten Island
Times Herald-Record – Middletown
The Times Telegram – Herkimer
Times Union – Albany
The Wall Street Journal – New York City
The Palladium Times - Oswego
Watertown Daily Times – Watertown
Wellsville Daily Reporter – Wellsville
Weekly and other newspapers
Akhon Samoy – New York City
Al-Hoda – New York City
Algemeiner Journal – New York City
The Altamont Enterprise – Altamont
Am-Pol Eagle – Buffalo
Amerikai Magyar Szo – New York City
Arcade Herald – Arcade
Armenian Reporter International – New York City
Der Blatt – Brooklyn
Bronx Times-Reporter – Bronx
Brooklyn Eagle – Brooklyn
The Brooklyn Rail – Brooklyn
The Chief-Leader – New York City
The Chronicle (Goshen and Chester) (Tuesdays & Fridays: twice-weekly)
CityArts – New York City
Dan's Papers - Eastern Long Island
El Correo NY - New York City
El Diario La Prensa – New York City
Farmingdale Observer – Nassau County
Filipino Reporter – New York City
Garden City Life – Nassau County
Glen Cove Record Pilot – Nassau County
Great Neck Record – Nassau County
Haïti Progrès – Brooklyn
Hamburg Sun – Hamburg
Hamodia – Brooklyn
Hofstra Chronicle – Hempstead
Irish Voice – New York City
The Jewish Daily Forward – New York City
Jewish Post of New York – New York City
Jewish Press – Brooklyn
Journal of Commerce – New York City
Legislative Gazette – Albany
Levittown Tribune – Nassau County
Lewiston-Porter Sentinel – Niagara County, New York
Long Island Business News – Long Island
Long Island Exchange – Long Island
Long Island Press – Long Island
Long Islander News – Huntington
Manhasset Press – Nassau County
Massapequa Observer – Nassau County
Mineola American – Nassau County
Nassau Herald – Cedarhurst, Lawrence, Inwood, Hewlett, Woodmere
National Herald (ETHNIKOS KERYX) – New York City
Noticia - Nassau & Suffolk Counties
New Hyde Park Illustrated News – Nassau County
New York Amsterdam News – New York City
The New York Observer – New York City
New York Press – New York City
New York Sun – New York City
New Yorker Staats-Zeitung – New York City
North County News – Yorktown
The North Shore Leader – Locust Valley, North Shore, Long Island
Norwood News – Bronx
Nowy Dziennik – New York City
Outreach – New York City
Oyster Bay Enterprise-Pilot – Nassau County
Oyster Bay Guardian
People's Weekly World – New York City
Plainview-Old Bethpage Herald – Nassau County
The Port Times Record – Port Jefferson, Belle Terre, Port Jefferson Station and Mount Sinai
Port Washington News – Nassau County
The Jewish Star
Queens Chronicle – Queens
The Riverdale Press – New York City
The Roslyn News – Nassau County
The Southampton Press — Southampton
The Sag Harbor Express — Sag Harbor
Super Express USA – New York City
Syosset-Jericho Tribune – Nassau County
Tiesa – Middletown
Times Journal of Cobleskill – Cobleskill
The Times of Huntington-Northport – Northport, East Northport, Fort Salonga - West, Eaton's Neck, Asharoken, Centerport, Smithtown, Nesconset, Hauppauge, St. James, Nissequogue, Head of the Harbor, The Branch, San Remo, Kings Park, Fort Salonga - East, and Commack
The Times of Middle Country – Selden, Centereach and Lake Grove
The Times of Smithtown – Smithtown, Nesconset, Hauppauge, St. James, Nissequogue, Head of the Harbor, The Branch, San Remo, Kings Park, Fort Salonga, and Commack
Vaba Eesti Sona – New York City
The Village Beacon Record – Miller Place, Sound Beach, Rocky Point, Shoreham and Wading River
The Village Times Herald – Setauket, East Setauket, Stony Brook, Old Field, South Setauket, Poquott and Strong's Neck
Village Voice – New York City
The Villager – New York City
Wantagh Herald Citizen
Warwick Advertiser – Warwick, New York
Warwick Valley Dispatch – Warwick, New York
Washington Square News – New York City
The Westbury Times – Nassau County
Yated Ne'eman – Monsey
Der Yid – Brooklyn
The Oswegonian - Oswego
Defunct
Albany
Newspapers published in Albany, New York:
The Albany centinel. s.w., July 4, 1797–December 30, 1800+
Albany chronicle. w., September 12, 1796–August 21, 1797.
Albany chronicle, or, Journal of the times. w., August 28, 1797–April 9, 1798.
The Albany gazette.w., November 25, 1771–August 3, 1772.
The Albany gazette. w., s.w., May 28, 1784–December 25, 1800+
Albany journal, or, The Montgomery, Washington and Columbia intelligencer. s.w., w., January 26, 1788–May 11, 1789.
The Albany register. w., s.w., October 13, 1788–December 26, 1800+
The New-York gazetteer, or, Northern intelligencer. w., June 3 (?), 1782–May 1, 1784.
The Knickerbocker News
Ballston Spa
Newspapers published in Ballston Spa, New York:
Saratoga register, or, Farmer's journal. w., July 1798(?)–1800(?)
Bath
Newspapers published in Bath, New York:
The Bath gazette, and Genesee advertiser. w., December 21, 1796–April 12, 1798.
Brooklyn
Newspapers published in Brooklyn, New York:
The Courier, and Long Island advertiser. w., June 26(?)–July 25, 1799.
The Courier, and New-York and Long Island advertiser. w., August 1, 1799–June 26, 1800.
The Long Island courier. w., July 3–December 31, 1800+
The Brooklyn Evening Star was being published in 1858.
Buffalo
Newspapers published in Buffalo, New York:
The Buffalo Beast, alternative weekly published in print 2002-2009 and online until 2013.
The Buffalo Commercial was published 1842-1924.
The Buffalo Courier-Express was established in 1926 and folded on September 19, 1982.
The Buffalo Daily Republic was published 1847-1886.
Timeline of Selected Newspapers Published in Buffalo, 1818 to the present
BuffaloResearch.com has links to all known online and offline newspapers from Buffalo, NY.
Canisteo
Newspapers published in Canisteo:
Canisteo Times, ceased in 1950s.
Catskill
Newspapers published in Catskill, New York:
Catskill Packet. w., August 6, 1792–August 2, 1794
Cazenovia
Newspapers published in Cazenovia, New York
Cazenovia Republican was being published in 1850.
Madison County Gazette, also published in 1850, also favored Whig party.
Cooperstown
Newspapers published in Cooperstown, New York:
The Otsego herald, or, Western advertiser. w., April 3, 1795–December 25, 1800+
Fishkill
Newspapers published in Fishkill, New York:
The New-York packet, and the American advertiser. w., January 16, 1777–August 28, 1783.
Hudson
Newspapers published in Hudson, New York:
The Hudson weekly gazette. w., April 7, 1785–December 27, 1791.
Kingston
Newspapers published in Kingston, New York:
The Farmer's register. w., September 29, 1792–September 21, 1793.
The New-York journal, and the general advertiser. w., July 7–October 13, 1777.
Rising sun. w., September 28, 1793–April 28, 1798.
Ulster County gazette. w., May 5, 1798–December 27, 1800+
Lansingburgh
Newspapers published in Lansingburgh, New York:
American spy. w., April 8, 1791–February 27, 1798.
Tiffany's recorder. w., June (?), 1793–December 2, 1794.
Medina
Newspapers published in Medina, New York:
The Journal-Register – Medina (18212014)
Monroe County
Newspapers published in Monroe County, New York:
The North Star, Rochester (18471851)
New York
Newspapers published in New York, New York:
American citizen and general advertiser. d., March 10–December 31, 1800+
American Minerva; an evening advertiser. d., May 6, 1795–April 30, 1796.
American Minerva, and the New-York (evening) advertiser. d., March 20, 1794–May 5, 1795. 1800+
The American Minerva, patroness of peace, commerce, and the liberal arts. d., December 9, 1793–March 18, 1794.
American Minerva, patroness of peace, commerce, and the liberal arts and the New-York (evening) advertiser. d., March 19, 1794.
The American price-current. w., May 1–August 7, 1786.
The Argus & Greenleaf's new daily advertiser. d., May 11–15, 1795.
The Argus, or, Greenleaf's new daily advertiser. d., May 16, 1795–August 2, 1796.
Columbian gazette. w., April 6–June 22, 1799.
Columbian gazetteer. s.w., August 22, 1793–November 13, 1794.
Commercial Advertiser. d., October 2, 1797–December 31, 1800+
The Constitutional gazette. s.w., August 2, 1775–August 28, 1776.
The Daily advertiser. d., October 17, 1787–December 30, 1800+
The Daily advertiser, political, commercial, and historical. d., September 20–October 21, 1785.
The Daily advertiser, political, historical, and commercial. d., October 22, 1785–October 16, 1787.
The Diary. d., February 1, 1796–March 18, 1797.
Diary and mercantile advertiser. d., March 20, 1797–September 13 (?), 1798.
The Diary, & universal advertiser. d., May 1795–January 31, 1796.
The Diary, & universal daily advertiser. d., February (?)–May 1795.
The Diary, or, Evening register. d., January 1, 1794–February (?), 1795.
The Diary, or, Loudon's register. d., February 15, 1792–December 31, 1793.
Forlorn hope. w., March 24–September 13, 1800.
Gazette Francaise. t.w., March 4, 1796–October 4, 1799.
Gazette Francaise et Americaine. t.w., July 6, 1795–March 2, 1796.
Gazette of the United States. s.w., April 15, 1789–October 13, 1790.
Greenleaf's new daily advertiser. d., August 3, 1796–March 8, 1800.
Greenleaf's New York journal, & patriotic register. s.w., January 1, 1794–March 8, 1800.
The Herald; a gazette for the country. s.w., June 4, 1794–September 30, 1797.
The Impartial gazetteer, and Saturday evening's post. w., May 17–September 13, 1788.
The Independent gazette, or, The New-York journal revived.w., s.w., December 13, 1783–March 11, 1784.
The Independent journal, or, The General advertiser. w., s.w., November 17, 1783–December 24, 1788.
The Independent New-York gazette. w., November 22–December 6, 1783.
Independent reflector. w., November 30, 1752–November 22, 1753.
Loudon's New-York packet. s.w., November 11, 1784–May 13 (?), 1785.
Mercantile advertiser. d., November 1798–December 31, 1800+
Metro, May 5, 2004-January 6, 2020
The Minerva, & mercantile evening advertiser. d., May 2, 1796–September 30, 1797.
The Morning post, and daily advertiser. d., October 6, 1788–January 2, 1792.
Mott and Hurtin's New-York weekly chronicle. w., January 1–April 16, 1795.
New-York chronicle. w., s.w., May 8, 1769–January 4, 1770.
The New-York daily advertiser. d., March 1–September 19, 1785.
New-York daily gazette.d, December 29, 1788–April 26(?), 1795.
The New-York evening-post. w., November 26, 1744–December 18, 1752.
New-York evening post. t.w., November 17, 1794–May 25, 1795.
The New-York Gazette. w., November 8, 1725–November 19, 1744.
The New-York gazette. w., August 13, 1759–December 28, 1767.
The New-York gazette and general advertiser. d., April 27, 1795–December 26, 1800+
The New-York gazette: and the weekly mercury. w., February 1, 1768–November 10 (?), 1783.
The New York gazette; and the weekly mercury. w., February 1, 1768–September 27, 1773.
The New-York gazette, or, The Weekly post-boy. w., January 1, 1753–March 12, 1759.
The New-York gazette, or, The Weekly post-boy. w., May 6, 1762–October 9, 1766.
The New-York gazette, or, The Weekly post-boy. w., October 16, 1766–August or September 1773.
The New-York gazette, revived in the weekly post boy. w., January 19, 1747–December 25, 1752.
The New-York gazetteer; and, public advertiser. s.w., December 18, 1786–August 16, 1787.
The New-York gazetteer, and the country journal. w., t.w., s.w., December 3, 1783–August 11, 1786.
The New-York journal and daily patriotic register. d., November 19, 1787–July 26, 1788.
The New-York journal, & patriotic register. s.w., May 4, 1790–December 28, 1793.
The New-York journal, and State gazette. w., Mar 18, 1784–February 10, 1785.
New-York journal, and weekly register. w., January 18–November 15, 1787.
The New-York journal, and the general advertiser. w., February 17–June 16, 1785.
The New-York journal and weekly register. w., July 31, 1788–April 26, 1790.
The New-York journal, or, General advertiser. w., October 16, 1766–March 12, 1767.
The New-York journal, or, The General advertiser. w., March 19, 1767–August 29, 1776.
The New-York journal, or, The Weekly register. w., June 23, 1785–January 11, 1787.
The New-York mercury. w., August 3(?), 1752–January 25, 1768.
The New-York mercury, or, General advertiser. w., September 3, 1779–August 15, 1783.
The New-York morning post. s.w., April 1783–February 1785.
The New-York morning post, and daily advertiser. d., February 23, 1785–October 5, 1788.
The New-York packet. s.w., t.w., w., May 16, 1785–January 26, 1792.
The New York packet. And the American advertiser. w., January 4, 1776–August 29, 1776; November 13, 1783–November 8, 1784.
The New-York price-current. w., August 14 (?), 1786–(?).
New-York price-current. w., May 25, 1799–December 27, 1800+
New-York prices current. w., 1796–June 1797.
New-York Tribune, 1841-1929
The New-York weekly chronicle. w., April 23–October 1, 1795.
The New York Weekly Journal. w., November 5, 1733–March 18(?), 1751.
The New-York weekly museum. w., September 20, 1788–May 7, 1791.
The New-York weekly post-boy. w., January 3, 1743–January 12, 1747.
Oram's New-York price-current, and marine register. w., June 10, 1797–May 18, 1799.
Parker's New-York gazette, or, The Weekly post-boy. w., March 19, 1759–April 29, 1762.
Porcupine's gazette. January 13, 1800.
Prisoner of hope. w., s.w., May 3–August 23, 1800.
Register of the times. w., June 3, 1796–June 27, 1798.
Rivington's New-York gazette, and universal advertiser. s.w., November 22–December 31, 1783.
Rivington's New-York gazette, or, The Connecticut, Hudson's River, New-Jersey, and Quebec weekly advertiser. October 4–October 11, 1777.
Rivington's New-York gazetteer, or, The Connecticut, Hudson's River, New-Jersey, and Quebec weekly advertiser. w., December 16, 1773–November 23, 1775.
Rivington's New-York gazetteer, or, The Connecticut, New-Jersey, Hudson's-River, and Quebec weekly advertiser. w., April 22–December 9, 1773.
Rivington's New York loyal gazette. w., October 18–December 6, 1777.
The Royal American gazette. w., s.w., January 16, 1777–July 31, 1783.
The Royal gazette. w., s.w., December 13, 1777–November 19, 1783.
The Spectator. s.w., October 4, 1797–December 31, 1800+
Temple of reason. w., November 8–December 31, 1800+
The Time piece. t.w., September 15, 1797–August 30, 1798.
The Time piece; and literary companion. t.w., March 13–September 13, 1797.
Weekly museum. w., May 14, 1791–December 27, 1800+
Weymans New-York gazette. w., February 16–August 6, 1759.
The Youth's news paper. w., September 30–November 4, 1797.
Ye Olde Tri-Valley Townsman. w., May 1947–thru the present 2020.
North Tonawanda
Tonawanda News, 1880-2015
Poughkeepsie
Newspapers published in Poughkeepsie, New York:
American farmer, and Dutchess County advertiser. w., June 8, 1798–July 22, 1800.
The Country journal, and the Poughkeepsie advertiser. w., August 11, 1785–September 23, 1788.
The New-York journal, and the general advertiser. w., May 11, 1778–January 6, 1782.
The Poughkeepsie journal. w., July 14, 1789–December 30, 1800+
Rochester
Newspapers published in Rochester, New York
Frederick Douglass's Paper, later Douglass's Monthly
The North Star, 1847–1851
Salem
Newspapers published in Salem, New York:
Northern centinel. w., January 1, 1798–January 21, 1800+
Washington patrol. w., May 27–November 18, 1795.
Schenectady
Newspapers published in Schenectady, New York:
Mohawk Mercury, December 15, 1794–March 13, 1798.
Schenectady Reflector, 1841–1859 (available at NYS Historic Newspapers).
Syracuse
Newspapers published in Syracuse, New York:
Onondaga Gazette. April 2, 1823-1829.
Syracuse Telegram and Courier. 1856-1905.
Syracuse Telegram. September 22, 1922-November 24, 1925.
Syracuse Herald-Journal. November 24, 1925-September 29, 2001.
Syracuse New Times. 1969-June 26, 2019.
Troy
Newspapers published in Troy, New York:
Northern budget. w., May 15, 1798–December 31, 1800+
The Recorder. w., May 5–December 8, 1795.
The National Watchman, an anti-slavery newspaper edited by William G. Allen, was published from 1844–1847. No copies are known to exist.
See also
New York City media
List of radio stations in New York
List of television stations in New York
List of African-American newspapers in New York
Adjoining states
List of newspapers in Connecticut
List of newspapers in Massachusetts
List of newspapers in New Jersey
List of newspapers in Pennsylvania
List of newspapers in Vermont
References
Further reading
Weiss, Harry B. A Graphic Summary of the Growth of Newspapers in New York and Other States, 1704–1810. New York: New York Public Library, 1948
Brigham, Clarence S. "Bibliography of American Newspapers, 1690–1820 Part VII: New York (A–L)." Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society 27(1): 177–274. 1917
Brigham, Clarence S. "Bibliography of American Newspapers, 1690–1820 Part IX: New York (M–W). Excepting New York City" Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society 28(1): 63–133. 1918
List of newspapers in New York
Newspapers published in New York
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/June%201944
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June 1944
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The following events occurred in June 1944:
June 1, 1944 (Thursday)
The American submarine Herring was sunk by Japanese coastal batteries on Matua Island.
British troops captured Frosinone, Italy.
60 men of the British 2nd Parachute Brigade began Operation Hasty, a mission behind German lines in Italy.
Adolf Hitler dissolved the Abwehr and transferred its functions to the Reich Security Main Office under Heinrich Himmler.
The BBC broadcast a coded message based on the Paul Verlaine poem Chanson d'automne to inform the French Resistance that the invasion of France was imminent. The Germans understood the intent of the message but failed to bring up sufficient forces.
Two K-class blimps of the United States Navy completed the first transatlantic crossing by non-rigid airships, from the United States to French Morocco, in 80 hours.
A general election was held in Cuba, in which Ramón Grau was elected president.
José María Velasco Ibarra became President of Ecuador for the second time.
Born: Robert Powell, actor, in Salford, Lancashire, England
June 2, 1944 (Friday)
Allied forces overran the Caesar C line south of Rome. Adolf Hitler ordered Albert Kesselring to abandon the Italian capital.
First mission of Operation Frantic: Frantic-Joe, shuttle raid from Italy to Russia by the 15th AF
Representatives of the Soviet Union and Romania secretly met in Stockholm to discuss conditions for Romania's withdrawal from the war.
The Soham rail disaster occurred in the small town of Soham, Cambridgeshire, England when the cargo of an ammunition train exploded and killed two people.
Born: Marvin Hamlisch, composer and conductor, in New York City (d. 2012)
Died: Benoît Broutchoux, 64, French anarchist
Zamalek (Egyptian football team) beat Ahly team 6:0 in King's cup final games.
June 3, 1944 (Saturday)
The Allies dropped 8,000 tons of bombs in a raid on German coastal positions around Boulogne.
U.S. troops took Albano and Frascati on the outskirts of Rome, while Canadian forces took Anagni.
Kesselring declared Rome an open city.
German submarine U-477 was depth charged and sunk in the Norwegian Sea by a PBY Catalina of No. 162 Squadron RCAF.
The Provisional Government of the French Republic was created, succeeding the French Committee of National Liberation as the provisional government of Free France.
Bounding Home won the Belmont Stakes, depriving Pensive of the U.S. Triple Crown.
Asperger syndrome was identified for the first time, in a paper by the Austrian pediatrician Hans Asperger.
Born: Edith McGuire, Olympic gold medalist sprinter, in Atlanta, Georgia
June 4, 1944 (Sunday)
The Italian capital of Rome fell to the Allies. There was little fighting in the city itself as American tanks rolled along the Appian Way. The Germans ignored Hitler's order to blow up the Tiber bridges before retreating and the city's historic sites were left intact.
Royal Air Force meteorologist Group Captain James Stagg recommended that Overlord be postponed one day from June 5 to the 6th because of bad weather. Dwight D. Eisenhower followed his advice and postponed D-Day by 24 hours.
German submarine U-505 was captured off Río de Oro by ships of the U.S. Navy. The sub's codebooks, Enigma machine and other secret materials found on board would be of assistance to Allied codebreakers.
Born: Michelle Phillips, singer, songwriter, actress and member of The Mamas & the Papas, in Long Beach, California
June 5, 1944 (Monday)
Operation Forager: The United States Fifth Fleet left Pearl Harbor, sailing for the Marianas Islands.
Operation Matterhorn began with the first B-29 Superfortress combat mission, the bombing of Bangkok, from airfields in India.
The Battle of Anzio ended after 136 days in an Allied victory.
Rome was declared an open city and was occupied by the United States Army.
King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy transferred most of his remaining constitutional powers to his son Umberto.
Pope Pius XII spoke to crowds at St. Peter's Basilica giving thanks to God and all belligerents for largely sparing Rome from destruction.
U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt gave a fireside chat on the fall of Rome. "The first of the Axis capitals is now in our hands," Roosevelt said. "One up and two to go!"
The D-Day naval deceptions began. Allied ships and aircraft made deceptive movements in an attempt to deceive the Germans into believing that the Allied invasion force would land in the Calais region.
Operation Tonga began at 10:56 p.m. when an Allied force of bombers, gliders and transport aircraft took off from RAF Tarrant Rushton to begin an airborne operation near the city of Caen.
Born: Colm Wilkinson, singer and actor, in Drimnagh, Ireland
Died: Józef Beck, 49, Polish foreign minister from 1932 to 1939; Riccardo Zandonai, 61, Italian composer
June 6, 1944 (Tuesday)
D-Day: Operation Overlord commenced with the crossing of nearly 160,000 Allied troops over the English Channel to land on the beaches of Normandy, France.
The battle for Pointe du Hoc resulted in Allied victory, while the Battle of Merville Gun Battery was fought to inconclusive result.
The British executed the capture of the Caen canal and Orne river bridges. This resulted in the first Allied troops to land in Normandy. The same day, British forces also undertook Operation Houndsworth and Operation Mallard.
The Norwegian destroyer Svenner was sunk off Sword Beach by a German torpedo boat, the only Allied ship to be sunk by German naval activity on D-Day.
Stanley Hollis earned the only Victoria Cross to be awarded for D-Day.
War photographer Robert Capa took The Magnificent Eleven D-Day photographs.
Adolf Hitler was awoken at the Berghof around noon and informed of the Normandy landings. He displayed no outward signs of distress and appeared to be confident that the invasion would be repulsed.
Winston Churchill announced the Normandy landings in an address to the House of Commons. "I cannot, of course, commit myself to any particular details," Churchill said. "Reports are coming in in rapid succession. So far the Commanders who are engaged report that everything is proceeding according to plan. And what a plan! This vast operation is undoubtedly the most complicated and difficult that has ever occurred ... Nothing that equipment, science or forethought could do has been neglected, and the whole process of opening this great new front will be pursued with the utmost resolution both by the commanders and by the United States and British Governments whom they serve."
President Roosevelt went on national radio at night to address the nation about the Normandy invasion. The president's address took the form a prayer. It began: "Almighty God: Our sons, pride of our Nation, this day have set upon a mighty endeavor, a struggle to preserve our Republic, our religion, and our civilization, and to set free a suffering humanity. Lead them straight and true; give strength to their arms, stoutness to their hearts, steadfastness in their faith."
On the Eastern Front, the First Jassy–Kishinev Offensive ended in Soviet failure.
Operation Rösselsprung concluded. Although the activities of the Yugoslav Partisans were temporarily disrupted by the operation, it failed in its objective of capturing or killing Marshal Josip Broz Tito.
Japanese destroyer Minazuki was sunk in the Sibutu Passage by the American submarine Harder.
Born: Edgar Froese, artist and electronic musician, in Tilsit, East Prussia (d. 2015); Phillip Allen Sharp, geneticist and molecular biologist, in Falmouth, Kentucky; Tommie Smith, track & field athlete and AFL wide receiver, in Clarksville, Texas; Bud Harrelson, major league baseball player (mostly for the New York Mets), in Niles, California
Died: Jimmie W. Monteith, 26, U.S. Army officer and posthumous recipient of the Medal of Honor (killed in action on D-Day); John J. Pinder, Jr., 32, U.S. Army soldier and posthumous recipient of the Medal of Honor (killed in action on D-Day)
June 7, 1944 (Wednesday)
The Battle of Bréville began.
The British began Operation Perch, an attempt to encircle and capture the city of Caen.
Operation Tonga ended in Allied tactical victory.
Operation Hasty ended with less than half the original force returning safely to British lines.
The Ardenne Abbey massacre begins. 11 Canadian POWs from The North Nova Scotia Highlanders and The Sherbrooke Fusilers are shot by members of the 12th SS Panzer Division.
German submarine U-629 was sunk in the English Channel by a B-24 of No. 53 Squadron RAF.
Japanese destroyer Hayanami became the second ship to be torpedoed and sunk in the Sibutu Passage by USS Harder in as many days.
American destroyer Meredith struck a mine in the English Channel and was severely damaged. Salvage efforts would be abandoned on June 9 when Luftwaffe bombing broke the ship in two.
Actress Judy Garland divorced her husband of three years, songwriter David Rose, on grounds of general cruelty.
June 8, 1944 (Thursday)
The Battle of Port-en-Bessin ended in Allied victory.
Pietro Badoglio and the Italian government moved to Rome.
A B-24 of No. 224 Squadron RAF sank German submarine U-373 in the Bay of Biscay and then sank U-441 only some 20 minutes later in the English Channel.
Japanese destroyer Harasume was bombed and sunk northwest of Manokwari, New Guinea by a U.S. B-25 Mitchell.
Japanese destroyer Kazagumo was torpedoed and sunk in Davao Gulf by the American submarine Hake.
American destroyer escort USS Rich struck a mine and sank off Normandy.
The war film Days of Glory starring Tamara Toumanova and Gregory Peck (in their feature film debuts) was released.
The first Tallboy bomb was dropped.
Born: Mark Belanger, baseball player, in Pittsfield, Massachusetts (d. 1998); Don Grady, actor, composer and musician, in San Diego, California (d. 2012); Marc Ouellet, Cardinal of the Catholic Church, in La Motte, Quebec, Canada; Boz Scaggs, musician, in Canton, Ohio
June 9, 1944 (Friday)
The Battle of Ushant was fought off the coast of Brittany between German and Allied destroyer flotillas. The result was an Allied victory as the Germans lost 2 destroyers.
The U.S. Fifth Army in Italy captured Tarquinia and Viterbo.
German destroyers Z32 and ZH1 engaged Allied warships off the Île de Batz. Z32 ran aground and was wrecked while ZH1 was torpedoed and sunk.
Japanese destroyer Matsukaze was sunk northeast of Chichijima by the American submarine Swordfish.
Japanese destroyer Tanikaze was torpedoed and sunk in the Sibutu Passage by the USS Harder.
June 10, 1944 (Saturday)
The Red Army began the Vyborg–Petrozavodsk Offensive with the objective of knocking Finland out of the war.
A Waffen-SS company carried out the Oradour-sur-Glane massacre in France, killing 642 residents of the village of Oradour-sur-Glane.
Waffen-SS forces in Greece carried out the Distomo massacre, killing a total of 214 residents of the village of Distomo in retaliation for a partisan attack upon the unit.
German submarine U-821 was depth charged and sunk in the Bay of Biscay by British aircraft.
Pitcher Joe Nuxhall became the youngest player to ever appear in a modern major league baseball game when he made his debut for the Cincinnati Reds at the age of 15 years, 10 months and 11 days. Although Nuxhall had a difficult outing, giving up five runs to the St. Louis Cardinals in two-thirds of an inning, he went on to have a good big-league career as a two-time All-Star with a lifetime record of 135–117.
"I'll Get By (As Long as I Have You)" by Harry James and His Orchestra hit #1 on the Billboard singles charts.
June 11, 1944 (Sunday)
In Normandy, the First United States Army captured Carentan and Lison.
The British frigate HMS Halsted was torpedoed and rendered a constructive total loss off Normandy by German E-boats.
The American battleship USS Missouri was commissioned.
Died: Vojtěch Preissig, 70, Czech typographer, illustrator and designer (died in Dachau concentration camp)
June 12, 1944 (Monday)
U.S. Task Force 58 attacked Japanese facilities and shipping in preparation for the landings on Saipan, sinking one torpedo boat and twelve merchant ships of Japanese convoy CD-4.
U.S. and British forces in Normandy linked up near Carentan, forming a solid battlefront with 326,000 men and 54,000 vehicles.
German submarine U-490 was depth charged and sunk in the Atlantic Ocean by American warships.
President Roosevelt gave his 30th and final fireside chat, on the subject of the opening of the Fifth War Loan Drive.
June 13, 1944 (Tuesday)
The Germans launched the first V-1 flying bombs at England. Of the ten fired on this day four reached England, killing six people and destroying a railroad bridge.
The Battle of Bréville ended in British victory.
The Battle of Bloody Gulch was fought southwest of Carentan in Normandy, resulting in U.S. victory.
The Battle of Villers-Bocage was fought in Normandy.
RAF Bomber Command sent 221 aircraft to bomb Le Havre in its first daylight raid since May 1943. Three torpedo boats, fifteen S-boats, nine minesweepers and eight patrol boats were among the many German ships sunk in the raid.
The British destroyer Boadicea was bombed and sunk off Portland Bill by the Luftwaffe.
German submarine U-715 was depth charged and sunk northeast of the Faroe Islands by a PBY Canso of No. 162 Squadron RCAF.
Born: Ban Ki-moon, 8th Secretary-General of the United Nations, in Injō, Japanese Korea
June 14, 1944 (Wednesday)
American submarine USS Golet was sunk off Honshu by Japanese ships and aircraft.
The Battle of Lone Tree Hill began in Netherlands New Guinea between American and Japanese forces.
The Battle of Porytowe Wzgórze began between Polish and Russian partisans and Nazi German forces.
Operation Perch ended in British failure.
Charles de Gaulle visited the Normandy beachhead.
An RAF Mosquito recorded the first successful shooting down of a V-1 flying bomb over the English Channel.
Eleanor Roosevelt, the First Lady of the United States, opened the White House Conference on How Women May Share in Post-War Policy-Making.
June 15, 1944 (Thursday)
The Battle of Saipan began when U.S. forces landed on Saipan in the Mariana Islands.
Over the night of June 15/16 the United States Army Air Force conducted the Bombing of Yawata, the first air raid on the Japanese home islands since the Doolittle Raid in April 1942.
The Battle of Porytowe Wzgórze ended in a temporary victory for the Polish and Russian partisan forces.
RAF Bomber Command sent 297 aircraft to attack Boulogne, sinking three German minesweeping tenders, nine minesweepers, two patrol boats, three tugs and five harbour defense vessels.
The British frigate Blackwood was torpedoed and damaged off Brittany by German submarine U-764 and foundered the next day off Portland Bill.
The Co-operative Commonwealth Federation led by Tommy Douglas won the general election in the province of Saskatchewan, marking the first time a socialist government had been elected anywhere in Canada.
June 16, 1944 (Friday)
The Treaty of Vis was signed in Yugoslavia, in an attempt by the Western Powers to merge the Yugoslav government in exile with the Communist Partisans fighting on the ground. The agreement provided for an interim government until the people could decide the postwar form of government in democratic elections.
The British Eighth Army in Italy took Foligno and Spoleto.
Born: Henri Richelet, painter, in Frebécourt, France (d. 2020)
Died: Marc Bloch, 57, French historian (shot by the Gestapo for his work in the French Resistance); George Stinney, 14, African-American youth convicted of murder and the youngest person in 20th century U.S. history to be sentenced to death and executed (death by electric chair)
June 17, 1944 (Saturday)
The Battle of Douvres Radar Station was fought. British 41 Commando, Royal Marines secured the surrender of a German garrison at Douvres-la-Délivrande.
Iceland formally declared independence from Denmark.
Born: Bill Rafferty, comedian and impressionist, in Queens, New York (d. 2012)
June 18, 1944 (Sunday)
British troops captured Assisi, Italy.
A V-1 flying bomb hit the Guards Chapel of Wellington Barracks during Sunday service and killed 121 people.
Ivanoe Bonomi replaced Pietro Badoglio as Prime Minister of Italy.
German submarine U-767 was sunk in the English Channel by British destroyers.
Born: Rick Griffin, psychedelic artist and underground cartoonist, in Palos Verdes, California (d. 1991)
Died: Harry Fielding Reid, 85, American geophysicist
June 19, 1944 (Monday)
The Battle of the Philippine Sea began. On the first day, the Japanese lost two aircraft carriers to American submarines: Shōkaku was torpedoed and sunk by Cavalla, while Taihō was sunk by USS Albacore.
In a massive coordinated sabotage operation, in preparation of Operation Bagration, 100,000 Soviet partisan guerrillas detonated over 10,000 explosions to the rear of German Army Group Centre positions. Supply and communications were rendered inoperable for days.
Changsha fell to the Japanese in China.
A major storm in the English Channel destroyed large parts of the Mulberry harbours and shipping.
June 20, 1944 (Tuesday)
The Battle of the Philippine Sea ended in American victory. Japanese aircraft carrier Hiyō sunk after fuel vapours ignited from previous damage caused by USS Belleau Wood's air wing, bringing total Japanese losses for the two-day battle to three carriers, two oilers and around 600 aircraft.
The Soviets captured Viipuri on the Karelian Isthmus.
Nazi-subordinated Lithuanian Security Police carried out the Glinciszki massacre of 37 mostly Polish residents of the village of Glitiškės.
TWA Flight 277 en route from Stephenville, Newfoundland to Washington, D.C. crashed on Fort Mountain, Maine. All seven on board were killed.
British Minister of Production Oliver Lyttelton departed from the prepared text of a speech to the American Chamber of Commerce in London and stated, "Japan was provoked into attacking the Americans at Pearl Harbor. It is a travesty on history to ever say that America was forced into the war. Everyone knows where American sympathies were. It is incorrect to say that America was ever truly neutral even before America came into the war on an all-out fighting basis." These remarks were instantly controversial; U.S. Secretary of State Cordell Hull released a statement that same day calling Lyttelton's comment "entirely in error as to the facts and fails to state the true attitude of the United States both during the earlier stages of military preparation for world conquest by Germany and Japan and during the later aggressions by those two countries. This government from the beginning to the end was actuated by the single policy of self-defense against the rapidly increasing danger to this nation."
A V-2 rocket become the first man-made object in space during a test launch (MW 18014).
June 21, 1944 (Wednesday)
The British Eighth Army reached the German defensive Trasimene Line in Italy.
The British destroyer Fury struck a mine off Sword Beach, Normandy and was declared a total loss.
Oliver Lyttelton rose in the House of Commons to give an "explanation" for his remarks of the previous day. "I was trying, in a parenthesis, to make clear the gratitude which this country feels for the help given to us in the war against Germany, before Japan attacked the United States," Lyttelton said. "The words I used, however, when read textually, and apart from the whole tenor of my speech, seemed to mean that the help given us against Germany provoked Japan to attack. This is manifestly untrue. I want to make it quite clear that I do not complain of being misreported, and any misunderstanding is entirely my own fault. I ask the House to believe, however, that the fault was one of expression and not of intention. I hope this apology will undo any harm that the original words may have caused here or in the United States."
Born: Ray Davies, rock guitarist, vocalist and songwriter for The Kinks, in Fortis Green, London, England
June 22, 1944 (Thursday)
The Soviets began Operation Bagration, a broad new summer offensive.
President Roosevelt signed the G.I. Bill into law.
The Battle of Tienhaara was fought on the Karelian Isthmus. The result was a Finnish defensive victory.
The Battle of Kohima ended in decisive British victory. The siege of Imphal was raised when advance units of the 2nd British Division linked with the 5th Indian Division at Milestone 107 on the Imphal to Kohima road.
The Defense of Hengyang began in the Second Sino-Japanese War.
Japanese submarine I-185 was sunk near Saipan by American destroyers.
The Appalachians tornado outbreak began in the Midwest and Middle Atlantic regions of the United States. Over 100 people were killed over the next two days, with Shinnston, West Virginia hit particularly hard as 66 fatalities were recorded in the town and surrounding area.
Died: Josef Wurmheller, 27, German fighter ace (killed in an air collision during an aerial battle near Alençon, France)
June 23, 1944 (Friday)
The Soviets began the Bobruysk Offensive, Mogilev Offensive and Vitebsk–Orsha Offensive in the Byelorussian SSR.
A Polish resistance group carried out the Dubingiai massacre of 20 to 27 Lithuanian civilians in retaliation for the Glinciszki massacre of June 20.
The British cruiser Scylla struck a mine in the English Channel and was rendered a constructive total loss.
Died: Eduard Dietl, 53, German general (plane crash); Sefanaia Sukanaivalu, 26, Fijian soldier and posthumous recipient of the Victoria Cross (killed in action on Bougainville Island attempting to rescue comrades)
June 24, 1944 (Saturday)
Hitler ordered all but one division of the German LIII Corps, encircled near Vitebsk, to break out.
The British cargo ship Derrycunihy was sunk off Normandy with great loss of life by a Luftwaffe acoustic mine.
On the Normandy front the Germans deployed a new weapon—the unmanned Mistel aircraft.
Japanese submarine I-52 was depth charged and sunk southwest of the Azores by a Grumman TBF Avenger.
German submarine U-1225 was depth charged and sunk west of Bergen by a PBY Canso of No. 162 Squadron RCAF.
The Adelaide Mail in Australia published an article revealing that Ern Malley, supposedly a poet who had died as a complete unknown in 1943 but whose poems had recently been published in the avant-garde magazine Angry Penguins to great acclaim, never existed at all. Ern Malley's entire biography and body of work was a hoax created in a single afternoon by the writers James McAuley and Harold Stewart, calculated to embarrass Angry Penguins editor Max Harris by demonstrating how easy it was to write meaningless poetry in the modernist style and get intellectuals to praise it.
Born: Jeff Beck, rock guitarist, in Wallington, London, England (d. 2023)
June 25, 1944 (Sunday)
The Battle of Osuchy began near Osuchy, Poland between Nazi German and Polish resistance forces.
The Bombardment of Cherbourg took place when U.S. and British warships attacked German fortifications in and around Cherbourg.
Operation Martlet began.
The Battle of Tali-Ihantala began.
German submarine U-269 was depth charged and sunk southeast of Torquay by British frigate Bickerton.
Died: Lucha Reyes, 38, Mexican singer and actress
June 26, 1944 (Monday)
Allied troops captured Mogaung in Burma.
German forces at Cherbourg surrendered. Fortress commander Karl-Wilhelm von Schlieben and Admiral Walter Hennecke were among the officers captured.
British forces began Operation Epsom, again trying to take the German-occupied city of Caen.
The Battle of Osuchy ended in German victory.
The British frigate Goodson was torpedoed off Portland Bill by German submarine U-984 and rendered a total loss.
German submarine U-317 was depth charged and sunk northeast of Shetland by a B-24 of No. 86 Squadron RAF.
German submarine U-719 was depth charged and sunk northwest of Ireland by British destroyer Bulldog.
All three New York baseball teams (the Yankees, the Giants and the Dodgers) squared off at the Polo Grounds in an experimental round-robin exhibition game to raise money for war bonds. Each team would play in the field and bat for two consecutive innings, then sit for an inning until they had played a total of nine innings. The final score was Dodgers 5, Yankees 1, Giants 0.
The 1944 Republican National Convention opened in Chicago, Illinois.
June 27, 1944 (Tuesday)
Elements of the Sovet 1st Baltic Front occupied Vitebsk.
During the Vyborg–Petrozavodsk Offensive, Red Army forces took Petrozavodsk itself.
The Veterans' Preference Act was enacted in the United States, requiring the federal government to favor returning war veterans when hiring new employees.
Died: Milan Hodža, 66, Prime Minister of Czechoslovakia from 1935 to 1938
June 28, 1944 (Wednesday)
The Bobruysk Offensive, Mogilev Offensive and Vitebsk–Orsha Offensive all ended in Soviet victories.
Hitler sacked Ernst Busch as commander of Army Group Centre and replaced him with Walter Model.
The Republican National Convention ended with the nomination of New York Governor Thomas E. Dewey in a quick first-ballot nomination. Ohio Governor John W. Bricker accepted the nomination for vice president. Dewey, who had not attended the convention, flew in that evening to give a speech accepting the nomination and vowing to "bring an end to one-man government in America."
Died: Philippe Henriot, 55, French poet, journalist and Vichy official (assassinated by the French Resistance); Robert Martinek, 55, Bohemian artillery officer of the Austro-Hungarian Army and the Wehrmacht (killed in an air attack near Berezino)
June 29, 1944 (Thursday)
Born: Gary Busey, American actor; in Goose Creek, Texas
June 30, 1944 (Friday)
Operation Epsom ended.
The last German forces on La Hague surrendered.
The Battle of Vyborg Bay began.
President Roosevelt signed a bill providing independence for the Philippines as soon as the Japanese were removed from the islands.
Bush House, the headquarters of BBC World Service radio, was hit by a German flying bomb.
German submarine U-478 was depth charged and sunk east of the Faroe Islands by Allied aircraft.
Born: Terry Funk, professional wrestler, in Hammond, Indiana (d. 2023); Raymond Moody, philosopher, physician and author, in Porterdale, Georgia
References
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poston%20War%20Relocation%20Center
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Poston War Relocation Center
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The Poston Internment Camp, located in Yuma County (now in La Paz County) in southwestern Arizona, was the largest (in terms of area) of the 10 American concentration camps operated by the War Relocation Authority during World War II.
The site was composed of three separate camps arranged in a chain from north to south, three miles from each other. Internees named the camps Roasten, Toastin, and Dustin, based on their desert locations. The Colorado River was about to the west, outside of the camp perimeter.
Poston was built on the Colorado River Indian Reservation, over the objections of the Tribal Council, who refused to be a part of doing to others what had been done to their tribe. Army commanders and officials of the Bureau of Indian Affairs, though, overruled the council, seeing the opportunity to improve infrastructure and agricultural development (which would remain after the war and aid the reservation's permanent population) on the War Department budget and with thousands of "volunteers".
The combined peak population of the Poston camps was over 17,000, mostly from Southern California. At the time, Poston was the third-largest "city" in Arizona. It was built by Del Webb, who later became famous building Sun City, Arizona, and other retirement communities. The Poston facility was named after Charles Debrille Poston, a government engineer who established the Colorado River Reservation in 1865 and planned an irrigation system to serve the needs of the Indian people who were to live there.
A single fence surrounded all three camps, and the site was so remote that authorities considered building guard towers to be unnecessary. The thousands of internees and staff passed through the barbed-wire perimeter at Poston I, which was where the main administration center was located.
Poston was a subject of a sociological research by Alexander H. Leighton, published in his 1945 book, The Governing of Men. As Time wrote, "After 15 months at Arizona's vast Poston Relocation Center as a social analyst, Commander Leighton concluded that many an American simply fails to remember that U.S. Japanese are human beings."
Establishment of the camp
When Poston was chosen as the site for the relocation center, the Colorado River Indian Reservation Tribal Council adamantly opposed the use of their land because they did not want to be involved in inflicting the same injustice they had faced on the Japanese internees. The council was soon overridden, and the BIA and WRA jointly took control of of tribal land and began construction in early 1942. Del Webb (Del E. Webb Construction Company) began building Poston I on March 27, and his workforce of 5,000 completed the first camp less than three weeks later. Construction on II and III began soon after, contracted to be finished within 120 days. In the meantime, Poston was partially opened on May 8, as the Parker Dam Reception Center, one of two such sites that augmented the 15 temporary "assembly centers" where Japanese Americans waited to be transferred to the more permanent WRA camps. Around two-thirds of Poston's population were brought directly from their homes to what was then Parker Dam, and many of these early arrivals volunteered to help complete the still-under-construction camps.
Upon completion, the Poston site consisted of hundreds of residential barracks, a hospital, an administrative center, and guard and staff housing. The camp officially opened as the Colorado River Relocation Center on June 1, 1942, and the BIA relinquished its authority over Poston in 1943.
Life at Poston
Life at Poston for the Japanese internees was difficult from the start. Japanese Americans across the West Coast were uprooted from their lives and placed in different camps around the United States, including Poston. Hurried construction and lack of supplies made living conditions for internees barely suitable. Barracks were made with redwood, which shrunk more than expected and created cracks throughout the buildings. A shortage of lumber led them to build using adobe. Weather also added to the difficulties of living in the camp because of its location in the desert. Extreme heat during the summer, reaching up to 115°F, and extreme cold in the winter, reaching as low as 35°F, added to the frustrations of internees. Outbreaks of disease were another common factor across most camps that contributed to poor quality of life. Poston was not immune to disease outbreaks, and tuberculosis was rampant with 140 reported cases. Care for these sick people was also lacking, which led to avoidable death or disability. By the end of 1942, heating systems were still not in place and clothing allowances still had not been delivered.
Japanese Americans in Poston were becoming increasingly frustrated with their new lives in the internment camp. Rising tensions came to a head in November 1942, sparked by the beating of a suspected informer on Saturday evening November 14. Two men suspected to have beaten the man were detained and under investigation. The community demanded the release of these two men, and their request was refused. Because of the denial of their request, workers went on strike on November 19. A compromise was reached by the director and the evacuees' Emergency Executive Council, ending the strike on November 24.
Unlike the nine other concentration camps, the agricultural and animal-husbandry areas of Poston were within the perimeter fence. Schools and a number of other buildings were constructed by the internees. Many of the inhabitants participated in and created recreational activities, such as the Boy Scouts, sports teams, and jobs. Baseball teams were very common among the internees, as leagues were set up soon after opening. Scores and game summaries were recorded in the Poston daily press bulletin, along with other daily news. Some elements made life at Poston livable for internees, but their time at the camp was mostly filled with frustration and struggles to the end of their internment.
Written accounts
A camp newspaper, the Poston Chronicle (formerly Official information bulletin, then Official daily press bulletin) was published between May 1942 and October 1945.
Clara Breed, a librarian from San Diego, made a point of maintaining contact with Poston camp children she had met in San Diego. She corresponded with many of them and sent them reading materials and other gifts. Their letters to her became an important record of life in the camps. Hundreds of "Dear Miss Breed" postcards and letters are now part of the permanent archives at the Japanese American National Museum and were the basis for a 2006 book, Dear Miss Breed: True Stories of the Japanese American Incarceration during World War II and a Librarian Who Made a Difference, by Joanne Oppenheim.
Three reports ("Labor", "Leisure", and "Demands") and an autobiography written by Richard Nishimoto, an Issei worker for the University of California's Japanese American Evacuation and Resettlement Study, were published in Inside an American Concentration Camp: Japanese American Resistance at Poston, Arizona.
A novel by Cynthia Kadohata, Weedflower, illustrates the life of a Japanese-American girl and her family after the bombing of Pearl Harbor, when they are incarcerated at Poston. The book is fiction but contains facts from interviews of incarcerees and Mohave Indians who lived on the reservation. The passage on the back of the book reads "Twelve-year-old Sumiko's life can be divided into two parts: before Pearl Harbor and after it. Before the bombing, although she was lonely, she was used to being the only Japanese American in her class and she always had her family to comfort her. When the government forces all of the Japanese Americans living in California into internment camps, Sumiko soon discovers that the Japanese are just as unwanted on the Mohave reservation they have been shipped to as they were at home. But then she meets a young Mohave boy, who, after initial resentment, becomes her first real friend. Together, they navigate the racial and political challenges of the times, and both help each other understand the true meaning of friendship."
In Kiyo's Story, A Japanese American Family's Quest for the American Dream by Kiyo Sato, the Japanese-American author writes about her family's time while incarcerated at the Poston camp during World War II. This memoir shows how the power of family, love, and relentless hard work helped to overcome the huge personal and material losses endured by internees. Sato went on to achieve professional distinction. She is a registered nurse with a master's degree in nursing and served in the USAF Nurse Corp during the Korean War, where she rose to the rank of captain.
Passing Poston: An American Story is a documentary recounting the experiences of four Japanese Americans in Poston: Kiyo Sato, Ruth Okimoto, Mary Higashi, and Leon Uyeda. Kiyo Sato's story (recounted above) is from when she is a young girl, and has to face the tragedy of her citizenship being taken away. Ruth Okimoto gives an interesting perspective of the internment as a young girl, as well. She remembers soldiers coming to her front door with rifles to take them to Poston, and being behind barbed wire in the middle of the desert. She reflects on this time in her life filled with anxiety through art, and is trying to understand her feelings about such a surreal part of her life. Mary Higashi relives the moment she entered the barracks and realized she would have to live with almost nothing. She also talks about how this handicapped her for life, as she was never able to finish college. Lastly, Leon Uyeda gives the opposite side of the internment story, saying he somewhat enjoyed the camp. He liked being surrounded by other Japanese people, and not having to bombarded with racial hostility.
The Japanese American Memorial to Patriotism During World War II, located in Washington, DC, features inscriptions of the names of those confined to the Poston center. Filmmaker Reed Leventis depicts the life at Poston camp through a short digital video "Poston: A Cycle of Fear". The video was supported by the National Japanese American Memorial Foundation and will be available for viewing by visitors of the Memorial in Washington, DC. http://www.njamf.com/Poston/
Memoirs of the Japanese relocation told by a teacher at Poston Camp 1, "Dusty Exile" by Catherine Embree Harris, published by Mutual Publishing, 1999, a softcover book, contains photos and illustrations of life in the Poston relocation center until it closed. Catherine Harris went on to work in the Children's Bureau of the U.S. Department of Education in Washington, DC. She maintained contact with many of the people she met in Poston throughout her life and retirement in Honolulu, HI.
That Damned Fence (anonymous): Poem from an internee about life at Poston.
They've sunk the posts deep into the ground
They've strung out wires all the way around.
With machine gun nests just over there
And sentries and soldiers everywhere.
We're trapped like rats in a wired cage,
To fret and fume with impotent rage;
Yonder whispers the lure of the night,
But that DAMNED FENCE assails our sight.
We seek the softness of the midnight air,
But that DAMNED FENCE in the floodlight glare
Awakens unrest in our nocturnal quest,
And mockingly laughs with vicious jest.
With nowhere to go and nothing to do,
We feel terrible, lonesome, and blue:
That DAMNED FENCE is driving us crazy,
Destroying our youth and making us lazy.
Imprisoned in here for a long, long time,
We know we're punished—though we've committed no crime,
Our thoughts are gloomy and enthusiasm damp,
To be locked up in a concentration camp.
Loyalty we know, and patriotism we feel,
To sacrifice our utmost was our ideal,
To fight for our country, and die, perhaps;
But we're here because we happen to be Japs.
We all love life, and our country best,
Our misfortune to be here in the west,
To keep us penned behind that DAMNED FENCE,
Is someone's notion of NATIONAL DEFENSE!
Poston today
A number of buildings built for the concentration camps are still in use today. Others, while still intact, are seriously deteriorated and in desperate need of maintenance. Most were removed after the camp closed, and the land was returned to the Colorado River Indian Tribes, and many are still in use as utility buildings in surrounding areas, while the former residential areas have been largely converted to agricultural use. The Poston Memorial Monument was built in 1992, on tribal land with tribal support, and still stands today.
Gallery
Notable Poston internees
Jack Fujimoto (born 1928), the first Asian American to become president of a higher-education institution in the mainland United States
Tak Fujimoto (born 1939), cinematographer
Mikiso Hane (1922-2003), professor of history at Knox College
Frances Hashimoto (1943–2012), businesswoman and community activist
Satoshi Hirayama (1931–2021), Japanese-American baseball player for the Hiroshima Carp in Japan's Central League
James Kanno (1925–2017), mayor of Fountain Valley, California from 1957 to 1962
Nobe Kawano (1923–2018), clubhouse manager for the Los Angeles Dodgers
Yosh Kawano (1921–2018), clubhouse manager for the Chicago Cubs
Robert Kinoshita (1914–2014), artist, art director, and set and production designer
Doris Matsui (born 1944), member of the U.S. House of Representatives
George Matsumoto (1922–2016), architect and educator
Isamu Noguchi (1904–1988), artist and landscape architect
Vincent Okamoto (1943–2020), decorated veteran of the Vietnam War and judge
Daniel Okimoto (born 1942), academic and political scientist
Emiko Omori (born 1940), cinematographer and director
Sandra Sakata (1940–1997), fashion designer and fashion retailer
Ben Sakoguchi (born 1938), artist
Roy I. Sano (born 1931), retired bishop of the United Methodist Church
Hideo Sasaki (1919–2000), landscape architect
Noriko Sawada (1923–2003), writer and civil-rights activist
T.K. Shindo (1890–1974), photographer
Teru Shimada (1905–1988), actor
Kobe Shoji (1920–2004), an executive in the sugarcane industry, veteran of the 442nd Infantry Regiment, and athlete
Chizuko Judy Sugita de Queiroz (born 1933), artist and art educator
Shinkichi Tajiri (1923–2009), sculptor
Ronald Phillip Tanaka (1944–2007), poet and editor
A. Wallace Tashima (born 1934), the first Japanese American to be appointed to a United States Court of Appeals
Hisako Terasaki (born 1928), etcher
Tamie Tsuchiyama (1915–1984), worked on behalf of the Japanese-American Evacuation and Resettlement Study
George Uchida (1925–2004), judoka, wrestler, author, and coach
Hisaye Yamamoto (1921–2011), short-story writer
Mia Yamamoto, transgender criminal-defense attorney and civil-rights activist
Wakako Yamauchi (1924–2018), playwright
See also
Japanese American Internment
Other camps:
Gila River War Relocation Center This center was also located on an Indian Reservation in Arizona.
Granada War Relocation Center
Heart Mountain War Relocation Center
Jerome War Relocation Center
Manzanar National Historic Site
Minidoka National Historic Site
Rohwer War Relocation Center
Topaz War Relocation Center
Tule Lake War Relocation Center
References
A. A. Hansen and B. K. Mitson, 1974. Voices Long Silent: An Oral Inquiry into the Japanese Evacuation. This study and many others interviewing former internees at several relocation centers are part of the research of the Japanese American World War II Evacuation History Project, at California State University, Fullerton. Professor Hansen has published extensively in this research arena.
For a historical interpretation by a tribal member of the Colorado River Indian Reservation, see his chapter on Poston: Dwight Lomayesva, 1981. "The Adaptation of Hopi and Navajo Colonists on the Colorado River Indian Reservation," Master of Social Sciences Thesis (Fullerton, CA: California State University, Fullerton).
External links
Writings by students at the Poston War Relocation Center, 1942-1943, The Bancroft Library
Rosalie H. Wax Papers, The Bancroft Library
Yukiye Kusuda letters to Robert W. Carnachan, 1942-1944, The Bancroft Library
National Park Service book on internment camps: "Poston War Segregation Center" section
Poston Preservation Project — by former internees and their descendants.
Julia Kiriloff Grill correspondence, 1940-1948, The Bancroft Library
Densho Encyclopedia: "Poston (Colorado River)"
Densho Encyclopedia: "Poston Chronicle" (camp newspaper)
Material relating to the Poston Cooperative Enterprises, Inc., Colorado River Relocation Center, Poston, Ariz., 1943-1945, The Bancroft Library
Mimeograph material relating chiefly to the Young Buddhist Association's activities during the World War II internment, ca.1943-1945, The Bancroft Library
Internment camps for Japanese Americans
Buildings and structures in La Paz County, Arizona
History of La Paz County, Arizona
Military history of Arizona
Prisons in Arizona
1940s in Arizona
1942 establishments in Arizona
1945 disestablishments in Arizona
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karylle
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Karylle
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Ana Karylle Padilla Tatlonghari-Yuzon (born March 22, 1981), known mononymously as Karylle, is a Filipino singer, actress, television presenter, songwriter, record producer, businesswoman, philanthropist and model. Having achieved mainstream success across stage, screen, and music, her accolades include four Awit Awards, an Asian Television Award, two MTV Pilipinas Music Award, a New York Festivals International TV and Film Award, and a Star Award for Television, including nominations from Monte Carlo Festival, Aliw Awards and Golden Screen Awards.
Born and raised in Manila, Philippines, Karylle first ventured into theater musical in 2000 and played several supporting roles in film and television. She rose to stardom after playing Sanggre Alena in the drama fantasy series Encantadia (2005). She reprised her role in the succeeding sequels and crossover such as Etheria (2005), Mulawin: The Movie (2005) and Encantadia: Pag-ibig Hanggang Wakas (2006). It was followed by the theatrical release of the blockbuster film Moments of Love (2006), which she starred with Iza Calzado and Dingdong Dantes. She returned to stage and appeared in two major productions: Cat in the Hat (2007) and West Side Story (2008), garnering praises from the critics. Following her transfer to ABS-CBN, she made several appearances in television shows such as Nasaan Ka Maruja? (2009) and Dahil May Isang Ikaw (2009), which earned a nomination at the International Emmy Awards.
In 2010, she played a supporting role in the horror film Dalaw and became one of the mainstay host of the long-running noontime show It's Showtime the following year. She was cast as one of the lead in the Singaporean TV series The Kitchen Musical, earning her a bronze medal for "Best Performance" at the New York Festivals and a "Best Actress" nomination at the Monte Carlo Festival. On screen, she appeared in several international productions such as Point of Entry (2012) and P.I. (2017), as well as in the fantasy film Mystified (2019), which earned a nomination at the Asian Academy Creative Awards. On theaters, she appeared in more stage productions in the following years including Rodgers and Rama Hari (2012), Rodgers and Hammerstein's Cinderella (2013), Carousel (2022) and The Sound of Music (2023) among others.
As a recording artist, Karylle has released six studio albums since 2001. According to PARI, her most successful releases include the platinum-sellers Time for Letting Go (2009), Roadtrip (2011), and the gold-certified albums Time to Shine (2001) and K (2013). The song she co-wrote with Jerome Hughes, Pabigyan Ng Puso, won "Best Original Song" at the 30th Metro Manila Film Festival for the movie Mano Po III: My Love. Her musical work have earned her nominations from Asian Television Awards, Awit Awards and Star Awards for Music. Philanthropically, she has been active in supporting the Philippine Animal Welfare Society (PAWS) and charity organizations like White Cross Orphanage and ChildHaus.
Early life and education
Karylle was born on March 22, 1981, in Manila to Zsa Zsa Padilla, a singer-actress and Dr. Modesto Tatlonghari. She is the granddaughter of boxing referee Carlos Padilla Jr.. Her parents separated when she was six years old. Karylle has two half-sisters Nicole and Zia Quizon from her mother's relationship to actor and comedian Dolphy.
Karylle completed her elementary and secondary education, notably in O.B. Montessori Center – Greenhills during grade school (where she was class valedictorian), and Saint Pedro Poveda College where she finished high school with a Service Medal for extra-curricular and volunteer works. She began taking formal ballet lessons at the age of three and continued until she was fifteen. In college, Karylle took up BS Management Major in Communications Technology Management at the Ateneo de Manila University, where she made the Dean's list. She graduated in 2002.
Acting career
2000–2004: Early works
In 2000, Karylle made her acting debut in the stage musical Little Mermaid, in which she played Princess Sapphire. Her performance in the Trumpets production is known to have been her breakthrough in show business.
In 2001, Karylle began appearing on television. She became a co-host and performer in GMA Network's variety show SOP.
From 2002 to 2004, Karylle had a string of supporting roles in films and television series. She made her first film appearance in Ang Agimat: Anting-anting ni Lolo, an official entry for the 28th Metro Manila Film Festival. Her first venture into television acting was in the drama series Twin Hearts, as Iris. She would only appear for a week, but the show's producers asked her to play another character, Jade, due to the chemistry that they have seen between her and actor Dingdong Dantes. The success of Twin Hearts led to more on-screen collaborations between Karylle and Dantes in the following years, starting with the fourth season of the romantic anthology series Love to Love. In said series, she played Cathy Ruiz, an Ilonggo from Guimaras, thus requiring her to speak with an Ilonggo accent. For the role, she earned a nomination for Outstanding Lead Actress at the 2nd Golden Screen TV Awards. Karylle also had roles in two Mano Po films: Mano Po 2: My Home in 2003 and Mano Po III: My Love in 2004.
2005–2009: Encantandia and move to ABS-CBN
In 2005, she appeared in the horror film Bahay ni Lola 2; her first leading role in a film. She then starred in the fantasy drama series Enacantadia as Sang'gre Alena, alongside Iza Calzado, Dingdong Dantes, Sunshine Dizon, Jennylyn Mercado, and Diana Zubiri. Encantandia was a groundbreaking success, spawning a multimedia franchise. Karylle reprised her role in the sequel series Etheria and the crossover film Mulawin: The Movie, both released later in the year.
In 2006, Karylle had two major projects: Encantadia: Pag-ibig Hanggang Wakas, which was the third installment to the Encantadia franchise; and the romance film Moments of Love, which became a box office hit.
In 2007, Karylle starred in the independent drama film Ligaw Liham. The film, which she also produced, was an official entry for the 3rd Cinemalaya Independent Film Festival. During the year, Karylle also returned to the stage and starred as Cat in the Hat in the Atlantis Production of Seussical.
In 2008, Karylle appeared as host in the reality show Pinoy Idol Extra, alongside Rhian Ramos. She then played the female lead role of Maria on the Stages production of the popular musical West Side Story, alternating with Joanna Ampil. This also marked her first of many on-stage and on-screen collaborations with Christian Bautista, who stars as Tony. Her performance on West Side Story was acclaimed by critics, garnering her a nomination for Best Stage Actress at the 22nd Aliw Awards. During the last quarter of the year, Karylle made big career changes. She changed her management from Genesis to Stages, her recording company from Universal Records to PolyEast Records, and transferred from GMA to its rival station ABS-CBN. She signed her ABS-CBN contract shortly after an appearance in the Oscar De La Hoya vs. Manny Pacquiao boxing match in Las Vegas, Nevada, where she sang the Philippine national anthem. Her first appearance as a Kapamilya was in the variety show ASAP.
In 2009, after guest appearances in the musical drama anthology Your Song, and the comedy drama I Love Betty La Fea, Karylle starred in Mars Ravelo's Nasaan Ka Maruja? alongside Kristine Hermosa and Derek Ramsay. She would then be a part of the main cast of the International Emmy-nominated drama series, Dahil May Isang Ikaw. Karylle also played the lead role in the independent drama film Litsonero, opposite Paolo Contis.
2010–present: International breakthrough & It's Showtime
In 2010, Karylle joined Bangs Garcia, Rayver Cruz, and Sid Lucero in Gilda Olvidado's Magkano ang Iyong Dangal?. Later that year, she started appearing as a judge on the noontime variety show Showtime. In December, Karylle had a supporting role in the horror film Dalaw, starring Kris Aquino. The film was a box office success and became one of the highest-grossing entries at the 36th Metro Manila Film Festival.
In 2011, Karylle officialy became a regular host for Showtime, joining Kim Atienza, Teddy Corpuz, Anne Curtis, Vice Ganda, Jugs Jugueta, Vhong Navarro, and fellow newcomer Billy Crawford. The group of hosts was nominated for Best Talent Search Program Host at the 25th PMPC Star Awards for Television. During the year, Karylle also achieved international recognition for her starring role in the acclaimed Singaporean musical drama The Kitchen Musical, which aired across twelve countries via AXN. The series was highly successful, with the cast winning the Bronze Medal for Best Performance at the New York Festivals TV & Film Awards. Karylle's role as Maddie Avilon earned her a nomination for Outstanding Actress in a Drama Series at the Monte-Carlo Television Festival's Golden Nymph Awards held in Monaco. Furthermore, she and co-star Christian Bautista received an International Achievement Award at the 24th Awit Awards for their work in the series.
In 2012, Karylle was featured as a guest star in the third season of the Singaporean action drama Point of Entry, her second international project. Later that year, Karylle also starred with her frequent collaborator Christian Bautista in a critically acclaimed staging of Rama, Hari at the Cultural Center of the Philippines. At the 26th PMPC Star Awards for Television, Karylle and her It's Showtime co-hosts won the award for Best Reality and Game Show Host.
In 2013, Karylle top billed a new version of Rodgers & Hammerstein's Cinderella at the Newport Performing Arts Theater in Resorts World Manila. At the end of the year, Karylle received nominations for her hosting on It's Showtime: Outstanding Female Host in a Musical or Variety Program at the 4th Golden Screen TV Awards, and Best Female TV Host at the 27th PMPC Star Awards for Television.
From 2014 to 2016, Karylle's continued work as host on It's Showtime earned her a second and third nomination for Outstanding Female Host in a Musical or Variety Program at the 5th and 6th Golden Screen TV Awards, respectively. She also received her second nomination for Best Female TV Host at the 30th PMPC Star Awards for Television. At the last quarter of 2016, she took a short break from It's Showtime to film her third international project.
In 2017, Karylle starred in the Singaporean crime thriller P.I..
In 2018, Karylle made a surprise cameo appearance in the finale of the highly rated and acclaimed drama Wildflower. The episode trended on social media, with many viewers finding Karylle's casting inspired. Karylle also appeared as guest presenter on the television news broadcasting show TV Patrol.
In 2019, Karylle produced and starred in the fantasy film Mystified, distributed by Iflix. It was the first project released under Sanggre Productions, Inc., a production company founded by Karylle and her former Encantandia co-stars and off-screen friends Iza Calzado, Sunshine Dizon, Diana Zubiri, along with director Mark A. Reyes. The film was a success, earning four nominations at the 24th Asian Television Awards, winning one for Best Single Drama or Telemovie. The film was also nominated for Best Visual or Special FX in TV Series or Feature Film at the 2nd Asian Academy Creative Awards, after being announced as the national winner.
In 2021, Karylle appeared in the romantic comedy television miniseries B&B: The Story of the Battle of Brody & Brandy, starring Iza Calzado and Ian Veneracion. She also served as producer for the show.
In 2022, Karylle top billed the Repertory Philippines production of Rodgers and Hammerstein's musical Carousel, opposite Gian Magdangal. For her performance as Julie Jordan, Karylle received a nomination for Female Lead Performance in a Musical at the 13th Gawad Buhay Awards.
In 2023, Karylle primarily focused on theater and appeared in four stage productions. She played the role of Baroness Elsa von Schraeder in the Manila run of the international tour of the Broadway International Group and Broadway Asia co-production of The Sound of Music. She then participated in the musical concert Contra Mundum: Ang All-star Concert ng Ang Larawan held at the Manila Metropolitan Theater; starred in the musical play Isang Gabi ng Sarsuwela; and reprised her role as Sita in a restaging of the rock opera ballet Rama, Hari.
Music career
In 2001, Karylle entered the music scene with her first studio album, Time to Shine, released under Universal Records. It spawned the single "Can't Live Without You" which won the Awit Award for Best Performance by a New Female Recording Artist and two MTV Pilipinas Music Awards for Favorite Female Video and Favorite New Artist in a Video. The album also includes two collaborations: "Calling" with German singer Gil Ofarim, and "Kung Mawawala Ka" with Ogie Alcasid. The latter won the award for Best Performance by a Duet at the 16th Awit Awards.
In 2003, Karylle collaborated with the contemporary worship musical group Bukas Palad Music Ministry and released the religious song "Awit sa Ina ng Santo Rosario". It won them the award for Best Inspirational/Religious Recording at the 17th Awit Awards.
In 2004, Karylle released "Pagbigyan ang Puso", a duet with Jerome John Hughes. It was the theme song for her film Mano Po III: My Love, which was an official entry at the 30th Metro Manila Film Festival. At the festival's awards night, it won Best Original Theme Song.
In 2005, Karylle released her sophomore studio album,You Make Me Sing. The album includes the self-written songs "Coz, I Love You" and "Hiling"; as well as "Mahiwagang Puso", the official theme song for her hit fantasy series Encantadia. The album was well-received, with the title track being nominated for Best R&B Song at the 19th Awit Awards, and Favorite Female Video at the 8th MTV Pilipinas Music Award.
In 2009, Karylle released her third studio album, Time for Letting Go, under a new recording company Polyeast Records. It is described as a collection of songs about moving on, exploring the five stages of grief. It was supported by the singles "I'll Never Get Over You (Getting Over Me)", and "Almost Over You". The album also features "Live for Your Love", a duet with her mom, Zsa Zsa Padilla; and three of Karylle's original compositions: "Minamahal Kita", "Hulog ng Langit" and "Wala Na Bang Lahat". The album garnered her a nomination for Favorite Female Artist at the 5th Myx Music Awards and was certified Platinum by the Philippine Association of the Record Industry.
In 2011, Karylle released her fourth studio album, Roadtrip. She described it as "her most personal and perhaps even most ambitious musical outing" up to that point, representing who she is, as an artist, singer, and songwriter. All the songs were independently produced and written by Karylle. Its lead single, "OMG", was featured in the American reality television series, Floribama Shore; and was nominated for Best Dance Recording at the 25th Awit Awards.
In 2013, Karylle released "Sa’yo Na Lang Ako", an official entry for the year's Philippine Popular Music Festival. It was included in her fifth studio album, K, which was released later that year and spawned the singles "Kiss You" and Kapiling Kita". The album was eventually certified gold by PARI. At the 27th Awit Awards, she received three nominations: Best Performance by a Female Recording Artist & Best Ballad Recording for "Sa 'Yo na Lang Ako"; and Best Dance Recording for "Kiss You".
In 2015, Karylle was on the panel of judges for the 4th Philippine Popular Music Festival. In November, Karylle released her sixth studio album, A Different Playground. She described it as a reflection on her married life. It earned her a nomination for Female Pop Artist of the Year at the 8th PMPC Star Awards for Music. Additionally, the album includes the song "Paano ko Tuturuan ang Puso", which was nominated for Best Performance by a Female Recording Artist at the 29th Awit Awards.
In 2019, Karylle released "Simula", the official theme song for her fantasy film, Mystified. It was nominated for Best Theme Song at the 24th Asian Television Awards.
In 2020, Karylle released The Holy Rosary: Roses for Mary, a spoken word recording of rosary-based prayers, which also included two religious songs.
Other ventures
Writing
Karylle is also a prolific writer and blogger. She has written blogs for Yahoo!, and was a contributing writer for The Philippine Star and S Magazine. Moreover, Karylle launched her own blog site in 2016.
Producing
Karylle has ventured into producing for film and television.
In 2007, Karylle served as producer on the independent drama film Ligaw Liham, in which she also starred in.
In 2018, Karylle, along with Iza Calzado, Sunshine Dizon, Diana Zubiri, and Mark A. Reyes started the production company Sanggre Productions, Inc. Through the company, she served as producer for the film Mystified, and the miniseries B&B: The Story of the Battle of Brody & Brandy.
Endorsements
Karylle has also appeared in various endorsements for brands such as Ever Bilena, Bench Body, Santé Barley, Fruitas, Adidas, Belo Medical Group, UniSilver, Status Hair Salon, and OraCare.
According to the Ever Bilena executives, they picked the singer-actress as brand ambassador because she is "a true reflection of a woman of her generation — someone who is passionate, sincere and confident; and epitomizes the spirit of a strong modern woman".
After her move to ABS-CBN, it came as a surprise to everyone when Karylle became an endorser for the clothing brand Bench, with her billboards seen all over the Metro Manila for the ad "Single is Sexy!" indicating that she was changing her image.
Business
Karylle is also an entrepreneur. She is the owner of the family KTV and resto-bar CenterStage at Tomas Morato in Quezon City, Jupiter in Makati City and Mall of Asia (MOA) in Pasay and part-owner of Mey Lin Restaurant and a The Mango Farm dessert kiosk in Greenhills, San Juan City.
Personal life
Karylle dated actor Dingdong Dantes from 2005 to 2008. Her relationship with Dantes was the subject of controversies and widespread media attention. Media outlets speculated that Dantes had been unfaithful to Karylle with his Marimar co-star Marian Rivera, with whom he began a relationship soon after the split. Their breakup was speculated to be what had driven Karylle to make her transfer to ABS-CBN. However, she subsequently denied such claims.
Karylle has been married to Sponge Cola vocalist Yael Yuzon since 2014 after dating for over three years.
Filmography
Films
Television
Theatre
Discography
Time to Shine (2001)
You Make Me Sing (2005)
Time for Letting Go (2009)
Roadtrip (2011)
K (2013)
A Different Playground (2015)
Concerts
Headlining and co-headlining concerts
Awards and nominations
Notes
References
External links
1981 births
Living people
Filipino women pop singers
Filipino television variety show hosts
Filipino female models
Singers from Manila
Actresses from Manila
Filipino Roman Catholics
Padilla family
ABS-CBN personalities
GMA Network personalities
Ateneo de Manila University alumni
21st-century Filipino actresses
Filipino musical theatre actresses
PolyEast Records artists
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/509th%20Operations%20Group
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509th Operations Group
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The 509th Operations Group (509 OG) is the flying component of the United States Air Force 509th Bomb Wing (509 BW), assigned to Whiteman Air Force Base, Missouri. It is equipped with all 20 of the USAF's B-2 Spirit stealth bombers, flown by its 393rd Bomb Squadron. Its 13th Bomb Squadron, the training unit for the 509th, provides training in T-38 Talon trainers as well as in the 393rd's B-2 Spirits.
The 509 OG traces its history to the World War II 509th Composite Group (509 CG), which conducted the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan, in August 1945.
Redesignated the 509th Bombardment Group, Very Heavy in 1946, the group was one of the original ten bombardment groups of Strategic Air Command. The unit was also the host organization at Roswell Army Airfield, New Mexico in July 1947 during the alleged Roswell incident.
The 509th Bombardment Group was inactivated in 1952. In 1993, the unit was reactivated as the 509 OG, as part of the Objective Wing organization implementation of the 509th Bomb Wing.
Units
The 509th OG consists of three component squadrons:
13th Bomb Squadron
Originally activated as the 325th Bomb Squadron on 6 January 1998. Re-designated the 13th BS ("Grim Reapers") on 23 September 2005, when that unit, flying B-1 Lancers as part of the 7th Operations Group, was inactivated. As the Formal Training Unit, the 13th BS provides Initial Qualification, Requalification, and Flight Instructor Candidate B-2 Training. Additionally, it manages the T-38 Companion Trainer Program and three Weapons Systems Trainers (flight simulators).
393rd Bomb Squadron
The 393rd BS ("Tigers"), a traditional squadron of the 509th, was activated as a B-2 squadron on 27 August 1993. It is the USAF's only operational bomb squadron.
509th Operations Support Squadron
A non-flying squadron, the 509th OSS ("Hawks") controls all airfield activities at Whiteman.
Unofficial insignia
In addition to its official insignia, during B-2 stealth bomber test flights, some members of the 509th Bomb Wing procured an unofficial insignia involving an alien, the legend To Serve Man (referring to a famous Twilight Zone episode), and the inscription Gustatus Similis Pullus (Dog Latin for "Tastes like chicken").
A second variation carried the term "Classified Test Flight" instead of the Twilight Zone reference, and both harkened to the 509th's connection to the "Roswell incident".
History
The historical roots of the 509th OG begin on 17 December 1944 when the 509th Composite Group was formed at Wendover Field, Utah under Second Air Force. The 509th was formed with one mission in mind: to drop the Atomic Bomb.
The group deployed to the Western Pacific in May 1945 and was assigned to the Twentieth Air Force 313th Bombardment Wing, stationed at North Field, Tinian, in the Mariana Islands. Operations of the group, however, were controlled by Headquarters, USAAF with the 313th Bomb Wing providing logistical support.
The 509th CG made history on 6 August 1945, when the B-29 Superfortress "Enola Gay," piloted by Colonel Paul W. Tibbets, Jr., dropped the first atomic bomb on Hiroshima, Japan. The B-29 "Bockscar," piloted by Major Charles Sweeney visited the Japanese mainland on 9 August 1945 and dropped the second atomic bomb on Nagasaki.
Cold War
In November 1945, the group returned to the United States and was assigned to Roswell Army Air Base, New Mexico. For a brief period of time from January to March 1946 the 509th was assigned to the 58th Bomb Wing at Fort Worth AAF, Texas, before returning to Roswell. The Group was assigned to Strategic Air Command on 21 March 1946, being one of the first eleven organizations assigned to SAC. At the time SAC was formed, the 509th Composite Group was the only unit to have experience with nuclear weapons and thus is regarded by many historians as the foundation on which SAC was built. In April 1946 many of the group's aircraft deployed to Kwajalein as part of Operation Crossroads, a series of atomic bomb tests. The remainder became the core of two new squadrons activated as part of the group, the 715th Bomb Squadron and the 830th Bomb Squadron.
On 10 July 1946, the group was renamed the 509th Bombardment Group (Very Heavy) and the 320th TCS was disbanded. With the creation of the United States Air Force as a separate service, the group became the combat component of the 509th Bomb Wing on 17 November 1947, although it was not operational until 14 September 1948, when Col. John D. Ryan was named commander. As a result of postwar reductions only the 509th was equipped for the delivery of atomic bombs.
The group was redesignated as a medium bomb group in 1948 as part of the Strategic Air Command, and acquired an aerial refueling mission with the assignment of KB-29s. Its 27 operational Silverplate B-29s (the 309th had ultimately received 53 of the 65 produced) were transferred in 1949 to the 97th Bomb Wing at Biggs Air Force Base, El Paso, Texas, when the group converted to B-50D Superfortresses. The B-50D was the last derivative of the B-29 family and designed specifically for the atomic bombing mission. It was one of the last piston-engined bombers built, having a top speed just short of 400 mph (644 km/h), faster than many World War II-era piston-engined fighters still in service at the time.
During the Korean War, the 509th remained in the United States as President Harry S. Truman wasn't willing to risk extensive use of the USAF strategic bomber force, which was being used as a deterrent for possible Soviet aggression in Europe.
Its squadrons were removed on 1 February 1951, and assigned directly to the wing, effectively ending its operations. The 509th was inactivated on 16 June 1952 as part of a SAC (and later Air Force-wide) phase-out of groups with the adoption of the Tri-Deputate organization.
The 509th Bomb Wing moved its people and equipment to Pease AFB in August 1958. There, the wing continued to function as an integral part of SAC. By 1965, its B-47s for were scheduled for retirement. Unfortunately, this retirement also included the 509th. Fate intervened, however, as SAC decided to keep the 509th alive and equipped it with B-52s and KC-135s. Thus, the wing received its first B-52 and KC-135 in March 1966. The wing's association with the B-52 included two major deployments to Andersen AFB, Guam, as part of the now famous Vietnam War Arc Light missions. In April 1968 and again in April 1969, the wing began six-month ventures in the Western Pacific. During the last deployment, SAC informed the 509th that the wing would swap its B-52s for FB-111As. Accordingly, the wing began receiving the formidable fighter-bomber in December 1970. Over the next two decades, little changed for the 509th BW as it became SAC's fighter-bomber experts. However, a decision by the Department of Defense in 1988 to close Pease created major changes for the famous 509th. Headquarters SAC decreed that the 509th would not inactivate but transfer to Whiteman AFB to become the first B-2 Stealth bomber unit. As such, the wing moved to Whiteman on 30 September 1990, without people and equipment.
Modern era
The 509th Bomb Group was redesignated as the 509th Operations Group and activated on 12 March 1993 as part of the 509th Bomb Wing's reorganization under the USAF Objective Wing plan. All flying squadrons, as well as an Operational Support Squadron (OSS) were assigned to the 509th OG. The first B-2 Spirit stealth bomber arrived and was assigned to the 509th on 17 December 1993 (the date was the 49th anniversary of the activation of the 509th Composite Group and the 90th of the Wright brothers' flight).
On 17 September 1996, three 509th B-2s dropped three inert GBU-36 weapons, the highly accurate Global Positioning System-Aided Munitions (GAM) which used the GPS-Aided Targeting System (GATS). The B-2s made the drops at the Nellis AFB, Nevada, bombing range. Range officials, inspecting the area after the releases, were astonished to find that the GBU-36s had fallen seven, four, and four feet, respectively, from the target. A month later, the 509th repeated this impressive feat—only this time, they used live weapons. On 8 October 1996, three B-2s revisited the Nellis range and released 16 2,000 lb. class GBU-36 bombs from an altitude of 40,000 feet. Again, amazed range personnel discovered all sixteen projectiles hit close enough to their targets to be confirmed as 16 kills. The results so impressed USAF Chief of Staff General Ronald Fogleman that he announced at a mid-December press conference the 509th and the B-2 would reach limited (conventional) operational capability on 1 January 1997.
Operation Allied Force
The B-2 first saw combat 23 March 1999, during NATO operations in Serbia and Kosovo, the first sustained offensive combat air offensive conducted solely from U.S. soil. Over a period of two months, the 509th generated 49 B-2 sorties flown roundtrip from Missouri to targets in Southeastern Europe.
Although the B-2s accounted for only 1 percent of all NATO sorties, the aircraft's all-weather, precision capability allowed it to deliver 11 percent of the munitions used in the air campaign. The missions lasted an average of 29 hours, demonstrating the global reach of the B-2.
On the night of 7–8 May 1999, during the Kosovo War B-2s flying out of Whiteman attacked the Belgrade embassy of the People's Republic of China, killing three and causing heavy damage. Although a strike was authorized against a target called 'Belgrade Warehouse 1', the CIA-provided coordinates pinpointed the embassy's location. Neither the aircrew nor the US Air Force were found to have any responsibility for the affair.
Operation Enduring Freedom
Following the terrorist attacks on New York City and Washington, D.C., on 11 September 2001, the 509th quickly transitioned to a wartime mode by joining forces with the 314th Airlift Wing, Little Rock AFB, Arkansas, and the Missouri Air National Guard's 139th Airlift Wing, St. Joseph, Missouri, to send Missouri Task Force-1 to assist rescue efforts at the World Trade Center.
In October 2001, the B-2 led America's strike force in Afghanistan, hitting the first targets in the country to "kick down the door" for the air campaign which followed. The bombers again flew from Missouri to their targets before landing at Diego Garcia in the Indian Ocean to exchange crews while the engines continued to run. The combat missions lasted more than 40 hours, with the aircraft operating continuously for more than 70 hours without incident before returning to Whiteman.
After twice proving its ability to fly combat missions from Missouri, the wing stepped up efforts to deploy the B-2 from forward locations. By late 2002, the Air Force had completed special shelters for the aircraft at Diego Garcia. The shelters provided a controlled climate similar to the facilities at Whiteman for specialized work on the aircraft skin in order to maintain its stealth characteristics. This ability to sustain operations from a forward location added a new dimension of flexibility to potential air campaigns.
Operation Iraqi Freedom
The new shelters were put to use when the B-2 bombers again led a coalition air strike against the Iraqi regime of Saddam Hussein, on 21 March 2003. The famous "shock and awe" campaign saw unprecedented use of precision-guided munitions by the B-2 in an effort to minimize collateral damage and destroy key targets. The campaign also marked another milestone for the 509th, as B-2s flew combat missions from both Whiteman and a forward deployed location simultaneously.
Only a decade after delivery, the B-2 was now a proven weapons system, a veteran of three campaigns and first-ever forward deployment. In recognition of the maturity of the system and the unit, the Air Force declared the B-2 fully operational capable.
Since 2003, the B-2's forward presence has become a reality and proved the aircraft can deliver combat airpower, any time and any place. The deployment to Guam, which began in February 2005, provided a continuous bomber presence in the Asia Pacific region and augmented Pacific Command's establishment of a deterrent force. The 80-day tour, the longest in the bomber's 13-year history, also marked the first B-2 deployment since the aircraft was declared fully operational.
Lineage
Established as 509 Composite Group on 9 December 1944
Activated on 17 December 1944
Redesignated: 509 Bombardment Group, Very Heavy, on 10 July 1946
Redesignated: 509 Bombardment Group, Medium, on 2 July 1948
Inactivated on 16 June 1952
Redesignated 509 Operations Group on 12 March 1993
Activated on 15 July 1993
Assignments
Second Air Force, 17 December 1944
315th Bombardment Wing, 18 December 1944
313th Bombardment Wing, c. June 1945
Second Air Force, 10 October 1945
58th Bombardment Wing, 17 January 1946
Fifteenth Air Force, 31 March 1946
Eighth Air Force, 1 November 1946
509th Bombardment Wing, 17 November 1947 – 16 June 1952
509th Bomb Wing, since 15 July 1993
Components
13th Bomb Squadron: since 9 September 2005
320th Troop Carrier Squadron: 17 December 1944 – 19 August 1946
325th Bomb (later, 325th Weapons) Squadron: 6 January 1998 – 9 September 2005
393d Bombardment (later 393d Bomb) Squadron: 17 December 1944 – 16 June 1952 (detached 17 November 1947 – 14 September 1948 and 1 February 1951 – 16 June 1952); since 27 August 1993
394th Bombardment (later, 394th Combat Training) Squadron: 6 November 1996 – c. 13 April 2018
509th Air Refueling Squadron: 19 July 1948 – 16 June 1952 (detached 19 July – 14 September 1948 and 1 February 1951 – 16 June 1952)
715th Bombardment Squadron: 6 May 1946 – 16 June 1952 (detached 17 November 1947 – 14 September 1948 and 1 February 1951 – 16 June 1952)
830th Bombardment Squadron: 6 May 1946 – 16 June 1952 (detached 17 November 1947 – 14 September 1948 and 1 February 1951 – 16 June 1952)
Stations
Wendover Field, Utah, 17 December 1944 – 26 April 1945
North Field, Tinian, Mariana Islands, 29 May – 17 October 1945
Roswell AAFld (later, Walker AFB), New Mexico, 6 November 1945 – 16 June 1952
Pease AFB, New Hampshire, August 1958–1991
Whiteman AFB, Missouri, since 15 July 1993
Aircraft
B-29 Superfortress, 1944–1950
C-47 Skytrain, 1944–1945
C-54 Skymaster, 1945–1946
KB-29 Superfortress (Tanker), 1948–1952
B-50 Superfortress, 1949–1952
B-2 Spirit, since 1993
T-38 Talon, since 1993
References
Notes
Bibliography
Bock, Frederick (ed). 509th Composite Group: 50th Anniversary Reunion, Albuquerque NM, 5 August to 10. 1995 (Revised and Corrected Edition 1997).
Bowers, Peter M. Boeing B-29 Superfortress. Stillwater, Minnesota: Voyageur Press, 1999. .
Campbell, Richard H. The Silverplate Bombers: A History and Registry of the Enola Gay and Other B-29s Configured to Carry Atomic Bombs. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company, Inc., 2005. .
Hess, William N. Great American Bombers of WW II. St. Paul, Minnesota: Motorbooks International, 1999. .
Krauss, Robert and Amelia Krauss. The 509th Remembered: A History of the 509th Composite Group as Told by the Veterans Themselves, 509th Anniversary Reunion, Wichita, Kansas 7–10 October 2004. 509th Press., 2005. .
LeMay Curtis and Bill Yenne. Super Fortress. London: Berkley Books, 1988. .
Mann, Robert A. The B-29 Superfortress: A Comprehensive Registry of the Planes and Their Missions. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company, 2004. .
Marx, Joseph L. Seven Hours to Zero. New York: G.P. Putnam Son's, 1967.
Ossip, Jerome J. (ed). 509th Composite Group History – 509th Pictorial Album. Chicago, Illinois: Rogers Printing Company, 1946.
Pace, Steve. Boeing B-29 Superfortress. Ramsbury, Marlborough, Wiltshire, United Kingdom: Crowood Press, 2003. .
Rhodes, Richard. The Making of the Atomic Bomb. Simon & Schuster, 1986. .
Thomas, Gordon and Max Morgan Witts. Enola Gay. New York: Stein & Day Publishing, 1977. .
Thomas, Gordon and Max Morgan Witts. Ruin from the Air: The Enola Gay's Atomic Mission to Hiroshima. London: Hamilton, 1977. (republished in 1990 by Scarborough House)
Tibbets, Paul W. Flight of the Enola Gay. Reynoldsburg, Ohio: Buckeye Aviation Book Company, 1989. .
Wheeler, Keith. Bombers over Japan. Virginia Beach, Virginia: Time-Life Books, 1982. .
Operations groups of the United States Air Force
Military units and formations established in 1993
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land%20reform%20in%20Mexico
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Land reform in Mexico
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Before the 1910 Mexican Revolution, most land in post-independence Mexico was owned by wealthy Mexicans and foreigners, with small holders and indigenous communities possessing little productive land. During the colonial era, the Spanish crown protected holdings of indigenous communities that were mostly engaged in subsistence agriculture to countervail the encomienda and repartimiento systems. In the 19th century, Mexican elites consolidated large landed estates (haciendas) in many parts of the country while small holders, many of whom were mixed-race mestizos, engaged with the commercial economy.
After the War of Independence, Mexican liberals sought to modernize the economy, promoting commercial agriculture through the dissolution of common lands, most of which were then property of the Catholic Church, and indigenous communities. When liberals came to power in the mid nineteenth century, they implemented laws that mandated the breakup and sale of these corporate lands. When liberal general Porfirio Díaz took office in 1877, he embarked on a more sweeping program of modernization and economic development. His land policies sought to attract foreign investment to Mexican mining, agriculture, and ranching, resulting in Mexican and foreign investors controlling the majority of Mexican territory by the outbreak of the Mexican Revolution in 1910. Peasant mobilization against landed elites during the revolution prompted land reform in the post-revolutionary period and led to the creation of the ejido system, enshrined in the Mexican Constitution of 1917.
During the first five years of agrarian reform, very few hectares were distributed. Land reform attempts by past leaders and governments proved futile, as the revolution from 1910 to 1920 had been a battle of dependent labor, capitalism, and industrial ownership. Fixing the agrarian problem was a question of education, methods, and creating new social relationships through co-operative effort and government assistance. Initially the agrarian reform led to the development of many ejidos for communal land use, while parceled ejidos emerged in the later years. Land reform in Mexico ended in 1991 after the Chamber of Deputies amended Article 27 of the Constitution.
History of land tenure in Central Mexico
Land tenure in Mexico has over the long term seen the transfer of lands into the hands of private proprietors engaged in agricultural production for profit. But the social and economic problems that resulted from this concentration of ownership brought reformist solutions that attempted to reverse this trend. In the current era, there is a retreat from agrarian land reform and a return to consolidation of land holding of large enterprises.
Prehispanic era
The rich lands of central and southern Mexico were the home to dense, hierarchically organized, settled populations that produced agricultural surpluses, allowing the development of sectors that did not directly cultivate the soil. These populations lived in settlements and held land in common, although generally they worked individual plots. During the Aztec period, roughly 1450 to 1521, the Nahuas of central Mexico had names for civil categories of land, many of which persisted into the colonial era. There were special lands attached to the office of ruler (tlatoani) called tlatocatlalli; land devoted to the support of temples, tecpantlalli, but also private lands of the nobility, pillalli. Lands owned by the calpulli, the local kin-based social organization, were calpullalli. Most commoners held individual plots of land, often in scattered locations, which were worked by a family and rights passed to subsequent generations. A community member could lose those usufruct rights if they did not cultivate the land. A person could lose land as a result of gambling debts, a type of alienation from which the inference can be drawn that land was private property.
It is important to note that there were lands classified as "purchased land" (in Nahuatl, tlalcohualli). In the Texcoco area, there were prehispanic legal rules for land sales, indicating that transfers by sale were not a post-conquest innovation. Local-level records in Nahuatl from the 16th century show that individuals and community members kept track of these categories, including purchased land, and often the previous owners of particular plots.
Colonial era
After the Spanish conquest of central Mexico in the early 16th century, indigenous land tenure was initially left intact, with the exception of the disappearance of lands devoted to the gods. A 16th-century Spanish judge in New Spain, Alonso de Zorita, collected extensive information about the Nahuas in the Cuauhtinchan region, including land tenure. Zorita notes there was a diversity of land tenure in central Mexico, so that if the information he gives for one place contradicts information in another it is due to that very diversity. Zorita, along with Fernando de Alva Ixtlilxochitl, a member of the noble family that ruled Texcoco, and Franciscan Fray Juan de Torquemada are the most important sources for prehispanic and early colonial indigenous land tenure in central Mexico.
There is considerable documentation on indigenous land holding, including estates held by indigenous lords (caciques), known as cacicazgos. Litigation over title to property date from the very early colonial era. Most notable is the dispute over lands held by don Carlos Ometochtzin of Texcoco, who was executed by the inquisition in 1539. The Oztoticpac Lands Map of Texcoco is documentation for the dispute following his death.
In early colonial Mexico, many Spanish conquerors (and a few indigenous allies) received grants of labor and tribute from particular indigenous communities as rewards for services via an institution called encomienda. These grants did not include land, which in the immediate post-conquest era was not as important as the tribute and labor service that Indians could provide as a continuation from the prehispanic period. Spaniards were interested in appropriating products and labor from their grants, but they saw no need to acquire the land itself. The crown began to phase out the encomienda in the mid-16th century, limiting the number of times the grant could be inherited. At the same time, decreases in indigenous populations and Spanish migration to Mexico created a demand for foodstuffs familiar to them, such as wheat rather than maize, European fruits, and animals such as cattle, sheep, and goats for meat and hides or wool. Spaniards began acquiring land and securing labor separate from the encomienda grants. This was the initial stage of the formation of Spanish landed estates.
Spaniards bought land from individual Indians and from Indian communities; they also usurped Indians’ land; and they occupied land that was deemed "empty" (terrenos baldíos) and requested grants (mercedes) to acquire title to it. There is evidence that nobles sold common land to Spaniards, treating that land as private property. Some Indians were alarmed at this transfer of land, and explicitly forbade sale of land to Spaniards.
The Spanish crown was concerned about the material welfare of its indigenous vassals and in 1567 set aside an endowment of land adjacent to Indian towns that were legally held by the community, the fundo legal, initially 500 varas. The legal framework for these entailed indigenous community lands was the establishment of settlements (designated pueblos de indios or merely pueblos) as legal entities in Spanish colonial law, with a framework for rule established with via the town council (cabildo). Land traditionally held by pueblos was now transformed to entailed community lands. There was not a unitary process of the creation of these lands, but a combination of claims based on occupation and use since time immemorial, grants, purchase, and a process of regularization of land titles via a process known as composición.
To protect Indians' legal rights, the Spanish crown also set up the General Indian Court in 1590, where Indians and indigenous communities could litigate over property. Although the Juzgado de Naturales supposedly did not have jurisdiction in cases where Indians sought redress against Spaniards, an analysis of the actual cases shows that a high percentage of the court's casework included such complaints. For the Spanish crown, the court not only protected the interests of its Indian vassals, but it was also a way to rein in Spaniards who might seek greater autonomy from the crown.
Indian communities experienced devastating population losses due to epidemics, which meant that there was for a period more land than individual Indians or Indian communities needed. The crown attempted to cluster remaining indigenous populations, relocating them in new communities in a process known as congregacion or reducción, with mixed results. During this period Spaniards acquired land, often with no immediate damage to Indians’ access to land. In the 17th century, Indian populations began to recover, but the loss of land could not be reversed. Indian communities rented land to Spanish haciendas, which over time left those lands vulnerable to appropriation. There were crown regulations about sale or rental of Indian lands, with requirements for the public posting of the proposed transaction and an investigation as to whether the land on offer was, in fact, the property of the ones offering it.
Since the crown held title to all vacant land in Central Mexico, it could grant title to whomever it chose. In theory, there was to be an investigation to see if there were claims on the property, with notice given to those in the vicinity of the proposed grant. The Spanish crown granted mercedes to favored Spaniards, and in the case of the conqueror Hernán Cortés, created the entailment of the Marquesado del Valle de Oaxaca.
In the 17th century, there was a push to regularize land titles via the process of composición, in which for a fee paid to the crown clouded titles could be cleared, and indigenous communities had to prove title to land that they had held "since time immemorial," as the legal phrase went. This was the period when Spaniards began regularizing their titles via composición.
Landless or land-poor Indians were often driven to sell their labor to Spanish landed estates, haciendas on a seasonal basis. Others took up residence on haciendas on a permanent basis. Others migrated to the cities or to other regions, such as the northern mining districts where labor was well paid. However, many indigenous communities continued to exist with the fundo legal held in common a guarantee of some access to land.
In the 18th century, the Spanish crown was concerned about concentration of land in the hands of a few in Spain and the lack of productiveness of those landed estates. Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos drafted the Informe para una ley Agraria ("A report for an Agrarian Law") published in 1795 for the Royal Society of Friends of the Country of Madrid (":es:Real Sociedad Económica Matritense de Amigos del País") calling for reform. He saw the need for disentailment of landed estates, sale of land owned by the Catholic Church and privatizing common lands as key to making agriculture more productive in Spain. Barriers to productive use of land and a real estate market that would attract investors kept land scare and prices high and for investors was not a profitable enough enterprise to enter agriculture. Jovellanos was influenced by Adam Smith’s The Wealth of Nations (1776), which asserted that the impetus for economic activity was self-interest.
Jovellanos’s writings influenced (without attribution) a prominent cleric in independence-era New Spain, Manuel Abad y Queipo, who compiled copious data about the agrarian situation in the late 18th century and who conveyed it to Alexander von Humboldt. Humboldt incorporated it into his Political Essay on the Kingdom of New Spain, an important text on economic and social conditions in New Spain around 1800. Abad y Queipo "fixed upon the inequitable distribution of property as the chief cause of New Spain’s social squalor and advocated ownership of land as the chief remedy."
The crown did not undertake major land reform in New Spain, but it moved against the wealthy and influential Society of Jesus in its realms, expelling them in 1767. In Mexico, the Jesuits had created prosperous haciendas whose profits helped fund the Jesuits’ missions in northern Mexico and its colegios for elite American-born Spaniards. The most well-studied of the Jesuit haciendas in Mexico is that Santa Lucía. With their expulsion, their estates were sold, mainly to private-land owning elites. Although the Jesuits owned and ran large estates, in Mexico the more common pattern was for the Church to extend credit to private individuals of means for long-term real estate mortgages. Small holders had little access to credit, which meant it was difficult for them to acquire property or expand their operations, thereby privileging large land owners over small.
The landed elite and the Catholic Church as an institution were closely connected financially. The church was the recipient of donations for pious works (obras pías) for particular charities as well as chantries (capellanías). Through the institution of the chantry, a family would lien income from a particular piece of property to pay a priest to say masses for the soul of the one endowing the funds. In many cases, families had sons who had become priests and the chantry became a source of income for the family member. At the turn of the 19th century the Spanish crown attempted to tap what it thought was the vast wealth of the church by demanding that those holding mortgages pay the principal as a lump sum immediately rather than incrementally over the long term. The Act of Consolidation in 1804 threatened to bring down the whole structure of credit to landed elites who were seldom in the position of enough liquidity. Bishop-elect of Michoacan Manuel Abad y Queipo protested the crown's demands and drafted a lengthy memorial to the crown analyzing the situation. From the point of view of the landed elite, the crown's demands were "a savage capital levy" which would "destroy the country’s credit system and drain the economy of its currency."
The availability of credit had enabled haciendas to increase in size, but they were not efficiently run in general, with much land not planted. Hacienda owners were reluctant to lease lands to Indians for fear that they would then claim land as part of the fundo legal for a newly established community. Abad y Queipo concluded "The indivisibility of haciendas, the difficulty in managing them, the lack of property among the people, has produced and continues to produce deplorable effects for agriculture, for the population, and for the State in general." One scholar has suggested that "Abad y Queipo is best regarded as the intellectual progenitor of Mexican Liberalism." Mexican liberalism in mid-19th-century Reforma attacked the legal basis of corporate land ownership of the Catholic Church in Mexico and indigenous communities, seeking these reforms to create a nation of small yeoman farmers. Once Mexico achieved independence in 1821, the paternalistic crown protections of the Indians institutionalized in the General Indian Court and the special status of Indians before the law ceased to exist, leaving the indigenous population and their lands vulnerable to those more powerful.
Insurgency for independence and agrarian violence 1810–21
The outbreak of the insurgency in September 1810 led by secular cleric Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla was joined by Indians and castas in huge numbers in the commercial agricultural region of the Bajío. The Bajío did not have an established sedentary indigenous population prior to the arrival of the Spaniards even though the area had fertile soils. Once the Spanish defeated fierce northern indigenous from the region, Spaniards created towns and commercial agricultural enterprises that were cultivated by workers who had no rights to land via indigenous communities. Workers were dependent on the haciendas for employment and sustenance. When Hidalgo denounced bad government to his parishioners during the Cry of Dolores, he quickly gained a following, which then expanded to tens of thousands.
The Spanish crown had not seen such a challenge from below during its nearly 300 years of colonial rule. Most rural protests were brief, had local grievances, and were resolved quickly often in the colonial courts. Hidalgo's political call for a rising against bad government during the period when Napoleon's forces controlled the Iberian peninsula and Spain's Bourbon monarch had been forced to abdicate in favor of Joseph Bonaparte meant that there was a crisis of authority and legitimacy in the Spanish empire, touching off the Spanish American wars of independence.
Until Hidalgo's revolt, there had been no large mobilization in New Spain. It has been argued that the perception that the ruling elites were divided in 1810, embodied in the authority figure of a Spanish priest denouncing bad government, gave the masses in the Bajío the idea that violent rebellion might succeed in changing their circumstances for the better. Those following Hidalgo's call went from town to town in the Bajío, looting and sacking haciendas in their path. Hacendados did not resist, but watched the destruction unfold, since they had no means to effectively suppress it. Hidalgo had hoped to gain the support of creole elites for the cause of independence and he tried to prevent attacks on haciendas owned by potential supporters, but the mob made no distinction between Iberian-born Spaniards’ estates and those of American-born Spaniards. Any support those creole estate owners might have for independence disappeared as the mob destroyed their property. Although for the largely landless peasants of the Bajío inequality of land ownership fueled their violence, Hidalgo himself did not have an economic program of land reform. Only after Hidalgo's defeat on the march to Mexico City did he issue a proclamation to return lands rented by villages to their residents.
Hidalgo appealed to indigenous communities in central Mexico to join his movement, but they did not. It is argued that the crown's protection of indigenous communities’ rights and lands made them loyal to the regime and that the symbiotic relationship between indigenous communities and haciendas created a strong economic incentive to preserve the existing relationships. In central Mexico, loss of land was incremental so that there was no perception that the crown or the haciendas were the agents of the difficulties of the indigenous. Although the Hidalgo revolt showed the extent of mass discontent among some rural populations, it was a short-lived regional revolt that did not expand beyond the Bajío.
More successful in demonstrating that agrarian violence could achieve gains for peasants was the guerrilla warfare that continued after the failure of the Hidalgo revolt and the execution of its leaders. Rather than a massed group of men attempting to achieve a quick and decisive victory pitted against the small but effective royal army, guerrilla warfare waged over time undermined the security and stability of the colonial regime. The survival of guerrilla movements was dependent on support from surrounding villages and the continuing violence undermined the local economies, however, they did not formulate an ideology of agrarian reform.
Hidalgo did not formulate a program of land reform, although the inequality of land ownership was at the core of the Bajío peasants’ economic situation. The political plan of secular priest José María Morelos likewise did not revolve around land reform, nor did the Plan de Iguala of Agustín de Iturbide. But the alliance that former royalist officer Iturbide with guerrilla leader Vicente Guerrero to create the Army of the Three Guarantees that bought about Mexican independence in September 1821 is rooted in the political force that agrarian guerrillas exerted. The agrarian violence of the independence era was the start of more than a century of peasant struggle.
Post-independence era, 1821–1910
Armed peasant struggle to regain land
As a response to the loss of land, a number of indigenous communities sought to regain land through rebellion in post-independence Mexico. In the nineteenth century, the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, central Mexico, Yucatan, and the northwest regions of the Yaqui and Mayo saw serious rebellions. The Caste War of Yucatan and the Yaqui Wars were lengthy conflicts, lasting into the twentieth century. During the Mexican Revolution, many peasants fought for the return of community lands, most notably in Morelos under the leadership of Emiliano Zapata. Armed struggle or its threat were key to the post-revolutionary Mexican government's approach to land reform. Land reform "helped to stifle peasant revolts, succeeded in modifying land tenure relationships, and was of paramount importance in the institutionalization of the new regime."
Liberal reform and the 1856 Lerdo Law
In the years previous to the Reform War, a series of reforms were instituted by the liberals who came to power following the ouster of Antonio López de Santa Anna in 1854 and were aimed at restructuring the country under liberal principles. These laws were known as Reform Laws (known in Spanish as Leyes de Reforma). One of these laws dealt with all concepts related to land tenure and was named after the Finance Minister, Miguel Lerdo de Tejada.
The Lerdo Law (known in Spanish as Ley Lerdo) empowered the Mexican state to force the sale of corporately held property, specifically those of the Roman Catholic Church in Mexico and the lands held by indigenous communities. The Lerdo Law did not directly expropriate ecclesiastical property or peasant communities but were to be sold to those renting the properties and the price to be amortized over 20 years. Properties not being rented or claimed could be auctioned. The church and indigenous communities were to receive the proceeds of the sale and the state would receive a transaction tax payment. Not all church land was confiscated; however, land not used for specific religious purposes was sold to private individuals.
This law changed the nature of land ownership allowing more individuals to own land, rather than institutions.
One of the aims of the reform government was to develop the economy by returning to productive cultivation the underutilized lands of the Church and the municipal communities (Indian commons), which required the distribution of these lands to small owners. This was to be accomplished through the provisions of Ley Lerdo that prohibited ownership of land by the Church and the municipalities. The reform government also financed its war effort by seizing and selling church property and other large estates.
The aim of the Lerdo Law with Indian corporate land was to transform Indian peasants pursuing subsistence agriculture into Mexican yeoman farmers. This did not happen. Most Indian land was acquired by large estates, which had the means to purchase it and made Indians even further dependent on landed estates.
Porfiriato - Land expropriation and foreign ownership (1876-1910)
During the presidency of liberal general Porfirio Díaz, the regime embarked on a sweeping project of modernization, inviting foreign entrepreneurs to invest in Mexican mining, agriculture, industry, and infrastructure. The laws of the Liberal Reform established the basis for extinguishing corporate ownership of land by the Roman Catholic Church and indigenous communities. The liberal regime under Díaz vastly expanded the state's role in land policy by mandating that so-called "unoccupied lands" (terrenos baldíos) be surveyed and opened to development by Mexicans and foreign individuals and corporate entities. The government hired private survey companies for all land not previously surveyed so that land could then be sold, while the company would retain one-third of the land its surveyed. The surveys were intended to give buyers security of title to the land they bought and was a tool in encouraging investment. For Mexicans who could not prove title to land or had informal usufruct rights to pastures and woodlands, the surveys put an end to such common usage and put land into private hands. The regime's aim was that the land would then become more efficiently used and productive.
There were many absentee investors from the U.S. who were involved in finance or other business enterprises, including William Randolph Hearst and wheat magnate William Wallace Cargill, who bought land from survey companies or from private Mexican estate owners. Díaz loyalists, such Matías Romero, José Yves Limantour, and Manuel Romero Rubio, as well as the Díaz family took advantage of the opportunities to increase their wealth by acquiring large tracts of land. Investors in productive land further increased its value by their proximity to railway lines that linked properties to regional and international markets. Some entrepreneurs built spur railway lines to connect with the trunk lines. U.S. investors acquired land along the Mexico's northern border, especially Baja California, Sonora, Chihuahua, Coahuila, and Tamaulipas, but also on both coasts as well as the Isthmus of Tehuantepec.
The situation of landless Mexicans became increasingly worse, so that by the end of the Porfiriato, virtually all (95%) of villages lost their lands. In Morelos, the expansion of sugar plantations triggered peasant protests against the Díaz regime and were a major factor in the outbreak and outcomes of the Mexican Revolution. There was resistance in Michoacán.
Land loss accelerated for small holders during the Porfiriato as well as indigenous communities. Small holders were further disadvantaged in that they could not get bank loans for their enterprises since the amounts were not worth the expense to the bank of assessing the property. Molina Enríquez's work published just prior to the outbreak of the Mexican Revolution had a tremendous impact on the legal framework on land tenure that was codified in Article 27 of the Mexican Constitution of 1917. Peasant mobilization during the Revolution brought about state-directed land reform, but the intellectual and legal framework for how it was accomplished is extremely important.
Calls for land reform
In 1906, the Liberal Party of Mexico wrote a program of specific demands, many of which were incorporated into the Constitution of 1917. Leftist Ricardo Flores Magón was president of the PLM and his brother Enrique Flores Magón was treasurer. Two demands that were adopted were (Point 34) that landowners needed to make their land productive or risk confiscation by the state. (Point 35) demands that "The Government will grant land to anyone who solicits it, without any conditions other than that the land be used for agricultural production and not be sold. The maximum amount of land that the Government may allot to one person will be fixed."
A key influence on agrarian land reform in revolutionary Mexico was of Andrés Molina Enríquez, who is considered the intellectual father of Article 27 of the 1917 Constitution. His 1909 book, Los Grandes Problemas Nacionales (The Great National Problems) laid out his analysis of Mexico's unequal land tenure system and his vision of land reform. On his mother's side Molina Enríquez had come from a prominent, politically well-connected, land-owning family, but his father's side was from a far more modest background and he himself had modest circumstances. For nine years in the late 19th century, Molina Enríquez was a notary in Mexico State, where he observed first-hand how the legal system in Porfirian Mexico was slanted in favor of large estate owners, as he dealt with large estate owners (hacendados), small holders (rancheros), and peasants who were buying, transferring, or titling land. In his observations, it was not the large estates or the subsistence peasants that produced the largest amount of maize in the region, but rather the rancheros; he considered the hacendado group "inherently evil". In his views on the need for land reform in Mexico, he advocated for the increase in the ranchero group.
In The Great National Problems, Molina Enríquez concluded that the Porfirio Díaz regime had promoted the growth of large haciendas although they were not as productive as small holdings. Citing his nearly decade long tenure as a notary, his claims were well-founded that haciendas were vastly under-assessed for tax purposes and that small holders were disadvantaged against the wealth and political connections of large estate owners. Since title transfers of property required payment of fees and that the fee was high enough to negatively affect small holders but not large. In addition, the local tax on title transfers was based on a property's assessment, so in a similar fashion, small holders paid a higher percentage than large holders who had ample means to pay such taxes. Large estates often occupied more land than they actually held title to, counting on their size and clout to survive challenges by those on whom they infringed. A great number of individual small holders had only imperfect title to their land, some no title at all, so that Díaz's requirement that land be properly titled or be subject to appropriation under the "vacant lands" law (terrenos baldíos) meant that they were at risk for losing their land. Indian pueblos also lost their land, but the two processes of land loss were not one and the same.
Land reform, 1911-1946
The Mexican Revolution reversed the Porfirian trend towards land concentration and set in motion a long process of agrarian mobilization that the post-revolutionary state sought to control and prevent further major peasant uprisings. The power and legitimacy of the traditional landlord class, which had underpinned Porfirian rule, never recovered. The radical and egalitarian sentiments produced by the revolution had made landlord rule of the old kind impossible, but the Mexican state moved to stifle peasant mobilization and the recreation of indigenous community power.
Revolutionary peasant movements
During the Mexican Revolution, two leaders stand out as carrying out immediate land reform without formal state intervention, Emiliano Zapata in the state of Morelos and Pancho Villa in northern Mexico. Although the political program of wealthy northern landowner Francisco I. Madero, the Plan of San Luis Potosí, promised the return of village lands unlawfully confiscated by large estate owners, when the Díaz regime fell and Madero was elected president of Mexico, he took little action on land reform. Zapata led peasants in the central state of Morelos, who divided up large sugar haciendas into plots for subsistence agriculture; in northern Mexico,
Zapata and others in Morelos drafted the Plan of Ayala, which called for land reform and put the region in rebellion against the government. Unlike many other revolutionary plans, Zapata's was actually implemented, with villagers in areas under his forces control regaining village lands, but also seizing lands of sugar plantations and dividing them. The seizing of sugar plantations and distribution to peasants for small-scale cultivation was the only significant land reform during the Revolution. They remained in opposition to the government in its subsequent forms under reactionary general Victoriano Huerta and then Constitutionalist leader Venustiano Carranza. Peasants sought land of their own to pursue subsistence agriculture, not the continuation of commercial sugar cultivation. Although Carranza's government after 1915 fought a bloody war against Zapatista forces and Zapata was assassinated by an agent of Carranza's in 1919, land reform there could not be reversed. When Alvaro Obregón became president in 1920, he recognized the land reform in Morelos and Zapatistas were given control of Morelos.
The situation in northern Mexico was different from the Zapatista area of central Mexico, with few subsistence peasants, a tradition of military colonies to fight indigenous groups such as the Apaches, the development of large cattle haciendas and small ranchos. During the Porfiriato, the central Mexican state gained more control over the region, and hacienda owners who had previously not encroached on small holders' lands or limited access to large expanses of public lands began consolidating their holdings at the expense of small holders. The Mexican government contracted with private companies to survey the "empty lands," (tierras baldíos) and those companies gained a third of all land they surveyed. The rest of these lands were bought by wealthy landowners. Most important was the Terrazas-Creel family, who already owned vast estates and wielded tremendous political and economic power. Under their influence, Chihuahua passed a law forcing military colonies to sell their lands, which they or their allies bought. The economic Panic of 1907 in the U.S. had an impact on the border state of Chihuahua, where newly unemployed miners, embittered former military colonists, and small holders joined to support Francisco I. Madero's movement to oust Díaz. Once in power, however, president Madero's promises of land reform were unfulfilled causing disgruntled former supporters to rebel. In 1913 after Madero's assassination, Pancho Villa joined the movement to oust Victoriano Huerta and under his military leadership, Chihuahua came under his control. As governor of the state, Villa issued decrees that placed large estates under the control of the state. They continued to be operated as haciendas with the revenues used to finance the revolutionary military and support widows and orphans of Villa's soldiers. Armed men fighting with Villa saw one of their rewards as being access to land, but Villa expected them to fight far outside where they currently lived, unlike the men following Zapata, who fought where they lived and had little incentive to fight elsewhere. Villa's men would be rewarded following the Revolution. Villa issued a decree declaring that nationally all estates above a certain size would be divided among peasants, with owners to be given some compensation. Northerners sought more than a small plot of land for subsistence agriculture, but rather a parcel large enough to be designated a rancho on which they could cultivate and/or ranch cattle independently. Although Villa was defeated by Venustiano Carranza's best general, Alvaro Obregón, in 1915 and his sweeping land reform could not be implemented, the Terrazas-Creel's properties were not returned to them following the Revolution.
Land reform under Carranza, 1915-1920
Land reform was an important issue in the Mexican Revolution, but the leader of the winning faction, wealthy landowner Venustiano Carranza was disinclined to pursue land reform. But in 1914 the two important Constitutionalist generals, Alvaro Obregón and Pancho Villa, called on him to articulate a policy of land distribution. One of Carranza's principal aides, Luis Cabrera, the law partner of Andrés Molina Enríquez, drafted the Agrarian Decree of January 6, 1915, promising to provide land for those in need of it. The driving idea behind the law was to blunt the appeal of Zapatismo and to give peasants access to land to supplement income during periods when they were not employed as day laborers on large haciendas and fought against the Constitutionalists. Central to their notion was the re-emergence of the ejido, lands traditionally under control of communities. Cabrera became the point person for Carranza's agrarian policy, pitching the proposal as a military necessity, as a way to pacify communities in rebellion. "The mere announcement that the government is going to proceed to the study of the reconstitution of the ejidos will result in the concentration of people in the villages, and it will facilitate, therefore the domination of the region." With the defeat of Victoriano Huerta, the Constitutionalist faction split, with Villa and Zapata, who advocated more radical agrarian policies, opposing Carranza and Obregón. In order to defeat them both militarily and on the social and political fronts, Carranza had to counter their appeal to the peasantry. Constitutionalist military units expropriated some haciendas to award the lands to villages potentially supporting more radical solutions, but the Agrarian Decree did not call for wholesale expropriations. Although the lands expropriated were called ejidos, they were not structured as restitution to villages, but as new grants conferred by the state, often of poor quality and smaller than what villages previously held. Carranza's government set up a bureaucracy to deal with land reform, which in practice sought to limit implementation of any sweeping changes favorable to the peasantry. Many landlords whose estates had been expropriated were restored to them during the Carranza era. Villages that were to receive grants had to agree to pay the government for the land. The colonial-era documentation for villages' land claims were deemed invalid. As the Carranza presidency ended in 1920, the government was asserting power to prevent serious land reform or any peasant control over its course. Carranza had only supported limited land reform as a strategy, but once in power, he assured estate owners that their land would be returned to them. Although his resistance to land reform prevented its implementation, he could not block the adoption of article 27 of the revolutionary constitution of 1917 that recognized villages' rights to land and the power of the state over subsoil rights.
Under Obregón, 1920-1924
Wealthy landowner and brilliant general of the Revolution, Alvaro Obregón came to power in a coup against Carranza. Since the Zapatistas had supported his bid for power, he placated them by ending attempts to recover seized land and return them to big sugar estate owners. However, his plan was to make the peasantry there dependent on the Mexican state and viewed agrarian reform as a way to strengthen the revolutionary state. During his presidency, Mexico it was clear that some land reform needed to be carried out. Agrarian reform was a revolutionary goal for land redistribution as part of a process of nationalization and "Mexicanization". Land distribution began almost immediately and affected both foreign and large domestic land owners (hacendados). The process was deliberately very slow, since generally Obregón did not consider it a top priority. However, in order to maintain the social peace with the peasantry, he began land reform in earnest. As president, Obregón distributed 1.7 million hectares, which was 1.3Ò% of agricultural land. The land distributed was mostly not existing cultivated lands, consisting of forests, pastures, mountainous land, and other uncultivable land (ranging from 51%-64.6%). Rain-fed land was the next largest category (ranging from 31.2% to 41.4%). The smallest amount of land distributed was irrigable land, ranging from a high of 8.2% in 1920 to just 4.2% in 1924. When Obregón sought to ensure his fellow Sonoran revolutionary general Plutarco Elías Calles was his successor, Obregón and Calles promised land reform to mobilize peasants against their rival Adolfo de la Huerta. Their faction prevailed and when Calles became president in 1924, he did increase distribution of land.
Calles and the Maximato, 1924-1934
Plutarco Elías Calles was the successor to Obregón in the election of 1924 and when Obregón assassinated in 1928 after being re-elected president Calles remained in power 1928-1934 as the jefe máximo (maximum chief) in a period known as the Maximato. Along with fellow Sonoran Obregón, Calles was not an advocate of land reform, and sought to create a vital industrial sector in Mexico. In general, Calles blocked measures for land reform and sided with landlords. During his presidency, the U.S. government was opposed to land reform in Mexico, since some of its citizens owned land and petroleum enterprises there. Although ejidos had been created under Obregón's presidency, Calles envisioned them being turned into private holdings. Calles's administration did seek to expand the agricultural sector by colonizing areas not previously cultivated or existing lands that were deemed inefficiently used. Extending credit to agricultural enterprises benefited large land owners rather than the peasantry. State-constructed Irrigation projects to increase production likewise benefited them. Since many revolutionary leaders, including Obregón and Calles, were recipients of large tracts of land, they were direct beneficiaries of state-directed agricultural infrastructure and credit. During Calles's presidency (1924–28), 3.2 million hectares of agricultural land were distributed, 2.4% of all agricultural land. The largest category of land distributed was non-agricultural land ranging from forests, pastures, mountainous, and other uncultivable lands, ranging from 60% to nearly 80% in 1928. Rainfed land was the next largest category, ranging from 35% to 20%. The smallest amount was irrigable land, just 3-4%.
Cardenista land reform 1934 to 1940
President Lázaro Cárdenas is credited with revitalizing land reform, along with other measures in keeping with the rhetoric of the Revolution. Although he was from the southern state of Michoacan, Cárdenas was part of the northern Constitutionalist revolutionary forces that emerged victorious during the Revolution. He did not join with the forces of Emiliano Zapata or Pancho Villa, who advocated sweeping land reform. Cárdenas distributed most land between 1936 and 1938, after he had ousted Calles and took full control of the government and before his expropriation of foreign oil companies in 1938. He was determined to distribute land to the peasantry, but also keep control of the process rather than have peasants seize land. His most prominent expropriation of land was in the Comarca Lagunera, with rich, irrigated soil. Some 448,000 hectares of land there were expropriated in 1936, of which 150,000 were irrigated. he directed similar expropriations in Yucatán and the Yaqui valley in 1937; Lombardía and Nueva Italia, Michoacan; Los Mochis, Sinaloa; and Soconusco Chiapas in 1938. Rather than dividing land into individual ejidos, which peasants preferred and on which they pursued subsistence agriculture, Cárdenas created collective ejidos. Communities were awarded land but they were worked as a single unit. This was done for lands producing commercial crops such as cotton, wheat, henequen, rice, sugar, citrus, and cattle, so that they would continue to be commercially viable for the domestic and export markets. Collective ejidos received more government support than individual ejidos.
Agrarian reform had come close to extinction in the early 1930s during the Maximato, since Calles was increasingly hostile to it as a revolutionary program. The first few years of the Cárdenas's reform were marked by high food prices, falling wages, high inflation, and low agricultural yields. In 1935 land reform began sweeping across the country in the periphery and core of commercial agriculture. The Cárdenas alliance with peasant groups has been credited with the destruction of the hacienda system. Cárdenas distributed more land than all his revolutionary predecessors put together, a 400% increase. Cárdenas wanted the peasantry tied to the Mexican state and did so by organizing peasant leagues that collectively represented the peasantry, the National Confederation of Peasants (CNC), within the new, sectoral party structure that Cárdenas created within the Party of the Mexican Revolution.
During his administration, he redistributed of land, of which were expropriated from U.S. nationals who owned agricultural property. This caused conflict between Mexico and the United States. Cárdenas employed tactics of noncompliance and deception to gain leverage in this international dispute.
End of land reform, 1940-present
Starting the government of Miguel Alemán (1946–52), land reform steps made in previous governments were rolled back. Alemán's government allowed entrepreneurs to rent peasant land. This created phenomenon known as "neolatifundismo," where land owners build up large-scale private farms on the basis of controlling land which remains ejidal but is not cultivated by the peasants to whom it is assigned.
Echeverría's populist land reform
In 1970, President Luis Echeverría began his term by declaring land reform dead. In the face of peasant revolt, he was forced to backtrack, and embarked on the biggest land reform program since Cárdenas. Echeverría legalized take-overs of huge foreign-owned private farms, which were turned into new collective ejidos.
Land reform from 1991 to present
In 1988, President Carlos Salinas de Gortari was elected. In December 1991, he amended Article 27 of the Constitution, making it legal to sell ejido land and allow peasants to put up their land as collateral for a loan. Neverthess, land regulation is still permitted in Mexico by Article 27.
See also
Index of Mexico-related articles
Economic history of Mexico
Ejido
Mexican Revolution
Foreign relations of Mexico
References
Further reading
Albertus, Michael, et al. "Authoritarian survival and poverty traps: Land reform in Mexico." World Development 77 (2016): 154–170.
Bazant, Jan. The Alienation of Church Wealth in Mexico. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press 1971.
De Janvry, Alain, and Lynn Ground. "Types and consequences of land reform in Latin America." Latin American Perspectives 5.4 (1978): 90–112.
Dwyer, John J. The Agrarian Dispute: The Expropriation of American-Owned Land in Postrevolutionary Mexico. Durham: Duke University Press 2008.
Hart, John Mason. Empire and Revolution: The Americans in Mexico since the Civil War. Berkeley: University of California Press 2002.
Harvey, Neil. Rebellion in Chiapas: Rural Reforms, Campesino Radicalism and the Limits of Salinismo. La Jolla: University of California, San Diego 1994.
Heath, John Richard. Enhancing the contribution of land reform to Mexican agricultural development. Vol. 285. World Bank Publications, 1990.
Historia de la cuestión agraria mexicana. 9 vols. Mexico City: Siglo XXI, 1988.
Holden, R.H. Mexico and the Survey of Public Lands: The Management of Modernization, 1876 - 1911. DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press 1993.
Katz, Friedrich. "Mexico: Restored Republic and Porfiriato, 1867 - 1910," in The Cambridge History of Latin America: vol. 5, edited by Leslie Bethell. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press 1986.
Katz, Friedrich, ed. Riot, Rebellion, and Revolution: Rural Conflict in Mexico. Princeton: Princeton University Press 1988.
Knight, Alan. ""Cardenismo: Juggernaut or Jalopy?" Journal of Latin American Studies. Vol. 26, No. 1 (Feb. 1994)
Kroeber, Clifton B. Man, Land, and Water: Mexico's Farmlands Irrigation Policies, 1885 - 1911. Berkeley: University of California Press 1983.
Lira, Andrés, Comunidades indígenas frente a la Ciudad de México. Zamora: El Colegio de Michoacán, 1983.
Markiewicz, Dana. The Mexican Revolution and the Limits of Agrarian Reform. Boulder: Lynne Rienner 1993.
McBride, George The Land Systems of Mexico. New York: The American Geographical Society 1923.
Mejía Fernández, Miguel. Política agraria en México en el siglo XIX. Mexico City: Siglo XXI 1979.
Miller, Simon. Landlords and Haciendas in Modernizing Mexico. Amsterdam: CEDLA 1995.
Phipps, Helen. "Some aspects of the agrarian question in Mexico: A historical study," University of Texas Bulletin 2515, 1925.
Powell, T.G. El liberalismo y el campesinado en el centro de México, 1850 - 1876. Mexico City: Secretaría de Educación Pública 1974.
Pulido Rull, Ana. Mapping Indigenous Land: Native Land Grants in Colonial New Spain. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press 2020.
Randall, Laura, ed. Reforming Mexico's Agrarian Reform. Armonk NY: M.E. Sharpe 1996.
Sanderson, Susan Walsh. Land Reform in Mexico, 1910 - 1980. Orlando FL: Academic Press 1984.
Silva Herzog, Jesús. El agrarismo mexicano y la reforma agraria: exposición y critica. Mexico: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1959. 2nd. edition 1964.
Simpson, Eyler Newton. The Ejido: Mexico's Way Out. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press 1937.
Stevens, D.F. "Agrarian Policy and Instability in Porfirian Mexico," The Americas 39:2(1982).
Tannenbaum, Frank. The Mexican Agrarian Revolution, New York: MacMillan 1929.
Tutino, John. From Insurrection to Revolution in Mexico. Princeton: Princeton University Press 1986.
Tutino, John. The Mexican Heartland: How Communities Shaped Capitalism, a Nation, and World History, 1500-2000. Princeton: Princeton University Press 2018.
Wasserman, Mark. Capitalists, Caciques, and Revolution: the Native Elite and Foreign Enterprise in Chihuahua, Mexico 1854 - 1911. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press 1984.
Whetten, Nathan. Rural Mexico. Chicago: University of Chicago Press 1948.
Wolfe, Mikael D. Watering the Revolution: An Environmental and Technological History of Agrarian Reform in Mexico. Durham: Duke University Press 2017.
Wood, Stephanie, "The Fundo Legal or lands Por Razón de Pueblo: New Evidence from Central New Spain." In The Indian Community of Colonial Mexico: Fifteen Essays on Land Tenure, Corporate Organization, Ideology and Village Politics. Arij Ouweneel and Simon Miller, eds. pp. 117–29. Amsterdam: CEDLA 1990
Mexican Revolution
History of agriculture in Mexico
Mexico
Legal history of Mexico
Reform in Mexico
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treatment%20of%20bipolar%20disorder
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Treatment of bipolar disorder
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The emphasis of the treatment of bipolar disorder is on effective management of the long-term course of the illness, which can involve treatment of emergent symptoms. Treatment methods include pharmacological and psychological techniques.
Bipolar Disorder is a serious and debilitating mental health disorder, which causes patients to experience extreme highs and lows, such as mania and major depression. Bipolar disorder is often stigmatized as causing "crazy" behaviors, and physically alters the brain. This disorder affects the brain in many different ways such as, in the prefrontal cortex, which plays a big role in planning, attention, problem-solving, and memory, along with the hippocampus, which is essential for storing memories. It has been proven that patients with bipolar disorder have less total brain volume, grey and white matter, and more cerebral spinal fluid.
Principles
The primary treatment for bipolar disorder consists of medications called mood stabilizers, which are used to prevent or control episodes of mania or depression. Medications from several classes have mood stabilizing activity. Many individuals may require a combination of medication to achieve full remission of symptoms. As it is impossible to predict which medication will work best for a particular individual, it may take some trial and error to find the best medication or combination for a specific patient. Psychotherapy also has a role in the treatment of bipolar disorder. The goal of treatment is not to cure the disorder but rather to control the symptoms and the course of the disorder. Generally speaking, maintenance treatment of bipolar disorder continues long after symptom control has been achieved.
Following diagnostic evaluation, the treating clinician must determine the optimal treatment setting in order to ensure the patient's safety. Assessment of suicide risk is key, as the rate of suicide completion among those with bipolar disorder may be as high as 10–15%. Hospitalization should be considered in patients whose judgment is significantly impaired by their illness, and those who have not responded to outpatient treatment; this may need to be done on an involuntary basis. Treatment setting should regularly be re-evaluated to ensure that it is optimal for the patient's needs.
Legend:
- negligible/very low/clinically insignificant effect
+ weak effect
++ moderate-level effect
+++ strong effect
Regulatory status of mood stabilisers
Mood stabilizers
Lithium salts
Lithium salts have been used for centuries as a first-line treatment for bipolar disorder. In ancient times, doctors would send their mentally ill patients to drink from "alkali springs" as a treatment. Although they were not aware of it, they were actually prescribing lithium, which was present in high concentration within the waters. The therapeutic effect of lithium salts appears to be entirely due to the lithium ion, Li+.
Its exact mechanism of action is uncertain, although there are several possibilities such as inhibition of inositol monophosphatase, modulation of G proteins or regulation of gene expression for growth factors and neuronal plasticity. There is strong evidence for its effectiveness in acute treatment and prevention of recurrence of mania. It can also be effective in bipolar depression, although the evidence is not as strong. It is also effective in reducing the risk of suicide in patients with mood disorders.
Potential side effects from lithium include gastrointestinal upset, tremor, sedation, excessive thirst, frequent urination, cognitive problems, impaired motor coordination, hair loss, and acne. Excessive levels of lithium can be harmful to the kidneys, and increase the risk of side effects in general. As a result, kidney function and blood levels of lithium are monitored in patients being treated with lithium. Therapeutic plasma levels of lithium range from 0.5 to 1.5 mEq/L, with levels of 0.8 or higher being desirable in acute mania.
Lithium levels should be above 0.6 mEq/L to reduce both manic and depressive episodes in patients. A recent review concludes that the standard lithium serum level should be 0.60-0.80 mmol/L with optional reduction to 0.40-0.60 mmol/L in case of good response but poor tolerance or an increase to 0.80-1.00 mmol/L in case of insufficient response and good tolerance.
Monitoring is generally more frequent when lithium is being initiated, and the frequency can be decreased once a patient is stabilized on a given dose. Thyroid hormones should also be monitored periodically, as lithium can increase the risk of hypothyroidism.
Anticonvulsants
A number of anti-convulsant drugs are used as mood stabilizers, and the suspected mechanism is related to the theory that mania can "kindle" further mania, similar to the kindling model of seizures. Valproic acid, or valproate, was one of the first anti-convulsants tested for use in bipolar disorder. It has proven to be effective for treating acute mania. The mania prevention and antidepressant effects of valproic acid have not been well demonstrated. Valproic acid is less effective than lithium at preventing and treating depressive episodes.
Carbamazepine was the first anti-convulsant shown to be effective for treating bipolar mania. It has not been extensively studied in bipolar depression. It is generally considered a second-line agent due to its side effect profile. Lamotrigine is considered a first-line agent for the treatment of bipolar depression. It is effective in preventing the recurrence of both mania and depression, but it has not proved useful in treating acute mania.
Zonisamide (trade name Zonegran), another anti-convulsant, also may show promise in treating bipolar depression. Various other anti-convulsants have been tested in bipolar disorder, but there is little evidence of their effectiveness. Other anti-convulsants effective in some cases and being studied closer include phenytoin, levetiracetam, pregabalin and valnoctamide.
Each anti-convulsant agent has a unique side-effect profile. Valproic acid can frequently cause sedation or gastrointestinal upset, which can be minimized by giving the related drug divalproex, which is available in an enteric-coated tablet. These side effects tend to disappear over time. According to studies conducted in Finland in patients with epilepsy, valproate may increase testosterone levels in teenage girls and produce polycystic ovary syndrome in women who began taking the medication before age 20. Increased testosterone can lead to polycystic ovary syndrome with irregular or absent menses, obesity, and abnormal growth of hair. Therefore, young female patients taking valproate should be monitored carefully by a physician. Excessive levels of valproate can lead to impaired liver function, and liver enzymes and serum valproate level, with a target of 50–125 µg/L, should be monitored periodically.
Side effects of carbamazepine include blurred vision, double vision, ataxia, weight gain, nausea, and fatigue, as well as some rare but serious side effects such as blood dyscrasias, pancreatitis, exfoliative dermatitis, and hepatic failure. Monitoring of liver enzymes, platelets, and blood cell counts are recommended.
Lamotrigine generally has minimal side effects, but the dose must be increased slowly to avoid rashes, including Stevens-Johnson syndrome (SJS) and exfoliative dermatitis.
Atypical antipsychotic drugs
Antipsychotics work best in the manic phase of bipolar disorder.
Second-generation or atypical antipsychotics (including aripiprazole, olanzapine, quetiapine, paliperidone, risperidone, and ziprasidone) have emerged as effective mood stabilizers. The evidence for this is fairly recent, as in 2003 the American Psychiatric Press noted that atypical anti-psychotics should be used as adjuncts to other anti-manic drugs because their mood stabilizing properties had not been well established. The mechanism is not well known, but may be related to effects on glutamate activity. Several studies have shown atypical antipsychotics to be effective both as single-agent and adjunctive treatments. Antidepressant effectiveness varies, which may be related to different serotonergic and dopaminergic receptor binding profiles. Quetiapine and the combination of olanzapine and fluoxetine have both demonstrated effectiveness in bipolar depression.
In light of recent evidence, olanzapine (Zyprexa) has been FDA approved as an effective monotherapy for the maintenance of bipolar disorder. A head-to-head randomized control trial in 2005 has also shown olanzapine monotherapy to be just as effective and safe as lithium in prophylaxis.
The atypical antipsychotics differ somewhat in side effect profiles, but most have some risk of sedation, weight gain, and extrapyramidal symptoms (including tremor, stiffness, and restlessness). They may also increase the risk of metabolic syndrome, so metabolic monitoring should be performed regularly, including checks of serum cholesterol, triglycerides, and glucose, weight, blood pressure, and waist circumference. Taking antipsychotics for long periods or at high doses can also cause tardive dyskinesia — a sometimes incurable neurological disorder resulting in involuntary, repetitive body movements. The risk of tardive dyskinesia appears to be lower in second-generation antipsychotics than in first-generation antipsychotics but as with first-generation drugs, increases with time spent on medications and in older patients.
New treatments
A variety of other agents have been tried in bipolar disorder, including benzodiazepines, calcium channel blockers, L-methylfolate, and thyroid hormone. Modafinil (Provigil) and Pramipexole (Mirapex) have been suggested for treating cognitive dysfunction associated with bipolar depression, but evidence supporting their use is quite limited. In addition riluzole, a glutamatergic drug used in ALS has been studied as an adjunct or monotherapy treatment in bipolar depression, with mixed and inconsistent results. The selective estrogen receptor modulator medication tamoxifen has shown rapid and robust efficacy treating acute mania in bipolar patients. This action is likely due not to tamoxifen's estrogen-modulating properties, but due to its secondary action as an inhibitor of protein Kinase C.
Cognitive effects of mood stabilizers
Bipolar patients taking antipsychotics have lower scores on tests of memory and full-scale IQ than patients taking other mood stabilisers. Use of both typical and atypical antipsychotics is associated with risk of cognitive impairment, but the risk is higher for antipsychotics with more sedating effects.
Among bipolar patients taking anticonvulsants, those on lamotrigine have a better cognitive profile than those on carbamazepine, valproate, topiramate, and zonisamide.
Although decreased verbal memory and slowed psychomotor speed are common side effects of lithium use
these side effects usually disappear after discontinuation of lithium. Lithium may be protective of cognitive function in the long term since it promotes neurogenesis in the hippocampus and increases grey matter volume in the prefrontal cortex.
Antidepressants
Antidepressants are used with caution in bipolar disorder, as they may not be effective and may even induce mania. They are generally not used alone, but may be considered as an adjunct to lithium.
A recent large-scale study found that severe depression in patients with bipolar disorder responds no better to a combination of antidepressant medications and mood stabilizers than it does to mood stabilizers alone and that antidepressant use does not hasten the emergence of manic symptoms in patients with bipolar disorder.
The concurrent use of an antidepressant and a mood stabilizer, instead of mood stabilizer monotherapy, may lower the risk of further bipolar depressive episodes in patients whose most recent depressive episode has been resolved. However, some studies have also found that antidepressants pose a risk of inducing hypomania or mania, sometimes in individuals with no prior history of mania. Saint John's Wort, a naturally occurring compound, is thought to function in a fashion similar to man-made antidepressants, and there are reports that suggest that it can also induce mania. For these reasons, some psychiatrists are hesitant to prescribe antidepressants for the treatment of bipolar disorder unless mood stabilizers have failed to have an effect, however, others feel that antidepressants still have an important role to play in treatment of bipolar disorder.
Side effects vary greatly among different classes of antidepressants.
Antidepressants are helpful in preventing suicides in people with bipolar disorder when they go in for the depressive phase.
NMDA-receptor antagonists
In a double-blind, placebo-controlled, proof-of-concept study, researchers administered an N-methyl-d-aspartate–receptor antagonist (ketamine) to 18 patients already on treatment with lithium (10 patients) or valproate (8 patients) for bipolar depression. From 40 minutes following intravenous injection of ketamine hydrochloride (0.5 mg/kg), the researchers observed significant improvements in depressive symptoms, as measured by standard tools, that were maintained for up to 3 days, an effect not observed in subjects who received the placebo. Five subjects dropped out of the ketamine study; of these, four were taking valproate and one was being treated with lithium. One patient showed signs of hypomania following ketamine administration and two experienced low mood. This study demonstrates a rapid-onset antidepressant effect of ketamine in a small group of patients with bipolar depression. The authors acknowledged the study's limitations, including the dissociative disturbances in patients receiving ketamine that could have compromised the study blinding, and they emphasised the need for further research.
A more recent double-blind, placebo-controlled study by the same group found that ketamine treatment resulted in a similarly rapid alleviation of suicidal ideation in 15 patients with bipolar depression.
Ketamine is used as a dissociative anaesthetic, and is a Class C substance in the United Kingdom; as such, it is only be used psychiatrically under the direction of a health professional.
Dopamine agonists
In a single controlled study of twenty one patients, the dopamine D3 receptor agonist pramipexole was found to be highly effective in the treatment of bipolar depression. Treatment was initiated at 0.125 mg t.i.d. and increased at a rate of 0.125 mg t.i.d. to a limit of 4.5 mg qd until the patients' condition satisfactorily responded to the medication or they could not abide the side effects. The final average dosage was 1.7 mg ± .90 mg qd. The incidence of hypomania in the treatment group was no greater than in the control group.
Psychotherapy
Certain types of psychotherapy, used in combination with medication, may provide some benefit in the treatment of bipolar disorders. Psychoeducation has been shown to be effective in improving patients' compliance with their lithium treatment. Evidence of the efficacy of family therapy is not adequate to support unrestricted recommendation of its use. There is "fair support" for the utility of cognitive therapy. Evidence for the efficacy of other psychotherapies is absent or weak, often not being performed under randomized and controlled conditions. Well-designed studies have found interpersonal and social rhythm therapy to be effective.
Although medication and psychotherapy cannot cure the illness, therapy can often be valuable in helping to address the effects of disruptive manic or depressive episodes that have hurt a patient's career, relationships or self-esteem. Therapy is available not only from psychiatrists but from social workers, psychologists and other licensed counselors.
Jungian therapy
Jungian authors have likened the mania and depression of bipolar disorder to the Jungian archetypes 'puer' and 'senex'. The puer archetype is defined by the behaviors of spontaneity, impulsiveness, enthusiasm or mania and is symbolized by characters such as Peter Pan or the Greek god Hermes. The senex archetype is defined by behaviors of order, systematic thought, caution, and depression and is symbolized by characters such as the Roman god Saturn or the Greek god Kronos. Jungians conceptualize the puer and senex as a coexistent bipolarity appearing in human behavior and imagination, but in neurotic manifestations appears as extreme oscillations and as unipolar manifestations. In the case of the split puer-senex bipolarity the therapeutic task is to bring the puer and senex back into correlation by working with the patient's mental imagery."
Lifestyle changes
Sufficient sleep
If sleeping is disturbed, the symptoms can occur. Sleep disruption may actually exacerbate the mental illness state. Those who do not get enough sleep at night, sleep late and wake up late, or go to sleep with some disturbance (e.g. music or charging devices) have a greater chance of having the symptoms and, in addition, depression. It is highly advised by psychiatric authorities to not sleep too late and to get enough high quality sleep.
Self-management and self-awareness
Understanding the symptoms, when they occur and ways to control them using appropriate medications and psychotherapy generally helps those diagnosed with bipolar disorder to lead a psychologically healthier life. Prodrome symptom detection has been shown to be used effectively to anticipate onset of manic episodes and requires close monitoring of bipolar symptoms. Because the offset of the symptoms is often gradual, even subtle mood changes and activity levels are monitored to help avoid a relapse. Maintaining a mood chart is a specific method used by patients and doctors to identify mood, environmental and activity triggers.
Stress reduction
Forms of stress may include having too much to do, too much complexity and conflicting demands among others. There are also stresses that come from the absence of elements such as human contact, a sense of achievement, constructive creative outlets, and occasions or circumstances that will naturally elicit positive emotions.
Stress reduction will involve reducing things that cause anxiety and increasing those that generate happiness. It is not enough to just reduce the anxiety.
Co-morbid substance use disorder
Co-occurring substance misuse disorders, which are extremely common in bipolar patients, can cause a significant worsening of bipolar symptomatology and can cause the emergence of affective symptoms. The treatment options and recommendations for substance use disorders is wide but may include certain pharmacological and nonpharmacological treatment options.
Other treatments
Omega-3 fatty acids
Omega-3 fatty acids may also be used as a treatment for bipolar disorder, particularly as a supplement to medication. An initial clinical trial by Stoll et al. produced positive results. However, since 1999, attempts to confirm this finding of beneficial effects of omega-3 fatty acids in several larger double-blind clinical trials have produced inconclusive results. It was hypothesized that the therapeutic ingredient in omega-3 fatty acid preparations is eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and that supplements should be high in this compound to be beneficial. A 2008 Cochrane systematic review found limited evidence to support the use of Omega-3 fatty acids to improve depression but not mania as an adjunct treatment for bipolar disorder.
Omega-3 fatty acids may be found in fish, fish oils, algae, and to a lesser degree in other foods such as flaxseed, flaxseed oil and walnuts. Although the benefits of Omega-3 fatty acids remain debated, they are readily available at drugstores and supermarkets, relatively inexpensive, and have few known side effects. (All of these oils, however, have the capacity to exacerbate GERD—food sources may be a good alternative in such cases.)
Exercise
Exercise has also been shown to have antidepressant effects.
Electroconvulsive therapy
Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) may have some effectiveness in mixed mania states, and good effectiveness in bipolar depression, particularly in the presence of psychosis. It may also be useful in the treatment of severe mania that is non-responsive to medications.
The most frequent side effects of ECT include memory impairment, headaches, and muscle aches. In some instances, ECT can produce significant and long-lasting cognitive impairment, including anterograde amnesia, and retrograde amnesia.
Ketogenic diet
Because many of the medications that are effective in treating epilepsy are also effective as mood stabilizers, it has been suggested that the ketogenic diet—used for treating pediatric epilepsy—could have mood stabilizing effects. Ketogenic diets are diets that are high in fat and low in carbohydrates, and force the body to use fat for energy instead of sugars from carbohydrates. This causes a metabolic response similar to that seen in the body during fasting. This idea has not been tested by clinical research, and until recently, was entirely hypothetical. Recently, however, two case studies have been described where ketogenic diets were used to treat bipolar II. In each case, the patients found that the ketogenic diet was more effective for treating their disorder than medication and were able to discontinue the use of medication. The key to efficacy appears to be ketosis, which can be achieved either with a classic high-fat ketogenic diet, or with a low-carbohydrate diet similar to the induction phase of the Atkins Diet. The mechanism of action is not well understood. It is unclear whether the benefits of the diet produce a lasting improvement in symptoms (as is sometimes the case in treatment for epilepsy) or whether the diet would need to be continued indefinitely to maintain symptom remission.
The role of cannabinoids
Acute cannabis intoxication transiently produces perceptual distortions, psychotic symptoms and reduction in cognitive abilities in healthy persons and in severe mental disorder, and may impair the ability to safely operate a motor vehicle.
Cannabis use is common in bipolar disorder; and is a risk factor for a more severe course of the disease by increasing frequency and duration of episodes. It is also reported to reduce age at onset.
Alternative medicine
Several studies have suggested that omega-3 fatty acids may have beneficial effects on depressive symptoms, but not manic symptoms. However, only a few small studies of variable quality have been published and there is not enough evidence to draw any firm conclusions.
See also
Self-medication
Suicide prevention
International Society for Bipolar Disorders
References
Further reading
External links
Bipolar disorder
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coal%20Miner%27s%20Daughter%20%28song%29
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Coal Miner's Daughter (song)
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"Coal Miner's Daughter" is a song written and recorded by American singer-songwriter Loretta Lynn. Considered Lynn's signature song, it was originally released as a single in 1970 and became a number one hit on the Billboard country chart. It was later released on an album of the same name. Produced by Owen Bradley, the song tells the story of Lynn's coal-mining father in rural Kentucky during the Great Depression. Lynn, who was born in 1932 and experienced the Great Depression as a child, also describes her childhood and the circumstances she was raised in during those years.
"Coal Miner's Daughter" would receive positive reviews from journalists and music critics alike following its release. It would become one of Lynn's signature recordings in her career. It would also be considered one of music's most significant recordings, according to polls from Time and the Recording Industry Association of America. The song has been covered several times since its original release, notably being a collaboration from Lynn, Sheryl Crow and Miranda Lambert.
Background and composition
The music and lyrics of "Coal Miner's Daughter" had been written entirely by Loretta Lynn. She composed the song in 1969, a year before its official recording. While writing the lyrics, Lynn composed the melody at the same time. The melody had originally been written in a bluegrass style, which matched the style of music she was raised singing. According to Lynn, she had trouble rhyming some of the song's words. "I had to match up words like “holler” and “daughter” and “water.” But after it was done, the rhymes weren't so important," Lynn wrote in her 1976 autobiography. Lynn spent several hours writing the remainder of the song. When it was completed, a total of nine verses were composed.
The song recounts the day-to-day life of her childhood growing up in rural poverty in Butcher Hollow, Kentucky. In the lyrics, Lynn describes herself as the daughter a coal mining father. She recounted how her father also worked as a farmer growing corn. Along with her father, Lynn also wrote about her mother and how she worked tirelessly on household duties such as cleaning and washing. Subsequent verses recall Lynn's other childhood experiences and hardships, such as her mother reading the Bible by a coal-oil light or having bloody fingers from constantly doing the laundry using a wash board. Decades later, Lynn revealed that the song only hinted at other childhood experiences. "The song doesn’t tell half of it. If I told the whole story nobody would believe it now anyway."
Recording
Lynn recorded the song upon the encouragement of her longtime record producer, Owen Bradley. However, Bradley disliked that Lynn's original written version contained ten verses. Fearing the song would be as long as Marty Robbins' hit "El Paso," Bradley told her: "There’s already been an ‘El Paso,’ there didn't need to be another one." Before recording, she removed extra verses of the song related to further mentions of her father and life in rural Kentucky. Lynn also removed lines related to her mother killing a pig during an annual "hog-killing day." In total, four verses were removed from the original composition. Lynn later recalled removing the verses: " I cried the whole time. And I have lost those verses, I do not remember them. I wish I did." "Coal Miner's Daughter" was officially recorded on October 1, 1969, at Bradley's Barn. Located in Mount Juliet, Tennessee, the studio was also owned by Owen Bradley. The background vocalists for the session were the Jordanaires. Also recorded during the same session were the tracks "Wings Upon Your Horns" and "You Wanna Give Me a Lift." Both recordings would later be hits for Lynn as well.
Owen Bradley allowed Lynn to record the song using her planned arrangement. The song opened featuring a steel guitar and was followed by a fiddle. She then sang the song to the band and it was cut live in the studio during the session. Additionally, her husband, Doolittle Lynn, suggested the incorporation of a banjo into the song, which was eventually added as well. According to Lynn, only a couple of takes of the song were recorded before compiling them together. "I never did many takes of anything. The more I sing, the worse I get. I like to make it fresh," she reflected. Unlike live performances, the recorded version of "Coal Miner's Daughter" did not include guitar-playing by Lynn herself. Only included was her live vocal. Instead guitarists from The Nashville A-Team were chosen for the record.
Critical reception
"Coal Miner's Daughter" has received a positive reception from critics since its original 1970 release. In 1971, Billboard magazine praised the song for retaining "true country flavor." Cary O'Dell of the Library of Congress called it Lynn's "most autobiographical song" and commented on its importance to the country music genre. "It is perhaps one of country music’s most autobiographical songs ever, a major achievement for a genre which often specializes in memoirs set to music, Parton’s 'Coat of Many Colors' being a prime example," he wrote. Mary A. Bufwack and Robert K. Oermann found the song to be a symbol of Lynn's pride in being a working class person. "She stuck out her chin to defend poor folks culture...Like the lady, herself, Loretta's songs shoot from the hip. Her pride is in her working class background," they wrote in 2003.
Music critics of Rolling Stone also gave "Coal Miner's Daughter" a positive response and named it one of Lynn's "20 Essential Songs." "With astonishing economy, the pride of Butcher Holler details her sparse but happy childhood and the things they did keep shoes on their feet (specifically, sell a hog). She ends the tune in a place of greater means, but undeniably proud of where she’s been," they commented. Billy Dukes of Taste of Country called the tune "without a doubt one of the most well-known hits of all time." Wide Open Country Bobbie Jean Sawyer ranked it number one on her list of "The 15 Best Of All Time" songs by Lynn. "In just three minutes, the song sums up Lynn's incredible life and the career that made her a country icon," Sawyer wrote.
Release and chart performance
"Coal Miner's Daughter" was released as a single to radio one year after its recording. It was issued to via Decca Records as a seven inch vinyl single on October 5, 1970. Included on the B-side was the track, "The Man of the House." The song became a number one hit on the Billboard Hot Country Singles chart later that year, spending one week at the position. It was Lynn's fourth number one single in her career and one of 16 chart-topping hits. The single also peaked at number 83 on the Billboard Hot 100, becoming her first entry on that chart. Over the decade, Lynn would reach the Hot 100 three more times. "Coal Miner's Daughter" also charted on the RPM Country Singles chart in Canada, reaching the number one position as well. In 1971, the single was included on Lynn's studio album, also titled Coal Miner's Daughter. The song was the opening track on the album.
Legacy
"Coal Miner's Daughter" has not only been considered one of Loretta Lynn's most significant songs, but has also been considered one of music's most significant recordings. In 1998, Loretta's 1970 version of "Coal Miner's Daughter" was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame. In 2001, the Recording Industry Association of America named it as one of their Songs of the Century. The song has also been ranked by other music agencies, including Rolling Stone, who ranked it on their list of the "100 Greatest Country Songs of All Time" at No. 42, and their list of the "Top 500 Greatest Songs of All Time" at No. 255. Country Music Television ranked the song on a similar list titled the "100 Greatest Songs of Country Music." In 2009, "Coal Miner's Daughter" was added by the Library of Congress to the National Recording Registry. Cary O'Dell spoke of the song's significance in an essay about the song: "With this Decca release, Lynn not only delivered an instant classic, she also forever changed her image. Though already highly successful, up until this time, Lynn was most famous for her tough girl songs, musical warnings to lazy, unappreciative, floundering husbands and the women they cheat with...“Coal Miner’s Daughter” introduced audiences to a new, softer and more reflective Lynn."
The song has also been considered significant by other publications. This included Time magazine, which named it among its "100 All-Time Songs". The magazine called it the song to have a "purely Appalachian" style that "makes vivid musical pictures of Daddy’s job at the Van Lear Coal Mines, Mommy’s bleeding fingers at the washboard, the kids barefoot in summer and shod from a mail-order catalog in winter." "Coal Miner's Daughter" also became the title of Lynn's 2010 tribute album that was recorded by other artists. It was officially named, Coal Miner's Daughter: A Tribute to Loretta Lynn. Artists featured included The White Stripes, Reba McEntire and Paramore.
"Coal Miner's Daughter" would also serve as the inspiration and title for future works by Lynn. In 1976, her first autobiography was also titled Coal Miner's Daughter and helped introduce Lynn's music to newer generations. This was followed in 1980 by the biopic of the same name starring Sissy Spacek. The film became a critical and commercial success and received seven nominations at the 53rd Academy Awards including for the Best Picture, with Spacek winning Best Actress portraying Lynn.
Track listing
7" vinyl single
"Coal Miner's Daughter" – 3:00
"The Man of the House" – 2:48
Charts
Cover versions
Several versions of "Coal Miner's Daughters" have been notably recorded by other artists and entertainers. The song was parodied as Cow Minder's Daughter by Laraine Newman, who portrayed the fictional east Indian singer "Govinda Lynn." The song was performed in a skit on season five of Saturday Night Live. In 1971, RCA Records country singer Norma Jean recorded a version of "Coal Miner's Daughter" for her self-titled studio album. Irish country performer Mary Duff recorded the track for her 2004 studio release, Just a Country Girl. Country artist Stella Parton (sister of Dolly Parton) recorded a cover version of the song for her 2010 studio album, American Coal. The song appeared as the tenth track on the album. Lynn re-recorded several times, notably in 2010 for a tribute album and in 2018 for her studio release called Wouldn't It Be Great.
Sissy Spacek version
In 1980, a version of "Coal Miner's Daughter" was recorded by American actress and singer Sissy Spacek for Lynn's 1980 biopic of the same name. Spacek portrayed Lynn in the film. Spacek learned to sing like Lynn by following her on tour for a year in the late 1970s. She also tried to imitate Lynn's speech patterns and singing style by visiting Lynn at her house. Together, the pair also performed on the Grand Ole Opry before the film's release. In addition, Spacek studied with Owen Bradley (Lynn's record producer) in order to further develop her character. Spacek recorded her version of "Coal Miner's Daughter" in December 1979. The recording session was produced by Bradley as well and was held at Bradley's Barn, the same studio where Lynn recorded the song ten years prior. Additional songs Spacek performed for the soundtrack were cut during the same session, such as "You Ain't Woman Enough (To Take My Man)," "Fist City" and "There He Goes."
In addition to Spacek recording her own version for the film, it was also released as a single. Spacek's version was released following the release of the official soundtrack. It was issued as a single by MCA Records in April 1980 and was issued as a 7" vinyl record. Included on the B-side was Spacek's version of Lynn's original 1960 hit, "I'm a Honky Tonk Girl." Spacek's version became a top-40 hit in the United States, reaching number 24 on the Billboard Hot Country Singles chart in 1980. Her version of the song was reviewed positively by Cub Koda of Allmusic, who also reviewed additional songs on the original soundtrack. "Sissy Spacek did a more than credible job of singing like Loretta Lynn in the movie, and this soundtrack proves it. From the "early" sides to the hits at the end, Spacek sings her heart out and actually varies her singing approach to sound more assured and professional on the "later" ones.
Track listing7" vinyl single "Coal Miner's Daughter" – 3:00
"I'm a Honky Tonk Girl" – 2:17
Weekly charts
Loretta Lynn collaboration
The song was notably re-recorded by Loretta Lynn in 2010 for an album dedicated to her entitled, Coal Miner's Daughter: A Tribute to Loretta Lynn. The new version featured vocals from singer-songwriter Sheryl Crow and country artist Miranda Lambert. Lynn spoke of the re-recording in 2010 and praised the collaboration with Crow and Lambert: "I love Miranda and Sheryl, and I really felt they both brought something different singing style wise to this song." Although other producers helped with the tribute album, only John Carter Cash and Patsy Lynn (Lynn's daughter) served as producer's on "Coal Miner's Daughter." Also featured in the song's personnel was Lynn's writing collaborator, Shawn Camp and Lynn's former producer, Randy Scruggs. The track was recorded at Cash's Cabin Studio in Hendersonville, Tennessee. Crow and Lambert both added their vocals in later studio sessions.
Lynn's re-recording was given positive reviews. Holly Gleason of Lonestar Music Magazine praised Lynn's traditional approach when recording the song with Crow and Lambert. "Lynn can still show the kids how to do it: tossing her head back and going to the song’s center, demonstrating what a fiery, feisty country presence is," Gleason commented. Music and Musician's commented that the version of "Coal Miner's Daughter" was a collaboration with "younger admirers." Aryl Watson of Cover Me Songs stated that "Lambert and Crow willingly take a backseat on the chorus, letting Lynn tell the story her way."
The re-recording was issued as a single via Columbia Records on October 4, 2010. It was released as a digital download via iTunes and other downloading sites upon its original release. The single was released both to country radio stations and to college radio. According to Gary Overton of Sony Music Entertainment, Lynn called radio stations herself to help promote the song. When asked about the decision, Lynn replied, ""Well, why not?". The single entered the Billboard Hot Country Songs chart for one week on December 4, 2010, and peaked at number 55 on the survey. It was Lynn's first charting single since 2000's "Country in My Genes."
A music video was also filmed for the new single release. The video featured Crow and Lambert, along with Lynn at her home in Hurricane Mills, Tennessee. The music video was directed by Deaton-Flanigen. In November 2010, the trio performed "Coal Miner's Daughter" at the Country Music Association Awards ceremony.
Track listingMusic download "Coal Miner's Daughter" – 3:11
Weekly charts
Loretta Lynn recitation
Loretta Lynn notably re-recorded "Coal Miner's Daughter" again for her 2021 studio album, Still Woman Enough. The song and album were announced on the fiftieth anniversary of Lynn's 1970 studio album. The new version was recorded as a spoken word recitation. Although Lynn had previously cut the song in several styles, "Coal Miner's Daughter" had not been performed through speaking only. The song was recorded with minimal instrumentation at the Cash Cabin Recording Studio. The sessions were produced by John Carter Cash (Johnny Cash's son) and Patsy Lynn Russell (Lynn's daughter).
The recitation version of "Coal Miner's Daughter" was released as the lead single off Still Woman Enough in January 2021. The album is scheduled for official release on March 19, 2021, through Legacy Recordings. It will mark Lynn's first studio album since 2018's Wouldn't It Be Great. Lab.fm praised the recitation version of the song, calling it "a warm, poignant recitation of her signature lyrics." Lorie Hollabaugh of Music Row magazine called the recitation "emotional" in her announcement of her 2021 album.
A music video for "Coal Miner's Daughter" was directed by David McClister on site at Lynn's ranch in Hurricane Mills, Tennessee. The video was released the same day as the recitation single. The video also included footage taken from the replica of Lynn's childhood cabin in Butcher Hollow, Kentucky. Lynn reflected on the song and the video in a press statement: "It’s amazing how much has happened in the fifty years since ‘Coal Miner’s Daughter’ first came out and I'm extremely grateful to be given a part to play in the history of American music."
Track listingMusic download'''
"Coal Miner's Daughter (Recitation)" – 2:07
References
External links
Loretta Lynn music at her official website
1970 singles
1970 songs
1980 singles
2010 singles
2021 singles
Columbia Records singles
Decca Records singles
Grammy Hall of Fame Award recipients
Loretta Lynn songs
MCA Records singles
Miranda Lambert songs
Music videos directed by Deaton-Flanigen Productions
Sheryl Crow songs
Songs about poverty
Songs about labor
Songs about parenthood
Song recordings produced by Owen Bradley
Songs written by Loretta Lynn
United States National Recording Registry recordings
Songs about mining
Great Depression songs
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brookwood%20Labor%20College
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Brookwood Labor College
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Brookwood Labor College (1921 to 1937) was a labor college located at 109 Cedar Road in Katonah, New York, United States. Founded as Brookwood School in 1919 and established as a college in 1921, it was the first residential labor college in the country. Its founding and longest-serving president was A. J. Muste. The school was supported by affiliate unions of the American Federation of Labor (AFL) until 1928.
The Brookwood faculty's emphasis on trade union militancy and on advocacy of socialism was opposed by the AFL's Executive Council, which pressured the AFL's unions to withdraw support for the school. Brookwood was later riven by internal dissent over whether it should support militant unionism or remain strictly an educational organization.
Suffering from financial difficulties, Brookwood closed in 1937. It is considered one of the most influential labor colleges in American history and was known as "labor's Harvard." Its best known alumnus was Walter Reuther.
Formation, governance and mission
The Brookwood School
Between 1914 and 1921, a number of adult education and training organizations were founded to serve the American labor movement. Adult education was considered by these organizations and individuals to be the key to promoting class consciousness and teaching the skills needed to challenge the power of employers. Among the many different types of organizations created were labor colleges—experimental institutions of higher education designed to meet the needs of the labor movement as well as the educational needs of labor's often-uneducated adult members.
The Brookwood School was the predecessor to Brookwood Labor College. On March 19, 1914, William Mann Fincke, a liberal clergyman and son of a coal mine owner, purchased the Brookwood Estate in Katonah, New York, for $3,700. Deeply upset by the crushing of the steel strike of 1919, Fincke and his wife, Helen Hamlin Fincke, decided to found a school to teach working-class teenagers nonviolent ways to achieve social justice and political change. The curriculum was organized by Fincke to reflect the business life of the local community. The curriculum also emphasized social service and the study of economics, English literature, mathematics, social problems, and history. Students were urged to participate in the daily management of the school. With financial assistance and organizational support from Robert W. Dunn, John Nevin Sayre, and Norman Thomas, Brookwood School opened in the fall of 1919. The student body was initially 16- to 19-year-old males who were accepted on the basis of merit, and there was no tuition.
Formation of Brookwood Labor College
By 1921, the Brookwood School was facing major obstacles. The cost of running the school was mounting, and the Finckes realized that Brookwood needed to expand significantly in order to meet the needs of the working class. M. Tuscan Bennett and his wife, Josephine, joined the school in February 1921, and were close friends of the Finckes. After extensive discussion with the Bennetts, the Finckes decided to turn Brookwood School over to a group of trade union activists. The negotiations for the transfer of the estate occurred during a March 31-to-April 1, 1921, conference at Brookwood. Among those present at the conference were Fannia Cohn, education director of the International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union; William Z. Foster, leader of the 1919 steel strike; Abraham Lefkowitz, president of the American Federation of Teachers; James H. Maurer, president of the Pennsylvania Federation of Labor; Rose Schneiderman, president of the Women's Trade Union League; and A. J. Muste, pacifist minister and secretary of the Amalgamated Textile Workers of America. Brookwood Labor College was founded once the transfer was complete. Fundraising to open the new college then proceeded. Tuscan Bennett oversaw the effort, and the donors included Jane Addams, Stuart Chase, John R. Commons, Herbert Croly, John Dewey, and Freda Kirchwey.
Brookwood was governed by a 10-member Board of Directors, a majority of whom were officials of American Federation of Labor (AFL) unions. Faculty, student, and alumni representatives comprised the rest of the board. Unions providing scholarships for students were also eligible for seats on the board. Early board members included John Brophy, president of United Mine Workers of America District 2; John Fitzpatrick, president of the Chicago Federation of Labor; Clinton S. Golden, a former textile union organizer; Rose Schneiderman, president of the Amalgamated Textile Workers of America; and J.B.S. Hardman, education director of the Amalgamated Clothing Workers. James Maurer was elected president of the board.
The board was a constantly changing entity. Later board members included Fannia Cohn; Cara Cook, Brookwood faculty member and librarian; Robert Fechner, a vice president of the International Association of Machinists; Gustav Geiges, president of the American Federation of Full Fashioned Hosiery Workers; Fred Hewitt, editor of the Machinists' Monthly Journal; Abraham Lefkowitz; A.J. Kennedy, president of the Amalgamated Lithographers of America; Tom Tippett, Brookwood extension director; and Phil Ziegler, editor of the official journal of the Brotherhood of Railway Clerks.
Tuscan Bennett served as the school's executive secretary for the first three years of its operation, and Golden served for many years as its business manager. An advisory board was also established.
Values and goals
Brookwood's founders believed that worker education would play a key role in helping bring about social change in a nonviolent way. The founders believed in four tenets: "First, that a new social order is needed and is coming—in fact, that it is already on the way. Second, that education will not only hasten its coming, but will reduce to a minimum and perhaps do away entirely with a resort to violent methods. Third, that the workers are the ones who will usher in this new order. Fourth, that there is immediate need for a workers' college with a broad curriculum, located amid healthy country surroundings, where the students can completely apply themselves to the task at hand." Nearly all of Brookwood's founders were pacifists, and all of them sought an end to violence and war. They also believed in a strong and powerful labor movement. The existing labor movement, as epitomized by the dominant American Federation of Labor, was too unwilling, they felt, to challenge employers, too wedded to the existing political and economic system, and too focused on organizing only the most highly skilled workers into craft unions. Instead, Brookwood's leaders emphasized the mass unionization of workers into industrial unions (workers organized not by job type, but by industry), the unionization of semi-skilled workers and unskilled workers, and the merger of craft unions merge into industrial unions. They believed in a new social order based on the equality of workers and an elimination of discrimination based on race, gender, or nationality.
Brookwood's leaders and faculty were almost all left-wing in their politics. But what this meant is unclear. Labor historian Philip S. Foner argued that Brookwood's political leanings were radically left-wing, but historian Francis Ryan contends the leadership and faculty ran the gamut from center-left to Marxist. William Green biographer Craig Phelan describes the faculty as mostly progressives and labor reformers, few of whom supported the craft union and conservative trade union policies of the AFL. Any generalization is difficult since, as Ryan points out, no single political orthodoxy governed the college's faculty or students. There did, however, seem to be a fairly broad consensus among the faculty and leadership that Brookwood should cultivate a proletarian consciousness in its students. Many of the college's leaders and faculty also assumed that Brookwood graduates would seek employment in the labor movement after graduation, and work to change the conservative policies of AFL president Samuel Gompers.
Funding
Initially, Brookwood sought financing from national, state and local labor unions. Endorsement of the school by labor unions, the New York Times said, was "practically universal". By 1925, 13 international unions had given money to Brookwood. Four others declined to provide funds, but warmly endorsed the college. There was also significant funding from the AFL in the early years, although Green declined to endorse the college on the grounds that such endorsements properly were the made by the Workers' Education Bureau (WEB). This funding continued for several years. For example, several international unions gave a total of $12,000 in early 1928.
But labor unions proved to be an inadequate source of funds and Brookwood turned to wealthy, progressive individuals and foundations for income. Among Brookwood's many donors were Dorothy Elmhirst and the American Fund for Public Service (better known as the Garland Fund). Evelyn Preston, a wealthy philanthropist and president of the League of Women Shoppers, gave $10,000 to the college from 1932 to 1935. Local business people, like Wappingers Falls laundry owner Harold Hatch, and Fannia Cohn's brother, sister, and brother-in-law also contributed large sums.
Nonetheless, most of Brookwood's income came from tuition payments. Tuition was low, just $200 a semester or $450 a year ($ in dollars). The college's relatively high income from tuition allowed it to remain independent of both the AFL and other unions.
Campus
Brookwood initially consisted of a large two-story Colonial Revival home. On the ground floor was a social hall with two fireplaces, a library, a dining room, and a kitchen. The second floor contained faculty apartments and offices, and tiny student rooms were in the attic.
Expansion took place quickly. In 1924, a major donor gave funds to build a two-story red brick women's dormitory behind the main house. Three small wooden cottages were added to create additional male housing in 1925, and three houses for faculty were built from 1925 to 1926. (A fourth faculty house was built a few years later.)
By 1926, Brookwood was planning to erect library and classroom buildings. Over the next few years, the college added a six-car garage, volleyball and tennis courts, and a swimming pool.
By 1937, the campus consisted of the main house, an administration building, the women's dormitory, seven cottages of five to 10 rooms each that could sleep for seven to 10 men, a six-car garage, and a number of outbuildings.
Curriculum and faculty
Faculty
Brookwood's Director was A.J. Muste, a Christian and pacifist. He also served as chairman of the faculty, and taught world history. John C. Kennedy was the Director of Studies, and Tom Tippett the director of extension activities. Cara Cook acted as both Brookwood's librarian and served as administrative assistant to Muste. In later years, she taught classes and tutored students at the college as well.
Faculty taught either full- or part-time. Notable faculty who taught there (for a part or most of the school's history) included:
Charles A. Beard (history)
Louis Budenz (labor organizing and strike management)
Dr. Arthur W. Calhoun (sociology and history)
Sarah Norcliffe Cleghorn (writing and nonviolent techniques)
Josephine Colby (public speaking)
Katherine Pollak Ellickson (writing and economics)
Jack Frager (labor history)
Abram Lincoln Harris (economics)
John C. Kennedy (economics)
John Martindale (union organization and parliamentary procedure)
Dr. Broadus Mitchell (economics)
Helen G. Norton (labor journalism)
Roy Reuther (labor organizing)
Lawrence Rogin (trade union organization and labor journalism)
John Nevin Sayre (nonviolent techniques)
Dr. David J. Saposs (economics)
Dr. Joel I. Seidman (economics and union issues)
Tucker P. Smith (later Socialist candidate for U.S. vice president
Mark Starr (British labor history)
Dr. Lazare Teper (economics)
Tom Tippett (strike organizing and music)
Nat Weinberg (economics)
Clinton S. Golden is often claimed to have been on the faculty. But as Golden's biographer Thomas Brooks, points out, Golden lectured occasionally at Brookwood but was never appointed to the faculty. His role on the board of directors precluded it.
The faculty was integrated (Harris was African American). The faculty was also unionized, with all teachers members of Local 189 of the American Federation of Teachers.
Faculty at Brookwood were an integral part of the school's administration. Faculty had a formal role in directing the school and in setting its educational policies. Faculty also helped establish and maintain Brookwood's clearinghouse on worker education materials, and hosted an annual conference on worker education that drew labor educators from across the nation.
Curriculum
Generalizations about the curriculum are difficult because it was constantly changing.
However, Brookwood's curriculum primarily emphasized general education, with a strong emphasis on labor economics, labor history, and trade union organizing. The curriculum focused primarily on the humanities, and included courses in contemporary politics, creative writing, economics, English literature, labor history, literacy and reading comprehension, sociology, language studies, public speaking, rhetoric, and world history. Because so many students were immigrants or had very low levels of education, basic courses in reading and writing were also taught. Faculty also taught courses in how to be a better student, such as "How to Study" and "Use of the English Language". Brookwood's curriculum also emphasized the theory and practice of trade union organization and administration and labor militancy. Common courses included "History of the American Labor Movement", "Trade Union Organization Work", and "Foreign Labor History". "Preparation for Field Work", another labor course, analyzed successful and failed strikes and organizing campaigns, ways to generate positive publicity, and the difficulties of organizing disparate groups of workers. There were also courses in running meetings and parliamentary procedure. Texts included works by John R. Commons, David J. Saposs, and William Z. Foster. Courses in economics emphasized the maldistribution of wealth, the problems of the free market, and the benefits of a socialism, while those in psychology discussed how best to approach workers in union organizing campaigns. An exceptionally strong labor journalism course was offered, and the school published its own weekly journal, the Brookwood Review. Lawrence Rogin, who joined the school in 1934, was the journal's editor until 1937, and students were encouraged to submit pieces for publication to sharpen the skills learned in class.
One of Brookwood's innovative aspects was its emphasis on personal learning. Non-competitiveness was emphasized. There were no grades, no tests, no report cards, and no diplomas. High quality work was demanded by one's fellow students, who often protested vocally and publicly when their peers turned in poor work.
Another innovation in the Brookwood curriculum was an emphasis on manual labor. All students were expected to engage in manual labor to keep the school clean and to make repairs to buildings, equipment, vehicles, and furniture. Cooking, serving meals, farming the college's extensive vegetable gardens, chopping wood for fuel, and assisting with the food and work animals on the campus were also expected. Faculty and even guests were expected to participate in manual labor as well.
Brookwood also worked to foster a strong sense of community among its leadership, faculty, and students. Enrollment in each course was kept small to encourage group cohesion. Small group work was common. Since many students were poor readers, just learning to read, or had English as a second language, educators often made sure that each group had at least one good reader. Together, the group conducted research, organized their work, and reported back orally to the rest of the class. Faculty ate at the same tables as students, and all meals were communal. A number of extracurricular activities were also offered to not only enhance the health of faculty and students but also to promote a sense of community. These included athletics, dances, group hikes, and communal singing.
Brookwood's educational program was initially a two-year one. Courses were three hours a week for 15 weeks. However, students and others pressed the college to make the program shorter to reduce the demands on workers, and a one-year program was added in 1926. Brookwood also began offering two-week "summer institutes" in 1926 for those who could not take the longer program. Speakers at these institutes included U.S. Senators, corporate executives, U.S. military personnel (often from the Corps of Engineers), and representatives from state regulatory agencies. Correspondence courses and extension courses (primarily delivered through labor unions) were part of the offerings as well. The college's educational efforts also included publication of a number of short, pragmatic pamphlets, worksheets, and booklets for workers to use in union organizing campaigns and strikes. Brookwood began offering a Chautauqua in 1934. Organized by students, the traveling show of speakers, drama, singers, and others traveled throughout New England, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania.
Student body
Brookwood Labor College was a residential college, the first and only residential labor college in the United States.
Admission requirements to Brookwood were low. The college admitted students primarily on the basis of merit, looking for those with the most passion and promise for union work. Three references were required, two of them from labor union officials (to ensure that labor spies did not enroll). A student also had to be a worker and could not be independently wealthy. Union membership, however, was not required. Primarily socialist or radical-left unions sponsored students at Brookwood, however.
Brookwood accepted its first students and began classes in the fall of 1921 (although sources differ as to whether the school opened in September or October). There were just three faculty in the first term. The number of students is not clear. Some sources list 20, others 15, and some say just 12. Most of them were union members. Just under half of all students were immigrants, and more than half had never graduated from high school. Attendees came from all over the United States, and immigrants came from all over the world. Although most students were Christian, many were Jewish, and religious tolerance was enforced at the school. Students ranged in age from their late teens into their early 40s. The age range of students tended to narrow in Brookwood's later years, with most students aged 21-to-30 years of age (although some were older and some younger).
Brookwood had 40 students in 1926 and 42 students in May 1927. Later classes saw enrollment expand to as many as 50 students, although most years the number was 30 to 40.
Students in the first class came mostly from four industries: coal mining, garment manufacturing, machining, and textile manufacturing. In time, students from the agricultural, baking, carpentry, education, electronics manufacturing, food preparation, maritime, metalworking, painting, plumbing, railroad, retail, shoemaking, tailoring, taxicab, textile, upholstery, and woodworking sectors as well as the building trades.
Brookwood was co-educational from the beginning. During its history, about a third of all its students were women.
Brookwood was also racially integrated, and black students participated fully and equally in the life of the school. Labor Activist, Floria Pinkney, was the first black woman to graduate from Brookwood. An African American student was elected student body president, and another elected to the board of directors. Courses emphasized the problems of black workers, and noted black labor leaders such as A. Philip Randolph and W. E. B. Du Bois lectured there.
Brookwood's student body was also international in make-up. By 1925, the school had five foreign students (two from Denmark, and one each from Belgium, Japan, and the United Kingdom). That same year, the school (with financial assistance from the Workers' Education Bureau) began sending its students overseas to study at foreign labor colleges.
Brookwood leadership and faculty expected their students to work in the labor movement, and most did. A survey of the school's graduates found that 80 percent of them worked for labor unions. Brookwood's graduates were so numerous, they formed a sizeable percentage of the mid-level staffers working in American labor unions throughout most of the 20th century.
AFL conflicts with Brookwood
AFL control of the WEB
Since its founding in 1886, the American Federation of Labor had pursued a highly conservative, pro-business, craft union approach to labor policy. It aligned itself with the pro-business National Civic Federation; largely excluded African Americans, women, and immigrants from its unions; and through the craft union system largely and purposefully excluded most workers from the benefits of union protection. Brookwood's assumption that a new social order was not only needed but was quickly coming conflicted directly with the vision of the AFL.
The AFL was not opposed to worker education, however. Indeed, it sought to use worker education for its own purposes. To improve communication among worker education units of labor unions and independent labor colleges, James Maurer, John Brophy, and J. B. S. Hardman co-founded the Workers' Education Bureau (WEB) on December 31, 1921. Their goal was to reform and liberalize the labor policies of the AFL, popularize the emerging concept of industrial unionism, and instill a greater sense of militancy in the worker-members of the AFL. Maurer was elected president of the WEB.
AFL policy was to subvert the WEB. William Green, then the AFL's Secretary-Treasurer, was personally hostile toward the organization. In 1922, Green began implementing a plan to "burrow from within" and turn the WEB to the AFL's purposes. That same year, the AFL convention approved a cooperative agreement between the WEB and AFL, and in 1924 the AFL asked each of its members unions to contribute 0.5 percent of its annual income to the WEB. As conservative AFL unions began to join the WEB, the organization began shifting away from its progressive policy stands. In 1925, WEB revised its constitution to deny membership to the New York Workers School, the Work People's College, the Rand School of Social Science, and other labor colleges outside the traditional union and AFL structure. In 1926, the AFL recommended that unions double their spending on adult education, and by the end of the year more than 500 international and local AFL unions were affiliated with the WEB.
By 1927, Green's plan of "burrowing from within" had succeeded, and a majority of the WEB's board of directors were conservative AFL labor union leaders. That year, the WEB had adopted resolutions and constitutional amendments that essentially prevented it from concerning itself "in any way with trade union politicies" and required it to function "strictly as an educational and research organization". The WEB's new goal was to educate workers so they could get the most of out of life, even if the economic system they labored under was a poor one.
1923 AFL attack on Brookwood
The first AFL attack on Brookwood came in April 1923. AFL President Samuel Gompers delivered a widely reported speech in which he accused the college of belonging to an "interlocking network" of more than 50 "pacifist and revolutionary organizations of a more or less extreme character". Gompers also pointed to the large financial donation made to Brookwood by the American Fund for Public Service (the Garland Fund), which Gompers charged was a Communist Party-dominated organization that was trying to violently overthrow the government of the United States. Garland Fund trustees then gently pointed out that a third of its donations had gone to AFL member unions or their sponsored organizations. The controversy immediately died down.
For many years after Gompers' attack, AFL officials largely ignored Brookwood. In part this was because the college was independent, but in part it was because the AFL believed it could dominate (and thus control) workers' education efforts and turn them to its own purposes through the Workers' Education Bureau.
The 1926 AFL investigation of Brookwood
Samuel Gompers died on December 13, 1924, and William Green was elected president of the AFL as his successor. Green and the AFL Executive Council were convinced that if the labor movement were to succeed, it had to market itself as a supporter of the capitalist system and partner with business. Every element of progressivism had to be eliminated from the labor movement in order to make this strategy work. It also meant that all progressive criticism of the AFL had to be silenced.
Brookwood's success proved threatening to the AFL, however. On May 1, 1926, Muste announced that Brookwood would embark on a major fund-raising campaign to allow the school to expand its enrollment to 100 students per class. As 1926 came to a close, Muste said the school was also looking to raise $2 million, half of which would be used to expand facilities and enrollment and half of which would be used to create an endowment to enhance the school's financial stability. Brookwood's attempt to raise $2 million alarmed the AFL. If successful, Brookwood (which was turning away as many students as it accepted) would begin graduating enough students to flood the labor movement with staff who would then begin challenging the AFL's conservative labor policies.
Brookwood proved controversial in 1926 in another way, too. John L. Lewis, president of the United Mine Workers, had largely eliminated opposition to his leadership of the union, and was no longer fighting hard against coal mine owners. Union contracts were being broken, membership was in steep decline, and income was falling very sharply. In June, John Brophy, the mineworker and Brookwood director, forged an alliance with communists in and out of the Mine Workers to defeat Lewis in the upcoming union election. Lewis turned the union's allegedly neutral journal against Brophy, used union dues to pay low-level officials to campaign against Brophy, and red-baited Brophy (who was not a communist himself) mercilessly. Lewis easily defeated Brophy by a vote of 195,000 to 85,000 in December 1926. Several Brookwood faculty and students assisted Brophy in his unsuccessful campaign against Lewis.
These developments alarmed Green. Throughout 1926, he made a number of inquiries into the political beliefs of the Brookwood faculty and the content of Brookwood courses. He particularly focused on the beliefs and activities of faculty member Arthur Calhoun, an avowed Marxist. Green's inquiries confirmed his suspicion that the college was a hotbed of radicalism. In April 1927, Green made a veiled threat against Brookwood in the pages of the AFL's magazine, The American Federationist, arguing that worker education should be a bulwark against rather than a fomenter of radicalism. Events came to a head the following month when Martin Ryan, president of the Brotherhood of Railway Carmen, showed Green a letter from a Canadian official in his union. The letter made additional allegations of radicalism against Brookwood. Green wrote to Ryan in June 1927 acknowledging that Brookwood was "surcharged with radical tendencies". Later that year, Green received letters from five students at Brookwood, who claimed that May Day (then closely associated with the Communist Party) and not Labor Day (the working class holiday promoted by the AFL) was celebrated at Brookwood. The students further claimed that Brookwood had formally celebrated the anniversary of the founding of the Soviet Union; placed pictures of Karl Marx, Vladimir Lenin, and Leon Trotsky throughout the school; and hung red banners (the symbol of the Communist Party) on holidays. The students claimed Brookwood was anti-American, anti-religious, and pro-communist. Muste unwittingly provided Green with additional anti-Brookwood ammunition in April 1928 when he published an article in the left-wing journal Labor Age. In the piece, Muste said working-class people were "mentally sick, twisted, tied up." Workers needed to be "psychoanalyzed...to have their thoughts and feelings laid bare before their own eyes. They know too many things that are not so, they are living a dream world, not a real world, in a world of fears, illusions, fairies, and bogey men". It was a view of workers that the AFL did not share.
The 1928 AFL attack on Brookwood
Green acted on the information he collected by secretly authorizing AFL Executive Council member Matthew Woll to investigate Brookwood even further. Woll was president of the International Photo-Engravers Union of North America, an AFL vice president, one of the most conservative of all the AFL union leaders, and chairman of the executive committee of the WEB.
Woll's report was delivered to the AFL Executive Council in August 1928. The report was secret, and no full version has ever been released. Historians have identified, however, that the report concluded that all faculty at Brookwood held left-wing political views, that most of the faculty taught communist philosophies, that three of them served on the faculty of the Worker's School (which was organized and supported by the Communist Party), and that Muste was a fervent communist. The report accused Brookwood of hosting "pro-Soviet demonstrations" and teaching "anti-religious doctrine" and "doctrines contrary to American Federation of Labor policies". On August 8, the AFL leadership advised all its member unions to withdraw moral and financial support for Brookwood.
The Executive Council formally ratified its August 8 announcement on October 29. Muste denounced the Executive Council's action. He said he asked Green for a hearing on the charges many times, but received no response. Green countered that the AFL asked Brookwood to respond to the charges, which it never did. The executive council of the Teachers Union, a left-wing educational union led by Abraham Lefkowtiz that represented teachers in the New York City public school system, voted to denounce the AFL's October 29 action.
Brookwood and the AFL agreed to a truce in the war of words in mid-November. The purpose of the truce was to give the school time to respond to the charges contained in the AFL report. As part of the informal agreement, Muste agreed not to press to overturn the Executive Council's resolution on the floor of the upcoming AFL convention. In return, the AFL Executive Council agreed not to publish a supplementary report that contained additional charges against the school.
The AFL convention opened on November 19, 1928. On November 24, the Amalgamated Association of Street and Electric Railway Employees of America asked the Executive Council to make its August 8 report public so that unions could judge for themselves the truthfulness and severity of the allegations made against the school. But the Executive Council declined to do so. The Brookwood issue did not come up before the delegates again until November 27. There was bitter debate on the convention floor regarding the accusations. Green revealed the existence of the letter signed by five students which he had received in 1927, inflaming the delegates. Benjamin Schlesinger, president of the International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union, defended the school by noting that it had donated $100,000 to the union during a 1926 strike. James B. Rankin, president of the International Union of Mine, Mill, and Smelter Workers, tried to undermine the Woll report by declaring Brookwood convicted by "uncertain evidence" and "without a trial or official charges".
The debate over Brookwood lasted until November 29, the final day of the convention. That day, the Executive Council re-approved its October 29 resolution. That same day, in a nearly unanimous vote, the delegates to the AFL convention approved Woll's unreleased report and the Executive Council's October 29 resolution.
The AFL convention's action was also denounced by many. John Dewey and author and workers' education expert Marius Hansome defended Brookwood publicly after the convention. Many AFL unions tried for some time to continue their support for Brookwood, arguing that the school deserved a full, public hearing on the charges. In February 1929, 35 Brookwood alumni—including several international union vice presidents, labor journal editors, the heads of labor colleges, and state federation officials—wrote a letter to William Green protesting the AFL's action. But neither Green nor the AFL Executivge Council were moved. To them, the issue was not about academic freedom but the right of the AFL to maintain control over its own policies. Brookwood, with AFL member support, had challenged those policies, and it was the AFL's right to force the withdrawal of that support.
In January 1929, Brookwood Labor College was expelled from the WEB, and Muste removed from the WEB's executive board. Three months later, at its April 1929 convention, the WEB adopted two new constitutional amendments aimed at Brookwood. The first limited membership only to those organizations directly affiliated with the AFL and its member unions. The second amendment made it a goal of the WEB to partner on worker education solely with established colleges and universities. The goal of the amendments, William Green said, was to deny WEB's support to any organization "that ridicules our policy and undermines the work of our leaders". In response to these changes, James Maurer stepped down as president of the WEB. He was succeeded by Thomas Burke, Secretary of the United Association of Journeymen Plumbers. Delegates from Brookwood Labor College walked out of the WEB's convention after Matthew Woll led the delegates in rejecting all of the recommendations Maurer proposed, and enacting a series of changes to the selection of the Executive Committee, issuance of election calls, and selection of convention delegates intended to establish tighter control by the AFL over the organization.
Financial woes and Muste's departure
In the wake of the AFL attack on Brookwood, the college's director, A.J. Muste, began pushing for the abandonment of Brookwood's strictly educational mission in favor of training strike organizers. This caused a split in the Brookwood faculty. Muste also began thinking of establishing an organization, distinct from both the AFL and the Communist Party, to organize workers into industrial unions. Muste's political views were changing as well, and moving leftward. By 1931, Muste believed he was going to lead a social revolt in the United States that would not only build a new, militant labor movement but also lead to violent overthrow of the existing capitalist system and establishment of a socialist workers' paradise. Board member Fannia Cohn and faculty member David J. Saposs, who both disliked Muste's new political views, fought to preserve Brookwood as a non-political school.
A new labor union center
Muste began leading Brookwood into controversy quietly enough. On February 23, 1929, he endorsed a proposal by the Pittsburgh Labor College which called for a "militant" trade union labor party. But Muste moved beyond endorsement, and quickly tried to implement the proposal. On March 2, Muste outlined a plan of action at a meeting of the League for Industrial Democracy. He proposed establishing a network of communications among progressive leaders, organizations, and other groups within the American Federation of Labor, with the goal of creating a "militant though informal" national movement. The key to this network was the WEB, he said. However, Muste said, any new organization must denounce communism.
Muste's plans for a "militant though informal" network took concrete form on May 26, 1929, when 151 union members, labor leaders, and socialists meeting in New York City agreed to form the Conference for Progressive Labor Action (CPLA). At the meeting were several Brookwood directors and faculty, including Budenz, Golden, Hartman, A.J. Kennedy, Lefkowitz, Maurer, and Muste. The CPLA's founders agreed to use the journal Labor Age to advocate for industrial unionism, labor militancy, the five-day work week, and a program of social insurance. The CPLA also advocated a planned economy and government ownership of national resources, and strongly rejected communism. Muste was elected national chairman of the CPLA. On June 3, the Brookwood board of directors approved a resolution supporting the CPLA, demanding more militant labor policies, opposing the two existing political parties, and supporting progressive workers' education. The AFL denounced the CPLA as dual unionism.
Despite this action, many of Brookwood's board members did not support Muste or the CPLA, and a majority of the faculty opposed the board's action and what the CPLA was trying to do. Muste's political drift leftward encouraged some Brookwood faculty to take even more radical stands. Veteran faculty member Arthur Calhoun, who had long held communist views, now began advocating that Brookwood formally adopt a communist philosophy to the exclusion of all other views. Deeply alarmed, the rest of the Brookwood faculty unanimously asked the Brookwood board of directors not to rehire Calhoun when his contract expired in early June 1929. Calhoun (who had asked to be released from tenure in 1927 to pursue other jobs) denied he was a member of the Communist Party. But when asked if his communist views would allow him to would continue serving on the Brookwood faculty while also seeking to destroy the institution, Calhoun answered they would. On June 9, the board declined to renew Calhoun's contract, ending his employment by the school.
The Brookwood board's strong support for the CPLA and the negative press associated with the public disclosure of Dr. Calhoun's political views led to the loss of support for the college. In August 1929, the New York State Federation of Labor withdrew its financial support for Brookwood after extensive and bitter debate. But delegates felt the evidence against Brookwood was overwhelming, and in the end the resolution implementing the decision passed by a comfortable margin.
1932 financial crisis
In October 1929, Brookwood college opened with just six full-time faculty but a full class of 37 students. The faculty included Muste (teaching foreign labor history, public speaking, and history), Josephine Colby (teaching English and parliamentary law), David J. Saposs (teaching American labor history), Helen G. Norton (teaching journalism), and Mark Starr (teaching economics). Instructors were added as needed for correspondence courses, and celebrated author Sinclair Lewis agreed to lecture during the term. The college also began expanding that year, offering its first extension programs. Tom Tippett was hired to direct the extension effort.
Brookwood admitted 41 students in its fall 1930 term. But 24 of the 41 were from overseas, a significant change from previous years. When these students graduated in May 1931, Brookwood celebrated not only its tenth anniversary but also its 200th graduate.
In March 1931, in the middle of its 1930-1931 term, Brookwood Labor College established a national clearinghouse for information on worker education. It was believed to be not only the first but also the only national clearinghouse of its kind.
But there were signs that not all was well at Brookwood. Expansion was coming as the Great Depression deepened. In addition, racial tension now erupted at the school. In 1932, Mark Starr lead a Brookwood Players theater group on a trip through the South. The Jim Crow laws of the Southern states which the troupe visited required the troupe's lone black student to stay in racially segregated, substandard housing; eat in the blacks-only section of restaurants (or use a separate restaurant entirely); use racially segregated toilet facilities, and more. Starr did not challenge these laws. White students complained bitterly to Muste about Starr's lack of militancy, and Muste reprimanded Starr for "jim-crowing" the black student.
A major funding crisis also hit the school in 1932. Muste was spending more and more time on CPLA business and far less effort on raising money for the college. He also diverted college resources to CPLA activities. In 1932, he instructed Tippett to write a play dramatizing the plight of Southern textile workers, who were facing strikebreakers, employer-sponsored violence, and attacks by the National Guard. This play, Mill Shadows, was taken at Brookwood expense on a nine-day, tour of the South. The money raised did not return to Brookwood, but rather was donated to striking textile workers in the South Carolina Piedmont. The lack of income and diversion of resources created a $10,000 deficit ($ in dollars), and Brookwood nearly closed. John Dewey, Sinclair Lewis, and 80 others printed a public letter in the left-wing magazine The Nation in late November, pleading for money. Some funds were raised, and by reducing the number of faculty and significantly cutting back the extension program the crisis passed.
Departure of Muste
Muste's evolving political views and the increasing amount of time he spent on CPLA activities created much dissent within the Brookwood faculty. Shortly after the creation of the CPLA, Muste adopted Marxism as a philosophy, which caused a major split among the faculty. Muste's pacifist views were also changing, and he now advocated a qualified approval of labor union violence. In May 1932, Muste proposed that Brookwood become a "training base" for "CPLA fighters". The faculty rejected the plan. Many Brookwood faculty feared that Muste's evolving political views were heading toward Trotskyism (a theory of Marxism advocated by Leon Trotsky), and that he would drag the CPLA and Brookwood into the communist political camp with him. Others feared that Brookwood would lose its nonpartisan reputation, which they felt was its biggest and best selling point.
As Brookwood's financial crisis worsened in the fall of 1932, a political crisis over Muste's activities also emerged. At a meeting with faculty on October 22, Muste responded to a question by asserting that his CPLA work was more important than Brookwood. Nine days later, a majority of faculty signed a letter addressed to the board of directors asking that some other faculty member take over the director's duties and asking the board to reaffirm Brookwood's nonpartisan nature. When Muste learned of the letter's content, he accused the signers of cowardice and refusing to take part in the emerging "revolutionary movement".
The political crisis at Brookwood culminated in March 1933. The board of directors called a meeting at which Phil Ziegler presided. It began about March 2 and lasted three or four days. The board quickly cleared away its business: Maurer was reelected president, and Fannia Cohn was elected vice president. The board and Muste then spent several days discussing the future of Brookwood Labor College, the CPLA, the economic situation, and the best political response to take to the depression. Mark Starr led the group criticizing Muste. Many board members also expressed criticism of Tippett, who like Muste had moved away from a commitment to broad educational goals and toward a concept of Brookwood as a strike organizer training center for a nascent labor party and industrial union center. Muste offered a resolution to have Brookwood begin training a "revolutionary vanguard", but the board rejected the measure 15 to 4. The board then passed a resolution asking Muste to stay on as director, but only if he resigned as head of the CPLA. Muste refused, and both he and Tippett resigned on March 5, 1933.
Muste's resignation nearly crippled Brookwood. Six administrators and 19 of the school's current class of 28 students walked out as well. (Another source says there were just 23 students.) This constituted most of the administrative staff, and nearly all the student body. Among the students who walked out were all three of the school's African American students. They were angry at Starr's role in the opposing Muste, and upset at losing Muste (who adamantly opposed racial discrimination).
The board appointed J. C. Kennedy as the school's acting director while they searched for a permanent replacement for Muste. This appointment was criticized by many white and black students because Kennedy believed that African Americans must improve their economic status before being accepted as equals by whites or being accepted in white-only unions. In an era of rampant discrimination against blacks, this seemed position seemed senseless to African Americans. Brookwood reopened on March 8 with just nine students.
On June 5, 1933, the Brookwood board of directors appointed Tucker P. Smith the new director of Brookwood Labor College. Smith said he would refocus Brookwood on education, with a particular emphasis on semi-skilled and unskilled workers and the unemployed. He also said Brookwood would return to a full educational program, which would involve not only resident training but also field activities, Chautauquas, summer institutes, and publications.
Closure of Brookwood
Brookwood stayed open four years after Muste departed. In many ways, the school returned to normal. There were 104 applications for admission in the fall of 1933, of which just 35 were accepted. These students came from 13 states and four countries, and represented 22 industries. Twenty-nine students graduated in April 1934.
Brookwood enrolled a class of 32 for the 1934–1935 school year. The school also had more than 200 enrolled in its adult education courses in economics and public speaking in New York City. James Maurer was reelected as president that year, and three individuals were hired as new faculty: Roy Reuther in extension studies; Lawrence Rogin in journalism and as editor of the Brookwood Review; and Ethel Lurie as librarian and tutor.
Enrollment dropped sharply in the school's last two years. Just 20 students enrolled for the 1935-1936 term, including two refugees from Nazi Germany. Despite the lower enrollment, the school added two new faculty, Dr. Lazare Teper and John Martindale. It also hired special instructors to teach a wide variety of courses. These included Luigi Antonini, Osmond Fraenkel, Jack Lever, and Frank Palmer.
Enrollment did not improve the following year. Brookwood enrolled just 19 students in the 1936-1937 term, which ended prematurely in March 1937.
In the later 1930s, Joel I. Seidman became director of Brookwood Labor College.
On November 21, 1937, the Brookwood Labor College board of directors voted to suspend classes and close the college. Brookwood's directors and historians have offered various reasons for the college's demise. The board blamed the Great Depression (which led to significant reductions in union membership and thus union dues) and the diversion of money to union organizing campaigns rather than worker education. The board also blamed the rift in the AFL, which led to the establishment of the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) in 1935. Neither trade federation wanted to appear to be patronizing Brookwood, the board claimed, and thus few trade unions sent their members there. The board also blamed the rapid rise in the number of "little Brookwoods"—the education and theater programs of the Works Progress Administration (a federal agency which in part employed authors, musicians, and actors), unions (especially the CIO), and traditional colleges and universities.
Historians offer a wide range of reasons for Brookwood's demise as well. Many cite Brookwood's financial problems, with some specifically linking them to the Great Depression while others link them to withdrawal of support by the AFL. Some attribute it to both. The internal political tensions within Brookwood are also cited as a primary cause. Charles F. Howlett, author of a history of Brookwood, concludes that it was competition between the AFL and CIO that undermined the college. Historian Eric Leif Davin provides a more detailed version of this argument. He concludes that Brookwood continued to support the CPLA, while other unions (notably those in the more militant CIO) supported the Democratic Party and President Franklin D. Roosevelt. Faced with the choice of supporting Roosevelt or Brookwood, these unions gave their financial support to Roosevelt. Educational historian Joseph Kett cites declining enrollment as the primary cause of the college's closure, although the reason for the decline is not stated, while labor historian Frances Ryan agrees with Brookwood's directors that competition from a wide array of worker education efforts was the key reason. Labor historian Susan Stone Wong argues that the real was uninspired institutional leadership and indifference by labor leaders, while social historian Neil Hamilton cites, among other things, attacks by big business.
Aftermath
After the college's closure, Tucker Smith was hired by the United Auto Workers to lead their worker education department.
The Brookwood campus sat abandoned for four years after the school's closure. The board deeded the property to a successor body, Stanroy Estates, Inc. In August 1942, Stanroy Estates sold the campus to the Norwegian Shipping and Trade Mission for $34,000. The Norwegian government renamed the campus renamed Eidsvold, and transformed it into a rest home for Norwegian merchant sailors whose ships were being repaired in New York City.
Eidsvold was sold in 1951 to developer Albert Stone for $110,000.
Theatre group
Brookwood Labor College was noted for its exceptionally strong theater program. The drama troupe, the Brookwood Labor Players, toured the United States and received acclaim in the mid-1930s. The core of the program was a course, "Labor Drama", which was offered one hour each week. The course taught such basic skills as acting, directing, playwriting, and set design. But it also emphasized the importance of dramatic themes such as working-class problems and collective action as solutions to those problems. Singing was also part of the theater program, and included the teaching of standard labor songs. An adjunct of the drama program was the radio program The Brookwood Hour. The hour-long program aired Thursdays on WEVD in New York City.
Brookwood began teaching drama in 1923. Hazel MacKaye was the first director. MacKaye left in 1926 to run a similar program for the United Mine Workers, and was replaced by Jasper Deeter, a director who had worked with Nobel Prize-winning playwright Eugene O'Neill. Deeter directed several plays for The Workers' Theater after its formation in 1925, and often had Brookwood players appear in Workers' Theater productions.
Among the more celebrated plays produced by Brookwood Labor College were Peggy, Starvation Army, Mill Shadows, Miner, Gun Cotton, and Sit-Down (which portrayed the Flint Sit-Down Strike of 1936-1937). Some 2,800 people saw Mill Shadows when it toured Hartford, Connecticut; Allentown, Pennsylvania; Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; New Brunswick, New Jersey; Baltimore, Maryland; and Washington, D.C., in 1932. The play stayed in production for four years, and more than 30,000 people saw it.
In October 1936, Nicholas Ray was hired to run Brookwood's theater group. Ray saw a performance of Sit-Down and enjoyed it. Songwriter Earl Robinson was hired as composer. Ray and Robinson secured contracts which paid them $120 a month for eight months. Working only two hours a day, Ray crafted a troupe from the students at the college, and used improvisation techniques he'd learned at the Theatre of Action to help craft plays. The goal was to take the troupe on the road, performing at various union conventions and functions. But with Brookwood failing financially, they were released from their contracts after just three months.
Even during Brookwood's waning days, the labor program remained strong. In 1936, there were three full companies of Brookwood Players on tour, which produced plays in 100 cities in 23 states.
Two of the Brookwood plays, The Miners and Mill Shadows, remain critically acclaimed 75 years after they were first written. The two plays were collected in Lee Pappas' 2010 book of critically acclaimed labor plays.
Publications
The college had a publisheing arm, Brookwood Labor Publications, whose works included:
The Labor Movement Today (1934)
A Labor Party for America? (1936)
The Company Union (1936)
Strikes Under the New Deal (1935-7?)
Methods of War Resistance (practicum) (1939?)
Impact
Brookwood Labor College left a significant legacy in the American labor movement. Scholar Susan Kates notes that "no labor college proved more successful in attracting large numbers of students and setting the tone for worker education in America than Brookwood Labor College". Its curriculum shaped hundreds of programs nationwide. The school graduated more than 500 students in 16 years, and many of its graduates played prominent roles in national labor unions in mid-century. One sign of Brookwood's influence is just how much it changed American labor unions. Many of Brookwood's beliefs—mass unionization, unionization of skilled and semi-skilled workers, an end to gender and racial discrimination, support for social insurance programs—were later adopted by mainstream labor.
During the school's brief lifespan, Brookwood was widely known as "labor's Harvard", and noted author Sinclair Lewis called it "the only self-respecting, keen, alive educational institution I have ever known..." Labor historian Linda Eisenmann notes that, after 75 years, scholars still consider Brookwood one of the most influential labor colleges in American history. Labor historian Frances Ryan characterized it as "one of the most successful experiments in worker education in U.S. labor history".
Brookwood's reputation is based largely on its curriculum. Ryan says its curriculum was unique as a model of progressive education methods. The school also pioneered the extension course and the correspondence course.
Notable students
Below is a partial list of notable students who attended Brookwood Labor College:
Ella Baker, civil rights activist
Harry Bellaver, stage, film and television actor
Len De Caux, publicity director of the Congress of Industrial Organizations
Elizabeth Hawes, union organizer and fashion designer
Anna Pauline "Pauli" Murray, civil and women's rights activist and the first black woman ordained an Episcopal priest.
Rose Finkelstein Norwood, labor organizer, president of the Boston Women's Trade Union League
Joseph Ozanic, founder of the Progressive Miners of America
Rose Pesotta, vice president of the ILGWU
Roy Reuther, prominent international labor organizer with the United Automobile Workers
Sophie Reuther, international labor organizer with the United Automobile Workers
Walter Reuther, President of the United Automobile Workers and President of the Congress of Industrial Organizations
Floria Pinkney, international labor organizer with the International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union
See also
Labour Party (disambiguation) for various political movements associated with trade unionism or labor colleges
Rand School of Social Science (1906)
Work People's College (1907)
New York Workers School (1923):
New Workers School (1929)
Jefferson School of Social Science (1944)
Highlander Research and Education Center (formerly Highlander Folk School) (1932)
Commonwealth College (Arkansas) (1923-1940)
Southern Appalachian Labor School (since 1977)
San Francisco Workers' School (1934)
California Labor School (formerly Tom Mooney Labor School) (1942)
Continuing education
References
Bibliography
Allen, Devere. Adventurous Americans. New York: Farrar & Rinehart, 1932.
Altenbaugh, Richard J. "'The Children and the Instruments of a Militant Labor Progressivism': Brookwood Labor College and the American Labor College Movement of the 1920s and 1930s." History of Education Quarterly. 23:4 (Winter 1983): 395-411.
Andrews, Gregg. Thyra J. Edwards: Black Activist in the Global Freedom Struggle. Columbia, Mo.: University of Missouri Press, 2011.
Appelbaum, Patricia Faith. Kingdom to Commune: Protestant Pacifist Culture Between World War I and the Vietnam Era. Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press, 2009.
Barrow, Clyde W. "Playing Workers: Proletarian Drama In the Curriculum of American Labor Colleges, 1921-37." In Paying the Piper: Causes and Consequences of Art Patronage. Judith H. Balfe, ed. Urbana, Ill.: University of Illinois Press, 1993.
Brooks, Thomas R. Clint: A Biography of a Labor Intellectual, Clinton S. Golden. New York: Atheneum, 1978.
"Brookwood Labor College." In Encyclopedia of American Social Movements. Vol. 2. Immanuel Ness, ed. Armonk, N.Y.: Sharpe Reference, 2004.
Carew, Anthony. Labour Under the Marshall Plan: The Politics of Productivity and the Marketing of Management Science. Manchester, U.K.: Manchester University Press, 1987.
Clark, Paul F. The Miners' Fight for Democracy: Arnold Miller and the Reform of the United Mine Workers. Ithaca, N.Y.: New York State School of Industrial and Labor Relations, 1981.
Cottrell, Robert C. Roger Nash Baldwin and the American Civil Liberties Union. New York: Columbia University Press, 2000.
Craig, Robert H. Religion and Radical Politics: An Alternative Christian Tradition in the United States. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1992.
Cummins, E.E. and De Vyver, Frank T. The Labor Problem in the United States. New York: D. Van Nostrand Co., 1947.
Davin, Eric Leif. Crucible of Freedom: Workers' Democracy in the Industrial Heartland, 1914-1960. Lanham, Md.: Lexington Books, 2010.
De Caux, Len. Labor Radical: From the Wobblies to CIO, a Personal History. Boston: Beacon Press, 1970.
Denning, Michael. The Cultural Front: The Laboring of American Culture in the Twentieth Century. London: Verso, 2000.
Dewey, John. The Later Works of John Dewey, 1925-1953. Jo Ann Boydston and Sidney Ratner, eds. Carbondale, Ill.: Southern Illinois University Press, 2008.
Dubofsky, Melvyn and Van Tine, Warren. John L. Lewis: A Biography. Reprint ed. Champaign, Ill.: University of Illinois Press, 1992.
Dunbar, Anthony P. Against the Grain. Charlottesville, Va.: University Press of Virginia, 1981.
Eisenmann, Linda. "Labor Colleges." In Historical Dictionary of Women's Education in the United States. Linda Eisenmann, ed. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1998.
Fletcher, Meredith. Digging People Up for Coal: A History of Yallourn. Carlton, Vic., Australia: Melbourne University Press, 2002.
Foner, Philip S. History of the Labor Movement in the United States. Vol. 9: The T.U.E.L. to the End of the Gompers Era. New York: International Publishers, 1991.
Foner, Philip S. Women and the American Labor Movement: From the First Trade Unions to the Present. New York: Free Press, 1982.
Hamilton, Neil A. "Muste, A.J." In American Social Leaders and Activists. New York: Facts On File, 2002.
Hendrickson, Mark. American Labor and Economic Citizenship: New Capitalism From World War I to the Great Depression. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2013.
Hentoff, Nat. Peace Agitator: The Story of A.J. Muste. New York: A.J. Muste Memorial Institute, 1982
Hightower-Langston, Donna. A to Z of American Women Leaders and Activists. New York: Facts on File, 2002.
Holloway, Jonathan Scott. Confronting the Veil: Abram Harris, Jr., E. Franklin Frazier, and Ralph Bunche, 1919-1941. Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press, 2002.
Howlett, Charles F. "A.J. Muste: Portrait of a Twentieth-Century Pacifist." In The Human Tradition in America Between the Wars, 1920-1945. Donald W. Whisenhunt, ed. Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, 2002.
Howlett, Charles F. "Brookwood Labor College." In Protest, Power, and Change: An Encyclopedia of Nonviolent Action from ACT-UP to Women's Suffrage, Roger S. Powers, William B. Vogele, Christopher Kruegler, and Ronald M. McCarthy, eds. Florence, Ky.: Taylor & Francis, 1997.
Howlett, Charles F. "Fincke, William M." In American National Biography. Supplement 2. Mark C. Carnes, ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005.
Howlett, Charles F. and Morris, Ian M. Books, Not Bombs: Teaching Peace Since the Dawn of the Republic. Charlotte, N.C.: Information Age Publishing, 2010.
International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers. Proceedings of the Nineteenth Biennial Convention of the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers. Washington, D.C.: IBEW, 1927.
Kates, Susan. Activist Rhetorics and American Higher Education, 1885-1937. Carbondale, Ill.: Southern Illinois University Press, 2001.
Katz, Daniel. All Together Different: Yiddish Socialists, Garment Workers, and the Labor Roots of Multiculturalism. New York: New York University Press, 2011.
Kett, Joseph F. The Pursuit of Knowledge Under Difficulties: From Self-Improvement to Adult Education in America, 1750-1990. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1994.
Kosek, Joseph Kip. Acts of Conscience: Christian Nonviolence and Modern American Democracy. New York: Columbia University Press, 2009.
Lazzari, Marie. Twentieth-Century Literary Criticism. Vol. 54. Detroit, Mich.: Gale Research, 1994.
Lecklider, Aaron. Inventing the Egghead: The Battle Over Brainpower in American Culture. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2013.
Levine, Arthur. "Brookwood Remembered." In Learning From Change: Landmarks in Teaching and Learning in Higher Education From 'Change' Magazine, 1969-1999. Deborah DeZure, ed. Sterling, Va.: Stylus Publishing, 2000.
London, Steven H.; Tarr, Elvira R.; and Wilson, Joseph F. The Re-Education of the American Working Class. New York: Greenwood Press, 1990.
Lynd, Staughton. "A.J. Muste." In The American Radical. Mary Jo Buhle, Paul Buhle, and Harvey J. Kaye, eds. New York: Routledge, 2013.
Magat, Richard. Unlikely Partners: Philanthropic Foundations and the Labor Movement. Ithaca, N.Y.: ILR Press, 1999.
Mantooth, Wes. "You Factory Folks who Sing this Rhyme Will Surely Understand": Culture, Ideology, and Action in the Gastonia Novels of Myra Page, Grace Lumpkin, and Olive Dargan. New York: CRC Press, 2006.
McGilligan, Patrick. Nicholas Ray: The Glorious Failure of an American Director. New York: It Books, 2011.
Morris, James Oliver. The Origins of the C.I.O.: A Study of Conflict Within the Labor Movement, 1921-1938. Ann Arbor, Mich.: University of Michigan, 1954.
Muste, A.J. The Essays of A.J. Muste. Nat Hentoff, ed. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill Co., 1967.
"Muste, A.J." In American Social Leaders and Activists. Neil A. Hamilton, ed. New York: Facts On File, 2002.
Nash, Al. Ruskin College: A Challenge to Adult and Labor Education. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University, 1981.
Orleck, Annelise. Common Sense and A Little Fire: Women and Working-Class Politics in the United States, 1900-1965. Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press, 1995.
Paulston, Rolland G. Other Dreams, Other Schools: Folk Colleges in Social and Ethnic Movements. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh, 1980.
Phelan, Craig. William Green: Biography of a Labor Leader. Albany, N.Y.: State University Press of New York, 1989.
Ransby, Barbara. Ella Baker and the Black Freedom Movement: A Radical Democratic Vision. Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press, 2003.
Robinson, James W. "The Expulsion of Brookwood Labor College from the Workers' Education Bureau." Labour History. November 1968: 64-69.
Robinson, Jo Ann. Abraham Went Out: A Biography of A.J. Muste. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1981.
Ryan, Francis. "Brookwood Labor College." In Encyclopedia of U.S. Labor and Working-Class History. Vol. 1. Eric Arnesen, ed. New York: CRC Press, 2007.
Ryan, Francis. "Education, Labor." In Encyclopedia of U.S. Labor and Working-Class History. Vol. 1. Eric Arnesen, ed. New York: CRC Press, 2007.
Samson, Gloria Garrett. The American Fund for Public Service: Charles Garland and Radical Philanthropy, 1922-1941. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1996.
Saposs, David J. Investigation of Un-American Propaganda Activities in the United States. Vol. 6. Special Committee on Un-American Activities. House of Representatives. 78th Cong., 1st sess. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1943.
"Saposs, David J." In American National Biography: Supplement 2. Paul F. Betz and Mark C. Carnes, eds. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005.
Special Committee on Un-American Activities. Investigation of Un-American Propaganda Activities in the United States. Vol. 1. House of Representatives. 75th Cong., 3d sess. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1938.
Stapleford, Thomas A. The Cost of Living in America: A Political History of Economic Statistics, 1880-2000. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009.
Stolberg, Mary M. Bridging the River of Hatred: The Pioneering Efforts of Detroit Police Commissioner George Edwards. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 2002.
Storch, Randi. Working Hard for the American Dream: Workers and Their Unions, World War I to the Present. Chichester, West Sussex, U.K.: John Wiley & Sons, 2013.
Tracy, James. Direct Action: Radical Pacifism From the Union Eight to the Chicago Seven. Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Press, 1996.
Tyler, Gus. Look for the Union Label: A History of the International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union. Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 1995.
Weinberg, Carl R. "Brophy, John." In Encyclopedia of U.S. Labor and Working-Class History. Vol. 1. Eric Arnesen, ed. New York: CRC Press, 2007.
Weir, Robert E. "Labor Colleges." In Workers in America: A Historical Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO, 2013.
Williams, Jay. Stage Left. New York: Scribner's 1974.
Wolfe, Margaret Ripley. "Eleanor Cooperhaver Anderson and the Industrial Department of the National Board YWCA: Toward a New Social Order in Dixie." In The Human Tradition in the New South. James C. Klotter, ed. Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2005.
Wong, Susan Stone. "Cohn, Fannia Mary." In Notable American Women: The Modern Period: A Biographical Dictionary. Barbara Sicherman, Carol Hurd Green, Ilene Kantrov, and Harriet Walker, eds. Cambridge: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1980.
Further reading
Altenbaugh, Richard J. Education for Struggle: The American Labor Colleges of the 1920s and 1930s. Philadelphia, Pa.: Temple University Press, 1990.
Bloom, Jonathan D. "Brookwood Labor College." In Contributions in Economics and Economic History, #31: The Re-Education of the American Working Class. Steven H. London, ed. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1990.
Howlett, Charles F. Brookwood Labor College and the Struggle for Peace and Social Justice in America. Lewiston, N.Y. Edwin Mellen Press, 1993.
External links
Brookwood Labor College Records, 1921-1937. Archives of Labor and Urban Affairs. Walter P. Reuther Library. Wayne State University.
Brookwood Labor College Records: Mark and Helen Norton Starr Papers, 1917-1972. Archives of Labor and Urban Affairs. Walter P. Reuther Library. Wayne State University.
Brookwood Labor College: Pamphlets and Documents. Kheel Center for Labor-Management Documentation and Archives. Martin P. Catherwood Library. Cornell University.
Muste, A.J. "My Experience in the Labor and Radical Struggles of the Thirties." Speech of February 9, 1966. American Archive Pilot Project. Illinois Public Media.
Larry Rogin papers at the University of Maryland libraries. Rogin was an instructor at Brookwood Labor College and his papers contain class lectures, course outlines for instruction, and other materials from his time teaching at Brookwood Labor College.
Defunct private universities and colleges in New York (state)
Labor schools
Universities and colleges established in 1921
Educational institutions disestablished in 1937
1921 establishments in New York (state)
1937 disestablishments in New York (state)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JR%20Motorsports
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JR Motorsports
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JR Motorsports (pronounced "Junior Motorsports") is an American professional stock car racing team that currently competes in the NASCAR Xfinity Series, eNASCAR Coca-Cola iRacing Series, CARS Tour, and occasionally in the NASCAR Advance Auto Parts Weekly Series. The team is based in Mooresville, North Carolina, co-owned by former NASCAR Cup Series driver Dale Earnhardt Jr., his sister Kelley Earnhardt Miller, Kelley’s husband and former racer L.W. Miller, and the owner of his former Cup Series team, Rick Hendrick. As of 2023, the team fields four full-time entries in the Xfinity Series: the No. 1 Chevrolet Camaro SS full-time for Sam Mayer, the No. 7 Camaro full-time for Justin Allgaier, the No. 8 Camaro full-time for Josh Berry, and the No. 9 Camaro full-time for Brandon Jones. The team also fields the No. 88 Camaro part-time for Miguel Paludo and team owner Dale Earnhardt Jr.
History
JR Motorsports began in a shed on the property of Dale Earnhardt, Inc. in 1998 with just one employee, as the marketing division of Dale Earnhardt Jr.'s race team. The original intent of the business was to help Earnhardt Jr. sell T-shirts and negotiate sponsorship deals. It wasn't until 2002 that Earnhardt Jr. turned the business into a race team when T. J. Majors drove street stock division at Concord Motorsport Park in North Carolina. Upon Earnhardt Jr.'s signing with Hendrick Motorsports, the Hendrick and JR Motorsports Nationwide Series teams were merged.
The first win for the team came at Motor Mile Speedway in Radford, VA, in 2004. (At the time, Earnhardt Jr. was co-owner of another racing venture, Chance 2 Motorsports.) JR Motorsports in its current form, competing in the NASCAR Xfinity Series started in 2006 when sponsorship from the United States Navy funded the team. The team originally wanted to open in 2007, but the Navy sponsorship accelerated the operations.
Today, the team operates out of a race shop near Mooresville, North Carolina.
In early 2019 it was announced that JR Motorsports had formed a driver development program with GMS Racing, Drivers Edge Development, to train young drivers. Drivers in the program would race in JR Motorsports' Late Model and NASCAR Xfinity Series teams, as well as GMS Racing's NASCAR K&N Pro Series, ARCA Menards Series, and NASCAR Gander Outdoors Truck Series teams. JR Motorsports drivers Noah Gragson, Zane Smith, Sam Mayer, and Adam Lemke were among the inaugural members of the program.
On April 11, 2021, Earnhardt Jr. hinted that JR Motorsports may move up to the Cup Series, given the proposed savings associated with the debut of the Next Gen car in 2022. The challenges for the team are acquiring a charter and securing sponsorship for a Cup program.
On August 24, 2022, Director of Competition Ryan Pemberton parted ways with JR Motorsports after working with the team since 2012. On September 1, Mike Bumgarner was announced as Pemberton's replacement.
Xfinity Series
Car No. 1 history
Elliott Sadler (2016–2018)
It was announced in late 2015 that Elliott Sadler would drive the new No. 1 OneMain Financial Chevy, replacing Chase Elliott as he moved up to take over the No. 24 replacing Jeff Gordon. Sadler started the season with a fourth-place finish in the season opener at Daytona. He would win three races in 2016 and ended up finishing second in the overall standings after a controversial restart with less than ten laps remaining at Homestead that cost Sadler and his teammate, Justin Allgaier, a shot to win the title. In 2017, Sadler didn't win a race but ended up finishing 2nd in points behind only teammate William Byron.
Michael Annett (2019–2021)
On September 25, 2018, Noah Gragson was announced as the new driver of the No. 1 after Sadler announced his retirement earlier that year; However, on January 25, 2019, it was announced that Michael Annett would drive the No. 1 car with the points from the 5 car going over to the 1 car while Gragson would drive the No. 9 car. Annett scored his first career victory at Daytona International Speedway in the NASCAR Racing Experience 300. Annett returned to JRM in 2020 and qualified for the playoffs. He was eliminated after the first round. In July 2021, Annett missed the races at Atlanta and New Hampshire due to a stress fracture in his right femur. Austin Dillon served as his replacement in the No. 1 for Atlanta, while Josh Berry did so for New Hampshire. On October 6, 2021, Annett announced his retirement from Full Time racing.
Sam Mayer (2022–present)
Sam Mayer was announced the new full-time driver of the No. 1 on January 4, 2022. He started the season with a 30th place finish at Daytona and scored four top-five finishes in the first 10 races. On May 3, crew chief Taylor Moyer was suspended for four races due to a tire and wheel loss at Dover. Andrew Overstreet was announced as the crew chief of the No. 1 for Darlington.
On August 9, 2022, it was announced that Mayer would return for the 2023 season. He started the 2023 season with a 27th place finish at Daytona. Mayer scored his first career win at Road America. He followed it up with his second win at Watkins Glen. During the playoffs, Mayer won at the Charlotte Roval and at Homestead to make the Championship 4.
No. 1 results
Car No. 5 history
Multiple drivers (2008–2009)
The No. 5 car joined in 2008 as part of the merger with Hendrick Motorsports' Nationwide teams. It was driven by Jimmie Johnson, Dale Earnhardt Jr., Martin Truex Jr., Mark Martin, Landon Cassill, Ron Fellows and Adrian Fernandez, with sponsorship from Lowe's (Johnson and Fernandez), National Guard (Truex Jr, Earnhardt Jr and Cassill), Delphi, (Martin) and Godaddy.com (Earnhardt Jr and Fellows). The No. 5 car won two races in 2008, with Martin at Las Vegas and Ron Fellows in Montreal, the first NASCAR race run in the rain.
The 5 car returned in 2009 with sponsorship from Fastenal, GoDaddy.com, Unilever and Delphi. The team's best finish was a third with Earnhardt Jr at Atlanta.
Part-time (2011–2012)
In 2011, the 5 car returned as JR Motorsports' 3rd entry, with Dale Earnhardt Jr. and Ron Fellows running a handful of races part-time. The car returned in 2012 once more with Dale Jr. and Fellows driving, and Regan Smith would win the Ford 300 after announcing his addition to the team. Ron Fellows would nearly win a few races at Road America in 2011 & 2012, and then at Watkins Glen in 2012 before running one last race for the team in the inaugural race at Mid-Ohio Sports Car Course in 2013. Fellows would part ways with the team at year's end, due to a sponsor conflict related to NAPA Auto Parts joining the team for 2014.
Kasey Kahne and Brad Sweet (2013)
The car was originally slated for Smith in 2013, but he was moved to the No. 7 when Jr's Cup teammate Kasey Kahne and USAC driver Brad Sweet signed to drive the No. 5 with sponsorship from Great Clips.
Multiple drivers (2014–2016)
On Monday, October 14, 2013, JR Motorsports announced that Kevin Harvick would begin driving the No. 5 car in at least 12 races for the 2014 season. In four of the races, the car was sponsored by Hunt Brothers Pizza. Super Late Model driver Austin Theriault drove the car in a three races for the team starting at Iowa. JR development driver Josh Berry drove two races starting at Iowa in August. For 2015, the No. 5 was driven by Kahne in a single race at Charlotte as a 4th team car, where he finished 3rd.
Michael Annett (2017–2018)
Michael Annett drove the car full-time in 2017 with Pilot Flying J as the sponsor en route to a 9th-place finish in the standings as well as earning a career-best 2nd-place finish at Road America.
On January 25, 2019, it was announced that Annett would be piloting the No. 1 car with the points from the 5 car going over to the 1 car with the 5 car being shut down.
No. 5 results
Car No. 7 history
Multiple Drivers (2010–2011)
The team fielded the No. 7 with Danica Patrick driving about 12 races for JR Motorsports with GoDaddy.com sponsorship in 2010. The remainder of the schedule was filled out with Scott Wimmer, Dale Earnhardt Jr., Landon Cassill, Steve Arpin, Josh Wise and J. R. Fitzpatrick. Patrick recorded a best finish of 4th at Las Vegas. Wise returned to the team for 2011, recording three top tens and one top-five in fourteen starts. Earnhardt Jr. drove the car at Talladega, and Cup drivers Jimmie Johnson, Kasey Kahne and Jamie McMurray drove the car for a combined six starts that season.
Danica Patrick (2012)
Danica Patrick returned to the No. 7 in 2012, this time running a full schedule with sponsorship from GoDaddy, Tissot, and Hot Wheels. Patrick departed JR Motorsports to compete full-time in the Cup Series for the 2013 season.
Regan Smith (2013–2015)
Regan Smith, a former teammate to Dale Earnhardt Jr. at DEI who served as his substitute driver in the Cup Series late in 2012, was signed to drive for the team in 2013. Initially announced to drive the No. 5 car, he would be moved to the No. 7. Smith won twice at Talladega and Michigan, but suffered a run of bad luck in the summer and finished third in points. In 2014, Regan Smith returned to drive the No. 7 car, starting the season with a win in the DRIVE4COPD 300 at Daytona. From there, he would go on to help JRM complete a one-two points finish behind Chase Elliott. In 2015, Regan Smith returned to the No. 7 full-time. He also gained two victories including Mid-Ohio and Dover. Following the Kansas race, Smith stated that he will not return for JR Motorsports in 2016.
Justin Allgaier (2016–present)
Justin Allgaier would be later announced to be the new driver of the No. 7 Chevy, bringing sponsorship from BRANDT. After finishing the 2016 season 3rd in the final standings while going winless, he picked up two wins at Phoenix and Chicagoland in 2017 en route to another 3rd-place finish in the standings. In 2018, Allgaier had a career-best season winning 5 races at Dover, Iowa, Road America, Mid-Ohio, and Indianapolis while also clinching the regular-season championship, but he ended up finishing 7th in the final standings after being eliminated in the round of 8. At the second-to-last race of the 2019 season at Phoenix, Allgaier had possibly been set to finish 2nd for the sixth time of the year until he suddenly witnessed race leader Christopher Bell getting flagged for speeding on pit road at the end of Stage 2, nabbing his 1st victory of the season and 3rd Championship 4 appearance in the last four years after leading 85 laps. He finished 4th in the final points standings after finishing 14th at Homestead. In 2020 Allgaier rebounded from a sluggish first half of the season to win 3 races at Dover and sweeping the Richmond races. He would make the final four and would finish 2nd in points to Austin Cindric. In 2021 he won twice early in the season at Atlanta and Darlington and finished the season fifth in points. In 2022, Allgaier ended a 34-race winless streak at Darlington. He would also win at Nashville and New Hampshire. Allgaier finished the season third in the points standings.
Allgaier started the 2023 season with a third place finish at Daytona. He scored his first win of the season at Charlotte. Allgaier beat Sheldon Creed by 0.005 seconds in double overtime at the Daytona night race. During the playoffs, he won at Bristol and Martinsville to make the Championship 4.
No. 7 results
Car No. 8 history
Multiple drivers (2019–2021)
The No. 8, long driven by Earnhardt Jr. during his early Cup career with Dale Earnhardt, Inc., became a JRM number in 2019 after acquiring it from B. J. McLeod Motorsports. The team inherited the No. 1 car points and it was shared by Zane Smith, Brett Moffitt, Jeb Burton, Ryan Truex, Ryan Preece, Regan Smith, and Sheldon Creed. Elliott and Earnhardt returned to the car for one-off races at Daytona and Darlington, respectively. For 2020, Jeb Burton, Dale Earnhardt Jr., and Daniel Hemric all share the No. 8 for 2020 with Hemric doing a majority of the driving.
For 2021, Sam Mayer was scheduled to drive the No. 8 car part-time in the latter portion of 2021. For the first half of the season, Josh Berry is scheduled to drive the No. 8 car for 12 races while Miguel Paludo drive for 3 road-course races.
Josh Berry (2022–2023)
After driving the No. 8 car for 12 races in 2021, on August 16, 2021, it was announced that Josh Berry will drive the car full-time in 2022. He began the season with a 16th place finish at Daytona. Berry scored wins at Dover and Charlotte to make the playoffs. During the playoffs, he won at Las Vegas to make the Championship 4.
During the 2023 season, Berry drove winless, but stayed consistent enough to make the playoffs. He was eliminated at the conclusion of the Charlotte Roval race.
Sammy Smith (2024)
On September 27, 2023, JR Motorsports announced that Sammy Smith will drive the No. 8 for the 2024 season.
No. 8 results
Car No. 9 history
Chase Elliott (2014–2015)
The No. 9 car made its debut in 2014, when an 18-year-old Hendrick development driver named Chase Elliott was signed to drive a fourth entry for JR Motorsports. The car was renumbered to 9, the longtime number of Chase's father Bill Elliott. In a surprise move, NAPA Auto Parts, which recently left Michael Waltrip Racing and was rumored to depart from the sport, signed on to sponsor the full season. After the Boyd Gaming 300 at Las Vegas Motor Speedway, the team was revealed to have violated Sections 12–4.2 (P2 penalty) and 20A–12.8.1B (car exceeded minimum front height) of the NASCAR rulebook. As a result, crew chief Greg Ives was placed on probation until December 31. At the O'Reilly Auto Parts 300, Elliott passed teammate Kevin Harvick for his first Nationwide Series win. Elliott's second win came in the VFW Sport Clips Help a Hero 200 at Darlington Raceway, where he led 52 laps. A late race caution and a slow pit stop would find Elliott restarting in 6th with just 2 laps to go. Elliott managed an outstanding feat of passing the 5 cars in front of him en route to his second win of the season. Elliott would win his third race of the season in the EnjoyIllinois.com 300 at Chicagoland Speedway after holding off Trevor Bayne. Elliott won the 2014 Nationwide Series championship, the first rookie to win a NASCAR national series championship.
In 2015, Elliott returned to the No. 9 full-time to defend his championship, but only won one race at Richmond and finished 2nd in the final standings. Elliott's 2014 crew chief Greg Ives would move up to Dale Earnhardt Jr.'s Cup Series team, replaced by longtime Xfinity crew chief Ernie Cope. The No. 9 team did not race in 2016.
William Byron (2017)
On August 18, 2016, William Byron and Hendrick Motorsports announced a multi-year driver development agreement, with Byron running full-time in the Xfinity Series driving the No. 9 Liberty University Chevrolet Camaro for JR Motorsports in 2017. It was the first time since 2014 that the No. 9 was driven by a rookie driver. At the 2017 Ford Eco Boost 300, as William Byron and Elliott Sadler were battling late, Byron took advantage of Sadler's mistake of trying to pass Ryan Preece when he was too far back, slowing Sadler and allowing Byron to pass both drivers. When Sadler tried to follow, he made contact with Preece, sending Preece sideways and Sadler into the wall. After that Byron pulled away and finished 3rd, ultimately winning the championship and Rookie of the Year honors while winning four races at Iowa, Daytona, Indianapolis, and Phoenix.
Tyler Reddick (2018)
Tyler Reddick was signed to a full-time schedule for the 2018 Xfinity season, replacing William Byron, who was promoted to the Monster Energy NASCAR Cup Series. On February 17, 2018, Reddick beat teammate Elliott Sadler in a photo finish to win the season-opening race at Daytona. At a margin of .0004 seconds, it is the closest finish in NASCAR history. At the Ford EcoBoost 300, Reddick took advantage of pitting while leader Cole Custer stayed longer than him and won the race while also winning the championship, joining Chase Elliott and William Byron as the third different driver to win the championship and Rookie of the Year honors in the No. 9. Despite winning the championship, Reddick opted to leave JRM for Richard Childress Racing in 2019, winning his second Xfinity championship that year before jumping to the Cup Series in 2020.
Noah Gragson (2019–2022)
On December 18, 2018, it was announced that the No. 9 car would be driven by Zane Smith for eight races while other drivers fill out the other 25 races; however, on January 25, 2019, it was announced that Noah Gragson would drive the No. 9 car full-time while Smith will run 8 races in the new No. 8 entry. In his first year with JRM, Gragson scored no wins, but had six top-fives and 22 top-10s while finishing eighth in the points standings.
Gragson began the 2020 season with his first career win at Daytona. He also scored his second victory at Bristol. In addition, Gragson recorded 17 top-fives and 25 top-10s, finishing fifth in the points standings.
The 2021 season for Gragson began with a 32nd place finish at Daytona. His run that season was marred by six DNFs, but back-to-back wins at Darlington and Richmond put him in the playoffs for the third season in a row. Gragson won again at Martinsville and finished the season third in the standings.
Gragson began the 2022 season with a third-place finish at Daytona. He also scored wins at Phoenix, Talladega, and Pocono. At Road America, Gragson had an on-road scuffle with Sage Karam, resulting in him triggering a 13-car pileup on lap 25. He was fined 35,000 and docked 30 driver and owner points for the incident. On August 10, 2022, it was announced that Gragson would leave JRM to go drive the Petty GMS Motorsports No. 42 in the NASCAR Cup Series. At the September Darlington race, Gragson won a three-car battle with Sheldon Creed and Kyle Larson on the closing laps. He also won the next three races at Kansas, Bristol, and Texas, becoming the first driver since Sam Ard in 1983 to win four straight Xfinity Series races. Gragson won at Homestead to make his second Championship 4 appearance.
Brandon Jones (2023–present)
On September 14, 2022, it was announced that Brandon Jones would depart Joe Gibbs Racing and replace Gragson in the No. 9 for 2023. Jones' sponsor Menards confirmed they would follow him for the full 2023 season.
No. 9 results
Car No. 83 history
Part-time (2006, 2008)
In 2006, the team fielded the No. 83 team as a part-time second car. The car was driven by Shane Huffman with sponsorship from the Make a Wish Foundation. The car returned in 2008 driven by Dale Earnhardt Jr. with the US Navy sponsoring. In 2010, JR Motorsports and Richard Childress Racing announced that the number would switch from No. 83 to No. 3 with Dale Earnhardt Jr. driving the car at Daytona in July with Wrangler sponsoring the car. This was a tribute to Dale Earnhardt, being inducted into the NASCAR Hall of Fame in May. Earnhardt Jr. won the race in the No. 3 car.
No. 83 results
Car No. 88 history
Multiple Drivers (2005-2007)
The No. 88 debuted in 2005 at the Ford 300 with Mark McFarland driving with sponsorship from the United States Navy, qualifying eighteenth and finishing twentieth. McFarland was named the full-time driver and had a seventh-place finish at Talladega Superspeedway, but was replaced by Shane Huffman after twenty-one races, with Martin Truex Jr. and Robby Gordon filling-in for certain races. Huffman was hired as the full-time driver in 2007, and had two top-ten finishes before he was released from the ride as well.
Brad Keselowski (2007–2009)
Brad Keselowski, son of former Craftsman Truck Series driver Bob Keselowski, was hired to replace Huffman for three races, with SCCA driver Andy Pilgrim to be in the car for the road course races in Montreal and Watkins Glen. Keselowski then returned at his hometown track Michigan. He was involved in a hard crash at Fontana, in which he was tagged by a spinning car, collided head first and then driver side with the turn 1 wall, temporarily was airborne, and then rode the guardrail while his car was on fire before coming to a stop. Keselowski was taken to a local hospital, and was later cleared to race at Richmond the next week. Keselowski finished the season with five top-ten finishes
Keselowski signed a two-year contract with JR Motorsports with the Navy returning as sponsor in 2008. He won his first race at Nashville Superspeedway and later picked up another win at Bristol Motor Speedway, finishing third in points but lost the Navy sponsorship for 2009. GoDaddy.com and Delphi Corporation sponsored the No. 88 for a total of 24 races in 2009, with Unilever brands sponsoring 11 races on the No. 88 car. Keselowski won four races and finished third in points for the second consecutive season before leaving for Penske Racing.
Multiple drivers (2010)
At the end of the 2009 season, Kelly Bires signed a two-year contract to drive for JR Motorsports in the No. 88 Chevy through 2011, with Earnhardt eager to see what Bires could do in his equipment. Bires drove the No. 5 Ragu Chevy for Junior at Homestead in preparation for running full-time in 2010. Due to sponsorship obligations with Unilever and their Hellmann's Mayonnaise brand, owner Dale Earnhardt Jr. ran the No. 88 car at the 2010 season opener at Daytona and Danica Patrick ran the No. 7 car with her sponsor GoDaddy.com, forcing Bires to sit out. In his debut at Fontana, Bires scored a seventh-place finish. Even more curious than his missing Daytona was when Bires was removed from the No. 88 car in favor of Cup driver Jamie McMurray after only five races run, with only one finish below 17th (a crash at Las Vegas). Earnhardt Jr. cited chemistry issues between Bires, JR Motorsports management, and the team including Tony Eury Sr. and Jr., and implied that Bires was taking a seat from "the next Brad Keselowski, the next Jeff Gordon." Bires was the third young driver to be hastily removed from the 88 car. Elliott Sadler, Greg Sacks, Aric Almirola, Steve Arpin, Coleman Pressley, Dale Earnhardt Jr. and Ron Fellows all ran races in the car to finish out the season. The No. 88 team took home one win in 2010, with McMurray victorious in the Great Clips 300 at Atlanta. They also came close to winning the inaugural race at Road America with Ron Fellows.
Aric Almirola (2010–2011)
Former DEI development driver Aric Almirola moved up from the Truck Series to drive the car full-time in 2011 as a part of a 2-year deal. With sponsorship from Unilever, Grand Touring Vodka, and TaxSlayer, Almirola ended up fourth in points in his first full-time season.
Cole Whitt (2012)
Almirola then left JRM after 2011 to join Richard Petty Motorsports in the Cup Series, while the No. 88 was taken by former Red Bull development driver Cole Whitt in 2012 for his rookie season. Whitt had a consistent rookie season despite switching crew chiefs from Tony Eury Sr. to Bruce Cook. Whitt recorded a best finish of 4th at Daytona, Talladega, and Michigan, finishing 7th in the point standings but lost the Rookie of the Year battle to Austin Dillon.
Part-time (2013–2014)
With the team unable to find sponsorship for Whitt for 2013, the No. 88 was used by Dale Jr. in his limited Nationwide Series schedule (to keep consistency with his Cup Series number).
Multiple Drivers (2015–2016)
Dale Jr. and Kevin Harvick drove the car for the first two races of the 2014 season before switching the owner's points to the No. 5. In 2015 the No. 5 team became the No. 88 team, and was driven by Dale Jr. in 4 races, Kevin Harvick in 12 races, Kasey Kahne in 7 races, and Ben Rhodes in 10 races. On April 23, 2016, Dale Earnhardt Jr. piloted the No. 88 to victory at Richmond International Raceway, his first Xfinity win in six years and first with JR Motorsports.
Part-time (2017–2018, 2022–present)
It was announced in late-2016 that the No. 88 would be downgraded to a part-time ride for 2017 for Earnhardt Jr. and Kahne.
Chase Elliott drove the No. 88 in the 2018 season opening race at Daytona. Despite being black flagged after losing a window, he still managed to finish 12th. Earnhardt Jr. raced the car at the Federated Auto Parts 250 in Richmond, where he led a race-high 96 laps before finishing in fourth place. Impressed by his finish, Earnhardt Jr. said he will try to run another race in the 2019 season.
With Josh Berry driving the 8 full-time in 2022, Earnhardt Jr. opened a fifth part-time entry for himself at Martinsville and for Miguel Paludo at three of the road courses. Three Hendrick Motorsports drivers: Chase Elliott, William Byron, and Kyle Larson drove the No. 88 at select races. Elliott did not qualify for the Darlington spring race, which marked the first time that team did not qualify. Byron finished second at Texas and 26th at New Hampshire. Larson won at Watkins Glen after Byron (driving the Hendrick Motorsports No. 17 entry) and Ty Gibbs spun off-course while fighting for the lead during the final restart.
No. 88 results
Camping World Truck Series
Truck No. 00 history
Multiple Drivers (2015)
On January 12, 2015, JR Motorsports announced that Haas Racing Development driver Cole Custer would drive a truck for the team in 10 races in 2015, marking the team's first foray into the Camping World Truck Series. Trucks were acquired from former Hendrick development partner Turner Scott Motorsports after that team ceased operations. The team operated out of a satellite facility in Mooresville, North Carolina. The truck's number (No. 00) and sponsor (Haas Automation) both came with the team from Haas Racing.Under NASCAR's age requirement rules for the Truck Series, the 17-year-old Custer ran 10 races, all at tracks under in length (and Gateway Motorsports Park), with the team planning a full-time run in 2016 for the championship. Kasey Kahne, Kevin Harvick, Kyle Larson, Alex Bowman, and Jeb Burton also ran races in the No. 00 truck. The No. 00 ran 15 races, winning twice: with Kahne at Charlotte in May, and with Custer at Gateway in June.
Cole Custer (2016)
In 2016, Custer went full time in the No. 00 and won the pole at Canadian Tire Motorsports Park, and looked to be the truck to beat. After leading the most laps, it seemed as though Custer would score his first win of the season and a spot in the inaugural chase, until John Hunter Nemechek put Custer into the grass and into the fence to win the race. After the race, Custer tackled Nemechek to the ground and was soon separated by NASCAR officials. No fines or penalties would be handed out to either driver.
In early January 2017, JRM announced the end of their participation in truck racing - to focus fully on their Xfinity Series entries.
No. 00 results
Truck No. 49 history
In 2016, the team fielded a second truck numbered 49 for Nick Drake, like Cole Custer a Haas Racing Development driver, beginning at Dover. The entry was fielded in a collaboration with Premium Motorsports, a fellow Truck Series team which normally runs the No. 49. Drake's paint scheme is similar to Cole Custer's, with the same Haas Automation sponsorship. In Drake's first career start at Dover, he finished a solid 16th. Drake made his second start at Iowa Speedway. The truck did not make any other starts with JR Motorsports equipment. Like the No. 00, the No. 49 was shut down due to sponsor Haas Automation leaving the team.
Truck No. 71 history
In 2016, JR Motorsports entered a second truck in collaboration with Contreras Motorsports for Chase Elliott in the Texas Roadhouse 200 at Martinsville Speedway
with NAPA and Valvoline as co-sponsors. Elliott started on the pole and led 109 of 200 laps before finishing in 2nd.
Cup Series speculation
During a press conference at Lowe's Motor Speedway on May 16, 2008, Earnhardt stated that once the Nationwide (now Xfinity) Series started using the Car of Tomorrow chassis, which debuted in July 2010 at the Daytona International Speedway, his Nationwide teams would possibly leave the series, due to the costs of switching cars. When asked if he would move JR Motorsports to the Sprint Cup Series, Earnhardt said that due to the Xfinity Series and Sprint Cup Series almost having the same expensive costs, he might move the team to the Sprint Cup Series as early as 2009 "if the right opportunity comes along with the right sponsorship and driver...". However, JR Motorsports did not end up moving their team to Sprint Cup and has remained in the Xfinity and Camping World Truck Series, partially due to NASCAR's Cup Series limit of four cars per team owner. Because Rick Hendrick has an ownership stake in JR Motorsports and already fields the maximum of four cars with Hendrick Motorsports, JR Motorsports cannot field an entry in the Cup Series without Hendrick releasing his interest in the team. However, on April 11, 2021, Earnhardt Jr. hinted that JR Motorsports may move up to the Cup Series, given the proposed savings associated with the debut of the Next-Gen car in 2022. The challenges for the team are acquiring a charter, not continuing their professional relationship with Rick Hendrick (as a JRM Cup team with Hendrick's involvement would max out the four-car limit of Hendrick Motorsports), and securing sponsorship for a Cup program.
Other racing series
ARCA Menards Series
JRM has competed in six ARCA Racing Series events. Landon Cassill made the team debut in 2008 driving the No. 88 Chevrolet at Daytona and finished 7th. He returned at Talladega but finished 39th due to a crash.
The team would not compete in 2009 but returned for the 2010 ARCA Racing Series' season. Danica Patrick drove the No. 7 car at Daytona and finished 6th.
The team did not run between 2011 and 2014 but returned in 2015 with Cole Custer behind the wheel of the No. 00 Chevrolet. Custer made the pole position and led 15 laps but finished 5th at New Jersey Motorsports Park. He returned at the first Pocono race but finished 24th due to an axle problem. He then returned for the second Pocono race, started 5th, and won the race, after leading 18 laps. That win was the first and only win of JR Motorsports in ARCA. That race also was the last of the team in ARCA.
CARS Tour/NASCAR Advanced Auto Parts Weekly Series
JR Motorsports has fielded a regional late model program since 2002.
JR Motorsports fields the No. 88 Chevrolet driven by Josh Berry and various other drivers in Late Models. Berry, who has driven for JRM since 2010, captured the 2012 Motor Mile Speedway championship in the NASCAR Advance Auto Parts Weekly Series, the first championship for JRM at any level, running 18 races while collecting 6 poles and 15 top 5 finishes. Berry scored a second track championship at Hickory Motor Speedway in 2014. William Byron scored a single victory to finish runner up to Berry for the NASCAR-sanctioned track championship at Hickory. Pierce, who finished second in his Camping World Truck Series debut in the Mudsummer Classic at Eldora Speedway during the 2015 season, made his debut with JRM that year at Hickory Motor Speedway.
Christian Eckes ran the No. 1 Chevrolet for the 2016 season finishing 4th in the championship behind Berry in 3rd.
Anthony Alfredo was the Late Model development driver for the 2017 CARS Tour season, running the No. 8, and would go on to win two races and finish a close second in the championship to teammate Josh Berry.
On January 18, 2018, JRM announced the replacement of Anthony Alfredo, who announced the same day that he was moving to the K&N Series with MDM Motorsports, with 14-year-old Sam Mayer, which later on that year made his K&N Series debut and drove for MDM in his third race in the K&N Series. On August 4, 2018, Mayer will drive the 28 and Berry will drive the 73 for the throwback weekend at Hickory Motor Speedway. Mayer went on to collect one win and finish 5th in the standings behind Berry in 4th in his No. 8 Chevrolet.
Adam Lemke ran the new No. 98 in 2019 and unfortunately struggled for most of the season and finished 9th in the standings and missed two races.
Connor Mosack ran the No. 98 in the final race of 2019 and would go on to run full-time in 2020 at first in the No. 8 but would start running the No. 88 after Berry focused on an Advance Auto Parts Weekly Series National Championship, he finished 6th in the standings.
William Cox III was announced to run for JR Motorsports full-time in the CARS Tour for 2021, however he was released 4 races in and was replaced by Conner Jones for majority of the remaining races. Josh Berry ran a few late model races also in 2021.
Carson Kvapil, son of former NASCAR Camping World Truck Series champion Travis Kvapil, will run the No. 8 full-time in 2022 after closing the 2021 season for the team.
JRM's late model program has fielded rides for current NASCAR spotter T. J. Majors and Jeremy McGrath. It is currently overseen by Kelley Earnhardt Miller's husband, L. W. Miller.
Speed 1
In 2007, JR Motorsports supplied cars for Speed Channel's NASCAR coverage. The Speed 1 fleet for NASCAR RaceDay included a pair of fourth-generation cars for superspeedways and intermediate tracks each, and a Car of Tomorrow. Speed 1 was driven by Hermie Sadler.
References
External links
Interview with Dale Earnhardt Jr. & Brad Keselowski by Joshua Hudson, July 2008, G.I. Jobs Magazine
Dale Jr.
2002 establishments in North Carolina
Auto racing teams in the United States
Companies based in North Carolina
Dale Earnhardt Jr.
NASCAR teams
ARCA Menards Series teams
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans-Werner%20Sinn
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Hans-Werner Sinn
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Hans-Werner Sinn (born 7 March 1948) is a German economist who served as President of the Ifo Institute for Economic Research from 1999 to 2016. He currently serves on the German economy ministry’s advisory council. He is Professor Emeritus of Economics and Public Finance at the University of Munich.
Education and career
After studying economics at the University of Münster from 1967 to 1972 and receiving his doctorate from the University of Mannheim in 1978, Sinn was awarded the venia legendi in 1983, also from the University of Mannheim.
Since 1984 Sinn has been full professor in the faculty of economics at the University of Munich (LMU), first holding the chair for economics and insurance, and from 1994 the chair for economics and public finance. During leaves of absence from Mannheim and Munich he held visiting professorships (1978/79 and 1984/85) at the University of Western Ontario in Canada. During sabbaticals he was also visiting researcher at the London School of Economics, as well as at Bergen, Stanford, Princeton and Jerusalem Universities. The University of Magdeburg, the University of Helsinki, the HHL Leipzig Graduate School of Management and the University of Economics in Prague have all awarded him honorary doctorates. Since 1988 he has been honorary professor of the University of Vienna, where he has given many lectures and since 2017 he has been "permanent guest professor" at the University of Lucerne, Switzerland. In 2008 he was knighted with the Bavarian Maximilian Order for Science and Art, and in 2013 he was awarded the Ludwig Erhard Prize by the Ludwig-Erhard Foundation. From 1 February 1999 to 31 March 2016, Sinn was president of the Ifo Institute for Economic Research. The Leibniz Association, the umbrella organization for Germany's federally funded research institutions, extolled his turnaround of Ifo after having taken over the presidency at a highly critical juncture in the institute's history, bringing it back to a level of "very good, in some cases even excellent, research output" and turning it into "one of Europe's leading economic research institutes". In 2006 he became president of the International Institute of Public Finance, a position he held until 2009. From 1997 to 2000 Sinn headed the Verein für Socialpolitik, the association of German-speaking economists. He reformed the Verein für Socialpolitik and actively promoted the internationalization of economic science in the German-speaking countries. During his presidency he founded two journals – the German Economic Review and the Perspektiven der Wirtschaftspolitik -, initiated the Gossen prize to honor young economists that publish internationally and created a scholarship programme to financially support international conference presentations of young economists.
In 1991 he founded the Center for Economic Studies at the University of Munich. It was intended to serve as a visitors’ center for academic economists invited from all over the world for research and teaching in Munich. On the basis of CES he founded the first German Graduate Programme in Economics, which has been compulsory for all Ph.D. students of the faculty. Since 1999, when he became president of the Ifo Institute, CES and the Ifo Institute have met under an umbrella organisation, the CESifo Group, to build bridges between theoretical and empirical economic investigation and between researchers from all over the world. He founded the international CESifo Research Network. With its more than 1000 Professors of Economics from 63 countries it is among the largest international research networks of this kind. It publishes more than 500 research reports and organizes around 25 conferences per year. The Dutch Economist and former State Secretary of Education, Science and Culture of the Netherlands Rick van Ploeg honored Sinn's contribution to strengthening Economics as a subject in Germany and continental Europe.
Sinn is fellow of the National Bureau of Economic Research in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and was the first German-speaking economist to deliver the Yrjö Jahnsson Lectures in Helsinki (1999) and the Tinbergen Lectures in Amsterdam (2004).
Sinn topped a ranking of German economist provided by the Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung (FAZ) in 2013, 2014 and 2015. The FAZ's ranking named him "Germany's most influential economist of 2014", arguing that "no other economics researcher in Germany has such a high profile in the media and politics and is also active in research." Since his retirement in 2016 he has occupied the second rank. In the 2006 Handelsblatt ranking of German economists (Ökonomen-Ranking VWL), based on cross citations of SSCI papers in SSCI journals, Sinn ranked fourth. In a study by Ursprung and Zimmer, based on SSCI citations per author of the full oeuvre, Sinn ranked second of all German economists, after Nobel laureate Reinhard Selten. In the RePEc database he is the German economist most frequently quoted in academic works. In a survey conducted by the Financial Times Deutschland among more than 550 German economic experts, Sinn was one of the two professors in Germany (the other was Herbert Giersch) to attract a large following of academic pupils, and in terms of political influence he ranked only behind Bert Rürup at the top of the list of German professors. The British newspaper The Independent nominated him as one of the "ten people who changed the world" in 2011. In its latest evaluation of the Ifo Institute, the Leibniz Association praised Sinn as one of "Germany’s most renowned economists, who constantly succeeds in bringing the most varied economic issues to public debate".
Sinn has published 85 scholarly articles in refereed journals including the American Economic Review, the Quarterly Journal of Economics, the Journal of Monetary Economics and the Journal of Public Economics. He wrote 36 scholarly articles for refereed conference volumes, 23 scholarly comments for refereed journals and conference volumes, and about 200 academic policy papers in various outlets. He authored 11 refereed scholarly monographs and 10 non-refereed scholarly monographs. In addition, he has written numerous newspaper articles and given many interviews. Moreover, he has made longer contributions for radio and television and has made many talk-show appearances. More than twenty articles on his person have been published in German and foreign newspapers. His 2003 book "" has stimulated policy discussion in Germany and influenced the Agenda 2010 reforms. With more than 100,000 copies in print, the book is one of the most popular public policy monographs in recent history. It has also been published in English as "Can Germany be Saved?" by MIT Press in 2007. As a reaction to the criticism of his book in the media, Sinn wrote a follow-up book in 2005, "Die Basarökonomie". His book the Green Paradox and his prior research on this topic triggered a worldwide debate, as did Sinn's research on Target balances, which is summarised in his book Die Target Falle. Sinn's book Casino Capitalism was named as one of the 50 best economics books of all time by Handelsblatt. His book "The Euro Trap: On Bursting Bubbles, Budgets, and Beliefs", published by Oxford University Press in 2014, reviews the effects of the adoption of the euro as a common currency and, in particular, the policy measures undertaken to combat the euro crisis. The book was hailed as "perhaps the most important scholarly book on the euro in at least a decade" by Kenneth Rogoff. He is also a regular contributor to Project Syndicate since 2002.
Since 1989 Sinn has served on the Advisory Council of the German Ministry of Economics, and represented the Free State of Bavaria on the Board of Supervisors of HypoVereinsbank for ten years.
In February 2018 his autobiography entitled „Auf der Suche nach der Wahrheit“ (“In Search of the Truth“) was published in German language on the occasion of his 70th birthday.
Sinn lives with his wife near Munich. They have three adult children.
Research
With the exception of his diploma dissertation, also published in a journal, on the Marxian Law of the tendencial decline of the rate of profit, Sinn dealt in his early years particularly with economic risk theory. He made a name for himself with his dissertation "Ökonomische Entscheidungen bei Ungewissheit" (1980), published in English as "Economic Decisions under Uncertainty" (1983), with numerous spin-off articles. Subsequent work focused on the axiomatic basis of mean-variance analysis, on the foundation of the principle of insufficient reason, on the psychological foundation of risk preference functions and on the analysis of risk decisions under limited liability, which he subsequently developed into a theory of bank regulation in his Yrjö Jahnsson Lectures, "The New Systems Competition". In 2003, in the journal FinanzArchiv, he touched off an academic debate on banking regulation in which he was criticised by market-oriented economists for his favouring of stronger banking regulation to prevent excessive risk-taking. With his dissertation in 1977 on excess risk propensity under liability restrictions, Sinn, in the opinion of Martin Hellwig, preceded the pioneering analysis of Stiglitz and Weiss of 1981. His work in this area was again published as a reprint volume in 2008. On the basis of his research on risk theory, Sinn developed his influential theory of the insurer state, in which he interpreted the redistributing activity of the state via the tax-transfer system as insurance protection, showing that this activity can have a favourable influence on people's willingness to take productive risks. His work on the Theory of the Welfare State in 1995 is considered an important contribution on the legitimacy of state redistribution activity.
Sinn has published numerous studies on the theory of economic cycles, environmental economics, foreign trade issues, including ones on the so-called asset approach and on the micro foundations of a model of temporary general equilibrium.
Problems of longer-term economic growth were also on his research agenda. Sinn was the first economist to formulate the central-planning model of economic growth in the tradition of Robert Solow as a general equilibrium model with decentrally optimizing agents and market clearing conditions in an article published in German in 1980 and two years later in English, and before similar work by Chamley in 1981 and Abel and Blanchard in 1983.
His study on the stimulating effects of accelerated depreciation and the various components of capital income taxation on intertemporal, international, and intersectoral allocation is still considered one of the standard works in this field.
Sinn contributed to the discussion on German pension reform with his article "Pension Reform and Demographic Crisis. Why a Funded System is Needed and Why it is Not Needed" published in 2000. Here, with the help of present-value equivalents, he showed that the low returns from statutory pension insurance based on the pay-as-you-go method has only an apparent efficiency disadvantage in comparison to a capitally funded procedure. This finding was further developed in a number of subsequent studies.
Recently Sinn has turned to the problem of the global warming in an article "Public Policies against Global Warming" and in his book "Das grüne Paradoxon" (the English version, The Green Paradox, was published by MIT Press in 2012). In these studies Sinn developed a supply-side theory of climate change by linking climate-theory approaches with the theory of exhaustible natural resources. His "green paradox" states that environmental policies that promote substitute technologies over time with increasing intensity (and in the process lower the prices for fossil fuels relative to the values they otherwise would have obtained) will induce the resource suppliers to accelerate extraction, thus contributing to global warming.
Economic policy positions
In 2005 he was one of the first German economists to sign the "Hamburger Appell", which argued for fundamental supply-side reforms and rejected demand-oriented concepts of economic policy. At the same time Sinn employs the instruments of Keynesian demand theory for his analyses of economic activity. With his studies on pension insurance, in which he argued for partial capital funding, as well as by providing direct advice to the Federal Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs (through CES, his university institute) and by contributing to an expertise on pensions for the Ministry of Economics, Sinn had a hand in the introduction of the "Riester-Rente", a privately financed pension scheme support by the German government in the form of grants and tax deductions.
In 2003 he saw Germany's attractiveness as an investment location endangered by too high labour costs and called for structural reforms of the labour market. These include escape clauses for collective wage agreements, the abolition of dismissal protection laws and longer working hours without wage compensation. He has also criticised the employment-restricting effects of the German wage replacement system. As an alternative he developed in 2002 the model of activating social welfare. His policy recommendations influenced the Agenda 2010 reforms. According to Prof. Wolfgang Wiegard, then chairman of the Council of Economic Advisors, his work was the blueprint for the Agenda 2010 reforms.
Sinn has called the German economy a "bazaar economy" because the share of input from abroad in German industrial production is on the increase. At the same time he points out that this is not to be equated with a breaking off of value added in exports. Instead Germany has decimated its domestic sector via excessive wage increases and has driven excess amounts of capital and skilled labour into the labour and knowledge-intensive export sectors, where fewer less-skilled workers can be employed as have been set free in the domestic sectors. At the expense of the domestic sectors, Germany has inflated value added in exports too strongly and at the same time has placed too much emphasis on the final stages of production. As a result, a pathological export boom occurred.
The world economic crisis is traced back by Sinn to abuse of liability limitation by American investment banks. The lack of capital reserve requirements gave these banks the possibility to pursue their business with inadequate capital reserves and encouraged them to gamble. In addition the lack of personal liability for homeowners created in a similar way an exaggerated willingness to take risks and thus caused the United States housing bubble. To correct this situation Sinn has called for considerably higher capital reserve requirements, the balancing of offshore business and a return to the accounting principle of the lower of cost of the German Commercial Code (HGB).
Against the background of the Great Recession, Sinn advocates a return to the tradition of ordoliberalism and of ordoliberal economists like Walter Eucken, Alfred Müller-Armack, Alexander Rüstow, and Ludwig Erhard, who argued a strong state should provide a framework or economic order inside which market forces and free market competition can develop. Markets do not regulate themselves (Selbstregulierung), but are capable of self-controlled processes (Selbststeuerung) inside an institutional framework provided by the state.
Sinn accuses the Greens of pursuing environmental protection policies with unsuitable means and of ignoring the economic laws of the European emissions trading system as well as the worldwide market for fossil fuel. In his book, The Green Paradox, he argues for including all countries of the world in a post-Kyoto, joint emissions trading system. He also favours employing a withholding tax on the yields of financial investments to curb the desire of the resource providers to extract more fossil fuels.
During the 10th Munich Economic Summit in May 2011, Sinn alleged that the ECB had been conducting what he termed a "stealth bailout" of Greece, Ireland, Portugal and Spain for the past three years, financing capital flight and/or current account deficits by allowing them to accumulate massive liabilities in their TARGET2 accounts. He subsequently published his views in the press and specialized websites, followed by a working paper that analyzed the issue in detail. He also discussed Germany's capital exports since the introduction of the euro and the prospects such exports could face if the euro crisis continues and leads to the introduction of Eurobonds, which he opposes. While drawing much acclaim for his focusing on Target2 imbalances, the conclusions he draws have been fiercely opposed by Karl Whelan. Whelan in turn was accused by Frank Westermann of seriously misquoting Sinn, while repeating basically Sinn's own findings with his own words.
Controversy
In July 2012, Sinn was one of the eventually more than 270 signatories of an open letter written by Walter Krämer of the Technical University of Dortmund against Chancellor Angela Merkel’s Brussels agreement on direct recapitalization for ailing European banks. Economics professors Frank Heinemann of Berlin and Gerhard Illing of Munich drafted a public answer, arguing that a "banking union" in the sense of common supervision was, in fact, critical to saving the euro, but they also objected to bank recapitalisation using the taxpayers' money. This letter also attracted more than 200 signatories from the banking and the academic communities. The "momentous tiff", as The Economist dubbed it, has in the meantime become more nuanced, with Krämer and Sinn publishing a more muted version in which they endorsed a banking union based on the bail-in principle. Sinn joined Heinemann and Krämer in publishing a joint appeal on the issue in Plenum der Ökonomen, an internet forum of German professional economists.
Public influence
According to a poll conducted jointly by the Financial Times Deutschland and the Verein für Socialpolitik (the German economics association) among 550 German economics experts in 2006, "only two representatives of our profession exert an appreciable influence on policymaking: Bert Rürup and Hans-Werner Sinn". A study in 2007 placed Sinn, in terms of number of citations in scientific journals, second to German Nobel laureate Reinhard Selten. The British newspaper The Independent named Sinn among the ten most important people who changed the world in 2011.
The German Business weekly WirtschaftsWoche ranked Sinn in 2011 as number 62 among the 100 most powerful people in Germany, and placed him in the No. 1 position among the "Most Important Economists" in the country. In 2012, he was included in the 50 Most Influential list of Bloomberg Markets Magazine. In 2013, the Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung placed Sinn first on their list of economist with most political influence. According to an inquiry of the German magazine Cicero published in January 2017, Sinn occupies the 4th rang in a list of the most important German intellectuals with respect to their influence on the public dialogue in the past ten years.
Affiliations
President of the International Institute of Public Finance (2006–2009)
European Economic Advisory Group at CESifo (since 2001)
North Rhine-Westphalian Academy of Sciences (since 2001)
Bavarian Academy of Sciences, historical-philosophical division (since 1996)
National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER), Cambridge, Massachusetts, Research Associate
Member of the Advisory Council of the German Ministry of Economics (since 1989)
Awards
Karl-Hermann-Flach-Prize, Karl-Hermann-Flach Foundation (April 2022)
Honorary Doctorate, University of Lucerne, Lucerne (November 2021)
Friedrich-List-Medal in gold, Federal Association of German Business Academics and Economists (bdvb) (2017)
Honorary Doctorate, University of Economics, Prague (February 2017)
Professor of the year 2015, German Association of University Professors and Lecturers (Deutscher Hochschulverband)
Honorary Doctorate, HHL Leipzig Graduate School of Management (Juli 2013)
Honorary Doctorate, University of Helsinki (2011)
Gustav Stolper Prize of Verein für Socialpolitik (2008)
Europe Prize of University of Maastricht (2008)
Bavarian Maximilian Order for Science and Art (2008)
The World Economy Annual Lecture, University of Nottingham (2005)
German Federal Cross of Merit, first class (2005)
CORINE International Book Prize (2004)
Tinbergen Lectures, Royal Netherlands Economic Association (2004)
Economics Book Prize of the Financial Times Deutschland and getAbstract AG (2003)
Honorary Award of the Wirtschaftsbeirates der Union e. V. (2003)
Stevenson Lectures on Citizenship, University of Glasgow (2000)
Distinguished Scholar, Atlantic Economic Society (2000)
German Federal Cross of Merit, on ribbon, (1999)
Yrjö Jahnsson Lectures, University of Helsinki (1999)
Honorary doctorate (Dr. rer. pol. h.c.), University of Magdeburg (1999)
Special Prize of the Herbert Quandt Foundation (1997)
Honorary Professorship, University of Vienna (1988)
First Prize of the University of Mannheim for Habilitation dissertation (1984, Schitag Foundation)
First Prize of the University of Mannheim for doctoral dissertation (1979, Rheinische Hypothekenbank Foundation)
Top 500 Economists in the World according to IDEAS/RePEc
Selected publications
Sinn, Hans Werner (2016). Der Schwarze Juni: Brexit, Flüchtlingswelle, Euro-Desaster - Wie die Neugründung Europas gelingt, Herder, München 2016, .
Sinn, Hans Werner (2018). Auf der Suche nach der Wahrheit, Herder: München, p. 672. .
References
External links
Personal website
Column archive at Project Syndicate
Google Scholar
Bringing Down the House, Review of Casino Capitalism by John Feddersen in the Oxonian Review, 4 April 2011, Archived from the original on 25 April 2011.
Farewell interview "Ich bereue nichts" (in German), faz.net, 21 December 2015.
1948 births
Living people
German economists
Economics educators
Environmental economists
University of Münster alumni
Officers Crosses of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
People from the Province of Westphalia
German male non-fiction writers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western%20Caspian%20University
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Western Caspian University
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Western Caspian University () is a private university in Baku, Azerbaijan. Founded in 1991 by Husein Baghirov, it has six schools, 25 majors, 180 faculty and approximately 1500 students. The university took its name because it is modeled after Western universities in style of instruction and values, the latter in response to some of the corrupt practices under the Soviet system. Much of the instruction is conducted in English.
In the late 1990s, the school partnered with American universities, such as Indiana University, to help set up its programs in business and law. Many of its partnerships were formed through the now defunct United States Information Agency. Currently, the school has ties with Indiana University, University of Kansas, Mississippi Valley State University, University of North Alabama and Delta State University.
History
Foundation
Founded in 1991, Western Caspian University is one of the first private higher education institutions established in Azerbaijan.
The university became a member of several significant institutions, including the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization – UNESCO (1992); the European Development Fund (EDF) (the European Centre for Development Policy Management – ECDPM) (1996); The Black Sea Universities Network (BSUN, 1999); The International Institute of Administrative Sciences (IIAS, 2000), and The European Association for Tourism and Leisure Education (ATLAS). Western Caspian University maintains close co-operation with many authoritative international educational institutions.
Founding of this institution was influenced by the socio-political and economic processes passing in Eastern Europe and the CIS area after the collapse of the USSR in 1991.
Organization and administration
Schools, faculties and departments
Western Caspian University offers broad programs at bachelor, master and PhD levels.
The School of High Technologies and Innovative Engineering
The School of High Technologies and Innovative Engineering was founded in 1991, entitled "The School of Mathematics and Computer Technologies.”
During its activity, the school trained specialists in Information Science and Computer Engineering, IT and Systems Engineering, as well as Computer Engineering and Information Technology specialists. In 2017, the department was renamed as The School of High Technologies and Innovative Engineering. Presently, the following specialisations are available at the school:
Bachelor (Undergraduate) Programs
Computer Engineering;
Information Technologies;
Mechanical Engineering;
Ecological Engineering;
Construction of Engineering Systems and Facilities Engineering;
Instrumentation Engineering;
Electronics, Telecommunications and Radio Engineering;
Mechatronics & Robotics Engineering;
Recycling and Restoration Technologies Engineering;
Polygraph Engineering;
System Engineering;
Engineering of Forest Products and Wood Processing Technologies;
Consumer Goods Expertise and Marketing;
Forestry;
Land, Soil and Urban Cadastre;
Biology.
Master (Postgraduate) Programs
Management Information Systems;
Agriculture and Environmental Protection.
PhD Programs
System Analysis, Management and Information processing.
The School of Architecture and Design
The School of Architecture and Design was established in 2017 at Western University. This school was founded under the auspices of the Design Department that had functioned since 1996.
The following specialisations are available at the school for Bachelor, Master, PhD and doctoral studies:
Bachelor Programs
Design
Architecture
Master Programs
Design and Technical Aesthetics
PhD and Doctoral Studies
Technical Aesthetics and Design
School of Economics
Activities in this field have been conducted since the first day of Western Caspian University. Various specialisations are available at the school – such as “Economy”, “Finance and Accounting”, “Management” and “Consumer Goods and Expertise in Marketing”.
The school provides specialisation in the following subject areas:
Bachelor level
World Economy
Economy
Public and Municipal Administration
Industrial Engineering and Management
Consumer Goods, Expertise in Marketing
Master level
International Economic Relations
Legal Regulation of the Economy
International Financial and Currency Credit Relations
PhD level
World Economy
Local Economy
Business School
The Business School provides training in the following specialisations:
Bachelor level
Finance
Management
Business Administration
Tourism and Hotel Management
Accounting and Auditing
Master level
Business Organization and Administration
Business Administration
Tax and Taxation
Financial Control and Auditing
Innovation and Project Management
Tourism and Socio-Cultural Services
International Tourism and Regional Ethnography
PhD level
Domestic Fiscal Policy and State Finance
Department of Philology and Translation
This department has been entitled as the Department of Western Languages since 1996. Students are trained in philology (English language and philology) and translation (English, German, French). Since 2017, the department has continued its activity as the School of Philology and Translation.
The main direction of the department is training philologists, including translators of business, management, political studies, sociology and law.
In general, nine languages are taught at the school: Azerbaijani, English, German, French, Russian, Latin, Chinese, Spanish and Finnish. Foreign specialists – native speakers – are available to improve students’ language skills.
Currently, tuition is provided in the following disciplines at the faculty:
Bachelor Programs
Philology (English language and literature);
Translation (English, German, French);
Philology (Azerbaijani language and literature)
Teaching of English Language and Literature
Master Programs
Translation
Language Studies
Literary Studies
PhD and Doctoral Studies
Germanic Languages
World Literature
School of Political and Public Sciences
The Department of Political Sciences had been the training, science and administrative division at Western University since day one. It led training at bachelor's and master's degree levels in the fields of Political Studies, Psychology, Regional Studies, International Journalism, International Relations and so on.
International programs
Along with local specialists, the university regularly invites specialists from the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, Netherland and other countries, to deliver training and lectures.
Short and long term education projects internationally create opportunities for participation in education programs abroad. Presently, within the Erasmus+ and Movlana Exchange projects, students of the university study at the leading universities of the Czech Republic, Poland, Latvia, Romania, Turkey and Ireland. Western University realizes double diploma projects jointly with Coventry University, Great Britain and London School of Business & Finance in Singapore and the University of business and International Studies (UBIS) in Switzerland.
Today, Western University's international network embraces more than 200 world authoritative education institutions. International cooperative and bilateral activities include bachelor and master courses, articulation and development agreements, the Erasmus+ and Movlana Exchange projects and others.
Academic profile
Scientific research institutes
The university regularly encourages scientific research. Two research institutes under the university – Continuous Human Development Institute, and Landscape Research Institute carry out scientific researches.
Laboratories and centres
Western Caspian University is provided with modern, progressive laboratories and research centres.
Physics and Electronics Laboratory – creates an opportunity for students to carry out fundamental scientific calculations, extend and enhance their knowledge and application of the fundamentals of electronics and the laws of physics.
The main aim of laboratory research is to facilitate understanding of the importance of knowledge in physics through real experiments carried out by appropriate instruments and equipment, as well as to make students aware of the necessary methods and means to carry out research in physics.
The Geomathic Centre is a unique centre at the university. Establishment of the centre aims to provide students with necessary software and technical skills for gathering information on Geoscience. Such laboratories were initially created at the end of the XX century, as there was a great demand for geoinformation. Meeting increasing demands for geographic information was possible only through integration of new technological opportunities for conducting traditional field-research activities. Geomathic centres ensure such kind of integration; they play a key role in conducting scientific-research activities in geographic information systems, distance space-air research, geodesy and mapping, photogrammetry, environment protection.
The university's Centre of Information Technologies is provided with equipment and computers. There is a 3D printer at the centre. Students are able to print items prepared in various formats.
The Science and Innovation Centre successfully implemented several projects in application of scientific and educational innovations.
The mission of the Confucius Centre at Western Caspian University is the promotion of Chinese language and Culture, as well as the development of cultural relations between China and Azerbaijan.
The Language Centre created at Western Caspian University aims to introduce fundamental changes in the teaching and learning process of foreign languages. Conceptually, it has the following format:
to research difficulties and problems in teaching foreign languages;
to realize programs in relations to learning foreign languages abroad at the university;
to establish business relations with leading world language centres, in order to acquire language teaching practice.
Library
The library at Western Caspian University is the richest library in the country. It has more than 60 000 books, more than 500 microforms and other sources of information. More than 16 000 books is available in English.
This library is the first and only library in the Republic to work in correlation with the UN Library.
The UN Library, established in 2016, continues the process of enriching the library fund with various publications of international institutions. The Depositary Library of the UN World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) was established at the university. And Western Caspian University was the first Azerbaijani University whose name was included in the library program.
The UN Convention to Combat Desertification, the UN Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP), the UN Population Fund (UNFPA), Secretary of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change – joint international body of the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and UN Environment Programme (UNEP) adopted a decision to present their publications to the Western Caspian University Library. The publications of these international organizations are regularly received by the library.
At the same time, Western Caspian University joined the Depository Library of The World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO). Within this program, the WIPO sends publications to University twice a year.
Museum of Thor Heyerdahl
The centre has been officially opened during the Thor Heyerdahl Film Festival week, on May 12–20, 2014. It is dedicated to the commemoration of his 100 anniversary.
Museum which is permanently located on the second floor of the main building of Western Caspian Iniversity, contains archive materials related to his activity. It includes documentary films, articles, books about his expeditions, memoirs, handwritten postcards and images from his great journeys, including photos from his visit to Azerbaijan.
The following books about Thor Heyerdal have been translated into the Azerbaijani language by Western Caspian University:
1) The Kon-Tiki Expedition
2) The Ra Expeditions
3) Exploration series I-IX
Student life
Student Youth Organization
Student Youth Organization (SYO) confirmed its efficiency as a democratic student self-governing body system and creator of close relationships between the university administration and students. The SYO acts within the following responsibilities:
Conducting surveys among students, exploring their view-points and wishes;
preparing and introducing comments and proposals on specific problems of students’ life;
protecting the students’ rights and interests (including social interests);
introducing proposals on elimination of negative effects on the quality of the teaching process and causes of legal violation.
Career
The Career and Graduate Coordination Centre offers services on providing practice and career opportunities, ensuring smooth the student-University relationship, hiring a big number of specialists to conduct practical and individual sessions for students and organizing trainings on priority topics.
Western Caspian University welcomes close cooperation with numerous organizations for further internship and employment of students. The key mission of the Students Service Centre is to implement projects with a view to provide intellectual and cultural development, student's capacity building, maintain continuous communication with University alumni.
The centre assists graduates to find job in their specific fields. Information for all students at the university is kept in a database which is updated annually. The centre often initiates meetings with representatives of foreign companies and organizations operating in Azerbaijan. Since its launch, the centre has assisted hundreds of graduates and students to find respective jobs.
Western Caspian University cooperates with major government institutions (Parliament, Ministries and Committees, institutes under Azerbaijan National Academy of Sciences) and banking sector for successful internship activities. Big number of students was later hired by this organizations.
Notable alumni
Many young Azerbaijanis that have achieved success in their careers are alumni of Western Caspian University:
Nargiz Gurbanova, PhD, Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary of the Republic of Azerbaijan to the Republic of Bulgaria
Western Caspian University’s High School
Western Caspian University High School established in 2003 applies the up-to-date methods and curriculum standards.
In addition to the complete secondary education tailored to the high international standards, special emphasis is given to foreign languages – English, French and German. Tuition process applies a variety of interactive and technologically advanced learning tools. Conversation classes with foreign experts create favorable conditions for advanced language learning.
The school is equipped with ICTs, modern laboratories, MimioStudio software and smart boards. The library contains a wide range of science fiction and other related literature.
The high school students and their team leaders are able to participate in summer exchange programs at the Katherine and Kings College of London and English Language School in Beckenham, England.
Thanks to the high-quality training, high school seniors have succeeded in entry examinations (100 percent) over the last 10 years. Some of them were awarded with presidential scholarship for excellent results achieved at the admission exams.
Graduates from the Western University High School achieve the highest scores every year and enter the most prestigious universities not only in Azerbaijan, but also in many countries around the world, such as the University of Texas and James Madison University (US), Czech Technical University in Prague, Istanbul Bilgi University (Turkey), St. Petersburg State University of Industrial Technologies and Design (Russia), Cyprus International University in Northern Cyprus and International University “MITSO”, etc.
The Training Centre at Western Caspian University
The Western Knowledge Training Centre at Western Caspian University runs academic preparatory classes that are conducted by highly qualified specialists and include:
Preparing students to begin University tuition
Training masters
Preparing to pursue a civil service career
Foreign language courses
Preparing to study abroad
Languages courses abroad
Notes
Educational institutions established in 1991
1991 establishments in Azerbaijan
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin%20Kay
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Martin Kay
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Martin Kay (1935 – 8 August 2021) was a computer scientist, known especially for his work in computational linguistics.
Born and raised in the United Kingdom, he received his M.A. from Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1961. In 1958 he started to work at the Cambridge Language Research Unit, one of the earliest centres for research in what is now known as Computational Linguistics. In 1961, he moved to the Rand Corporation in Santa Monica, California, US, where he eventually became head of research in linguistics and machine translation. He left Rand in 1972 to become Chair of the Department of Computer Science at the University of California, Irvine. In 1974, he moved to the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center as a Research Fellow. In 1985, while retaining his position at Xerox PARC, he joined the faculty of Stanford University half-time. He was most recently Professor of Linguistics at Stanford University and Honorary Professor of Computational Linguistics at Saarland University.
Life
He was born in Edgware (Middlesex, Great Britain) in 1935 and he studied linguistics and computational linguistics at Trinity College in Cambridge.
His main interests were translation, both by people and machines, and computational linguistic algorithms, especially in the fields of morphology and syntax.
Work
Kay began his career at the Cambridge language Research Unit in Cambridge, England under Margaret Masterman. In 1961 David G. Hays hired him to work for the RAND Corporation; he subsequently worked for the University of California, Irvine and Xerox PARC. Kay is one of the pioneers of computational linguistics and machine translation. He was responsible for introducing the notion of chart parsing in computational
linguistics, and the notion of unification in linguistics generally.
With Ron Kaplan, he pioneered research and application development in finite-state morphology. He has been a longtime contributor to, and critic of, work on machine translation. In his seminal paper "The Proper Place of Men and Machines in Language Translation," Kay argued for MT systems that were tightly integrated in the human translation process. He was reviewer and critic of EUROTRA, Verbmobil, and many other MT projects.
Kay was a former Chair of the Association of Computational Linguistics and President of the International Committee on Computational Linguistics. He was a Research Fellow at Xerox PARC until 2002. He held an
honorary doctorate of Gothenburg University. Kay received the lifetime Achievement Award of the Association for Computational Linguistics for his sustained role as an intellectual leader of NLP research in 2005.
Achievements and honours
His achievements included the development of chart parsing and functional unification grammar and major contributions to the application of finite state automata in computational phonology and morphology. He was also regarded as a leading authority on machine translation.
His honours included an honorary Doctor of Philosophy from Gothenburg University and the 2005 Association for Computational Linguistics' Lifetime Achievement Award. He was the permanent chairman of the International Committee on Computational Linguistics.
Contributions
1. Martin Kay's "proper" paper [1]
After the ALPAC report in 1966, the conclusion was made as "There is no immediate or predictable prospect of useful MT producing useful translation of general scientific texts." [2] And because of this result, the field of machine translation entered into a dark period. From 1966 to 1976, almost ten years, few researches were done. However, in 1980s, the Renaissance period was coming. [3] "The Proper Place of Men and Machines in Language Translation" attracted more attention on the machine translation. In this paper, new thoughts were achieved about the relationship between machine translation and human translation. At that time, with the application of cheaper computers and broad usage of domains in machine translation, high quality outputs were badly needed. And the theory of Fully Automatic High Quality Translation was just the ideal level for machine translation after the criticisms by Bar-Hillel in his 1960s review of MT progress: "The goal of MT should not be the fully automatic high quality translation (FAHQT) that can replace human translators. Instead, MT should adopt less ambitious goals, e.g. more cost-effective human-machine interaction and aim at enhancement of human translation productivity." [4] The useful of human translation was promoted to a new higher level. According to this thought, Martin Kay proposed a more practical idea about the relationship between human and machine in the process of machine translation, called "translator's amanuensis".
1.1 Two arguments against the useful of machine translation
Because this idea includes the human and machine at the same time, so both computer scientists and linguists have responsibilities to the MT. But "they should never be asked to provide an engineering solution to a problem that they only dimly understand." They just need to achieve "by doing only what can be done with absolute surety and reliability …can be virtually guaranteed to all concerned." As the main parts of the translation, there are two related arguments against the plausibility of machine translation as an industrial enterprise from the point of view of linguistics and computer science.
Two arguments are commonly made for ad hoc solutions to the problems of machine translation. In the former argument, "Ad hoc solutions tend to be based on case-by-case analyses of what linguists call surface phenomena, essentially strings of words, and on real or imagined statistical properties of particular styles of writing and domains of discourse." It is a simple statistical claim that can be dismissed. In the second argument, ad hoc solutions is only alluded to the understanding of the second language by reading text, and was called sorcerer's apprentice, because "this kind of argument is to the effect that the kind of incomplete theory that linguists and computer scientists have been able to provide is often a worse base on which to build practical devices than no theory at all because the theory does not know when to stop." "The main problem with the sorcerer's-apprentice argument is that the decision that a sentence could be translated without analysis can only be made after the fact. Example sentence shows that there is more than one interpretation of a sentence at some level and further analysis shows that there is a single translation that is compatible with each of them. In short, the algorithm required to decide when analysis is required would have to use the results of the very analysis it is designed to avoid."
1.2 The Translator's Amanuensis and translation memory
This is the main part of the paper, for illustrate what is translator's amanuensis, the author showed three aspects: text editing, translation aids, and machine translation.
"Suppose that the translators are provided with a terminal consisting of a keyboard,
a screen, and some way of pointing at individual words and letters. The display on the screen is divided into two windows. The text to be translated appears in the upper window and the translation will be composed in the bottom one." It is the form of the translator's amanuensis which is not a real device and never will. "Both windows behave in the same way. Using the pointing device, the translator can select a letter, word, sentence, line, or paragraph and, by pressing the appropriate key, cause some operation to be visited upon it."
These two figures show the translation process from the initial display to selection.
This device is not simple as these two figures, more special service can be made to translator by it. In the translation aids, the author showed the third figure:
"A relatively trivial addition would be a dictionary. The translator selects a word or sequence of words and gives a command to cause them to be looked up…This new window gives the effect of overlaying some portion of the windows already present. In this case, the new window contains a deceptively simple dictionary entry for the selected word." What's more, the device has many other features. For example, the simplicity of the dictionary entry, words Syntax and Semantics will be included when pointing to symbols, modifiable dictionary entries and the temporary amendments make this device more practical.
Then, machine translation be explained. "One of the options that should be offered to a user of the hypothetical system I have been describing, at a fairly early stage, be a command that will direct the program to translate the currently selected unit. What will happen when this command is given will be different at different stages of the system's development. But a user of the system will always be empowered to intervene in the translation process to the extent that he himself specifies. If he elects not to intervene at all, a piece of text purporting to translate the current unit will be displayed in the lower window of his screen. He will be able to edit this in any way he likes, just as post-editors have done in the past. Alternatively, he may ask to be consulted whenever the program is confronted with a decision of a specified type, when certain kinds of ambiguities are detected, or whatever. On these occasions, the system will put a question to the human translator. He may, for example, ask to be consulted on questions of pronominal reference."
In this part, idea of translation memory was shown as a dictionary operation. "Suppose, for example, that a word is put in the local store – that part of the dictionary that persists only as long as this document is being worked on – if it occurs in the text significantly more frequently than statistics stored in the main dictionary indicate. A phrase will be noted if it occurs two or three times but is not recognized as an idiom or set phrase by the dictionary. By examining the contents of this store before embarking on the translation, a user may hope to get a preview of the difficulties ahead and to make some decisions in advance about how to treat them. These decisions, of course, will be recorded in the store itself. In the course of doing this or, indeed, for any reason whatever, the translator can call for a display of all the units in the text that contain a certain word, phrase, string of characters, or whatever. After all, the most important reference to have when translating a text is the text itself. If the piece of text to be translated next is anything but entirely straightforward, the translator might start by issuing a command causing the system to display anything in the store that might be relevant to it. This will bring to his attention decisions he made before the actual translation started, statistically significant words and phrases, and a record of anything that had attracted attention when it occurred before. Before going on, he can examine past and future fragments of text that contain similar material."
1.3 Expectation of the better performance of the translator's amanuensis
At the end of the paper, Kay mentioned some reasons to expect better performance of this device. First, the system is in a position to draw its human collaborator's attention to the matters most likely to need it, second, the decisions that have to be made in the course of translating a passage are rarely independent, third, one of the most important facilities in the system is the one that keeps track of words and phrases that are used in some special way in the current text.
«A Life in Language». A speech given in acknowledgement of the Lifetime Achievement Award at the 43rd Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 27 June 2005. http://www.stanford.edu/~mjkay/LifeOfLanguage.pdf
String Alignment Using Suffix Trees. A paper about the possible use of suffix trees for aligning texts and their translations. http://www.stanford.edu/~mjkay/CYCLING.pdf
Some unfinished musings on the nature of translation. Here are some unfinished musings on the nature of translation. http://www.stanford.edu/~mjkay/CurrentState.pdf
Some half-baked thoughts on language models in statistical NLP on which I need some help. http://www.stanford.edu/~mjkay/language_models.pdf
His 1994 paper on "Regular Models of Phonological Rule Systems". Computational Linguistics 20(3):331–378" with Ronald Kaplan. http://www.stanford.edu/~mjkay/Kaplan%26Kay.pdf
Books
Linguistics and Information Science (with Karen Spärck Jones), Academic Press, 1973.
Natural Language in Information Science (edited with D. E. Walker and Hans Karlgren), Skriptor, Stockholm, 1977
Verbmobil: A Translation System for Face-to-Face Dialog (with Jean Mark Gawron and Peter Norvig), CSLI, Stanford, California, 1994.
An Introduction to Machine Translation. W. John Hutchins and Harold L. Somers. London: Academic Press, 1992.
Handbook of Computational Linguistics. Ruslan Mitkov (ed.). Oxford University Press, 2003. (Introduction.)
Selected papers
"Rules of Interpretation—An Approach to the Problem of Computation in the Semantics of Natural Language", in Proceedings of the Second International Congress of the International Federation for Information Processing, 1962.
"A Parsing Procedure" Proceedings of the Second International Congress of the International Federation for Information Processing, 1962.
"A General Procedure for Rewriting Strings", paper presented at the annual meeting of the Association for Machine Translation and Computational Linguistics, Bloomington, Indiana, 1964.
The Logic of Cognate Recognition in Historical Linguistics, RM-4224-PR, Santa Monica, The RAND Corporation, July 1964.
A Parsing Program for Categorial Grammars, RM-4283-PR, Santa Monica, The RAND Corporation, August 1964.
The Tabular Parser: A Parsing Program for Phrase-Structure and Dependency, RM-4933-PR, Santa Monica, The RAND Corporation, July 1966.
The Computer System to Aid the Linguistic Field Worker, P-4095, Santa Monica, The RAND Corporation, May 1969.
The MIND System: The Morphological Analysis Program, RM-6265/2-PR, Santa Monica, The RAND Corporation, April 1970. (with Gary R. Martins).
"Automatic Translation of Natural Languages" in Language as a Human Problem: Daedalus, 1973.
"Functional Unification Grammar: A Formalism for Machine Translation" in Proceedings of the International Conference on Computational Linguistics (COLING 84), The Association for Computational Linguistics, 1984.
"Parsing in Free Word Order Languages" (with Lauri Karttunen), in Dowty, David R., Lauri Karttunen, and Arnold M. Zwicky, Natural Language Parsing, Cambridge University Press, 1985.
"Unification in Grammar", in Dahl, V., and P. Saint-Dizier, Natural Language Understanding and Logic Programming, North Holland, 1985.
"Theoretical Issues in the Design of a Translator's Work Station", Proceedings of the IBM workshop on Computers and Translation, Copenhagen.
"Regular Models of Phonological Rule Systems" (with R. M. Kaplan), Computational Linguistics 20:3 (September 1994. With R. M. Kaplan).
"Substring Alignment Using Suffix Trees". Computational Linguistics and Intelligent Text Processing, Springer, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 2004.
Course readings
Disjunctive Unification http://www.stanford.edu/~mjkay/DisjunctiveUnification.pdf
Functional Uncertainty http://www.stanford.edu/~mjkay/FunctionalUncertainty.pdf
HPSG1 http://www.stanford.edu/~mjkay/pollard-foundations.pdf
HPSG2 http://www.stanford.edu/~mjkay/levine03.pdf
HPSG Generation http://www.stanford.edu/~mjkay/Shieber.pdf
CCG http://www.stanford.edu/~mjkay/Steedman%26Baldridge.pdf
Typed Features http://www.stanford.edu/~mjkay/Copestake.pdf
Dependency http://www.stanford.edu/~mjkay/covington.pdf
Awards
He has an honorary professorship at the University of the Saarland and honorary doctorates from the universities of Gothenburg and Geneva.
He also won the 2005 ACL Lifetime Achievement Award. His acceptance speech was entitled "A Life of Language".
References
External links
Stanford home page
University of Saarland home page
ACL Lifetime Achievement Award citation
"A Life of Language" — ACL Lifetime Award Acceptance Speech – Martin Kay outlining his work in Computational Linguistics (13 pages)
Lecture announcement with biographical note
An interview (video and audio) with Martin Kay at the Oxford Internet Institute, June 18, 2009
Living people
Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge
British computer scientists
Computational linguistics researchers
University of California, Irvine faculty
Stanford University Department of Linguistics faculty
Computer science writers
British emigrants to the United States
Scientists at PARC (company)
1935 births
Presidents of the Association for Computational Linguistics
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nelson%20Mandela%20Bay%20Stadium
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Nelson Mandela Bay Stadium
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The Nelson Mandela Bay Stadium is a soccer and rugby union stadium in Gqeberha in the Eastern Cape province of South Africa, It hosted 2010 FIFA World Cup matches and the third place play off. It is the home of Chippa United Football Club and formerly of rugby union team Southern Kings.
The five-tier, R2 billion (approximately $159 million) Nelson Mandela Bay Stadium was built overlooking the North End Lake, at the heart of the city, one of three coastal stadiums built to host the 2010 FIFA World Cup. It regularly hosts large-scale rugby union and soccer matches. The stadium has also been used as a concert venue.
History
The city of Port Elizabeth did not have a large-scale soccer facility, as under the apartheid government, soccer was not given much funding. Soccer clubs in the city had to make use of smaller scale venues throughout the city. Before this stadium was built, most large soccer matches were played at the EPRU Stadium, the city's rugby ground. The EPRU Stadium was often problematic for soccer, as it normally hosts rugby matches, thus the playing surface was not of a great standard. When Port Elizabeth was chosen as a host city for the 2010 FIFA World Cup, the city decided against upgrading the EPRU Stadium. This was because it would have needed to be almost completely rebuilt in order to meet FIFA requirements. The city then decided on building a brand new, multipurpose stadium.
Inevitably, there was a great deal of speculation about the status of stadium construction in the run-up to the 2010 FIFA World Cup, with the requirement that all the FIFA World Cup host stadiums had to be completed by January 2010. The Nelson Mandela Bay Stadium was the first of five new stadiums to start construction. The other new stadiums are in Cape Town, Durban, Polokwane and Nelspruit.
The stadium is named after the administrative district in which the stadium is located, the Nelson Mandela Bay Metropolitan Municipality, itself named after Nelson Mandela (1918–2013), the former President of South Africa. The Nelson Mandela Bay area is made up of the city of Port Elizabeth, the towns of Uitenhage and Despatch, as well as smaller settlements.
The stadium is sometimes incorrectly called the 'Nelson Mandela Stadium' in the media. This may lead to confusion, as there is a Nelson Mandela Stadium in Kampala, Uganda. It is also sometimes mistakenly claimed that the stadium is named after Mandela, rather than the metropolitan area named in his honour.
Design
The stadium was designed by the Department of Public Works' National Construction Week Programme in 2006 with student from Holy Cross High School Thina Dlulane, Yandisa Dalamba, Inga Ngalonkulu and Siyabonga Nyezi form Umtata. Their design that was reviewed in the Mahlamba Ndlopfu Presidency House by the Public Work delegates and was the winning designed prototype concept and was the inspiration behind the design.
The stadium has a unique roof-structure and views over the North End Lake. The roof is made up of a series of white 'petals' making it look like a flower. This is the reason for the stadium's nickname, The Protea. The stadium building is approximately 40m high and consists of six levels on the western side in addition to five on each of the north, south and east stands. The main architecture was handled by Architectural Design Associates(Pty)Ltd and Dominic Bonnesse Architects cc. The stadium has three gates for entry, located on the northern, southern and eastern sides of the stadium, the western side of the stadium leads to the North End Lake. The 3 gates are: gate A-B, in Milner Avenue, gate B-C, in Prince Alfred Road, and gate C-D, in Fettes Road.
Facilities
The stadium seats 46,000 in addition to 4,000 extra seats temporarily installed for the 2010 FIFA World Cup. The seats are of different shades, from light orange to dark red. They are arranged seemingly at random, but this was done to help the stadium appear full at all times. It also means that sun damage is less of a problem and replaced seats are less noticeable. The stadium boasts 49 hospitality suites, two business lounges, a gymnasium, and lecture and function rooms. There are also two conference rooms situated on the first level, which are able to accommodate 200 people.
There are four ramps for easy wheelchair access, three VIP/VVIP lifts, two in the West Stand and one in the East Stand, as well as four service lifts, two on the west and two on the east of the stadium. Four additional lifts are planned for the legacy phase. There are 32 turnstiles and colour-coded gates on level 2 for spectators to access their seats and four ramps leading up from level 2 to level 5.
Two big viewing screens (12.7m x 7.2m) were installed for live coverage of the activities on the field. There are a total of 74 toilet blocks – 36 blocks on level 2 – 4 blocks on level 3 – 14 blocks on level 4 and 20 blocks on level 5.
Parking inside the stadium is provided across five parking zones, providing a total of 500 parking spaces utilised by working staff, anchor tenants, event organisers and hospitality guests.
Pitch
The playing surface was made of natural grass that was grown off site, in the St Albans area. The areas surrounding the pitch are made of artificial turf. The field that was originally laid was a mixture of kikuyu grass and rye grass, but for the 2010 FIFA World Cup, the field was made up completely of rye grass.
Following the World Cup, a Desso GrassMaster system was installed, due to the high workload of hosting both soccer and rugby matches.
The field was designed to be able to accommodate both soccer and rugby. The pitch is maintained by a group of 5 people, who work day and night to ensure the quality of the playing surface. A lighting system is used to ensure that all grass on the pitch grows properly. A unit with 6 1,000 watt bulbs is used to help certain parts of the pitch covered by shadow due to the stadium roof.
For soccer, the field is marked at the FIFA approved dimensions of 105m by 68m. For rugby the field is marked at 100 m long by 70 m wide, it also has two 10 m by 70 m 'in-goal areas' behind the posts.
Construction
The stadium's construction was handled by a consortium made up of Ibhayi JV. It was built on the site of the old Parks Rugby Club, and the Prince Alfred Park.
The roof material of the stadium consists of a combination of aluminium cladding, combined with a membrane material called polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), which is a coated glass-fibre fabric and steel superstructure. This tensile structure was supplied and installed by an Australian company. The total length of piles installed is 21,000 m and the material excavated is 138,000 m3.
The local building industry has benefitted a great deal due to the construction of the stadium. The implementation of this huge, fast track project has introduced several local role players to a new scale of development which will be beneficial to the local construction industry now and the future. The construction process has also included extensive use of local suppliers and experts in conjunction with international specialists, ensuring that adequate skills transfer take place.
An estimated total of 6,800 jobs were created throughout the process and the development of the stadium was expected to result in the upliftment and urban renewal of the surrounding residential and commercial area of North End and the major routes leading to the stadium. It was hoped the stadium would bring vast social and economic opportunities, during and after the World Cup.
Financing
Original estimates put the cost of the stadium at R895 million, of which the city of Port Elizabeth would have been expected to pay R 95 million. This was part of an informal agreement on World Cup stadium funding, whereby local municipalities would cover 10% of costs, provincial government 20% and national treasury would cover the other 70%.
As with other World Cup stadia in South Africa, construction costs for the Nelson Mandela Bay Stadium spiralled substantially. It increased from the June 2006 estimated cost of R 711 million, to R 1.5 billion in May 2008, and finally the completed cost of R 2.065 billion. The stadium eventually cost R 2.1 billion to build, of which the city has already paid R 336 million, and may still be laible to pay a shortfall of R 261 million. However, if the shortfalls are calculated based on the 10-20-70 split, then the national government may still owes the city R 70.5 million and provincial government R 191 million. National treasury has so far contributed R 1.375 billion, or 66.5% of the stadium's cost. Despite this, national treasury has stated that they will not forward more funds to World Cup stadiums.
It appears as though Port Elizabeth residents may make up the shortfall through larger rates increases. There will be an extra 2% increase in property rates, an extra 1% increase in water tariffs and sanitation and refuse rates, as well as an extra 4% increase in electricity tariffs.
The stadium's running costs are estimated to be R18 million per year. As of 2010, the stadiums operating company, Access Facilities and Leisure Management, expected to break even by 2012.
Post-World Cup usage
The Nelson Mandela Bay Stadium is the home ground to EP Kings, Southern Kings and Chippa United. The Southern Kings were part of the Super Rugby Competition in 2013 but were later relegated.
The stadium has also hosted Springbok test matches and Bafana Bafana matches. The stadium hosted the 2011 Tri Nations match between the Springboks and New Zealand.
In 2011 the stadium hosted a leg of the Vodacom Challenge, as it did in 2009. A crowd of 45,800 attended to watch the showdown between the country's top two PSL teams.
The South African leg of the IRB Sevens World Series was up for tender in late 2010, and the Eastern Province Rugby Union announced an intention to host the event. The South African government also gave its backing to Port Elizabeth hosting the event. Ultimately, SARU announced that Port Elizabeth had won the bidding for hosting rights, and would hold the event at the stadium from 2011 forward.
The stadium was one of the host venues for the 2013 Africa Cup of Nations. South Africa had originally bid to host the 2015 edition and had won rights to the 2017 edition. However, the Libyan Civil War in 2011 led that country, which initially won 2013 hosting rights, to swap dates with South Africa. The stadium would also be used in future bids for South Africa to host the Rugby World Cup.
Transport
The stadium is located along the city's new BRT network. Currently, the dedicated lanes for the buses have been built. Once completed, the BRT buses will ferry people to and from the stadium during game days. The main bus station servicing the stadium will be located in Harrower Road. There will be routes to the stadium from the airport, fan park and the beach front. In addition to the BRT network, there will be a number of 'park and ride' areas. These will be located at King's Beach, St George's Park and Andrew Rabie High School. There will also be a 'park and walks' from Cilliè High School and Dr Viljoen Primary School. There will also be match day train services to the North End train station, which is located about 1.3 km from the stadium.
While the network is still being built, the Algoa Bus Company has set up temporary bus stops in the surrounding streets. These are used on game days, to provide public transport until the completion of the BRT network.
Precinct
Within the stadium area is a park, left over from the old Prince Alfred Park. The park is used for small-scale outdoor concerts.
Tournament results
2009 FIFA Confederations Cup
The stadium was originally planned to be one of five venues to be utilised in the 2009 FIFA Confederations Cup, and the only new stadium in the event. The other four stadiums to be used were Ellis Park Stadium, Loftus Versfeld Stadium, Royal Bafokeng Stadium and Free State Stadium. The four stadiums were already built and merely received upgrades for the Confederations Cup.
On 8 July 2008 it was announced that the stadium had been removed from the list of stadiums for the 2009 Confederations Cup as it was believed it would not be ready on time. Surprisingly, however, it became the first newly built 2010 stadium to be completed.
2010 FIFA World Cup
The stadium hosted eight games during the 2010 FIFA World Cup tournament. It hosted five group games, as well as a round of 16 game, a quarterfinal and the 3rd/4th playoff.
The stadium's games were:
2013 Africa Cup of Nations
The stadium hosted 8 games during the 2013 Africa Cup of Nations tournament. It hosted 6 group games as well as a quarterfinal and the 3rd/4th playoff.
Soccer
The Nelson Mandela Bay regional branch of SAFA is headquartered at the stadium, having moved from Gelvandale.
The stadium is also the home of Premier Soccer League club, Chippa United F.C., which moved to the stadium for the 2014–15 season.
On 4 July 2009, the stadium hosted the 2009 edition of the Premier's Cup. The teams contesting the cup were, Supersport United, Kaizer Chiefs, Bloemfontein Celtic, and Bay United. 20,000 fans attended this event.
On 23 July 2009, the stadium hosted a leg of the 2009 Vodacom Challenge. The match involved the Orlando Pirates and the Kaizer Chiefs. The 30,000 strong crowd watched the Kaizer Chiefs win 4–3 on penalties, after the game ended 1–1. Kaizer Chiefs went on to face Manchester City in the final of the challenge.
On 9 August 2009, (Women's Day in South Africa) a special double-header of games was played. This, along with female musical acts were performed to celebrate Women's Day. The first match involved two women's teams, Nelson Mandela Bay XI and Amatole Invitational XI, the second was between a Brazilian legends team and a South African legends team. The Brazilian legends were drawn from their 1994 FIFA World Cup winning squad. The South African team was drawn from the 1996 African Cup of Nations winners.
On 14 November 2009, the stadium hosted its first international soccer match. A friendly between Bafana Bafana and Japan was played at the stadium. A crowd of 44,000 watched as the game ended in a 0–0 draw.
On 20 November 2009, the stadium hosted its first Premier Soccer League game. Santos 'hosted' Kaizer Chiefs at the stadium, as no venue was available in the Western Cape due to World Cup renovations. A crowd of 20,000 was in attendance as Kaizer Chiefs won 1–0 in controversial fashion.
On 14 January 2010, the stadium hosted a friendly match. The match was between local National First Division club, Bay United and the South Korea. Korea won 3–1.
On 28 February 2010, Orlando Pirates 'hosted' Gaborone United in the second leg of the preliminary round of the CAF Champions League. The game ended 2 all, with Gaborone United advancing on the away goals rule. The match also served as part of the stadiums official opening ceremony. This included local music acts, a junior football match, and the unveiling of the stadiums official plaque.
The stadium hosted the 2011 edition of the Nelson Mandela Challenge. The international friendly between Bafana Bafana and the Ivory Coast was played on 12 November.
Rugby
The Eastern Province Rugby Union moved from the EPRU Stadium to Nelson Mandela Bay Stadium, after the 2010 FIFA World Cup. The union moved their administrative headquarters to the stadium in July 2010. Having previously hosted certain matches at the stadium
The Eastern Province Rugby Union intended to move all future matches to the stadium. From 2010 onwards, all of Eastern Province's Currie Cup and Vodacom Cup matches were set to be played at the stadium. Their first match after officially moving to the stadium was their 26–25 victory over the Griffons. The team has since hosted some Vodacom Cup matches at other venues.
On 16 June 2009 (Youth Day in South Africa), the stadium played host to a British & Irish Lions tour match. The game was between the Lions and the newly launched Southern Kings. The game was attended by over 35,000 fans, and the Lions won 20–8.
On 19 September 2009, Eastern Province, then known as the Mighty Elephants, played their first Currie Cup First Division game at the stadium. They beat the Falcons 44–8. In addition, the province's U19 and U21 teams played each other in curtain raisers to the main match.
On 23 January 2010, the stadium hosted a Super 14 warm-up match. The Cheetahs played an Eastern Province invitational team. In front of a crowd of 15,000, EP lost 13–9 to the Cheetahs. A curtain raiser was played between 2 Port Elizabeth rugby clubs, Police and Progress.
On 26 February 2010, Eastern Province played the Pampas XV (an Argentine team), in the first round of the 2010 Vodacom Cup. The game ended in a 27-all draw, in front of a crowd of approximately 8,700.
On 10 September 2010, the stadium hosted the final of the EP Grand Challenge, the top league for rugby clubs in the province. The match was between Uithenhage's Progress rugby club and defending champions, Port Elizabeth's Park rugby club. Park rugby club won 28–25, and they went on to represent Eastern Province at the 2010 National Club Championships.
On 29 October, the Eastern Province Kings played the Pumas in the 2nd leg of their Currie Cup promotion/relegation match. The Pumas won the match 46–28, to retain their Premier Division status. The match set a new stadium attendance record of 45 000.
The stadium hosted a series of Super Rugby warm up matches in 2011. These matches will involve the Southern Kings playing against South Africa's 5 other Super Rugby franchises.
In April 2011, the South African Rugby Union (SARU) announced that the stadium would become the new home of the country's leg of the annual IRB Sevens World Series starting with the 2011–12 season. The tournament had previously been held at George in the Western Cape.
On 20 August 2011, the stadium hosted its first rugby test, which was played between South Africa and New Zealand during the fifth game of the 2011 Tri Nations Series.
On 23 June 2012, the stadium hosted its second rugby test, when South Africa hosted England in the third of a three test series at the stadium. The test ended in a 14 all draw, with a crowd of 45,000.
On 28 June 2014, the stadium hosted its third rugby test, which was played between South African and Scotland. South Africa ran out easy 55-6 winners against Scotland in Port Elizabeth, helped by an outstanding performance from Springbok debutant No 10 Handré Pollard.
Nelson Mandela Bay Stadium's events line-up was significantly boosted by SA Rugby Union announcement that the Eastern Province Kings would be included in an expanded version of the Premier Division of the Absa Currie Cup competition.
Concerts
The stadium was to host its first concert on 29 November 2009. The 12-hour event was called the Bay Summer Concert, and was to feature Busta Rhymes, as well as other top acts. Despite all the needed arrangements being made, Busta Rhymes decided not to honour the event. Instead, he chose to do a concert at a local club. He arrived at the stadium hours late, and told those who had stayed, to go to the club that he would be performing at.
A second concert was planned for the stadium from 18 to 20 December 2009. It was billed as the 'Nelson Mandela Bay International Music Festival', and was to have such artists as Keri Hilson but was cancelled due to a lack of funds.
Neil Diamond performed at the stadium on 8 April 2011. The concert was part of his four-date, first time to South Africa tour.
The Nelson Mandela Bay music lovers were treated with some high-energy performances by top South African artists at the International Music Festival which took place on 15 May 2011. The list of performers included R&B sensation Loyiso Bala, talented and legendary Hugh Masekela, with the highlight of the night George Benson.
On 4 December 2011, a crowd of 7,000 were serenaded by the beautiful sounds of Josh Groban at the Nelson Mandela Bay Stadium's Prince Alfred Park.
Other Large Events
On 6 June 2009 an open day was held at the stadium for residents of the city to see the new venue, as well as serve as a trial run of the stadiums match readiness. The event was attended by government officials as well as 17,000 residents.
On 18 November 2009, the stadium hosted the Miss World Sports event of the Miss World 2009 pageant.
A group of South African churches held a mass prayer around the stadium on 22 March 2010 (a public holiday due to Human Rights Day falling on a Sunday in 2010). They intended to create a chain of people, 1,000m long, around the stadium and hold a 15-minute prayer at 16:00. They prayed for a blessing on both the stadium and World Cup.
The stadium was used to attempt to set a new world record for the most women in bikinis in one place. The attempt was in aid of the Cancer Association of South, and took place on 23 October 2010. With only 905 participants, the record attempt failed, however two other records were set. These were for the largest bikini and swimwear parades.
The stadium was used by Isuzu South Africa to launch the new Isuzu D-MAX for the South African market on 7 April 2022.
See also
List of stadiums in South Africa
References
External links
Nelson Mandela Bay Stadium web site
Photos of Stadiums in South Africa at cafe.daum.net/stade
360 View
2010 FIFA World Cup stadiums
Sports venues in the Eastern Cape
Soccer venues in South Africa
Rugby union stadiums in South Africa
Sport in Port Elizabeth
Buildings and structures in Port Elizabeth
Music venues in South Africa
Gerkan, Marg and Partners buildings
World Rugby Sevens Series venues
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamaica%20College
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Jamaica College
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Jamaica College (abbreviated J.C. or JC) is a public, Christian, secondary school and sixth form for boys in Kingston, Jamaica. It was established in 1789 by Charles Drax, who was the grand-nephew of wealthy Barbadian sugar planter James Drax.
It provides traditional classroom education to its students in a variety of subject areas and caters to students aged 10 to 19 years. First established as a boarding school for boys, it has remained a single-sex school with the boarding facilities removed, but later re-opened in 2016.
During the 18th century when Jamaica prospered as a sugar colony of the British Empire, several large donations were made by wealthy slave owners for the funding of schools. The objective of these bequests was usually to provide free education for the poor of the parish to which the benefactor belonged. Jamaica College is a product of such a bequest. The school is widely known for both its academic and sports achievements, and has produced many influential members of Jamaican society.
History
Drax Free School
Jamaica College was founded in 1789, making it the sixth oldest continually running high school in the country, after Wolmer's Boys', one of the Wolmer's Schools (1729), Manning's School (1738), St. Jago High School (1744), Rusea's High School (1777) and Titchfield High School (1786). It was first known as the Drax Free School in the parish of St. Ann, and was founded by Charles Drax, a planter of that parish, who was originally from Twickenham, England. Drax came to Jamaica from Barbados, and as a white slave-owning planter, he was elected the representative of St Ann in 1702, the now-defunct parish of St David in 1707, Saint Mary Parish, Jamaica in 1708, the now-defunct parish of St George in 1710, and the parish of Saint James Parish, Jamaica in 1719. He died in 1721, and his estate was valued at nearly £9,000, including 307 slaves, of which 167 were male and 140 female.
Drax left money in his will to establish a charity school in St. Ann. The school was intended for the education of eight boys and four girls, most of whom were white and poor. The will stipulated that two female black slaves on the Drax Hall estate would be used to keep the school "clean and neat". The will stipulated that the children were to be taught "reading, writing and arithmetick".
There was some delay and legal proceedings before the money was handed over to the St. Ann vestry. With no one to probate the Drax will, and with the theft of some of the money, Jamaica College in its original form did not start until 1795. Then it was decided that Jamaica College would be a high school and an outpost of the University of London. It was in 1802 that the sum of £5,200 (JA$10,400 at the time), was applied by an Act of the Legislature to the endowment of the school.
Jamaica Free School
The Jamaica Free School was established at Walton, near Moneague, in the parish of St. Ann. The property at Walton Pen was bought for the site of the school, purchased in 1806. A year later, another Act of Legislature gave the school the name, Jamaica Free School. Both the names Drax Free School and Jamaica Free School had nothing to do with the concept of free tuition for attendees, but meant that the school was for the children of free people, both white and free black and mixed race. The Free School was not intended for black slaves, though his will did make an exception for his "slave Robinson", who was to be admitted and "placed out as one of them". The Free School was typical of a number of institutions set up during that era.
Jamaica High School
The school had its name changed 73 years later. In 1879, during the governorship of Sir Anthony Musgrave, a provision was made by law for the Jamaica Free School to come under the jurisdiction of the Jamaica School Commission. The institution was now to be known under a new name, Jamaica High School. All classes at the time were free so there was no longer a need to call the school Jamaica Free School, but the purpose of the school remained the same until 1903. This law also authorized the removal of the school from Walton Pen in St. Ann in 1883, and classes were conducted at Barbican Great House until mid-1885. The school then had a new headmaster, Reverend (later Archdeacon) William Simms.
The buildings on Old Hope Road were opened on 9 July 1885, by the then Governor of Jamaica, Sir Henry Wylie Norman, and the first classes took place in September of the same year. In September 1890, a college was opened in connection with the school, known as University College. The site at Old Hope Road was also the tropical outpost of the University of London. It was therefore decided that the purpose of the school would be to give secondary preparation to potential students of the University of London who happened to reside in Jamaica. The name revision reflected this change, which became the school's second purpose. Until 1902 there were two separate names for the school's units. Subsequently, Jamaica High School and University College were amalgamated under the name Jamaica College. Therefore, during its history, the school has changed both name and location four times.
Jamaica College
Given that the sole purpose of Jamaica College from 1903 onwards was to train potential university students in the days when the University of the West Indies did not exist, in practice most students did not go further than fourth or fifth forms. That was considered sufficient education for just about any managerial or clerical job in Jamaica. It was also considered uneconomical to run a school of less than eighty boys, and therefore a deliberate attempt to expand the school to include those of parents who were able to afford the fees was embarked upon. By the 1930s, the student population rose to over one hundred and fifty.
In 1957, the elected government of the day introduced a system of Common Entrance to all High Schools in Jamaica. After some amount of initial resistance by the school board, Jamaica College, previously accessible only to the elite and a few academically extraordinary boys who won government scholarships, was opened up to the masses of Jamaica. The school now provided one of several outlets for secondary education in Jamaica.
Jamaica College developed as a boarding institution until 1967, when that system was removed. Up to that period, the school population was primarily composed of boys from affluent families and heritage. Today, as a day school, it comprises students from a wide cross-section of the community. Its Old Boys continue to play important roles in the religious, political, business and professional services, of Jamaica.
Notably, in 2011, Jamaica College was awarded to be the most innovative high school in Jamaica which is a reflection of the many achievements and special development programmes that have been implemented at the institution in recent times.
The award was received through the Unearthing Innovations Project education competition.
Jamaica College Museum
To continue preserving the rich history of Jamaica College, a museum has been established on the grounds of the institution. The museum boasts scores of poster boards, which chronicle the history of the school, and secondary education in the country in a systematic and comprehensive manner. The museum also boasts several video screens, which will allow users to find the articles they need speedily. Photographs of original buildings of the institution, as well as schoolboys enjoying or participating in various sporting disciplines are also on display in the facility.
Campus
The Jamaica College campus is currently owned by the Jamaica College Trust who is currently chaired by Mr. Derek Jones.
The campus of Jamaica College was selected as the site for a new outdoor electrical lighting pilot project being led by the Petroleum Corporation of Jamaica in the organisation's efforts to promote renewable energy sources.
Historic buildings
Since 19 June 2000, four buildings on the campus have been declared National Heritage Sites by the Jamaica National Heritage Trust.
Simms building
Built in 1885 of masonry and timber, the Simms building exhibits a combination of Gothic and Georgian features; the projecting central tower and wings are reminiscent of Georgian designs, while the façade's soaring verticals, griffins, and pointed arch openings, are Gothic. The building at Hope was designed at the time to accommodate boarders as well as day students, and was large enough to hold the whole school without difficulty. It now houses the administrative offices, staff room and sixth form classrooms. For over a hundred years, Simms Hall has been the core of the Jamaica College buildings, its strength and durability repeatedly demonstrated by its resistance to hurricanes and earthquakes, including the disastrous Kingston earthquake of 1907.
Scotland building
Erected in 1889 of brick, mortar, and wood, with iron detailing on the balcony railings, the Scotland building combines a variety of architectural styles including palladian windows on the west elevation, a lower arcaded wrap around verandah, and a steep-pitched cedar shingled hip roof. It was first used as a dormitory, and it now houses classrooms.
Assembly Hall
Constructed in 1913 of concrete block and steel, the Assembly Hall is wrapped by an arcaded verandah which helps to keep the interior cool. Its hipped roof of cedar shingles is partially concealed by parapet walls. It was originally used as an assembly hall, and it now houses classrooms.
The Chapel
The chapel was built in 1924. Its walls are constructed of reinforced concrete and concrete breather block. Along the north and south elevations a stepped roof creates a clerestory level for ventilation and diffused lighting. The east and west windows of the building are of stained glass. The west window is said to be a replica of St.Dunstan's window at Canterbury Cathedral in England. There is a war memorial which commemorates the memory of the 17 Jamaica College Old Boys who sacrificed their lives during the 1st World War.
Karl Hendrickson Auditorium
Since 2006, the Jamaica College Trust has embarked on a 5-year school improvement and renovation programme. One of the projects included the construction of a multi-purpose auditorium. Named after Hon. Dr. Karl Hendrickson, a Jamaica College alumnus who contributed heavily to the construction project, the new Christian auditorium is poised to host the school's formal events, including graduations, prize giving ceremonies, morning devotions, general assembly and theater and music productions. Jamaica College will now be able to comfortably host various indoor sporting events such as basketball, volleyball, badminton and table tennis in the 11,000 sqft structure.
The auditorium was opened on 22 November 2010.
The Phillip Gore Building
During the summer of 2011, four classrooms were refurbished and a fifth constructed on the Jamaica College campus. Because of the contributions of Phillip Gore to the construction of the classrooms, the building has been officially named "The Phillip Gore Building".
The building was dedicated to the school on 30 September 2011.
The Frank Hall Gym
A naturally lit and spacious gymnasium for the athletes of the Jamaica College was renovated and dedicated in 2013 in and named in honor of Olympian Frank Hall, Class of ‘53. The gym was fully stocked with a plethora of world class equipment all donated by the Jamaica College Old Boys of New York. While the Frank Hall Gym will primarily support the students who compete and represent Jamaica College in various sporting disciplines, the gym is open to the entire school population and serve as a platform to reinforce the importance of staying active and to establish a fitness routine.
Ashenheim Stadium
Jamaica College became the first high school in Jamaica to have its own stadium complex. The facility was commissioned in February 2019.
Academics
As a secondary school in Jamaica, Jamaica College follows the traditional English grammar school model used throughout the British West Indies, which incorporates the optional year 12 and 13, collectively known as sixth form. The first year of secondary school is regarded as first form, or year seven, and the subsequent year groups are numbered in increasing order up to sixth form. Students prepare for courses prescribed and administered by the Caribbean Examinations Council. Students in the upper sixth form (year thirteen) are prepared for their GCE A-level examinations, however the option exists to sit exams after completing lower sixth form (year 12).
The following table outlines the academic curriculum that exists at Jamaica College.
Rhodes Scholars
Since 1904, Jamaica College has had a rich history of producing Rhodes Scholars who have gone on to lead in various capacities both locally and internationally. To date, there have been 15 Rhodes Scholar recipients that attended Jamaica College.
Flight School
Jamaica College is the first English-speaking high school in the Caribbean to offer an aviation programme to its students. The course is being offered in partnership with a Jamaican company, The Flying Club and managed by Executive Director, David Robertson, Class of '78.
Since 2009, it operates under the Aircraft Training Organisation's (ATO) approval granted to The Flying Club by the Jamaica Civil Aviation Authority (JCAA) for a private pilot's licence ground school.
Robotics
On 1 December 2009, Jamaica College announced the establishment of a robotics programme and its entry in the FIRST Competition, the premier Robotics Competition in the United States for high school students. The Jamaica College Old Boys Association of New York, Inc., conceptualized the entire project and spearheaded the creation of the fully outfitted Robotics Lab at the school to promote practical applications of robotics adopted into the school's science education.
The JCOBA-NY also procured and shipped the FIRST robotics kit to JC, registered the "Griffins" as a New York based team in the FIRST Tech Challenge and arranged the team logistics to and from the tournament.
The precursor to the Robotics project was embedded in foundation work that was done and the foresight of the Jamaica College Old Boys Association of New York to build and equip the first computer lab at JC (circa 1990) which was enthusiastically embraced and endorsed by Principal Ruel Taylor. With an initial shipment of 80 computers, the first in the nation high school computer lab was up and running.
As a continuum of their first strategic project and main area of focus, over the years JCOBA-NY shipped hundreds of computers, monitors, smartboards, printers, projectors and related peripherals to JC valued at over half-million USD and counting.
The first entry for a Caribbean high school and a school outside the United States in the robotics field began before the 21st century.
Seamanship
The school continues to broaden the exposure to the students by entering into a memorandum of understanding with the Caribbean Maritime Institute of Jamaica to offer courses and career opportunities in the nautical industry.
STEAM Infusion Project
On January 27, 2021 the school launched its STEAM Infusion Project through the sponsorship and benevolence of Dr. Joseph Tait Class of '53. Dr. Tait is a member of the Jamaica College Old Boys Association of New York Chapter. This first in the nation USD 500,000 (JMD 72 million) signature initiative, with a clarion call of ‘Going Beyond Borders’, will infuse and integrate a culture of STEAM education into the Jamaica College academic curriculum. Building on the strategic and pioneering work of JCOBA-NY, the STEAM Infusion Project is a timely spark and technological foundation to deliver a world-class STEAM curricula at Jamaica College, thus heralding a pivotal interchange towards a 21st Century model for education in Jamaica.
"It is easily the most significant financial contribution to our academic programme." ~Principal Wayne Robinson
Inclusive in the STEAM initiative, is the Dr. Joseph L. Tait Bursary Fund with initial funding of USD 50,000 (JMD 6.6 million). This scholarship fund will benefit talented and deserving Jamaica College Students and the first recipient was J’voughnn Blake, the outstanding student-athlete.
STEAM has its basis in the STEM learning initiative as well as adding Art as a component of the curriculum to stimulate creativity, beauty and technical proficiency.
Extracurricular
Extracurricular activities exist for all students and generally voluntary activities.
Activities
Cadet
The Jamaica College Cadet Unit (JCCU) is a member of the first battalion of the Jamaica Combined Cadet Force (JCCF). The unit has over 90 members. It is the headquarters company and one of the first cadet unit established in Jamaica under the Army and Air Cadet Force which was established on 1 November 1943.
Chapel Choir
The Jamaica College Chapel Choir.
Schools Challenge Quiz
Jamaica College actively participates as one of 64 high schools in TVJ's Schools Challenge Quiz. The school's lone victory came in 1987.
Chess
Jamaica College won the inter-schools team chess tournament four years straight between 1982-5.
Service Clubs
Key Club
Sports
Among the outdoor games, football and athletics are the most popular. The organisation of the sporting disciplines is facilitated via the House system. The students are assigned to one of eight houses upon entering Jamaica College. The houses are named after famous past principals of the school.
Chambers
Cowper
DaCosta
Drax
Hardie
Murray
Musgrave
Simms
Every year near to or at the end of the school year, there is a sporting competition among the Houses on a day called Sports Day. Football, track and field and basketball and also tennis are a few sports in which student compete to earn points for their houses. The winning house will be crowned champion until next years sports day, the team will also win medals.
Athletics
Annually, various high schools, athletic clubs and organisations compete in the Wata/Powerade/Jamaica College Track & Field Development Meet. , there has been 20 stagings of the Jamaica College Invitational. The meet, which serves as a qualifying event for the Boys' and Girls' Athletics Championships, is the first official meet on the JAAA local events calendar. The meet is sponsored by Wata and Powerade and is organised and hosted on the Jamaica College campus.
, the school has won the boys' title an overall 21 times at the Grace Kennedy and Company Limited-sponsored Inter-Secondary Schools Sports Association (ISSA) Boys' and Girls' Athletics Championships during the event's 101-year history.
The athletics team has maintained a promising showing over the recent years, consistently placing in the top five among all the participants.
The most recent victory has been achieved in the 2011 edition, making the school the current champions and holders of the Mortimer Geddes Trophy. On 2 April 2011, Jamaica College marked the 100th anniversary of their first ever title in 1911 with their first hold on the title since 2000. It was also the first year that the Decathlon and Javelin were contested at the championships, with both events being won by Jamaica College athletes.
The school takes part in the annual Penn Relays Carnival hosted annually since 21 April 1895 by the University of Pennsylvania. Jamaica College has continued to grow from strength to strength in the relay events as well as the field events on offer. , Jamaica College has earned five championship records since participation.
The Hugo Chambers 10K Road Race is a tribute to the late former Jamaica College headmaster and sports administrator, Hugo Chambers. The event takes place in the Liguanea/Papine area. The event is usually organised for October or November annually and includes , and events.
Basketball
Jamaica College has been dubbed the school of basketball in Jamaica. Many of its titles were won in the late 1990s and early 2000s.
Jamaica College participates in the KFC-sponsored ISSA Schoolboy Basketball Competition as a member of the Southern Conference.
Cricket
The urban area secondary schools compete annually in the Grace Shield Schoolboy Cricket Competition, a Grace-sponsored schoolboy cricket competition.
Football
The ISSA Manning Cup Schoolboy Football Competition, was first played in Jamaica in 1909. Jamaica College won the Manning Cup for eight of the first nine years, losing only once in 1920. , Jamaica College has won 27 Manning Cup titles, making them the school with the most wins.
The ISSA/Pepsi/Digicel Schoolboy Walker Cup Knock-out Competition is a knock-out tournament of the top eight teams emerging from the first round of the Manning Cup competition. The number of teams and the knock-out nature of the competition allow for only three rounds of play; the quarter-final round, semi-final round then the final. The Walker Cup is held after the first round and before the inter-zone round of the Manning Cup. In 2009, after a century of schoolboy football history in Jamaica, Jamaica College attained their first hold on the Walker Cup.
The Sydney Olivier Interscholastic Challenge Shield is the oldest and most prestigious schoolboy football title in Jamaica. The Olivier Shied, as it is more commonly known, is a two-game playoff which symbolises schoolboy football supremacy as the Manning Cup Champions (who emerge from Jamaica's corporate area schools) are pitted against their rural area counterparts, the DaCosta Cup Champions.
Jamaica College have made good on their Olivier Shield acquisitions, having been able to obtain the trophy 75% of the time that they are Manning Cup Champions. , Jamaica College has won the Olivier Shield 18 times.
This record, when coupled with Jamaica College's win percentage in the Manning Cup, makes them the most successful high school in Jamaica.
In December 2010, Jamaica College completed a historic triple by winning all the Under-19 schoolboy football competitions on offer during a single season.
Consequently, Jamaica College was also successful in defending the Walker Cup in the 2010 season of football which meant that this was the first time in the school's history that Jamaica College were the title-holders of both urban area schoolboy football titles – the Manning and Walker Cups. With this milestone accomplishment, Jamaica College has won every schoolboy football title on offer except the Under-16 Colts title since 2005.
In 2014, telecommunications company LIME introduced to Jamaica the LIME Super Cup.
The event was marketed as the Champions League of Jamaican Schoolboy Football. In its inaugural year, Jamaica College won the tournament at the final played at Sabina Park in Kingston.
The under-19 football team was rewarded an accumulated JA$1M in prize money for their efforts and achievements. The funds are geared towards a school development programme.
There are several special football competitions that are played between traditional rival schools which are most often used as practice for the football season. Since 2004, the football teams of Jamaica College and Calabar High School compete in three age group categories namely the Under-14, Under-16, also known as Colts, and Under-19, that is, the Manning Cup team, along with a special old-boys over-35 match.
Both schools vie for the Keane-Crosskill Shield.
The competition was created in commemoration of two outstanding individuals – Dr. Keane, a Calabar Old Boy and Hugh Crosskill, a Jamaica College Old Boy who both died in 2004.
Field Hockey
Jamaica College competes in both the Under-16 and Under-19 divisions of the ISSA-sponsored JHF Hockey League. In 2011, Jamaica College became champions of the Under-19 division
and placed third in the Under-16. , Jamaica College is the 3-time Under-19 defending champions.
Insignia
School crest
The left half of the school's crest incorporates the red cross of England and the five golden pineapples that is to be found on Jamaica's Coat of Arms. The pineapple symbolizes justice, trust and honour, and each pineapple plant gives its own life to produce a single fruit. Around 1681, Sir Christopher Wren had begun using pineapple finials on churches and since then, the fruit has been recognized as a Christian symbol. The pine cone has a long-held imperial significance. The Romans placed pine cones on their buildings and monuments to symbolize confidence in the administrative, judicial and defensive power of the state. This cross therefore demonstrates the school's Christian background and allegiance and association to Jamaica.
There is an open book in the top right section of the shield to symbolise Bible truth, justice, and the importance of scholarly focus and academic pursuits. A golden griffin against a dark blue background completes the right half of the shield. The griffin, being the combination of the lion (king of beasts) and the eagle (most powerful and recognised bird of prey) represents the best of both creatures in terms of their characteristics and status – similar traits are to be displayed by each student.
Finally, the shield is surrounded by a scroll with the school's motto inscribed around the entire circumference.
Motto
The most commonly used form of the school motto is "Fervet opus in campis". In full, it is "Floreat collegium, fervet opus in campis". The complete Latin motto is literally translated as "May the college flourish, work is burning in the field". The inspiration for the school's motto stems from the harnessing of one's energy and motivation to enable success, especially in study. Students are taught that there must be the "fervet opus", that is figuratively, we must not only strike the iron while it is hot, but strike it till it is made hot. Following on this, a proverb states that "He who has heart has everything" ("che non arde non incende", who doth not burn doth not inflame). It is astonishing how much may be accomplished in self-culture by the energetic and the persevering, who are careful to avail themselves of opportunities, and use up the fragments of spare time which the idle permit to run to waste.
Prayer
The school prayer reflects the Christian beginnings of the school.
"Bless, O Lord, this College.
Create among us a spirit of comradeship and loyalty to one another.
When we are called to obey, let us obey with willingness.
When we are called to serve, let us serve with gladness.
When we are called to rule, make us rule with justice.
Drive away from us all ignorance and hardness of heart.
All things dishonorable and unclean.
And build us up in body mind and spirit.
Until we come to the full stature of the perfect man,
Jesus Christ our Lord, amen"
Mascot
Jamaica College has never had an official mascot although the griffin is almost always cited as one.
Nickname
The nickname "True Blue" or sometimes "The Dark Blues" is based on the school's official colour of navy blue. Alumni affirm their association with the school by proclaiming to be "True Blue" graduates, loosely associated with the English idiom meaning to be indubitably loyal or faithful.
More recently, the team of students who participate in FIRST's Robotics Competition have adopted "Gold Griffins" as a team name, a direct reference to the griffin which is found on the schools' crest.
Associations
Alumni Association
The Jamaica College Old Boys' Association (JCOBA) was established as a medium for alumni to continually support and represent Jamaica College. The JCOBA holds an annual meeting at the World Bank Building on the school's premises every November. For the Jamaica Chapter, the democratically elected board members convene on a monthly basis. There are other officially recognised chapters located in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, the state of Florida and New York City, New York.
Jamaica College Foundation
The Jamaica College Foundation was established in order to assist the school's administration and Board of Management. The mandate includes the creation and maintenance of a physical environment which features grounds, structures and facilities.
Parent-Teacher Association
The Jamaica College Parent-Teacher Association (PTA) provides the opportunity for parents and teachers to plan, report and interact on activities related to the interest of the school and the students. The PTA is involved in all aspects of school life. It contributes extensively to school activities, assists in physical improvements through projects, contributes significantly to the welfare programme that provides financial support to students, provides mentorship, assists in study sessions, and supports sports. The PTA also spearheads the Parent Representatives, where parents volunteer to serve as a liaison between the parents and teachers of each class.
Notable alumni
The school has produced numerous prominent members of Jamaican society including:
Academia
Prof. Gladstone E. Mills, O.J., C.D., professor emeritus in the Department of Government, University of the West Indies.
Prof. Stuart Hall, professor emeritus of sociology at the Open University.
Arts, media and culture
Dennis Scott, playwright, poet, dancer, choreographer and actor (best known for appearances on The Cosby Show).
Geoffrey Philp, writer.
Glen Campbell, actor and comedian.
John E. C. Hearne, novelist, journalist and teacher.
Kwame Dawes, professor in English and Emmy Award-winning poet; author, musician and critic.
Louis Marriott, playwright, actor, director and journalist.
Michael G. Smith, poet and social anthropologist.
Monty Alexander, internationally renowned Jazz pianist.
Business and finance
Derick M. Latibeaudiere, Bank of Jamaica Governor (1996–2009).
Politics and law
Bruce Golding, former Prime Minister of Jamaica from 2007 to 2011, leader of the Jamaica Labour Party.
Douglas Saunders, Jamaican diplomat (currently Cabinet Secretary in the Jamaican Prime Minister's cabinet).
Michael Manley, O.N., O.C.C., Prime Minister of Jamaica (1972–1980, 1989–1992).
Norman W. Manley, M.M., Q.C., National Hero, Chief Minister of Jamaica (1955–1959), Premier of Jamaica (1959–1962).
Noel Newton Nethersole, Jamaica's Finance Minister from 1955 to 1959
Patrick L. Robinson, President of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia.
Seymour Mullings, O.J., C.D., former Deputy Prime Minister of Jamaica (1993–2001).
Dr. Richard Bernal, O.J., Jamaica's Ambassador to the United States.
Eric Anthony Abrahams
Peter Phillips (politician), Leader of Opposition 2017-2020
Roy Black (attorney)
Sporting
James "Jimmy" Adams, former Jamaica and West Indies cricketer and Technical Director of the Jamaica Cricket Association (since 2008).
Nicholas Addlery, Jamaica national football player.
Bertrand Milbourne Clark, golf, cricket and tennis.
Keammar Daley, Jamaica national football player.
Fabian Dawkins, Jamaica national football player.
Jerome Jordan, professional basketball player.
Nick Richards, professional basketball player similar to Jerome Jordan.
Notable staff
Notable staff of the school include:
Dennis Ziadie, Under-19 (Manning Cup) football coach (1970–1975).
Derek Alton Walcott, OBE, O.C.C., renowned Saint Lucian poet, playwright, writer and visual artist who was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature; taught at Jamaica College 1953–1957.
Headmasters
The following lists present the principals of Jamaica College during its entire history.
Drax Free School, Jamaica Free School and Jamaica High School (1789–1885)
Jamaica College (1885 onwards)
† indicates principals who attended Jamaica College
See also
Education in Jamaica
High School Football Champions in Jamaica
List of Schools in Jamaica
References
External links
Official
The Jamaica College Foundation
Old Boys Associations
Jamaica College Old Boys Association, Jamaica Chapter
Jamaica College Old Boys Association, Canada Chapter
Jamaica College Old Boys Association, Florida Chapter
Jamaica College Old Boys Association, New York Chapter
General information
WikiMapia – Jamaica College
Jamaica College Soccer
Schools in Kingston, Jamaica
Boys' schools in Jamaica
Drax family
Educational institutions established in 1789
1789 establishments in the British Empire
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar%20eclipse%20of%20August%2021%2C%202017
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Solar eclipse of August 21, 2017
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The solar eclipse of August 21, 2017, dubbed the "Great American Eclipse" by some media, was a total solar eclipse visible within a band that spanned the contiguous United States from the Pacific to the Atlantic coasts. It was also visible as a partial solar eclipse from as far north as Nunavut in northern Canada to as far south as northern South America. In northwestern Europe and Africa, it was partially visible in the late evening. In northeastern Asia, it was partially visible at sunrise.
Prior to this event, no solar eclipse had been visible across the entirety of the United States since June 8, 1918; not since the February 1979 eclipse had a total eclipse been visible from anywhere in the mainland United States. The path of totality touched 14 states, and the rest of the U.S. had a partial eclipse. The area of the path of totality was about 16 percent of the area of the United States, with most of this area over the ocean, not land. The event's shadow began to cover land on the Oregon coast as a partial eclipse at 4:05 p.m. UTC (9:05 a.m. PDT), with the total eclipse beginning there at 5:16 p.m. UTC (10:16 a.m. PDT); the total eclipse's land coverage ended along the South Carolina coast at about 6:44 p.m. UTC (2:44 p.m. EDT). Visibility as a partial eclipse in Honolulu, Hawaii began with sunrise at 4:20 p.m. UTC (6:20 a.m. HST) and ended by 5:25 p.m. UTC (7:25 a.m. HST).
This total solar eclipse marked the first such event in the smartphone and social media era in America. Information, personal communication, and photography were widely available as never before, capturing popular attention and enhancing the social experience.
The event was received with much enthusiasm across the nation; people gathered outside their homes to watch it, and many parties were set up in the path of the eclipse. Many people left their homes and traveled hundreds of miles just to get a glimpse of totality, which few ever get to experience. Marriage proposals were timed to coincide with the eclipse, as was at least one wedding. Logistical problems arose with the influx of visitors, especially for smaller communities. The sale of counterfeit eclipse glasses was also anticipated to be a hazard for eye injuries.
Future total solar eclipses will cross the United States on April 8, 2024 (12 states), August 23, 2044 (2 states), and on August 12, 2045 (10 states), and annular solar eclipses—wherein the Moon appears smaller than the Sun—occurred in October 2023 (9 states) and will occur in June 2048 (9 states).
Visibility
The total eclipse had a magnitude of 1.0306 and was visible within a narrow corridor wide, crossing 14 of the contiguous United States: Oregon, Idaho, Montana, Wyoming, Nebraska, Kansas, Iowa, Missouri, Illinois, Kentucky, Tennessee, Georgia, North Carolina, and South Carolina. It was first seen from land in the U.S. shortly after 10:15 am PDT (17:15 UTC) at Oregon's Pacific coast, and then it progressed eastward through Salem, Oregon; Idaho Falls, Idaho; Casper, Wyoming; Lincoln, Nebraska; Kansas City, Missouri; St. Louis, Missouri; Hopkinsville, Kentucky; and Nashville, Tennessee; before reaching Columbia, South Carolina about 2:41 pm; and finally Charleston, South Carolina. A partial eclipse was seen for a greater time period, beginning shortly after 9:00 am PDT along the Pacific Coast of Oregon. Weather forecasts predicted clear skies in Western U.S. and some Eastern states, but clouds in the Midwest and East Coast.
The longest ground duration of totality was 2 minutes 41.6 seconds at about in Giant City State Park, just south of Carbondale, Illinois, and the greatest extent (width) was at near the village of Cerulean, Kentucky, located in between Hopkinsville and Princeton. This was the first total solar eclipse visible from the Southeastern United States since the solar eclipse of March 7, 1970. Two NASA WB-57Fs flew above the clouds, prolonging the observation time spent in the umbra. A partial solar eclipse was seen from the much broader path of the Moon's penumbra, including all of North America, particularly areas just south of the totality pass, where the eclipse lasted about 3–5 hours, northern South America, Western Europe, and some of Africa and north-east Asia.
At one location in Wyoming, a small group of astronomers used telescopic lenses to photograph the sun as it was in partial eclipse, while the International Space Station was also seen to briefly transit the sun. Similar images were captured by NASA from a location in Washington. (See Gallery – partial eclipse section).
Other celestial bodies
During the eclipse for a long span of its path of totality, several bright stars and four planets were visible. The star system Regulus was almost in conjunction with the Sun. Mars was 8° to the right, and Venus 34° right. Mercury was 10° left, and Jupiter 51° left.
Other eclipses over the United States
This was the first total solar eclipse visible from the United States since that of July 11, 1991—which was seen only from part of Hawaii—and the first visible from the contiguous United States since 1979. An eclipse of comparable length (up to 3 minutes, 8 seconds, with the longest eclipse being 6 minutes and 54 seconds) occurred over the contiguous United States on March 7, 1970 along the southern portions of the Eastern Seaboard, from Florida to Virginia.
The path of totality of the solar eclipse of February 26, 1979 crossed only the states of Washington, Oregon, Idaho, Montana, and North Dakota. Many enthusiasts traveled to the Pacific Northwest to view the eclipse, since it would be the last chance to view such an eclipse in the contiguous United States for almost four decades.
The August 2017 eclipse was the first with a path of totality crossing the Pacific and Atlantic coasts of the U.S. since the solar eclipse of 1918. Also, its path of totality made landfall exclusively within the United States, making it the first such eclipse since the country's declaration of independence in 1776. Prior to this, the path of totality of the eclipse of June 13, 1257, was the last to make landfall exclusively on lands currently part of the United States.
The path of the 2017 eclipse crosses with the path of the upcoming total solar eclipse of April 8, 2024, with the intersection of the two paths being in southern Illinois in Makanda Township at Cedar Lake, just south of Carbondale. An area of about , including the cities of Makanda, Carbondale, Cape Girardeau, Missouri, and Paducah, Kentucky, will thus experience two total solar eclipses within a span of less than seven years. The cities of Benton, Carbondale, Chester, Harrisburg, Marion, and Metropolis in Illinois; Cape Girardeau, Farmington, and Perryville in Missouri, as well as Paducah, Kentucky, will also be in the path of the 2024 eclipse, thereby earning the distinction of witnessing two total solar eclipses in seven years.
The solar eclipse of August 12, 2045, will have a very similar path of totality over the U.S. to the 2017 eclipse: about 400 km (250 mi) to the southwest, also crossing the Pacific and Atlantic coasts of the country; however, totality will be more than twice as long, and it will be seen not only in the United States. It will be seen in the Americas.
Total eclipse viewing events
Oregon
Corvallis – The Corvallis campus of Oregon State University hosted "OSU150 Space Grant Festival: A Total Eclipse Experience", a weekend-long celebration of the eclipse. A watch party was also hosted on campus the day of the eclipse.
Huntington – Historic Farewell Bend State Recreation Area hosted the RASC: Yukon Centre (Yukon Astronomical Society) and the RASC: Okanagan Centre. Solar viewing and presentations on the eclipse were given along with a dark-sky presentation.
Keizer – The Salem-Keizer Volcanoes, a Class A baseball team, played a morning game against the visiting Hillsboro Hops that featured the first ever "eclipse delay" in baseball history.
Madras – The city sponsored a four-day Solarfest at two locations.
Ontario – Treasure Valley Community College hosted an eclipse viewing event.
Prineville – Symbiosis Gathering hosted a seven-day eclipse festival which included rave-style music dubbed "Oregon Eclipse".
Rickreall – The Polk County Fairgrounds organized a series of events and an eclipse gathering.
Salem – The Oregon Museum of Science and Industry hosted an event at the Oregon State Fairgrounds.
Idaho
Arco – High altitude balloon launches by the USC Astronautical Engineering department and NASA.
Craters of the Moon – The National Monument and Preserve hosted NASA presentations, evening star parties hosted by the Idaho Falls Astronomical Society, and presentations by the New Mexico Chapter of the Charlie Bates Solar Astronomy Project.
Idaho Falls – Free entertainment and educational seminars and an eclipse-watching event at the Museum of Idaho (an official NASA viewing site) and elsewhere, and a free eclipse-watching event at Melaleuca Field.
Rexburg – Brigham Young University Idaho offered a series of eclipse-related educational events.
Weiser – The city sponsored a five-day festival prior to the eclipse.
Wyoming
Casper – The Astronomical League, an alliance of amateur astronomy clubs, held its annual Astrocon conference, and there were other public events, called Wyoming Eclipse Festival 2017.
Fort Laramie – Fort Laramie held an eclipse viewing event, which included a Special "Great American Eclipse" Program.
Riverton – The biggest Polish expedition conducted as the Great Expedition of Polish Society of Amateur Astronomers was flocked between Riverton and Shoshoni in the central line of totality.
Nebraska
Alliance – Entertainment and educational seminars were offered. ABC News reported live from Carhenge during totality.
Auburn – Nemaha County Hospital hosted an eclipse viewing event, including sharing safety tips from Lifetime Vision Center.
Beatrice – Homestead National Monument of America – Events were held with Bill Nye the Science Guy as well as representatives from NASA on Saturday, Sunday and the day of the eclipse.
Grand Island – Stuhr Museum hosted an eclipse viewing event, including the launch of a NASA eclipse observing balloon.
Lincoln – At Haymarket Park, the Lincoln Saltdogs, an independent baseball team in the American Association, defeated the Gary SouthShore RailCats 8–5 in a special eclipse game, with 6,956 in attendance. The game was paused for 26 minutes in the middle of the third inning to observe the eclipse. The Saltdogs players wore special eclipse-themed uniforms that were auctioned off after the game.
Kansas
Atchison – Benedictine College hosted thousands in its football stadium. There were students from schools from Kansas, Missouri, Nebraska, and Oklahoma attending, plus numerous other guests who heard from, amongst others, astronomers from the Vatican Observatory.
Missouri
Columbia – The Cosmo Park and the Gans Creek Park were open for the eclipse. There was a watch party on campus for the students at the University of Missouri coordinated by Angela Speck, and the MU Health Care system released eye safety information.
Kansas City – A 5-mile (8 km) bicycle ride from downtown KCMO (where totality only lasted about 30 seconds) to Macken Park in North Kansas City (where totality lasted 1 minute 13 seconds) was organized by KC Pedal Party Club, a local Meetup group.
Lathrop – The city celebrated its 150th anniversary with an eclipse festival.
Parkville – TotalEclipseofthePark – August 20 educational program featuring NASA Glenn Research Center Hall of Famer Lynn Bondurant, '61, and August 21 watch party organized by Park University.
Potosi – Hora Eclipse, an Israeli folkdance camp coordinated with the eclipse, was held at YMCA Trout Lodge and Camp Lakewood, near the Mark Twain National Forest. More information at the event's website, especially its post-mortem page.
St. Clair – An event organized by the St. Clair City Chamber of Commerce.
St. Joseph – An event organized by Front Page Science was held at Rosecrans Memorial Airport.
St. Louis – David Tipper hosted his Tipper & Friends 4321 electronic music event at Astral Valley Art Park featuring 5 days of music, art, and eclipse viewing.
Illinois
Carbondale – Southern Illinois University sponsored many eclipse related educational events, including the two day Crossroads Astronomy, Science and Technology Expo, and viewing at Saluki Stadium. Amtrak ran a special train, the Eclipse Express, from Chicago to Carbondale. NASA EDGE was broadcasting live from Southern Illinois University Carbondale with a four-hour and thirty-minute show (11:45 a.m. – 4:15 p.m. EDT).
Carterville – A three-day rock festival called Moonstock was headlined by Ozzy Osbourne, who performed during the eclipse.
Goreville – The University of Illinois Astronomy Department hosted a viewing event in town, which was the closest village to the point of longest duration.
Kentucky
Bowling Green – Western Kentucky University hosted thousands of K-12 students in its football stadium. At Bowling Green Ballpark, the Bowling Green Hot Rods, a Class A baseball team, played an eclipse game against the visiting West Michigan Whitecaps.
Hopkinsville – A four-day eclipse festival was held at Jefferson Davis State Historic Site.
Tennessee
Athens – The City of Athens hosted "Total Eclipse of the Park" at Athens Regional Park, including entertainment, food, and vendors.
Clarksville – Austin Peay State University presented several educational events, including an appearance by astronaut Rhea Seddon.
Cookeville – Tennessee Technological University hosted a solar eclipse viewing party at Tucker Stadium. Cookeville hosted special events from Saturday to Monday.
McMinnville – celebrated the eclipse by hosting BLACKOUT 2017, an eclipse viewing event held in the city square. In addition to the viewing, a selection of food trucks and musical acts which features The Pink Floyd Appreciation Society band who performed Pink Floyd's The Dark Side of the Moon in its entirety prior to the totality event.
Memphis – At AutoZone Park, the Memphis Redbirds, a Class AAA baseball team, played an eclipse game against the visiting New Orleans Baby Cakes.
Nashville – offered many special events, including the Music City Eclipse Science & Technology Festival at the Adventure Science Center. The Italian Lights Festival hosted the largest Eclipse Viewing Party in Nashville, a free NASA-Certified Eclipse Event held at the Bicentennial Mall. Two astrophysicists from NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory emceed the countdown.
North Carolina
Bryson City – Planetarium shows were offered, as well as rides on the Great Smoky Mountains Railroad to an eclipse location.
Cullowhee – The eclipse was visible in totality, and classes were cancelled for several hours during the first day of classes at Western Carolina University.
Rosman – Pisgah Astronomical Research Institute (PARI) hosted a viewing event. The event at PARI has garnered international attention and the visitors included amateur astronomers.
Georgia
Athens – Viewing at Sanford Stadium at the University of Georgia.
Blairsville – Get off the Grid Festival on three days preceding the eclipse.
Elbert County – Approximately 400 people gathered at the Georgia Guidestones.
South Carolina
Anderson – Viewing at the Green Pond Landing on Lake Hartwell with food trucks, astronomer, and music. Unfortunately, clouds blocked the sun at the beginning of totality, but almost completely disappeared throughout.
Charleston – The College of Charleston hosted NASA's "eclipse headquarters" broadcast as part of an afternoon eclipse viewing celebration on the green behind the campus library.
Clemson – Viewing at Clemson University.
Columbia – The South Carolina State Museum hosted four days of educational events, including an appearance by Apollo 16 astronaut Charles Duke. At Spirit Communications Park, the Columbia Fireflies, a Class A baseball team, played an eclipse game against the visiting Rome Braves.
Greenville – Viewing at Furman University. Events include streaming coverage from NASA, educational activities, and live music. At Fluor Field, the Greenville Drive, a Class A baseball team, played an eclipse game against the visiting West Virginia Power.
Sumter – Viewing at Dillon Park. Eclipse viewing glasses given away for free.
Goose Creek – The clouds blocked the Eclipse that day much like in Anderson.
Viewing from outside the United States
Canada
A partial eclipse was visible across the width of Canada, ranging from 89 percent in Victoria, British Columbia to 11 percent in Resolute, Nunavut. In Ottawa, viewing parties were held at the Canada Aviation and Space Museum. In Toronto, viewing parties were held at the CNE and the Ontario Science Centre.
Mexico, Central America, Caribbean islands, South America
A partial eclipse was visible from Central America, Mexico, the Caribbean islands, and ships and aircraft in and above the adjacent oceans, as well as the northern countries of South America such as Colombia, Venezuela, and several others.
On the Caribbean Sea, Bonnie Tyler performed her 1983 song Total Eclipse of the Heart live with the pop group DNCE on board the cruise ship Oasis of the Seas, as the ship entered the eclipse's totality path, east of The Bahamas.
Asian Russia
A partial eclipse was visible during sunrise or morning hours in Russian Far East (including Severnaya Zemlya and New Siberian Islands archipelagos). For big cities in Russia, the maximal obscuration was in Anadyr, and it was 27.82%.
Europe
In northwestern Europe, a partial eclipse was visible in the evening or at sunset. Only those in Iceland, Ireland, Scotland and the Portuguese Azores archipelago saw the eclipse from beginning to end; in Wales, England, Norway, the Netherlands, Belgium, France, Spain, and Portugal, sunset occurred before the end of the eclipse. In Germany, the beginning of the eclipse was visible just at sunset only in the extreme northwest of the country. In all regions east of the orange line on the map, the eclipse was not visible.
West Africa
In some locations in West Africa and western North Africa, a partial eclipse was seen just before and during sunset. The most favorable conditions to see this eclipse gained the Cape Verde Archipelago with nearly 0.9 magnitude at the Pico del Fogo volcano.
Media and scientific coverage
A large number of media outlets broadcast coverage of the eclipse, including television and internet outlets. NASA announced plans to offer streaming coverage through its NASA TV and NASA Edge outlets, using cameras stationed on the ground along the path of totality, along with cameras on high-altitude balloons, jets, and coverage from the International Space Station; NASA stated that "never before will a celestial event be viewed by so many and explored from so many vantage points—from space, from the air, and from the ground." ABC, CBS, and NBC announced that they would respectively broadcast live television specials to cover the eclipse with correspondents stationed across the path of totality, along with CNN, Fox News Channel, Science, and The Weather Channel. The PBS series Nova presented streaming coverage on Facebook hosted by Miles O'Brien, and aired a special episode chronicling the event—"Eclipse Over America"—later in the day (which marked the fastest production turnaround time in Nova history).
Other institutions and services also announced plans to stream their perspectives of the eclipse, including the Exploratorium in San Francisco, the Elephant Sanctuary of Hohenwald, Tennessee, the Slooh robotic telescope app, and The Virtual Telescope Project. The Eclipse Ballooning Project, a consortium of schools and colleges that sent 50 high-altitude balloons into the sky during the eclipse to conduct experiments, provided streams of footage and GPS tracking of its launches. Contact with one balloon with $13,000 of scientific equipment, launched under the aegis of the LGF Museum of Natural History near Vale, Oregon, was lost at . Given that the balloon was believed to have burst at , it could have parachuted down anywhere from eastern Oregon to Caldwell, Idaho (most likely) to Sun Valley, Idaho; a $1,000 reward is offered for its recovery.
The National Solar Observatory organized Citizen CATE volunteers to man 60 identical telescopes and instrumentation packages along the totality path to study changes in the corona over the duration of the eclipse.
In orbit, the satellites Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter, the International Space Station, the Solar Dynamics Observatory, the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer, Solar and Heliospheric Observatory, and Hinode gathered data from the eclipse.
A viewing party was held at the White House, during which President Donald Trump appeared on the Truman Balcony with First Lady Melania Trump. With the sun partially eclipsed, President Trump looked briefly in the general direction of the sun before using solar viewing glasses.
The eclipse generated reports of abnormal behavior in animal and plant life. Some chickens came out from beneath their coops and began grooming, usually an evening activity. Horses displayed increased whinnying, running, and jumping after the event. Cicadas were reported to grow louder before going silent during totality. Various birds were also observed flying in unusually large formations. Flowers such as the Hibiscus closed their petals which typically happens at night, before opening again after the solar event.
Pornhub, a pornographic video-sharing website provided an unusual sociological and statistical report: its traffic dropped precipitously along the path of totality, so much so that its researchers were themselves surprised.
NASA reported over 90 million page views of the eclipse on its websites, making it the agency's biggest online event ever, beating the previous web traffic record about seven times over.
Counterfeit eclipse glasses
In the months leading up to the eclipse, many counterfeit glasses were put up for sale. Effective eclipse glasses must not only block most visible light, but most UV and infrared light as well. For visible light, the user should only be able to see the Sun, sunglint reflected off shiny metal, halogen bulbs, the filament in unfrosted incandescent bulbs, and similarly intense sources. Determining whether the glasses effectively block enough UV and infrared light requires the use of spectrophotometer, which is a rather expensive piece of lab equipment.
The eye's retina lacks pain receptors, and thus damage can occur without one's awareness.
The American Astronomical Society (AAS) said products meeting the ISO 12312-2 standard avoid risk to one's eyes and issued a list of reputable vendors of eclipse glasses. The organization warned against products claiming ISO certification or even citing the same number, but not tested by an accredited laboratory. Another problem was counterfeits of reputable vendors' products, some even claiming the company's name such as with American Paper Optics which published information detailing the differences between its glasses and counterfeits.
Andrew Lund, the owner of a company which produces eclipse glasses, noted that not all counterfeit glasses were necessarily unsafe. He stated to Quartz that the counterfeits he tested blocked the majority of harmful light spectrum, concluding that "the IP is getting ripped off, but the good news is there are no long-term harmful effects." As one example, the Springdale Library in metropolitan Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, accidentally passed out dozens of pairs of counterfeit eclipse glasses, but as of August 23 had not received any reports of eye damage.
On July 27, 2017, Amazon required all eclipse viewing products sold on its website have a submission of origin and safety information, and proof of an accredited ISO certification. In mid-August 2017, Amazon recalled and pulled listings for eclipse viewing glasses that "may not comply with industry standards" and gave refunds to customers who had purchased them.
Camera equipment damage
Lensrentals, a camera rental company based in Tennessee, reported that many of its customers returned cameras and lenses with extensive damage. The most common problem reported was damage to the camera's sensor. This most often happens when shooting in live view mode, where the sensor is continuously exposed to the eclipse image and becomes damaged by the sun's light. Another problem was the heat and brightness of the eclipse destroying the lens iris, which mechanically regulates the amount of light that enters the camera. Another problem reported was one of a cinema camera's neutral-density filter being damaged by the heat and light of the eclipse. The cost of all of this damage likely amounted to thousands of dollars.
Planning
Officials inside and near the path of totality plannedsometimes for yearsfor the sudden influx of people. Smaller towns struggled to arrange viewing sites and logistics for what could have been a tourism boom or a disaster.
In the American West, illegal camping was a major concern, including near cities like Jackson Hole, Wyoming. Idaho's Office of Emergency Management said Idaho was a prime viewing state, and advised jurisdictions to prepare for service load increases; nearly every hotel and motel room, campground, and in some cases backyards for nearly north and south of the path of totality had been reserved several months, if not years, in advance. The state anticipated up to 500,000 visitors to join its 1.6 million residents.
Oregon deployed six National Guard aircraft and 150 soldiers because the influx of visitors coincided with the state's fire season. Hospital staffing, and supplies of blood and antisnake bite antidote, were augmented along the totality line.
Also in Oregon, there were reports of hoteliers canceling existing reservations made at the regular market rate and increasing their rate, sometimes threefold or more, for guests staying to view the eclipse. The Oregon Department of Justice (DOJ) investigated various complaints and reached settlements with affected customers of at least 10 hotels in the state. These settlements included refunds to the customers and fines paid to the DOJ.
Post-eclipse traffic problems
Although traffic to areas within the path of totality was somewhat spread out over the days prior to the eclipse, there were widespread traffic problems across the United States after the event ended. Michael Zeiler, an eclipse cartographer, had estimated that between 1.85 million and 7.4 million people would travel to the path of the eclipse.
In Oregon, because an estimated one million people were expected to arrive, the Oregon National Guard was called in to help manage traffic in Madras along US 26 and US 97. Madras Municipal Airport received more than 400 mostly personal planes that queued for hours while waiting to leave after the eclipse.
Officials in Idaho, where the totality path crossed the center of the state, began planning for the eclipse a year in advance. The state Transportation Department suspended construction projects along Interstate 15, which traverses Eastern Idaho, from August 18–22 in order to have all lanes open; their counterparts in neighboring Utah, where many were expected to travel the north via the highway from the Salt Lake City metropolitan area, did the same. On the morning of the eclipse, many drivers left before dawn, creating traffic volume along I-15 normally not seen until morning rush hour; northbound traffic on the interstate in Box Elder County north of Salt Lake City slowed to . The Idaho State Police (ISP) stationed a patrol car along I-15 every between Shelley and the Utah border.
After the eclipse, traffic more than doubled along I-15 southbound, with extensive traffic jams continuing for eight hours as viewers who had traveled north into the totality path from Utah returned there and to points south. The ISP tweeted a picture of bumper-to-bumper traffic stalled on the interstate just south of Idaho Falls. Motorists reported to local news outlets that it was taking them two hours to travel the from that city to Pocatello to the south, a journey that normally takes 45 minutes. Others reported that it took three hours to travel from Idaho Falls to the closer city of Blackfoot, farther north of Pocatello.
In the rest of the state the impact was less severe. Traffic nearly doubled on US 93, and was up 55 percent on US 20.
For some northbound travelers on I-15, the Montana Department of Transportation had failed to make similar plans to those in Idaho, scheduling a road construction project to begin on August 21 that narrowed a section of the highway to a single northbound lane, near the exit to Clark Canyon Dam south of Dillon. Though that stretch of highway generally has a traffic count of less than 1,000 vehicles per day, on the day of the eclipse there were over a thousand vehicles per hour at peak times. As a result, traffic backed up as far as Lima, creating a delay of at least an hour for travelers heading northward. Further, as construction had not yet begun, drivers observed cones set up but no workers present on the road. While the state traditionally halts construction projects during high traffic periods, a state official admitted "we ... probably made a bad mistake here in this regard."
In Wyoming, estimates were that the population of the state, officially 585,000, may have doubled or even tripled, with traffic counts on August 21 showing 536,000 more cars than the five-year average for the third Monday in August; a 68 percent increase. One official offered an estimate of "two people in every car" to arrive at a one-million-visitor figure, and others noted that one million was a conservative estimate based on a one-day traffic count of limited portions of major highways. There were additional arrivals by aircraft, plus travelers who arrived early or stayed for additional days. Two days before the eclipse, traffic increased 18 percent over a five-year average, with an additional 131,000 vehicles on the road. Sunday saw an additional 217,000-vehicle increase.
Following the eclipse, more than 500,000 vehicles traveled Wyoming roads, creating large traffic jams, particularly on southbound and eastbound highways. Drivers reported that it took up to 10 hours to travel into northern Colorado. There was one traffic fatality, and another fatality related to an off-highway ATV accident, but in general there were far fewer incidents and traffic citations than authorities had anticipated.
In Tennessee, the Knoxville News Sentinel described the traffic problems created by the eclipse as the worst ever seen in that part of the state. One backup along Interstate 75 reached in length, between Niota and the Interstate 40 interchange at Farragut. A spokesman for the state's Department of Transportation allowed that the traffic jams were the worst he had seen in six and a half years on the job, noting that accidents had aggravated the already heavy traffic flows, attributed the I-75 congestion to Knoxville-area residents heading for the totality path at Sweetwater and returning during what was the city's normal afternoon rush hour.
Before the eclipse, state officials had described their traffic expectations as equivalent to that generated by the Bonnaroo Music Festival, the twice-a-season NASCAR Cup Series races at Bristol or the formerly-held Boomsday fireworks festival. "Maybe they should have considered a tsunami of traffic combining all three of those heavily attended events", the News Sentinel commented. The Tennessee Highway Patrol made sure that "[e]very trooper not on sick leave or military leave or pre-approved leave [wa]s working" the day of the eclipse; the state DOT made sure its full complement of emergency-aid HELP trucks were available as well. Alert signs on the highways also warned motorists not to pull over onto the shoulders to watch the eclipse as it could increase the risk of dangerous accidents and block the path of emergency vehicles.
In North Carolina, the Department of Transportation added cameras, message boards and safety patrols in the counties where the total eclipse would take place, as well as stopping road work. The department warned that due to "unprecedented" traffic ordinary activities requiring driving might prove difficult, and advised people to act as if there were snow.
In Kentucky, particularly around the Hopkinsville area, which was dubbed "Eclipseville, USA", post-eclipse traffic caused extensive delays. The en masse departure of tourists via Interstate 69 as well as the Western Kentucky Parkway resulted in commute times double or even triple of normal. The Hopkinsville-to-Lexington commute under normal circumstances lasts three and a half hours.
Impact on solar power
An eclipse causes a reduction of solar power generation where the Moon shadow covers any solar panel, as do clouds.
The North American Electric Reliability Corporation predicted minor impacts, and attempted to measure the impact of the 2017 eclipse. In California, solar power was projected to decrease by 4–6,000 megawatts at 70 MW/minute, and then ramp up by 90 MW/minute as the shadow passes. CAISO's typical ramp rate is 29 megawatts per minute. Around 4 GW mainly in North Carolina and Georgia were expected to be 90 percent obscured.
After the 2017 eclipse, grid operators in California reported having lost 3,000–3,500 megawatts of utility-scale solar power, which was made up for by hydropower and gas reliably and as expected, mimicking the usual duck curve. Energy demand management was also used to mitigate the solar drop, and NEST customers reduced their demand by 700 MW.
NV Energy prepared for the solar eclipse months in advance and collaborated with 17 western states. When the eclipse began covering California with partial darkness, which reduced its usual amount of solar-generated electricity, NV Energy sent power there. Likewise, when Nevada received less sunlight, other west coast states supplied electricity to it. During the solar eclipse, the state of Nevada lost about 450 megawatts of electricity, the amount used by about a quarter million typical residences.
The 2015 eclipse caused manageable solar power decreases in Europe; in Germany, solar power dropped from 14 GW to 7 GW, of a 38 GW solar power capacity.
Commemorative stamp
On June 20, 2017, the USPS released the first application of thermochromic ink to postage stamps in its Total Eclipse of the Sun Forever stamp to commemorate the eclipse. When pressed with a finger, body heat turns the dark image into an image of the full moon. The stamp was released prior to August 21, so uses an image from the eclipse of March 29, 2006 seen in Jalu, Libya.
Videos
Gallery
Totality
(Images where the sun is completely eclipsed by the moon)
Transition
(Images showing Baily's beads or a Diamond ring, which occur just as totality begins or ends)
Partial
(Images where the sun is partially eclipsed by the moon)
Images produced by natural pinholes
(Images of the eclipse created by natural pinholes formed by tree leaves)
Views outside of the US
Related eclipses
Occurring only 3.2 days after perigee (Perigee on Friday, August 18, 2017), the moon's apparent diameter was larger during the total solar eclipse on Monday, August 21, 2017.
There was another solar eclipse in 2017, a large annular solar eclipse (99.223%) on February 26.
Eclipses of 2017
A penumbral lunar eclipse on February 11.
An annular solar eclipse on February 26.
A partial lunar eclipse on August 7.
A total solar eclipse on August 21.
Solar eclipses ascending node 2015–2018
Saros 125: Partial Solar Eclipse September 13, 2015
Saros 135: Annular Solar Eclipse September 1, 2016
Saros 145: Total Solar Eclipse August 21, 2017
Saros 155: Partial Solar Eclipse August 11, 2018
Astronomers Without Borders began collecting eclipse glasses for redistribution to Latin America for the total solar eclipse occurring on July 2, 2019, and to Asia for the annular eclipse on December 26, 2019.
A partial lunar eclipse took place on August 7, 2017, in the same eclipse season. It was visible over Africa, Asia, Australia, and eastern Europe.
Tzolkinex
Preceded: Solar eclipse of July 11, 2010
Followed: Solar eclipse of October 2, 2024
Half-Saros cycle
Preceded: Lunar eclipse of August 16, 2008
Followed: Lunar eclipse of August 28, 2026
Tritos
Preceded: Solar eclipse of September 22, 2006
Followed: Solar eclipse of July 22, 2028
Solar Saros 145
Preceded: Solar eclipse of August 11, 1999
Followed: Solar eclipse of September 2, 2035
Inex
Preceded: Solar eclipse of September 11, 1988
Followed: Solar eclipse of August 2, 2046
Solar eclipses 2015–2018
Saros series 145
Inex series
Metonic series
See also
List of solar eclipses visible from the United States
Notable total solar eclipses crossing the United States from 1900 to 2050:
Solar eclipse of June 8, 1918 (Saros 126, Descending Node)
Solar eclipse of September 10, 1923 (Saros 143, Ascending Node)
Solar eclipse of January 24, 1925 (Saros 120, Descending Node)
Solar eclipse of August 31, 1932 (Saros 124, Descending Node)
Solar eclipse of July 9, 1945 (Saros 145, Ascending Node)
Solar eclipse of June 30, 1954 (Saros 126, Descending Node)
Solar eclipse of October 2, 1959 (Saros 143, Ascending Node)
Solar eclipse of July 20, 1963 (Saros 145, Ascending Node)
Solar eclipse of March 7, 1970 (Saros 139, Ascending Node)
Solar eclipse of February 26, 1979 (Saros 120, Descending Node)
Solar eclipse of August 21, 2017 (Saros 145, Ascending Node)
Solar eclipse of April 8, 2024 (Saros 139, Ascending Node)
Solar eclipse of August 12, 2045 (Saros 136, Descending Node)
Notable annular solar eclipses crossing the United States from 1900 to 2050:
Solar eclipse of May 30, 1984 (Saros 137, Ascending Node)
Solar eclipse of May 10, 1994 (Saros 128, Descending Node)
Solar eclipse of October 14, 2023 (Saros 134, Descending Node)
Solar eclipse of June 11, 2048 (Saros 128, Descending Node)
References
Further reading
External links
August 21, 2017 eclipse – NASA
Color map – NASA
Eclipse 2017: One Nation Under The Sun (NPR) A synopsis of people's reactions as the eclipse moved across the U.S., (published August 27, 2017).
Eclipse Across America (Celestron) A synopsis of people's reactions as the eclipse moved across the U.S., (published September 26, 2017).
Photos and videos Space.com
Gallery of photos from Casper, Wyoming
NationalEclipse.com An educational site launched for the 2017 eclipse with overviews, maps, city data, events, animations, merchandise, historical information, and other resources.
2017 in science
2017 in space
2017 08 21
Articles containing video clips
August 2017 events
August 2017 events in the United States
2017 08 21
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Jews%20in%20Libya
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History of the Jews in Libya
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The history of the Jews in Libya stretches back to the 3rd century BCE, when Cyrenaica was under Greek rule. The Jewish population of Libya, a part of the Sephardi-Maghrebi Jewish community continued to populate the area continuously until the modern times. During World War II, Libya's Jewish population was subjected to antisemitic laws by the Fascist Italian regime and deportations by Nazi German troops.
After the war, anti-Jewish violence caused many Jews to leave the country, principally for Israel, though significant numbers moved to Italy and North America. Under Colonel Muammar Gaddafi, who ruled the country from 1969 to 2011, the situation deteriorated further, eventually leading to the emigration of the remaining Jewish population. The last Jew in Libya, 80-year-old Rina Debach, left the country in 2003.
Ancient history
The oldest trace of a Jewish existence in Libya appears in Sirte, which some archaeological surveys made on the "Barion" region there dated its synagogue to the 10th century BCE, during King Solomon's reign.
Major Jewish settlement of Libya took place in the 4th century BCE. Ptolemaic Egypt had gained a large Jewish population after Ptolemy I Soter's invasion of Judea, during which many Jews were carried off as war captives before later being freed, as well as voluntary Jewish emigration to Egypt for economic reasons and Ptolemy's tolerant policies which followed afterward. In 312 BCE, Ptolemy settled many Jews in Cyrenaica to strengthen his kingdom.
There is evidence of Jews living in Benghazi from 13 BCE. They were considered citizens, but were ruled by a Jewish archon unlike the rest of the Jews in that area.
In 146 BCE inscriptions found at Benghazi and elsewhere in Libya, give details about wealthy, well established and organised Jewish communities.
During the Greco-Roman period, Libya corresponded approximately with Cyrene and the territory belonging to it. Jews lived there, including many that moved there from Egypt; Augustus granted Cyrene's Jewish population certain privileges through Flavius, the governor of the province. At the time, they maintained close contact with the Jews in Jerusalem. In 73 CE, during the First Jewish–Roman War in Judea, there was also a revolt by the Jewish community in Cyrene led by Jonathan the Weaver, which was quickly suppressed by the governor Catullus. Jonathan was denounced to the governor of Pentapolis. In vengeance, the Romans killed him and many wealthy Jews in Cyrene. Several Libyan Jews from around this period are known today, such as Jason of Cyrene, whose work is the source of the Second Book of Maccabees, and Simon of Cyrene, who is believed to have carried the cross of Jesus as he was taken to his crucifixion.
In 115 CE, another Jewish revolt, known as Kitos War, broke out not only in Cyrene, but also in Egypt and Cyprus.
According to Jewish tradition, after the Bar-Kokhba revolt of 132-135 AD, the Romans deported twelve boatloads of Jews from Judea to Cyrenaica. Approximately half a million Jews are thought to have already been living there at the time. Most lived in farming villages while those by the sea were often sailors. Many others were potters, stonemasons, weavers, and merchants.
The Spaniards, who conquered Libya in 1510 and held it for a brief period, drove some of the Jews to the mountain areas of Gharian and Tajura. Others were taken as prisoners and tortured under the laws of the inquisition, whilst others were taken to Naples and sold as slaves.
Modern times
Ottoman rule
During the Ottoman period, Jewish families from Tripoli were attracted to Benghazi. This period gave new life and impetus to the Libyan Jewish community.
In 1745 epidemics and poverty drove out the inhabitants, but around 1,750 members of the previous Jewish community returned and reconstructed the community, which began to flourish with the arrival of Jewish families from Italy.
In the 18th and 19th centuries Benghazi had 400 Jewish families divided into two groups, those of the town and the surrounding region and those who were born in Tripoli and Italy, they both recognised the authority of one rabbi, but each had its own synagogue.
The Muslim brotherhood of the Sanusiya was well-disposed toward the Jews of Benghazi, appreciating their economic-mercantile contributions and their peaceful attitude. The community enjoyed a complete freedom, and were not forced to live in a special quarter. Because of their commercial activity the town became an important trading centre for Europe and Africa.
Italian rule
In 1903, the records of the Alliance Israelite Universelle show 14,000 Jews living in Tripoli and 2,000 in Benghazi. In comparison to Zionist activities in other Arab countries, Zionism started early in Libya and was extensive, it followed by many activities such as exchanging of letters concerning Zionism matters between Benghazi and Tripoli during the period 1900–1904. An organization had been set up for the dissemination of the Hebrew in Tripoli and young people from the Benghazi community came to study there. The meeting between the young Jews of Benghazi and the Tripolitanian Zionists bore fruit in the form of a “Talmud Torah” which was an evening school in Tripoli.
In 1911, Libya was colonised by Italy. By 1931, there were 21,000 Jews living in the country (4% of the total population of 550,000), mostly in Tripoli. The situation for the Jews was generally good. But, in the late 1939, the Fascist Italian regime began passing anti-Semitic laws. As a result of these laws, Jews were fired from government jobs, some were dismissed from government schools, and their citizenship papers were stamped with the words "Jewish race."
In the 1920s a few incidents that linked to the Arab-Jewish conflict in Palestine were reported. The incidents occurred in Tripoli and Benghazi, those which occurred in Tripoli were not so serious comparing to the ones in Benghazi. According to Gustavo Calo, the chief rabbi of Benghazi, there was actually an attempted pogrom but according to the opinion of Elia Fargion the president of the community, this assessment was exaggerated.
Data from 1931 indicates that spoken Italian was relatively widespread across the Jewish population. In Benghazi, 67.1 percent of Jewish men and 40.8 percent of Jewish women spoke Italian, compared to 34.5 percent of Arab males and 1.6 percent of females.
In 1934, a chapter of Ben-Yehuda was established in Benghazi, first as a soccer team and later with cultural activities, such as the commemoration of Jewish holidays and Zionist Festivities.
In the late 1930s, Fascist anti-Jewish laws were gradually enforced, and Jews were subject to terrible repression.
Until 1936 life under Italian rule proceeded peacefully for the Jews. In 1936, however, the Italians began to enforce fascist legislation, aimed at modernising social and economic structures, based on conditions current in Italy. With the implementation of anti-Jewish racial legislation in late 1938, Jews were removed from municipal councils, public offices, and state schools and their papers stamped with the words "Jewish race."
German influence in Libya had been felt since 1938. However, Germany's direct involvement in the colonial authorities’ affairs and management did not completely materialise until 1941. It was only when Italy entered the war in 1940 that Libya became subjected to direct Fascist-Nazi collaboration and “Nazi-Style” deportations.
Despite this repression, 25% of the population of Tripoli was still Jewish in 1941 and 44 synagogues were maintained in the city. In 1942, German troops fighting the Allies in North Africa occupied the Jewish quarter of Benghazi, plundering shops and deporting more than 2,000 Jews across the desert. Sent to work in labor camps, more than one-fifth of this group of Jews perished. Jews were concentrated in the cities of Tripoli and Benghazi, with small communities in Bayda and Misrata.
The worst experience for Libyan Jews in the war was the internment of Cyrenaican Jews in Giado, a concentration camp located 235 kilometres from Tripoli. In January 1942, the Italian authorities began to apply Mussolini’s “Sfollamento” (evacuation) order to Libyan Jews. Mussolini ordered the Jews of Benghazi, Derna, Tobruk, Barce, Susa and other towns in the region to be sent to a concentration camp in Gharian in retaliation. An eyewitness described these horrifying moments: “In the synagogue they started hanging up lists every day of 20-30 families that had to leave...They took Jews from Benghazi and from the vicinity: Derna, Brace, Tobruk...The journey took five days. We travelled about 2,000 km. from Benghazi to Giado. They took us like animals to the slaughter house. Forty people in each truck and each truck had two Italian policemen. They took only Jews. According to the rumour it was the Germans who gave the order”.
In June 1942, the execution of Mussolini's orders was completed and all Cyrenaican Jews were transferred to Giado.
The living conditions in the camp were deplorable, bringing about infection and illness and, consequently, plagues that killed numerous people in the camp. They were buried on a valley nearby that used to be a burial place of Jews hundreds of years ago.
In addition to the camp's poor conditions, the behaviour of the Italian officers did not spare any type of humiliation, oppression and abuse especially on Friday nights when the Maresciallo patrolled the buildings and saw the special food of the Sabbath, he used to kick it and spill it on the floor or urinate on it and thus a few families remained without food for the whole Sabbath. (4)
Allied control and after World War II
On January 24, 1943, the British liberated the camp and immediately undertook emergency measures to control the plague of typhus and lice that already killed 562 of its inhabitants. The British military decided to evacuate Giado between the spring and summer of 1943. The Jews were first evacuated from the camp to better housing in the vicinity, to receive medical care and be properly fed. Then gradually each week, a number of families was selected to be put on trucks and sent back to their homes. The expenses for transport of these Jews back to Cyrenaica and the initial assistance were financed by the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee.
Upon the establishment of British rule on January 23, 1943, the Jewish community was in a deplorable economic, social and psychological state. The demeaning effects of the Italian racial laws, war and concentration camps took a heavy toll on the Jewish community.
The British also boosted the spirits of the Jews with promises to repatriate them to their homes in Benghazi, and giving them the chance to rehabilitate their lives. After full repatriation of Benghazi Jews it was reported that there were 3,400 Jews in Benghazi (before the war, in June 1939 the Jewish community of Benghazi numbered 3,653). Yet many of the Jews who returned to Benghazi were unemployed, while those with jobs were unable to support themselves on what they earned. The Benghazi Jewish community suffered more than any other Jewish community in Libya since it was hit harder by the perils of war.
Some of the worst anti-Jewish violence occurred in the years following the liberation of North Africa by Allied troops. From 5 to 7 November 1945, more than 140 Jews were killed and many more injured in a pogrom in Tripolitania. The rioters looted nearly all of the city's synagogues and destroyed five of them, along with hundreds of homes and businesses. In June 1948, anti-Jewish rioters killed another 12 Jews and destroyed 280 Jewish homes. This time, however, the Libyan Jewish community had prepared to defend itself. Jewish self-defence units fought back against the rioters, preventing more deaths.
Both in November 1945 and June 1948 the Jews of Benghazi did not suffer anti-Jewish pogroms at the hands of Arabs similar to the Jews of Tripoli, though small-scale incidents did occur. Thus, several Jews were beaten up in mid-June 1948, a shop was looted, and a fire broke out in a synagogue, but the local police introduced order and there was no need for the British Army to intervene.
Once emigration to Israel was permitted in early 1949, the majority of the community of 2,500 Jews in Benghazi emigrated to Israel through the end of 1951.
The general environment during the years after the emigration to Israel, was generally positive, no special events, riots or pogrom occurred during this period between 1949 and 1967 and it estimated that 200 Jews Lived in Benghazi during that time.
In the late 1940s, some 40,000 Jews lived in Libya. The Libyan Jewish community suffered great insecurity during this period. The founding of Israel in 1948, as well as Libya's independence from Italy in 1951 and subsequent admission into the Arab League, led many Jews to emigrate. From 1948 to 1951, and especially after emigration became legal in 1949, 30,972 Jews moved to Israel.
Kingdom of Libya
On 31 December 1958, the Jewish Community Council was dissolved by law. In 1961, a new law was passed requiring a special permit to prove true Libyan citizenship, which was, however, denied to all but six Jewish inhabitants of the country. Additional laws were enacted allowing the seizure of property and assets of Libyan Jews who had immigrated to Israel.
In 1964, letters to US Senator Jacob Javits from Jewish United States Air Force personnel serving on Wheelus Air Base, a US Air Force facility in Libya, revealed the extent of antisemitic sentiment in the country. The letters revealed that children and dependents of Jewish personnel living off-base had to conceal their Jewish identities, fear for the physical safety of children caused the cancelation of a Jewish Sunday school program, and that the US Air Force was pressuring Jewish personnel to hide their Jewish identities and censored all material that referenced Jews, Judaism, or Israel to avoid offending most of the local population.
By 1967, the Jewish population of Libya had decreased to 7,000. After the Six-Day War between Israel and its Arab neighbours, Libyan Jews were once again the target of anti-Jewish riots. During these attacks, rioters killed 18 people and more were injured.
Leaders of the Jewish community then asked King Idris I to allow the entire Jewish population to "temporarily" leave the country; he consented, even urging them to leave. Through an airlift and the aid of several ships, the Italian Navy helped evacuate more than 6,000 Jews to Rome in one month. A few scores of Jews remained in Libya.
The evacuees were forced to leave their homes, their businesses and most of their possessions behind. Of those evacuated to Italy, about 1,300 immigrated to Israel, 2,200 stayed in Italy, and most of the rest went to the United States. The Libyan Jews who remained in Italy primarily stayed in Rome, becoming an influential part of the local Jewish community.
Gaddafi's rule
By the time Colonel Muammar Gaddafi came to power in 1969, roughly 100 Jews remained in Libya. Under his rule, all Jewish property was confiscated, and all debts to Jews were cancelled. In 1970, the Libyan government declared the Day of Revenge, which celebrated the expulsion of Jews and Italians from Libya, a national holiday. Despite emigration being prohibited, most of the remaining Jews succeeded in escaping the country and by 1974, only 20 Jews remained in Libya.
In 2002, the last known Jew in Libya, Esmeralda Meghnagi, died. In the same year, however, it was discovered that Rina Debach, a then 80-year-old Jewish woman who was born and raised in Tripoli but thought to be dead by her family in Rome, was still living in a nursing home in the country. With her ensuing departure for Rome, there were no more Jews in the country.
In 2004, Gaddafi indicated that the Libyan government would compensate Jews who were forced to leave the country and stripped of their possessions. In October of that year he met with representatives of Jewish organizations to discuss compensation. He did, however, insist that Jews who moved to Israel would not be compensated. Some suspected these moves were motivated by his son Saif al-Islam Gaddafi, who was considered to be the likely successor of his father. In the same year, Saif had invited Libyan Jews living in Israel back to Libya, saying that they are Libyans, and that they should "leave the land they took from the Palestinians."
On 9 December, Gaddafi also extended an invitation to Moshe Kahlon, the Deputy Speaker of the Knesset and son of Libyan immigrants, to Tripoli, purportedly to discuss Jewish property in Libya. In 2010, it was claimed that Gaddafi had Jewish ancestry. Two Israeli women of Libyan-Jewish origin, a grandmother and granddaughter, came forward claiming to be relatives of Gaddafi. The grandmother claimed to be Gaddafi's second cousin. According to her, her grandmother had a sister who was married to a Jewish man, but ran away after he mistreated her, then converted to Islam and married Gaddafi's grandfather, a Muslim sheikh. The daughter of this marriage was Gaddafi's mother.
Post-Gaddafi era
In 2011, elements opposed to Gaddafi demonstrated a distinct divide in their stance toward Libyan Jews. NBC News correspondent Richard Engel, covering the conflict, estimated that as many as one in five of the rebel fighters had taken up arms against Gaddafi out of the belief that the Libyan strongman was secretly Jewish. However, National Transitional Council Chairman Mustafa Abdul Jalil invited Libyan Jewish representative David Gerbi to meet with him after the World Organization of Libyan Jews designated him the group's official delegate to the governing body. Gerbi was reportedly warmly received by Berber rebels in the Nafusa Mountains in August 2011, and an Amazigh NTC official was quoted as saying, "We want to create closer relations between Muslims and Jews. Without Jews we will never be a strong country."
On 1 October 2011, Gerbi returned to Tripoli after 44 years of exile. With the help of a U.S. security contractor and the permission of NTC fighters and three local sheikhs, Gerbi hammered down a brick wall erected to block the entrance to the city's historic Dar Bishi Synagogue. He declared it a "historic day" for Libya and told the crowd gathered there, "This is for all those who suffered under Gaddafi." However, some residents remained wary of Gerbi's intentions and were quoted by a CNN reporter as expressing distrust for Jews. Gerbi's work on the synagogue ended abruptly after two days when the terms of permission fell into dispute.
See also
Maghrebi Jews
History of the Jews in Carthage
Cave-dwelling Jews
Judeo-Tripolitanian Arabic
References
External links
Experiences of survivor Benjamin Doron, born in Benghazi, Libya, in Yad Vashem website.
The Jews of Libya, in Yad Vashem website.
Libya
Sephardi Jews topics
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petite%20messe%20solennelle
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Petite messe solennelle
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Gioachino Rossini's Petite messe solennelle (Little solemn mass) was written in 1863, possibly at the request of Count Alexis Pillet-Will for his wife Louise to whom it is dedicated. The composer, who had retired from composing operas more than 30 years before, described it as "the last of my péchés de vieillesse" (sins of old age).
The extended work is a missa solemnis, but Rossini ironically labeled it petite (little). He scored it originally for twelve singers, four of them soloists, two pianos and harmonium. The mass was first performed on 14 March 1864 at the couple's new home in Paris. Rossini later produced an orchestral version, including an additional movement, a setting of the hymn "" as a soprano aria. This version of the mass was not performed during his lifetime because he could not obtain permission to perform it with female singers in a church. It was first performed three months after his death, at the Salle Ventadour in Paris by the company of the Théâtre-Italien on 24 February 1869.
While publications began that year, the first critical edition appeared only in 1980, followed by more editions in 1992, the bicentenary of the composer's birth.
History
Rossini composed the Petite messe solennelle in 1863, 34 years after writing his last opera, in Passy, where he spent the last decades of his life. Rossini and his wife entertained a circle of friends, holding samedi soirs for which he composed several pieces of chamber music, often vocal, which the composer called his péchés de vieillesse (sins of old age). The mass was possibly commissioned by Count Alexis Pillet-Will for his wife Louise to whom it is dedicated, but the musicologist Nancy P. Fleming points out that Rossini may have had reasons of his own to compose it, and dedicated it in response to staging the first performance.
The mass is structured in several extended movements in the tradition of the missa solemnis, but the composer labeled it petite with a grain of irony. He wrote on the last page of the autograph manuscript (now preserved in the Fondazione Rossini, Pesaro):
The unusual scoring for voices, two pianos and harmonium is in the Neapolitan harpsichord tradition of the 18th century. Rossini specified, on the second page of his manuscript, twelve singers in all, noting on the title page: "Twelve singers of three sexes, men, women and castrati will suffice for its execution: that is, eight for the choir, four soloists, in all twelve cherubim".
Performances
The mass was first performed on 14 March 1864 at the couple's new residence in Paris, the hôtel of Louise, comtesse de Pillet-Will. The countess is the dedicatee of this refined and elegant piece, . Albert Lavignac, aged eighteen, conducted from the harmonium. The soloists were the sisters Carlotta and Barbara Marchisio, Italo Gardoni and Luigi Agnesi. The sisters Marchisio had performed together in Rossini's works before, such as the leading parts of the lovers in his opera Semiramide. Rossini, who had helped prepare for the performance, turned pages for the first pianist, Georges Mathias, and marked tempos by nodding his head. Among the first listeners were Giacomo Meyerbeer, Daniel Auber and Ambroise Thomas. The performance was repeated the following day, for a larger audience which included members of the press.
In 1867, three years after the first performance, Rossini discreetly orchestrated the Petite messe solennelle, partly for fear that others would do it anyway after his death. As he disliked the sound of cathedral boys' choirs, he requested permission from the pope to perform the work with female voices at a church. When his request was rejected, he demanded that the orchestral version would only be performed after his death. The composer preferred the chamber music version anyway.
The first performance of the orchestral version, which was also the first public performance of the work, took place on 24 February 1869, close to what would have been Rossini's seventy-seventh birthday. It was performed at the Salle Ventadour in Paris by the company of the Théâtre-Italien, with soloists Gabrielle Krauss, Marietta Alboni, Ernest Nicolas and Luigi Agnesi.
Publication
In 1869, both the piano version and the orchestral version were published. The first edition was a piano version by the Brandis & Dufour who made it available on the day of the premiere, based on Rossini's piano version but reduced to only one piano, also cutting passages. It was soon followed by editions from Chappell in London, Ricordi in Milan, and Oliver Ditson in Boston, somewhat later by B. Schotts Söhne. These four prints have in common that they were settings for harmonium and only one piano. Ricordi published a piano reduction of the orchestral score rather than following Rossini's original piano version. Some versions failed to mention that Rossini intended the work to be accompanied by two pianos.
A critical edition did not appear until 1980, when the Edizioni musicali Otos in Florence published a version faithful to the composer's intentions, edited by Angelo Coan. Three new editions of the piano version were prepared celebrating Rossini's 200th anniversary in 1992: two critical editions by Oxford and Carus-Verlag, and one by Novello, with only one piano part.
Reception
The reception of the work was divided. Music critic Filippo Filippi in La Perseveranza noted: "This time, Rossini has outdone himself, because no one can say what prevails, science and inspiration. The fugue is worthy of Bach for erudition." A reviewer for L'Illustration wrote:
However, Giuseppe Verdi was much less enthusiastic, as he wrote to Count Opprandino Arrivabene on 3 April 1864: "Lately Rossini has made progress and studied! Studied what? Personally, I would advise him to unlearn the music and write another Barber".
Scoring
In its original version, the performance of the mass required four soloists (soprano, contralto, tenor and bass), a mixed choir of ideally twelve singers including the soloists, two pianos and harmonium, which sometimes could be replaced by an accordion, according to the first idea of Rossini, but was considered too "popular" for a religious framework at the time of the creation. This low number of performers contrasts with the dimension of ensembles used at that time to interpret the great works of sacred music. This is what has earned this mass the adjective petite.
In 1867 Rossini orchestrated his mass for instrumental forces much larger: three flutes, two oboes, two clarinets, three bassoons, four horns, four trumpets, three trombones, ophicleide, two cornets, timpani, two harps, organ and strings.
Judgements about the two versions diverge. Some musicologists argue that the orchestrated version is preferred today to the original while others explain that the piano gives back its "bite" to the original version, which the composer preferred.
Structure
The mass is structured following the five parts of the liturgical text, with a ternary Kyrie, a Gloria in six movements, a Credo divided in four sections, Sanctus (including Hosanna and Benedictus) and Agnus Dei. Rossini added two earlier compositions, using an instrumental piece in the form of prelude and fugue for an offertory, and inserting in the orchestral version a soprano aria, a setting of "". As Fleming points out, insertion of an instrumental offertory and/or a motet such as "" was mentioned in in reviews of contemporary mass settings. The Kyrie and Gloria form Part I, the other movements are combined as Part II.
In the following table of the movements, the markings, keys and time signatures are taken from the Ricordi choral score, using the symbol for common time (4/4). The table reflects the original scoring but includes the added movement "". In movements without notes, both piano(s) and harmonium accompany the voices.
Music
Fleming compares the mass to Rossini's operas and early mass settings and finds restrained vocal lines, even in the melismas of the Agnus Dei, but observes his "predilection for spicy harmonic twists". She summarizes his "optimistic and deeply felt faith. Robert King, the conductor of The King's Consort, notes: "It certainly is solennelle, for it is a heartfelt religious work which shows the extraordinary compositional capabilities of this astonishing man of the theatre: it is full of drama, pathos, colour and intensity."
Kyrie
The structure of the Kyrie, following the liturgical three appellations, "Kyrie eleison. Christe eleison. Kyrie eleison" (Lord, have mercy. Christ, ...), is ternary, in the form A–B–A'.
"Kyrie eleison" Andante maestoso ( = 108) A minor (measures 1–35)
"Christe eleison" Andantino moderato ( = 66) in C minor (measures 36–57)
"Kyrie eleison" as a reprise of the first part, but in other keys (measures 58–90)
The work opens in A minor, with two chords marked pppp, extremely soft. The piano then begins an ostinato motif which remains present throughout the movement. A continuous flow of sixteenth appears in a pattern of the first, third and fourth played in octaves by the left hand, while the second appears as a syncopated chord in the right hand. The harmonium introduces motifs repeated by the chorus. The voices pick up a slowly rising line on the word "Kyrie", marked sotto voce, in imitation: first tenor and bass, a measure later alto, a measure later soprano. The word "eleison" appears in contrasting homophonic chords marked forte, but smorzando to piano for the repeats of the word. A second appellation begins in measure 18 in C major, marked pppp for "Kyrie" but with another sudden forte and decrescendo for "eleison".
The middle section, "Christe eleison", is a double canon in an archaizing style. Marked "tutto sotto voce e legato" it stays on one dynamic level, different from the dynamic contrasts of the first part. This music was composed by Rossini's friend Louis Niedermeyer as the "Et incarnatus" of a solemn mass, and included by Rossini "possibly as an affectionate personal tribute", as the musicologist David Hurwitz points out.
The second "Kyrie" returns to the first tempo and themes, but through a tonally inverted path: C minor instead of A minor, then A major instead of C major. After the second exposition, the finale runs through a chain of surprising harmonies (measures 75 to 80) leading to the final cadence.
Gloria
The Gloria is subdivided into six movements (seven sections), similar to Baroque masses such as Bach's short masses.
Gloria in excelsis Deo
Marked Allegro maestoso ( = 120), the first line is introduced by two sequences of three chordal motifs, separated by a measure of silence. According to Claire Delamarche, these represent the trois coups announcing the rise of the curtain in the French theater tradition. The sopranos alone sing the first line, "Glory to God in the Highest", repeated by a four-part harmonization.
Et in terra pax
After six measures of piano interlude, the bass soloist begins softly the text "And peace on earth", joined later by the other soloists. Finally the four parts of the chorus all repeat one after the other gently "adoramus te" (we pray to you) and conclude the section singing in homophony "glorificamus te" (we glorify you), marked again sotto voce.
Gratias
The second movement of the Gloria is a trio for alto, tenor, and bass. It sets the "Gratias agimus tibi propter magnam gloriam tuam" (We give you thanks for your great glory). Marked Andante grazioso ( = 76) in 2/4, it is made up of:
an introduction for piano
theme A, used in different voices (measures 24–51)
presentation of a new theme, B (measures 51–58)
a chromatic digression for piano (measures 59–65)
a brief return to theme A (measures 67–76)
development of theme B (measures 76–94)
a long plagal cadence (measures 96–114)
The setting for three voices illustrates "We give you thanks".
Domine Deus
The third movement of the Gloria is a tenor aria, setting "Domine Deus rex celestis" (Lord God, King of Heaven). Marked Allegro giusto and fortissimo ( = 120) in common time, it is introduced by a march-like theme with a pattern of a syncopated long accented note on beat 2 of most measures, which the tenor picks up. The second thought, "Domine Deus Agnus Dei" (Lord God, Lamb of God) is presented in contrasting triple-piano and even rhythm. A third aspect, "Domine Deus Filius Patris" (Lord God, Son of the Father), appear forte and with an even accompaniment in triplets. The aria is, by its music of energetic syncopes, dotted rhythms and leaps, an image of a majestic heavenly king.
Qui tollis
The fourth movement of the Gloria is a duet for the two female soloists, expressing "Qui tollis peccati mundi, miserere nobis" (You who carries the sins of the world, have mercy). Marked Andantino mosso ( = 76) in common time, it has the two voices often in parallels of thirds and sixths.
Quoniam
The fifth movement of the Gloria is a bass aria on the text "Quoniam tu solus sanctus" (For You alone are Holy). A short introduction, marked Adagio, leads to an extended piano section, marked Allegro moderato ( = 76) with contrasts in dynamics.
Cum Sancto Spiritu
The final movement of the Gloria is a chorus on the words "Cum Sancto Spiritu in Gloria Dei Patris." (With the Holy Spirit in the Glory of God.) Amen". They are presented first as in the beginning of the Gloria, returning to the initial key. Then, marked Allegro a capella, they are expanded to long fugue with a display of counterpoint. Shortly before the end, the opening of the Gloria is repeated on the first words, unifying the movement further.
Credo
Different from the Gloria, the text of the Creed is mostly in the same character, interrupted only for a short soprano solo "Crucifixus" (Crucified) and an episode "Et resurrexit" (And risen), concluded by another fugue. The word "Credo" (I believe) is first sung by the tenors, then by the sopranos, again by the choir. This statement of belief is repeated several times throughout the movement, structuring and unifying it, in a way that Niccolò Jommelli, Mozart and Beethoven used before, among others.
Marked Allegro Cristiano ( = 120), a strong beginning is contrasted by softly expressing "in unum Deum" (in one God), beginning on the same tone, reminiscent of liturgical reciting tone. Then the soloists, with alto and tenor beginning, sing the passage "Et incarnatus est" (And was born) in the same mood. The female voices of the chorus announce in unison: "Et homo factus est" (and was made man), repeated by the male voices, then the piano plays a sequence of short motifs, interrupted by many rests.
Crucifixus
The crucifixion is illustrated by the solo soprano, marked Andantino sostenuto ( = 80), on a soft ostinato accompaniment.
Et resurrexit
The resurrection is announced by the sopranos, first alone, then by a strong chord in the instruments which changes the E-flat they sing to D-sharp of a B major chord, in which the other voices join. After this surprise, the new text is sung to themes from the first section, concluded by "Credo". Another fugue expands the text "Et vitam venturi saeculi. (And the life of a world to come.) Amen". It ends operatic, with a stretta, a slow retarding line by all soloists, finally a last "Credo".
Preludio religioso
For the liturgical offertory, Rossini inserted an instrumental piece he had composed before, a combination of prelude and fugue. The prelude, sixteen measures of 4/4 Andante maestoso ( = 92), is written for piano and asks for dynamics ranging from double forte to double piano una corda. It announces at the same time the F tonality, and the modulating character of the movement, by chords borrowed from distant keys. The solemn rhythmic style ( .. ) will not recur until the four-measure postlude of the fugue.
Rossini indicates that the fugue (without the postlude explicitly written for piano) may be played equally on piano or harmonium. In 3/4, Andantino mosso ( = 76) with a regular rhythm of eighth notes, the fugue has a theme in the form of a turn like the BACH motif, which has the same chromatic opening as the famous subject of the Fantasy and Fugue on the Theme B-A-C-H by Franz Liszt. Rossini proves both his inventiveness (particularly at the level of management of the tonality, which frequently evolves into distant keys) and his impressive capacity for mastering the contradictions.
The structure begins classically with a fugue with the exposition of the subject successively in the three voices at a piano dynamic. The turn motif in F minor is repeated four times at the interval of a rising third (C , E , G , and B), followed by a development by a sequence of arpeggios in descending thirds. The melodic line proceeds to the dominant to accompany the exposition of the subject in the second voice, with a series of eighth notes arranged in a constant interval of a third or a sixth with the subject. This arrangement repeats itself during the exposition of the subject in the third voice in F minor.
A long episode of 29 measures follows, where the modulations are legion. For example, a sequence based on the three first notes of the turn theme is repeated eight times in a row starting in measure 47. Numerous dynamics are marked in the score: piano, forte, crescendo and decrescendo. This episode ends with the dynamic double forte decrescendo on a perfect cadence of G (D dominant seventh → G major), repeated twice identically. The G major chord becomes the dominant of the key of the second exposition.
The second exposition of the subject begins at measure 70 in the left hand, in C minor, then in the right hand in G minor at measure 78. The same 29 episodic measures as before are heard, but transposed, then extended by 26 measures of new development, always using numerous sequences.
A full measure of rest (measure 140) precedes a cadence in F minor, then F major, of which the A transforms into the tonic of the key B minor for the postlude, then the dominant of the cadence in E minor, followed by an E major chord, and concluding without transition on an F major chord.
Ritornello
Rossini wrote a brief instrumental passage, probably to establish the key of C major and the mood for the following Sanctus. The "Ritornello" and the "Sanctus" which follows are in effect in the same key of C major (both in 6/8).
Sanctus
The acclamation "Sanctus" (Holy) appears three times, sung by the choir, each time more intense than before. "Pleni sunt coeli et terra" (Full are heaven and earth) begins as a canon of the choir voices, beginning forte and ending softly. "Hosanna in excelsis" (Hosanna in the Highest) is sung by pairs of soloists in unison. For "Benedictus qui venit in nomine Domine" (Blessed who comes in the name of the Lord), the choir presents a soft melody in triplets. The sequence is repeated in different harmonic development and with the soloists taking over the "Benedictus" section. The movement culminates in a strong eight-part affirmation of "in excelsis".
O Salutaris
This movement was not part of Rossini's original version for two pianos and harmonium, but he inserted it in his version for orchestra. He transposed an earlier composition, which was originally in E major for alto, however as the alto soloist had to subsequently sing the Agnus Dei, it was reallocated to the soprano. It became customary to include it even in performances and editions with piano(s).
Thomas Aquinas's hymn "O salutaris hostia" has been used in mass settings close to the Agnus Dei from the Renaissance. It was set to music in the 18th century by Guillaume-Gabriel Nivers, Henry Madin, and Jean-Paul-Égide Martini, and by Franz Liszt in the 19th century. Rossini uses the first four lines (out of eight). The melodic line of the soprano soloist begins with an upward broken seventh chord.
This movement in 3/4, with tempo Andantino sostenuto ( = 88), is structured as:
an introduction for piano of twenty measures
an A–B–A section (measures 21 to 91)
a reprise of the introduction, shared between the piano and the soloist (measures 92 to 103)
an A'–B'–A' section (measures 104 to 154)
a finale with piano in a noble style, as similarly throughout the work
The theme and its broken seventh chord (G-B-D-F) which characterize this movement is stated first as a major seventh in the two first passages of the first section A with a discreet accompaniment. To finish this section, the theme arpeggiates a dominant seventh. In the second A section, the theme first repeats the major seventh before developing into a minor seventh with a minor third in the second passage (G-B-D-F).
The melodic line of part B is contrasting in both its static character and the vehemence of the piano accompaniment, and by the double forte dynamics, as much by the double forte dynamics which give a brutal character, as by the use of sequences (E major to begin with, then B major, G major, E major, etc.). This section ends with a chromatic descent in the accompaniment at quadruple piano dynamic, up to a dominant seventh of G major, to prepare the return of the second section A in the original key.
A reprise of the first measures of the introduction uses only the text "Bella premunt" ("The armies pursue us"). While the piano repeats the introduction identically, the soprano doubles it several times for one or two measures interspersed with silences.
The rest (section A') is largely in the form of sequences. Section B' uses the most static part of theme B in another sequence. The return to the key of section A', repeated identically, operates on an enharmonic equivalence (G→F) as elsewhere in the work.
Agnus Dei
The final movement of the mass begins with an introduction that is similar to that to the "Crucifixus". The piano then begins another ostinato pattern as the base for expressive melodies by the contralto soloist, repeating many times "Agnus Dei, qui tollis peccata mundi, miserere nobis" (Lamb of God, you take away the sins of the world, have mercy). After an extended cadence the choir sings a capella, twice and very simply: "Dona nobis pacem" (Give us peace). This process is repeated in different harmony, and once more in a major mode, leading to an intense request for peace of the soloist and the choir together. Then the movement returns to the introduction, with its soft chords interrupted by rests, and ends with a few strong hammered chords.
Notes and references
Notes
References
Sources
General sources
Books
Journals
Newspapers
Online sources
Further reading
External links
1972, piano version, at the Stiftskirche of Kloster Baumberg im Chiemgau, Brigitte Fassbaender, with Kari Løvaas, Peter Schreier, Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau, conducted by Wolfgang Sawallisch from the piano
Photograph of the note of intention written and signed by the hand of Rossini
Rossini Petite Messe Solenelle Review, BBC 2006
Allan Kozinn: "A Solemn Mass, from Rossini, with Bounce", The New York Times, 24 March 2010
Amalia Collisani: Umorismo di Rossini sidm.it 1998
Liste des Péchés de vieillesse, German Rossini Society
Compositions by Gioachino Rossini
Rossini
1863 compositions
Music with dedications
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shimoga%20district
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Shimoga district
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Shimoga district, officially known as Shivamogga district, is a district in the Karnataka state of India. A major part of Shimoga district lies in the Malnad region or the Sahyadri. Shimoga city is its administrative centre. Jog Falls view point is a major tourist attraction. As of 2011 Shimoga district has a population of 17,52,753. There are seven taluks: Soraba, Sagara, Hosanagar, Shimoga, Shikaripura, Thirthahalli, and Bhadravathi. Channagiri and Honnali were part of Shimoga district until 1997 when they became part of the newly formed Davanagere district.
Origin of name
Shivamogga was previously known as Mandli. There are legends about how the name Shivamogga has evolved. According to one, the name Shivamogga is related to the Hindu God Shiva. Shiva-Mukha (Face of Shiva), Shivana-Moogu (Nose of Shiva) or Shivana-Mogge (Flowers to be offered to Shiva) can be the origins of the name "Shivamogga". Another legend indicates that the name Shimoga is derived from the word Sihi-Moge which means sweet pot. According to this legend, Shivamogga once had the ashram of the sage Durvasa. He used to boil sweet herbs in an earthen pot. Some cowherds, found this pot and after tasting the sweet beverage named this place Sihi-Moge.
History
During Treta Yuga, Lord Rama killed Maricha, who was in the disguise of a deer at Mrugavadhe near Thirthahalli. The Shimoga region formed a part of the Mauryan empire during the 3rd century. The district came into the control of Satavahanas. The Satakarni inscription has been found in the Shikaripur taluk. After the fall of the Shatavahana empire around 200 CE, the area came under the control of the Kadambas of Banavasi around 345 CE. The Kadambas were the earliest kingdom to give administrative status to the Kannada language. Later the Kadambas became feudatories of the Badami Chalukyas around 540 CE.
In the 8th century Rashtrakutas ruled this district. The Kalyani Chalukyas overthrew the Rashtrakutas, and the district came into their rule. Balligavi was a prominent city during their rule. In the 12th century, with the weakening of the Kalyani Chalukyas, the Hoysalas annexed this area. After the fall of the Hoysalas, the entire region came under the Vijayanagar Empire. When the Vijayanagar empire was defeated in 1565 CE in the battle of Tallikota, the Keladi Nayakas who were originally feudatory of the Vijayanagar empire took control, declared sovereignty, and ruled as an independent kingdom for about two centuries. In 1763 Haider Ali captured the capital of Keladi Nayakas and as a result the district came into the rule of the Kingdom of Mysore and remained a part of it until India acquired independence from the British.
Geography
Shimoga district is a part of the Malnad region of Karnataka and is also known as the 'Gateway to Malnad' or 'Malenaada Hebbagilu' in Kannada. The district is landlocked and bounded by Haveri, Davanagere, Chikmagalur, Udupi and Uttara Kannada districts. The district ranks 9th in terms of the total area among the districts of Karnataka. It is spread over an area of 8465 km2.
Shimoga lies between the latitudes 13°27' and 14°39' N and between the longitudes 74°38' and 76°04' E at a mean altitude of 640 metres above sea level. The peak Kodachadri hill at an altitude of 1343 metres above sea level is the highest point in this district. Rivers Kali, Gangavati, Sharavati and Tadadi originate in this district. The two major rivers that flow through this district are Tunga and Bhadra which meet at Koodli near Shimoga city to gain the name of Tungabhadra, which later joins River Krishna.
Climate
As the district lies in the tropical region, rainy season occurs from June to October. In the years 1901–1970, Shimoga received an average annual rainfall of 1813.9 mm with an average of 86 days in the year being rainy days. The average annual temperature of Shimoga district is around 26 °C. The average temperature has increased substantially over the years. In some regions of the district, the day temperature can reach 40 °C during summer. This has led to water crisis and other problems.
Geology
The major soil forms found in the Shimoga district are red gravelly clay soil; red clay soil; lateritic gravelly clay soil; lateritic clay soil; medium deep black soil; non-saline and saline alluvio-colluvial soil; brown forest soil.
The major minerals found in the district are limestone; white quartz; kaolin; kyanite; manganese.
The plain land of the district is suitable for agriculture.
Economy
Foundry, agriculture and animal husbandry are the major contributors to the economy of Shimoga district. The crops cultivated in this district are paddy, arecanut, cotton, maize, oil seeds, cashewnut, pepper, chili, ginger, Ragi. Karnataka is the largest producer of arecanut in India, the majority of which is cultivated in the Shimoga district. The farmers have cultivated crops like Vanilla and Jatropha that has yielded high monetary benefits. Spices like, clove, pepper, cinnamon, cardamom are grown along with areaca plants. This multi cropping can help in maximum utilisation of land space and improve soil fertility. As spices have high commercial value it provides additional income to farmers.
Industries
Iron, agriculture, Textiles and engineering are the major industries in Shimoga district. Foundry activity has a long history there and Pearlite Liners (P) Led., one of the oldest industries of Karnataka (earlier known as Bharath Foundry), is the largest private-sector employer in the district. , there were about 9800 industrial units in Shimoga District (small, medium and large), with more than 41,000 employees.
Major investments are made in food; beverages, engineering, and mechanical goods. Other rural industries in this district are carpentry, blacksmith, leather, pottery, beekeeping, stone cutting, handlooms, agarbathi, and sandalwood carving.
Karnataka government has created industrial regions to encourage industrialisation of the district: KIADB Nidige Industrial area in Bhadravathi taluk; Machinahaali Industrial Area. Mandli-Kallur Industrial area in Shimoga taluk; Shimoga Industrial estate in Shimoga; Kallahalli Industrial estate in Shimoga. KIADB Devakathikoppa Industrial Area. KSSIDC Siddlipura Industrial Area. Major industries in Shimoga district are VISL and MPM.
Administrative divisions
Shimoga district is divided into seven taluks: Soraba, Bhadravathi, Thirthahalli, Sagara, Shikaripura, Shimoga and Hosanagara.
The district administration is headed by the deputy commissioner who has the additional role of a district magistrate. Assistant commissioners, tahsildars, shirastedars, revenue inspectors and village accountants help the deputy commissioner in the administration of the district. The headquarters is Shimoga city.
The Shimoga Lok Sabha constituency comprises the entire Shimoga district and also covers parts of Nalluru and Ubrani hoblis of Channagiri taluk of Davanagere district. As of 2005 it had 1,286,181 voters: Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes account for 2.2 lakhs; Lingayats account for two lakhs; Deevaru (Idiga)account for 1.8 lakh; (Madivala) account for 1.2 lakh;Muslims account for 1.6 lakh; Brahmins and Vokkaligas account for 1.25 lakh each. Seven members are elected to the Legislative assembly of the state of Karnataka. The assembly constituencies in Shimoga district are:
Soraba
Sagara
Shimoga
Shimoga Rural
Shikaripura
Bhadravathi
Thirthahalli
Demographics
According to the 2011 census Shimoga district has a population of 1,752,753, which is roughly equal to population of the nation Gambia and the state of Nebraska of the United States. The district ranks 275th in India out of a total of 640 districts. The district has a population density of . Its population growth rate over the decade 2001–2011 was 6.88%. Shimoga has a sex ratio of 995 females per 1000 males and a literacy rate of 80.5%. 35.59% of the population lives in urban areas. Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes make up 17.58% and 3.73% of the population respectively.
Shimoga taluk has the highest population with Hosanagara taluk having the lowest. The district has a sex ratio of 977 females to 1000 males. Shimoga Taluk having 991 females to 1000 males has the lowest sex-ratio.
At the time of the 2011 census, 70.20% of the population spoke Kannada, 12.71% Urdu, 4.17% Tamil, 4.07% Telugu, 2.95% Lambadi, 2.10% Marathi and 1.47% Konkani as their first language.
Culture
Heritage and architecture
Ballegavi, also known as 'Dakshina kedara' was the capital of Banavasi rulers during the 12th century CE. There are many temples in Ballegavi, some constructed as per Late Chalukyan architecture: Kedareshvara temple, Tripurantakeshvara temple, and Prabhudeva temple. They are known for architecture and sculpture. Shivappa Naik palace is located in Shimoga on the banks of river Tunga; it was constructed by Shivappa nayaka of Keladi. The Lakshminarsimha temple in Bhadravathi was built as per Hoysala architecture. Keladi and Ikkeri were the capital cities during the time of Keladi Nayakas. There are three temples in Keldai: Rameshvara temple, Veerbhadreshvara temple, and Parvati temple. The Aghoreshvara temple is in Ikkeri. The Sacred Heart church, constructed in the 1990s, is second largest church of Asia.
Poetry and literature
Shimoga district has produced several Kannada writers and poets:
Kuvempu was born in the village Kuppalli in Thirthahalli Taluk.
G. S. Shivarudrappa born in Shikaripur.
U.R. Ananthamurthy was born in Melige village in Thirthahalli Taluk.
P. Lankesh born in Konagavalli.
K. V. Subbanna from Sagara
M. K. Indira
Na D'Souza from Sagara
H. M. Nayak from Thirthahalli
Poornachandra Tejaswi, the son of Kuvempu.
In December 2006, the 73rd Kannada Sahitya Sammelana took place in Shimoga. K.S.Nissar Ahmed was the president of the event. This was the third Kannada Sahiya Sammelana held at Shimoga: The first one was held in 1946 (president: Da.Ra.Bendre) and second one in 1976 (president: S.V.Ranganna).
Ninasam
Nilakanteshwara Natya Seva Sangha is located in a village called Heggodu in Sagara. It was established by K. V. Subbanna in 1958. Ninasam is a drama institute. The headquarters is in Heggodu. It has a library, rehearsal hall, guesthouse and theatre. Shivarama Karantha Rangamandira is an auditorium for Ninasam. It was opened in 1972. Ninasam started a Theatre-in-education project called Shalaranga with the help from the government of India during 1991–1993. Ford Foundation has volunteered in establishing a rural theatre and film culture project called Janaspandana. Ninasam conducts a summer workshop for youngsters. Ninasam chitrasamaja is an organisation to encourage film culture and to hold film festivals.
Handicrafts and sculpture
Gudigars are a clan of craftsmen who are specialised in carving intricate designs on wood, mainly sandalwood. They are concentrated in the Sagara and Soraba taluks. The articles they make are sold at government emporiums. Ashok Gudigar is one of the sculptors from this clan. A 41-foot Bahubali statue is one of his works. He has won the Vishwakarma award for his Chalukyan-style Ganesha sculpture. He has won the National award in 1992 for his Hoysala-styled Venugopala sculpture.
Dance
Dollu Kunitha and Yakshagana are some of the dance forms which are prevalent in this district. Yakshagana has a long history in the district and Dr. Kota Shivarama Karantha suggests that origin of the 'badaguthittu' form of Yakshagana took place in the region between Ikkeri of Shimoga district and Udupi.
Fairs
Dasara is celebrated every year in Shimoga. Many cultural programmes are held during this time. A folk fair was organised in Shimoga in 2006. Marikamba festival is celebrated in Sagara once in 3 years.
Cinema
The tele-serial Malgudi days which was based on a novel written by R K Narayan was shot in Agumbe. It was directed by the Kannada actor and director Shankar Nag. The film Kanoora heggadathi which was based on the novel written by Kuvempu was shot in Thirthahalli taluk. It was directed by Girish Karnad. B. V. Karanth composed music for this film. The film Samskara, based on the novel written by U. R. Anantha Murthy, was shot in a village in the Shimoga district.
Cinema personalities born in Shimoga district:
Girish Kasaravalli: Film director who has won several Swarna Kamal awards for Kannada art movies.
P. Lankesh: Editor of the tabloid Lankesh Patrike and director of a few films.
Ashok Pai: Psychiatrist, script writer and film producer who produced Kannada film Kadina Benki and others.
Sudeep Kannada actor born in Shimoga
Arun Sagar A Kannada Actor from Sagara
Cuisine
Rice is the staple food for majority of the people in Shimoga district. The food in this district is somewhat similar to Udupi cuisine. However, exclusive dishes specified to Malenadu are a part of Shimoga District.
The cooking in the Malnad region of Shimoga district includes items like midigayi-uppinakai (tender-mango pickle), sandige (similar to pappadum), avalakki (beaten rice) and akki rotti. Havyaka people have their own cuisine consisting of such varied items like genesale (sweet made of jaggery, rice and coconut), thotadevvu (sweet made of rice and sugarcane juice) and thambli (a curd preparation containing other ingredients like ginger, turmeric root, jasmine and rose sprouts).
Flora and fauna
The Malnad region is a biodiversity hotspot with a rich diversity of flora and fauna. The region has protected areas classified as wildlife sanctuaries to ensure the protection of these species:
Gudavi Bird Sanctuary is in Sorab Taluk. The sanctuary is spread over an area of
There are many species of flora found here: Vitex leucoxylon, Phyllanthus polyphyllus, Terminalia bellerica, Terminalia paniculata, Terminalia chebula, Lagerstroemia lanceolata, Dalbergia latifolia, Haldina cordifolia, Xylia xylocarpa, Caryota urens, Ficus benghalensis, Ficus religiosa, Butea monosperma, Santalum album, Diospyros melanoxylon; Madhuca longifolia, Kirganelia reticulata.
191 species of fauna have been recorded here: 63 are water-dependent; 20 species are known to breed here. Water birds in the sanctuary include black-headed ibis, Darters, Little Cormorant, Indian shag, Cattle Egret, Little Egret, Large Egret, Spoonbill, Grey Heron, purple heron, Pond Heron, night heron, Coot, Pheasant-tailed Jacana, Purple Swamphen, Common Sandpiper, Little ringed plover, Little Grebe, Cotton Teal. An average of about 8000 White Ibis visit the sanctuary every year.
Sharavathi Valley Wildlife Sanctuary is in Sagar Taluk. It has evergreen and semi-evergreen forests with its eastern portion adjoining the Linganamakki reservoir.
The species of flora found here: Dipterocarpus indicus, Calophyllum tomentosum, Persea macrantha, Caryota urens, Aporosa lindleyana, Calycopteris floribunda, Entada scandens, Acacia concinna, Gnetum scandens. In the semi-evergreen and moist deciduous forests, common species include: Lagerstroemia microcarpa, Hopea parviflora, Dalbergia latifolia, Dillenia pentagyna, Careya arborea, Emblica officinalis, Randia, Terminalia, Vitex altissima.
The animals found here: gaurs, Lion-tailed Macaque, Tiger, leopard (black panther), Wild Dog, jackal, Sloth Bear, Spotted Deer, sambar deer, barking deer, Mouse Deer, Wild Boar, common langur, bonnet macaque, Malabar giant squirrel, giant flying squirrel, Porcupine, Otters; Pangolins. Reptiles include King Cobra, python, rat snake, Crocodile, Monitor Lizard. Avian species found here: three species of hornbills; Asian paradise flycatcher; Racket-tailed Drongo; lories and lorikeets.
Shettihalli Wildlife Sanctuary lies adjacent to Shimoga city and has forests ranging from dry deciduous to semi-evergreen and is spread over an area of . Large areas of forests have been destroyed due to fire.
Trees of the dry deciduous parts include Terminalia tomentosa, Terminalia bellerica, Gmelina arborea, Tectona grandis, Anogeissus latifolia, Lagerstroemia lanceolata, Wrightia tinctoria, Cassia fistula; and Emblica officinalis. In the moist deciduous forest species like Adina cordifolia, Xylia xylocarpa, Grewia tilaefolia, Kydia calycina, bamboo Dendrocalamus strictus, Bambusa arundinacea. The semi-evergreen forests are represented by Dipterocarpus, Michelia, Hopea, Schleichera, and Bambusa. Plants like Acacia auriculiformis, Tectona grandis, and Grevillea robusta also exist in the sanctuary.
Mammals in the sanctuary include Tigers, Leopards, Wild Dogs, Jackals, Gaurs, Elephants; Sloth Bears, Sambar Deer, Spotted Deer, Wild Boar, Common Langurs; Bonnet macaques, Common Mongoose, Striped-necked Mongoose, Porcupine, Malabar giant squirrel, giant flying squirrel, Pangolin.
Python, cobra, king cobra, rat snake, marsh crocodile are among the reptiles found in the sanctuary.
Birds include Hornbills, Kingfishers, Bulbuls, Parakeets, Doves, Pigeons, babblers, Flycatchers, munias, Swallows, Woodpeckers, Peafowl, Jungle fowl, Partridges. A tiger and lion safari at Tyavarekoppa was created in the northeastern part of the sanctuary in 1988.
Bhadra Wildlife Sanctuary was started in 1951 as Jagara valley game sanctuary covering an area of about . It was combined with the surrounding Lakkavalli forests in 1972 and given its present name of Bhadra Wildlife Sanctuary. It now spans an area of . Some of the wild animals found in this sanctuary are Tiger, Leopard, Wild Dog, Jackal, Elephant, Gaur, Sloth Bear, Sambar Deer, Spotted Deer, Monitor Lizard, Barking Deer, Wild Boar, Common Langur, bonnet macaque, Slender Loris, the Malabar giant squirrel.
Some of the bird species found here are Malabar whistling thrush; species of Bulbuls; Woodpeckers, Hornbills, pigeons, Drongos, Asian paradise flycatcher. The sanctuary has been recently adopted under a tiger-conservation project called Project Tiger which is an initiative from the Indian government.
Mandagadde Bird Sanctuary is a sanctuary from Shimoga town on the way to Thirthahalli. This is a small island surrounded by Tunga river. The birds found here are median egret, cormorant, darter, snakebird.
Sakrebailu Elephant Camp lies 14 km. from Shimoga town on the way to Thirthahalli. This is a training camp where elephants undergo training from mahouts.
Tyavarekoppa Lion and Tiger Safari lies about from Shimoga town on the way to Sagar. The safari has lions, tigers and deer.
Education
Shimoga district has a literacy rate of 80.2%. The district has two engineering colleges, two medical colleges, an ayurvedic medical college, dental college, veterinary College and an agricultural college. There are 116 pre-university colleges in the district out of which 51 government pre-university colleges. There are 41 educational institutions managed by National education society. There are 1106 lower primary schools and 1185 higher primary schools.
Primary and high school education
There are 1106 lower primary schools, 1185 higher primary schools and 393 high schools in Shimoga district. There are 1323 anganawadis. National education society has 31 educational institutions including pre-university and first grade colleges. There are five CBSE schools, including Jnanadeepa school. National Residential school is another CBSE school in Thirthalli. Hongirana School Of Excellence is a CBSE School in Sagar, Karnataka. B G S Central School which is affiliated CBSE is at Karehalli Bhadravathi
Government High School, Jade
Government High School, Jade is one of the top three high schools in Soraba Taluk. This high school has the biggest playground and more than 500 students from Jade, and surrounding up to 10 km villages are studying in this school. GHS JADE have won several computation organised by Department Of Education, like sports, Prathiba Karanji in every year, In 2015 this high school started to offer English-medium classes for 8th, 9th and 10th students.
Pre-university education
There are 116 pre-university colleges in the district. There are 51 government colleges, 3 bifurcated colleges, 47 unaided colleges and 15 aided colleges. In the 2012 second year pre-university examination, the district ranked 5th with 54.31% of passed candidates.
Diploma courses
There are 8 Polytechnics in the district. Major polytechnics among them are Government Polytechnic - Bhadravathi, Government Women's Polytechnic - Gopala, Sahyadri Polytechnic, Sanjay Memorial Polytechnic-Sagara, DVS Polytechnic.
Undergraduate education
There are 12 colleges affiliated to Kuvempu University, 5 B.Ed and B.P.Ed colleges and 3 constituent colleges. Sahyadri science college is located in Shimoga city. It was established in 1940 and was upgraded to first grade college in 1956. It offers two undergraduate courses: BSc and B.C.A. There are two engineering colleges in the district: Jawaharlal Nehru national college of engineering and P.E.S. Institute of Technology and Management. Jawaharlal Nehru national college of engineering was established in 1980 by the National education society. The college offers 7 courses in B.E. PES institute of technology and management was established in 2007. The college offers 5 undergraduate programmes in B.E. National College of Pharmacy in the center of the city is one of the oldest college in Karnataka state and students across the nation has studied here.
Shimoga Institute of Medical Sciences was started in 2005. It is on the premises of the McGann Hospital in Shimoga, established in memory of British Surgeon Dr. T.G.McGann. The college is affiliated to Rajiv Gandhi University of Health Sciences, Karnataka. There are 21 departments in the college. Bapuji Ayurvedic Medical college, established in 1996, is in Shimoga, which offers B.A.M.S. Ayurvedacharya degree. T.M.A.E. Society's Ayurved College, established in 1992, is located in Shimoga, which also offers B.A.M.S Ayuvedacharya degree. Both colleges are affiliated to Rajiv Gandhi University of Health Sciences. Sharavathi Dental college, established in the year 1992, is in Shimoga and has been approved by DCI. It offers B.D.S. in Dental surgery. It is affiliated to Rajiv Gandhi University of Health Sciences.
Postgraduate education
Sahyadri science college offers two post graduate programmes: M.Sc. and MTA. Jawaharlal Nehru national college of engineering has 7 post-graduate programmes: Master of computer applications; Master of business administration; M.Tech. in Computer Science and Engineering; M.Tech. in Network & Internet Engineering; M.Tech. in Design Engineering; M.Tech. in Transportation Engineering and Management; M.Tech. in Digital Electronics and Communication Systems. PES Shimoga offers post-graduation in business studies, Master of Business Administration. The Kuvempu University offers courses in Languages, Literature and Fine Arts; Social Sciences; Economic and Business studies; Physical Sciences; Chemical sciences; Bio Sciences; Earth and Environmental Science; Law; Education; M.Tech. in Nanoscience and Technology.
Sports
Shimoga district has three cricket stadiums: Nehru stadium, Jawaharlal Nehru college of engineering cricket ground and PES Institute of Technology Cricket ground. The first match played on the Nehru stadium was in 1974. Since then 13 matches have been played out of which 3 are Ranji matches. The Ranji match between Karnataka and Uttar Pradesh was hosted on the Jawaharlal Nehru cricket ground.
Sagara has a very good cricket stadium called Gopalagowda Stadium, It is the only best leather pitch stadium in the district.
The work on an international cricket stadium has started near Navule. The VISL cricket stadium is located in Bhadravathi. Shivamogga Lions represents the Shimoga zone in the KPL. Shimoga, Hassan and Chickmagalur districts come under the Shimoga zone in the Karnataka premier league.
Gundappa Viswanath is a cricketer from Bhadravathi. He has played test cricket for India from 1969 to 1983 making 91 appearances. Bharat Chipli is a cricketer from Sagar who plays for Deccan Chargers. The 18th Junior National Athletic Championship was held in Shimoga.
State-level kho kho and volleyball competitions are held in the district. The volleyball tournaments are held on the Kuvempu University campus and Nehru stadium. VTU inter-collegiate cricket, football, volleyball and handball tournaments are held in the districts. The district football team has won inter-district football tournaments. Shimoga was the host for the CBSE National Handball Championship in 2009. City-level basketball tournaments are conducted in Sahyadri College premises. Other sports tournaments held in Shimoga are table tennis; badminton; kabaddi; chess. There are proposals to upgrade the Nehru stadium in Shimoga. The upgraded stadium would contain a swimming pool of international standards, an indoor stadium, basketball court and a synthetic track. There are proposals to build sports stadium at Thirthahalli, Shikaripura and Soraba.
Tourism
Waterfalls
Jog Falls is the highest waterfall in India and second highest in Asia. The river Sharavathi falls into the gorge in four distinct flows which are termed Raja, Rani, Rover, and Rocket. Jog falls lies in Sagar taluk and is 30 km. from the city of Sagar.
Kunchikal Falls is the 11th highest waterfall in India and 313th highest in the world with a height of 455 meters and ranks 116 in the list of highest waterfalls in the world. This waterfall is near Mastikatte and is formed by the Varahi River.
Barkana Falls is near Agumbe and 80 km from Thirthahalli town. Barkana Falls is the 10th highest waterfall in India and ranks 308 in the world.
Achakanya Falls is located near a village called Aralsuruli, 10 km from Thirthahalli on the way to Hosanagara. The falls is formed by the Sharavathi river.
Vanake-Abbey Falls is in the heart of Malnad forests, 4 km from Agumbe.
Hidlamane Falls is near Nittur in Hosanagara Taluk. The only way to reach it is by trekking.
Dabbe Falls, Sagara is located near Hosagadde in Sagar taluk. On the road from Sagar to Bhatkal, Hosagadde lies about 20 km from the town of Kargal. From Hosagadde a walk of 6–8 km into the forest leads to Dabbe Falls.
Dams
Linganamakki dam is built across the Sharavathi river in Sagar taluk and is 6 km from Jog Falls. It is the main feeder reservoir for the Mahatma Gandhi hydro-electric project. It has two power generating units of 27.5 MW. It is the biggest dam in Karnataka of 151.75 Tmcft.
Bhadra river dam is built across Bhadra river at Lakkavalli at distance of 20 km from Bhadravathi city. The dam was constructed by Sir. M. Vishweshwaraiah, the then chief engineer of Karnataka state. The dam mainly serves the purpose of irrigation in and around Bhadravathi taluk and Tarikere taluk of Chikkamagaluru district.
Gajanur dam is built across the river Tunga in a village called Gajanur 12 km from Shimoga city.
Rivers
Tunga and Bhadra originates at Varaha mountains. They meet at Koodli and become Tungabhadra river. Koodli is 16 km from Shimoga city and the Smartha monastery in Koodli was founded in 1576 CE by Jagadguru Narsimha Bharathi swami of Sringeri.
Ambuteertha is located 10 km from Thirthahalli on the Thirthahalli-Hosanagara road. River Sharavathi originates at this place.
Varadamoola is 6 km from Sagar town. River Varada originates at this place. Varada flows through the town of Banavasi before joining Tungabhadra.
Hill stations
Agumbe is 90 km west of Shimoga city. It is known as the Cherrapunji of South India. Agumbe is 650 meters above sea level. The place is famous for its sunset view.
Kavaledurga is a fort on a hill above sea level.
Kodachadri hills are 115 km from Shimoga city. The hills are 1343 m above sea level.
Kundadri is a hill near Thirthahalli. It is famous for its rock formations.
Cultural heritage
Shivappa Nayaka palace and museum is in the city of Shimoga. The palace was built by Shivappa Nayaka during the 17th century CE. Kote Seetharamanjaneya temple is beside it.
Sacred Heart church, built in the 1990s and second largest church of Asia, is in the city of Shimoga. It has features of Roman and Ghothic styles of architecture.
The Lakshminarasimha temple is located in the Bhadravathi city. It has been built in the Hoysala style called 'trikutachala'.
Chandragutti fort is near Balligavi which was built by Banavasi Kadambas. The Renukamba temple is in this village.
Humcha is a Jain pilgrimage place with a Panchakuta Basadi, Humcha which was built during 10th and 11th century CE.
The Kedareshvara temple is located in Kubetoor. It has been built in the Chalukyan style.
Nagara, which was earlier called Bidarur, was the last capital of the Keladi kings and later taken by Hyder Ali during 1763. The Hyder Ali tank, Neelakanteshwara temple and Venkataramana temple are located in this city.
Keladi and Ikkeri were the capitals of Keladi Nayakas. The places are near Sagar.
Talagunda is a village in the Shikaripura taluk. The Talagunda inscription on a stone pillar is in Prakrit language. The author of the inscription was Kubja, court poet of Shantivarman.
Notable people
U. R. Ananthamurthy, a Jnanapeeta Awardee
Sarekoppa Bangarappa, an Indian politician who was the 12th Chief Minister of Karnataka from 1990 to 1992
Diganth, Kannada actor
Shantaveri Gopala Gowda, a Socialist Leader
Dattatreya Hosabale, Indian social worker
M. K. Indira, writer and poet
Justice M. Rama Jois, a former Chief Justice of the Punjab and Haryana High Court, a former member of Rajya Sabha, a former Governor of Jharkhand and Bihar states and a senior advocate in the Supreme Court of India
Kaviraj (lyricist), poet, lyricist and director in Kannada film industry
Kuvempu, a Jnanpeeta Awardee
P. Lankesh, poet, journalist
Akka Mahadevi, poet, social reformer
Kadidal Manjappa, a veteran freedom fighter and a former Chief minister of Karnataka
Anupama Niranjana, noted writer
J. H. Patel, former chief minister
Allama Prabhu, social reformer
S. Rudregowda, industrialist and Member of Legislative Council
Khadi Shankarappa, a veteran freedom fighter.
Abhilash Shetty, a film director in Kannada film industry
G. S. Shivarudrappa, poet, one of the three Rashtrakavis in Kannada
K. V. Subbanna, artist and writer
Shimoga Subbanna, a playback singer
Sudeep, actor and director of Kannada cinema
Poornachandra Tejaswi, writer
Gundappa Viswanath, a former cricketer
B. S. Yeddyurappa, politician and Chief Minister of Karnataka
Notes
External links
Shimoga 2011 census report
Shimoga Zilla Panchayat
Shimoga district official website
Map of Shimoga District
Districts of Karnataka
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behar
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Behar
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Behar, BeHar, Be-har, or B'har (—Hebrew for "on the mount," the fifth word, and the first distinctive word, in the parashah) is the 32nd weekly Torah portion (, parashah) in the annual Jewish cycle of Torah reading and the ninth in the Book of Leviticus. The parashah tells the laws of the Sabbatical year (, Shmita) and limits on debt servitude. The parashah constitutes Leviticus 25:1–26:2. It is the shortest of the weekly Torah portions in the Book of Leviticus (although not the shortest in the Torah). It is made up of 2,817 Hebrew letters, 737 Hebrew words, 57 verses, and 99 lines in a Torah Scroll (, Sefer Torah).
Jews generally read it in May. The lunisolar Hebrew calendar contains up to 55 weeks, the exact number varying between 50 in common years and 54 or 55 in leap years. In leap years (for example, 2024 and 2027), parashah Behar is read separately. In common years (for example, 2025 and 2026), parashah Behar is combined with the next parashah, Bechukotai, to help achieve the needed number of weekly readings.
In years when the first day of Passover falls on a Sabbath (as it does in 2022), Jews in Israel and Reform Jews read the parashah following Passover one week before Conservative and Orthodox Jews in the Diaspora. In such years, Jews in Israel and Reform Jews celebrate Passover for seven days and thus read the next parashah (in 2018, Shemini) on the Sabbath one week after the first day of Passover, while Conservative and Orthodox Jews in the Diaspora celebrate Passover for eight days and read the next parashah (in 2018, Shemini) one week later. In some such years (for example, 2018), the two calendars realign when Conservative and Orthodox Jews in the Diaspora read Behar together with Bechukotai while Jews in Israel and Reform Jews read them separately.
Readings
In traditional Sabbath Torah reading, the parashah is divided into seven readings, or , aliyot.
First reading—Leviticus 25:1–13
In the first reading, on Mount Sinai, God told Moses to tell the Israelites the law of the Sabbatical year for the land. The people could work the fields for six years, but in the seventh year, the land was to have a Sabbath of complete rest during which the people were not to sow their fields, prune their vineyards, or reap the aftergrowth. They could, however, eat whatever the land produced on its own. The people were further to hallow the 50th year, the Jubilee year, and to proclaim release for all with a blast on the horn. Each Israelite was to return to his family and his ancestral land holding.
Second reading—Leviticus 25:14–18
In the second reading, in selling or buying property, the people were to charge only for the remaining number of crop years until the jubilee, when the land would be returned to its ancestral holder.
Third reading—Leviticus 25:19–24
In the third reading, God promised to bless the people in the sixth year, so that the land would yield a crop sufficient for three years. God prohibited selling the land beyond reclaim, for God owned the land, and the people were but strangers living with God.
Fourth reading—Leviticus 25:25–28
In the fourth reading, if one fell into straits and had to sell land, his nearest relative was to redeem what was sold. If one had no one to redeem, but prospered and acquired enough wealth, he could refund the pro rata share of the sales price for the remaining years until the jubilee, and return to his holding.
Fifth reading—Leviticus 25:29–38
In the fifth reading, if one sold a house in a walled city, one could redeem it for a year, and thereafter the house would pass to the purchaser beyond reclaim and not be released in the jubilee. But houses in villages without encircling walls were treated as open country subject to redemption and release through the jubilee. Levites were to have a permanent right of redemption for houses and property in the cities of the Levites. The unenclosed land about their cities could not be sold. If a kinsman fell into straits and came under one's authority by virtue of his debts, one was to let him live by one's side as a kinsman and not exact from him interest. Israelites were not to lend money to countrymen at interest.
Sixth reading—Leviticus 25:39–46
In the sixth reading, if the kinsman continued in straits and had to give himself over to a creditor for debt, the creditor was not to subject him to the treatment of a slave, but to treat him as a hired or bound laborer until the jubilee year, at which time he was to be freed to go back to his family and ancestral holding. Israelites were not to rule over such debtor Israelites ruthlessly. Israelites could, however, buy and own as inheritable property slaves from other nations.
Seventh reading—Leviticus 25:47–26:2
In the seventh reading, if an Israelite fell into straits and came under a resident alien's authority by virtue of his debts, the Israelite debtor was to have the right of redemption. A relative was to redeem him or, if he prospered, he could redeem himself by paying the pro rata share of the sales price for the remaining years until the jubilee.
Readings according to the triennial cycle
Jews who read the Torah according to the triennial cycle of Torah reading read the parashah according to a different schedule.
In inner-biblical interpretation
The parashah has parallels or is discussed in these Biblical sources:
Leviticus chapter 25
Yom Kippur
Leviticus 25:8–10 refers to the Festival of Yom Kippur. In the Hebrew Bible, Yom Kippur is called:
the Day of Atonement (, Yom HaKippurim) or a Day of Atonement (, Yom Kippurim);
a Sabbath of solemn rest (, Shabbat Shabbaton); and
a holy convocation (, mikrah kodesh).
Much as Yom Kippur, on the 10th of the month of Tishrei, precedes the Festival of Sukkot, on the 15th of the month of Tishrei, Exodus 12:3–6 speaks of a period starting on the 10th of the month of Nisan preparatory to the Festival of Passover, on the 15th of the month of Nisan.
Leviticus 16:29–34 and 23:26–32 and Numbers 29:7–11 present similar injunctions to observe Yom Kippur. Leviticus 16:29 and 23:27 and Numbers 29:7 set the Holy Day on the tenth day of the seventh month (Tishrei). Leviticus 16:29 and 23:27 and Numbers 29:7 instruct that "you shall afflict your souls." Leviticus 23:32 makes clear that a full day is intended: "you shall afflict your souls; in the ninth day of the month at evening, from evening to evening." And Leviticus 23:29 threatens that whoever "shall not be afflicted in that same day, he shall be cut off from his people." Leviticus 16:29 and 23:28 and Numbers 29:7 command that you "shall do no manner of work." Similarly, Leviticus 16:31 and 23:32 call it a "Sabbath of solemn rest." And in Leviticus 23:30, God threatens that whoever "does any manner of work in that same day, that soul will I destroy from among his people." Leviticus 16:30, 16:32–34, and 23:27–28, and Numbers 29:11 describe the purpose of the day to make atonement for the people. Similarly, Leviticus 16:30 speaks of the purpose "to cleanse you from all your sins," and Leviticus 16:33 speaks of making atonement for the most holy place, the tent of meeting, the altar; and the priests. Leviticus 16:29 instructs that the commandment applies both to "the home-born" and to "the stranger who sojourns among you." Leviticus 16:3–25 and 23:27 and Numbers 29:8–11 command offerings to God. And Leviticus 16:31 and 23:31 institute the observance as "a statute forever."
Leviticus 16:3–28 sets out detailed procedures for the priest's atonement ritual during the time of the Temple.
Leviticus 25:8–10 instructs that after seven Sabbatical years, on the Jubilee year, on the day of atonement, the Israelites were to proclaim liberty throughout the land with the blast of the horn and return all people to their possessions and to their families.
In Isaiah 57:14–58:14, the Haftarah for Yom Kippur morning, God describes "the fast that I have chosen [on] the day for a man to afflict his soul." Isaiah 58:3–5 makes clear that "to afflict the soul" was understood as fasting. But Isaiah 58:6–10 goes on to impress that "to afflict the soul," God also seeks acts of social justice: "to loose the fetters of wickedness, to undo the bands of the yoke," "to let the oppressed go free," "to give your bread to the hungry, and . . . bring the poor that are cast out to your house," and "when you see the naked, that you cover him."
The Duty To Redeem
Tamara Cohn Eskenazi wrote that Biblical laws required Israelites to act as redeemers for relatives in four situations: (1) redemption of land in Leviticus 25:25–34, (2) redemption of persons from slavery, especially in Leviticus 25:47–50, (3) redemption of objects dedicated to the sanctuary in Leviticus 27:9–28, and (4) avenging the blood of a murdered relative in Numbers 35.
Naboth
In 1 Kings 21:2, Naboth the Jezreelite refused to sell his vineyard to King Ahab because the land is an inheritance subject to the rule in Leviticus 25:23.
Leviticus chapter 26
Leviticus 26:1 directs the Israelites not to rear up a pillar (, matzeivah). Exodus 23:24 directed the Israelites to break in pieces the Canaanites' pillars (, matzeivoteihem). And Deuteronomy 16:22 prohibits setting up a pillar (, matzeivah), "which the Lord your God hates." But before these commandments were issued, in Genesis 28:18, Jacob took the stone on which he had slept, set it up as a pillar (, matzeivah), and poured oil on the top of it.
In early nonrabbinic interpretation
The parashah has parallels or is discussed in these early nonrabbinic sources:
Leviticus chapter 25
The Damascus Document of the Qumran sectarians prohibited non-cash transactions with Jews who were not members of the sect. Professor Lawrence Schiffman of New York University read this regulation as an attempt to avoid violating prohibitions on charging interest to one's fellow Jew in Exodus 22:25; Leviticus 25:36–37; and Deuteronomy 23:19–20. Apparently, the Qumran sect viewed prevailing methods of conducting business through credit to violate those laws.
In classical rabbinic interpretation
The parashah is discussed in these rabbinic sources from the era of the Mishnah and the Talmud:
Leviticus chapter 25
Leviticus 25:1–34—a Sabbatical year for the land
Tractate Sheviit in the Mishnah, Tosefta, and Jerusalem Talmud interpreted the laws of the Sabbatical year in Exodus 23:10–11, Leviticus 25:1–34, and Deuteronomy 15:1–18 and 31:10–13.
The Mishnah asked until when a field with trees could be plowed in the sixth year. The House of Shammai said as long as such work would benefit fruit that would ripen in the sixth year. But the House of Hillel said until Shavuot. The Mishnah observed that in reality, the views of two schools approximate each other. The Mishnah taught that one could plow a grain-field in the sixth year until the moisture had dried up in the soil (that it, after Passover, when rains in the Land of Israel cease) or as long as people still plowed in order to plant cucumbers and gourds (which need a great deal of moisture). Rabbi Simeon objected that if that were the rule, then we would place the law in the hands of each person to decide. But the Mishnah concluded that the prescribed period in the case of a grain-field was until Passover, and in the case of a field with trees, until Shavuot. But Rabban Gamaliel and his court ordained that working the land was permitted until the New Year that began the seventh year. Rabbi Joḥanan said that Rabban Gamaliel and his court reached their conclusion on Biblical authority, noting the common use of the term "Sabbath" (, Shabbat) in both the description of the weekly Sabbath in Exodus 31:15 and the Sabbath-year in Leviticus 25:4. Thus, just as in the case of the Sabbath Day, work is forbidden on the day itself, but allowed on the day before and the day after, so likewise in the Sabbath Year, tillage is forbidden during the year itself, but allowed in the year before and the year after.
The Mishnah taught that we encourage the work of non-Jews in the Sabbatical year, but not that of Jews. And we inquire after the non-Jews’ wellbeing for the sake of peace.
Rabbi Isaac taught that the words of Psalm 103:20, "mighty in strength that fulfill His word," speak of those who observe the Sabbatical year. Rabbi Isaac said that we often find that a person fulfills a precept for a day, a week, or a month, but it is remarkable to find one who does so for an entire year. Rabbi Isaac asked whether one could find a mightier person than one who sees one's field untilled, see one's vineyard untilled, and yet pays one's taxes and does not complain. And Rabbi Isaac noted that Psalm 103:20 uses the words "that fulfill His word (, devar)," and Deuteronomy 15:2 says regarding observance of the Sabbatical year, "And this is the manner (, devar) of the release," and argued that "dabar" means the observance of the Sabbatical year in both places.
The Mishnah taught that the fines for rape, seduction, the husband who falsely accused his bride of not having been a virgin (as in Deuteronomy 22:19), and any judicial court matter are not canceled by the Sabbatical year.
The Mishnah told that when Hillel the Elder observed that the nation withheld from lending to each other and were transgressing Deuteronomy 15:9, "Beware lest there be in your mind a base thought," he instituted the prozbul, a court exemption from the Sabbatical year cancellation of a loan. The Mishnah taught that any loan made with a prozbul is not canceled by the Sabbatical year. The Mishnah recounted that a prozbul would provide: "I turn over to you, so-and-so, judges of such and such a place, that any debt that I may have outstanding, I shall collect it whenever I desire." And the judges or witnesses would sign below.
The Mishnah employed the prohibition of Leviticus 25:4 to imagine how one could with one action violate up to nine separate commandments. One could (1) plow with an ox and a donkey yoked together (in violation of Deuteronomy 22:10) (2 and 3) that are two animals dedicated to the sanctuary, (4) plowing mixed seeds sown in a vineyard (in violation of Deuteronomy 22:9), (5) during a Sabbatical year (in violation of Leviticus 25:4), (6) on a Festival-day (in violation of, for example, Leviticus 23:7), (7) when the plower is a priest (in violation of Leviticus 21:1) and (8) a Nazirite (in violation of Numbers 6:6) plowing in a contaminated place. Chananya ben Chachinai said that the plower also may have been wearing a garment of wool and linen (in violation of Leviticus 19:19 and Deuteronomy 22:11). They said to him that this would not be in the same category as the other violations. He replied that neither is the Nazirite in the same category as the other violations.
The Gemara implied that the sin of Moses in striking the rock at Meribah compared favorably to the sin of David. The Gemara reported that Moses and David were two good leaders of Israel. Moses begged God that his sin be recorded, as it is in Numbers 20:12, 20:23–24, and 27:13–14, and Deuteronomy 32:51. David, however, begged that his sin be blotted out, as Psalm 32:1 says, "Happy is he whose transgression is forgiven, whose sin is pardoned." The Gemara compared the cases of Moses and David to the cases of two women whom the court sentenced to be lashed. One had committed an indecent act, while the other had eaten unripe figs of the seventh year in violation of Leviticus 25:6. The woman who had eaten unripe figs begged the court to make known for what offense she was being flogged, lest people say that she was being punished for the same sin as the other woman. The court thus made known her sin, and the Torah repeatedly records the sin of Moses.
The latter parts of tractate Arakhin in the Mishnah, Tosefta, and Babylonian Talmud interpreted the laws of the jubilee year in Leviticus 25:8–34.
The Mishnah taught that the jubilee year had the same ritual as Rosh Hashanah for blowing the shofar and for blessings. But Rabbi Judah said that on Rosh Hashanah, the blast was made with a ram's horn shofar, while on jubilee the blast was made with an antelope's (or some say a goat's) horn shofar.
The Mishnah taught that exile resulted from (among other things) transgressing the commandment (in Leviticus 25:3–5 and Exodus 23:10–11) to observe a Sabbatical year for the land. And pestilence resulted from (among other things) violation of the laws governing the produce of the Sabbatical year.
A Midrash interpreted the words "it shall be a jubilee unto you" in Leviticus 25:10 to teach that God gave the year of release and the jubilee to the Israelites alone, and not to other nations. And similarly, the Midrash interpreted the words "To give you the land of Canaan" in Leviticus 25:38 to teach that God gave the Land of Israel to the Israelites alone.
Chapter 4 of Tractate Bava Metzia in the Mishnah, Jerusalem Talmud, and Babylonian Talmud, and chapter 3 of the tractate in the Tosefta interpreted the law of fraud in Leviticus 25:14. The Mishnah defined as fraud overcharging by one-sixth of the purchase price. And the Mishnah taught that a person defrauded had until that person had time to show the purchase to a merchant or a kinsman to retract the sale. The Mishnah taught that the law of fraud applied to both the buyer and the seller, both the ordinary person and the merchant. Rabbi Judah said that the law of fraud did not apply to the merchant. The Mishnah taught that the one who was defrauded had the upper hand: The person defrauded could demand from the other the money paid or the amount by which that person was defrauded. The Mishnah taught that one who stole something worth even a perutah (the minimum amount of significant value) from a fellow and swore falsely about it had to go after the victim even as far as Media to return it. The Mishnah taught that just as the laws of fraud applied to buying and selling, so too did they apply to the spoken word. The Mishnah taught that one could not ask how much an object costs if one did not wish to buy it.
At a feast, Rabbi served his disciples tender and tough cuts of beef tongue. When his disciples chose the tender over the tough, Rabbi instructed them so to let their tongues be tender to one another. Rabbi taught that this was the meaning of Leviticus 25:14 when Moses admonished: "And if you sell anything . . . you shall not wrong one another." Similarly, a Midrash concluded that these words of Leviticus 25:14 taught that anyone who wrongs a neighbor with words will be punished according to Scripture.
In a Baraita, the Rabbis interpreted the words "you shall not wrong one another" in Leviticus 25:17 to prohibit verbal wrongs, as Leviticus 25:14 had already addressed monetary wrongs. The Baraita cited as examples of verbal wrongs: (1) reminding penitents of their former deeds, (2) reminding converts' children of their ancestors' deeds, (3) questioning the propriety of converts' coming to study Torah, (4) speaking to those visited by suffering as Job's companions spoke to him in Job 4:6–7, and (5) directing donkey drivers seeking grain to a person whom one knows has never sold grain. The Gemara said that Scripture uses the words "and you shall fear your God" (as in Leviticus 25:17) concerning cases where intent matters, cases that are known only to the heart. Rabbi Joḥanan said on the authority of Rabbi Simeon ben Yoḥai that verbal wrongs are more heinous than monetary wrongs, because of verbal wrongs it is written (in Leviticus 25:17), "and you shall fear your God," but not of monetary wrongs (in Leviticus 25:14). Rabbi Eleazar said that verbal wrongs affect the victim's person, while monetary wrongs affect only the victim's money. Rabbi Samuel bar Naḥmani said that while restoration is possible in cases of monetary wrongs, it is not in cases of verbal wrongs. And a Tanna taught before Rav Naḥman bar Isaac that one who publicly makes a neighbor blanch from shame is as one who sheds blood. Whereupon Rav Naḥman remarked how he had seen the blood rush from a person's face upon such shaming.
Reading the words of Leviticus 25:17, "And you shall not mistreat each man his colleague (, amito)," Rav Ḥinnana, son of Rav Idi, taught that the word , amito, is interpreted as a contraction of , im ito, meaning: "One who is with him. " Thus one must not mistreat one who is with one in observance of Torah and commandments.
The Gemara taught that the Torah three times prohibits verbally mistreating a convert—in Exodus 22:20, "And you shall neither mistreat a convert"; in Leviticus 19:33, "And when a convert lives in your land, you shall not mistreat him"; and in Leviticus 25:17, "And you shall not mistreat, each man his colleague." And the Torah similarly three times prohibits oppressing the convert—in Exodus 22:20, "And you shall neither mistreat a convert, nor oppress him"; in Exodus 23:9, "And you shall not oppress a convert"; and in Exodus 22:24, "And you shall not be to him like a creditor." Reading Exodus 22:20, "And you shall not mistreat a convert nor oppress him, because you were strangers in the land of Egypt," a Baraita reported that Rabbi Nathan taught that one should not mention in another a defect that one has oneself. Thus, since the Jewish people were themselves strangers, they should not demean a convert because he is a stranger in their midst. And this explains the adage that one who has a person hanged in the family does not say to another member of the household: Hang a fish for me, as the mention of hanging is demeaning for that family.
Expanding on Leviticus 25:23, in which God says that "the land is Mine," Rabbi Elazar of Bartotha said that you and all that is yours is Gods; and thus 1 Chronicles 29:14 says with regards to David: "for everything comes from You, and from Your own hand have we given you."
Rabbi Phinehas in the name of Rabbi Reuben interpreted the words "If your brother grows poor . . . then shall his kinsman . . . redeem" in Leviticus 25:25 to exhort Israel to acts of charity. Rabbi Phinehas taught that God will reward with life anyone who gives a coin to a poor person, for the donor could be giving not just a coin, but life. Rabbi Phinehas explained that if a loaf costs ten coins, and a poor person has but nine, then the gift of a single coin allows the poor person to buy the loaf, eat, and become refreshed. Thus, Rabbi Phinehas taught, when illness strikes the donor, and the donor's soul presses to leave the donor's body, God will return the gift of life. Similarly, Rav Naḥman taught that Leviticus 25:25 exhorts Israel to acts of charity, because fortune revolves like a wheel in the world, sometimes leaving one poor and sometimes well off. And similarly, Rabbi Tanḥum son of Rabbi Ḥiyya taught that Leviticus 25:25 exhorts Israel to acts of charity, because God made the poor as well as the rich, so that they might benefit each other; the rich one benefiting the poor one with charity, and the poor one benefiting the rich one by affording the rich one the opportunity to do good. Bearing this in mind, when Rabbi Tanhum's mother went to buy him a pound of meat, she would buy him two pounds, one for him and one for the poor.
The Gemara employed Leviticus 25:29 to deduce that the term , yamim, (literally "days") sometimes means "a year," and Rab Hisda thus interpreted the word , yamim, in Genesis 24:55 to mean "a year." Genesis 24:55 says, "And her brother and her mother said: ‘Let the maiden abide with us , yamim, at the least ten." The Gemara reasoned that if , yamim, in Genesis 24:55 means "days" and thus to imply "two days" (as the plural implies more than one), then Genesis 24:55 would report Rebekah's brother and mother suggesting that she stay first two days, and then when Eliezer said that that was too long, nonsensically suggesting ten days. The Gemara thus deduced that , yamim, must mean "a year" in Genesis 24:55, as Leviticus 25:29 implies when it says, "if a man sells a house in a walled city, then he may redeem it within a whole year after it is sold; for a full year (, yamim) shall he have the right of redemption." Thus Genesis 24:55 might mean, "Let the maiden abide with us a year, or at the least ten months." The Gemara then suggested that , yamim, might mean "a month," as Numbers 11:20 suggests when it uses the phrase "a month of days (, yamim)." The Gemara concluded, however, that , yamim, means "a month" only when the term "month" is specifically mentioned, but otherwise means either "days" (at least two) or "a year."
Leviticus 25:35–55—limits on debt servitude
The Sifra read the words of Leviticus 25:35, "You shall support him," to teach that one should not let one's brother who grows poor to fall down. The Sifra compared financial strains to a load on a donkey. While the donkey is still standing in place, a single person can take hold of it and lead it. But if the donkey falls to the ground, five people cannot pick it up again.
In the words, "Take no interest or increase, but fear your God," in Leviticus 25:36, "interest" (, neshech) literally means "bite." A Midrash played on this meaning, teaching not to take interest from the poor person, not to bite the poor person as the serpent—cunning to do evil—bit Adam. The Midrash taught that one who exacts interest from an Israelite thus has no fear of God.
Rav Naḥman bar Isaac (explaining the position of Rabbi Eleazar) interpreted the words "that your brother may live with you" in Leviticus 25:36 to teach that one who has exacted interest should return it to the borrower, so that the borrower could survive economically.
A Baraita considered the case where two people were traveling on a journey, and one had a container of water; if both drank, they would both die, but if only one drank, then that one might reach civilization and survive. Ben Patura taught that it is better that both should drink and die, rather than that only one should drink and see the other die. But Rabbi Akiva interpreted the words "that your brother may live with you" in Leviticus 25:36 to teach that concern for one's own life takes precedence over concern for another's.
Part of chapter 1 of Tractate Kiddushin in the Mishnah, Tosefta, Jerusalem Talmud, and Babylonian Talmud interpreted the laws of the Hebrew servant in Exodus 21:2–11 and 21:26–27; Leviticus 25:39–55; and Deuteronomy 15:12–18.
Abaye said that because the law (in Leviticus 25:39–43 and elsewhere) required the master to treat a Hebrew slave well—and as an equal in food, drink, and sleeping accommodations—it was said that buying a Hebrew slave was like buying a master. The Rabbis taught in a Baraita that the words of Deuteronomy 15:16 regarding the Hebrew servant, "he fares well with you," indicate that the Hebrew servant had to be "with"—that is, equal to—the master in food and drink. Thus, the master could not eat white bread and have the servant eat black bread. The master could not drink old wine and have the servant drink new wine. The master could not sleep on a feather bed and have the servant sleep on straw. Hence, they said that buying a Hebrew servant was like buying a master. Similarly, Rabbi Simeon deduced from the words of Leviticus 25:41, "Then he shall go out from you, he and his children with him," that the master was liable to provide for the servant's children until the servant went out. And Rabbi Simeon deduced from the words of Exodus 21:3, "If he is married, then his wife shall go out with him," that the master was responsible to provide for the servant's wife, as well.
The Sifra read Leviticus 25:42, “For they are My servants,” to imply that God's deed of servitude came first, and therefore, Israelites may serve others only as God permits. And the Sifra read Leviticus 25:42, "whom I took out of the land of Egypt" to imply that God took the Israelites out on the condition that they not be sold as slaves are sold.
Rabbi Joḥanan read Leviticus 25:42, "They shall not be sold as bondsmen," to prohibit abduction. The Gemara asked where Scripture formally prohibited abduction (as Deuteronomy 22:7 and Exodus 21:16 state only the punishment). Rabbi Josiah said that Exodus 20:13, "You shalt not steal," did so. Rabbi Joḥanan said that Leviticus 25:42, “They shall not be sold as bondsmen,” did so. The Gemara harmonized the two teachings by interpreting Rabbi Josiah to state the prohibition for stealing (including abduction) and Rabbi Joḥanan to state the prohibition for selling the kidnapped person.
Rabbi Levi interpreted Leviticus 25:55 to teach that God claimed Israel as God's own possession when God said, "To Me the children of Israel are servants."
Reading Exodus 21:6, regarding the Hebrew servant who chose not to go free and whose master brought him to the doorpost and bore his ear through with an awl, Rabban Joḥanan ben Zakkai explained that God singled out the ear from all the parts of the body because the servant had heard God's Voice on Mount Sinai proclaiming in Leviticus 25:55, "For to me the children of Israel are servants, they are my servants," and not servants of servants, and yet the servant acquired a master for himself when he might have been free. And Rabbi Simeon bar Rabbi explained that God singled out the doorpost from all other parts of the house because the doorpost was witness in Egypt when God passed over the lintel and the doorposts (as reported in Exodus 12) and proclaimed (in the words of Leviticus 25:55), "For to me the children of Israel are servants, they are my servants," and not servants of servants, and so God brought them forth from bondage to freedom, yet this servant acquired a master for himself.
In modern interpretation
The parashah is discussed in these modern sources:
Leviticus chapter 25
In 1877, August Klostermann observed the singularity of Leviticus 17–26 as a collection of laws and designated it the "Holiness Code."
William Dever noted that Leviticus 25:29–34 recognizes three land-use distinctions: (1) walled cities (, ir chomot); (2) unwalled villages (, chazeirim, specially said to be unwalled); and (3) land surrounding such a city (, sedeih migrash) and the countryside (, sedeih ha-aretz, "fields of the land").
Commandments
According to Sefer ha-Chinuch, there are 7 positive and 17 negative commandments in the parashah:
Not to work the land during the seventh year
Not to work with trees to produce fruit during that year
Not to reap crops that grow wild that year in the normal manner
Not to gather grapes which grow wild that year in the normal way
The Sanhedrin must count seven groups of seven years.
To blow the shofar on the tenth of Tishrei to free the slaves
The Sanhedrin must sanctify the 50th year.
Not to work the soil during the 50th year
Not to reap in the normal manner that which grows wild in the fiftieth year
Not to pick grapes which grew wild in the normal manner in the fiftieth year
To buy and sell according to Torah law
Not to overcharge or underpay for an article
Not to insult or harm anybody with words
Not to sell the land in Israel indefinitely
To carry out the laws of sold family properties
To carry out the laws of houses in walled cities
Not to sell the fields but they shall remain the Levites' before and after the Jubilee year
Not to lend with interest
Not to have a Hebrew servant do menial slave labor
Not to sell a Hebrew servant as a slave is sold
Not to work a Hebrew servant oppressively
Canaanite slaves must be kept forever
Not to allow a non-Jew to work a Hebrew servant oppressively
Not to bow down on smooth stone
Haftarah
The haftarah for the parashah is Jeremiah 32:6–27.
When parashah Behar is combined with parashah Behukotai, the haftarah is the haftarah for Behukotai, Jeremiah 16:19–17:14.
Notes
Further reading
The parashah has parallels or is discussed in these sources:
Ancient
Code of Hammurabi § 117. Babylonia, Circa 1780 BCE. In e.g. Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament. Edited by James B. Pritchard, pages 163, 170–71. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1969. (3-year limit on debt servitude for wife or child).
Julius Lewy. "The Biblical Institution of deror in the Light of Akkadian Documents." Eretz-Israel, volume 5 (1958): pages 21–31.
Biblical
Exodus 21:1–11 (slavery); 23:10–11 (Sabbatical year)
Leviticus 26:34–35 (Sabbatical year).
Deuteronomy 15:1–6 (Sabbatical year); 15:12–18 (Sabbatical year); 31:10–13 (Sabbatical year).
2 Kings 4:1–7 (slavery).
Isaiah 61:1–2 (proclaim release).
Jeremiah 32:6–15 (next of kin redeemer); 34:6–27 (releasing Hebrew slaves).
Ezekiel 7:12–13, 19 (economic equalization); 46:17 (year of release).
Amos 2:6 (slavery).
Psalms 4:9 (dwell in safety); 15:5 (lending); 37:26 (lending); 39:12 (God chastens man for iniquity); 119:19 (sojourner on earth).
Nehemiah 5:1–13 (slavery).
2 Chronicles 36:20–21 (Sabbatical year).
Early nonrabbinic
Jubilees chs. 1–50 Land of Israel, 2nd Century BCE.
Quran 2:275; 3:130. Arabia, 7th century. (Islam's parallel prohibition of interest, or riba).
Classical rabbinic
Mishnah: Sheviit 1:1–10:9; Rosh Hashanah 3:5; Ketubot 9:9; Nedarim 9:4; Kiddushin 1:2–3; Bava Metzia 5:1–11; Sanhedrin 3:4; Makkot 3:9; Avot 5:8–9; Bekhorot 9:10; Arakhin 7:1–9:8. Land of Israel, circa 200 CE. In, e.g., The Mishnah: A New Translation. Translated by Jacob Neusner, pages 68–93, 304, 424, 487, 544, 588, 618, 687, 807, 821–24. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988.
Tosefta: Sheviit 1:1–8:11; Maaser Sheni 2:15; Sotah 5:11; Kiddushin 1:5–6; Bava Kamma 7:5; Bava Metzia 3:25; 4:2; Avodah Zarah 4:5; Arakhin 4:9; 5:1–19. Land of Israel, circa 250 CE. In, e.g., The Tosefta: Translated from the Hebrew, with a New Introduction. Translated by Jacob Neusner, volume 1, pages 203–49, 307, 853, 926–27; volume 2, pages 987, 1042, 1044, 1275, 1507, 1512–17. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 2002.
Sifra Behar (245:1–259:2). Land of Israel, 4th Century CE. In, e.g., Sifra: An Analytical Translation. Translated by Jacob Neusner, volume 3, pages 291–344. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1988.
Jerusalem Talmud: Peah 67a; Demai 24a, 48b; Sheviit 1a–87b; Maasrot 31b, 42b; Orlah 8a; Shabbat 56a–57a; Pesachim 34a; Rosh Hashanah 7b, 15b, 20b, 22b; Megillah 2b; Ketubot 24b, 25b; Nedarim 32a; Gittin 20a, 23b–24a; Kiddushin 1b, 6a, 7a–b, 10b–11b; Bava Metzia 14a, 17a, 23a, 24a; Sanhedrin 4b, 40a, 41a–b. Tiberias, Land of Israel, circa 400 CE. In, e.g., Talmud Yerushalmi. Edited by Chaim Malinowitz, Yisroel Simcha Schorr, and Mordechai Marcus, volumes 3–4, 6a–b, 9, 12, 14, 18, 24, 26, 31, 33, 38, 40, 42, 44–45. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 2006–2018. And reprinted in, e.g., The Jerusalem Talmud: A Translation and Commentary. Edited by Jacob Neusner and translated by Jacob Neusner, Tzvee Zahavy, B. Barry Levy, and Edward Goldman. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 2009.
Mekhilta According to Rabbi Ishmael 1:2. Land of Israel, late 4th Century. In, e.g., Mekhilta According to Rabbi Ishmael. Translated by Jacob Neusner, volume 1, page 6. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1988.
Leviticus Rabbah 1:1; 2:2; 7:6; 29:11; 33:1–34:16. Land of Israel, 5th Century. In, e.g., Midrash Rabbah: Leviticus. Translated by Harry Freedman and Maurice Simon, volume 4, pages 2, 21, 98, 378, 418–45. London: Soncino Press, 1939.
Babylonian Talmud: Berakhot 12b, 36b, 47b; Shabbat 33a, 96b, 131b; Pesachim 51b, 52b; Yoma 65b, 86b; Sukkah 3a, 39a, 40a–b; Beitzah 34b, 37b; Rosh Hashanah 2a, 6b, 8b–9b, 13a, 24a, 26a, 27b, 30a, 33b–34a; Taanit 6b, 19b; Megillah 3b, 5b, 10b, 22b, 23b; Moed Katan 2a–4a, 13a; Chagigah 3b; Yevamot 46a, 47a, 78b, 83a; Ketubot 43a–b, 57b, 84a, 110b; Nedarim 42a, 58b, 61a; Nazir 5a, 61b; Sotah 3b; Gittin 25a, 36a–39a, 44b, 47a, 48b, 65a, 74b; Kiddushin 2b, 8a, 9a, 14b–17b, 20a–22b, 26a, 33b, 38b, 40b, 53a, 58a, 67b; Bava Kamma 28a, 62b, 69a–b, 82b, 87a, 101a–02a, 103a, 112a, 113a–b, 116b, 117b; Bava Metzia 10a, 12a, 30b, 47b, 51a, 56b, 57b, 58b–59b, 60b–61b, 65a, 71a, 73b, 75b, 79a, 82a, 88b, 106a, 109a, 114a; Bava Batra 10a, 80b, 91b, 102b, 110b, 112a, 137a, 139a; Sanhedrin 10b, 12a, 15a, 24b, 26a, 39a, 65b, 86a, 101b, 106b; Makkot 3b, 8a–b, 11b–12a, 13a, 21b; Shevuot 4b, 16a, 45a; Avodah Zarah 9b, 20a, 50b, 54b, 62a; Menachot 84a; Chullin 6a, 114b, 120b; Bekhorot 12b–13b, 51a, 52b; Arakhin 14b, 15b, 18b, 24a–34a; Temurah 6b, 27a; Niddah 8b, 47a–48a, 51b. Sasanian Empire, 6th Century. In, e.g., Talmud Bavli. Edited by Yisroel Simcha Schorr, Chaim Malinowitz, and Mordechai Marcus, 72 volumes. Brooklyn: Mesorah Pubs., 2006.
Midrash Tanhuma, Behar. 6th–7th Century. In, e.g., Metsudah Midrash Tanchuma: Vayikra. Translated and annotated by Avraham Davis, edited by Yaakov Y.H. Pupko, 5:502–30. Monsey, N.Y.: Eastern Book Press, 2006.
Medieval
Rashi. Commentary. Leviticus 25–26. Troyes, France, late 11th Century. In, e.g., Rashi. The Torah: With Rashi's Commentary Translated, Annotated, and Elucidated. Translated and annotated by Yisrael Isser Zvi Herczeg, volume 3, pages 317–46. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1994.
Rashbam. Commentary on the Torah. Troyes, early 12th century. In, e.g., Rashbam's Commentary on Leviticus and Numbers: An Annotated Translation. Edited and translated by Martin I. Lockshin, pages 131–37. Providence: Brown Judaic Studies, 2001.
Judah Halevi. Kuzari. 2:18. Toledo, Spain, 1130–1140. In, e.g., Jehuda Halevi. Kuzari: An Argument for the Faith of Israel. Introduction by Henry Slonimsky, page 93. New York: Schocken, 1964.
Abraham ibn Ezra. Commentary on the Torah. Mid-12th century. In, e.g., Ibn Ezra's Commentary on the Pentateuch: Leviticus (Va-yikra). Translated and annotated by H. Norman Strickman and Arthur M. Silver, volume 3, pages 239–61. New York: Menorah Publishing Company, 2004.
Maimonides. Mishneh Torah: Hilchot Shemita V'Yovel (Laws of the Sabbatical and Jubilee Years). Egypt. Circa 1170–1180. In, e.g., Mishneh Torah: Sefer Zeraim: The Book of Agricultural Ordinances. Translated by Eliyahu Touger, pages 716–837. New York: Moznaim Publishing, 2005.
Maimonides. The Guide for the Perplexed, part 1, chapter 12; part 3, chapters 38, 45. Cairo, Egypt, 1190. In, e.g., Moses Maimonides. The Guide for the Perplexed. Translated by Michael Friedländer, pages 24, 340, 357. New York: Dover Publications, 1956.
Hezekiah ben Manoah. Hizkuni. France, circa 1240. In, e.g., Chizkiyahu ben Manoach. Chizkuni: Torah Commentary. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 819–29. Jerusalem: Ktav Publishers, 2013.
Naḥmanides. Commentary on the Torah. Jerusalem, circa 1270. In, e.g., Ramban (Nachmanides): Commentary on the Torah. Translated by Charles B. Chavel, volume 3, pages 409–54. New York: Shilo Publishing House, 1974.
Zohar, part 3, pages 107b–111a. Spain, late 13th Century. In, e.g., The Zohar. Translated by Harry Sperling and Maurice Simon. 5 volumes. London: Soncino Press, 1934.
Bahya ben Asher. Commentary on the Torah. Spain, early 14th century. In, e.g., Midrash Rabbeinu Bachya: Torah Commentary by Rabbi Bachya ben Asher. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 5, pages 1821–45. Jerusalem: Lambda Publishers, 2003.
Jacob ben Asher (Baal Ha-Turim). Rimze Ba'al ha-Turim. Early 14th century. In, e.g., Baal Haturim Chumash: Vayikra/Leviticus. Translated by Eliyahu Touger, edited, elucidated, and annotated by Avie Gold, volume 3, pages 1271–93. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 2000.
Jacob ben Asher. Perush Al ha-Torah. Early 14th century. In, e.g., Yaakov ben Asher. Tur on the Torah. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 969–85. Jerusalem: Lambda Publishers, 2005.
Isaac ben Moses Arama. Akedat Yizhak (The Binding of Isaac). Late 15th century. In, e.g., Yitzchak Arama. Akeydat Yitzchak: Commentary of Rabbi Yitzchak Arama on the Torah. Translated and condensed by Eliyahu Munk, volume 2, pages 669–73. New York, Lambda Publishers, 2001.
Modern
Isaac Abravanel. Commentary on the Torah. Italy, between 1492 and 1509. In, e.g., Abarbanel: Selected Commentaries on the Torah: Volume 3: Vayikra/Leviticus. Translated and annotated by Israel Lazar, pages 230–52. Brooklyn: CreateSpace, 2015.
Obadiah ben Jacob Sforno. Commentary on the Torah. Venice, 1567. In, e.g., Sforno: Commentary on the Torah. Translation and explanatory notes by Raphael Pelcovitz, pages 614–25. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1997.
Moshe Alshich. Commentary on the Torah. Safed, circa 1593. In, e.g., Moshe Alshich. Midrash of Rabbi Moshe Alshich on the Torah. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 2, pages 751–71. New York, Lambda Publishers, 2000.
Thomas Hobbes. Leviathan, 3:40; Review & Conclusion. England, 1651. Reprint edited by C. B. Macpherson, pages 503–04, 723. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Classics, 1982.
Shabbethai Bass. Sifsei Chachamim. Amsterdam, 1680. In, e.g., Sefer Vayikro: From the Five Books of the Torah: Chumash: Targum Okelos: Rashi: Sifsei Chachamim: Yalkut: Haftaros, translated by Avrohom Y. Davis, pages 483–529. Lakewood Township, New Jersey: Metsudah Publications, 2012.
Chaim ibn Attar. Ohr ha-Chaim. Venice, 1742. In Chayim ben Attar. Or Hachayim: Commentary on the Torah. Translated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 1271–91. Brooklyn: Lambda Publishers, 1999.
Nachman of Breslov. Teachings. Bratslav, Ukraine, before 1811. In Rebbe Nachman's Torah: Breslov Insights into the Weekly Torah Reading: Exodus-Leviticus. Compiled by Chaim Kramer, edited by Y. Hall, pages 419–25. Jerusalem: Breslov Research Institute, 2011.
Samuel David Luzzatto (Shadal). Commentary on the Torah. Padua, 1871. In, e.g., Samuel David Luzzatto. Torah Commentary. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 984–93. New York: Lambda Publishers, 2012.
Yehudah Aryeh Leib Alter. Sefat Emet. Góra Kalwaria (Ger), Poland, before 1906. Excerpted in The Language of Truth: The Torah Commentary of Sefat Emet. Translated and interpreted by Arthur Green, pages 201–07. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1998. Reprinted 2012.
Hermann Cohen. Religion of Reason: Out of the Sources of Judaism. Translated with an introduction by Simon Kaplan; introductory essays by Leo Strauss, pages 126, 152–53. New York: Ungar, 1972. Reprinted Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1995. Originally published as Religion der Vernunft aus den Quellen des Judentums. Leipzig: Gustav Fock, 1919.
H. G. Wells. “Serfs, Slaves, Social Classes and Free Individuals.” In The Outline of History: Being a Plain History of Life and Mankind, pages 254–59. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1920. Revised edition Doubleday and Company, 1971.
Alexander Alan Steinbach. Sabbath Queen: Fifty-four Bible Talks to the Young Based on Each Portion of the Pentateuch, pages 100–03. New York: Behrman's Jewish Book House, 1936.
Thomas Mann. Joseph and His Brothers. Translated by John E. Woods, page 356. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2005. Originally published as Joseph und seine Brüder. Stockholm: Bermann-Fischer Verlag, 1943. (sacred stone).
Isaac Mendelsohn. "Slavery in the Ancient Near East." Biblical Archaeologist, volume 9 (1946): pages 74–88.
Isaac Mendelsohn. Slavery in the Ancient Near East. New York: Oxford University Press, 1949.
Electric Prunes. "Kol Nidre." In Release of an Oath. Reprise Records, 1968. (track based on the Yom Kippur Kol Nidre prayer).
Gordon J. Wenham. The Book of Leviticus, pages 313–29. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1979.
Pinchas H. Peli. Torah Today: A Renewed Encounter with Scripture, pages 147–50. Washington, D.C.: B'nai B'rith Books, 1987.
Ben Zion Bergman. "A Question of Great Interest: May a Synagogue Issue Interest-Bearing Bonds?" New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 1988. YD 167:1.1988a. In Responsa: 1980–1990: The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement. Edited by David J. Fine, pages 319–23. New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2005.
Avram Israel Reisner. "Dissent: A Matter of Great Interest" New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 1988. YD 167:1.1988b. In Responsa: 1980–1990: The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement. Edited by David J. Fine, pages 324–28. New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2005.
"A Jewish Approach to End-Stage Medical Care." New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 1990. YD 339:1.1990b. In Responsa: 1980–1990: The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement. Edited by David J. Fine, pages 519, 531–32, 564. New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2005. (implications of God's ownership of the universe on the duty to maintain life and health).
Harvey J. Fields. A Torah Commentary for Our Times: Volume II: Exodus and Leviticus, pages 150–61. New York: UAHC Press, 1991.
Jacob Milgrom. "Sweet Land and Liberty: Whether real or utopian, the laws in Leviticus seem to be a more sensitive safeguard against pauperization than we, here and now, have devised." Bible Review, volume 9 (number 4) (August 1993).
Walter C. Kaiser Jr., " The Book of Leviticus," in The New Interpreter's Bible, volume 1, pages 1166–79. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1994.
Judith S. Antonelli. "Mother Nature." In In the Image of God: A Feminist Commentary on the Torah, pages 322–28. Northvale, New Jersey: Jason Aronson, 1995.
Elliot N. Dorff. "Family Violence." New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 1995. HM 424.1995. In Responsa: 1991–2000: The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement. Edited by Kassel Abelson and David J. Fine, pages 773, 792. New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2002. (verbal abuse).
Ellen Frankel. The Five Books of Miriam: A Woman's Commentary on the Torah, pages 188–90. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1996.
W. Gunther Plaut. The Haftarah Commentary, pages 308–17. New York: UAHC Press, 1996.
Elliot N. Dorff. "Assisted Suicide." New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 1997. YD 345.1997a. In Responsa: 1991–2000: The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement. Edited by Kassel Abelson and David J. Fine, pages 379, 380. New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2002. (implications for assisted suicide of God's ownership of the universe).
Sorel Goldberg Loeb and Barbara Binder Kadden. Teaching Torah: A Treasury of Insights and Activities, pages 214–19. Denver: A.R.E. Publishing, 1997.
Jacob Milgrom. "Jubilee: A Rallying Cry for Today's Oppressed: The laws of the Jubilee year offer a blueprint for bridging the gap between the have and have-not nations." Bible Review, volume 13 (number 2) (April 1997).
Mary Douglas. Leviticus as Literature, pages 219–20, 242–44. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999.
Susan Freeman. Teaching Jewish Virtues: Sacred Sources and Arts Activities, pages 332–46. Springfield, New Jersey: A.R.E. Publishing, 1999. (Leviticus 25:36, 43).
Michael Hudson. "Proclaim Liberty Throughout the Land: The economic roots of the Jubilee." Bible Review, volume 15 (number 1) (February 1999).
Michael Hudson … and forgive them their debts: Lending, Foreclosure and Redemption – From Bronze Age Finance to the Jubilee Year (2018), Dresden: ISLET-Verlag Dresden. [ISBN 978-3-9818260-3-6] (hard bound), [ISBN 978-3-9818260-2-9] (soft cover)
Joel Roth. "Organ Donation." New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 1999. YD 336.1999-. In Responsa: 1991–2000: The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement. Edited by Kassel Abelson and David J. Fine, pages 194, 258–59. New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2002. (implications for organ donation of one's duty to assist another).
Frank H. Gorman Jr. "Leviticus." In The HarperCollins Bible Commentary. Edited by James L. Mays, pages 163–64. New York: HarperCollins Publishers, revised edition, 2000.
Sharon Brous and Jill Hammer. "Proclaiming Liberty throughout the Land." In The Women's Torah Commentary: New Insights from Women Rabbis on the 54 Weekly Torah Portions. Edited by Elyse Goldstein, pages 238–45. Woodstock, Vermont: Jewish Lights Publishing, 2000.
Jacob Milgrom. Leviticus 23–27, volume 3B, pages 2145–271. New York: Anchor Bible, 2000.
James Rosen. "Mental Retardation, Group Homes and the Rabbi." New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2000. YD 336:1.2000. In Responsa: 1991–2000: The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement. Edited by Kassel Abelson and David J. Fine, pages 337–46. New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2002.
Lainie Blum Cogan and Judy Weiss. Teaching Haftarah: Background, Insights, and Strategies, pages 406–12. Denver: A.R.E. Publishing, 2002.
Michael Fishbane. The JPS Bible Commentary: Haftarot, pages 197–202. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2002.
Joseph Telushkin. The Ten Commandments of Character: Essential Advice for Living an Honorable, Ethical, Honest Life, pages 290–91. New York: Bell Tower, 2003.
Robert Alter. The Five Books of Moses: A Translation with Commentary, pages 653–60. New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 2004.
Jacob Milgrom. Leviticus: A Book of Ritual and Ethics: A Continental Commentary, pages 298–317. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2004.
Baruch J. Schwartz. "Leviticus." In The Jewish Study Bible. Edited by Adele Berlin and Marc Zvi Brettler, pages 269–73. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.
Nancy Wechsler-Azen. "Haftarat Behar: Jeremiah 32:6–27." In The Women's Haftarah Commentary: New Insights from Women Rabbis on the 54 Weekly Haftarah Portions, the 5 Megillot & Special Shabbatot. Edited by Elyse Goldstein, pages 146–50. Woodstock, Vermont: Jewish Lights Publishing, 2004.
Antony Cothey. “Ethics and Holiness in the Theology of Leviticus.” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, volume 30 (number 2) (December 2005): pages 131–51.
Professors on the Parashah: Studies on the Weekly Torah Reading Edited by Leib Moscovitz, pages 216–24. Jerusalem: Urim Publications, 2005.
Bernard J. Bamberger. "Leviticus." In The Torah: A Modern Commentary: Revised Edition. Edited by W. Gunther Plaut; revised edition edited by David E.S. Stern, pages 849–63. New York: Union for Reform Judaism, 2006.
John S. Bergsma. The Jubilee from Leviticus to Qumran. Brill, 2006.
Calum Carmichael. Illuminating Leviticus: A Study of Its Laws and Institutions in the Light of Biblical Narratives. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2006.
Suzanne A. Brody. "Lost Jubilee." In Dancing in the White Spaces: The Yearly Torah Cycle and More Poems, page 92. Shelbyville, Kentucky: Wasteland Press, 2007.
Shai Cherry. "The Hebrew Slave." In Torah Through Time: Understanding Bible Commentary, from the Rabbinic Period to Modern Times, pages 101–31. Philadelphia: The Jewish Publication Society, 2007.
James L. Kugel. How To Read the Bible: A Guide to Scripture, Then and Now, pages 150, 291, 302, 345, 609–10, 683. New York: Free Press, 2007.
Christophe Nihan. From Priestly Torah to Pentateuch: A Study in the Composition of the Book of Leviticus. Coronet Books, 2007.
Yosef Zvi Rimon. Shemita: From the Sources to Practical Halacha. The Toby Press, 2008.
The Torah: A Women's Commentary. Edited by Tamara Cohn Eskenazi and Andrea L. Weiss, pages 747–64. New York: URJ Press, 2008.
Bruce Feiler. “Proclaim Liberty Throughout the Land.” In America's Prophet: Moses and the American Story, pages 35–72. New York: William Morrow, 2009.
Roy E. Gane. "Leviticus." In Zondervan Illustrated Bible Backgrounds Commentary. Edited by John H. Walton, volume 1, pages 322–23. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan, 2009.
Reuven Hammer. Entering Torah: Prefaces to the Weekly Torah Portion, pages 185–87. New York: Gefen Publishing House, 2009.
Alicia Jo Rabins. "Snow/Scorpions and Spiders." In Girls in Trouble. New York: JDub Music, 2009. (Miriam's perspective on her banishment).
Jacob J. Staub. “Neither Oppress nor Allow Others to Oppress You: Parashat Behar (Leviticus 25:1–26:2).” In Torah Queeries: Weekly Commentaries on the Hebrew Bible. Edited by Gregg Drinkwater, Joshua Lesser, and David Shneer; foreword by Judith Plaskow, pages 174–78. New York: New York University Press, 2009.
Stuart Lasine. “Everything Belongs to Me: Holiness, Danger, and Divine Kingship in the Post-Genesis World.” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, volume 35 (number 1) (September 2010): pages 31–62.
Jerry Z. Muller. "The Long Shadow of Usury." In Capitalism and the Jews, pages 15–71. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2010.
Eric Nelson. "‘For the Land Is Mine': The Hebrew Commonwealth and the Rise of Redistribution." In The Hebrew Republic: Jewish Sources and the Transformation of European Political Thought, pages 57–87. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2010.
Jeffrey Stackert. "Leviticus." In The New Oxford Annotated Bible: New Revised Standard Version with the Apocrypha: An Ecumenical Study Bible. Edited by Michael D. Coogan, Marc Z. Brettler, Carol A. Newsom, and Pheme Perkins, pages 178–80. New York: Oxford University Press, Revised 4th Edition 2010.
Joseph Telushkin. Hillel: If Not Now, When? pages 52–54. New York: Nextbook, Schocken, 2010. (sale of a house in a walled city).
David Graeber. Debt: The First 5000 Years. Brooklyn: Melville House, 2011. (debt cancellations, restoration of order).
Sun-Jong Kim. “The Group Identity of the Human Beneficiaries in the Sabbatical Year (Lev 25:6).” Vetus Testamentum, volume 61 (number 1) (2011): pages 71–81.
William G. Dever. The Lives of Ordinary People in Ancient Israel: When Archaeology and the Bible Intersect, pages 133–34, 290. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2012.
Shmuel Herzfeld. "Are Jews Free Today." In Fifty-Four Pick Up: Fifteen-Minute Inspirational Torah Lessons, pages 179–83. Jerusalem: Gefen Publishing House, 2012.
Stephen Beard. "Britain Wants To Be Hub for Sharia Banking." Marketplace. (July 18, 2013) (adaptation to Islam's parallel prohibition on charging interest).
Nicholas Kristof. "When Emily Was Sold for Sex." The New York Times. (February 13, 2014): page A27. (human trafficking in our time).
Ellen Frankel. "Taking Stock: How can we restore a balance to our lives and to the earth?" The Jerusalem Report, volume 25 (number 3) (May 19, 2014): page 47.
Walk Free Foundation. The Global Slavery Index 2014. Australia, 2014.
Joanna Paraszczuk. "Modernizing the Agricultural Sabbath: Science is called in to cope with the requirements of shmita." The Jerusalem Report, volume 25 (number 15) (November 3, 2014): pages 30–33.
Pablo Diego-Rosell and Jacqueline Joudo Larsen. "35.8 Million Adults and Children in Slavery Worldwide." Gallup. (November 17, 2014).
Jonathan Sacks. Covenant & Conversation: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible: Leviticus: The Book of Holiness, pages 359–400. Jerusalem: Maggid Books, 2015.
Jonathan Sacks. Lessons in Leadership: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible, pages 169–73. New Milford, Connecticut: Maggid Books, 2015.
Jonathan Sacks. Essays on Ethics: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible, pages 201–05. New Milford, Connecticut: Maggid Books, 2016.
Mary Green Swig, Steven L. Swig, and Roger Hickey. "For the Student Debt Movement, JUBILEE is an Old Idea Made New." Campaign for America's Future. February 3, 2016.
Shai Held. The Heart of Torah, Volume 2: Essays on the Weekly Torah Portion: Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy, pages 76–85. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2017.
Steven Levy and Sarah Levy. The JPS Rashi Discussion Torah Commentary, pages 103–05. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2017.
Pekka Pitkänen. “Ancient Israelite Population Economy: Ger, Toshav, Nakhri and Karat as Settler Colonial Categories.” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, volume 42 (number 2) (December 2017): pages 139–53.
U.S. Department of State. Trafficking in Persons Report: June 2019. (slavery in the present day).
External links
Texts
Masoretic text and 1917 JPS translation
Hear the parashah read in Hebrew
Commentaries
Academy for Jewish Religion, California
Academy for Jewish Religion, New York
Aish.com
American Jewish University—Ziegler School of Rabbinic Studies
Chabad.org
Hadar
Jewish Theological Seminary
MyJewishLearning.com
Orthodox Union
Pardes from Jerusalem
Reconstructing Judaism
Union for Reform Judaism
United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism
Yeshiva University
Weekly Torah readings in Iyar
Weekly Torah readings from Leviticus
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael%20Smerconish
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Michael Smerconish
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Michael Andrew Smerconish ( ; born March 15, 1962) is an American radio host and television presenter, political commentator, newspaper columnist, author, and lawyer. He broadcasts The Michael Smerconish Program weekdays at 9:00 a.m. ET on SiriusXM's POTUS Channel (124), and hosts the CNN and CNN International program Smerconish at 9:00 a.m. ET on Saturdays. He is a Sunday newspaper columnist for The Philadelphia Inquirer. Smerconish has written seven books: six non-fiction works and one novel. He is also of counsel to the Philadelphia law firm of Kline & Specter.
Early life and education
Smerconish was born in Doylestown, Pennsylvania, the son of Florence (née Grovich) and Walter Smerconish. His family hails from Galicia in Eastern Europe, Montenegro, and Italy. He graduated from Central Bucks High School West, a public high school in Doylestown, Pennsylvania. He received his B.A. from Lehigh University and his Juris Doctor degree from the University of Pennsylvania Law School.
He has been awarded several honorary degrees: a Doctor of Humane Letters degree from Widener University on May 26, 2016, a Doctor of Humane Letters degree from Delaware Valley College on May 19, 2018, and a Doctor of Science degree from University of the Sciences on May 20, 2020.
Politics
Smerconish was raised in a Republican household, and while in his early teens, Smerconish began to correspond with the then Democratic Mayor of Philadelphia, Frank L. Rizzo. Eventually the two would meet and establish a close relationship. But Smerconish's start in politics came in the spring of 1980 when his father competed unsuccessfully in a Republican primary for the Pennsylvania state legislature. Smerconish worked tirelessly in his father's campaign during his own senior year in high school, during which he registered to vote for the first time. Despite his father's election loss, Smerconish was smitten with GOP politics, having met both Ronald Reagan and George H. W. Bush during the build-up to the Pennsylvania Primary.
In 1980, Smerconish founded Lehigh University Youth for Reagan/Bush. While a full-time student at the University of Pennsylvania Law School, he ran for the Pennsylvania state legislature, losing the Republican Primary by 419 votes. After losing his primary, Smerconish continued at Penn Law, while working nearly full-time running political campaigns. In 1986, he was responsible for the City of Philadelphia in Senator Arlen Specter's re-election win, and in 1987, Smerconish served as Rizzo's Political Director in Rizzo's losing (Republican) bid to re-take City Hall. After graduating from Penn Law, he opened up a title insurance agency with his brother Wally, before being appointed, at age 29, by the administration of President George H.W. Bush to serve as the Department of Housing and Urban Development's Regional Administrator for Philadelphia Region III (consisting of Delaware, Maryland, Pennsylvania, Virginia, West Virginia, and the District of Columbia) under Secretary Jack Kemp.
After supporting only Republican presidential candidates for three decades, Smerconish publicly broke with the GOP and endorsed Barack Obama for president on October 19, 2008. In a 2,000-word essay for Salon titled "Why this lifelong Republican may vote for Obama," citing the Republican Party's failure to capture Osama bin Laden after seven years of war, he wrote, "All of this drives me bat-shit, and it just might drive me into the Obama camp. That'd be quite a departure."
He has urged the Republican Party to pursue "moderation on social issues in order to advance a suburban agenda for the GOP." Writing a 2010 op-ed for The Washington Post titled "On cable TV and talk radio, a push toward polarization," Smerconish said, "Buying gas or groceries or attending back-to-school nights, I speak to people for whom the issues are a mixed bag; they are liberal on some, conservative on others, middle of the road on the rest. But politicians don't take their cues from those people. No, politicians emulate the world of punditry."
On February 21, 2010, he announced in a newspaper column that he had left the Republican Party. Discussing Smerconish's move to the middle, Manuel Roig-Franzia of The Washington Post wrote, "It may be conventional wisdom that the only way to truly succeed in the world of talk is to occupy one of the poles. But Smerconish is betting his career that there's a great untapped center."
Smerconish voted for neither Hillary Clinton nor Donald Trump in the 2016 United States presidential election.
Legal
Smerconish's tenure at HUD came to a close after George H.W. Bush was defeated by Bill Clinton in the 1992 election. In 1993, Smerconish began what would become a decade practicing law with legendary trial attorney James E. Beasley, who would become the benefactor and eponym of the Temple University Beasley School of Law. Smerconish became acquainted with Beasley while at HUD when he sought the latter's legal opinion for a possible defamation action against Steve Lopez, then a columnist with The Philadelphia Inquirer. Beasley was noted for his record-breaking defamation wins against the newspaper. (No lawsuit was filed by Smerconish against Lopez.) Working closely with Beasley for a decade, Smerconish specialized in complex tort litigation. At a 2015 legal seminar sponsored by the Pennsylvania Bar Institute, Smerconish wrote an essay summarizing some of his lessons learned working for Beasley.
Smerconish's legal work spanned various subject areas, including contracts, medical malpractice, and products liability. His clients included: the Philadelphia Fraternal Order of Police (in an action against Dead Kennedys for publishing an FOP photograph on an album cover that advocated the murder of police); the City of Rome, Italy (in a contract dispute against the Barnes Foundation); and Orlin Norris, a professional boxer who through Smerconish sued promoter Don King for a shot at the heavyweight title. In a medical malpractice action, Smerconish successfully sued abortion provider Kermit Gosnell. While in active practice, Smerconish served one term as a member of the Board of Directors of The Philadelphia Trial Lawyer's Association. Today, Smerconish's law license hangs in the office of the Philadelphia law firm Kline & Specter.
Media
His media work grew out of his unique political experiences at an early age (working for Vice President Bush, running unsuccessfully for the state legislature, running campaigns for Arlen Specter and Frank Rizzo and ultimately being appointed to a sub-cabinet-level position by President George H.W. Bush). In the spring of 1990, Smerconish made his first radio appearance as a guest of a guest-host, Brian Tierney, who was then a substitute host on Philadelphia talk station 96.5 FM WWDB. During the 1991 Philadelphia mayoral election, Smerconish worked at WWDB as a political analyst. He then transitioned from a guest to a guest-host. By 1993, he had his own program Sunday nights from 8 p.m. until midnight, during which time his day job was the practice of law. In 1996, after the death of longtime broadcaster Dominic Quinn, Smerconish moved to Saturday and Sunday mornings, the latter of which allowed him to be the lead-in of Sid Mark's Sunday with Sinatra. WWDB was then sold by broadcast entrepreneurs Chuck and Susan Schwartz and a new owner began selling informercials masked as programming which Smerconish refused to honor. That led to his 1997 move to CBS affiliate WPHT (formerly known as WCAU AM). By the following year, he was moved to afternoon drive, all the while maintaining his practice of law. Only when in September 2003, after the firing of Don Imus, whose morning drive slot he took, did Smerconish become a talk show host who was a lawyer instead of a lawyer who was a talk show host.
He has received many accolades for his work as a broadcaster including Talkers Magazine consistently naming him one of America's most important talk show hosts, and Radio & Records naming him the nation's 2006 Local Personality of the Year. In 2003, he was named to "The Pennsylvania Report Power 75 List" of influential figures in Pennsylvania politics. The National Association of Broadcasters selected him as a 2011 Marconi Award finalist in the category of Best Network/Syndicated Host. He has often been the recipient of several Philadelphia Achievement in Radio awards, including Best Talk Show Host and Best Evening Program. Philadelphia Magazine named him the City's best talk show host in 2004, as well as one of the City's most powerful citizens.
In February 2009, Smerconish's program was placed into national syndication by Dial Global. On August 20, 2009, Smerconish became the first talk radio host to interview President Barack Obama live from the White House, one of seven radio conversations he's had with Obama. The interview was held in the Diplomatic Reception Room, where President Franklin D. Roosevelt conducted fireside chats. The President took questions from Smerconish and his listeners on a variety of subjects including the recent debates on the then-pending Affordable Care Act. He has also interviewed Presidents Jimmy Carter, George H. W. Bush, Bill Clinton and George W. Bush, as well as Vice Presidents Al Gore, Dick Cheney and Joe Biden. He has often said that he has spoken with everyone who interested him with the exception of the elusive creator of Seinfeld and Curb Your Enthusiasm, Larry David.
As a result of his increasing radio prominence, Smerconish was increasingly invited to appear on television, first locally and then nationally. In Philadelphia, he was first asked to appear by his friend and eventual mentor, Larry Kane, on WCAU Channel 10 providing election night analysis. He then became a regular on the local ABC affiliate (WPVI) program Inside Story, hosted by Marc Howard. And he often appeared as the guest of Lynn Doyle, host of Comcast's It's Your Call on CN8. CNN soon tapped Smerconish as a guest (and guest host) of Arthel Neville on the program TalkBack Live. CNN engaged Smerconish as a legal analyst and also utilized him as the substitute for Glenn Beck on CNN's Headline News. CNN briefly aired a program called Attorneys at Law featuring Smerconish, Jeffrey Toobin, and Lisa Bloom. When CNN switched to wall-to-wall coverage of the Iraq Invasion, the program was interrupted and never returned. Smerconish then moved to MSNBC as a contributor at the invitation of Phil Griffin, the future head of MSNBC, where he began guest hosting Scarborough Country in the absence of former Republican congressman Joe Scarborough. When in 2007, MSNBC fired Don Imus for a racial slur, it was Smerconish who was invited by the network to guest host Imus' time slot during the week of April 23–27 as a replacement on a trial basis. In-studio guests included Jon Anderson of Yes and former New York City Mayor Rudy Giuliani. MSNBC eventually hired Scarborough for the slot formerly held by Imus and rebranded the program as Morning Joe (where Smerconish has never been a guest). At MSNBC, Smerconish's role then became one of appearing daily with Tamron Hall, host of News Nation, and as a guest host of Hardball in the absence of Chris Matthews, a position he filled for five years. At the same time—despite the polarized media climate and differences between MSNBC and Fox News—he guest hosted The Radio Factor for Bill O'Reilly.
In 2013, Smerconish decided to give up his terrestrial radio platform then consisting of 80 radio stations across the country to move to the POTUS Channel 124 on Sirius XM Radio. He said at the time that this reflected his desire to be "nonpartisan" in discussing issues; having left the Republican party in 2010, adding that satellite radio would give him more freedom to talk politics without a party label.
Then, in early 2014, Smerconish left MSNBC after Jeff Zucker, president of CNN, invited him to host his own program there. Said Smerconish at the time, "The type of program I do on radio is far more in keeping with what CNN does on TV than it is with FOX or MSNBC." Smerconish broadcasts on CNN Saturdays at 9:00 am ET. The show also broadcast around the world by CNN International.
Smerconish has appeared on virtually every television program where politics is a staple, from Larry King Live to The View, from Real Time with Bill Maher to The Today Show, from The Colbert Report to The O'Reilly Factor.
He also writes a Sunday column in The Philadelphia Inquirer, and his work has been reprinted in newspapers nationwide, including The Washington Post, The Dallas Morning News, The Denver Post, Miami Herald, Boston Herald, Sacramento Bee, and Detroit News.
On June 5, 2020, rapper Meek Mill released his song "Otherside of America". Rolling Stone writes that Mill "paints a vivid picture of life on 'the other side of America.'" In the song's final seconds, Mill includes audio from a December 2018 interview with Smerconish during which the two discussed the need for criminal justice reform.
To mark his 30 years in talk radio, Smerconish aired an autobiographical film Things I Wish I Knew Before I Started Talking on Saturday, July 11, 2020 on CNN. In the film, Smerconish walks through his transition from a reliably Republican voter to a registered independent, illustrated by interview excerpts and anecdotes throughout his time in talk radio and television as a political commentator. He ultimately argues that the Republican party today does not resemble the one he joined in 1980, largely due to politicians taking cues from the media. The film was acquired by Virgil Films in October 2020 and aired on virtual cinemas on December 8, 2020. On June 15, 2021, the film debuted on Hulu.
Books
Smerconish's work as a radio broadcaster was consumed by the events of 9/11 for years following 2001. While paying close attention to the hearings of the 9/11 Commission, Smerconish picked up on a question put to Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice by Commissioner John Lehman which suggested that political correctness played a role in airport security before and after 9/11. Smerconish subsequently interviewed Lehman whereupon Lehman shared the fact that testimony in front of the Commission suggested there was a limit on the number of Arab males who could be pulled out of line at any one time for secondary screening. Smerconish wrote about Lehman's account for his (then) column in the Philadelphia Daily News and stayed on the subject, eventually testifying before a Senate subcommittee at the invitation of Senator Arlen Specter. Ultimately, Smerconish wrote his first book, Flying Blind: How Political Correctness Continues to Compromise Airline Safety Post 9/11 (2004), about his investigation, and donated all proceeds to the Garden of Reflection, a 9/11 tribute garden in his native Bucks County, Pennsylvania.
His second book, a New York Times best-seller, was Muzzled: From T-Ball to Terrorism – True Stories That Should Be Fiction (2007), which sought to link the restraint of fighting the war on terror to domestic political correctness.
His third book, another New York Times best-seller, Murdered by Mumia: A Life Sentence of Loss, Pain, and Injustice (2007) (co-written by Maureen Faulkner) told the story of slain Philadelphia police officer Daniel Faulkner, in what was arguably the highest profile death penalty case in the world. Despite being convicted and sentenced to death by a Philadelphia jury for the murder of Faulkner, Mumia Abu-Jamal became a cause célèbre for death penalty opponents around the world. In print, Smerconish told Faulkner's story, and donated the $200,000 he was paid to write the book to a charitable fund established in the slain officer's name.
His fourth book, Morning Drive: Things I Wish I Knew Before I Started Talking (2009) detailed his evolving political positions against the backdrop of his talk radio career. Morning Drive's chapters were evenly split between issue-oriented essays and back-of-the-house media tales.
He then returned to the subject of 9/11 for his fifth book, Instinct: The Man Who Stopped the 20th Hijacker (2009), which tells the true story of Jose Melendez-Perez, a Customs and Border Protection Inspector at Orlando International Airport, who thwarted the entry of Mohammed al Qahtani, the 20th hijacker, one month before 9/11. Once again, Smerconish gave all author profits to charity, this time, the Flight 93 National Memorial in Shanksville, Pennsylvania. Smerconish subsequently sought to credit Melendez-Perez with playing a role in the killing of Osama bin Laden because he denied al Qahtani's entry and Qahtani, as a prisoner of war in Guantanamo Bay, was one of the detainees who identified bin Laden's courier, leading to the successful raid of SEAL Team Six.
Talk: A Novel (2014) is Smerconish's sixth book and first fictional work, about the life of conservative talk show host Stan Powers. Powers, a former slacker and stoner with no political knowledge, is nevertheless able to quickly ascend the talk radio world by his entertainment skills and recitation of red-meat talking points (which conflict with his own opinions). The more Stan Powers says on fictionalized radio station WRGT with which he personally disagrees, the higher he sees his star rising. With a Republican convention coming to his hometown of Tampa, Florida, will Powers continue to spout the lines that pay for his beach front condominium, or will he take the professional risk of being true to himself? Warner Horizon Television has optioned the rights to the novel.
Clowns to the Left of Me, Jokers to the Right (2018) is Smerconish's seventh book, a compilation of 100 of Smerconish's more memorable newspaper columns in The Philadelphia Inquirer and Philadelphia Daily News, each with a new Afterword, drawn from the 1,047 he published between 2001 and 2016. As characterized by Foreword Reviews: "Michael Smerconish's collection is compelling and entertaining—not as a filtering of daily news through a predictable ideological lens, but as a group of insightful entries into conversations about current events and issues….This sampling of Smerconish's columns exemplifies the kind of discourse, based on reason and evidence, that makes a newspaper, in print or online, indispensable to citizens of democracy." As characterized by The Daily Beast, "[The columns] make for enjoyable reading and remind us that journalism properly practiced requires a good deal of nerve, honesty, and insight, along with openness to dialogue and the determination not to live in a bubble." All author proceeds are being donated to the Children's Crisis Treatment Center, which provides social services to children in Philadelphia who are the victims of trauma.
After the release of Clowns, Smerconish composed a one-man show in which he draws on columns reprinted in the book and weaves them together with his explanation of the political divide. He has since toured the country in support of what he calls "American Life in Columns", appearing at the Paley Center in Los Angeles, Hobby Center in Houston, Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in Cleveland, Park Square Theatre in St. Paul, Sellersville Theatre outside of Philadelphia, the Crofoot Ballroom in Pontiac, Michigan, and at City Wineries located in Boston, Chicago, New York City, Atlanta and Nashville.
References
External links
Smerconish's Home Page
CNN page for Smerconish
Smerconish's Soundcloud featuring cuts from The Michael Smerconish Program
Smerconish's Kline & Specter bio
American columnists
American political writers
American male writers
American social sciences writers
American talk radio hosts
Television anchors from Philadelphia
Journalists from Philadelphia
Lehigh University alumni
People from Doylestown, Pennsylvania
American people of Montenegrin descent
American people of Rusyn descent
American people of Lemko descent
American people of Yugoslav descent
University of Pennsylvania Law School alumni
Living people
1962 births
CNN people
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amy%20Greenwood
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Amy Greenwood
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Amy Greenwood is a fictional character from the Australian soap Neighbours, played by Jacinta Stapleton. She made her first on-screen appearance on 10 July 1997. Amy is characterised as flirtatious and ditzy, especially interested in fashion and gossip. During her original duration in the series, writers created a long-running on/off relationship with Lance Wilkinson (Andrew Bibby). Amy later begins relationship with flight attendant Damien Smith (John Ridley) and elopes with him after discovering she is pregnant. Amy departed on 21 March 2000. Five years later, Stapleton reprised her role for the show's 20th anniversary episode in July 2005. She reprised the role again in December 2020 and later re-joined the regular cast. Her final appearance was on 28 July 2022 during the serial's finale.
Development
Characterisation
Stapleton said she shared her character's "fun-loving nature", but she was not as "sneaky" as Amy and did not play around like she does. Stapleton also said she was not as "mischievous" as Amy, but they both liked to party and tried not to take things too seriously. Annette Dasey from Inside Soap described Amy as "sassy". In 2021, following her return, Stapleton thought her character's personality had not changed all that much, explaining "What I will say is that Amy is not shy! She's not a troublemaker, but she gets up to a bit of mischief, even though I don't think she means to. Amy just runs on a high frequency." Stapleton also described Amy as "excitable" and called her "a bit of a firecracker", a personality trait she found fun to play.
Relationship with Lance Wilkinson
Amy was introduced as a love interest for Lance Wilkinson (Andrew Bibby). Dasey (Inside Soap) thought "nerdy" Lance was not the type of boy people would expect someone like Amy to date, but Stapleton disagreed saying he was everything Amy wanted in a boyfriend. She explained: "Lance may be a real dork, but she loves him for who he is. But he can't see this and tries to be something he's not." Lance's insecurities about the relationship come out when he tries to compete with mechanic Drew Kirk (Dan Paris) to be the main subject of Amy's school photography assignment. Stapleton said that when Lance strips off, he is really pale and "scrawny", unlike Drew. Lance is not the ideal subject for the assignment, so he gets jealous when Amy continues to photograph Drew. In a bid to compete with Drew, Lance covers himself in fake tan, leaving him bright orange. Stapleton said Amy finds it "hilarious" and decides that his unusual skin colour will make for more interesting photos, so she asks him to strip to his boxers and pose for her. The pair are embarrassed when their neighbour Harold Bishop (Ian Smith) walks in on them, but Stapleton said that it actually helps their relationship. She explained "Lance's modesty only endears him further to Amy and she becomes more determined to have her wicked way with him."
In October 1998, producer Peter Dodds said Amy and Lance would continue to become "an ever more bizarre couple", but they would be tested when Lance has a dramatic problem which he has to navigate his way through. Lance develops a gambling addiction, which he tries hard to conceal from his family and friends. Bibby said that his character only realises he has a problem when Amy learns what is going on. Bibby stated, "She finds out he's been lying to her and has lost a lot of money. What started out as a bit of fun has become very dangerous." Amy ends their relationship as Lance's addiction proves too much for her. Stapleton thought that Amy and Lance should stop being "pig-headed" and make up with each other. She told an All About Soap reporter: "They are both very headstrong and strong-willed. Each doesn't want to be the first to say what they truly feel. I can understand how that is; nobody wants to open themselves up to rejection and getting hurt." Bibby thought that there had been a strong attraction between the characters from the start and that they meant the world to each other. He also said that they worked well together "in their funny way."
Writers paired Lance with fellow blonde character Megan Townsend (Allison Byrne). Amy begins interfering in their relationship because she wants to protect Lance. Writers portrayed the pair embroiled in a jealous mind game. Bibby told Belinda Young from TV Week that Amy dislikes Megan and begins following them. He added that Amy continually turns up where he goes which makes Lance believe Amy is stalking him. Lance enjoys making Amy jealous but is annoyed when she sabotages a romantic evening with Megan. Bibby explained that "Amy thinks that Megan is not the type of girl that Lance should be dating, so she decides to keep an eye on him." Amy's suspicions were correct because Megan was just "stringing him along" and they break-up. Lance is forced to apologise but Amy "rubs it in" and continue to play mind games. He concluded that he would like the pair to reunite and added "I think deep down there's an attraction between them both."
Amy and Lance later reconcile, but she soon begins an affair with Damien Smith (John Ridley) and becomes pregnant with his child. Bibby said that Lance only finds out about Damien, after his sister Anne Wilkinson (Brooke Satchwell) tips him off. He explained "Hearing that your girlfriend is seeing someone else is bad enough, then Amy says, 'Well, there's nothing you can do about it because I'm pregnant'. Lance feels like he's been hit by a bus." The situation is more upsetting for Lance because he and Amy never had sex. Bibby told All About Soap'''s Jason Herbison that Lance always thought that Amy wanted their first time to be special, so they waited. Then he finds out that she had sex with Damien and it feels like "a big slap in the face." Bibby told Herbison that there was very little chance of Amy and Lance getting back together, as he is heartbroken and confused. He also admitted that the storyline was an unexpected development and a surprise to him, saying "You don't hear much about sex in Neighbours, then all of a sudden a regular character gets pregnant."
Departure and cameo appearance
In November 1999, Herbison, writing for Inside Soap, reported that Stapleton had filmed her final scenes as Amy and she had already flown to Sydney to audition for a new sitcom. Stapleton confirmed that she had chosen to leave Neighbours to pursue other roles. The actress stated: "Leaving Neighbours was scary because for three years I knew what I was going to doing every day. It was my decision, so if something goes wrong it's my fault, which is daunting. I get bored easily, so having something new to do is a good thing and I know I've made the right decision." In the build up to Amy's exit, scenes feature her refusing Damien's marriage proposal because she is afraid to tell him about her pregnancy. Lance then tells Damien the news and the couple reunite. Bibby said that Lance just wants Amy to be happy, so he puts her relationship with Damien above his own feelings. Amy then leaves for a new life with Damien in Fiji. Bibby added that the scenes in which Lance says goodbye to Amy, he was also saying goodbye to Stapleton, and it was only then that the fact Stapleton was leaving really hit him.
On 14 April 2005, Kris Green from Digital Spy reported that Stapleton had agreed to reprise her role for the show's 20th anniversary episode. The Neighbours producers contacted Stapleton's agent about a possible return and she agreed to come back as she was already in Melbourne. On her decision to return to Neighbours, Stapleton said "I was really happy to come back. I wanted to do it for some closure for the character. I really enjoyed playing the character of Amy, and it would be nice for people who remember her to be able to know how she turned out!" Stapleton added that Neighbours was the "best training ground" for her acting career.
Reintroduction
Stapleton reprised the role for a guest appearance from December 2020. Calling Amy "a heritage character", series producer Jason Herbison admitted that he had wanted to bring her back for a while. Of her return, Stapleton said "As Amy Greenwood has always held a fond place in my heart, to reprise her 20 years later feels like a gift that rarely happens in one's career. She's effusive and flamboyant and joyous to play. Her time back in Erinsborough will see her experience everything from friendship to drama, to romance and heartbreak. It's quite the ride." Amy returns to Erinsborough to help design a new uniform for Lassiters Hotel staff, having established a career in the fashion industry during her time away. Amy also becomes a love interest for a newly separated Shane Rebecchi (Nicholas Coghlan), however, when she realises that he still loves his wife Dipi Rebecchi (Sharon Johal), Amy decides to leave Erinsborough and return to Queensland. Stapleton later told Sam Warner and Daniel Kilkelly of Digital Spy that her guest stint was only supposed to be for six weeks, but it was later extended to eleven. In May 2021, it was confirmed that Stapleton would be re-joining the regular cast. She admitted that she was not expecting to return as a regular while filming her guest appearance, saying "I never in a million years – or 20 to be exact – thought I'd be back on Neighbours at all."
Character conclusion
The Neighbours finale left Amy's character with an unresolved story, as she revealed that she had found an unnamed donor to proceed with her desired pregnancy. On-screen, Toadie Rebecchi (Ryan Moloney) asks Amy if the donor is someone they know, and Amy responds ambiguously. Viewers speculated that the donor may be Joel Samuels (Daniel MacPherson), who was seen to interact with Amy while she was away from Erinsborough, or Lance. Herbinson commented that "I felt we should include a small mystery or two [in the finale]. I loved the way Jacinta performed that. For the record, I don't know the answer!"
Storylines
Amy is the only daughter of Tony and Josie Greenwood (Sally Keil) and has one older brother Jeff (Brad Flynn), and one younger, Patrick (Matthew Barnes). Amy comes to the Coffee Shop after Lance Wilkinson arranges to meet her there. They go on a date and Lance falls into the Lassister's Lake while trying to impress Amy. In spite of this, Amy agrees to see him again. Lance and Amy begin dating, but Amy's friends begin teasing Lance and generally making fun of him.
When Jacinta Myers (Caroline Morgan), one of Amy's friends, frames Lance for putting a caricature of Susan Kennedy (Jackie Woodburne) in the school paper, resulting in Lance being suspended, Amy and Toadfish Rebecchi (Ryan Moloney) come up with a plan to clear Lance's name by tricking Jacinta into confessing. Amy and Lance stage a public break-up which Jacinta ultimately falls for and Toadie records her confession via video camera after two prior failed recordings and they present the tape to Susan. After Amy reveals that she and Lance are still together, Jacinta is forced to concede defeat. Amy and Lance have a tumultuous relationship and have a number of instances where they are made to feel jealous. Amy runs for school captain alongside Lance's sister, Anne, but both are tied when Lance votes twice, one vote each. Anne and Amy eventually share the responsibility.
After discovering that Lance's mysterious behaviour is attributed to a gambling problem, Amy promptly breaks up with him and they remain friends. Amy receives her VCE results and misses out on her intended course at University. She decides to train to be a flight attendant instead. After Lance begins dating Megan Townsend, Amy discovers that Megan is only with Lance for a bet. Amy and Lance's feelings for one another resurface and they agree to give their relationship another try. When Amy begins to seemingly disappear for days, it is revealed that she is dating co-worker Damien Smith behind Lance's back. When Amy tells Anne she is pregnant, Anne insists she tells Lance, which prompts Amy to confess that the baby is Damien's. In the ensuing fallout Amy feels guilty that Lance is angry with Anne for keeping the secret about the baby. However, Lance is understanding and they decide to remain friends. After Damien proposes for the second time, Amy accepts and they marry. Before parting, Lance tells Amy she was his first love and hopes she is happy. Five years after Amy's departure, she is seen in Annalise Hartman's (Kimberley Davies) documentary about Ramsay Street.
Fifteen years later, Amy returns to Erinsborough in order to secure the job of designing the new staff uniforms for Lassiter's hotel. She shows her designs to managers Paul Robinson (Stefan Dennis) and Terese Willis (Rebekah Elmaloglou), who tell her she needs to make her application online. Amy checks into the hotel and visits Number 30, where she reconnects with Toadie and Karl Kennedy (Alan Fletcher). Amy tells Toadie that her marriage to Damien ended as he is gay and her second marriage ended for the same reason, while her three children are living with their fathers. After winning the contract for the hotel uniforms, it soon emerges that Amy's designs are a copy of the uniforms she had previously designed for Hawke Airlines, who own the copyright. She tells Toadie's brother, Shane Rebecchi the truth and he helps her to work on some new prototypes. However, the original designs go live on the Lassiters website and Terese learns the truth about Hawke owning the copyright. Amy convinces Terese to accept the new designs, and she and Shane kiss while celebrating together. They begin dating even though Shane is newly separated from his wife Dipi. Amy unintentionally interrupts various Rebecchi family moments and Mackenzie Hargreaves (Georgie Stone) calls Hawke Airlines to learn more about Amy's history. Amy believes it was Dipi, which leads to a public fight at a charity lip sync battle. Shane takes Amy's side, but further problems arise when Dipi sabotages Amy's application for the tenancy of The 82 tram to house a boutique. A gas leak occurs at the tram and Shane saves both Amy and Dipi. When Amy regains consciousness, she sees Shane attending to Dipi and realising they are reuniting, Amy leaves for Queensland.
Amy returns a couple of months later, having been appointed manager of The Flamingo Bar. Amy starts brainstorming ideas to promote the bar and mentors Roxy Willis (Zima Anderson), who also applied for her job. Terese and Paul confront Amy after learning she took responsibility for a fire at the Far North Hotel in Cairns, where she was working as a marketing director. Amy explains that her 16-year-old daughter accidentally started the fire and Amy took the blame. Terese and Paul accept her explanation and agree they would have done the same thing. Amy is pressured to keep the bar's profits up over the winter, so she plans a series of events, starting with a longest workout competition. She and Roxy clash and Levi Canning (Richie Morris) is injured when Roxy sabotages the stage setup, leading Amy to speak to HR about firing her. Amy later accuses Roxy of theft and Roxy reveals that she told Paul and Terese about the fire in Cairns. They attempt to get along and after taking equal responsibility for an accidental fire, they realise that they are quite similar. Amy moves into Number 30 with Toadie. Amy kisses Ned Willis (Ben Hall), but they decide to stay friends, as he is her employee and has recently broken up with Yashvi Rebecchi (Olivia Junkeer). However, when Roxy asks Amy and Ned to take part in her advert to win a local short film festival for the bar, Amy becomes flustered around Ned and realises that she has a crush on him. They are caught kissing by Dipi, who has returned to take care of a hospitalised Yashvi. Amy decides not to pursue anything with Ned out of respect to Yashvi, and she later has a one-night stand with Levi. When Yashvi leaves Erinsborough, Ned appeals to Amy to explore their attraction further. Amy dates both Ned and Levi, but both feel they want more than a casual arrangement with her. Ned suggests that Amy enters a polyamorous "vee" relationship with both him and Levi, which she eventually agrees to when she realises she has strong feelings for both men. Amy, Ned and Levi struggle to adjust to the parameters of their new relationship and Levi's grandmother Sheila Canning (Colette Mann) strongly objects when she finds out. When Levi's mother Evelyn (Paula Arundell) visits Erinsborough, Levi initially hides his relationship with Amy and she spends more time with Ned. When Evelyn finds out, she initially disapproves but when Amy makes her see that she has legitimate feelings for Levi, she gives them her blessing.
Amy's daughter, Zara Selwyn (Freya Van Dyke) catches her mother having a threesome with Ned and Levi. Zara tells Amy that she is unhappy in Cairns. Zara asks Amy to end her polyamorous relationship and spend time with her, which she does. Zara begins working at Harold's Café. Unconvinced, Zara claims that Levi has sexually harassed her which ruins Amy and Levi's relationship. Zara makes an enemy of Toadie after spiking jelly shots eaten by Toadie's daughter. Amy gets a parental spray from Toadie, who is angry that Zara is evading punishment constantly. After The Flamingo Bar is destroyed during a storm, Amy learns that her job is not being renewed and she is forced to seek new employment. She irrationally purchases a food van, which dries out her bank account and angers Zara.
Amy is convinced that she had developed a crush on Toadie, who is about to marry Melanie Pearson (Lucinda Cowden). Amy eventually admits her feelings and runs to Cairns in embarrassment. In Cairns, she is approached by Joel Samuels, who makes Amy realise she is not in love with Toadie, but in love with the idea of being in a relationship. Amy attends Toadie and Melanie's wedding and reception party on Ramsay Street, where she tells Toadie that she has found a sperm donor so she can have another child, which she has long awaited for.
Reception
A writer from the BBC said Amy's most notable moment was "Training the men of Ramsay Street for their Full Monty performance." A reporter from The Age branded Amy "Ramsay Street's wild child turned party, fashion and gossip queen". In September 1998, Inside Soap'''s Steven Murphy observed that Amy was "without a doubt the best bitch in soap".
References
External links
Character profile at BBC Online
Neighbours characters
Fictional bartenders
Fictional flight attendants
Fictional people in fashion
Fictional polyamorous characters
Television characters introduced in 1997
Female characters in television
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World%20War%20I
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World War I
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World War I (WWI), also known as the First World War, was a global conflict fought between two coalitions, the Allied Powers and the Central Powers. Fighting took place throughout Europe, the Middle East, Africa, the Pacific, and parts of Asia. One of the deadliest wars in history, it resulted in an estimated 9 million soldiers dead and 23 million wounded, plus another 5 million civilian deaths from various causes. Millions more died as a result of genocide, and the war was a major factor in the 1918 Spanish flu pandemic.
The first decade of the 20th century saw increasing diplomatic tension between the European great powers. This reached a breaking point on 28 June 1914, when a Bosnian Serb named Gavrilo Princip assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne. Austria-Hungary held Serbia responsible, and declared war on 28 July. Russia came to Serbia's defence, and by 4 August, Germany, France, and Britain were drawn into the war, with the Ottoman Empire joining in November of that same year.
Germany's strategy in 1914 was to first defeat France, then transfer forces to the Russian front. However, this failed, and by the end of 1914, the Western Front consisted of a continuous line of trenches stretching from the English Channel to Switzerland. The Eastern Front was more dynamic, but neither side could gain a decisive advantage, despite costly offensives. As the war expanded to more fronts, Bulgaria, Romania, Greece, Italy and others joined in from 1915 onward.
In early 1917, the United States entered the war on the side of the Allies, and later the same year, the Bolsheviks seized power in the Russian October Revolution, making peace with the Central Powers in early 1918. Germany launched an offensive in the west in March 1918, and despite initial success, it left the German Army exhausted and demoralised. A successful Allied counter-offensive later that year caused a collapse of the German frontline. By the end of 1918, Bulgaria, the Ottoman Empire and Austria-Hungary agreed to armistices with the Allies, leaving Germany isolated. Facing revolution at home and with his army on the verge of mutiny, Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated on 9 November.
Fighting ended with the Armistice of 11 November 1918, while the subsequent Paris Peace Conference imposed various settlements on the defeated powers, notably the Treaty of Versailles. The dissolution of the Russian, German, Austro-Hungarian, and Ottoman Empires resulted in the creation of new independent states, including Poland, Finland, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia. The inability to manage post-war instability contributed to the outbreak of World War II in September 1939.
Names
The term world war was first coined in September 1914 by German biologist and philosopher Ernst Haeckel. He claimed that "there is no doubt that the course and character of the feared 'European War' ... will become the first world war in the full sense of the word," in The Indianapolis Star on 20 September 1914.
The term First World War had been used by Lt-Col. Charles à Court Repington, as a title for his memoirs (published in 1920); he had noted his discussion on the matter with a Major Johnstone of Harvard University in his diary entry of 10 September 1918.
Prior to World War II, the events of 1914–1918 were generally known as the Great War or simply the World War. In August 1914, the magazine The Independent wrote "This is the Great War. It names itself". In October 1914, the Canadian magazine Maclean's similarly wrote, "Some wars name themselves. This is the Great War." Contemporary Europeans also referred to it as "the war to end war" and it was also described as "the war to end all wars" due to their perception of its unparalleled scale, devastation, and loss of life.
Background
Political and military alliances
For much of the 19th century, the major European powers maintained a tenuous balance of power among themselves, known as the Concert of Europe. After 1848, this was challenged by a variety of factors, including Britain's withdrawal into so-called splendid isolation, the decline of the Ottoman Empire, New Imperialism, and the rise of Prussia under Otto von Bismarck. The 1866 Austro-Prussian War established Prussian hegemony in Germany, while victory in the 1870–1871 Franco-Prussian War allowed Bismarck to consolidate the German states into a German Empire under Prussian leadership. Avenging the defeat of 1871, or revanchism, and recovering the provinces of Alsace-Lorraine became the principal objects of French policy for the next forty years.
In order to isolate France and avoid a war on two fronts, Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors (German: Dreikaiserbund) between Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany. After Russian victory in the 1877–1878 Russo-Turkish War, the League was dissolved due to Austrian concerns over Russian influence in the Balkans, an area they considered of vital strategic interest. Germany and Austria-Hungary then formed the 1879 Dual Alliance, which became the Triple Alliance when Italy joined in 1882. For Bismarck, the purpose of these agreements was to isolate France by ensuring the three Empires resolved any disputes between themselves; when this was threatened in 1880 by British and French attempts to negotiate directly with Russia, he reformed the League in 1881, which was renewed in 1883 and 1885. After the agreement lapsed in 1887, he replaced it with the Reinsurance Treaty, a secret agreement between Germany and Russia to remain neutral if either were attacked by France or Austria-Hungary.
Bismarck viewed peace with Russia as the foundation of German foreign policy but after becoming Kaiser in 1890, Wilhelm II forced him to retire and was persuaded not to renew the Reinsurance Treaty by his new Chancellor, Leo von Caprivi. This provided France an opportunity to counteract the Triple Alliance by signing the Franco-Russian Alliance in 1894, followed by the 1904 Entente Cordiale with Britain. The Triple Entente was completed by the 1907 Anglo-Russian Convention. While these were not formal alliances, by settling long-standing colonial disputes in Africa and Asia, the notion of British entry into any future conflict involving France or Russia became a possibility. British and Russian support for France against Germany during the Agadir Crisis in 1911 reinforced their relationship and increased Anglo-German estrangement, deepening the divisions that would erupt in 1914.
Arms race
German industrial strength and production significantly increased after 1871, driven by the creation of a unified Reich, French indemnity payments, and the annexation of Alsace-Lorraine. Backed by Wilhelm II, Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz sought to use this growth in economic power to build a Kaiserliche Marine, or Imperial German Navy, which could compete with the British Royal Navy for world naval supremacy. His thinking was influenced by US naval strategist Alfred Thayer Mahan, who argued possession of a blue-water navy was vital for global power projection; Tirpitz had his books translated into German, while Wilhelm made them required reading for his advisors and senior military personnel.
However, it was also an emotional decision, driven by Wilhelm's simultaneous admiration for the Royal Navy and desire to outdo and surpass it. Bismarck thought that the British would not interfere in Europe, so long as its maritime supremacy remained secure, but his dismissal in 1890 led to a change in policy and an Anglo-German naval arms race began. Despite the vast sums spent by Tirpitz, the launch of in 1906 gave the British a technological advantage over their German rivals which they never lost. Ultimately, the race diverted huge resources into creating a German navy large enough to antagonise Britain, but not defeat it; in 1911, Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg acknowledged defeat, leading to the Rüstungswende or 'armaments turning point', when he switched expenditure from the navy to the army.
This decision was not driven by a reduction in political tensions, but German concern over Russia's quick recovery from its defeat in the Russo-Japanese War and subsequent 1905 Russian Revolution that same year. Economic reforms backed by funding from the French led to a significant post-1908 expansion of railways and transportation infrastructure, particularly in its western border regions. Since Germany and Austria-Hungary relied on faster mobilisation to compensate for their numerical inferiority compared to Russia, the threat posed by the closing of this gap was more important than competing with the Royal Navy. After Germany expanded its standing army by 170,000 troops in 1913, France extended compulsory military service from two to three years; similar measures were taken by the Balkan powers and Italy, which led to increased expenditure by the Ottomans and Austria-Hungary. Absolute figures are hard to calculate due to differences in categorising expenditure, since they often omit civilian infrastructure projects like railways which also had logistical importance and military use. It is known, however, that from 1908 to 1913, military spending by the six major European powers increased by over 50% in real terms.
Conflicts in the Balkans
The years before 1914 were marked by a series of crises in the Balkans as other powers sought to benefit from Ottoman decline. While Pan-Slavic and Orthodox Russia considered itself the protector of Serbia and other Slav states, they preferred the strategically vital Bosporus straits to be controlled by a weak Ottoman government, rather than an ambitious Slav power like Bulgaria. Since Russia had its own ambitions in northeastern Anatolia and their clients had over-lapping claims in the Balkans, balancing these divided Russian policy-makers and added to regional instability.
Austrian statesmen viewed the Balkans as essential for the continued existence of their Empire, and saw Serbian expansion as a direct threat. The 1908–1909 Bosnian Crisis began when Austria annexed the former Ottoman territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which it had occupied since 1878. Timed to coincide with the Bulgarian Declaration of Independence from the Ottoman Empire, this unilateral action was denounced by the European powers, but accepted as there was no consensus on how to resolve the situation. Some historians see this as a significant escalation, ending any chance of Austria co-operating with Russia in the Balkans while also damaging diplomatic relations between Serbia and Italy, both of whom had their own expansionist ambitions in the region.
Tensions increased after the 1911–1912 Italo-Turkish War demonstrated Ottoman weakness and led to the formation of the Balkan League, an alliance of Serbia, Bulgaria, Montenegro, and Greece. The League quickly overran most of the Ottomans' territory in the Balkans during the 1912–1913 First Balkan War, much to the surprise of outside observers. The Serbian capture of ports on the Adriatic resulted in partial Austrian mobilisation starting on 21 November 1912, including units along the Russian border in Galicia. In a meeting the next day, the Russian government decided not to mobilise in response, unwilling to precipitate a war for which they were not as of yet prepared to handle.
The Great Powers sought to re-assert control through the 1913 Treaty of London, which created an independent Albania, while enlarging the territories of Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro and Greece. However, disputes between the victors sparked the 33-day Second Balkan War, when Bulgaria attacked Serbia and Greece on 16 June 1913; it was defeated, losing most of Macedonia to Serbia and Greece, and Southern Dobruja to Romania. The result was that even countries which benefited from the Balkan Wars, such as Serbia and Greece, felt cheated of their "rightful gains", while for Austria it demonstrated the apparent indifference with which other powers viewed their concerns, including Germany. This complex mix of resentment, nationalism and insecurity helps explain why the pre-1914 Balkans became known as the "powder keg of Europe".
Prelude
Sarajevo assassination
On 28 June 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir presumptive to Emperor Franz Joseph, visited Sarajevo, capital of the recently annexed provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Six assassins from the movement known as Young Bosnia, or Mlada Bosna, took up positions along the route taken by the Archduke's motorcade, with the intention of assassinating him. Supplied with arms by extremists within the Serbian Black Hand intelligence organisation, they hoped his death would free Bosnia from Austrian rule, although there was little agreement on what would replace it.
Nedeljko Čabrinović threw a grenade at the Archduke's car and injured two of his aides, who were taken to hospital while the convoy carried on. The other assassins were also unsuccessful but an hour later, as Ferdinand was returning from visiting the injured officers, his car took a wrong turn into a street where Gavrilo Princip was standing. He stepped forward and fired two pistol shots, fatally wounding Ferdinand and his wife Sophie, who both died shortly thereafter. Although Emperor Franz Joseph was shocked by the incident, political and personal differences meant the two men were not close; allegedly, his first reported comment was "A higher power has re-established the order which I, alas, could not preserve".
According to historian Zbyněk Zeman, his reaction was reflected more broadly in Vienna, where "the event almost failed to make any impression whatsoever. On 28 and 29 June, the crowds listened to music and drank wine, as if nothing had happened." Nevertheless, the impact of the murder of the heir to the throne was significant, and has been described by historian Christopher Clark as a "9/11 effect, a terrorist event charged with historic meaning, transforming the political chemistry in Vienna".
Expansion of violence in Bosnia and Herzegovina
The Austro-Hungarian authorities encouraged the subsequent anti-Serb riots in Sarajevo, in which Bosnian Croats and Bosniaks killed two Bosnian Serbs and damaged numerous Serb-owned buildings. Violent actions against ethnic Serbs were also organised outside Sarajevo, in other cities in Austro-Hungarian-controlled Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia and Slovenia. Austro-Hungarian authorities in Bosnia and Herzegovina imprisoned and extradited approximately 5,500 prominent Serbs, 700 to 2,200 of whom died in prison. A further 460 Serbs were sentenced to death. A predominantly Bosniak special militia known as the Schutzkorps was established and carried out the persecution of Serbs.
July Crisis
The assassination initiated the July Crisis, a month of diplomatic manoeuvring between Austria-Hungary, Germany, Russia, France and Britain. Believing Serbian intelligence helped organise Franz Ferdinand's murder, Austrian officials wanted to use the opportunity to end their interference in Bosnia and saw war as the best way of achieving this. However, the Foreign Ministry had no solid proof of Serbian involvement and a dossier used to make its case was riddled with errors. On 23July, Austria delivered an ultimatum to Serbia, listing ten demands made intentionally unacceptable to provide an excuse for starting hostilities.
Serbia ordered general mobilisation on 25July, but accepted all the terms, except for those empowering Austrian representatives to suppress "subversive elements" inside Serbia, and take part in the investigation and trial of Serbians linked to the assassination. Claiming this amounted to rejection, Austria broke off diplomatic relations and ordered partial mobilisation the next day; on 28 July, they declared war on Serbia and began shelling Belgrade. Having initiated war preparations on 25 July, Russia now ordered general mobilisation in support of Serbia on 30th.
Anxious to ensure backing from the SPD political opposition by presenting Russia as the aggressor, German Chancellor Bethmann Hollweg delayed commencement of war preparations until 31 July. That afternoon the Russian government were handed a note requiring them to "cease all war measures against Germany and Austria-Hungary" within 12 hours. A further German demand for neutrality was refused by the French who ordered general mobilisation but delayed declaring war. The German General Staff had long assumed they faced a war on two fronts; the Schlieffen Plan envisaged using 80% of the army to defeat France in the west, then switch to Russia. Since this required them to move quickly, mobilisation orders were issued that afternoon.
At a meeting on 29 July, the British cabinet had narrowly decided its obligations to Belgium under the 1839 Treaty of London did not require it to oppose a German invasion with military force. However, this was largely driven by Prime Minister Asquith's desire to maintain unity; he and his senior Cabinet ministers were already committed to support France, the Royal Navy had been mobilised and public opinion was strongly in favour of intervention. On 31 July, Britain sent notes to Germany and France, asking them to respect Belgian neutrality; France pledged to do so, Germany did not reply.
Once the German ultimatum to Russia expired on the morning of 1 August, the two countries were at war. Later the same day, Wilhelm was informed by his ambassador in London, Prince Lichnowsky, that Britain would remain neutral if France was not attacked, and might not intervene at all given the ongoing Home Rule Crisis in Ireland. Jubilant at this news, he ordered General Moltke, the German chief of staff, to "march the whole of the... army to the East". This allegedly brought Moltke to the verge of a nervous breakdown, who protested that "it cannot be done. The deployment of millions cannot be improvised." Lichnowsky soon realised he was mistaken, although Wilhelm insisted on waiting for a telegram from his cousin George V; once received it confirmed there had been a misunderstanding, and he told Moltke, "Now do what you want."
Aware of German plans to attack through Belgium, French Commander-in-Chief Joseph Joffre asked his government for permission to cross the border and pre-empt such a move. To avoid a violation of Belgian neutrality, he was told any advance could come only after a German invasion. On 2 August, Germany occupied Luxembourg and exchanged fire with French units; on 3August, they declared war on France and demanded free passage across Belgium, which was refused. Early on the morning of 4August, the Germans invaded and Albert I of Belgium called for assistance under the Treaty of London. Britain sent Germany an ultimatum demanding they withdraw from Belgium; when this expired at midnight without a response, the two empires were at war.
Progress of the war
Opening hostilities
Confusion among the Central Powers
The strategy of the Central Powers suffered from miscommunication. Germany had promised to support Austria-Hungary's invasion of Serbia, but interpretations of what this meant differed. Previously tested deployment plans had been replaced early in 1914, but those had never been tested in exercises. Austro-Hungarian leaders believed Germany would cover its northern flank against Russia.
Serbian campaign
Beginning on 12 August, the Austrian and Serbs clashed at the battles of the Cer and Kolubara; over the next two weeks, Austrian attacks were repulsed with heavy losses, dashing their hopes of a swift victory and marking the first major Allied victories of the war. As a result, Austria had to keep sizeable forces on the Serbian front, weakening its efforts against Russia. Serbia's defeat of the 1914 invasion has been called one of the major upset victories of the twentieth century. In spring 1915, the campaign saw the first use of anti-aircraft warfare after an Austrian plane was shot down with ground-to-air fire, as well as the first medical evacuation by the Serbian army in autumn 1915.
German offensive in Belgium and France
Upon mobilisation in 1914, 80% of the German Army was located on the Western Front, with the remainder acting as a screening force in the East; officially titled Aufmarsch II West, it is better known as the Schlieffen Plan after its creator, Alfred von Schlieffen, head of the German General Staff from 1891 to 1906. Rather than a direct attack across their shared frontier, the German right wing would sweep through the Netherlands and Belgium, then swing south, encircling Paris and trapping the French army against the Swiss border. Schlieffen estimated this would take six weeks, after which the German army would transfer to the East and defeat the Russians.
The plan was substantially modified by his successor, Helmuth von Moltke the Younger. Under Schlieffen, 85% of German forces in the west were assigned to the right wing, with the remainder holding along the frontier. By keeping his left wing deliberately weak, he hoped to lure the French into an offensive into the "lost provinces" of Alsace-Lorraine, which was in fact the strategy envisaged by their Plan XVII. However, Moltke grew concerned the French might push too hard on his left flank and as the German Army increased in size from 1908 to 1914, he changed the allocation of forces between the two wings from 85:15 to 70:30. He also considered Dutch neutrality essential for German trade and cancelled the incursion into the Netherlands, which meant any delays in Belgium threatened the entire viability of the plan. Historian Richard Holmes argues these changes meant the right wing was not strong enough to achieve decisive success and thus led to unrealistic goals and timings.
The initial German advance in the West was very successful and by the end of August the Allied left, which included the British Expeditionary Force (BEF), was in full retreat. At the same time, the French offensive in Alsace-Lorraine was a disastrous failure, with casualties exceeding 260,000, including 27,000 killed on 22 August during the Battle of the Frontiers. German planning provided broad strategic instructions, while allowing army commanders considerable freedom in carrying them out at the front; this worked well in 1866 and 1870 but in 1914, von Kluck used this freedom to disobey orders, opening a gap between the German armies as they closed on Paris.
In 1911, the Russian Stavka had agreed with the French to attack Germany within fifteen days of mobilisation, ten days before the Germans had anticipated, although it meant the two Russian armies that entered East Prussia on 17 August did so without many of their support elements.
By the end of 1914, German troops held strong defensive positions inside France, controlled the bulk of France's domestic coalfields and had inflicted 230,000 more casualties than it lost itself. However, communications problems and questionable command decisions cost Germany the chance of a decisive outcome, while it had failed to achieve the primary objective of avoiding a long, two-front war. As was apparent to a number of German leaders, this amounted to a strategic defeat; shortly after the Marne, Crown Prince Wilhelm told an American reporter; "We have lost the war. It will go on for a long time but lost it is already."
Asia and the Pacific
On 30 August 1914, New Zealand occupied German Samoa, now the independent state of Samoa. On 11 September, the Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force landed on the island of New Britain, then part of German New Guinea. On 28 October, the German cruiser sank the Russian cruiser Zhemchug in the Battle of Penang. Japan declared war on Germany prior to seizing territories in the Pacific which later became the South Seas Mandate, as well as German Treaty ports on the Chinese Shandong peninsula at Tsingtao. After Vienna refused to withdraw its cruiser from Tsingtao, Japan declared war on Austria-Hungary as well, and the ship was sunk at Tsingtao in November 1914. Within a few months, Allied forces had seized all German territories in the Pacific, leaving only isolated commerce raiders and a few holdouts in New Guinea.
African campaigns
Some of the first clashes of the war involved British, French, and German colonial forces in Africa. On 6–7 August, French and British troops invaded the German protectorate of Togoland and Kamerun. On 10 August, German forces in South-West Africa attacked South Africa; sporadic and fierce fighting continued for the rest of the war. The German colonial forces in German East Africa, led by Colonel Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck, fought a guerrilla warfare campaign during World WarI and only surrendered two weeks after the armistice took effect in Europe.
Indian support for the Allies
Prior to the war, Germany had attempted to use Indian nationalism and pan-Islamism to its advantage, a policy continued post-1914 by instigating uprisings in India, while the Niedermayer–Hentig Expedition urged Afghanistan to join the war on the side of Central Powers. However, contrary to British fears of a revolt in India, the outbreak of the war saw a reduction in nationalist activity. This was largely because leaders from the Indian National Congress and other groups believed support for the British war effort would hasten Indian Home Rule, a promise allegedly made explicit in 1917 by Edwin Montagu, then Secretary of State for India.
In 1914, the British Indian Army was larger than the British Army itself, and between 1914 and 1918 an estimated 1.3 million Indian soldiers and labourers served in Europe, Africa, and the Middle East, while the Government of India and their princely allies supplied large quantities of food, money, and ammunition. In all, 140,000 soldiers served on the Western Front and nearly 700,000 in the Middle East, with 47,746 killed and 65,126 wounded.
The suffering engendered by the war, as well as the failure of the British government to grant self-government to India after the end of hostilities, bred disillusionment and resulted in the campaign for full independence led by Mahatma Gandhi.
Western Front 1914 to 1916
Trench warfare begins
Pre-war military tactics that emphasised open warfare and the individual rifleman proved obsolete when confronted with conditions prevailing in 1914. Technological advances allowed the creation of strong defensive systems largely impervious to massed infantry advances, such as barbed wire, machine guns and above all far more powerful artillery, which dominated the battlefield and made crossing open ground extremely difficult. Both sides struggled to develop tactics for breaching entrenched positions without suffering heavy casualties. In time, however, technology enabled the production of new offensive weapons, such as gas warfare and the tank.
After the First Battle of the Marne in September 1914, Allied and German forces unsuccessfully tried to outflank each other, a series of manoeuvres later known as the "Race to the Sea". By the end of 1914, the opposing forces confronted each other along an uninterrupted line of entrenched positions from the Channel to the Swiss border. Since the Germans were normally able to choose where to stand, they generally held the high ground, while their trenches tended to be better built; those constructed by the French and English were initially considered "temporary", only needed until an offensive would smash the German defences. Both sides tried to break the stalemate using scientific and technological advances. On 22 April 1915, at the Second Battle of Ypres, the Germans (violating the Hague Convention) used chlorine gas for the first time on the Western Front. Several types of gas soon became widely used by both sides, and though it never proved a decisive, battle-winning weapon, it became one of the most-feared and best-remembered horrors of the war.
Continuation of trench warfare
In February 1916 the Germans attacked French defensive positions at the Battle of Verdun, lasting until December 1916. The Germans made initial gains, before French counter-attacks returned matters to near their starting point. Casualties were greater for the French, but the Germans bled heavily as well, with anywhere from 700,000 to 975,000 casualties suffered between the two combatants. Verdun became a symbol of French determination and self-sacrifice.
The Battle of the Somme was an Anglo-French offensive of July to November 1916. The opening day on 1 July 1916 was the bloodiest single day in the history of the British Army, which suffered 57,470 casualties, including 19,240 dead. As a whole, the Somme offensive led to an estimated 420,000 British casualties, along with 200,000 French and 500,000 German. Gun fire was not the only factor taking lives; the diseases that emerged in the trenches were a major killer on both sides. The living conditions made it so that countless diseases and infections occurred, such as trench foot, shell shock, blindness/burns from mustard gas, lice, trench fever, "cooties" (body lice) and the 'Spanish flu'.
Naval war
At the start of the war, German cruisers were scattered across the globe, some of which were subsequently used to attack Allied merchant shipping. The British Royal Navy systematically hunted them down, though not without some embarrassment from its inability to protect Allied shipping. For example, the light cruiser , which was part of the German East Asia Squadron stationed at Qingdao, seized or sank 15 merchantmen, as well as a Russian cruiser and a French destroyer. Most of the squadron was returning to Germany when it sank two British armoured cruisers at the Battle of Coronel in November 1914, before being virtually destroyed at the Battle of the Falkland Islands in December. The SMS Dresden escaped with a few auxiliaries, but after the Battle of Más a Tierra, these too had either been destroyed or interned.
Soon after the outbreak of hostilities, Britain began a naval blockade of Germany. The strategy proved effective, cutting off vital military and civilian supplies, although this blockade violated accepted international law codified by several international agreements of the past two centuries. Britain mined international waters to prevent any ships from entering entire sections of ocean, causing danger to even neutral ships. Since there was limited response to this tactic of the British, Germany expected a similar response to its unrestricted submarine warfare.
The Battle of Jutland (German: Skagerrakschlacht, or "Battle of the Skagerrak") in May/June 1916 developed into the largest naval battle of the war. It was the only full-scale clash of battleships during the war, and one of the largest in history. The Kaiserliche Marine's High Seas Fleet, commanded by Vice Admiral Reinhard Scheer, fought the Royal Navy's Grand Fleet, led by Admiral Sir John Jellicoe. The engagement was a stand off, as the Germans were outmanoeuvred by the larger British fleet, but managed to escape and inflicted more damage to the British fleet than they received. Strategically, however, the British asserted their control of the sea, and the bulk of the German surface fleet remained confined to port for the duration of the war.
German U-boats attempted to cut the supply lines between North America and Britain. The nature of submarine warfare meant that attacks often came without warning, giving the crews of the merchant ships little hope of survival. The United States launched a protest, and Germany changed its rules of engagement. After the sinking of the passenger ship RMS Lusitania in 1915, Germany promised not to target passenger liners, while Britain armed its merchant ships, placing them beyond the protection of the "cruiser rules", which demanded warning and movement of crews to "a place of safety" (a standard that lifeboats did not meet). Finally, in early 1917, Germany adopted a policy of unrestricted submarine warfare, realising the Americans would eventually enter the war. Germany sought to strangle Allied sea lanes before the United States could transport a large army overseas, but after initial successes eventually failed to do so.
The U-boat threat lessened in 1917, when merchant ships began travelling in convoys, escorted by destroyers. This tactic made it difficult for U-boats to find targets, which significantly lessened losses; after the hydrophone and depth charges were introduced, accompanying destroyers could attack a submerged submarine with some hope of success. Convoys slowed the flow of supplies since ships had to wait as convoys were assembled. The solution to the delays was an extensive program of building new freighters. Troopships were too fast for the submarines and did not travel the North Atlantic in convoys. The U-boats had sunk more than 5,000 Allied ships, at a cost of 199 submarines.
World War I also saw the first use of aircraft carriers in combat, with launching Sopwith Camels in a successful raid against the Zeppelin hangars at Tondern in July 1918, as well as blimps for antisubmarine patrol.
Southern theatres
War in the Balkans
Faced with Russia in the east, Austria-Hungary could spare only one-third of its army to attack Serbia. After suffering heavy losses, the Austrians briefly occupied the Serbian capital, Belgrade. A Serbian counter-attack in the Battle of Kolubara succeeded in driving them from the country by the end of 1914. For the first ten months of 1915, Austria-Hungary used most of its military reserves to fight Italy. German and Austro-Hungarian diplomats, however, scored a coup by persuading Bulgaria to join the attack on Serbia. The Austro-Hungarian provinces of Slovenia, Croatia and Bosnia provided troops for Austria-Hungary in the fight with Serbia, Russia and Italy. Montenegro allied itself with Serbia.
Bulgaria declared war on Serbia on 14 October 1915 and joined in the attack by the Austro-Hungarian army under Mackensen's army of 250,000 that was already underway. Serbia was conquered in a little more than a month, as the Central Powers, now including Bulgaria, sent in 600,000 troops total. The Serbian army, fighting on two fronts and facing certain defeat, retreated into northern Albania. The Serbs suffered defeat in the Battle of Kosovo. Montenegro covered the Serbian retreat towards the Adriatic coast in the Battle of Mojkovac in 6–7 January 1916, but ultimately the Austrians also conquered Montenegro. The surviving Serbian soldiers were evacuated by ship to Greece. After conquest, Serbia was divided between Austro-Hungary and Bulgaria.
In late 1915, a Franco-British force landed at Salonica in Greece to offer assistance and to pressure its government to declare war against the Central Powers. However, the pro-German King Constantine I dismissed the pro-Allied government of Eleftherios Venizelos before the Allied expeditionary force arrived.
The Macedonian front was initially mostly static. French and Serbian forces retook limited areas of Macedonia by recapturing Bitola on 19 November 1916 following the costly Monastir offensive, which brought stabilisation of the front.
Serbian and French troops finally made a breakthrough in September 1918 in the Vardar offensive, after most of the German and Austro-Hungarian troops had been withdrawn. The Bulgarians were defeated at the Battle of Dobro Pole, and by 25 September British and French troops had crossed the border into Bulgaria proper as the Bulgarian army collapsed. Bulgaria capitulated four days later, on 29 September 1918. The German high command responded by despatching troops to hold the line, but these forces were far too weak to re-establish a front.
The disappearance of the Macedonian front meant that the road to Budapest and Vienna was now opened to Allied forces. Hindenburg and Ludendorff concluded that the strategic and operational balance had now shifted decidedly against the Central Powers and, a day after the Bulgarian collapse, insisted on an immediate peace settlement.
Ottoman Empire
The Ottomans threatened Russia's Caucasian territories and Britain's communications with India via the Suez Canal. As the conflict progressed, the Ottoman Empire took advantage of the European powers' preoccupation with the war and conducted large-scale ethnic cleansing of the indigenous Armenian, Greek, and Assyrian Christian populations, known as the Armenian genocide, Greek genocide, and Sayfo respectively.
The British and French opened overseas fronts with the Gallipoli (1915) and Mesopotamian campaigns (1914). In Gallipoli, the Ottoman Empire successfully repelled the British, French, and Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZACs). In Mesopotamia, by contrast, after the defeat of the British defenders in the siege of Kut by the Ottomans (1915–16), British Imperial forces reorganised and captured Baghdad in March 1917. The British were aided in Mesopotamia by local Arab and Assyrian fighters, while the Ottomans employed local Kurdish and Turcoman tribes.
Further to the west, the Suez Canal was defended from Ottoman attacks in 1915 and 1916; in August, a German and Ottoman force was defeated at the Battle of Romani by the ANZAC Mounted Division and the 52nd (Lowland) Infantry Division. Following this victory, an Egyptian Expeditionary Force advanced across the Sinai Peninsula, pushing Ottoman forces back in the Battle of Magdhaba in December and the Battle of Rafa on the border between the Egyptian Sinai and Ottoman Palestine in January 1917.
Russian armies generally had success in the Caucasus campaign. Enver Pasha, supreme commander of the Ottoman armed forces, was ambitious and dreamed of re-conquering central Asia and areas that had been lost to Russia previously. He was, however, a poor commander. He launched an offensive against the Russians in the Caucasus in December 1914 with 100,000 troops, insisting on a frontal attack against mountainous Russian positions in winter. He lost 86% of his force at the Battle of Sarikamish.
The Ottoman Empire, with German support, invaded Persia (modern Iran) in December 1914 in an effort to cut off British and Russian access to petroleum reservoirs around Baku near the Caspian Sea. Persia, ostensibly neutral, had long been under the spheres of British and Russian influence. The Ottomans and Germans were aided by Kurdish and Azeri forces, together with a large number of major Iranian tribes, such as the Qashqai, Tangistanis, Lurs, and Khamseh, while the Russians and British had the support of Armenian and Assyrian forces. The Persian campaign was to last until 1918 and end in failure for the Ottomans and their allies. However, the Russian withdrawal from the war in 1917 led to Armenian and Assyrian forces, who had hitherto inflicted a series of defeats upon the forces of the Ottomans and their allies, being cut off from supply lines, outnumbered, outgunned and isolated, forcing them to fight and flee towards British lines in northern Mesopotamia.
General Yudenich, the Russian commander from 1915 to 1916, drove the Turks out of most of the southern Caucasus with a string of victories.
The Arab Revolt, instigated by the Arab bureau of the British Foreign Office, started June 1916 with the Battle of Mecca, led by Sharif Hussein of Mecca, and ended with the Ottoman surrender of Damascus. Fakhri Pasha, the Ottoman commander of Medina, resisted for more than two and half years during the siege of Medina before surrendering in January 1919.
The Senussi tribe, along the border of Italian Libya and British Egypt, incited and armed by the Turks, waged a small-scale guerrilla war against Allied troops. The British were forced to dispatch 12,000 troops to oppose them in the Senussi campaign. Their rebellion was finally crushed in mid-1916.
Total Allied casualties on the Ottoman fronts amounted 650,000 men. Total Ottoman casualties were 725,000, with 325,000 dead and 400,000 wounded.
Italian Front
Although Italy joined the Triple Alliance in 1882, a treaty with its traditional Austrian enemy was so controversial that subsequent governments denied its existence and the terms were only made public in 1915. This arose from nationalist designs on Austro-Hungarian territory in Trentino, the Austrian Littoral, Rijeka and Dalmatia, which were considered vital to secure the borders established in 1866. In 1902, Rome secretly agreed with France to remain neutral if the latter was attacked by Germany, effectively nullifying its role in the Triple Alliance.
When the war began in 1914, Italy argued the Triple Alliance was defensive in nature and it was not obliged to support an Austrian attack on Serbia. Opposition to joining the Central Powers increased when Turkey became a member in September, since in 1911 Italy had occupied Ottoman possessions in Libya and the Dodecanese islands. To secure Italian neutrality, the Central Powers offered them the French protectorate of Tunisia, while in return for an immediate entry into the war, the Allies agreed to their demands for Austrian territory and sovereignty over the Dodecanese. Although they remained secret, these provisions were incorporated into the April 1915 Treaty of London; Italy joined the Triple Entente and on 23 May declared war on Austria-Hungary, followed by Germany fifteen months later.
The pre-1914 Italian army was the weakest in Europe, short of officers, trained men, adequate transport and modern weapons; by April 1915, some of these deficiencies had been remedied but it was still unprepared for the major offensive required by the Treaty of London. The advantage of superior numbers was offset by the difficult terrain; much of the fighting took place at altitudes of over 3000 metres in the Alps and Dolomites, where trench lines had to be cut through rock and ice and keeping troops supplied was a major challenge. These issues were exacerbated by unimaginative strategies and tactics. Between 1915 and 1917, the Italian commander, Luigi Cadorna, undertook a series of frontal assaults along the Isonzo which made little progress and cost many lives; by the end of the war, total Italian combat deaths totalled around 548,000.
In the spring of 1916, the Austro-Hungarians counterattacked in Asiago in the Strafexpedition, but made little progress and were pushed by the Italians back to the Tyrol. Although an Italian corps occupied southern Albania in May 1916, their main focus was the Isonzo front which after the capture of Gorizia in August 1916 remained static until October 1917. After a combined Austro-German force won a major victory at Caporetto, Cadorna was replaced by Armando Diaz who retreated more than before holding positions along the Piave River. A second Austrian offensive was repulsed in June 1918 and by October it was clear the Central Powers had lost the war. On 24 October, Diaz launched the Battle of Vittorio Veneto and initially met stubborn resistance, but with Austria-Hungary collapsing, Hungarian divisions in Italy now demanded they be sent home. When this was granted, many others followed and the Imperial army disintegrated, the Italians taking over 300,000 prisoners. On 3November, the Armistice of Villa Giusti ended hostilities between Austria-Hungary and Italy which occupied Trieste and areas along the Adriatic Sea awarded to it in 1915.
Romanian participation
Despite secretly agreeing to support the Triple Alliance in 1883, Romania increasingly found itself at odds with the Central Powers over their support for Bulgaria in the 1912 to 1913 Balkan Wars and the status of ethnic Romanian communities in Hungarian-controlled Transylvania, which comprised an estimated 2.8 million of the 5.0 million population. With the ruling elite split into pro-German and pro-Entente factions, Romania remained neutral in 1914, arguing like Italy that because Austria-Hungary had declared war on Serbia, it was under no obligation to join them. They maintained this position for the next two years, while allowing Germany and Austria to transport military supplies and advisors across Romanian territory.
In September 1914, Russia had acknowledged Romanian rights to Austro-Hungarian territories including Transylvania and Banat, whose acquisition had widespread popular support, and Russian success against Austria led Romania to join the Entente in the August 1916 Treaty of Bucharest. Under the strategic plan known as Hypothesis Z, the Romanian army planned an offensive into Transylvania, while defending Southern Dobruja and Giurgiu against a possible Bulgarian counterattack. On 27 August 1916, they attacked Transylvania and occupied substantial parts of the province before being driven back by the recently formed German 9th Army, led by former Chief of Staff Falkenhayn. A combined German-Bulgarian-Turkish offensive captured Dobruja and Giurgiu, although the bulk of the Romanian army managed to escape encirclement and retreated to Bucharest, which surrendered to the Central Powers on 6 December 1916.
On 7 May 1918 Romania signed the Treaty of Bucharest with the Central Powers, which recognised Romanian sovereignty over Bessarabia in return for ceding control of passes in the Carpathian Mountains to Austria-Hungary and granting oil concessions to Germany. Although approved by Parliament, Ferdinand I refused to sign the treaty, hoping for an Allied victory; Romania re-entered the war on 10 November 1918 on the side of the Allies and the Treaty of Bucharest was formally annulled by the Armistice of 11 November 1918. Between 1914 and 1918, an estimated 400,000 to 600,000 ethnic Romanians served with the Austro-Hungarian army, of whom up to 150,000 were killed in action; total military and civilian deaths within contemporary Romanian borders are estimated at 748,000.
Eastern Front
Initial actions
As previously agreed with France, Russian plans at the start of the war were to simultaneously advance into Austrian Galicia and East Prussia as soon as possible. Although their attack on Galicia was largely successful, and the invasions achieved their aim of forcing Germany to divert troops from the Western Front, the speed of mobilisation meant they did so without much of their heavy equipment and support functions. These weaknesses contributed to Russian defeats at Tannenberg and the Masurian Lakes in August and September 1914, forcing them to withdraw from East Prussia with heavy losses. By spring 1915, they had also retreated from Galicia, and the May 1915 Gorlice–Tarnów offensive then allowed the Central Powers to invade Russian-occupied Poland.
Despite the successful June 1916 Brusilov offensive against the Austrians in eastern Galicia, shortages of supplies, heavy losses and command failures prevented the Russians from fully exploiting their victory. However, it was one of the most significant and impactful offensives of the war, diverting German resources from Verdun, relieving Austro-Hungarian pressure on the Italians, and convincing Romania to enter the war on the side of the Allies on 27 August. It also fatally weakened both the Austrian and Russian armies, whose offensive capabilities were badly affected by their losses and increased the disillusionment with the war that ultimately led to the Russian revolutions.
Meanwhile, unrest grew in Russia as the Tsar remained at the front, with the home front controlled by Empress Alexandra. Her increasingly incompetent rule and food shortages in urban areas led to widespread protests and the murder of her favourite, Grigori Rasputin, at the end of 1916.
Central Powers peace overtures
On 12 December 1916, after ten brutal months of the Battle of Verdun and a successful offensive against Romania, Germany attempted to negotiate a peace with the Allies. However, this attempt was rejected out of hand as a "duplicitous war ruse".
Soon after, US president Woodrow Wilson attempted to intervene as a peacemaker, asking in a note for both sides to state their demands and start negotiations. Lloyd George's War Cabinet considered the German offer to be a ploy to create divisions amongst the Allies. After initial outrage and much deliberation, they took Wilson's note as a separate effort, signalling that the United States was on the verge of entering the war against Germany following the "submarine outrages". While the Allies debated a response to Wilson's offer, the Germans chose to rebuff it in favour of "a direct exchange of views". Learning of the German response, the Allied governments were free to make clear demands in their response of 14 January. They sought restoration of damages, the evacuation of occupied territories, reparations for France, Russia and Romania, and a recognition of the principle of nationalities. This included the liberation of Italians, Slavs, Romanians, Czecho-Slovaks, and the creation of a "free and united Poland". On the question of security, the Allies sought guarantees that would prevent or limit future wars, complete with sanctions, as a condition of any peace settlement. The negotiations failed and the Entente powers rejected the German offer on the grounds that Germany had not put forward any specific proposals.
Final years of the war
Russian Revolution and withdrawal
By the end of 1916, Russian casualties totalled nearly five million killed, wounded or captured, with major urban areas affected by food shortages and high prices. In March 1917, Tsar Nicholas ordered the military to forcibly suppress a wave of strikes in Petrograd but the troops refused to fire on the crowds. Revolutionaries set up the Petrograd Soviet and fearing a left-wing takeover, the State Duma forced Nicholas to abdicate and established the Russian Provisional Government, which confirmed Russia's willingness to continue the war. However, the Petrograd Soviet refused to disband, creating competing power centres and caused confusion and chaos, with frontline soldiers becoming increasingly demoralised and unwilling to fight on.
Following the Tsar's abdication, Vladimir Lenin—with the help of the German government—was ushered by train from Switzerland into Russia on 16 April 1917. Discontent and the weaknesses of the Provisional Government led to a rise in the popularity of the Bolshevik Party, led by Lenin, which demanded an immediate end to the war. The Revolution of November was followed in December by an armistice and negotiations with Germany. At first, the Bolsheviks refused the German terms, but when German troops began marching across Ukraine unopposed, the new government acceded to the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk on 3March 1918. The treaty ceded vast territories, including Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, parts of Poland and Ukraine to the Central Powers.
With the Russian Empire out of the war, Romania found itself alone on the Eastern Front and signed the Treaty of Bucharest with the Central Powers in May 1918, ending the state of war between Romania and the Central Powers. Under the terms of the treaty, Romania had to give territory to Austria-Hungary and Bulgaria, and lease its oil reserves to Germany. However, the terms also included the Central Powers recognition of the union of Bessarabia with Romania.
United States enters the war
The United States was a major supplier of war materiel to the Allies but remained neutral in 1914, in large part due to domestic opposition. The most significant factor in creating the support Wilson needed was the German submarine offensive, which not only cost American lives, but paralysed trade as ships were reluctant to put to sea.
On 6 April 1917, Congress declared war on Germany as an "Associated Power" of the Allies. The United States Navy sent a battleship group to Scapa Flow to join the Grand Fleet and provided convoy escorts. In April 1917, the United States Army had fewer than 300,000 men, including National Guard units, compared to British and French armies of 4.1 and 8.3 million respectively. The Selective Service Act of 1917 drafted 2.8 million men, although training and equipping such numbers was a huge logistical challenge. By June 1918, over 667,000 members of the American Expeditionary Forces (AEF), had been transported to France, a figure which reached 2 million by the end of November.
Despite his conviction Germany must be defeated, Wilson went to war to ensure the US played a leading role in shaping the peace, which meant preserving the AEF as a separate military force, rather than being absorbed into British or French units as his Allies wanted. He was strongly supported by AEF commander General John J. Pershing, a proponent of pre-1914 "open warfare" who considered the French and British emphasis on artillery as misguided and incompatible with American "offensive spirit". Much to the frustration of his Allies, who had suffered heavy losses in 1917, he insisted on retaining control of American troops and refused to commit them to the front line until able to operate as independent units. As a result, the first significant US involvement was the Meuse–Argonne offensive in late September 1918.
Nivelle Offensive (April–May 1917)
In December 1916, Robert Nivelle replaced Pétain as commander of French armies on the Western Front and began planning a spring attack in Champagne, part of a joint Franco-British operation. Nivelle claimed the capture of his main objective, the Chemin des Dames, would achieve a massive breakthrough and cost no more than 15,000 casualties. Poor security meant German intelligence was well informed on tactics and timetables, but despite this, when the attack began on 16 April the French made substantial gains, before being brought to a halt by the newly built and extremely strong defences of the Hindenburg Line. Nivelle persisted with frontal assaults and by 25 April the French had suffered nearly 135,000 casualties, including 30,000 dead, most incurred in the first two days.
Concurrent British attacks at Arras were more successful, although ultimately of little strategic value. Operating as a separate unit for the first time, the Canadian Corps capture of Vimy Ridge during the battle is viewed by many Canadians as a defining moment in creating a sense of national identity. Although Nivelle continued the offensive, on 3 May the 21st Division, which had been involved in some of the heaviest fighting at Verdun, refused orders to go into battle, initiating the French Army mutinies; within days, acts of "collective indiscipline" had spread to 54 divisions, while over 20,000 deserted. Unrest was almost entirely confined to the infantry, whose demands were largely non-political, including better economic support for families at home, and regular periods of leave, which Nivelle had ended.
Sinai and Palestine campaign (1917–1918)
In March and April 1917, at the First and Second Battles of Gaza, German and Ottoman forces stopped the advance of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force, which had begun in August 1916 at the Battle of Romani. At the end of October, the Sinai and Palestine campaign resumed, when General Edmund Allenby's XXth Corps, XXI Corps and Desert Mounted Corps won the Battle of Beersheba. Two Ottoman armies were defeated a few weeks later at the Battle of Mughar Ridge and, early in December, Jerusalem was captured following another Ottoman defeat at the Battle of Jerusalem. About this time, Friedrich Freiherr Kress von Kressenstein was relieved of his duties as the Eighth Army's commander, replaced by Djevad Pasha, and a few months later the commander of the Ottoman Army in Palestine, Erich von Falkenhayn, was replaced by Otto Liman von Sanders.
In early 1918, the front line was extended and the Jordan Valley was occupied, following the First Transjordan and the Second Transjordan attacks by British Empire forces in March and April 1918.
German spring offensive (March–July 1918)
In December 1917, the Central Powers signed an armistice with Russia, thus freeing large numbers of German troops for use in the west. With German reinforcements and new American troops pouring in, the outcome was to be decided on the Western Front. The Central Powers knew that they could not win a protracted war, but they held high hopes for success based on a final quick offensive. Furthermore, both sides became increasingly fearful of social unrest and revolution in Europe. Thus, both sides urgently sought a decisive victory. Ludendorff drew up plans (codenamed Operation Michael) for the 1918 offensive on the Western Front. The spring offensive sought to divide the British and French forces with a series of feints and advances. The German leadership hoped to end the war before significant US forces arrived. The operation commenced on 21 March 1918 with an attack on British forces near Saint-Quentin. German forces achieved an unprecedented advance of .
The initial offensive was so successful that Kaiser Wilhelm II declared 24 March a national holiday. Many Germans thought victory was near. After heavy fighting, however, the offensive was halted. Lacking tanks or motorised artillery, the Germans were unable to consolidate their gains. The problems of re-supply were also exacerbated by increasing distances that now stretched over terrain that was shell-torn and often impassable to traffic.
Following Operation Michael, Germany launched Operation Georgette against the northern English Channel ports. The Allies halted the drive after limited territorial gains by Germany. The German Army to the south then conducted Operations Blücher and Yorck, pushing broadly towards Paris. Germany launched Operation Marne (Second Battle of the Marne) on 15 July, in an attempt to encircle Reims. The resulting counter-attack, which started the Hundred Days Offensive, marked the first successful Allied offensive of the war. By 20 July, the Germans had retreated across the Marne to their starting lines.
Hundred Days Offensive (August–November 1918)
The Allied counteroffensive, known as the Hundred Days Offensive, began on 8August 1918, with the Battle of Amiens. The battle involved over 400 tanks and 120,000 British, Dominion, and French troops, and by the end of its first day a gap long had been created in the German lines. The defenders displayed a marked collapse in morale, causing Ludendorff to refer to this day as the "Black Day of the German army".
Allied advance to the Hindenburg Line
In September the Allies advanced to the Hindenburg Line in the north and centre. The Germans continued to fight strong rear-guard actions and launched numerous counterattacks, but positions and outposts of the Line continued to fall, with the BEF alone taking 30,441 prisoners in the last week of September. On 24 September an assault by both the British and French came within of St. Quentin. The Germans had now retreated to positions along or behind the Hindenburg Line. That same day, Supreme Army Command informed the leaders in Berlin that armistice talks were inevitable.
The final assault on the Hindenburg Line began with the Meuse-Argonne offensive, launched by American and French troops on 26 September. The following week, co-operating American and French units broke through in Champagne at the Battle of Blanc Mont Ridge, forcing the Germans off the commanding heights, and closing towards the Belgian frontier. On 8October the line was pierced again by British and Dominion troops at the Battle of Cambrai.
Breakthrough of Macedonian Front (September 1918)
Allied forces started the Vardar offensive on 15 September at two key points: Dobro Pole and near Dojran Lake. In the Battle of Dobro Pole, the Serbian and French armies had success after a three day long battle with relatively small casualties, and subsequently made a breakthrough in the front, something which was rarely seen in World War I. After the front was broken, Allied forces started to liberate Serbia and reached Skopje at 29 September, after which Bulgaria signed an armistice with the Allies on 30 September.
Armistices and capitulations
The collapse of the Central Powers came swiftly. Bulgaria was the first to sign an armistice, the Armistice of Salonica on 29 September 1918. German Emperor Wilhelm II in a telegram to Bulgarian Tsar Ferdinand I described the situation thus: "Disgraceful! 62,000 Serbs decided the war!". On the same day, the German Supreme Army Command informed Kaiser Wilhelm II and the Imperial Chancellor Count Georg von Hertling, that the military situation facing Germany was hopeless.
On 24 October, the Italians began a push that rapidly recovered territory lost after the Battle of Caporetto. This culminated in the Battle of Vittorio Veneto, which marked the end of the Austro-Hungarian Army as an effective fighting force. The offensive also triggered the disintegration of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. During the last week of October, declarations of independence were made in Budapest, Prague, and Zagreb. On 29 October, the imperial authorities asked Italy for an armistice, but the Italians continued advancing, reaching Trento, Udine, and Trieste. On 3November, Austria-Hungary sent a flag of truce to ask for an armistice (Armistice of Villa Giusti). The terms, arranged by telegraph with the Allied Authorities in Paris, were communicated to the Austrian commander and accepted. The Armistice with Austria was signed in the Villa Giusti, near Padua, on 3November. Austria and Hungary signed separate armistices following the overthrow of the Habsburg monarchy. In the following days, the Italian Army occupied Innsbruck and all Tyrol with over 20,000 soldiers.
On 30 October, the Ottoman Empire capitulated, signing the Armistice of Mudros.
German Revolution (1918–1919)
In northern Germany, the German Revolution of 1918–1919 began at the end of October 1918. Units of the German Navy refused to set sail for a last, large-scale operation in a war they believed to be as good as lost, initiating the uprising. The sailors' revolt, which then ensued in the naval ports of Wilhelmshaven and Kiel, spread across the whole country within days and led to the proclamation of a republic on 9November 1918, shortly thereafter to the abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II, and to German surrender.
New German government surrenders
With the military faltering and with widespread loss of confidence in the Kaiser leading to his abdication and fleeing of the country, Germany moved towards surrender. Prince Maximilian of Baden took charge of a new government on 3October as Chancellor of Germany to negotiate with the Allies. Negotiations with President Wilson began immediately, in the hope that he would offer better terms than the British and French. Wilson demanded a constitutional monarchy and parliamentary control over the German military. There was no resistance when the Social Democrat Philipp Scheidemann on 9November declared Germany to be a republic. The Kaiser, kings and other hereditary rulers all were removed from power and Wilhelm fled to exile in the Netherlands. It was the end of Imperial Germany; a new Germany had been born as the Weimar Republic.
Aftermath
In the aftermath of the war, four empires disappeared: the German, Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, and Russian. Numerous nations regained their former independence, and new ones were created. Four dynasties, together with their ancillary aristocracies, fell as a result of the war: the Romanovs, the Hohenzollerns, the Habsburgs, and the Ottomans. Belgium and Serbia were badly damaged, as was France, with 1.4 million soldiers dead, not counting other casualties. Germany and Russia were similarly affected.
Formal end of the war
A formal state of war between the two sides persisted for another seven months, until the signing of the Treaty of Versailles with Germany on 28 June 1919. The United States Senate did not ratify the treaty despite public support for it, and did not formally end its involvement in the war until the Knox–Porter Resolution was signed on 2July 1921 by President Warren G. Harding. For the United Kingdom and the British Empire, the state of war ceased under the provisions of the Termination of the Present War (Definition) Act 1918 with respect to:
Germany on 10 January 1920.
Austria on 16 July 1920.
Bulgaria on 9 August 1920.
Hungary on 26 July 1921.
Turkey on 6 August 1924.
Some war memorials date the end of the war as being when the Versailles Treaty was signed in 1919, which was when many of the troops serving abroad finally returned home; by contrast, most commemorations of the war's end concentrate on the armistice of 11 November 1918.
Peace treaties and national boundaries
After the war, there grew a certain amount of academic focus on the causes of war and on the elements that could make peace flourish. In part, these led to the institutionalization of peace and conflict studies, security studies and International Relations (IR) in general. The Paris Peace Conference imposed a series of peace treaties on the Central Powers officially ending the war. The 1919 Treaty of Versailles dealt with Germany and, building on Wilson's 14th point, brought into being the League of Nations on 28 June 1919.
The Central Powers had to acknowledge responsibility for "all the loss and damage to which the Allied and Associated Governments and their nationals have been subjected as a consequence of the war imposed upon them by" their aggression. In the Treaty of Versailles, this statement was Article 231. This article became known as the War Guilt clause as the majority of Germans felt humiliated and resentful. Overall the Germans felt they had been unjustly dealt with by what they called the "diktat of Versailles". German historian Hagen Schulze said the Treaty placed Germany "under legal sanctions, deprived of military power, economically ruined, and politically humiliated." Belgian historian Laurence Van Ypersele emphasises the central role played by memory of the war and the Versailles Treaty in German politics in the 1920s and 1930s:
Active denial of war guilt in Germany and German resentment at both reparations and continued Allied occupation of the Rhineland made widespread revision of the meaning and memory of the war problematic. The legend of the "stab in the back" and the wish to revise the "Versailles diktat", and the belief in an international threat aimed at the elimination of the German nation persisted at the heart of German politics. Even a man of peace such as [Gustav] Stresemann publicly rejected German guilt. As for the Nazis, they waved the banners of domestic treason and international conspiracy in an attempt to galvanise the German nation into a spirit of revenge. Like a Fascist Italy, Nazi Germany sought to redirect the memory of the war to the benefit of its own policies.
Meanwhile, new nations liberated from German rule viewed the treaty as recognition of wrongs committed against small nations by much larger aggressive neighbours.Austria-Hungary was partitioned into several successor states, largely but not entirely along ethnic lines. Apart from Austria and Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Italy, Poland, Romania and Yugoslavia received territories from the Dual Monarchy (the formerly separate and autonomous Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia was incorporated into Yugoslavia). The details were contained in the Saint-Germain-en-Laye and the Treaty of Trianon. As a result, Hungary lost 64% of its total population, decreasing from 20.9 million to 7.6 million and losing 31% (3.3 out of 10.7 million) of its ethnic Hungarians. According to the 1910 census, speakers of the Hungarian language included approximately 54% of the entire population of the Kingdom of Hungary. Within the country, numerous ethnic minorities were present: 16.1% Romanians, 10.5% Slovaks, 10.4% Germans, 2.5% Ruthenians, 2.5% Serbs and 8% others. Between 1920 and 1924, 354,000 Hungarians fled former Hungarian territories attached to Romania, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia.
The Russian Empire, which had withdrawn from the war in 1917 after the October Revolution, lost much of its western frontier as the newly independent nations of Estonia, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, and Poland were carved from it. Romania took control of Bessarabia in April 1918.
National identities
After 123 years, Poland re-emerged as an independent country. The Kingdom of Serbia and its dynasty, as a "minor Entente nation" and the country with the most casualties per capita, became the backbone of a new multinational state, the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, later renamed Yugoslavia. Czechoslovakia, combining the Kingdom of Bohemia with parts of the Kingdom of Hungary, became a new nation. Romania would unite all Romanian-speaking people under a single state leading to Greater Romania.
In the British Empire, the war unleashed new forms of nationalism. In Australia and New Zealand, the Battle of Gallipoli became known as those nations' "Baptism of Fire". It was the first major war in which the newly established countries fought, and it was one of the first times that Australian troops fought as Australians, not just subjects of the British Crown, and independent national identities for these nations took hold. Anzac Day, commemorating the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZAC), celebrates this defining moment.
In the aftermath of World War I, Greece fought against Turkish nationalists led by Mustafa Kemal, a war that eventually resulted in a massive population exchange between the two countries under the Treaty of Lausanne. According to various sources, several hundred thousand Greeks died during this period, which was tied in with the Greek genocide.
Health effects
Of the 60 million European military personnel who were mobilised from 1914 to 1918, 8 million were killed, 7 million were permanently disabled, and 15 million were seriously injured. Germany lost 15.1% of its active male population, Austria-Hungary lost 17.1%, and France lost 10.5%. France mobilised 7.8 million men, of which 1.4 million died and 3.2 million were injured. Among the soldiers mutilated and surviving in the trenches, approximately 15,000 sustained horrific facial injuries, causing them to undergo social stigma and marginalisation; they were called the gueules cassées. In Germany, civilian deaths were 474,000 higher than in peacetime, due in large part to food shortages and malnutrition that weakened resistance to disease. These excess deaths are estimated as 271,000 in 1918, plus another 71,000 in the first half of 1919 when the blockade was still in effect. By the end of the war, starvation caused by famine had killed approximately 100,000 people in Lebanon. Between 5and 10 million people died in the Russian famine of 1921. By 1922, there were between 4.5 million and 7million homeless children in Russia as a result of nearly a decade of devastation from World WarI, the Russian Civil War, and the subsequent famine of 1920–1922. Numerous anti-Soviet Russians fled the country after the Revolution; by the 1930s, the northern Chinese city of Harbin had 100,000 Russians. Thousands more emigrated to France, England, and the United States.
Diseases flourished in the chaotic wartime conditions. In 1914 alone, louse-borne epidemic typhus killed 200,000 in Serbia. From 1918 to 1922, Russia had about 25 million infections and 3million deaths from epidemic typhus. In 1923, 13 million Russians contracted malaria, a sharp increase from the pre-war years. Starting in early 1918, a major influenza epidemic known as Spanish flu spread around the world, accelerated by the movement of large number of soldiers, often crammed together in camps and transport ships with poor sanitation. Overall, the Spanish flu killed at least 17 million to 25 million people, including an estimated 2.64 million Europeans and as many as 675,000 Americans. Moreover, between 1915 and 1926, an epidemic of encephalitis lethargica spread around the world affecting nearly five million people.
War crimes
Rape of Belgium
The German invaders treated any resistance—such as sabotaging rail lines—as illegal and immoral, and shot the offenders and burned buildings in retaliation. In addition, they tended to suspect that most civilians were potential francs-tireurs (guerrillas) and, accordingly, took and sometimes killed hostages from among the civilian population. The German army executed over 6,500 French and Belgian civilians between August and November 1914, usually in near-random large-scale shootings of civilians ordered by junior German officers. The German Army destroyed 15,000–20,000 buildings—most famously the university library at Leuven—and generated a wave of refugees of over a million people. Over half the German regiments in Belgium were involved in major incidents. Thousands of workers were shipped to Germany to work in factories. British propaganda dramatising the Rape of Belgium attracted much attention in the United States, while Berlin said it was both lawful and necessary because of the threat of franc-tireurs like those in France in 1870. The British and French magnified the reports and disseminated them at home and in the United States, where they played a major role in dissolving support for Germany.
Austro-Hungarian war crimes in Serbia
Austria's propaganda machinery spread anti-Serb sentiment with the slogan "Serbien muss sterbien" (Serbia must die). During the war Austro-Hungarian officers in Serbia ordered troops to "exterminate and burn everything that is Serbian", and hangings and mass shootings were everyday occurrences. Austrian historian, Anton Holzer, wrote that the Austro-Hungarian army carried out "countless and systematic massacres…against the Serbian population. The soldiers invaded villages and rounded up unarmed men, women and children. They were either shot dead, bayoneted to death or hanged. The victims were locked into barns and burned alive. Women were sent up to the front lines and mass-raped. The inhabitants of whole villages were taken as hostages and humiliated and tortured."
A claim from a local spy that "traitors" were hiding in a certain house was enough to sentence the whole family to death by hanging. Priests were often hanged, under the accusation of spreading the spirit of treason among the people. Multiple source state that 30,000 Serbs, mostly civilians, were hanged by Austro-Hungarian forces in the first year of the war alone.
Blockade of Germany
After the war, the German government claimed that approximately 763,000 German civilians died from starvation and disease during the war because of the Allied blockade. An academic study done in 1928 put the death toll at 424,000. Germany protested that the Allies had used starvation as a weapon of war. According to the British judge and legal philosopher Patrick Devlin, "The War Orders given by the Admiralty on 26 August [1914] were clear enough. All food consigned to Germany through neutral ports was to be captured and all food consigned to Rotterdam was to be presumed consigned to Germany." According to Devlin, this was a serious breach of International Law, equivalent to German minelaying.
Chemical weapons in warfare
The German army was the first to successfully deploy chemical weapons during the Second Battle of Ypres (22 April – 25 May 1915), after German scientists working under the direction of Fritz Haber at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute developed a method to weaponize chlorine. The use of chemical weapons was sanctioned by the German High Command in an effort to force Allied soldiers out of their entrenched positions, complementing rather than supplanting more lethal conventional weapons. In time, chemical weapons were deployed by all major belligerents throughout the war, inflicting approximately 1.3 million casualties, but relatively few fatalities: About 90,000 in total. For example, there were an estimated 186,000 British chemical weapons casualties during the war (80% of which were the result of exposure to the vesicant sulfur mustard, introduced to the battlefield by the Germans in July 1917, which burns the skin at any point of contact and inflicts more severe lung damage than chlorine or phosgene), and up to one-third of American casualties were caused by them. The Russian Army reportedly suffered roughly 500,000 chemical weapon casualties in World WarI. The use of chemical weapons in warfare was in direct violation of the 1899 Hague Declaration Concerning Asphyxiating Gases and the 1907 Hague Convention on Land Warfare, which prohibited their use.
Genocides by the Ottoman Empire
The ethnic cleansing of the Ottoman Empire's Armenian population, including mass deportations and executions, during the final years of the Ottoman Empire is considered genocide. The Ottomans carried out organised and systematic massacres of the Armenian population at the beginning of the war and manipulated acts of Armenian resistance by portraying them as rebellions to justify further extermination. In early 1915, a number of Armenians volunteered to join the Russian forces and the Ottoman government used this as a pretext to issue the Tehcir Law (Law on Deportation), which authorised the deportation of Armenians from the Empire's eastern provinces to Syria between 1915 and 1918. The Armenians were intentionally marched to death and a number were attacked by Ottoman brigands. While an exact number of deaths is unknown, the International Association of Genocide Scholars estimates 1.5 million. The government of Turkey has consistently denied the genocide, arguing that those who died were victims of inter-ethnic fighting, famine, or disease during World WarI; these claims are rejected by most historians.
Other ethnic groups were similarly attacked by the Ottoman Empire during this period, including Assyrians and Greeks, and some scholars consider those events to be part of the same policy of extermination. At least 250,000 Assyrian Christians, about half of the population, and 350,000–750,000 Anatolian and Pontic Greeks were killed between 1915 and 1922.
Soldiers' experiences
Allied personnel was around 42,928,000 while Central personnel was near 25,248,000. The British soldiers of the war were initially volunteers but increasingly were conscripted into service. Surviving veterans, returning home, often found they could discuss their experiences only amongst themselves. Grouping together, they formed "veterans' associations" or "Legions". A small number of personal accounts of American veterans have been collected by the Library of Congress Veterans History Project.
Prisoners of war
About eight million soldiers surrendered and were held in POW camps during the war. All nations pledged to follow the Hague Conventions on fair treatment of prisoners of war, and the survival rate for POWs was generally much higher than that of combatants at the front.
25–31% of Russian losses (as a proportion of those captured, wounded, or killed) were to prisoner status, for Austria-Hungary 32%, for Italy 26%, for France 12%, for Germany 9%; for Britain 7%. Prisoners from the Allied armies totalled about 1.4 million (not including Russia, which lost 2.5–3.5 million soldiers as prisoners). From the Central Powers about 3.3 million soldiers became prisoners; most of them surrendered to Russians.
The most dangerous moment was the act of surrender when helpless soldiers were sometimes gunned down. Once prisoners reached a camp, conditions were, in general, satisfactory (and much better than in World WarII), thanks in part to the efforts of the International Red Cross and inspections by neutral nations. However, conditions were terrible in Russia. Starvation was common for prisoners and civilians alike. About 15–20% of the prisoners in Russia died, and in Central Powers imprisonment 8% of Russians. In Germany, food was scarce, but only 5% died.
The Ottoman Empire often treated POWs poorly. Some 11,800 British Empire soldiers, most of them Indians, became prisoners after the siege of Kut in Mesopotamia in April 1916; 4,250 died in captivity. Although many were in a poor condition when captured, Ottoman officers forced them to march to Anatolia. A survivor said: "We were driven along like beasts; to drop out was to die." The survivors were then forced to build a railway through the Taurus Mountains.
While the Allied prisoners of the Central Powers were quickly sent home at the end of active hostilities, the same treatment was not granted to Central Power prisoners of the Allies and Russia, many of whom served as forced labour, e.g., in France until 1920. They were released only after many approaches by the Red Cross to the Supreme War Council. German prisoners were still being held in Russia as late as 1924.
Military attachés and war correspondents
Military and civilian observers from every major power closely followed the course of the war. Many were able to report on events from a perspective somewhat akin to modern "embedded" positions within the opposing land and naval forces.
Conscription
Conscription was common in most European countries. However, it was controversial in English-speaking countries. It was especially unpopular among minority ethnic groups—especially the Irish Catholics in Ireland and Australia, and the French Catholics in Canada.
Canada
In Canada, the issue produced a major political crisis that permanently alienated the Francophones. It opened a political gap between French Canadians, who believed their true loyalty was to Canada and not to the British Empire, and members of the Anglophone majority, who saw the war as a duty to their British heritage.
Australia
Australia had a form of conscription at the outbreak of the war, as compulsory military training had been introduced in 1911. However, the Defence Act 1903 provided that unexempted males could be called upon only for home defence during times of war, not overseas service. Prime Minister Billy Hughes wished to amend the legislation to require conscripts to serve overseas, and held two non-binding referendums – one in 1916 and again in 1917 – in order to secure public support. Both were defeated by narrow margins, with farmers, the labour movement, the Catholic Church, and Irish-Australians combining to campaign for the "No" vote. The issue of conscription caused the 1916 Australian Labor Party split. Hughes and his supporters were expelled from the party, forming the National Labor Party and then the Nationalist Party. Despite the referendum results, the Nationalists won a landslide victory at the 1917 federal election.
Britain
In Britain, conscription resulted in the calling up of nearly every physically fit man in Britain—six of ten million eligible. Of these, about 750,000 died. Most deaths were those of young unmarried men; however, 160,000 wives lost husbands and 300,000 children lost fathers. Conscription during the First World War began when the British government passed the Military Service Act in 1916. The act specified that single men aged 18 to 40 years old were liable to be called up for military service unless they were widowed, with children, or ministers of a religion. There was a system of Military Service Tribunals to adjudicate upon claims for exemption upon the grounds of performing civilian work of national importance, domestic hardship, health, and conscientious objection. The law went through several changes before the war ended. Married men were exempt in the original Act, although this was changed in June 1916. The age limit was also eventually raised to 51 years old. Recognition of work of national importance also diminished, and in the last year of the war, there was some support for the conscription of clergy.
United States
In the United States, conscription began in 1917 and was generally well received, with a few pockets of opposition in isolated rural areas. The administration decided to rely primarily on conscription, rather than voluntary enlistment, to raise military manpower after only 73,000 volunteers enlisted out of the initial 1million target in the first six weeks of the war.
Austria-Hungary
Like all the armies of mainland Europe, Austria-Hungary relied on conscription to fill its ranks. Officer recruitment, however, was voluntary. The effect of this at the start of the war was that well over a quarter of the rank and file were Slavs, while more than 75% of the officers were ethnic Germans. This was much resented. The army has been described as being "run on colonial lines" and the Slav soldiers as "disaffected". Thus conscription contributed greatly to Austria's disastrous performance on the battlefield.
Economic effects
Macro- and micro-economic consequences devolved from the war. Families were altered by the departure of many men. With the death or absence of the primary wage earner, women were forced into the workforce in unprecedented numbers. At the same time, industry needed to replace the lost labourers sent to war. This aided the struggle for voting rights for women.
In all nations, the government's share of GDP increased, surpassing 50% in both Germany and France and nearly reaching that level in Britain. To pay for purchases in the United States, Britain cashed in its extensive investments in American railroads and then began borrowing heavily from Wall Street. President Wilson was on the verge of cutting off the loans in late 1916 but allowed a great increase in US government lending to the Allies. After 1919, the US demanded repayment of these loans. The repayments were, in part, funded by German reparations that, in turn, were supported by American loans to Germany. This circular system collapsed in 1931 and some loans were never repaid. Britain still owed the United States $4.4 billion of World WarI debt in 1934; the last installment was finally paid in 2015.
Britain turned to her colonies for help in obtaining essential war materials whose supply from traditional sources had become difficult. Geologists such as Albert Kitson were called on to find new resources of precious minerals in the African colonies. Kitson discovered important new deposits of manganese, used in munitions production, in the Gold Coast.
Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles (the so-called "war guilt" clause) stated Germany accepted responsibility for "all the loss and damage to which the Allied and Associated Governments and their nationals have been subjected as a consequence of the war imposed upon them by the aggression of Germany and her allies." It was worded as such to lay a legal basis for reparations, and a similar clause was inserted in the treaties with Austria and Hungary. However, neither of them interpreted it as an admission of war guilt." In 1921, the total reparation sum was placed at 132 billion gold marks. However, "Allied experts knew that Germany could not pay" this sum. The total sum was divided into three categories, with the third being "deliberately designed to be chimerical" and its "primary function was to mislead public opinion ... into believing the "total sum was being maintained." Thus, 50 billion gold marks (12.5 billion dollars) "represented the actual Allied assessment of German capacity to pay" and "therefore … represented the total German reparations" figure that had to be paid.
This figure could be paid in cash or in-kind (coal, timber, chemical dyes, etc.). In addition, some of the territory lost—via the treaty of Versailles—was credited towards the reparation figure as were other acts such as helping to restore the Library of Louvain. By 1929, the Great Depression arrived, causing political chaos throughout the world. In 1932 the payment of reparations was suspended by the international community, by which point Germany had paid only the equivalent of 20.598 billion gold marks in reparations. With the rise of Adolf Hitler, all bonds and loans that had been issued and taken out during the 1920s and early 1930s were cancelled. David Andelman notes "refusing to pay doesn't make an agreement null and void. The bonds, the agreement, still exist." Thus, following the Second World War, at the London Conference in 1953, Germany agreed to resume payment on the money borrowed. On 3October 2010, Germany made the final payment on these bonds.
The Australian prime minister, Billy Hughes, wrote to the British prime minister, David Lloyd George, "You have assured us that you cannot get better terms. I much regret it, and hope even now that some way may be found of securing agreement for demanding reparation commensurate with the tremendous sacrifices made by the British Empire and her Allies." Australia received £5,571,720 war reparations, but the direct cost of the war to Australia had been £376,993,052, and, by the mid-1930s, repatriation pensions, war gratuities, interest and sinking fund charges were £831,280,947. Of about 416,000 Australians who served, about 60,000 were killed and another 152,000 were wounded.
The war contributed to the evolution of the wristwatch from women's jewellery to a practical everyday item, replacing the pocketwatch, which requires a free hand to operate. Trench watches were designed for use by the military as pocket watches were not as effective for combat. Military funding of advancements in radio contributed to the post-war popularity of the medium.
Support and opposition for the war
Support
In the Balkans, Yugoslav nationalists such as the leader, Ante Trumbić, strongly supported the war, desiring the freedom of Yugoslavs from Austria-Hungary and other foreign powers and the creation of an independent Yugoslavia. The Yugoslav Committee, led by Trumbić, was formed in Paris on 30 April 1915 but shortly moved its office to London. In April 1918, the Rome Congress of Oppressed Nationalities met, including Czechoslovak, Italian, Polish, Transylvanian, and Yugoslav representatives who urged the Allies to support national self-determination for the peoples residing within Austria-Hungary.
In the Middle East, Arab nationalism soared in Ottoman territories in response to the rise of Turkish nationalism during the war, with Arab nationalist leaders advocating the creation of a pan-Arab state. In 1916, the Arab Revolt began in Ottoman-controlled territories of the Middle East in an effort to achieve independence.
In East Africa, Iyasu V of Ethiopia was supporting the Dervish state who were at war with the British in the Somaliland campaign. Von Syburg, the German envoy in Addis Ababa, said, "now the time has come for Ethiopia to regain the coast of the Red Sea driving the Italians home, to restore the Empire to its ancient size." The Ethiopian Empire was on the verge of entering World WarI on the side of the Central Powers before Iyasu's overthrow at the Battle of Segale due to Allied pressure on the Ethiopian aristocracy. Iyasu was accused of converting to Islam. According to Ethiopian historian Bahru Zewde, the evidence used to prove Iyasu's conversion was a doctored photo of Iyasu wearing a turban provided by the Allies. Some historians claim the British spy T. E. Lawrence forged the Iyasu photo.
A number of socialist parties initially supported the war when it began in August 1914. But European socialists split on national lines, with the concept of class conflict held by radical socialists such as Marxists and syndicalists being overborne by their patriotic support for the war. Once the war began, Austrian, British, French, German, and Russian socialists followed the rising nationalist current by supporting their countries' intervention in the war.
Italian nationalism was stirred by the outbreak of the war and was initially strongly supported by a variety of political factions. One of the most prominent and popular Italian nationalist supporters of the war was Gabriele D'Annunzio, who promoted Italian irredentism and helped sway the Italian public to support intervention in the war. The Italian Liberal Party, under the leadership of Paolo Boselli, promoted intervention in the war on the side of the Allies and used the Dante Alighieri Society to promote Italian nationalism. Italian socialists were divided on whether to support the war or oppose it; some were militant supporters of the war, including Benito Mussolini and Leonida Bissolati. However, the Italian Socialist Party decided to oppose the war after anti-militarist protestors were killed, resulting in a general strike called Red Week. The Italian Socialist Party purged itself of pro-war nationalist members, including Mussolini. Mussolini, a syndicalist who supported the war on grounds of irredentist claims on Italian-populated regions of Austria-Hungary, formed the pro-interventionist Il Popolo d'Italia and the Fasci Rivoluzionario d'Azione Internazionalista ("Revolutionary Fasci for International Action") in October 1914 that later developed into the Fasci Italiani di Combattimento in 1919, the origin of fascism. Mussolini's nationalism enabled him to raise funds from Ansaldo (an armaments firm) and other companies to create Il Popolo d'Italia to convince socialists and revolutionaries to support the war.
Patriotic Funds
On both sides there was large scale fundraising for soldiers' welfare, their dependents and for those injured. The Nail Men were a German example. Around the British empire there were many Patriotic Funds, including the Royal Patriotic Fund Corporation, Canadian Patriotic Fund, Queensland Patriotic Fund and, by 1919, there were 983 funds in New Zealand. At the start of the next world war the New Zealand funds were reformed, having been criticised as overlapping, wasteful and abused, but 11 were still functioning in 2002.
Opposition
Many countries jailed those who spoke out against the conflict. These included Eugene Debs in the United States and Bertrand Russell in Britain. In the US, the Espionage Act of 1917 and Sedition Act of 1918 made it a federal crime to oppose military recruitment or make any statements deemed "disloyal". Publications at all critical of the government were removed from circulation by postal censors, and many served long prison sentences for statements of fact deemed unpatriotic.
A number of nationalists opposed intervention, particularly within states that the nationalists were hostile to. Although the vast majority of Irish people consented to participate in the war in 1914 and 1915, a minority of advanced Irish nationalists staunchly opposed taking part. The war began amid the Home Rule crisis in Ireland that had resurfaced in 1912, and by July 1914 there was a serious possibility of an outbreak of civil war in Ireland. Irish nationalists and Marxists attempted to pursue Irish independence, culminating in the Easter Rising of 1916, with Germany sending 20,000 rifles to Ireland to stir unrest in Britain. The UK government placed Ireland under martial law in response to the Easter Rising, though once the immediate threat of revolution had dissipated, the authorities did try to make concessions to nationalist feeling. However, opposition to involvement in the war increased in Ireland, resulting in the Conscription Crisis of 1918.
Other opposition came from conscientious objectors—some socialist, some religious—who refused to fight. In Britain, 16,000 people asked for conscientious objector status. Some of them, most notably prominent peace activist Stephen Hobhouse, refused both military and alternative service. Many suffered years of prison, including solitary confinement and bread and water diets. Even after the war, in Britain many job advertisements were marked "No conscientious objectors need apply".
On 1–4 May 1917, about 100,000 workers and soldiers of Petrograd, and after them, the workers and soldiers of other Russian cities, led by the Bolsheviks, demonstrated under banners reading "Down with the war!" and "all power to the soviets!" The mass demonstrations resulted in a crisis for the Russian Provisional Government. In Milan, in May 1917, Bolshevik revolutionaries organised and engaged in rioting calling for an end to the war, and managed to close down factories and stop public transportation. The Italian army was forced to enter Milan with tanks and machine guns to face Bolsheviks and anarchists, who fought violently until 23 May when the army gained control of the city. Almost 50 people (including three Italian soldiers) were killed and over 800 people arrested.
Technology
Ground warfare
World War I began as a clash of 20th-century technology and 19th-century tactics, with the inevitably large ensuing casualties. By the end of 1917, however, the major armies, now numbering millions of men, had modernised and were making use of telephone, wireless communication, armoured cars, tanks (especially with the advent of the first prototype tank, Little Willie), and aircraft.
Artillery also underwent a revolution. In 1914, cannons were positioned in the front line and fired directly at their targets. By 1917, indirect fire with guns (as well as mortars and even machine guns) was commonplace, using new techniques for spotting and ranging, notably, aircraft and the often overlooked field telephone.
Germany was far ahead of the Allies in using heavy indirect fire. The German Army employed and howitzers in 1914, when typical French and British guns were only and . The British had a 6-inch (152 mm) howitzer, but it was so heavy it had to be hauled to the field in pieces and assembled. The Germans also fielded Austrian and guns and, even at the beginning of the war, had inventories of various calibres of Minenwerfer, which were ideally suited for trench warfare.
Much of the combat involved trench warfare, in which hundreds often died for each metre gained. Many of the deadliest battles in history occurred during World WarI. Such battles include Ypres, the Marne, Cambrai, the Somme, Verdun, and Gallipoli. The Germans employed the Haber process of nitrogen fixation to provide their forces with a constant supply of gunpowder despite the British naval blockade. Artillery was responsible for the largest number of casualties and consumed vast quantities of explosives.
The widespread use of chemical warfare was a distinguishing feature of the conflict. Gases used included chlorine, mustard gas and phosgene. Relatively few war casualties were caused by gas, as effective countermeasures to gas attacks were quickly created, such as gas masks. The use of chemical warfare and small-scale strategic bombing (as opposed to tactical bombing) were both outlawed by the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907, and both proved to be of limited effectiveness, though they captured the public imagination.
Naval
Germany deployed U-boats (submarines) after the war began. Alternating between restricted and unrestricted submarine warfare in the Atlantic, the Imperial German Navy employed them to deprive the British Isles of vital supplies. The deaths of British merchant sailors and the seeming invulnerability of U-boats led to the development of depth charges (1916), hydrophones (sonar, 1917), blimps, hunter-killer submarines (HMS R-1, 1917), forward-throwing anti-submarine weapons, and dipping hydrophones (the latter two both abandoned in 1918). To extend their operations, the Germans proposed supply submarines (1916). Most of these would be forgotten in the interwar period until World WarII revived the need.
Aviation
Fixed-wing aircraft were first used militarily by the Italians in Libya on 23 October 1911 during the Italo-Turkish War for reconnaissance, soon followed by the dropping of grenades and aerial photography the next year. By 1914, their military utility was obvious. They were initially used for reconnaissance and ground attack. To shoot down enemy planes, anti-aircraft guns and fighter aircraft were developed. Strategic bombers were created, principally by the Germans and British, though the former used Zeppelins as well. Towards the end of the conflict, aircraft carriers were used for the first time, with HMS Furious launching Sopwith Camels in a raid to destroy the Zeppelin hangars at Tønder in 1918.
Manned observation balloons, floating high above the trenches, were used as stationary reconnaissance platforms, reporting enemy movements and directing artillery. Balloons commonly had a crew of two, equipped with parachutes, so that if there was an enemy air attack the crew could parachute to safety. At the time, parachutes were too heavy to be used by pilots of aircraft (with their marginal power output), and smaller versions were not developed until the end of the war; they were also opposed by the British leadership, who feared they might promote cowardice.
Recognised for their value as observation platforms, balloons were important targets for enemy aircraft. To defend them against air attack, they were heavily protected by anti-aircraft guns and patrolled by friendly aircraft; to attack them, unusual weapons such as air-to-air rockets were tried. Thus, the reconnaissance value of blimps and balloons contributed to the development of air-to-air combat between all types of aircraft, and to the trench stalemate, because it was impossible to move large numbers of troops undetected. The Germans conducted air raids on England during 1915 and 1916 with airships, hoping to damage British morale and cause aircraft to be diverted from the front lines, and indeed the resulting panic led to the diversion of several squadrons of fighters from France.
Diplomacy
The non-military diplomatic and propaganda interactions among the nations were designed to build support for the cause or to undermine support for the enemy. For the most part, wartime diplomacy focused on five issues: propaganda campaigns; defining and redefining the war goals, which became harsher as the war went on; luring neutral nations (Italy, Ottoman Empire, Bulgaria, Romania) into the coalition by offering slices of enemy territory; and encouragement by the Allies of nationalistic minority movements inside the Central Powers, especially among Czechs, Poles, and Arabs. In addition, there were multiple peace proposals coming from neutrals, or one side or the other; none of them progressed very far.
Legacy and memory
The first tentative efforts to comprehend the meaning and consequences of modern warfare began during the initial phases of the war, and this process continued throughout and after the end of hostilities, and is still underway, more than a century later. As late as 2007, signs warning visitors to keep off certain paths at battlefield sites like Verdun and Somme remained in place as unexploded ordnance continued to pose a danger to farmers living near former battlegrounds. In France and Belgium locals who discover caches of unexploded munitions are assisted by weapons disposal units. In some places, plant life has still not returned to normal.
Historiography
Teaching World War I has presented special challenges. When compared with World War II, the First World War is often thought to be "a wrong war fought for the wrong reasons". It lacks the metanarrative of good versus evil that characterizes the Second World War. Lacking recognizable heroes and villains, it is often taught thematically, invoking tropes like the wastefulness of war, the folly of generals and the innocence of soldiers. The complexity of the conflict is mostly obscured by these oversimplifications. George Kennan referred to the war as the "seminal catastrophe of the 20th century".
Historian Heather Jones argues that the historiography has been reinvigorated by the cultural turn in recent years. Scholars have raised entirely new questions regarding military occupation, radicalisation of politics, race, medical science, gender and mental health. Furthermore, new research has revised our understanding of five major topics that historians have long debated: Why the war began, why the Allies won, whether generals were responsible for high casualty rates, how the soldiers endured the horrors of trench warfare, and to what extent the civilian homefront accepted and endorsed the war effort.
Memorials
Memorials were erected in thousands of villages and towns. Close to battlefields, those buried in improvised burial grounds were gradually moved to formal graveyards under the care of organisations such as the Commonwealth War Graves Commission, the American Battle Monuments Commission, the German War Graves Commission, and Le Souvenir français. Many of these graveyards also have central monuments to the missing or unidentified dead, such as the Menin Gate Memorial to the Missing and the Thiepval Memorial to the Missing of the Somme.
In 1915, John McCrae, a Canadian army doctor, wrote the poem In Flanders Fields as a salute to those who perished in the Great War. Published in Punch on 8December 1915, it is still recited today, especially on Remembrance Day and Memorial Day.
National World War I Museum and Memorial in Kansas City, Missouri, is a memorial dedicated to all Americans who served in World WarI. The Liberty Memorial was dedicated on 1November 1921, when the supreme Allied commanders spoke to a crowd of more than 100,000 people.
The UK Government has budgeted substantial resources to the commemoration of the war during the period 2014 to 2018. The lead body is the Imperial War Museum. On 3August 2014, French President François Hollande and German President Joachim Gauck together marked the centenary of Germany's declaration of war on France by laying the first stone of a memorial in Vieil Armand, known in German as Hartmannswillerkopf, for French and German soldiers killed in the war. During the Armistice centenary commemorations, French President Emmanuel Macron and German Chancellor Angela Merkel visited the site of the signing of the Armistice of Compiègne and unveiled a plaque to reconciliation.
Cultural memory
World War I had a lasting impact on collective memory. It was seen by many in Britain as signalling the end of an era of stability stretching back to the Victorian period, and across Europe many regarded it as a watershed. Historian Samuel Hynes explained:
This has become the most common perception of World War I, perpetuated by the art, cinema, poems, and stories published subsequently. Films such as All Quiet on the Western Front, Paths of Glory and King and Country have perpetuated the idea, while war-time films including Camrades, Poppies of Flanders, and Shoulder Arms indicate that the most contemporary views of the war were overall far more positive. Likewise, the art of Paul Nash, John Nash, Christopher Nevinson, and Henry Tonks in Britain painted a negative view of the conflict in keeping with the growing perception, while popular war-time artists such as Muirhead Bone painted more serene and pleasant interpretations subsequently rejected as inaccurate. Several historians like John Terraine, Niall Ferguson and Gary Sheffield have challenged these interpretations as partial and polemical views:
These beliefs did not become widely shared because they offered the only accurate interpretation of wartime events. In every respect, the war was much more complicated than they suggest. In recent years, historians have argued persuasively against almost every popular cliché of World WarI. It has been pointed out that, although the losses were devastating, their greatest impact was socially and geographically limited. The many emotions other than horror experienced by soldiers in and out of the front line, including comradeship, boredom, and even enjoyment, have been recognised. The war is not now seen as a 'fight about nothing', but as a war of ideals, a struggle between aggressive militarism and more or less liberal democracy. It has been acknowledged that British generals were often capable men facing difficult challenges and that it was under their command that the British army played a major part in the defeat of the Germans in 1918: a great forgotten victory.
Though these views have been discounted as "myths", they are common. They have dynamically changed according to contemporary influences, reflecting in the 1950s perceptions of the war as "aimless" following the contrasting Second World War and emphasising conflict within the ranks during times of class conflict in the 1960s. The majority of additions to the contrary are often rejected.
Writers such as Ernest Hemingway wrote many stories on the experiences of veterans after the war, such as the short story Soldier's Home, about young veteran Harold Krebs trying to integrate back into society.
Social trauma
The social trauma caused by unprecedented rates of casualties manifested itself in different ways, which have been the subject of subsequent historical debate. Over 8 million Europeans died in the war. Millions suffered permanent disabilities. The war gave birth to fascism and Bolshevism and destroyed the dynasties that had ruled the Ottoman, Habsburg, Russian and German Empires.
The optimism of la belle époque was destroyed, and those who had fought in the war were referred to as the Lost Generation. For years afterward, people mourned the dead, the missing, and the many disabled. Many soldiers returned with severe trauma, suffering from shell shock (also called neurasthenia, a condition related to post-traumatic stress disorder). Many more returned home with few after-effects; however, their silence about the war contributed to the conflict's growing mythological status. Though many participants did not share in the experiences of combat or spend any significant time at the front, or had positive memories of their service, the images of suffering and trauma became the widely shared perception. Such historians as Dan Todman, Paul Fussell, and Samuel Heyns have all published works since the 1990s arguing that these common perceptions of the war are factually incorrect.
Discontent in Germany and Austria
The rise of Nazism and fascism included a revival of the nationalist spirit and a rejection of many post-war changes. Similarly, the popularity of the stab-in-the-back legend (German: Dolchstoßlegende) was a testament to the psychological state of defeated Germany and was a rejection of responsibility for the conflict. This conspiracy theory of the betrayal of the German war effort by Jews became common, and the German populace came to see themselves as victims. The widespread acceptance of the "stab-in-the-back" theory delegitimised the Weimar government and destabilised the system, opening it to extremes of right and left. The same occurred in Austria which did not consider itself responsible for the outbreak of the war and claimed not to have suffered a military defeat.
Communist and fascist movements around Europe drew strength from this theory and enjoyed a new level of popularity. These feelings were most pronounced in areas directly or harshly affected by the war. Adolf Hitler was able to gain popularity by using German discontent with the still controversial Treaty of Versailles. World WarII was in part a continuation of the power struggle never fully resolved by World WarI. Furthermore, it was common for Germans in the 1930s to justify acts of aggression due to perceived injustices imposed by the victors of World WarI. American historian William Rubinstein wrote that:
The 'Age of Totalitarianism' included nearly all the infamous examples of genocide in modern history, headed by the Jewish Holocaust, but also comprising the mass murders and purges of the Communist world, other mass killings carried out by Nazi Germany and its allies, and also the Armenian Genocide of 1915. All these slaughters, it is argued here, had a common origin, the collapse of the elite structure and normal modes of government of much of central, eastern and southern Europe as a result of World WarI, without which surely neither Communism nor Fascism would have existed except in the minds of unknown agitators and crackpots.
See also
Lists of World War I topics
List of military engagements of World War I
Outline of World War I
World War I casualties
World war
Footnotes
References
Bibliography
Deals with technical developments, including the first dipping hydrophones
External links
Links to other WWI Sites, worldwide links from Brigham Young U.
The World War One Document Archive, from Brigham Young U.
International Encyclopedia of the First World War
Records on the outbreak of World War I from the UK Parliamentary Collections
The Heritage of the Great War / First World War. Graphic color photos, pictures and music
A multimedia history of World War I
European Newspapers from the start of the First World War and the end of the war
WWI Films on the European Film Gateway
The British Pathé WW1 Film Archive
World War I British press photograph collection – A sampling of images distributed by the British government during the war to diplomats overseas, from the UBC Library Digital Collections
Personal accounts of American World War I veterans, Veterans History Project, Library of Congress.
Library guides
National Library of New Zealand
State Library of New South Wales
US Library of Congress
Indiana University Bloomington
New York University
University of Alberta
California State Library, California History Room. Collection: California. State Council of Defense. California War History Committee. Records of Californians who served in World War I, 1918–1922.
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War
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1970%2024%20Hours%20of%20Le%20Mans
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1970 24 Hours of Le Mans
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The 1970 24 Hours of Le Mans was the 38th Grand Prix of Endurance and took place on 13 and 14 June 1970. It was the 8th stage of the 1970 World Sportscar Championship season.
Once again Porsche had a dominant year in the championship and arrived as strong favourites to get their first outright victory. Their main opposition would come from Ferrari, now armed with the homologated 512S model. Fully nine 917s and eleven 512s from works-supported teams and privateers were entered. However heavy rain through most of the race neutralised much of their power and contributed to a number of serious accidents. In a race of heavy attrition where only seven cars were classified as finishers it was won by race veteran Hans Herrmann and co-driver Richard ‘Dickie’ Attwood.
For Herrmann, a veteran of 13 Le Mans, it was particularly sweet having lost by the narrowest margin the previous year. All Porsche's main challengers (Ferrari, Matra, Alfa Romeo) were beaten in the first half of the race. Porsche's dominance was complete – winning all three prizes and taking all the class-wins. The only dark spot was Ickx's accident at the Ford Chicane during the night which killed a track marshal.
This was the year that Hollywood came to Le Mans. The race provided the background for the Steve McQueen movie Le Mans. Much of the racing footage of the motion picture was taken from on board a competing car, as the #29 Porsche 908/02 had been fitted with movie cameras.
Regulations
After only four years, the CSI (Commission Sportive Internationale - the FIA’s regulations body) overhauled its FIA Appendix J, redefining again the motorsport categories. GT cars were now extended to Group 3 (minimum production of 1000 cars) and Group 4 for ‘Special GT cars’ (min. =500). The former Group 4 for Sports Cars became the new Group 5 (min. = 25) while Prototypes stayed as Group 6. The 5-litre engine limit on the Sports Cars remained – allowing the Porsche 917 and new Ferrari 512 to race, although they were on notice that this would fall to a 3-litre limit for the start of the 1972 season.
The Automobile Club de l'Ouest (ACO) was now fully aligned with the FIA's technical regulations. They also made changes to its race regulations. Three drivers were now permitted in each car, and a driver was allowed to switch (once) to another car of the same make during the race. Maximum drive-times were set at 14 hours, in up to 240 minutes at a time with at least a one-hour break between shifts. Night-time, when headlights had to be used, was defined as between 21:00 & 04:30 and luminous car numbers were introduced. Mechanical restrictions remained – a 25-lap distance between oil replenishment and only 4 crew could work on a car on the pit-apron. Finally, every car had to complete the final lap within fifteen minutes to be classified. The most significant change was the abolition of the famous “Le Mans start”: running across the track to get in and start the car. This year the cars would still line up in echelon however the drivers would start in the cars fully strapped in (a full race harness now became compulsory). A line of four flagmen would now simultaneously wave le tricolore when drivers would start their cars and pull away.
Another 12 km of Armco was added to the track completing the project started the previous year to encircle the track with safety barriers. Also, the Esses and Tertre Rouge corners were widened and resurfaced.
Entries
This year there were 96 entries for the race, to which the ACO accepted 62 for qualifying. In the end 57 arrived for scrutineering in a very even split between the Prototypes, Sports and GT cars. Nearly a third were just the very powerful Porsche 917 or Ferrari 512 strongly increasing public interest. Significant absentees this year were Ford and Alpine.
With such a strong entry list the ACO decided it could drop the smaller 1.3- and 1.6-litre classes for the first time post-war.
After an inauspicious debut in 1969, extensive work was done by Porsche to fix the stability and reliability of the 917. After being beaten by a supposedly obsolete car, Porsche contracted John Wyer and his Gulf-J.W. Automotive Team to become the official works-supported team and development partner. During tests in Zeltweg, Wyer's engineer John Horsmann had the idea to increase downforce at the expense of drag, and so a new short tail was moulded with aluminium sheets taped together. This worked well as the new tail gave the 917 better stability. The new version was called the 917K (kurzheck or ‘short-tail’). A new aerodynamic version was developed for Le Mans with support from the external consultant Robert Choulet. The 917 L (langheck) featured a spectacular new "long tail" body with a wing, which had very low drag. They were dubbed “batmobiles” by the media. Two engines were available: the 4.5-litre flat-12 now capable of 550 bhp, and a new 4.9-litre version (590 bhp). Most drivers preferred driving the K even though it gave away as much as 25 km/h (15 mph) in top speed. The langheck was less stable and needed far more concentration to keep on the track.
Porsche's works drivers had been inherited by the JWA team who fielded three 917Ks. The lead car was driven by Jo Siffert and Brian Redman who had already won two rounds in the championship. Pedro Rodriguez (Le Mans winner in 1968 for Wyer) and Leo Kinnunen, in the second car, had won three races. Brits David Hobbs and Mike Hailwood, who had driven Wyer's Ford the previous year, had the third car with a 4.5-litre engine. A fourth JWA 917K entry was not accepted - the drivers were to have been actor Steve McQueen and reigning F1 world champion Jackie Stewart.
As Ford had done several years earlier, Porsche also supported a rival, second works team based in Austria (much to Wyer's surprise). The new Porsche Salzburg was run by Louise Piëch, sister of Ferry Porsche and mother of company Technical Director Ferdinand Piëch. Vic Elford/Kurt Ahrens ran the 4.9-litre 917L, while Swiss-pairing Rico Steinemann/Dieter Spoerry and veterans Hans Herrmann/Richard Attwood had 4.5-litre Ks.
The Martini Racing customer team also gained some support from Porsche AG, being the other runner of a 917L for Gérard Larrousse/ Willi Kauhsen. The spectacular livery of this car was an elaborate scheme of whirls and swoops of green on a blue background. The car gained the nickname of the Hippie Car or the Psychedelic Porsche from the team and the media and started the Le Mans tradition of the “art-car” special. The final 917 was from British privateer David Piper. With Gijs van Lennep as co-driver, they had already proven very competitive through the championship year.
In June 1969, Enzo Ferrari had sold half of his company to Fiat and that money was able to finance, like Porsche, the construction of the required 25 cars of its new Group 5 car: the Ferrari 512S. Based on the 612, Ferrari's Group 7 Can-Am car, it had a 5.0L V12 developing 550 bhp. After a victory at Sebring the car had improved reliability and an aerodynamic long-tail version (coda lunga) was built. Eight such cars were prepared for Le Mans. Four were in the works team, led by their two F1 drivers Jacky Ickx and Clay Regazzoni, paired with hill-climb specialist Peter Schetty and Arturo Merzario respectively. Ickx was carrying an injury after escaping from a burning car at the Spanish GP and then suffering a fuel leak at Spa just two weeks ago. In the other cars were Le Mans winner Nino Vaccarella with Ignazio Giunti and young F1 drivers Derek Bell and Ronnie Peterson. Bell replaced Jean Guichet who had been injured in a road accident and missing his first Le Mans since 1959.
Ferrari customer teams were also equipped with the 512S. Scuderia Filipinetti had three cars led by experienced drivers. Mike Parkes/Herbert Müller and Swedes Jo Bonnier/Reine Wisell in longtails; and Italians Gianpiero Moretti/Corrado Manfredini (and his Scuderia Picchio Rosso). The North American Racing Team (NART) had two: a longtail driven by Americans Sam Posey/Ronnie Bucknum, and a standard for Helmut Kelleners/Georg Loos (and his Gelo Racing Team). Former regulars Ecurie Francorchamps also entered a longtail, returning after a four-year absence. There was also an entry for the new Spanish Escuderia Montjuich team who ran the open-top “spyder” variant.
The only other cars in the big Group 5 class were a pair of Lola T70s. However, even with the 5-litre Chevrolet developing almost 500 bhp, they were no longer any match for the Porsches and Ferraris.
This year the 3-litre Prototypes were not expected to be able to keep up with the power of the big Porsche and Ferraris. Matra had kept away from the championship to concentrate on winning Le Mans. However, development of the new MS660 had been difficult and only one was ready - entrusted to works drivers Henri Pescarolo and Jean-Pierre Beltoise. Despite using an upgraded F1 V12-engine (detuned back to 420 bhp) it proved slower than the two MS650s entered. The long-tail MS650 was driven by Jack Brabham/François Cevert, while Patrick Depailler/Jean-Pierre Jabouille had a short-tail version.
Autodelta, the racing division of Alfa Romeo, returned to Le Mans after a difficult year. They had the latest iteration of the T33. The 3-litre V8 developed 400 bhp and its longtail format gave it a bump of 25 km/h (15 mph). The team brought four cars and had a strong driver line-up enticing Rolf Stommelen (from Porsche) and ‘Nanni’ Galli (from Matra). The others had Piers Courage/Andrea de Adamich, Masten Gregory/Toine Hezemans and Carlo Facetti/Teodoro Zeccoli.
Porsche had their 908/02 spyders that had been very successful the previous year. Martini ran two cars for Lins/Marko and Spoerry/de Cortanze. The other car was entered by Solar Productions, which was actor Steve McQueen’s film production company. Driven by Herbert Linge/Jonathan Williams it was fitted with cameras to record race footage for McQueen’s film. NART had bought the 312P works cars from Ferrari and two were entered in the Prototype category. Healey returned with its prototype for a third (and final) time, now as an open-top spyder, and with a bigger Repco 3-litre V8. It would be driven by Roger Enever and Andrew Hedges.
In the smaller-engine categories, there was a new manufacturer present. French racing-driver turned car-maker Guy Ligier had his new JS-1 prototype, with a 1.8-litre Ford-Cosworth FVC engine that put out 240 bhp. Ligier drove it himself alongside Jean-Claude Andruet. As well as a pair of privateer Porsche 910s there were also three Chevron B16s each with a different engine, the most interesting of which was the innovative Mazda Wankel-rotary.
The GT category was once again dominated by privateer Porsche 911s. Many had been uprated with the new 2.2-litre engine. There was also a new Porsche model, the 914/6. The 1991cc flat-6 engine put out 100 bhp and the car was 40kg lighter than the rival 911s. Entered by “Toto” Veuillet's French team Sonauto, it was driven by Guy Chasseuil/Claude Ballot-Léna. Veuillet himself, as a driver, had given Porsche their first ever class-win at Le Mans back in 1951.
Rally-specialist Henri Greder supplied the two Chevrolet Corvettes, the biggest cars in the entry list. Even though General Motors officially had a long-standing ban on racing and supporting privateers, he had a new convertible and had sold his previous car to the Claude Aubriet's Ecurie Léopard. The 7-litre engines now put out 560 bhp and had a top speed of 305 km/h (190 mph).
Practice
As expected the longtail 917s were extremely fast. But it was Pedro Rodriguez who set the initial pace in the Wyer 917K breaking Stommelen's lap record by a second with a 3:21.9. Though not as quick as the longtails, the Ferraris were still faster than the 917Ks and Nino Vaccarella caused quite a stir on the first night of practise when he clocked the fastest time of 3:20.0. Vic Elford then went out on Thursday and put in a 3:19.8, fractionally faster than Vaccarella to take the pole position.
The Wyer Porsches were third and fifth, split by Merzario's Ferrari, then there was a row of Ferraris: the other two works cars of Ickx and Bell, and the two Filipinetti cars of Parkes and Wisell. Slowest of the 917 qualifiers was the third Porsche-Salzburg car of Herrmann/Attwood, doing a 3:32.6 after struggling with brake-issues, to start 15th .
Just ahead of it, in 14th, was the fastest of the Prototypes – the Matra of Brabham/Cevert (3:32.2), ahead of Stommelen's Alfa Romeo in 17th. Yet, after a year of development the Matras were disappointing – coming in three seconds slower than the previous year's 3-litre Porsches. Best of the 2-litres was the new Ligier (4:03.4), and quickest GT was the Léopard Corvette (4:07.2)
The biggest moment of the practice sessions was on Wednesday night when Dieter Spoerry's 908 and Jack Brabham's Matra arrived at the Ford Chicane at the same time. Spoerry's car disintegrated and burst into flames, but the driver got out only lightly injured. However, badly shaken from the experience and an injured leg, he subsequently failed his medical test and the two cars he was cross-entered in (the third Salzburg 917 and the wrecked Martini 908) were withdrawn.
A disconcerting feature of the Wednesday practice was the extreme number of punctures – the JWA team alone had ten, and Ferrari had six. JWA's team manager David Yorke attributed it to the excessive number of bolts and pieces left by the Armco crews the day before. The wide, soft tyres used and hot summer temperatures may also have contributed, but the circuit was swept before the Thursday practice sessions.
Race
Start
After a very hot week, Friday afternoon brought thunderstorms and then rain overnight. Although further storms were predicted by the time of the race-start the weather was overcast but dry. Most cars that were lined up with wet-tyres were quickly changed back to slicks for the start.
Following the bad (including one fatal) accidents at the start of the previous two years, the ACO finally abolished the traditional “Le Mans start”. This year the cars were lined up in echelon (but a shallower angle to allow easier getaway) with the drivers fully belted and strapped in for the start. From 1971 onwards, races would begin with rolling starts. Reverting this year back to its normal start time of 4pm, the guest starter this year was Dr Ferry Porsche, marking Porsche's 20th year of participation. Everyone got away smoothly and at the end of the first lap Elford led Siffert and Rodriguez, then the Ferraris of Merzario and Vaccarella. They started lapping tail-enders after only three laps.
But after only seven laps Vaccarella's Ferrari was in the pits with its crankshaft broken, and was out. It was followed soon after by the Gregory/Hezemans Alfa, with its engine wrecked, and then the Alfa was followed to retirement on the 23rd lap, after the first pitstops, by the JWA 917K of Pedro Rodríguez, who stopped at Arnage with a blown engine from cooling fan failure. After Elford had set a new lap record, he and Siffert established a clear margin at the front of the field and settled into a routine of alternating the lead.
At 5.30pm the rain finally arrived. Soon after, Reine Wisell, barely able to see through his Ferrari's oil-streaked windscreen had slowed on the side of the road approaching the very fast and tricky Maison Blanche (English: White House) corner. Suddenly four duelling Ferraris arrived at speed: Posey in the NART car raced past. Unsighted, Regazzoni smashed into Wisell followed by the Parkes car that caught fire. Le Mans debutante Derek Bell had managed to swerve past Wisell but the excessive gearbox change-downs over-revved his engine and the car broke half a lap later on the Mulsanne Straight. Ferrari had four of its leading contenders taken out in one hit, but the only injury was to Parkes with minor burns to his leg.
A few laps later, the rain triggered another accident when Carlo Facetti spun his Alfa at Dunlop Curve, hitting the barriers. He got out and was running back to the pits to get two replacement wheels when Mike Hailwood, on his last lap on slicks in the third Wyer Porsche, crashed into the parked Alfa Romeo, leaving just three of the top 10 qualifiers running.
Night
The rain became torrential around 8pm as dusk fell, sending many cars skating. Helmut Kelleners hit the barriers at the Esses, avoiding a spinning car. Privateer David Piper's co-driver Gijs van Lennep had qualified 11th and with the attrition they had moved up to 3rd by 10pm when Piper spun it in the Esses, nudging the barrier and damaging the front suspension. By a strange coincidence, all three Matras retired with leaking piston rings within ten laps of each other, when Brabham and Cevert had been leading the prototypes, and running as high as 7th. The French challenge had dissolved within four hours.
It was now that the skill of Jacky Ickx came to the fore. While others proceeded with caution he made up time, bringing the Ferrari up to third despite his body's discomfort. When the Elford/Ahrens Porsche had to pit with wayward handling (that was traced to a slow puncture, and dropping them to 5th) he moved up to second at midnight. Soon afterward, van Lennep was motoring down the Mulsanne Straight in his 917 at close to 290 km/h when a tyre blew out, possibly due to the earlier damage. His skill kept it on the ground and off the wall but the chassis damage was too severe to continue. The de Adamich/Courage Alfa Romeo was leading the Prototypes, in 6th, until a long pit stop before midnight delayed it. On its next shift Courage ran out of fuel approaching the pits and had to get out and push it. When it arrived it had five people pushing and needed a jump-start to resume – all illegal in the regulations, but the officials either could not or did not see it.
At 1.45am Ickx's epic charge came to a tragic end. He was trying to unlap himself from Siffert when the Ferrari's rear brakes failed approaching the Ford chicane. He crashed into a sodden sandbank and was launched over it, bursting into flame and killing track marshal Jacques Argoud and injuring another. Ickx himself was unharmed. With all 4 works Ferraris out, the Ferrari challenge to Porsche was effectively over.
The Siffert/Redman JWA Porsche continued to run strongly, building up a huge 10-lap lead by 2am. That was until Siffert accidentally missed a gear-change lapping back-markers and broke the engine. So at half-time, the lead had passed to the Porsche-Salzburg's third car of Herrmann/Attwood (176 laps) that had been lapping consistently and moving up steadily from its lowly grid position of 15th. Martini's psychedelic longtail was second, three laps back. But soon after water got into electrics and it lost time, dropping two places. Elford/Ahrens had pushed back up to 3rd (172 laps) and the Lins/Marko 908 in 4th (171 laps) had a handy 5-lap lead in the Group 6 category over Stommelen's Alfa Romeo in 5th.
Morning
At dawn the weather turned from heavy rain to a storm. At 6am, after 16 hours, Porsches still held the top four places: Herrmann/Attwood leading with the Elford/Ahrens ‘longtail’ back up to second, the Lins/Marko 908 in third (and first prototype) and the Larrousse/Kauhsen Martini-‘longtail’ in fourth. Fifth was the Stommelen/Galli Alfa Romeo, ahead of the Ferraris of NART (Posey/Bucknum) and Ecurie Francorchamps (Fierlandt/Walker) and the NART 312P (the Alfa's rival in the Prototype category). The French Porsche 914 was leading the GT category, in 10th, in a terrific tussle with Greder's Corvette and the Ecurie Luxembourg 911. Half the field were now retirements.
At 8am the Stommelen/Galli Alfa, just overtaken by the NART Ferrari, was unable to get away from its pitstop without a push-start, for which it was subsequently disqualified within the hour. Then at 8.30am, after 18 hours, Elford's 917 was stopped by engine problems. The rain finally eased off and the track was virtually dry by 9.30am. That allowed Larrousse/Kauhsen to pick up their pace and they moved up to second place by midday and set about trying to catch the leaders. The field was widely spread: Herrmann/Attwood had a 5-lap lead (282 laps) over the two Martini Porsches, a comfortable 15 laps ahead of the Posey/Bucknum Ferrari and a further 12-laps to the Belgian Ferrari (250) with the NART 312P of Adamowicz/Parsons in 6th (237 laps).
Finish and post-race
Going into the last hours, most of the leading positions remained unchanged. The two remaining Chevrons had been running at the back of the field for much of the latter half of the race after both needing engine rebuilds. After the BMW engine failed one, the faster Cosworth-engined car carried on as the only survivor in the 2-litre Prototype class. However it was stopped with only 90 minutes to run. The Healey prototype, which had been battling gearbox issues for most of the race, requiring a rebuild. With less than a quarter-hour, and two laps, to go and still in 14th, Roger Enever headed out on a final lap, but for the sake of a 10-cent part, the engine stopped on the Mulsanne Straight and the car would not restart. Outlasting the Matras and Alfas, the NART 312P had moved up to 6th but with 3 hours to go it developed a serious misfire. It took a long time to replace the sparkplugs and the team knew they would not reach their target distance. When the electrics finally packed up on the final lap approaching Maison Blanche, spectators jumped the fence and helped push Adamowicz to the line, the 10th car home.
Hans Herrmann and Richard Attwood in their red and white No. 23 Porsche Salzburg 917K won by five laps. In a great debut for the new Martini Racing team, Gérard Larrousse and Willi Kauhsen finished second in the psychedelic 917 longtail and the 908/02 of Rudi Lins and Helmut Marko was third. Despite sounding very rough and errant steering, the Posey/Bucknum NART Ferrari kept going and was rewarded with a fourth place. The Belgian Ferrari was fifth, meeting its required distance by a single lap. Although the French Corvette was the first GT home, it hadn’t achieved its required minimum distance, so the GT prize went to the 914/6 of Ballot-Léna/Chasseuil finishing a lap behind. They had a remarkable run without having to change brakes or even tyres. Three laps further back was the Ecurie Luxembourg 911.
In a typically attrition-filled Le Mans 24 Hours, it was a dominant victory by Porsche: of the sixteen cars running at the end, twelve were Porsches, and the top 3 were all Porsche prototypes. None of the factory Ferraris, Alfas or Matras finished the race, and only 2 privateer Ferraris finished. However, many of the Porsche 911s were slowed by the atrocious weather and covered insufficient distance to be classified. As well as finishing 1-2-3, Porsche had won all four classes that had finishers. The third-placed 908 claimed the Index of Performance while the Martini 917 won the Index of Thermal Efficiency.
Hans Herrmann was a race-veteran at age 42 in his 13th Le Mans and had driven for Mercedes and Porsche in F1 and survived the dangerous Mille Miglia and Carrera Panamericana races of the 1950s. He had promised his wife to quit racing if he should finally win Le Mans, a success which he had missed narrowly by barely 120 metres in 1969. So he retired with immediate effect, much to the surprise of his Porsche Salzburg team. For someone whose career with Porsche extended back to 1953, with Porsche's first mid-engine car, the 550, it was appropriate he was there when the marque finally won its coveted Le Mans outright victory at its 20th attempt.
Later in the year, the FIA acknowledged the weather had severely compromised the GT Corvette with its target distance skewed because of its 7-litre engine compared to the Porsches, and awarded it first-place points for the GT Cup. The ACO did not change its results but did send Greder a cheque equivalent to the GT-winners prize-money. The ACO also released some commercial information: 300 000 spectators, about half of them paying the entry fee. Around 10% were foreigners supervised by an additional 40000 officials, police, emergency staff, journalists and trades people. Three hundred commercial sites (bars, cafés, fairground) raised 6.5 million francs with another 7 million from advertising that barely covered the cost to run the race. The circuit used electricity equivalent to a city of 80000, and over 2.5 million phonecalls were made.
However it was another terrible year for driver deaths and injuries. Just a fortnight before the race, former Le Mans winner Bruce McLaren had been killed testing his new car. Piers Courage, driving the Alfa Romeo in this race, died during the F1 Dutch GP. To underline the safety problem, Jochen Rindt, 1965 Le Mans winner, was killed at Monza becoming the only posthumous F1 World Champion.
Thirty years later, the second-placed Martini Porsche and its psychedelic paint scheme was voted by a public poll as the “Le Mans Car of the Century”.
The Steve McQueen movie Le Mans
A notable presence at this year's race was Solar Productions, Steve McQueen’s film company, at Le Sarthe to make a feature film revolving around the race directed by John Sturges. McQueen, at that time one of Hollywood’s most bankable action stars, had purchased a Porsche 908/2 to race. With Peter Revson as co-driver, he had come second at the Sebring 12 Hours earlier in the year only 20 seconds behind the Ferrari winner. He was pencilled in to share a JWA Porsche 917 with current F1 World Champion Jackie Stewart but his life insurance company refused to cover him for Le Mans. JWA did however supply two of the cars and a number of mechanics for the film. The 908 was entered for the race and equipped with cameras to record on-track race footage.
Happy that the script had a Gulf-Porsche victory, Porsche released their works driver Herbert Linge to drive the camera-car, alongside Jonathan Williams. For the same reason, Enzo Ferrari declined to provide any cars for the film, and the Ferraris depicted in the film were supplied by the Jacques Swaters’ Ecurie Francorchamps.
However, after filming the first two laps and pitting for a camera change, the car was delayed by a problematic starter motor. The heavy rain also compromised the chances to get daylight racing footage. Despite that, the car collected more than 250,000 feet of film, although the frequent stops meant the car could not cover enough distance to be classified.
As well as using the car, Solar did filming at the April test weekend beforehand and had six cameras positioned around the circuit. Although the ACO was adamant that cameramen would not be positioned in front of the safety barriers by the track. Solar also hired the track for 12 weeks after the race and had 26 Sports and Prototypes on hand. Older Lolas were rebodied and used for the crash sequences. A number of the race's drivers were also on hand, including Attwood, Bell, Elford, Galli, Jabouille, Parkes, Redman, Siffert, Spoerry and Stommelen. In August, Derek Bell suffered minor burns when his Ferrari suddenly caught fire. Later, David Piper had a far more serious accident when his Porsche blew a tyre at speed. The car smashed into the barriers on both sides of the track and broke in two. Although Piper survived, he had to have his lower right leg amputated.
Official results
Finishers
Results taken from Quentin Spurring's book, officially licensed by the ACO Class winners are in bold text.
'Note *: Not Classified because insufficient distance covered.
Did Not Finish
Did Not Start
Class Winners
Note: setting a new class distance record.
Index of Thermal Efficiency
Index of Performance
Taken from Moity's book.
Note: A score of 1.00 means meeting the minimum distance for the car, and a higher score is exceeding the nominal target distance.
Statistics
Taken from Quentin Spurring's book, officially licensed by the ACO
Fastest Lap in practice – V. Elford, #25 Porsche 917L – 3:19.8secs;
Fastest Lap – V. Elford, #25 Porsche 917L – 3:21.0secs;
Winning Distance –
Winner's Average Speed –
Attendance –300 000
International Championship for Makes Standings
As calculated after Le Mans, Round 8 of 10
Note: Only the best 7 of 10 results counted to the final Championship points. The full total earned to date is given in brackets
Citations
References
Armstrong, Douglas – English editor (1970) Automobile Year #18 1970-71 Lausanne: Edita S.A.
Clarke, R.M. - editor (1997) Le Mans 'The Ford and Matra Years 1966-1974' Cobham, Surrey: Brooklands Books
Clausager, Anders (1982) Le Mans London: Arthur Barker Ltd
Laban, Brian (2001) Le Mans 24 Hours London: Virgin Books
Moity, Christian (1974) The Le Mans 24 Hour Race 1949-1973 Radnor, Pennsylvania: Chilton Book Co
Spurring, Quentin (2011) Le Mans 1970-79 Yeovil, Somerset: Haynes Publishing
External links
Racing Sports Cars – Le Mans 24 Hours 1970 entries, results, technical detail. Retrieved 16 May 2018
Le Mans History – Le Mans History, hour-by-hour (incl. pictures, quotes, YouTube links). Retrieved 16 May 2018
World Sports Racing Prototypes – results, reserve entries & chassis numbers. Retrieved 16 May 2018
Team Dan – results & reserve entries, explaining driver listings. Retrieved 16 May 2018
Unique Cars & Parts – results & reserve entries. Retrieved 16 May 2018
Formula 2 – Le Mans results & reserve entries. Retrieved 16 May 2018
Motorsport Memorial – details of the year's fatal accidents. Retrieved 16 May 2018
YouTube – “A Year to Remember” Gulf documentary reviewing the JWA 1970 season including Le Mans, and interviews with John Wyer (30mins). Retrieved 28 May 2018
YouTube – Colour footage, incl. Race-prep (7mins). Retrieved 28 May 2018
YouTube – Colour footage with music overlaid (8mins). Retrieved 28 May 2018
YouTube – German documentary from the Porsche Museum with the race-winning Porsche #23 (10mins). Retrieved 28 May 2018
YouTube – Brief interview with Richard Attwood re-united with the race-winning Porsche #23 (3mins). Retrieved 28 May 2018
24 Hours of Le Mans races
Le Mans
Le Mans
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United%20States%20involvement%20in%20the%20Mexican%20Revolution
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United States involvement in the Mexican Revolution
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The United States involvement in the Mexican Revolution was varied and seemingly contradictory, first supporting and then repudiating Mexican regimes during the period 1910–1920. For both economic and political reasons, the U.S. government generally supported those who occupied the seats of power, but could withhold official recognition. The U.S. supported the regime of Porfirio Díaz (1876–1880; 1884–1911) after initially withholding recognition since he came to power by coup. In 1909, Díaz and U.S. President Taft met in Ciudad Juárez, across the border from El Paso, Texas. Prior to Woodrow Wilson's inauguration on March 4, 1913, the U.S. Government focused on just warning the Mexican military that decisive action from the U.S. military would take place if lives and property of U.S. nationals living in the country were endangered. President William Howard Taft sent more troops to the US-Mexico border but did not allow them to intervene directly in the conflict, a move which Congress opposed. Twice during the Revolution, the U.S. sent troops into Mexico, to occupy Veracruz in 1914 and to northern Mexico in 1916 in a failed attempt to capture Pancho Villa. U.S. foreign policy toward Latin America was to assume the region was the sphere of influence of the U.S., articulated in the Monroe Doctrine. However the U.S. role in the Mexican Revolution has been exaggerated. It did not directly intervene in the Mexican Revolution in a sustained manner.
During Díaz's long rule, he implemented policies aimed at modernization and economic development, inviting foreign entrepreneurs to invest in Mexico. The regime passed laws favorable to investors. American business interests invested large amounts of capital, particularly along the U.S.-Mexico border, during the decades of Díaz's rule. There was close economic cooperation between the two governments, which was predicated on Diaz's cooperation with US investors. In 1908 Díaz stated he would not run for re-election in 1910; the statement gave rise to politicking of potential candidates. Díaz reversed himself, ran for re-election, and jailed the leading opposition candidate, Francisco I. Madero. Madero escaped Mexico and took refuge in San Antonio, Texas, and called for nullification of the 1910 elections, declared himself as provisional president, and asked for support from the Mexican people. His Plan of San Luis Potosí sparked revolutionary uprisings, particularly in Mexico's north. The U.S. stayed out of the unfolding events until March 6, 1911, when President William Howard Taft mobilized forces on the U.S.-Mexico border. "In effect this was an intervention in Mexican politics, and to Mexicans it meant the United States had condemned Díaz."
After Díaz was forced to resign in 1911 and Francisco I. Madero was elected president in October 1911, U.S. president Taft was a lame duck, having lost the presidential election of 1912. He would remain in office until the March 1913 inauguration of Woodrow Wilson and during that interval, Taft's Ambassador to Mexico, Henry Lane Wilson actively sought to oust democratically elected Mexican president Madero. Lane Wilson was initially sympathetic to the Madero regime, but quickly came into conflict with it and conspired with General Victoriano Huerta to oust Madero. The anti-Madero coup took place in February 1913, known as the Ten Tragic Days, which saw the forced resignations of Madero and his vice president, followed immediately by their murders. The United States government under newly inaugurated president Woodrow Wilson refused to recognize Huerta's government.
Under President Wilson, the United States sent troops to occupy Veracruz, with the dispute defused through a peace conference in Canada. Anti-Huerta forces in the north under Venustiano Carranza and in the south under Emiliano Zapata forced the resignation of Huerta in July 1914. A civil war between Carranza and Zapata broke out in 1915, with the U.S. recognizing Carranza's Constitutionalist faction. The US supplied arms to Carranza's army. Pancho Villa was at first supported by Washington, but he was defeated and lost most of his support. He was angered by the U.S. switch to recognition of his rival. To draw the US into Mexico he attacked the border village of Columbus, New Mexico, killing US citizens in 1916. The U.S. Army under Gen. John J. Pershing pursued him in a punitive mission, known as the Pancho Villa Expedition, but failed to capture him. Carranza demanded the U.S. to withdraw across the border.
Diplomatic relations in the Díaz era
Díaz opened Mexico to foreign investment of Britain, France, Germany, and most especially the United States. Mexico–United States relations during Díaz's presidency were generally strong, although he began to strengthen ties with Great Britain, Germany, and France to offset U.S. power and influence. Mexico was extremely important to U.S. business interests and Taft saw Díaz as key to protecting those investments. Taft met Díaz in person on the U.S.-Mexico border in 1909, an historic event in itself since it was the first trip of a sitting U.S. president to Mexico. It was a way for the U.S. to signal its continuing support of Díaz, despite his advancing age. Taft said: "we have two billions American capital in Mexico that will be greatly endangered if Díaz were to die and his government go to pieces."
Despite the importance of Mexico to U.S. business interests, the U.S. had "a history of incompetent diplomatic representation." According to one scholar, the Taft administration's appointment of Henry Lane Wilson as ambassador "continued the tradition of incompetence."
During the presidency of Porfirio Díaz, documents from the U.S. Consulate in Mexico kept the Secretary of State in Washington, D.C. informed about Mexican affairs. The Secretary of State told President Taft about possible regime change when Díaz was unable to control rebellions in various areas of Mexico. Taft wanted to keep the Díaz government in power to prevent problems with US access to Mexican resources, especially oil.
The U.S. and President Madero, 1911–1913
President Taft's Ambassador to Mexico Henry Lane Wilson was a key player in the overthrow of the President of Mexico, Francisco I. Madero. From the start of Madero's presidency, Ambassador Wilson was opposed to Madero and actively sought U.S. intervention in Mexico. Wilson controlled information and disinformation that he sent to the U.S. Department of State, so that the government did not have a clear understanding of the situation. Wilson stirred up trouble in the capital by feeding disinformation to local newspapers, and then when Madero reacted by censoring them, they played the victim of an unreasonable president. Madero came to office by a free and fair election after revolutionary forces made then President Porfirio Díaz's position untenable. A treaty was signed between rebels and representatives of Díaz in May 1911. Its provisions were that Díaz resign and go into exile, an interim government installed, and new elections called for November 1911. Madero acted against advice of his rebel supporters and dissolved their forces. He retained the Federal Army, which had just been defeated.
Madero was only in office a month when General Bernardo Reyes, a close advisor to President Díaz but then dropped from patronage, rebelled. Reyes had been across the U.S. border in Texas, came to Mexico calling on the people to rise against Madero. His rebellion was a complete failure. Madero had just been elected with a huge popular vote. For the moment the U.S. was optimistic that Madero's regime should be supported. Reyes bowed to the evidence that his rebellion was a failure and was arrested and imprisoned.
Once office, Madero did not fulfill promises of his Plan of San Luis Potosí concerning land reform, resulting in a peasant rebellion in Morelos led by Emiliano Zapata, a former rebel supporter. For the U.S., this rebellion had little importance, since there were not U.S. investments there, but Madero's seeming inability to put down the rebellion cast doubt on his leadership.
A serious insurrection against Madero was led by Pascual Orozco, who had helped achieve victory for rebels in the north. Orozco was disappointed that he was marginalized once Madero was installed in the presidency and did not move on land reform. He rebelled in the north and posed a greater challenge to Madero. His rebellion was financed by large U.S. businesses as well as Mexicans seeking to destabilized Madero's regime, but the U.S. government seems to have aided or impeded Orozco's uprising. It was suppressed by the Mexican Federal
General Félix Díaz had not gone into exile wíth his uncle Porfirio's family, but launched a rebellion in October 1912, with some support by the U.S. government. He appealed to all those who sought a return to the order and progress. Díaz had the magic family name, but he lacked the military or political skill of his uncle Porfirio. A leading U.S. businessman in Mexico wrote a recommendation for Félix Díaz to Leonard Wood, who served with Theodore Roosevelt as a Rough Rider in Cuba, and was now the head of the U.S. Army General Staff: "[Félix] Díaz can be Mexico's 'man on a white horse' if the U.S. helps him come to power. With the moral support of the U.S. he would be able to change the situation in Mexico in such a way that an [U.S.] intervention will not be necessary." Although if there were a reply to this recommendation, it is not currently extant. But the U.S. did send ships to the Gulf Coast at the time of Díaz's rebellion in Veracruz in October 1912. The German Ambassador Hintze reported that "With the outbreak of the Díaz revolution in Veracruz, the American embassary, without any notification of other missions, officially informed the Mexican government the that American government would opposed bombardment of Veracruz by government troops." Despite explicit U.S. support, Díaz's rebellion was a dismal failure. He was arrested and imprisoned. The U.S. continued to view him as the best option for the replacement of Madero, a course on which it was now set.
Madero was perceived unable to achieve order and stability that the U.S. government and businesses required. Wilson made it clear that he wanted Madero replaced and a candidate more amendable to the U.S. installed in the presidency. General Bernardo Reyes also sought regime change. Both men were imprisoned by Madero, but not executed and went on to lead a coup d'etat with support of the U.S. Ambassador. Given activist U.S. interventions in Latin American internal affairs for decades, it was not out of the question that the U.S. would intervene in Mexico in this unsettled period. When that did not happen, the ambassador played a decisive role in undermining the Mexican public's and international diplomatic corps' as well as business interests' perception of the Madero's regime's ability to keep order. From January 1913, a coup against Madero seemed inevitable, supported by the U.S. The plot by Díaz and Reyes against Madero was sprung in February 1913 in a coup d'état during a period now known as the Ten Tragic Days (la decena trágica). which overthrew Madero. Wilson brought Félix Díaz and the head of the Mexican Federal Army, General Victoriano Huerta, who had ostensibly been a defender of the president but now in opposition to him. A signed agreement signed on 19 February, the Pact of the Embassy, laid out a power-sharing agreement between the two Mexican generals, with the explicit support of the U.S. ambassador. U.S. President William Howard Taft, who had appointed Wilson in 1909 as ambassador to Mexico, was a lame duck president, having lost the election to Woodrow Wilson. The new president would be inaugurated on March 4, 1913. In the final days of his presidency, President Madero, at long last and too late realized the tenuousness of his hold on power. He appealed to President-elect Wilson to intervene on his behalf, but to no avail, since Wilson was not yet in office. Ambassador Wilson had secured the support of the foreign diplomatic corps in Mexico, especially the British, German, and French envoys, for the coup and lobbied for U.S. recognition of the new head of state, General Huerta.
U.S. and Huerta regime, 1913–1914
Woodrow Wilson was inaugurated president in March 1913, but the coup d'état in Mexico was an established fact, with the democratically elected president Madero murdered and his family in exile. President Wilson did not recognize the Huerta as the legitimate head of the Mexican government, and from March to October 1913, Wilson pressured Huerta to resign. Wilson urged the European powers to refrain from recognizing Huerta's government. Huerta announced elections with himself as a candidate. In August 1913, Wilson imposed an arms embargo on Huerta's regime, reversing his previous easy access to arms. In late August Huerta withdrew his name from consideration as a presidential candidate, and his foreign minister Federico Gamboa stood for election. The U.S. was enthusiastic about Gamboa's candidacy and supported the new regime, but not Huerta himself. The U.S. pressured revolutionary opponents, including the newly emerged anti-Huerta leader Venustiano Carranza, to sign on to support a potential new Gamboa government. Carranza refused.
A series of rebellions broke out in Mexico against Huerta's regime, especially in the North (Sonora, Chihuahua, and Coahuila), where the U.S. allowed arms sales to the revolutionaries. Fighting continued in Morelos under Emiliano Zapata, but the conflict there was a regional one with no U.S. involvement. Unlike the brief rebellions that helped bring Madero to power in 1910–1911, Mexico descended into civil war, with the U.S. backing revolutionary factions in the north. The involvement of the U.S. in larger conflicts with its diplomatic and economic rivals in Mexico, particularly Great Britain and Germany, meant that foreign powers affected the way the Mexican situation played out, even if they did not intervene militarily.
When U.S. agents discovered that the German merchant ship, the Ypiranga, was carrying arms to Huerta's regime, President Wilson ordered troops to the port of Veracruz to stop the ship from docking. The U.S. did not declare war on Mexico but the U.S. troops carried out a skirmish against Huerta's forces in Veracruz. The Ypiranga managed to dock at another port, which infuriated Wilson.
On April 9, 1914, Mexican officials in the port of Tampico, Tamaulipas, arrested a group of U.S. sailors — including at least one taken from on board his ship, and thus from U.S. territory. After Mexico refused to apologize in the terms that the U.S. had demanded, the U.S. Navy bombarded the port of Veracruz and occupied Veracruz for seven months. Woodrow Wilson's actual motivation was his desire to overthrow Huerta, whom he refused to recognize as Mexico's leader; the Tampico Affair did succeed in further destabilizing Huerta's regime and encouraging the revolutionary opponents. The ABC Powers (Argentina, Brazil, and Chile) arbitrated, in the Niagara Falls peace conference, held in Ontario, Canada, and U.S. troops left Mexican soil, averting an escalation of the conflict to war.
U.S. and the warring revolutionary factions, 1914-1915
With the resignation and exile of Huerta, the revolutionary factions had no common enemy. The initially sought to work out a post-Huerta agreement, but it devolved into a civil war of the winners. The U.S. continued to seek influence over the outcome of events in Mexico, but it was unclear how it would do so.
1916–1917
An increasing number of border incidents early in 1916 culminated in an invasion of American territory on 8 March 1916, when Francisco (Pancho) Villa and his band of 500 to 1,000 men raided Columbus, New Mexico, burning army barracks and robbing stores. In the United States, Villa came to represent mindless violence and banditry. Elements of the 13th Cavalry regiment repulsed the attack, but 14 soldiers and ten civilians were killed. Brig. Gen. John J. Pershing immediately organized a punitive expedition of about 10,000 soldiers to try to capture Villa. They spent 11 months (March 1916 – February 1917) unsuccessfully chasing him, though they did manage to destabilize his forces. A few of Villa's top commanders were also captured or killed during the expedition. The 7th, 10th, 11th, and 13th Cavalry regiments, 6th and U.S. 16th Infantry Regiments, part of the U.S. 6th Field Artillery, and supporting elements crossed the border into Mexico in mid-March, followed later by the 5th Cavalry, 17th and 24th Infantry Regiment (United States), and engineer and other units. Pershing was subject to orders which required him to respect the sovereignty of Mexico, and was further hindered by the fact that the Mexican government and people resented the invasion and demanded its recall. Advance elements of the expedition penetrated as far as Parral, some south of the border, but Villa was never captured. The campaign consisted primarily of dozens of brief skirmishes with small bands of insurgents. There were even clashes with Mexican Army units; the most serious was on 21 June 1916 at the Battle of Carrizal, where a detachment of the 10th Cavalry was nearly destroyed. War would probably have been declared but for the critical situation in Europe. Even so, virtually the entire regular army was involved, and most of the National Guard had been federalized and concentrated on the border before the end of the affair. Normal relations with Mexico were restored eventually by diplomatic negotiation, and the troops were withdrawn from Mexico in February 1917.
Germany was a rival of the U.S. for influence in Mexico. As World War I raged in Europe, Germany was concerned that the U.S. would enter on the side of the British and French. Germany sought to tie down U.S. troops by fomenting war between the U.S. and Mexico. Germany sent a telegram in code outlining a plan to aid Mexico in such a conflict and Mexico's reward would be to regain land lost to the U.S. in the Mexican American War (1846–48). The Zimmermann Telegram was intercepted and decoded by the British and given to Wilson, who then made public. Carranza, whose faction had benefited from U.S. support and then diplomatic recognition, was not drawn into the conflict. Mexico was neutral during World War I, which was a means for Mexico to carve out a role independent of the U.S. as well as the European powers.
The Constitutionalists who had won power in 1915-16 drafted a new constitution, adopted in February 1917. For foreign business interests the constitution was alarming, since it empowered the Mexican government to expropriate property deemed in the national interest and asserted rights to subsoil resources, which foreign petroleum companies saw as a direct threat to their interests. More radical elements of the revolution succeeded in having these provisions included, but Carranza did not implement them. U.S. business interests sought the support of the U.S. government against this threat to their enterprises, but Wilson did not act on their behalf.
1918–1919
Minor clashes with Mexican irregulars, as well as Mexican Federales, continued to disturb the U.S.-Mexican border from 1917 to 1919. Although the Zimmermann Telegram affair of January 1917 did not lead to a direct U.S. intervention, it took place against the backdrop of the Constitutional Convention and exacerbated tensions between the USA and Mexico. Military engagements took place near Buenavista, Sonora, on 1 December 1917; in San Bernardino Canyon, Chihuahua, on 26 December 1917; near La Grulla, Texas, on 9 January 1918; at Pilares, Mexico, about 28 March 1918; at the town of Nogales on the Sonora–Arizona border on 27 August 1918; and near El Paso, Texas, on 16 June 1919.
Foreign mercenaries in Mexico
Many adventurers, ideologues and freebooters from outside Mexico were attracted by the purported excitement and romance of the Mexican Revolution. Most mercenaries served in armies operating in the north of Mexico, partly because those areas were the closest to popular entry points to Mexico from the U.S., and partly because Pancho Villa had no compunction about hiring mercenaries. The first legion of foreign mercenaries, during the 1910 Madero revolt, was the Falange de los Extranjeros (Foreign Phalanx), which included Giuseppe ("Peppino") Garibaldi, grandson of the famed Italian unifier, as well as many American recruits.
Later, during the revolt against the coup d'état of Victoriano Huerta, many of the same foreigners and others were recruited and enlisted by Pancho Villa and his División del Norte. Villa recruited Americans, Canadians and other foreigners of all ranks from simple infantrymen on up, but the most highly prized and best paid were machine gun experts such as Sam Dreben, artillery experts such as Ivor Thord-Gray, and doctors for Villa's celebrated Servicio sanitario medic and mobile hospital corps. There is little doubt that Villa's Mexican equivalent of the French Foreign Legion (known as the "Legion of Honor") was an important factor in Villa's successes against Huerta's Federal Army.
U.S. military decorations
The U.S. military awarded the Mexican Service Medal to its troops for service in Mexico. The streamer is yellow with a blue center stripe and a narrow green stripe on each edge. The green and yellow recalls the Aztec standard carried at the Battle of Otumba in 1520, which carried a gold sun surrounded by the green plumes of the quetzal. The blue color alludes to the United States Army and refers to the Rio Grande separating Mexico from the United States.
See also
Mexican Revolution
Mexico–United States relations
Gallery
References
Further reading
Anderson, Mark. C. “What’s to Be Done With ‘Em? Images of Mexican Cultural Backwardness, Racial Limitations and Moral Decrepitude in the United States Press 1913–1915”, Mexican Studies, Winter Vol. 14, No. 1 (1998): 23-70.
Blaisdell, Lowell L. “Henry Lane Wilson and the Overthrow of Madero.” Southwestern Social Science Quarterly 43#2 (1962), pp. 126–35, online
Boghardt, Thomas. The Zimmermann telegram: intelligence, diplomacy, and America's entry into World War I (Naval Institute Press, 2012).
Britton, John. A. Revolution and Ideology: Images of the Mexican Revolution in the United States. Kentucky: The University Press of Kentucky (1995)
Coerver, Don M., and Linda Biesele Hall. Texas and the Mexican Revolution: a study in state and national border policy, 1910-1920 (Trinity University Press, 1984).
Hall, Linda B., and Don M. Coerver. "Woodrow Wilson, Public Opinion, and the Punitive Expedition: A Re-Assessment." New Mexico Historical Review 72.2 (1997): 4+ online.
Hall, Linda B., and Don M. Coerver. "Oil and the Mexican Revolution: The Southwestern Connection." The Americas 41.2 (1984): 229-244.
Hall, Linda B., and Don M. Coerver. Revolution on the Border: The United States and Mexico, 1910-1920 (U of New Mexico Press, 1988).
Hart, John Mason. Empire and Revolution: The Americans in Mexico Since the Civil War. Berkeley: University of California Press 2002.
Katz, Friedrich. The Secret War in Mexico: Europe, the United States, and the Mexican Revolution. Chicago: University of Chicago Press 1981. online
Knight, Alan. The Mexican Revolution. (2 vols). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1986.
Link, Arthur S. Woodrow Wilson and the progressive era, 1910-1917 (1954) pp 107–144 online
Nugent, Daniel, ed. Rural Revolt in Mexico and U.S. Intervention. LaJolla, CA: Center for U.S.-Mexican Studies, University of California, San Diego 1988.
Quirk, Robert E. An affair of honor : Woodrow Wilson and the occupation of Veracruz (1967) online
Schmitt, Karl M. Mexico and the United States, 1821-1973: Conflict and coexistence (John Wiley & Sons, 1974).
Womack, John. "The Mexican Revolution" in Mexico Since Independence, ed. Leslie Bethell. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1991.
Primary sources
Wilson, Henry Lane. “Errors with Reference to Mexico and Events That Have Occurred There.” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science vol. 54, (1914), pp. 148–61, online.
Wilson, Henry Lane. “How to Restore Peace in Mexico.” Journal of International Relations 11#2 (1920), pp. 181–89, online.
External links
Soldiers of Fortune in the Mexican Revolution
1916 in Mexico
1910s in the United States
Mexican Revolution
Banana Wars
Mexico–United States relations
United States involvement in regime change
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usain%20Bolt
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Usain Bolt
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Usain St. Leo Bolt (; born 21 August 1986) is a Jamaican retired sprinter, widely considered to be the greatest sprinter of all time. He is the world record holder in the 100 metres, 200 metres, and 4 × 100 metres relay.
An eight-time Olympic gold medallist, Bolt is the only sprinter to win Olympic 100 m and 200 m titles at three consecutive Olympics (2008, 2012, and 2016). He also won two 4 × 100 relay gold medals. He gained worldwide fame for his double sprint victory in world record times at the 2008 Beijing Olympics, which made him the first person to hold both records since fully automatic time became mandatory.
An eleven-time World Champion, he won consecutive World Championship 100 m, 200 m and 4 × 100 metres relay gold medals from 2009 to 2015, with the exception of a 100 m false start in 2011. He is the most successful male athlete of the World Championships. Bolt is the first athlete to win four World Championship titles in the 200 m and is one of the most successful in the 100 m with three titles, being the first person to run sub-9.7s and sub-9.6s.
Bolt improved upon his second 100 m world record of 9.69 with 9.58 seconds in 2009 – the biggest improvement since the start of electronic timing. He has twice broken the 200 metres world record, setting 19.30 in 2008 and 19.19 in 2009. He has helped Jamaica to three 4 × 100 metres relay world records, with the current record being 36.84 seconds set in 2012. Bolt's most successful event is the 200 m, with three Olympic and four World titles. The 2008 Olympics was his international debut over 100 m; he had earlier won numerous 200 m medals (including 2007 World Championship silver) and held the world under-20 and world under-18 records for the event until being surpassed by Erriyon Knighton in 2021.
His achievements as a sprinter have earned him the media nickname "Lightning Bolt", and his awards include the IAAF World Athlete of the Year, Track & Field Athlete of the Year, BBC Overseas Sports Personality of the Year (three times), and Laureus World Sportsman of the Year (four times). Bolt was included in Time magazine's 100 Most Influential People of 2016. Bolt retired after the 2017 World Championships, when he finished third in his last solo 100 m race, opted out of the 200 m, and pulled up injured in the 4×100 m relay final.
Early years
Bolt was born on 21 August 1986 to parents Wellesley and Jennifer Bolt in Sherwood Content, a small town in Jamaica. He has a brother, Sadiki, and a sister, Sherine. His parents ran the local grocery store in the rural area, and Bolt spent his time playing cricket and football in the street with his brother, later saying, "When I was young, I didn't really think about anything other than sports." As a child, Bolt attended Waldensia Primary, where he began showing his sprint potential when he ran in his parish's annual national primary school meet. By the age of twelve, Bolt had become the school's fastest runner over the 100 metres distance. Bolt also developed an affection for European football teams Real Madrid and Manchester United.
Upon his entry to William Knibb Memorial High School, Bolt continued to focus on other sports, but his cricket coach noticed Bolt's speed on the pitch and urged him to try track and field events. Pablo McNeil, a former Olympic sprint athlete, and Dwayne Jarrett coached Bolt, encouraging him to focus his energy on improving his athletic abilities. The school had a history of success in athletics with past students, including sprinter Michael Green. Bolt won his first annual high school championships medal in 2001; he took the silver medal in the 200 metres with a time of 22.04 seconds. McNeil soon became his primary coach, and the two enjoyed a positive partnership, although McNeil was occasionally frustrated by Bolt's lack of dedication to his training and his penchant for practical jokes.
When Bolt was a boy, he attended Sherwood Content Seventh-day Adventist Church in Trelawny, Jamaica, with his mother. His mother did not serve pork to him in accordance with Adventist beliefs.
Early competitions
Representing Jamaica in his first Caribbean regional event, Bolt clocked a personal best time of 48.28 s in the 400 metres in the 2001 CARIFTA Games, winning a silver medal. The 200 m also yielded a silver, as Bolt finished in 21.81 s.
He made his first appearance on the world stage at the 2001 IAAF World Youth Championships in Debrecen, Hungary. Running in the 200 m event, he failed to qualify for the finals, but he still set a new personal best of 21.73 s. Bolt still did not take athletics or himself too seriously, however, and he took his mischievousness to new heights by hiding in the back of a van when he was supposed to be preparing for the 200 m finals at the CARIFTA Trials. He was detained by the police for his practical joke, and there was an outcry from the local community, which blamed coach McNeil for the incident. However, the controversy subsided, and both McNeil and Bolt went to the CARIFTA Games, where Bolt set championship records in the 200 m and 400 m with times of 21.12 s and 47.33 s, respectively. He continued to set records with 20.61 s and 47.12 s finishes at the Central American and Caribbean Junior Championships.
Bolt is one of only nine athletes (along with Valerie Adams, Veronica Campbell-Brown, Jacques Freitag, Yelena Isinbayeva, Jana Pittman, Dani Samuels, David Storl, and Kirani James) to win world championships at the youth, junior, and senior level of an athletic event. Former Prime Minister P. J. Patterson recognised Bolt's talent and arranged for him to move to Kingston, along with Jermaine Gonzales, so he could train with the Jamaica Amateur Athletic Association (JAAA) at the University of Technology, Jamaica.
Rise to prominence
The 2002 World Junior Championships were held in front of a home crowd in Kingston, Jamaica, and Bolt was given a chance to prove his credentials on a world stage. By the age of 15, he had grown to tall, and he physically stood out among his peers. He won the 200 m in a time of 20.61 s, which was 0.03 s slower than his personal best of 20.58 s, which he set in the 1st round. Bolt's 200 m win made him the youngest world-junior gold medallist ever. The expectation from the home crowd had made him so nervous that he had put his shoes on the wrong feet, although he realized the mistake before the race began. However, it turned out to be a revelatory experience for Bolt, as he vowed never again to let himself be affected by pre-race nerves. As a member of the Jamaican sprint relay team, he also took two silver medals and set national junior records in the 4×100 metres and 4×400 metres relay, running times of 39.15 s and 3:04.06 minutes respectively.
The rush of medals continued as he won four golds at the 2003 CARIFTA Games and was awarded the Austin Sealy Trophy for the most outstanding athlete of the games. He won another gold at the 2003 World Youth Championships. He set a new championship record in the 200 m with a time of 20.40 s, despite a head wind. Michael Johnson, the 200 m world-record holder, took note of Bolt's potential but worried that the young sprinter might be over-pressured, stating, "It's all about what he does three, four, five years down the line". Bolt had also impressed the athletics hierarchy, and he received the IAAF Rising Star Award for 2002.
Bolt competed in his final Jamaican High School Championships in 2003. He broke the 200 m and 400 m records with times of 20.25 s and 45.35 s, respectively. Bolt's runs were a significant improvement upon the previous records, beating the 200 m best by more than half a second and the 400 m record by almost a second. Bolt improved upon the 200 m time three months later, setting the former World youth best at the 2003 Pan American Junior Championships. The 400 m time remains No. 6 on the all-time youth list, surpassed only once since, by future Olympic champion Kirani James.
Bolt turned his main focus to the 200 m and equalled Roy Martin's world junior record of 20.13 s at the Pan-American Junior Championships. This performance attracted interest from the press, and his times in the 200 m and 400 m led to him being touted as a possible successor to Johnson. Indeed, at sixteen years old, Bolt had reached times that Johnson did not register until he was twenty, and Bolt's 200 m time was superior to Maurice Greene's season's best that year.
Bolt was growing more popular in his homeland. Howard Hamilton, who was given the task of Public Defender by the government, urged the JAAA to nurture him and prevent burnout, calling Bolt "the most phenomenal sprinter ever produced by this island". His popularity and the attractions of the capital city were beginning to be a burden to the young sprinter. Bolt was increasingly unfocused on his athletic career and preferred to eat fast food, play basketball, and party in Kingston's club scene. In the absence of a disciplined lifestyle, he became ever-more reliant on his natural ability to beat his competitors on the track.
As the reigning 200 m champion at both the World Youth and World Junior championships, Bolt hoped to take a clean sweep of the world 200 m championships in the Senior World Championships in Paris. He beat all comers at the 200 m in the World Championship trials. Bolt was pragmatic about his chances and noted that, even if he did not make the final, he would consider setting a personal best a success. However, he suffered a bout of conjunctivitis before the event, and it ruined his training schedule. Realising that he would not be in peak condition, the JAAA refused to let him participate in the finals, on the grounds that he was too young and inexperienced. Bolt was dismayed at missing out on the opportunity, but focused on getting himself in shape to gain a place on the Jamaican Olympic team instead. Even though he missed the World Championships, Bolt was awarded the IAAF Rising Star Award for the 2003 season on the strength of his junior record-equalling run.
Professional athletics career
2004–2007 Early career
Under the guidance of new coach Fitz Coleman, Bolt turned professional in 2004, beginning with the CARIFTA Games in Bermuda. He became the first junior sprinter to run the 200 m in under twenty seconds, taking the world junior record outright with a time of 19.93 s. For the second time in the role, he was awarded the Austin Sealy Trophy for the most outstanding athlete of the 2004 CARIFTA Games. A hamstring injury in May ruined Bolt's chances of competing in the 2004 World Junior Championships, but he was still chosen for the Jamaican Olympic squad. Bolt headed to the 2004 Athens Olympics with confidence and a new record on his side. However, he was hampered by a leg injury and was eliminated in the first round of the 200 metres with a disappointing time of 21.05 s. American colleges offered Bolt track scholarships to train in the United States while continuing to represent Jamaica on the international stage, but the teenager from Trelawny refused them all, stating that he was content to stay in his homeland of Jamaica. Bolt instead chose the surroundings of the University of Technology, Jamaica, as his professional training ground, staying with the university's track and weight room that had served him well in his amateur years.
The year 2005 signalled a fresh start for Bolt in the form of a new coach, Glen Mills, and a new attitude toward athletics. Mills recognised Bolt's potential and aimed to cease what he considered an unprofessional approach to the sport. Bolt began training with Mills in preparation for the upcoming athletics season, partnering with more seasoned sprinters such as Kim Collins and Dwain Chambers. The year began well, and in July, he knocked more than a third of a second off the 200 m CAC Championship record with a run of 20.03 s, then registered his 200 m season's best at London's Crystal Palace, running in 19.99 s.
Misfortune awaited Bolt at the next major event, the 2005 World Championships in Helsinki. Bolt felt that both his work ethic and athleticism had much improved since the 2004 Olympics, and he saw the World Championships as a way to live up to expectations, stating, "I really want to make up for what happened in Athens. Hopefully, everything will fall into place". Bolt qualified with runs under 21 s, but he suffered an injury in the final, finishing in last place with a time of 26.27 s. Injuries were preventing him from completing a full professional athletics season, and the eighteen-year-old Bolt still had not proven his mettle in the major world-athletics competitions. However, his appearance made him the youngest ever person to appear in a 200 m world final. Bolt was involved in a car accident in November, and although he suffered only minor facial lacerations, his training schedule was further upset. His manager at the time, Norman Peart, made Bolt's training less intensive, and he had fully recuperated the following week. Bolt had continued to improve his performances, and he reached the world top-5 rankings in 2005 and 2006. Peart and Mills stated their intentions to push Bolt to do longer sprinting distances with the aim of making the 400 m event his primary event by 2007 or 2008. Bolt was less enthusiastic, and demanded that he feel comfortable in his sprinting. He suffered another hamstring injury in March 2006, forcing him to withdraw from the 2006 Commonwealth Games in Melbourne, and he did not return to track events until May. After his recovery, Bolt was given new training exercises to improve flexibility, and the plans to move him up to the 400 m event were put on hold.
The 200 m remained Bolt's primary event when he returned to competition; he bested Justin Gatlin's meet record in Ostrava, Czech Republic. Bolt had aspired to run under twenty seconds to claim a season's best but, despite the fact that bad weather had impaired his run, he was happy to end the meeting with just the victory. However, a sub-20-second finish was soon his, as he set a new personal best of 19.88 s at the 2006 Athletissima Grand Prix in Lausanne, Switzerland, finishing behind Xavier Carter and Tyson Gay to earn a bronze medal. Bolt had focused his athletics aims, stating that 2006 was a year to gain experience. Also, he was more keen on competing over longer distances, setting his sights on running regularly in both 200 m and 400 m events within the next two years.
Bolt claimed his first major world medal two months later at the IAAF World Athletics Final in Stuttgart, Germany. He passed the finishing post with a time of 20.10 s, gaining a bronze medal in the process. The IAAF World Cup in Athens, Greece, yielded Bolt's first senior international silver medal. Wallace Spearmon from the United States won gold with a championship record time of 19.87 s, beating Bolt's respectable time of 19.96 s. Further 200 m honours on both the regional and international stages awaited Bolt in 2007. He yearned to run in the 100 metres but Mills was skeptical, believing that Bolt was better suited for middle distances. The coach cited the runner's difficulty in smoothly starting out of the blocks and poor habits such as looking back at opponents in sprints. Mills told Bolt that he could run the shorter distance if he broke the 200 m national record. In the Jamaican Championships, he ran 19.75 s in the 200 m, breaking the 36-year-old Jamaican record held by Don Quarrie by 0.11 s.
Mills complied with Bolt's demand to run in the 100 m, and he was entered to run the event at the 23rd Vardinoyiannia meeting in Rethymno, Crete. In his debut tournament, he won the gold medal in a time of 10.03 s, feeding his enthusiasm for the event.
He built on this achievement at the 2007 World Championships in Osaka, Japan, winning a silver medal. Bolt recorded 19.91 s with a headwind of . The race was won by Tyson Gay in 19.76 s, a new championship record.
Bolt was a member of the silver medal relay team with Asafa Powell, Marvin Anderson, and Nesta Carter in the 4×100 metres relay. Jamaica set a national record of 37.89 s. Bolt did not win any gold medals at the major tournaments in 2007, but Mills felt that Bolt's technique was much improved, pinpointing improvements in Bolt's balance at the turns over 200 m and an increase in his stride frequency, giving him more driving power on the track.
World-record breaker
The silver medals from the 2007 Osaka World Championships boosted Bolt's desire to sprint, and he took a more serious, more mature stance towards his career. Bolt continued to develop in the 100 m, and he decided to compete in the event at the Jamaica Invitational in Kingston. On 3 May 2008, Bolt ran a time of 9.76 s, with a tail wind, improving his personal best from 10.03 s. This was the second-fastest legal performance in the history of the event, second only to compatriot Asafa Powell's 9.74 s record set the previous year in Rieti, Italy. Rival Tyson Gay lauded the performance, especially praising Bolt's form and technique. Michael Johnson observed the race and said that he was shocked at how quickly Bolt had improved over the 100 m distance. The Jamaican surprised even himself with the time, but coach Glen Mills remained confident that there was more to come.
On 31 May 2008, Bolt set a new 100 m world record at the Reebok Grand Prix in the Icahn Stadium in New York City. He ran 9.72s with a tail wind of . This race was Bolt's fifth senior 100 m. Gay again finished second and said of Bolt: "It looked like his knees were going past my face." Commentators noted that Bolt appeared to have gained a psychological advantage over fellow Olympic contender Gay.
In June 2008, Bolt responded to claims that he was a lazy athlete, saying that the comments were unjustified, and he trained hard to achieve his potential. However, he surmised that such comments stemmed from his lack of enthusiasm for the 400 metres event; he chose not to make an effort to train for that particular distance. Turning his efforts to the 200 m, Bolt proved that he could excel in two events—first setting the world-leading time in Ostrava, then breaking the national record for the second time with a 19.67 s finish in Athens, Greece. Although Mills still preferred that Bolt focus on the longer distances, the acceptance of Bolt's demand to run in the 100 m worked for both sprinter and trainer. Bolt was more focused in practice, and a training schedule to boost his top speed and his stamina, in preparation for the Olympics, had improved both his 100 m and 200 m times.
2008 Summer Olympics
Bolt doubled-up with the 100 metres and 200 metres events at the Beijing Summer Olympics. As the new 100 m world-record holder, he was the favourite to win both races. Michael Johnson, the 200 m and 400 m record holder, personally backed the sprinter, saying that he did not believe that a lack of experience would work against him. Bolt qualified for the 100 m final with times of 9.92 s and 9.85 s in the quarter-finals and semi-finals, respectively.
In the Olympic 100 m final (16 August), Bolt broke new ground, winning in 9.69 s (unofficially 9.683 s) with a reaction time of 0.165 s. This was an improvement upon his own world record, and he was well ahead of second-place finisher Richard Thompson, who finished in 9.89 s. Not only was the record set with no favourable wind (0.0 m/s), but he also visibly slowed down to celebrate before he finished and his shoelace was untied. Bolt's coach reported that, based upon the speed of Bolt's opening 60 m, he could have finished with a time of 9.52 s. After scientific analysis of Bolt's run by the Institute of Theoretical Astrophysics at the University of Oslo, Hans Eriksen and his colleagues also predicted a sub 9.60 s time. Considering factors such as Bolt's position, acceleration and velocity in comparison with second-place-finisher Thompson, the team estimated that Bolt could have finished in 9.55±0.04 s had he not slowed to celebrate before the finishing line.
Bolt stated that setting a world record was not a priority for him, and that his goal was just to win the gold medal, Jamaica's first of the 2008 Games. Olympic medallist Kriss Akabusi construed Bolt's chest slapping before the finish line as showboating, noting that the actions cost Bolt an even faster record time. IOC president Jacques Rogge also condemned the Jamaican's actions as disrespectful. Bolt denied that this was the purpose of his celebration by saying, "I wasn't bragging. When I saw I wasn't covered, I was just happy". Lamine Diack, president of the IAAF, supported Bolt and said that his celebration was appropriate given the circumstances of his victory. Jamaican government minister Edmund Bartlett also defended Bolt's actions, stating, "We have to see it in the glory of their moment and give it to them. We have to allow the personality of youth to express itself".
Bolt then focused on attaining a gold medal in the 200 m event, aiming to emulate Carl Lewis' double win in the 1984 Los Angeles Olympics. Michael Johnson felt that Bolt would easily win gold but believed that his own world record of 19.32 s set at the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta would remain intact at the Olympics. Bolt eased through the first and second rounds of the 200 m, jogging towards the end of his run both times. He won his semi-final and progressed to the final as the favourite to win. Retired Jamaican sprinter Don Quarrie praised Bolt, saying he was confident that Johnson's record could be beaten. The following day, at the final, he won Jamaica's fourth gold of the Games, setting a new world and Olympic record of 19.30 s. Johnson's record fell despite the fact that Bolt was impeded by a headwind. The feat made him the first sprinter since Quarrie to hold both 100 m and 200 m world records simultaneously and the first to hold both records since the introduction of electronic timing. Furthermore, Bolt became the first sprinter to break both records at the same Olympics. Unlike in the 100 m final, Bolt sprinted hard all the way to the finishing line in the 200 m race, even dipping his chest to improve his time. Following the race, "Happy Birthday" was played over the stadium's sound system as his 22nd birthday would begin at midnight.
Two days later, Bolt ran as the third leg in the Jamaican 4 × 100 metres relay team, increasing his gold medal total to three. Along with teammates Nesta Carter, Michael Frater, and Asafa Powell, Bolt broke another world and Olympic record, their 37.10 s finish breaking the previous record by three-tenths of a second. Powell, who anchored the team to the finishing line, lamented the loss of his 100m record to Bolt but showed no animosity towards his Jamaican rival, stating that he was delighted to help him set his third world record. In January 2017 the Jamaican relay teammates were stripped of their gold medals when a blood sample taken from Carter after the race was retested and found positive for a banned substance. Following his victories, Bolt donated US$50,000 to the children of Sichuan province in China to help those harmed by the 2008 Sichuan earthquake.
Bolt's record-setting runs caused commentators not only to praise his achievements but to speculate about his potential to become one of the most successful sprinters in history. Critics hailed his Olympic success as a new beginning for a sport that had long suffered through high-profile drug scandals. The previous six years had seen the BALCO scandal, Tim Montgomery and Justin Gatlin stripped of their 100 m world records, and Marion Jones returning three Olympic gold medals. All three sprinters were disqualified from athletics after drugs tests detected banned substances in their systems. Bolt's record-breaking performances caused suspicion among some commentators, including Victor Conte, and the lack of an independent Caribbean anti-doping federation raised more concerns. The accusations of drug use were vehemently rejected by Glen Mills (Bolt's coach) and Herb Elliott (the Jamaican athletics team doctor). Elliott, a member of the IAAF anti-doping commission, urged those concerned about the issue to "come down and see our programme, come down and see our testing, we have nothing to hide". Mills had been equally ardent that Bolt was a clean athlete, declaring to the Jamaica Gleaner: "We will test any time, any day, any part of the body...[he] doesn't even like to take vitamins". Bolt stated that he had been tested four times prior to the Olympics, and all had tested negative for banned substances. He also welcomed anti-doping authorities to test him to prove that he was clean, stating, "We work hard and we perform well and we know we're clean".
After the 2008 Olympics
At the end of the 2008 athletics season, Bolt competed in the ÅF Golden League, beginning in Weltklasse Zürich. Despite having the slowest start among his competitors in the 100 m race, he still crossed the finishing line in 9.83 s. Even though the time was slower than both his newly set world record and Asafa Powell's track record, it was still among the top-fifteen 100 m finishes by any sprinter to that date. Bolt admitted that he was not running at full strength because he was suffering from a cold, but he concentrated on winning the race and finishing the season in good health. At the Super Grand Prix final in Lausanne, Bolt ran his second-fastest 200 m with a time of 19.63 s, equalling Xavier Carter's track record. However, it was the 100 m final, featuring Asafa Powell, that drew the most interest. Powell had moved closer to Bolt's world record after setting a new personal best of 9.72 s, reaffirming his status as Bolt's main contender. Bolt's final event of the season came three days later at the Golden League final in Brussels. This was the first 100 m race featuring both Bolt and Powell since the final in the Olympics. Both Jamaicans broke the track record, but Bolt came out on top with a time of 9.77 s, beating Powell by 0.06 s. Victory, however, did not come as smoothly as it had in Beijing. Bolt made the slowest start of the nine competitors and had to recover ground in cold conditions and against a headwind. Yet the results confirmed Jamaican dominance in the 100 m, with nine of the ten-fastest legal times in history being recorded by either Bolt or Powell.
On his return to Jamaica, Bolt was honoured in a homecoming celebration and received an Order of Distinction in recognition of his achievements at the Olympics. Additionally, Bolt was selected as the IAAF Male Athlete of the year, won a Special Olympic Award for his performances, and was named Laureus World Sportsman of the Year. Bolt turned his attention to future events, suggesting that he could aim to break the 400 metres world record in 2010 as no major championships were scheduled that year.
2009 Berlin World Championships
Bolt started the season competing in the 400 metres in order to improve his speed, winning two races and registering 45.54 s in Kingston, and windy conditions gave him his first sub-10 seconds finish of the season in the 100 m in March. In late April, Bolt suffered minor leg injuries in a car crash. However, he quickly recovered following minor surgery and (after cancelling a track meet in Jamaica) he stated that he was fit to compete in the 150 metres street race at the Manchester Great City Games. Bolt won the race in 14.35 s, the fastest time ever recorded for 150 m. Despite not being at full fitness, he took the 100 and 200 m titles at the Jamaican national championships, with runs of 9.86 s and 20.25 s respectively. This meant he had qualified for both events at the 2009 World Championships. Rival Tyson Gay suggested that Bolt's 100 m record was within his grasp, but Bolt dismissed the claim and instead noted that he was more interested in Asafa Powell's return from injury. Bolt defied unfavourable conditions at the Athletissima meet in July, running 19.59 seconds into a headwind and rain, to record the fourth fastest time ever over 200 m, one hundredth off Gay's best time.
The 2009 World Championships were held during August at the Olympic Stadium in Berlin, which was coincidentally the same month and venue where Jesse Owens had achieved world-wide fame 73 years earlier. Bolt eased through the 100-m heats, clocking the fastest ever pre-final performance of 9.89 seconds. The final was the first time that Bolt and Gay had met during the season, and Bolt set a new world record—which stands to this day—with a time of 9.58s to win his first World Championship gold medal. Bolt took more than a tenth of a second off his previous best mark, and this was the largest-ever margin of improvement in the 100-m world record since the beginning of electronic timing. Gay finished with a time of 9.71 s, 0.02 s off Bolt's 9.69 s world-record run in Beijing.
Although Gay withdrew from the second race of the competition, Bolt once again produced world record-breaking time in the 200 metres final. He broke his own record by 0.11 seconds, finishing with a time of 19.19 seconds. He won the 200 m race by the largest margin in World Championships history, even though the race had three other athletes running under 19.90 seconds, the greatest number ever in the event. Bolt's pace impressed even the more experienced of his competitors; third-placed Wallace Spearmon complimented his speed, and the Olympic champion in Athens 2004 Shawn Crawford said "Just coming out there...I felt like I was in a video game, that guy was moving – fast". Bolt pointed out that an important factor in his performance at the World Championships was his improved start to the races: his reaction times in the 100 m (0.146) and 200 m (0.133) were significantly faster than those he had produced in his world record runs at the Beijing Olympics. However, he, together with other members of Jamaican 4×100 m relay team, fell short of their own world record of 37.10 s set at 2008 Summer Olympics by timing 37.31 s, which is, however, a championship record and the second fastest time in history at that date.
On the last day of the Berlin Championships, the Governing Mayor of Berlin, Klaus Wowereit, presented Bolt with a 12-foot high section of the Berlin Wall in a small ceremony, saying Bolt had shown that "one can tear down walls that had been considered as insurmountable." The nearly three-ton segment was delivered to the Jamaica Military Museum in Kingston.
Several days after Bolt broke the world records in 100 and 200 metres events, Mike Powell, the world record holder in long jump (8.95 metres set in 1991) argued that Bolt could become the first man to jump over 9 metres, the long jump event being "a perfect fit for his speed and height". At the end of the season, he was selected as the IAAF World Athlete of the Year for the second year running.
2010 Diamond League and broken streak
Early on in the 2010 outdoor season, Bolt ran 19.56 seconds in the 200 m in Kingston, Jamaica for the fourth-fastest run of all time, although he stated that he had no record breaking ambitions for the forthcoming season. He took to the international circuit May with wins in East Asia at the Colorful Daegu Pre-Championships Meeting and then a comfortable win in his 2010 IAAF Diamond League debut at the Shanghai Golden Grand Prix. Bolt made an attempt to break Michael Johnson's best time over the rarely competed 300 metres event at the Golden Spike meeting in Ostrava. He failed to match Johnson's ten-year-old record of 30.85 and suffered a setback in that his 30.97-second run in wet weather had left him with an Achilles tendon problem.
After his return from injury a month later, Bolt asserted himself with a 100 m win at the Athletissima meeting in Lausanne (9.82 seconds) and a victory over Asafa Powell at Meeting Areva in Paris (9.84 seconds). Despite this run of form, he suffered only the second loss of his career in a 100 m final at the DN Galan. Tyson Gay soundly defeated him with a run of 9.84 to Bolt's 9.97 seconds, and the Jamaican reflected that he had slacked off in training early in the season while Gay had been better prepared and in a better condition. This marked Bolt's first loss to Gay in the 100 m, which coincidentally occurred in the same stadium where Powell had beaten Bolt for the first time two years earlier.
2011 World Championships
Bolt went undefeated over 100 m and 200 m in the 2011 season. He began with wins in Rome and Ostrava in May. He ran his first 200 m in over a year in Oslo that June and his time of 19.86 seconds was a world-leading one. Two further 200 m wins came in Paris and Stockholm the following month, as did a 100 m in Monaco, though he was a tenth of a second slower than compatriot Asafa Powell before the world championships.
Considered the favourite to win in the 100 metres at the 2011 World Championships in Daegu, Bolt was eliminated from the final, breaking "ridiculously early" according to the starter in an interview for BBC Sport, and receiving a false start. This proved to be the highest profile disqualification for a false start since the IAAF changed the rules that previously allowed one false start per race. The disqualification caused some to question the new rule, with former world champion Kim Collins saying it was "a sad night for athletics". Usain Bolt's countryman, Yohan Blake, won in a comparatively slow 9.92 seconds.
In the World Championships 200 m, Bolt cruised through to the final which he won in a time of 19.40. Though this was short of his world record times of the two previous major tournaments, it was the fourth fastest run ever at that point, after his own records and Michael Johnson's former record, and left him three tenths of a second ahead of runner-up Walter Dix. This achievement made Bolt one of only two men to win consecutive 200 m world titles, alongside Calvin Smith. Bolt closed the championships with another gold with Jamaica in the 4 × 100 metres relay. Nesta Carter and Michael Frater joined world champions Bolt and Blake to set a world record time of 37.04.
Following the World Championships, Bolt ran 9.85 seconds for the 100 m to win in Zagreb before setting the year's best time of 9.76 seconds at the Memorial Van Damme. This run was overshadowed by Jamaican rival Blake's unexpected run of 19.26 seconds in the 200 m at the same meeting, which brought him within seven hundredths of Bolt's world record. Although Bolt failed to win the Diamond Race in a specific event, he was not beaten on the 2011 IAAF Diamond League circuit, taking three wins in each of his specialities that year.
2012 Summer Olympics
Bolt began the 2012 season with a leading 100 m time of 9.82 seconds in May. He defeated Asafa Powell with runs of 9.76 seconds in Rome and 9.79 in Oslo. At the Jamaican Athletics Championships, he lost to Yohan Blake, first in the 200 m and then in the 100 m, with his younger rival setting leading times for the year.
However, at the 2012 London Olympics, he won the 100 metres gold medal with a time of 9.63 seconds, improving upon his own Olympic record and duplicating his gold medal from the 2008 Beijing Olympics. Blake was the silver medallist with a time of 9.75 seconds. Following the race, seventh-place finisher Richard Thompson of Trinidad and Tobago declared "There's no doubt he's the greatest sprinter of all time", while USA Today referred to Bolt as a Jamaican "national hero", noting that his victory came just hours before Jamaica was to celebrate the 50th anniversary of its independence from the United Kingdom. With his 2012 win, Bolt became the first man to successfully defend an Olympic sprint title since Carl Lewis in 1988.
Bolt followed this up with a successful defence of his Olympic 200 metres title with a time of 19.32 seconds, followed by Blake at 19.44 and Warren Weir at 19.84 to complete a Jamaican podium sweep. With this, Bolt became the first man in history to defend both the 100 m and 200 m Olympic sprint titles. He was dramatic in victory: in the final metres of the 200 m race, Bolt placed his fingers on his lips, gesturing to silence his critics, and after crossing the line he completed five push-ups – one for each of his Olympic gold medals.
On the final day of the 2012 Olympic athletics, Bolt participated in Jamaica's gold medal-winning 4×100 metres relay team along with Nesta Carter, Michael Frater and Blake. With a time of 36.84 seconds, they knocked two tenths of a second from their previous world record from 2011. He celebrated by imitating the "Mobot" celebration of Mo Farah, who had claimed a long-distance track double for the host nation.
International Olympic Committee (IOC) President Jacques Rogge initially stated that Bolt was not yet a "legend" and would not deserve such acclaim until the end of his career, but later called him the best sprinter of all time. Following the Olympics he was confirmed as the highest earning track and field athlete in history.
Bolt ended his season with wins on the 2012 IAAF Diamond League circuit; he had 200 m wins of 19.58 and 19.66 in Lausanne and Zürich before closing with a 100 m of 9.86 in Brussels. The latter run brought him his first Diamond League title in the 100 m.
2013 World Championships
Bolt failed to record below 10 seconds early season and had his first major 100 m race of 2013 at the Golden Gala in June. He was served an unexpected defeat by Justin Gatlin, with the American winning 9.94 to Bolt's 9.95. Bolt denied the loss was due to a hamstring issue he had early that year and Gatlin responded: "I don't know how many people have beaten Bolt but it's an honour". With Yohan Blake injured, Bolt won the Jamaican 100 m title ahead of Kemar Bailey-Cole and skipped the 200 m, which was won by Warren Weir. Prior to the 2013 World Championships in Athletics, Bolt set world leading times in the sprints, with 9.85 for the 100 m at the London Anniversary Games and 19.73 for the 200 m in Paris.
Bolt regained the title as world's fastest man by winning the World Championships 100 metres in Moscow. In wet conditions, he edged Gatlin by eight hundredths of a second with 9.77, which was the fastest run that year. Gatlin was the sole non-Jamaican in the top five, with Nesta Carter, Nickel Ashmeade and Bailey-Cole finishing next.
Bolt was less challenged in the 200 m final. His closest rival was Jamaican champion Warren Weir but Bolt ran a time of 19.66 to finish over a tenth of a second clear. This performance made Bolt the first man in the history of the 200 metres at the World Championships in Athletics to win three gold medals over the distance.
Bolt won a third consecutive world relay gold medal in the 4 × 100 metres relay final, which made him the most successful athlete in the 30-year history of the world championships. The Jamaican team, featuring four of the top five from the 100 m final were comfortable winners with Bolt reaching the finish line on his anchor leg three tenths of a second ahead of the American team anchored by Gatlin. Bolt's performances were matched on the women's side by Shelly-Ann Fraser-Pryce, meaning Jamaica took a complete sweep of the sprint medals at the 2013 World Championships.
After the championships, Bolt took 100 m wins on the 2013 IAAF Diamond League circuit in Zürich and Brussels. He remained unbeaten in the 200 m and his only loss that year was to Gatlin over 100 m in Rome. For the fifth time in six years, Bolt was named IAAF World Male Athlete of the Year.
2014: Injury and Commonwealth Games
An injury to Bolt's hamstring in March 2014 caused him to miss nine weeks of training. Having recovered from surgery, Bolt competed in the 4 × 100 metres relay of the 2014 Commonwealth Games in Glasgow. Not in peak form Bolt said that he was attending the Games for the fans and to show his progress since the injury. Bolt and his teammates won the 4 × 100 metres relay in 37.58 seconds – a Commonwealth Games record. This was the foremost competition of the year for Bolt, given no Olympics or World Championships in 2014.
In August 2014, Bolt set the indoor 100 m world record in Warsaw with a time of 9.98 seconds. This was his sole individual outing of the 2014 season. Soon afterwards he ended his season early in order to be fit for the 2015 season. In Bolt's absence, Justin Gatlin had dominated the sprints, holding the year's fastest times, including seven of the top ten 100 m runs that season.
2015 Beijing World Championships
At the start of 2015, he intended to make the 2017 World Championships in Athletics his last major competition before retirement.
Upon his return from injury, Bolt appeared a reduced figure at the start of the 2015 season. He ran only two 100 m and three 200 m before the major championship. He opened with 10.12 seconds for the 100 m and 20.20 for the 200 m. He won the 200 m in New York and Ostrava, but his season's best time of 20.13 seconds ranked him 20th in the world going into the championships. Two 100 m runs of 9.87 in July in London showed better form, but in comparison, Justin Gatlin was easily the top ranked sprinter – the American had times of 9.74 and 19.57 seconds, and had already run under 9.8 seconds on four occasions that season. Bolt entered the World Championships to defend his sprint titles but was not the comfortable favourite he had been since 2008.
In the World Championships 100 m, Bolt won his semi-final in 9.96, which lagged Gatlin's semi-final win in 9.77 seconds. However, Gatlin did not match that form in the final while Bolt improved through the rounds. In a narrow victory, Bolt leaned at the line to beat Gatlin 9.79 to 9.80 seconds. Bolt joined Carl Lewis and Maurice Greene on a record three 100 m world titles.
A similar outcome followed in the 200 m World finals. In the semi-final, Gatlin outpaced Bolt – the Jamaican at 19.95 and the American at 19.87. Despite such slow times prior to Beijing, Bolt delivered in the final with his fifth fastest run ever for the 200 m at 19.55 seconds. Gatlin failed to reach his early season form and finished almost two-tenths of a second behind Bolt. Bolt's four consecutive wins over 200 m at the World Championships was unprecedented and established him clearly as the best ever sprinter at the competition.
There was also a fourth straight win in the 4 × 100 metres relay with the Jamaica team (Nesta Carter, Asafa Powell, Nickel Ashmeade, Usain Bolt). The Americans initially had a lead, but a poor baton exchange saw them disqualified and Jamaica defend their title in 37.36 seconds – well clear of the Chinese team who took a surprise silver for the host nation.
Conscious of his injuries at the start of the season, he did not compete after the World Championships, skipping the 2015 IAAF Diamond League final.
2016 Rio Olympics
Bolt competed sparingly in the 200 m before the Olympics, with a run of 19.89 seconds to win at the London Grand Prix being his sole run of note over that distance. He had four races over 100 m, though only one was in Europe, and his best of 9.88 seconds in Kingston placed him fourth on the world seasonal rankings. As in the previous season, Gatlin appeared to be in better form, having seasonal bests of 9.80 and 19.75 seconds to rank first and second in the sprints. Doping in athletics was a prime topic before the 2016 Rio Olympics, given the banning of the Russian track and field team for state doping, and Bolt commented that he had no problem with doping controls: "I have no issue with being drug-tested...I remember in Beijing every other day they were drug-testing us". He also highlighted his dislike of rival Tyson Gay's reduced ban for cooperation, given their close rivalry since the start of Bolt's career, saying "it really bothered me – really, really bothered me".
At the 2016 Rio Olympics, Bolt won the 100 metres gold medal with a time of 9.81 seconds. With this win, Bolt became the first athlete to win the event three times at the Olympic Games. Bolt followed up his 100 m win with a gold medal in the 200 m, which also makes him the first athlete to win the 200 m three times at the Olympic Games. Bolt ran the anchor leg for the finals of the 4 × 100 m relay and secured his third consecutive and last Olympic gold medal in the event. With that win, Bolt obtained the "triple-triple", three sprinting gold medals in three consecutive Olympics, and finished his Olympic career with a 100% win record in finals. However, in January 2017, Bolt was stripped of the 4 × 100 relay gold from the Beijing Games in 2008 because his teammate Nesta Carter was found guilty of a doping violation.
2017 season
Bolt took a financial stake in a new Australia-based track and field meeting series – Nitro Athletics. He performed at the inaugural meet in February 2017 and led his team (Bolt All-Stars) to victory. The competition featured variations on traditional track and field events. He committed himself to three further editions.
In 2017, the Jamaican team was stripped of the 2008 Olympics 4×100 metre title due to Nesta Carter's disqualification for doping offences. Bolt, who never failed a dope test, was quoted by the BBC saying that the prospect of having to return the gold was "heartbreaking". The banned substance in Carter's test was identified as methylhexanamine, a nasal decongestant sometimes used in dietary supplements.
At the 2017 World Athletics Championships, Bolt won his heat uncomfortably after a slow start in 10.07, in his semi-final he improved to 9.98 but was beaten by Christian Coleman by 0.01. That race broke Bolt's 4 year winning streak in the 100 m. In his final individual race, in the final, Bolt won the bronze medal in 9.95, 0.01 behind silver medalist Coleman and 0.03 behind World Champion Justin Gatlin. It was the first time Bolt had been beaten at a major championship since the 4×100 m relay of the 2007 World Athletics Championships. Also at the 2017 World Athletics Championships, Bolt participated as the anchor runner for Jamaica's 4×100-metre relay team in both the heats and the final. Jamaica won their heat comfortably in 37.95 seconds. In what was intended to be his final race, Bolt pulled up in agony with 50 metres to go and collapsed to the track after what was later confirmed to be another hamstring injury. He refused a wheelchair and crossed the finish line one last time with the assistance of his teammates Omar McLeod, Julian Forte, and Yohan Blake.
Following his 2017 season, Bolt had a statue of him unveiled in his honour at the National Stadium in Kingston on 3 December 2017. The statue shows him in his signature "lightning bolt" pose.
Personal life
Bolt expresses a love for dancing and his character is frequently described as laid-back and relaxed. His Jamaican track and field idols include Herb McKenley and former Jamaican 100 m and 200 m world record holder Don Quarrie. Michael Johnson, the former 200 m world and Olympic record holder, is also held in high esteem by Bolt.
Bolt has the nickname "Lightning Bolt" due to his name and speed. He is Catholic and known for making the sign of the cross before racing competitively, and he wears a Miraculous Medal during his races. His middle name is St. Leo.
In 2010, Bolt also revealed his fondness of music, when he played a reggae DJ set to a crowd in Paris. He is also an avid fan of the Call of Duty video game series, saying, "I stay up late [playing the game online], I can't help it."
In his autobiography, Bolt reveals that he has suffered from scoliosis, a condition that has curved his spine to the right and has made his right leg shorter than his left. A result of this is that his left leg remains on the ground 14 percent longer than his right leg, with left leg striking the ground with a force of and right with . Biomechanics researchers have studied, with no firm conclusions, whether this asymmetry has helped or hurt Bolt in his sprinting career.
He popularised the "lightning bolt" pose, also known as "to di world" or "bolting", which he used both before races and in celebration. The pose consists of extending a slightly raised left arm to the side and the right arm folded across the chest, with both hands have the thumb and index finger outstretched. His performance of the pose during his Olympic and World Championship victories led to widespread copying of the move, from American President Barack Obama to small children. It has been suggested that the pose comes from Jamaican dancehall moves of the period, though Olympic sprint champion Bernard Williams also had performed similar celebration moves earlier that decade. His habit of fist bumping the volunteers for good luck has been noted in the media.
In 2021, Bolt told the BBC that his love for video games, such as Mario Kart and Mortal Kombat, helped him during his Olympic career.
Financial crisis
Usain Bolt had fallen victim to a fraud scheme, resulting in the disappearance of more than $12 million from his retirement savings account, according to a letter from his attorneys obtained by the Associated Press. The account, held with Kingston-based investment firm Stocks and Securities Ltd., showed a balance of only $12,000, down from its previous $12.8 million. Bolt's legal team had stated that if the allegations were true, a serious act of fraud or larceny had been committed against their client.
Family
On 17 May 2020, Bolt's longtime girlfriend Kasi Bennett gave birth to their first child, daughter Olympia Lightning. Bolt and Bennett welcomed twin boys Thunder and Saint Leo in June 2021.
Other sports
Cricket was the first sport to interest Bolt, and he said if he were not a sprinter, he would be a fast bowler instead. As a child, he admired the bowling of Waqar Younis. He is also a fan of Indian batsman Sachin Tendulkar, West Indian opener Chris Gayle, and Australian opener Matthew Hayden. During a charity cricket match, Bolt clean-bowled Gayle, who was complimentary of Bolt's pace and swing. Bolt also struck a six off Gayle's bowling. Another bowler complimentary of Bolt's pace was former West Indies fast-bowling great Curtly Ambrose.
After talking with Australian cricketer Shane Warne, Bolt suggested that if he were able to get time off he would be interested in playing in the cricket Big Bash League. Melbourne Stars chief executive Clint Cooper said there were free spots on his team should he be available. Bolt stated that he enjoyed the Twenty20 version of the game, admiring the aggressive and constant nature of the batting. On his own ability, he said, "I don't know how good I am. I will probably have to get a lot of practice in."
Bolt is also a fan of Premier League football team Manchester United. He has declared he is a fan of Dutch striker Ruud van Nistelrooy. Bolt was a special guest of Manchester United at the 2011 UEFA Champions League Final in London, where he stated that he would like to play for them after his retirement.
In 2013, Bolt played basketball in the NBA All-Star Weekend Celebrity Game. He scored two points from a slam dunk but acknowledged his other basketball skills were lacking.
In an interview with Decca Aitkenhead of The Guardian in November 2016, Bolt said he wished to play as a professional footballer after retiring from track and field. He reiterated his desire to play for Manchester United if given a chance and added, "For me, if I could get to play for Manchester United, that would be like a dream come true. Yes, that would be epic."
In 2018, after training with Norwegian side Strømsgodset, Bolt played for the club as a forward in a friendly match against the Norway national under-19 team. He wore the number "9.58" in allusion to his 100 m world record. Bolt wore the same number whilst captaining the World XI during Soccer Aid 2018 at Old Trafford.
On 21 August 2018, on his 32nd birthday, Bolt started training with Australian club Central Coast Mariners of the A-League. He made his friendly debut for the club as a substitute on 31 August 2018 against a Central Coast Select team, made up of players playing in the local area. On 12 October, he started in a friendly against amateur club Macarthur South West United and scored two goals, both in the second half, with his goal celebration featuring his signature "To Di World" pose.
Bolt was offered a two-year contract from Maltese club Valletta, which he turned down on 18 October 2018. On 21 October 2018, Bolt was offered a contract by the Mariners. The Australian FA was helping the Mariners to fund it. Later that month, Perth Glory forward Andy Keogh was critical of Bolt's ability, stating his first touch is "like a trampoline." He added Bolt has "shown a bit of potential but it's a little bit of a kick in the teeth to the professionals that are in the league."
Bolt left the Mariners in early November 2018 after 8 weeks with the club. In January 2019, Bolt decided not to pursue a career in football, saying his "sports life is over."
Bolt, a Green Bay Packers fan, stated in July 2021 he could have considered a career as a wide receiver in the National Football League had the rules on violent tackles related to concussions been as tightly regulated 'back in the day' as they were by that stage. If he had switched to gridiron football, his concern was that he would have been a high-priced target for very heavy hits which made him back out of his desire to try the sport. He also felt certain that even at 34 and being retired he would comfortably be the fastest player in the league.
Documentary film
A documentary film based on the athletic life of Bolt to win three Olympic gold medals, titled I Am Bolt, was released on 28 November 2016 in United Kingdom. The film was directed by Benjamin Turner and Gabe Turner.
Infection with COVID-19
On 24 August 2020, Bolt tested positive for COVID-19 and subsequently went into self-isolation in his home. He said that he was asymptomatic. Bolt had himself tested on 22 August, the day after celebrating his 34th birthday with a party where guests did not wear face masks. Coincidentally, the guests at the party danced in an open field to Jamaican reggae singer Koffee's song "Lockdown".
Sponsorships and advertising work
After winning the 200 m title in the 2002 World Junior Championships in Kingston, Bolt signed a sponsorship deal with Puma. To promote Bolt's chase for Olympic glory in the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, China, Puma released a series of videos including Bolt's then-world-record-setting run in Icahn Stadium and his Olympic preparations. After his record-breaking run in New York City, which was preceded by a lightning storm, the press frequently made puns on the Jamaican's name, nicknaming him "Lightning Bolt" and the "Bolt from the blue". During the 2008 Beijing 100 m final, Bolt wore golden Puma Complete Theseus spikes that had "Beijing 100 m Gold" emblazoned across them. Writing of Bolt's performance at the Olympics, The Associated Press said:
In September 2010, Bolt travelled to Australia where his sponsor Gatorade was holding an event called the "Gatorade Bolt" to find Australia's fastest footballer. The event was held at the Sydney International Athletic Centre and featured football players from rugby league, rugby union, Australian rules football, and association football. Prior to the race Bolt gave the runners some private coaching and also participated in the 10th anniversary celebrations for the 2000 Summer Olympic Games.
In January 2012, Bolt impersonated Richard Branson in an advertising campaign for Virgin Media. The campaign was directed by Seth Gordon and features the Virgin founder Branson to promote its broadband service. In March 2012, Bolt starred in an advert for Visa and the 2012 Summer Olympics. In July 2012, Bolt and RockLive launched Bolt!, an Apple iOS game based on his exploits. Bolt! quickly became the No. 1 app in Jamaica and climbed the UK iTunes charts to reach No. 2 on the list of Top Free Apps.
In 2012, Bolt collaborated with headphone maker Soul Electronics to design his own line of headphones. Bolt designed both an in-ear bud and over-ear model with the Jamaican color scheme and his signature "To Di World" pose.
Bolt's autobiography, My Story: 9.58: Being the World's Fastest Man, was released in 2010. Bolt had previously said that the book "...should be exciting, it's my life, and I'm a cool and exciting guy." His athletics agent is PACE Sports Management.
As part of his sponsorship deal with Puma, the manufacturer sends sporting equipment to his alma mater, William Knibb Memorial High School, every year. At Bolt's insistence, advertisements featuring him are filmed in Jamaica, by a Jamaican production crew, in an attempt to boost local enterprise and gain exposure for the country. In 2017, Bolt had the third highest earning social media income for sponsors among sportspeople (behind Cristiano Ronaldo and Neymar), and he was the only non-footballer in the top seven.
Bolt is the highest paid athlete in the history of the sport. In 2016, Bolt earned about $33 million in one year putting him at No. 32 on Forbes list of The World's Highest-paid Athletes making him the only track and field athlete on the list.
Entrepreneurship
Usain Bolt co-founded electric scooter company Bolt Mobility in 2018, created in his namesake. Bolt founded the micromobility company, which provides electric scooters and other yet-to-be released mobility devices, such as the company's upcoming Bolt Nano. Bolt appeared in Bolt Mobility's debut commercial, released through YouTube and his official Facebook account. Bolt appeared in a number of interviews for the company, alongside CEO Sarah Pishevar Haynes. Bolt made his first public appearance for the company in March 2019, during the company's New York City launch and in CNBC interviews on the NYSE.
In May 2019, the company expanded its services to Europe, introducing the product first in Paris.
In May 2019, Bolt spoke in Paris at the Viva Technology conference, where he introduced the company's future release of the Nano minicar. He also met with French president Emmanuel Macron while at the conference. While in France, Bolt participated in a CNN interview where he revealed his reasons for founding the company.
Bolt argues that his scooter is different, which allows bag, shopping and mobile phone storage. The scooters have capabilities to reach up to 30 mph, but are typically capped at 15 mph depending on city regulation. The company has begun operations in a number of U.S. cities, and plans to expand throughout Europe and Asia.
In early July 2022, Bolt Mobility abruptly ceased operations, leaving bike-sharing programs up in the air, including Burlington, Vermont; Portland, Oregon; Richmond, California; and Richmond, Virginia.
Music producer
In July 2019, Bolt made his debut as a dancehall music producer with the release of the Olympe Rosé riddim that featured 5 tracks from Jamaican dancehall artistes: Dexta Daps "Big Moves", Munga Honorable "Weekend", Christopher Martin "Dweet", Ding Dong "Top A Di Top" and football player turned artist Ricardo "Bibi" Gardner "Mount A Gyal".
In November 2019, he followed up with another compilation called Immortal Riddim that included tracks from Vybz Kartel, Masicka, Munga Honorable and Christopher Martin.
In early January 2021, Bolt released a single titled "Living the Dream" with his childhood friend and manager Nugent 'NJ' Walker.
Recognition
IAAF World Athlete of the Year: 2008, 2009, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2016
Track & Field Athlete of the Year: 2008, 2009
Laureus World Sportsman of the Year: 2009, 2010, 2013, 2017
BBC Overseas Sports Personality of the Year: 2008, 2009, 2012
L'Équipe Champion of Champions: 2008, 2009, 2012, 2015
Jamaica Sportsman of the year: 2008, 2009, 2011, 2012, 2013
AIPS Male Athlete of the Year: 2015
Marca Leyenda (2009)
In October 2008, he was made a Commander of the Order of Distinction, which entitles him to use the post nominal letters CD.
In 2009, at age 23, Usain Bolt became the youngest member so far of the Order of Jamaica. The award was "for outstanding performance in the field of athletics at the international level". In the Jamaican honours system, this is considered the equivalent of a knighthood in the British honours system, and entitles him to be formally styled "The Honourable", and to use the post nominal letters OJ.
Statistics
Personal bests
Records
Bolt's personal best of 9.58 seconds in 2009 in the 100 metres is the fastest ever run. Bolt also holds the second fastest time of 9.63 seconds, the current Olympic record, and set two previous world records in the event. Bolt's personal best of 19.19 s in the 200 metres is the world record. This was recorded at the 2009 World Championships in Athletics in Berlin against a headwind of . This performance broke his previous world record in the event, his 19.30 s clocking in winning the 2008 Olympic 200 metres title.
Bolt has been on three world-record-setting Jamaican relay teams. The first record, 37.10 seconds, was set in winning gold at the 2008 Summer Olympics, although the result was voided in 2017 when the team was disqualified. The second record came at the 2011 World Championships in Athletics, a time of 37.04 seconds. The third world record was set at the 2012 Summer Olympics, a time of 36.84 seconds.
Bolt also holds the 200 metres world teenage best results for the age categories 15 (20.58 s), 16 (20.13 s, former world youth record), 17 (19.93 s) and 18 (19.93 s, world junior record). He also holds the 150 metres world best set in 2009, during which he ran the last 100 metres in 8.70 seconds, the quickest timed 100 metres ever.
Bolt completed a total of 53 wind-legal sub-10-second performances in the 100 m during his career, with his first coming on 3 May 2008 and his last on 5 August 2017 at the World Championships. His longest undefeated streak in the 200 m was in 17 finals, lasting from 12 June 2008 to 3 September 2011. He also had a win-streak covering 14 100 m finals from 16 August 2008 to 16 July 2010.
Guinness World Records
Bolt claimed 19 Guinness World Records, and, after Michael Phelps, holds the second-highest number of accumulative Guinness World Records for total number of accomplishments and victories in sports.
Fastest run 150 metres (male)
Most medals won at the IAAF Athletics World Championships (male)
Most gold medals won at the IAAF Athletics World Championships (male)
Most Athletics World Championships Men's 200 m wins
Most consecutive Olympic gold medals won in the 100 metres (male)
Most consecutive Olympic gold medals won in the 200 metres (male)
Most Olympic men's 200 metres Gold medals
Fastest run 200 metres (male)
Most Men's IAAF World Athlete of Year Trophies
First Olympic track sprint triple-double
Highest annual earnings for a track athlete
Most wins of the 100 m sprint at the Olympic Games
First athlete to win the 100 m and 200 m sprints at successive Olympic Games
Fastest run 100 metres (male)
First man to win the 200 m sprint at successive Olympic Games
Most Athletics World Championships Men's 100 m wins
Most tickets sold at an IAAF World Championships
Most competitive 100 m sprint races completed in sub 10 seconds
Fastest relay 4×100 metres (male)
Average and top speeds
From his record time of 9.58 s for the 100 m sprint, Usain Bolt's average ground speed equates to . However, once his reaction time of 0.148 s is subtracted, his time is 9.44 s, making his average speed . Bolt's top speed, based on his split time of 1.61 s for the 20 metres from the 60- to 80-metre marks (made during the 9.58 WR at 100m), is 12.42 m/s ().
Season's bests
World rank in parentheses
World rankings
International competitions
National titles
Jamaican Athletics Championships
100 m: 2008, 2009, 2013
200 m: 2003, 2005, 2007, 2008, 2009
Circuit wins
100 m
Diamond League / Golden League
Overall winner: 2012
Zürich Weltklasse: 2008, 2009, 2013
Brussels Memorial Van Damme: 2008, 2011, 2012, 2013
Paris Meeting Areva: 2009, 2010
Lausanne Athletissima: 2010
Rome Golden Gala: 2011, 2012
Monaco Herculis: 2011, 2017
London Anniversary Games: 2013, 2015
Other World Tour / World Challenge meets
Rethymno Vardinoyiannia: 2007
Kingston Jamaica International: 2008, 2012
New York Reebok Grand Prix: 2008
Ostrava Golden Spike: 2009, 2011, 2012, 2016, 2017
London Grand Prix: 2009
Daegu Colorful Pre-Championships Meeting: 2010
Zagreb Hanžeković Memorial: 2011
Hampton International Games: 2008
Warsaw Kamila Skolimowska Memorial: 2014
Kingston Racers Grand Prix: 2016, 2017
200 m
Diamond League / Golden League
Brussels Memorial Van Damme: 2009
Shanghai: 2010
Oslo Bislett Games: 2011, 2012, 2013
Paris Meeting Areva: 2011, 2013
Stockholm DN-galan: 2011
Lausanne Athletissima: 2012
Zürich Weltklasse: 2012
New York Adidas Grand Prix: 2015
London Anniversary Games: 2016
Other World Tour / World Challenge meets
Kingston Jamaica International: 2005, 2006, 2010
New York Reebok Grand Prix: 2005
Ostrava Golden Spike: 2006, 2008, 2015
Zagreb Hanžeković Memorial: 2006
London Grand Prix: 2007, 2008
Athens Grand Prix Tsiklitiria: 2008
Lausanne Athletissima: 2008, 2009
Hampton International Games: 2007
Kingston UTech Classic: 2015
Other distances
Manchester GreatCity Games: 2010 (150 m)
Ostrava Golden Spike: 2010 (300 m)
See also
Athletics in Jamaica
Jamaica at the Olympics
List of multiple Olympic gold medalists
List of multiple Olympic gold medalists at a single Games
Men's 100 metres world record progression
Men's 200 metres world record progression
Sport in Berlin
Notes
References
External links
Usain Bolt timeline via The Daily Telegraph
Videos
Usain Bolt wins the 2009 IAAF World Championships in Athletics men's 100 metres final in 9.58 seconds via IAAF on YouTube
Usain Bolt wins the 2009 Great CityGames Manchester men's 150 metres final in 14.35 seconds via Athletics Weekly on YouTube
Usain Bolt wins the 2009 IAAF World Championships in Athletics men's 200 metres final in 19.19 seconds via IAAF on YouTube
Usain Bolt wins the 2012 Olympic Games men's 100 metres final in 9.63 seconds via the Olympic Channel on YouTube
Usain Bolt wins the 2012 Olympic Games men's 200 metres final in 19.32 seconds via the Olympic Channel on YouTube
Usain Bolt wins the 2016 Olympic Games men's 100 metres final in 9.81 seconds via the Olympic Channel on YouTube
Usain Bolt wins the 2016 Olympic Games men's 200 metres final in 19.79 seconds via the Olympic Channel on YouTube
All of Usain Bolt's Olympic Games finals via the Olympic Channel on YouTube
1986 births
Living people
Sportspeople from Trelawny Parish
Jamaican autobiographers
Jamaican male sprinters
Olympic male sprinters
Olympic athletes for Jamaica
Olympic gold medalists for Jamaica
Olympic gold medalists in athletics (track and field)
Athletes (track and field) at the 2004 Summer Olympics
Athletes (track and field) at the 2008 Summer Olympics
Athletes (track and field) at the 2012 Summer Olympics
Athletes (track and field) at the 2016 Summer Olympics
Medalists at the 2008 Summer Olympics
Medalists at the 2012 Summer Olympics
Medalists at the 2016 Summer Olympics
Competitors stripped of Summer Olympics medals
Commonwealth Games gold medallists for Jamaica
Commonwealth Games gold medallists in athletics
Athletes (track and field) at the 2014 Commonwealth Games
World Athletics Championships athletes for Jamaica
World Athletics Championships winners
World Athletics Championships medalists
World Athletics U20 Championships winners
IAAF World Athletics Final winners
Diamond League winners
Jamaican Athletics Championships winners
World Athletics record holders
World Athletics record holders (relay)
BBC Sports Personality World Sport Star of the Year winners
Laureus World Sports Awards winners
Track & Field News Athlete of the Year winners
Members of the Order of Jamaica
Recipients of the Order of Distinction
Jamaican Roman Catholics
Commonwealth Games competitors for Jamaica
Medallists at the 2014 Commonwealth Games
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedro%20P%C3%A1ramo
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Pedro Páramo
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Pedro Páramo is a novel written by Mexican writer Juan Rulfo. The novel tells the story of Juan Preciado, a man who promises his mother on her deathbed to meet Preciado's father for the first time in the town of Comala only to come across a literal ghost town, that is, populated by spectral characters. During the course of the novel, these ghostly inhabitants reveal details about life and afterlife in Comala, including that of Preciado's reckless father, Pedro Páramo, and his centrality for the town. Initially, the novel was met with cold critical reception and sold only two thousand copies during the first four years; later, however, the book became highly acclaimed. Páramo was a key influence on Latin American writers such as Gabriel García Márquez. Pedro Páramo has been translated into more than 30 different languages and the English version has sold more than a million copies in the United States.
Gabriel García Márquez has said that he felt blocked as a novelist after writing his first four books and that it was only his life-changing discovery of Pedro Páramo in 1961 that opened his way to the composition of his masterpiece, One Hundred Years of Solitude. Moreover, García Márquez claimed that he "could recite the whole book, forwards and backwards." Jorge Luis Borges considered Pedro Páramo to be one of the greatest texts written in any language.
Plot
Narrative structure
The story begins with the first-person account of Juan Preciado, who promises his mother at her deathbed that he will return to Comala to meet his father, Pedro Páramo. His narration is interspersed with fragments of third-person dialogue from the life of Pedro Páramo, who lived in a time when Comala was a robust, living town, instead of the ghost town Juan now sees. The two major competing narrative voices present alternative visions of Comala, one living and one populated with the spirits of the dead.
The novel is set in the fictional town of Comala and its surroundings, a reference to the real town of Comala in the Mexican state of Colima, close to Juan Rulfo's homeland.
Summary
The sequence of events for the plot is broken up in the work in a nonlinear fashion and is at times difficult to discern and the same occurs with the characters as it is often impossible at first for the reader even to tell which characters are alive or dead.
The earliest moment in the story is Fulgor Sedano's arrival at Media Luna. His old patrón, Don Lucas, informs him that his son Pedro Páramo is totally useless and that he should go and get a new job when he dies. Later, Pedro's grandfather dies, and when his family prays for him after his death to help shorten his time in Purgatory, Pedro instead thinks about playing with Susana San Juan, the love of his life. They would fly kites near the village, and Pedro would help Susana fly hers. He is scolded for taking so long in the outhouse by his mother while he recalls this event. Soon after Señora San Juan dies, the San Juan family moves to the mining region. Exploring the Andromeda mine, Señor San Juan lowers Susana at the end of a rope into the old mine shaft. Searching for gold coins, Susana only finds a skeleton. Later in her life, her husband Florencio dies, and she's driven mad by the belief that he's still alive.
When Lucas Páramo is mistakenly killed at a wedding, Pedro later massacres most of the wedding guests. Fulgor Sedano informs Pedro about his father's debts to the Preciado family. To relieve these debts, they concoct a plan to marry Dolores Preciado. When Sedano tries to convince her, she informs him that she's menstruating and cannot be married so soon. Osorio later warns Dolores not to sleep with Pedro on their wedding night, so she begs Eduviges Dyada to sleep with him in her place. Eduviges agrees, but Pedro is too drunk to have sex.
Pedro's son Miguel is killed when, travelling to Contla, he jumps over a fence with his horse. Despite Miguel's cruel and irredeemable nature, Father Rentería absolves him after Pedro pays him in gold coins. Father Rentería remembers how Miguel killed his brother and raped his niece. Dorotea later confesses to Father Rentería that she was trafficking girls for Miguel Páramo; the priest cannot forgive her.
Pedro Páramo seeks to add Toribio Aldrete's land to his estate, and when Toribio visits the home of Eduviges, Pedro Páramo and Fulgor Sedano hang him. Later, Eduviges kills herself out of despair. Living in the Media Luna estate, Dolores Preciado leaves Pedro Páramo to live with her sister.
At the onset of the Mexican Revolution, the countryside has become too dangerous, and the San Juan family returns to Comala. When Señor San Juan dies, his ghost visits the crazed Susana, who only laughs. A stuttering man (Spanish: El Tartamudo) arrives at Pedro's house and informs him that revolutionaries have captured and killed Fulgor Sedano. To protect himself, Pedro invites local revolutionaries to his house for supper, promising them money and support. Pedro informs a revolutionary leader, El Tilcuate, that the money has run out and that he should raid a larger town for supplies.
When Susana San Juan dies, she refuses absolution by the priest, and Father Rentería pretends to give her last sacraments. The people of Comala have a large party, greatly annoying Pedro, who is mourning the loss of Susana. Out of spite, he lets the town die of starvation. The wife of Abundio Martínez, Refugia, dies of this starvation. He heads into town to drink, and finds Damiana Cisneros, the cook at the Media Luna. Abundio Martínez stabs her to death, captured and dragged to the Media Luna. There, Abundio kills Pedro Páramo, revealing that he's an illegitimate son of his. As he dies, he thinks of Susana and sees the ghost of Damiana.
Dolores Preciado dies, and on her deathbed, she charges her son Juan to head to Comala and find his father Pedro Páramo. There, he finds the ghosts of Abundio, Eduviges, and Damiana, who tell him the stories of the town. He meets an incestuous couple, Donis and his sister, and spends the night at their house. Haunted by the ghosts of Comala, Juan dies of fright, buried in a shared grave with Dorotea. Trapped in his grave, he experiences the story and life of Pedro Páramo.
Themes
A major theme in the book is people's hopes and dreams as sources of the motivation they need to succeed. Hope is each character's central motive for action. As Dolores tells her son, Juan, to return to Comala, she hopes that he will find his father and get what he deserves after all of these years. Despair is the other main theme in the novel. Each character's hopes lead to despair since none of their attempts to attain their goals are successful.
Juan goes to Comala instilled with the hope that he will meet and finally get to know his father. He fails to accomplish this and dies fearful, having lost all hope.
Pedro hopes that Susana San Juan will return to him after so long. He was infatuated with her as a young boy and recalls flying kites with her in his youth. When she finally returns to him, she has gone mad and behaves as though her first husband were still alive. Nevertheless, Pedro hopes that she will eventually come to love him. Dorotea says that Pedro truly loved Susana and wanted nothing but the best for her.
Father Rentería lives in hope that he will someday be able to fully fulfill his vows as a Catholic priest, telling Pedro that his son will not go to heaven, instead of pardoning him for his many sins in exchange for a lump of gold.
Ghosts and the ethereal nature of the truth are also recurrent themes in the text. When Juan arrives in Comala it is a ghost town, yet this is only gradually revealed to the reader. For example, in an episode with Damiana Cisneros, Juan talks to her believing that she is alive. They walk through the town together until he becomes suspicious as to how she knew that he was in town, and he nervously asks, "Damiana Cisneros, are you alive?" This encounter shows the truth as fleeting, always changing, and impossible to pin down. It is difficult to truly know who is dead and who is alive in Comala.
Sometimes the order and nature of events that occur in the work are not as they first seem. For example, midway through the book, the original chronology is subverted when the reader finds out that much of what has preceded was a flashback to an earlier time.
Interpretation
Critics primarily consider Pedro Páramo as either a work of magic realism or a precursor to later works of magic realism; this is the standard Latin American interpretation. However, magical realism is a term coined to note the juxtaposition of the surreal to the mundane, with each bearing traits of the other. It is a means of adding surreal or supernatural qualities to a written work while avoiding total disbelief. Pedro Páramo is unlike other works of this type because the primary narrator states clearly in the second paragraph of the novel that his mind has filled with dreams and that he has given flight to illusion and that a world has formed in his mind around the hopes of finding a man named Pedro Páramo. Likewise, several sections into this narration, Juan Preciado states that his head has filled with noises and voices. He is unable to distinguish living persons from apparitions. Certain critics believe that particular qualities of the novel, including the narrative fragmentation, the physical fragmentation of characters, and the auditory and visual hallucinations described by the primary narrator, suggest that this novel's journey and visions may be more readily associated with the sort of breakdown of the senses present in schizophrenia or schizophrenia-like conditions rather than with magical realism.
Meaning of title
It is obvious that the title underscores the importance of the character of Pedro Páramo. Pedro is a very important character, and his life and decisions that he makes are key to the survival of the town of Comala. His last name is symbolic because it means "barren plain" or "wasteland", which is what the town of Comala becomes as a result of his manipulation.
He is not only responsible for the economic well-being of the town but also for the existence of many of its inhabitants. His offspring includes Abundio, Miguel, and Juan, along with countless others. He is commonly seen raping women, and even Dorotea cannot keep track of all the women he has slept with.
He is also responsible for the security of the town. He strikes a deal with the revolutionary army and does so mainly in his own self-interest and for protection. But being the owner of such a large swath of land, he is, by extension, in charge of the physical well-being of the town.
An example of his power is when he decides to allow Comala to starve and do nothing with the fields and with the crops. The town withers on his apathy and indifference.
The entire work centers around his actions, appetites and desires. He holds the town of Comala in the proverbial palm of his hand.
Characters
Main characters
Pedro Páramo
Pedro Páramo is both protagonist and antagonist since his acts are at cross-purposes. He is capable of decisive action, like when he eliminated his debt and took over more land, but is unable to use that decisiveness to do any good for the community. He is like a tragic hero in the way that he longs for Susana and is totally unable to get over her death. His one fatal flaw is her. He cannot function without her or the incentive of her. Pedro serves as a fertility god figurehead in the work. He not only literally impregnates many of the town's women, but he has many children (the priest brings many to his doorstep). He also is in charge of the well-being of Comala, but also can "cross his arms" and let Comala die. This shows that he has the power of life and fertility over the town. Pedro's name has great significance in the work. Pedro is derived from the Greek , meaning 'rock', and Páramo, meaning 'barren plain'. This is ironic since in the end of the work Pedro collapses "like a pile of rocks" after observing what his land had become.
Susana San Juan
She is the love of Pedro's life. They grew up together. Her mother died friendless, and later her father Bartolomé is killed in the Andromeda mine by Sedano so that Pedro can marry her. She loved her first husband very much and went mad when he died. She thinks that he is still living, and she "talks" to him several times in the work. She appeared to have loved him for his body and not for his personality. She might have had sex with Pedro, but it is apparent that he wanted to have her. They were never married since he had never divorced Dolores. He is full of grief when she dies and refuses to work anymore and lets the town die. She is commonly portrayed and symbolized as the rain and water. In the passages that she is in, there is a backdrop with it raining. Such an example of this is the scene with Justina, Susana, and the cat. The entire background is the rain; it is raining torrents, and the valley is flooded.
Juan Preciado – narrator
Juan is one of the two narrators in the work. He recounts his story for the first half of the work, up until his death. He comes to Comala in order to find his father, his mother's last wish. He finds the town abandoned and dies of fright from the ghosts. He is then buried in the same grave as Dorotea, whom he talks with. It is apparent that he dies without the proper sacraments and is now stuck in purgatory.
Fulgor Sedano – mentor
He is the administrator of the Media Luna. Initially warned by Pedro's father not to trust him, he eventually becomes enforcing hand of Pedro's schemes. He had been around the estate for many years serving the former patrons, Pedro's father Lucas and Lucas's father before that. He knows what to do and how to do it and boasts a number of achievements, including getting Dolores to marry Pedro. He is killed by a band of revolutionaries who view him as an embodiment of the privileged estate that they are fighting against. He also is responsible for having Toribio Aldrete hanged because he was trying to get the land surveyed to prove his right to some of it.
Miguel Páramo
He and Juan are both sons of Pedro Páramo. Miguel is the only son recognized by Pedro and was thus being groomed as the next Páramo heir. Miguel's character is the exact opposite to Juan. He is wild and a rapist, while Juan is quiet and respectful of women. He is fearless, whereas Juan dies of fear. He has a horse and rides it often, whereas Juan does not and has to travel by foot. His wantonness contrasts the calmness of Juan despite their shared parentage.
Additionally, he is known for liking loose women and for murdering Ana's father. He also rapes Ana when he goes to her to apologize to her for killing him. He is thrown from his horse when going to another village to meet his current lover.
Dorotea – narrator
Town's beggar. She is the second narrator in the work. She tells the story of Comala before Pedro died after she is buried in the grave with Juan. Her storytelling dominates the second half of the work. She was known for being homeless and living on the charity of the people in the town. She had always tried to have children but had "the heart of a mother but a womb of a whore". She was known for her eccentric behavior by thinking that she had had a baby.
Father Rentería
Town's priest. He is really not the main character, but he possesses all the characteristics of one; for which he could considered an antihero. He tries to stand up to Pedro and not give absolution to his son, Miguel. He has only the best intentions in mind but is unable to carry them out. His brother was killed by Miguel, and his niece was raped by Miguel as well when he came to apologize to her. He takes some gold to absolve Miguel, and he feels poorly about it, throwing himself in a corner and crying to the Lord.
He goes to another town to try to get himself forgiven of his sins so that he could continue to give the sacraments to the people of Comala. The other priest refuses, but they talk about how everything that grows in their region tastes sour and bitter.
It is directly Father Rentería's fault that so many souls are stuck in Comala. He had failed in his duty to absolve those people and administer the last rite to them, and thus, they died and were unable to go to heaven.
He is later mentioned as having joined the Cristero War.
Minor characters
Eduviges Dyada
Town's prostitute and good friend of Dolores Preciado. They promised to die together and help each other through the afterlife. She had died years ago and greets Juan when he arrives at Comala. She tells him of how she almost "came within a hair of being his mother" since she had to go and sleep with Pedro on their wedding night. She tells of her relationship and relations with Miguel Páramo and how it was she who saw his ghost before it left. Her sister, María Dyada, tells the priest that her suicide was out of despair and that she was a really good woman. He refuses to help her, and thus, her ghost remains in the town and purgatory. She dies with the idea that Abundio is a good man and does not know about him murdering Damiana.
Dolores Preciado
She was Juan's mother. She was wooed into marriage to Pedro by Sedano who said he thought of nothing but her all day and night and that her eyes were beautiful. Pedro owed her family the most money of all the other families, and her sisters had already moved to the city. She was married to annul the debt. Later, she is staring at a buzzard and wishes to be like it so that she could fly to her sister in the city. Pedro gets mad enough and dismisses her for good. They are never officially divorced. Her dying wish is for Juan to go and see his father and "make him pay for all those years he put us out of his mind".
Abundio Martínez
He's another illegitimate son of Pedro's who works as the town's mail carrier. He is deaf because a rocket once went off near his ear. After that he did not talk much, and he became depressed. Later, his wife dies. He goes to get drunk at a local bar. Upon leaving he sees Damiana Cisneros and asks her for some money to bury his wife. He startles her, and she begins to scream. He then kills her, is captured, vomits, and is dragged to town. Eduviges calls him a good man.
Inocencio Osorio
He is the town's seer. He is the one who tells Dolores not to sleep with Pedro on her wedding night. His nickname is "Cockleburr" since he is well known to be able to stick to any horse and break it.
Damiana Cisneros
She is the cook at the Media Luna and the ghost who takes Juan from Eduviges's house on that first night. She is sad to hear that Eduviges is still wandering the earth. Juan takes a while to realize that she is really a ghost and for a time, thinks that she is still alive. She was murdered by Abundio. She was also one of Dolores's good friends, and Juan knew about her when he arrived at Comala.
Toribio Aldrete
He is a property surveyor. He was splitting and dividing up Pedro's land and was going to build fences. He is stopped by a plot by Pedro and Sedano. They plot to try to stop him from doing the survey and draw up a warrant against him. Sedano goes to Eduviges's house one night with a drunken Aldrete and hangs him and throws away the keys to the room. He remains there in spirit and wakes Juan on his first night in Comala with his death screams.
Donis and his wife/sister
These two are some of the last living people in the town. Donis is suspicious of Juan and his motives for being there and thinks that he is a serious criminal, perhaps a murderer, and does not want him to spend the night. Donis is engaged in an incestous relationship with his sister, started in an attempt to repopulate the town, although they once asked a bishop riding through town to marry them which he furiously refused, demanding they stop their relationship and "live like men". His wife/sister starts to like Juan after the first night and does a little extra to try to get him some more food since they have so little. She trades some of the old sheets for food and coffee with her older sister. Donis is glad that Juan showed up since he could now leave the town and have his wife/sister taken care of.
Justina
She is Susana's caregiver. She has taken care of her for many years, since she was born. She cried when Susana was dying, and Susana told her to stop crying. Justina is scared one day by the ghost of Bartolomé, who tells her to leave the town since Susana would be well cared for.
See also
Pedro Páramo (1967 film)
Notes
References
Zepeda, Jorge. La recepción inicial de Pedro Páramo (1955–1963). México: Fundación Juan Rulfo / Editorial RM, 2005. 378 pp. .
External links
Pedro Páramo (2004) the theatre by Theatre Formation Paribartak of India
Ghosts of Comala (2012), Alex Torío studio album inspired by the novel
1955 novels
Mexican novels
Mexican magic realism novels
Novels set in Mexico
Fondo de Cultura Económica books
Mexican novels adapted into films
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HBO
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Home Box Office (HBO) is an American pay television network, which is the flagship property of namesake parent-subsidiary Home Box Office, Inc., itself a unit owned by Warner Bros. Discovery. The overall Home Box Office business unit is based at Warner Bros. Discovery's corporate headquarters inside 30 Hudson Yards in Manhattan's West Side district. Programming featured on the network consists primarily of theatrically released motion pictures and original television programs as well as made-for-cable movies, documentaries, occasional comedy, and concert specials, and periodic interstitial programs (consisting of short films and making-of documentaries).
HBO is the oldest subscription television service in the United States still in operation. HBO pioneered modern pay television upon its launch on November 8, 1972: it was the first television service to be directly transmitted and distributed to individual cable television systems, and was the conceptual blueprint for the "premium channel", pay television services sold to subscribers for an extra monthly fee that does not accept traditional advertising and present their programming without editing for objectionable material. It eventually became the first television channel in the world to begin transmitting via satellite—expanding the growing regional pay service, originally available to cable and multipoint distribution service (MDS) providers in the northern Mid-Atlantic and southern New England, into a national television network—in September 1975, and, alongside sister channel Cinemax, was among the first two American pay television services to offer complimentary multiplexed channels in August 1991.
The network operates seven 24-hour, linear multiplex channels as well as a traditional subscription video on demand platform (HBO On Demand) and its content is the centerpiece of Max (previously HBO Max), an expanded streaming platform operated separately from but sharing management with Home Box Office, Inc., which also includes original programming produced exclusively for the service and content from other Warner Bros. Discovery properties. The HBO linear channels are not presently accessible on HBO Max but continue to be available to existing subscribers of traditional and virtual pay television providers (including Hulu and YouTube TV, which also sell their HBO add-ons independently of their respective live TV tiers).
, HBO's programming was available to approximately 35.656 million U.S. households that had a subscription to a multichannel television provider (34.939 million of which receive HBO's primary channel at minimum), giving it the largest subscriber total of any American premium channel. (From 2006 to 2018, this distinction was held by Starz Encore—currently owned by Lionsgate subsidiary Starz Inc.—which, according to February 2015 Nielsen estimates, had 40.54 million pay subscribers vs. the 35.8 million subscribers that HBO had at the time.) In addition to its U.S. subscriber base, HBO distributes its programming content in at least 151 countries worldwide too, , an estimated 140 million cumulative subscribers.
History
Cable television executive Charles Dolan—through his company, Sterling Information Services—founded Manhattan Cable TV Services (renamed Sterling Manhattan Cable Television in January 1971), a cable system franchise serving an Upper Manhattan section of New York City (covering an area extending southward from 79th Street on the Upper East Side to 86th Street on the Upper West Side), which began limited service in September 1966. Manhattan Cable was notable for being the first urban underground cable television system to operate in the United States.
With external expenses resulting in consistent financial losses, in the summer of 1971, while on a family vacation to France aboard the Queen Elizabeth 2, a desperate Dolan—wanting to help Sterling Manhattan turn profitable and to prevent Time-Life, Inc. (then the book publishing unit of Time Inc.) from pulling its investment in the system—developed a proposal for a cable-originated television channel. Codenamed "The Green Channel", the conceptual subscription service would offer unedited theatrical movies licensed from the major Hollywood film studios and live sporting events, all presented without interruptions by advertising and sold for a flat monthly fee to prospective subscribers. On November 2, 1971, Time Inc.'s board of directors approved the "Green Channel" proposal, agreeing to give Dolan a $150,000 development grant for the project.
Time-Life and Sterling Communications soon proposed for the "Sterling Cable Network" to be the name of the new service. Discussions to change the service's name took place during a later meeting of Dolan and the executive staff he hired to assist in developing the project, who ultimately settled on calling it "Home Box Office", which was meant to convey to potential customers that the service would be their "ticket" to movies and events that they could see in their own home.
The logo would become widely recognized through a program opening sequence, often nicknamed "HBO in Space," produced in late 1981 by New York City-based production firm Liberty Studios and used in some capacity from September 20, 1982, to October 31, 1997. (It replaced a series of six film-based animated "HBO Feature Movie" intros used since April 1979, which Canadian pay service First Choice Superchannel later reused for its 1984–87 movie intros.)[431] The original 70-second version begins inside an apartment, where a man tunes a television set's converter box and sits down with his wife to watch HBO. (A variant that begins with a dark cloudscape fading into the city sequence replaced the early version in December 1983.) As the camera pans out of the apartment window, a continuous stop motion flight (filmed on a computer-controlled camera) occurs over a custom-built model cityscape and countryside set against a painted twilight cyclorama. After the camera pans skyward at flight's end, a bursting "stargate" effect (made using two die-cut film slides) occurs, unveiling a chrome-plated, brass HBO logo that flies through a starfield. As the HBO "space station" rotates toward the "O", rainbow-hued light rays (created using a fiber optic lighting rig) encircle that letter's top side—sparkling to reveal its interior wall and a center axis in the bullseye mark area—and streak counter-clockwise inside the "O"'s inner wall, fading in a slide displaying the program presentation type in three-dimensional, partially underlined block text—usually the "HBO Feature Presentation" card for theatrical movies, though varied title cards set mainly to custom end signatures of the accompanying theme music (including, among others, "Standing Room Only", "HBO Premiere Presentation", "HBO Special", "On Location" and "HBO Family Showcase") were used for original programs and weekend prime time films—before more light streaks sweep and shine across the text and create a sparkling fadeout. (An abbreviated version—shown during most non-prime-time programming until October 31, 1986, and thereafter for early-prime-time movie telecasts, aside from premieres and most weekend presentations—commenced from the starburst and the flight of the HBO "space station".)
Channels
Background
To reduce subscriber churn by offering extra programming choices to subscribers, on May 8, 1991, Home Box Office Inc. announced plans to launch two additional channels of HBO and Cinemax, becoming the first subscription television services to launch "multiplexed" companion channels (a term coined by then-CEO Michael Fuchs to equate the programming choices that would be provided to subscribers of the channel tier to that offered by multi-screen movie theaters), each available at no extra charge to subscribers of one or both networks. (The three prior premium services that HBO launched between 1979 and 1987, Cinemax and the now-defunct Take 2 and Festival, were developed as standalone services that could be purchased separately from and optionally packaged with HBO.) On August 1, 1991, through a test launch of the three channels over those systems, TeleCable customers in Overland Park, Kansas, Racine, Wisconsin and suburban Dallas (Richardson and Plano, Texas) that subscribed to either service began receiving two additional HBO channels or a secondary channel of Cinemax. HBO2 (later renamed HBO Plus, then reverted to its original name), HBO3 (now HBO Signature), and Cinemax 2 (now MoreMax) each offered distinct schedules of programs culled from HBO and Cinemax's movie and original programming libraries separate from offerings shown concurrently on their respective parent primary channels. (Cinemax was originally scheduled to launch a tertiary channel, Cinemax 3, on November 1, 1991, but these plans were shelved until 1996.) While most cable providers collectively offered the HBO and Cinemax multiplex channels in individual tiers, some providers had sold their secondary or tertiary channels as optional add-ons to expanded basic subscribers; this practice was discontinued when HBO and Cinemax began migrating to digital cable in the early 2000s, as the respective multiplex channels were being packaged in each tier mandatorily.
In February 1996, in anticipation of the adoption of MPEG-2 digital compression codecs that would allow cable providers to offer digital cable service, Home Box Office, Inc. announced plans to expand its multiplex services across HBO and Cinemax to twelve channels (counting time zone-based feeds), encompassing a fourth HBO channel and two additional Cinemax channels, originally projected for a Spring 1997 launch. The HBO multiplex expanded to include a fourth channel on December 1, 1996, with the launch of HBO Family, focusing on family-oriented feature films and television series aimed at younger children. (HBO Family's launch coincided with the launch of Mountain Time Zone feeds of HBO, HBO2, Cinemax, and Cinemax 2, which were the first sub-feeds ever offered by a subscription television service to specifically serve that time zone.)
Home Box Office, Inc. began marketing the HBO channel suite and related coastal feeds under the umbrella brand "MultiChannel HBO" in September 1994; the package was rebranded as "HBO The Works", now exclusively classified to the four HBO multiplex channels (and later applied to the three thematic channels that were launched afterward), in April 1998. (The Cinemax tier was accordingly marketed as "MultiChannel Cinemax" and then "MultiMax" at the respective times.) Concurrent with the adoption of "The Works" package brand, two of the channels changed their names and formats: HBO2 was rebranded as HBO Plus, and HBO3 was relaunched as HBO Signature—incorporating content catering toward a female audience, alongside theatrical films aimed at broader audiences and content from HBO's original made-for-cable movie and documentary libraries. (HBO Plus would revert to the "HBO2" moniker in September 2002. The "HBO Plus" brand—modified in 2019 to "HBO+"— on a multiplex channel of HBO Latin America featuring mainly theatrical movies previously carried on its parent feed; HBO Latin America also operates a separate channel sharing the "HBO2" name with the shared U.S. namesake of both services.)
On May 6, 1999, the HBO multiplex expanded to include two new thematic channels: HBO Comedy—featuring comedic feature films, comedy series from HBO's original programming library, and recent and archived HBO comedy specials—and HBO Zone—aimed at young adults between the ages of 18 and 34, offering theatrical movies; comedy and alternative series, and documentaries from HBO's original programming library; and music videos. Rounding out the HBO multiplex expansion was HBO Latino, a Spanish language network launched on November 1, 2000, featuring a mix of dubbed simulcasts of programming from the primary HBO channel as well as exclusive Spanish-originated programs.
List of HBO channels
Depending on the service provider, HBO provides up to seven 24-hour multiplex channels—all of which are simulcast in both standard definition and high definition, and available as time zone-based regional feeds—as well as a subscription video-on-demand service (HBO On Demand). Off-the-air maintenance periods of anywhere from a half-hour up to two hours occur at varied overnight/early morning time slots (usually preceding the 6:00 a.m. ET/PT start of the defined broadcast day) once per month on each channel.
HBO transmits feeds of its primary and multiplex channels on both Eastern and Pacific Time Zone schedules. The respective coastal feeds of each channel are usually packaged together, resulting in the difference in local airtimes for a particular movie or program between two geographic locations being three hours at most; the opposite-region feed (i.e., the Pacific Time feeds in the Eastern and Central Time Zones, and the Eastern Time feeds in the Pacific, Mountain and Alaska Time Zones) serves as a timeshift channel, allowing viewers who may have missed a particular program at its original local airtime to watch it three hours after its initial airing or allowing them to watch a program up to four hours, depending on the applicable time zone, in advance of their local airtime on their corresponding primary coastal feed. (Most cable, satellite, and IPTV providers, as well as its Amazon Prime Video and Roku OTT channels, only offer the East and West Coast feeds of the main HBO channel; some conventional television providers may include coastal feeds of HBO2 in certain areas, while wider availability of coastal feeds for the other five multiplex channels is limited to subscribers of DirecTV, YouTube TV and the Hulu live TV service.)
HBO maintains a separate feed for the Hawaii–Aleutian Time Zone—the only American cable-originated television network to offer a timeshift feed for Hawaii viewers—operating a three-hour-delayed version of the primary channel's Pacific Time feed for subscribers of Oceanic Spectrum, which otherwise transmits Pacific Time feeds for the six other HBO multiplex channels. (The state's other major cable provider, Hawaiian Telcom, offers the Pacific Time Zone feed of all seven channels.)
Current sister channels
Cinemax
Cinemax is an American pay television network owned by the Home Box Office, Inc. subsidiary of Warner Bros. Discovery. Originally developed as a companion service to HBO, the channel's programming consists of recent and some older theatrically released feature films, original action drama series, documentaries, and special behind-the-scenes featurettes. While Cinemax and HBO operate as separate premium services, their respective channel tiers are very frequently sold as a combined package by many multichannel television providers; however, customers have the option of subscribing to HBO and Cinemax's corresponding channel packages individually.
On August 1, 1980, HBO launched Cinemax, a companion movie-based premium channel created as a direct competitor to two existing movie-focused premium channels: The Movie Channel, then a smaller, standalone pay movie service owned by Warner-Amex Satellite Entertainment (then part-owned by Warner Bros. Discovery predecessor Warner Communications), and Home Theater Network (HTN), a now-defunct service owned by Group W Satellite Communications that focused on G- and PG-rated films. Cinemax succeeded in its early years partly because it relied on classic movie releases from the 1950s to the 1970s—with some more recent films mixed into its schedule—that it presented uncut and without commercial interruption, at a time when limited headend channel capacity resulted in cable subscribers only being able to receive as many as three dozen channels (up to half of which were reserved for local and out-of-market broadcast stations, and public access channels). In most cases, cable operators tended to sell Cinemax and HBO as a singular premium bundle, usually offered at a discount for customers that decided to subscribe to both channels. Cinemax, unlike HBO, also maintained a 24-hour schedule from its launch, one of the first pay cable services to transmit around the clock.
Even early in its existence, Cinemax tried to diversify its programming beyond movies. Beginning in 1984, it incorporated music specials and some limited original programming (among them, SCTV Channel and Max Headroom) into the channel's schedule. Around this time, Cinemax also began airing adult-oriented softcore pornographic films and series—containing strong sexual content and nudity—in varying late-night timeslots (usually no earlier than 11:30 p.m. Eastern and Pacific); this programming block, originally airing under the "Friday After Dark" banner (renamed "Max After Dark" in 2008 to better reflect its prior expansion to a nightly block), would become strongly associated with the channel among its subscribers and in pop culture. The channel began gradually scaling back its adult programming offerings in 2011, in an effort to shift focus towards its mainstream films and original programs, culminating in the removal of "Max After Dark" content from its linear and on-demand platforms in 2018, as part of a broader exit from the genre across Home Box Office, Inc.'s platforms. In terms of mainstream programming, Cinemax began premiering original action series in the early 2010s, beginning with the August 2011 debut of Strike Back (which has since become the channel's longest-running original program). As a consequence of WarnerMedia reallocating its programming resources toward the HBO Max streaming service, Cinemax eliminated scripted programming after the last of its remaining slate of action series ended in early 2021, shifting the channel back to its original structure as a movie-exclusive premium service.
The linear Cinemax multiplex service, , consists of the primary feed and seven thematic channels: MoreMax (launched in April 1991 as Cinemax 2, in conjunction with HBO2's rollout); ActionMax (originally launched as Cinemax 3 in 1995); ThrillerMax (launched in 1998); MovieMax (originally launched as the female-targeted WMax in May 2001); Cinemáx (a Spanish language simulcast feed, which originally launched as the young adult-focused @Max in 2001), 5StarMax (launched in May 2001) and OuterMax (launched in May 2001).
Magnolia Network
Magnolia Network is an American multinational basic cable network owned by Warner Bros. Discovery and Chip and Joanna Gaines, formerly known as DIY Network.
In April 2019, Discovery officially announced its new venture, and that its linear television component would launch sometime in 2020, replacing DIY Network, though it was delayed until 2022 due to the COVID-19 pandemic impacting the ability to produce the network's launch programming and ending up launching several months before the closing of the Warner Bros. and Discovery Inc. merger. Due to the delay in production, some Magnolia Network programming debuted as part of the January 4, 2021 launch of the Discovery+ streaming service. The transition of the linear DIY Network to the Magnolia Network occurred on January 5, 2022. In April 2022, Discovery Inc. merged with WarnerMedia to form Warner Bros. Discovery. On April 7, 2022, it was reported that after the completion of the merger, Magnolia Network leadership would report to HBO and HBO Max's chief content officer Casey Bloys rather than directly to Zaslav, nor Kathleen Finch (who previously oversaw Discovery's lifestyle brands, and now oversees most of Warner Bros. Discovery's U.S. cable networks); Deadline suggested the possibility that Magnolia Network could contribute content (such as library programs or original series) to HBO Max—noting that some of the service's scripted series have appealed to a similar adult female demographic to Magnolia Network, HBO Max's own forays into unscripted content, and reports that the Gaines had shown interest in working on scripted projects.
Former sister channels
Take 2 (informally referred to as "HBO Take 2") was an American premium cable television network that was owned by Home Box Office, Inc., then a subsidiary of the Time-Life division of Time Inc., and which operated from April 1979 to January 1981. Marketed to a family audience and the first attempt at a companion pay service by the corporate HBO entity, the channel's programming consisted of recent and older theatrically released motion pictures. Take 2 was the first of three efforts by HBO to maintain a family-oriented pay service, predating the similarly formatted and short-lived mini-pay service Festival (launched in 1986) and the present-day multiplex channel HBO Family (launched in 1996). On September 21, 1978, Home Box Office Inc. announced it would launch a family-oriented companion "mini-pay" premium service (a channel marketed as a lower-priced pay add-on to cable operators, often sold in a tier with co-owned or competing premium services), which would be transmitted via a fourth Satcom I transponder leased to HBO. Originally planned to launch around January 1, Take 2 launched on April 1, 1979; developed at the request of HBO's affiliate cable providers to meet consumer demand for an additional pay television offering, Take 2 was designed to cater to family audiences and, like HBO's later family programming services (Festival and HBO Family), structured its theatrical inventory to exclude R-rated films. The service's format was intended to cater to prospective customers who were reluctant to pay for an HBO subscription because of its cost and the potentially objectionable content in some of its programming. The network maintained distinct showcase blocks that aired at various times throughout its schedule: "Movie of the Week" (a weekly prime-time presentation of network-premiere theatrical films), "Center Stage" (featuring movies and specials with leading entertainers), "Family Theater" (a showcase of G-rated films for family viewing), "Passport" (an anthology block featuring programs ranging from "popular entertainment to cultural events") and "Merry-Go-Round" (a showcase of children's movies, specials, and short films). G- and PG-rated movies shown on Take 2 usually made their debut on the service no less than 60 days after their initial telecast on HBO. Slow subscriber growth and difficulties leveraging HBO's increasingly wide cable carriage to ensure supportable distribution forced the shutdown of Take 2 on January 31, 1981. At the time of its shutdown, HBO was already placing resources to grow its secondary, lower-cost "maxi-pay" service, Cinemax, which launched in August 1980 and, in its first four years of operation, experienced comparatively greater success than Take 2 did in its briefer existence with its mix of recent and older movies (including unedited, commercial-free broadcasts of movies released during the "Golden Age" of Hollywood film). (Cinemax replaced Take 2 as an add-on to HBO on many cable systems that carried the latter.)
Festival was an American premium cable television network that was owned by Home Box Office, Inc., then a subsidiary of Time Inc., which operated from 1986 to 1988. The channel's programming consisted of uncut and re-edited versions of recent and older theatrically released motion pictures, along with original music, comedy, and nature specials sourced from the parent HBO channel aimed at a family audience. On April 1, 1986, HBO began test-marketing Festival on six cable systems owned by then-sister company American Television and Communications Corporation. It was aimed at older audiences who objected to programming containing violence and sexual situations on other premium services, television viewers that did not already have cable service, and basic cable subscribers with no existing subscription to a premium service, focusing classic and recent hit movies, documentaries, and HBO's original stand-up comedy, concert, nature and ice skating specials. Notably for a premium service, Festival aired re-edited R-rated movies intended to fit a PG rating. Festival ceased operations on December 31, 1988; Home Box Office, Inc. cited the inability to expand distribution because of channel capacity limitations at most cable company headends for the closure of the channel. At the time of its shutdown, Festival had an estimated 30,000 subscribers, far below HBO's reach of 15.9 million subscribers and a distant last place in subscriber count among the eight American premium cable services in operation at the time.
Selecciones en Español de HBO y Cinemax (later renamed HBO en Español in September 1993) was an American Spanish language premium cable television service that was owned by Home Box Office, Inc., then a subsidiary of Time Warner, which operated from 1989 to 2000. The service's programming consisted of Spanish-dubbed versions of recent and older theatrically released motion pictures, and select HBO original and event programming aimed at a Hispanic and Latino audience. The service is a predecessor to HBO Latino, which replaced HBO en Español in November 2000. On January 2, 1989, Selecciones en Español de HBO y Cinemax ("Spanish Selections from HBO and Cinemax"), a Spanish-language audio feed transmitted through, depending on the cable system affiliate, either an auxiliary second audio program channel (accessible through built-in and external multichannel audio decoders) or audio simulcasts via FM radio, launched. The service—which initially launched on 20 cable systems in markets with significant Hispanic and Latino populations, and aimed specifically at Spanish-dominant and first-language Spanish speakers— originally provided Spanish-dubbed versions of recent feature film releases from HBO and Cinemax's movie suppliers. By that Spring, Selecciones's offerings expanded to include Spanish audio simulcasts of HBO's live boxing matches (except for certain events broadcast exclusively in Spanish on networks such as Galavisión). Selecciones en Español de HBO y Cinemax—replaced by two dedicated channel feeds, HBO en Español and Cinemax en Español, on September 27, 1993, effectively acting as part-time simulcast feeds with added first-run Spanish-language movies (mostly from Mexico, Argentina and Spain), and Spanish dubs of HBO's non-sports-event original programming—quickly gained interest from providers, expanding to an additional 35 cable systems in various U.S. markets in the weeks following its debut.
Other services
HBO HD
HBO HD (originally called HBO HDTV from March 1999 until April 2006) is a high definition simulcast feed of HBO that broadcasts in the 1080i resolution format. HBO maintains high definition simulcast feeds of its main channel and all six multiplex channels. HBO HD is available on all major cable television providers including, among others, Charter Communications (including systems once owned by former HBO sister company Time Warner Cable); Comcast Xfinity (which, in 2016, began downconverting HBO, Cinemax and other cable channels transmitting in 1080i to 720p60); Cox Communications and Optimum; as well as DirecTV; AT&T U-verse; and Verizon FiOS. From the 2008 rollout of HD simulcasts for the HBO multiplex feeds until the mid-2010s, the majority of pay television providers that carried HBO HD generally offered only the main channel in high definition, with HD carriage of the multiplex channels varying by market. , most providers transmit all seven HBO multiplex channels in HD, either on a dedicated HD channel tier separate from their SD assignments or as hybrid SD/HD feeds.
Home Box Office, Inc. announced plans to launch a high-definition simulcast feed on June 12, 1997, with initial plans for a rollout to television providers as early as the Summer of 1998, when electronics manufacturers planned to begin retailing their initial line of HD-capable television sets. HBO began transmitting a high definition simulcast feed on March 6, 1999, becoming the first American cable television network to begin simulcast their programming in the format. For the first 23 months of its existence, the HD feed only transmitted theatrical films from the network's programming suppliers (initially accounting for about 45% of its available feature film output, expanding to around 60% by early 2001) and HBO's in-house original movies in the format, as existing widescreen prints of those films were already scalable in the 16:9 widescreen aspect ratio and could readily be upconverted to HD resolution.
Original programming began to be made available in HD on January 14, 2001, when the network commenced a 13-week Sunday "encore" presentation of the second season of The Sopranos in remastered 1080i HD. (HBO had been requiring the producers of its original series to film their episodes in widescreen—subsequently downconverted for the standard definition feed—to fit 4:3 television screens since 1996, to future-proof them for remastering in HD.) The third-season premiere of the mob drama, "Mr. Ruggerio's Neighborhood", on March 4 was the first first-run episode of an HBO series to be transmitted in high-definition from its initial telecast, with all subsequent episodes being delivered to HBO exclusively on HD videotape (and downconverted for the main standard-definition feed). Bob Zitter, then the network's Senior Vice President of Technology Operations, disclosed to Multichannel News in January 2001 that HBO elected to delay offering its original series in high definition until there was both sustainable consumer penetration of high-definition television sets and wide accessibility of HDTV equipment on the retail market. Sports telecasts were upgraded to HD on September 25, 2004, with an HBO World Championship Boxing fight card headlined by Roy Jones Jr. and Glen Johnson. HD programming can also be broadcast in Dolby Digital 5.1. The network began transmitting its six multiplex channels in high definition on September 1, 2008, when DirecTV began offering HD simulcast feeds of HBO2, HBO Family, HBO Signature, and HBO Latino.
HBO on Demand
HBO on Demand is HBO's companion subscription video-on-demand (SVOD) service that is available at no additional cost to subscribers of the linear television service, who regularly pay a premium fee to pay television providers to receive access to the channel. VOD content from the network is also available on select virtual MVPD services (including DirecTV Stream, YouTube TV and Hulu), and through HBO's dedicated Roku video channel. HBO on Demand offers theatrical feature films from HBO's distribution partners and original programming previously seen on the network (including weekly series, documentaries, sports magazine and documentary programs, and concert and stand-up comedy specials). The service's rotating program selection incorporates newer film titles and episodes that are added to the platform following their debut on the linear feed, as well as library content (including complete seasons of the network's past and present original programs).
HBO on Demand, the first SVOD service to be offered by an American premium service, launched on July 1, 2001, over then sister company Time Warner Cable's Columbia, South Carolina, system. The service was developed to allow HBO subscribers access to the channel's programming at their choosing, thereby reducing the frequency in which viewers were unable to find a program they prefer to watch and limiting cancellations to the service because of that issue. On January 3, 2011, HBO became the first pay television network to offer VOD content in 3D; initially available to linear HBO subscribers signed with Time Warner Cable, Comcast, and Verizon FiOS, 3D content consisted of theatrical feature films available in the format.
In the United Kingdom, a domestic version of HBO on Demand was launched in 2015 to subscribers of IPTV provider TalkTalk TV, which provides HBO's program offerings through the provider's YouView set-top boxes via a standalone VOD subscription.
HBO Go
HBO Go is an international TV Everywhere streaming service for broadband subscribers of the linear HBO television service. It was accessible through play.hbogo.com, and through apps for Apple iOS and Apple TV devices; Android devices and Android TV; Amazon Fire TV; Chromecast; PlayStation consoles (PlayStation 3 and PlayStation 4); Xbox One consoles; Roku devices; and most Samsung Smart TV models. Content available on HBO Go included theatrically released films (sourced from the network's pay television contractual windows for recent studio releases and from library content agreements with film distributors) and HBO original programming (including scripted series, made-for-cable movies, comedy specials, documentaries, and sports documentary and magazine programs). HBO Go, along with companion service HBO Now and HBO Max, did not provide live simulcasts of the seven linear HBO channels. (HBO and Cinemax are the only American premium television services not to include live network feeds in their proprietary streaming VOD platforms.)
Based on the prototype HBO on Broadband service that was originally launched in January 2008 to linear HBO subscribers of Time Warner Cable's Green Bay and Milwaukee, Wisconsin systems, HBO Go launched nationwide on February 18, 2010, initially available to existing HBO subscribers signed with Verizon FiOS. Initially carrying 1,000 hours of program content available for streaming in standard or high definition, the on-demand streaming service was conceived as a TV Everywhere platform marketed exclusively to existing subscribers of the linear HBO television service. (The HBO Go website and mobile apps, including its apps for streaming devices such as Roku and Apple TV, and some video game consoles, required a password accompanying a linear HBO subscription by a participating television provider to access content on the service.) On June 12, 2020, WarnerMedia announced that HBO Go's mobile and digital media player apps would be discontinued in the U.S. on July 31, as most traditional and virtual MVPDs have secured distribution deals for HBO Max. Those providers that have not yet made an HBO Max deal continue to allow customer access to HBO Go (mainly Altice USA's brands, Mediacom, smaller cable providers, and closed-circuit university television systems which had not had personnel available during the COVID-19 pandemic to contractually transfer their credentials to HBO Max), though only through the HBO Go desktop website. The "HBO Go" moniker remains in use as the brand for HBO's streaming platforms in select Asian markets until it would be also rebranded directly into Max in mid-2023.
HBO Now
HBO Now (formally named HBO from August to December 2020) was an over-the-top (OTT) subscription streaming service that provided on-demand access to HBO's library of original programming and theatrical films, and was marketed independent of a pay television subscription to the linear HBO service as a standalone platform targeting cord cutters. HBO Now was available online and as apps for Apple iOS and Apple TV devices; Android tablets, phones and Android TV devices; Amazon Fire TV; Roku devices; Xbox consoles (Xbox 360 and Xbox One); PlayStation consoles (PlayStation 3 and later); and select TiVo devices; and as a premium add-on through Amazon Prime Video, Sling TV, AT&T TV and Hulu.
On October 15, 2014, HBO announced plans to launch an OTT subscription streaming service in 2015, which would be distributed as a standalone offering that does not require an existing television subscription to access the content. The service, HBO Now, was unveiled on March 9, 2015, and officially launched one month later on April 7. The service was initially available via Apple Inc. to Apple TV and iOS devices for a three-month exclusivity period following its formal launch, before becoming available for subscription through other participating Internet service providers. Available for $15 per month, HBO Now was identical to the former HBO Go in terms of content and features. New episodes of the HBO series were made available for streaming on the initial airdate and usually uploaded at the normal airtime, of their original broadcast on the main linear HBO channel. By February 2019, subscribership of HBO Now subscribers had reached over 8 million customers. On June 12, 2020, WarnerMedia announced that HBO Now would be rebranded solely as HBO on August 1. Following HBO Max's launch, the HBO streaming service had served as the network's default OTT platform for Roku customers, as WarnerMedia has not yet signed deals to distribute HBO Max on that platform; until its replacement by HBO Max on those platforms in November 2020, it also served as a default HBO OTT service for Amazon Fire and Fire TV customers. As a consequence of an agreement with WarnerMedia announced the day before offering HBO Max on Roku devices starting the following day, the HBO streaming service was discontinued on December 17, 2020.
Max
Max (formerly known as HBO Max) is an over-the-top subscription streaming service operated by Warner Bros. Discovery Global Streaming and Interactive Entertainment built mainly around HBO's programming and other Warner Bros. Discovery assets.
Programming
HBO's programming schedule currently consists largely of theatrically released feature films and adult-oriented original series (including, , dramas such as Euphoria, Industry, The Gilded Age, House of the Dragon, The Last of Us, True Detective and The Idol; comedies such as Curb Your Enthusiasm and The Righteous Gemstones; and topical satires Last Week Tonight with John Oliver and Real Time with Bill Maher). In addition, HBO also carries documentary films (mainly produced through its in-house production unit HBO Documentary Films), sports-focused documentary and magazine series (produced through its HBO Sports production unit), occasional original made-for-TV movies, occasional original concert and stand-up comedy specials, and short-form behind-the-scenes specials centered mainly on theatrical films (either running in their initial theatrical or HBO/Cinemax broadcast window). Newer episodes of most HBO original programs usually air over its main channel after 9:00 p.m. Eastern and Pacific Time; depending partly on the day's programming schedule, repeats of original series, made-for-cable movies, and documentaries (typically excluding programs with graphic violent or sexual content) are shown during the daytime hours on the main channel, and at various times on HBO's themed channels. Four of the themed multiplex channels—HBO Signature, HBO Family, HBO Comedy, and HBO Zone—also each carry archived HBO original series and specials dating to the 1990s. (Outside of HBO Family, which regularly airs archived family-oriented series and specials, airings of older original programs may vary based on the channel's daily schedule.)
Beginning with its programming expansion to afternoons in 1974, the primary HBO channel had imposed a longstanding watershed policy prohibiting films assigned an "R" rating from being broadcast before 8:00 p.m. ET/PT. (At various points, HBO also prohibited showings of X-/NC-17-rated and foreign art films.) The policy—which extended to films shown between 6:00 a.m. and 8:00 p.m. ET/PT, when HBO began offering 24-hour programming on weekends in September 1981—may have once stemmed from HBO's pre-mid-2000s availability on analog cable tiers (whereas its multiplex channels generally require a digital cable subscription or at least scrambling), and, because of controversy surrounding daytime showings of R-rated films that began being scheduled on competing premium services as early as 1980, remained in place well after the V-chip became standard in newer television sets. From April 1979 to March 1987, rating bumpers preceding HBO telecasts of R-rated films included a special disclaimer indicating to viewers that the movie would air exclusively during the designated watershed period (“Home Box Office/HBO will show this feature only at night"). The watershed policy was extended to cover TV-MA-rated programs when the TV Parental Guidelines were implemented industry-wide on January 1, 1997, although HBO had already been withholding airing original programs incorporating mature content that would now qualify for a TV-MA rating outside the watershed period. , HBO employs fairly fluid enforcement of the watershed policy, varying based on the content scheduled to air on its main channel during each programming day. The policy began to be weakened in January 2010, when the main HBO channel started allowing original series, movies, and documentaries given a TV-MA rating for strong profanity or non-graphic violence to air during the daytime on Saturdays and Sundays; in January 2012, HBO began offering occasional Sunday daytime airings of R-rated films within its weekly encore showing of the Saturday movie premiere (airing as early as 4:00 p.m. ET/PT, depending on the previous night's scheduled premiere film, that film's length, and the Sunday night block of HBO original series that usually follows the rebroadcast); by 2017, afternoon R-rated movie airings (which occasionally have been shown as early as 2:00 p.m. ET/PT since then) were permitted in random afternoon timeslots any day of the week on the main channel at the network's discretion. Most of the six HBO thematic multiplex channels—except for HBO Family, which prohibits programming containing either equivalent rating by the effect of the channel's target audience and format—air TV-MA and R-rated programming during morning and afternoon periods. HBO also does not typically allow most NC-17-rated films to be aired on the primary channel or its multiplex channels.
HBO pioneered the free preview concept—now a standard promotional tool in the pay television industry—in 1973, as a marketing strategy allowing participating television providers to offer a sampling of HBO's programming for potential subscribers of the service. Cable providers were permitted to offer the unscrambled HBO content—aired for a single evening or, beginning in 1981 at the network level (as early as 1978 on some providers), over a two-day weekend (later extended to three days in 1997, then to a Friday-to-Monday "four-day weekend" format by 2008)—over a local origination channel, though satellite and digital cable providers elected instead to unencrypt the channels corresponding to each HBO feed for the preview period. Until 2002, interstitials hosted by on-air presenters (notably including, among others, Norm Crosby, Greg Kinnear, Sinbad and Ellen DeGeneres) promoting the service and its upcoming programs to prospective subscribers aired alongside on-air promotions between programs during the preview weekend, although interstitials produced in-house or by third-party producers were inserted by some providers over the HBO feed during promo breaks for their local or regional audience; from September 1988 to September 1994, the network also aired a 15-minute-long promotional "free preview show" each night of the preview event—usually following the headlining prime time film—that previewed upcoming HBO programming for prospective and existing subscribers. HBO offers between three and five preview events each year—normally scheduled to coincide with the premiere of a new or returning original series, and in the past, a high-profile special or feature film—to pay television providers for distribution on a voluntary participation basis. (The total of participating providers that elected to offer a free preview event varies depending on the given preview period, and participating multiple-system cable operators may elect to carry the event only in certain regions where they provide service.)
HBO also produces short segments promoting newer movies with the cooperation of the film studios that hold distribution rights to the projects (almost universally by studios maintaining exclusive pay television contracts with HBO and Cinemax, and which have been rebroadcast on the former during a film's pay-cable distribution window), and have usually consisted of either interstitial "behind-the-scenes" and interview segments on an upcoming/recent theatrical release or red carpet coverage. Currently, these segments air under the HBO First Look series of 15-to-20-minute-long documentary-style interstitial specials, which debuted in 1992 and has no set airing schedule. (Since 2010, the "making of" specials, for which HBO officially no longer uses the First Look name, are only identified under the banner for program listing identification.) The network previously produced three-to-five-minute-long feature segments that aired during longer-duration between-program promotional breaks, HBO News (1988–2011; formerly titled HBO Entertainment News from 1988 to 2007) and HBO Behind the Scenes (1982–1992). The interstitials—particularly those aired as episodes of First Look—have also frequently been included as bonus features on DVD and Blu-ray releases of the profiled films. Since 2011, HBO no longer airs "behind-the-scenes" interstitials during promotional breaks, and has reduced airings of First Look to a few episodes per year as the network has honed its focus on higher-profile original programs and studios have increasingly limited their self-produced "making of" featurettes for exclusive physical and digital media release.
During the network's early years, HBO aired other interstitials in-between programs. Originally billed as Something Short and Special, around 1980, InterMissions (as the interstitials were begun to be called in September 1978) was bannered into two groupings: Video Jukebox, a showcase of music videos from various artists (eventually separated from the other intermission shorts and given various long-form spinoffs, also titled as Video Jukebox or variants thereof), and Special, showcasing short films. By 1984, the short segments had mainly been limited to comedic film shorts (originally branded as HBO Comedy Shorts and then as HBO Short Takes, which used a set of differing animated intros) and youth-targeted live action and animated short films seen largely before and during family-oriented programming (branded as HBO Shorts for Kids). Intermission shorts had largely vanished from the channel by 1988. Since 2014, HBO has occasionally aired short films ranging between 15 and 25 minutes in length at varying times each week during the overnight/early morning hours on its primary and select multiplex channels, in addition to being available on demand via HBO's various streaming and television VOD platforms (including its dedicated portal on HBO Max).
Original programming
HBO innovated original entertainment programming for cable television networks, in which a television series (both dramatic and comedic), made-for-television movie, or entertainment special is developed for and production is primarily, if not exclusively, handled by the channel of its originating broadcast. Since 1973, the network has produced a variety of original programs alongside its slate of theatrical motion pictures. Most of these programs cater to adult viewers (and, with limited exceptions, are typically assigned TV-MA ratings), often featuring—with such content varying by program—high amounts of profanity, violence, sexual themes or nudity that basic cable or over-the-air broadcast channels would be reticent to air because of objections from sponsors and the risk of them pulling or refusing to sell their advertising depending on the objectionable material that a sponsor is comfortable placing their advertising. (Incidentally, since the early 2000s, some ad-supported basic cable channels—like FX and Comedy Central—have incorporated stronger profanity, somewhat more pervasive violence and sexual themes, and occasional nudity in their original programs, similar to the content featured in original programs shown on HBO and other premium services, with relatively limited advertiser issues.)
Mainly because it is not beholden to the preferences of advertisers, HBO has long been regarded in the entertainment industry for letting program creators maintain full creative autonomy over their projects, allowing them to depict gritty subject matter that—before basic cable channels and streaming services deciding to follow the model set by HBO and other pay cable services—had not usually been shown on other television platforms. During the "Executive Actions" symposium held by The Washington Post and George Washington University in April 2015 (shortly after the launch of the HBO Now streaming service), then-HBO CEO Richard Plepler said that he does not want the network to be akin to Netflix in which users "binge watch" its television shows and film content, saying "I don't think it would have been a great thing for HBO or our brand if that had been gobbled up in the first week[..] I think it was very exciting for the viewer to have that mystery held out for an extended period." Pleper cited that he felt that binge-watching does not correlate with the culture of HBO and HBO watchers.
Some of its original programs, however, have been aimed at families or children, primarily those produced before 2001 (through its original programming division and third-party producers) and from 2016 to 2020 (under its agreement with Sesame Workshop); children's programs that have aired on HBO have included Sesame Street, Fraggle Rock, Happily Ever After: Fairy Tales for Every Child, A Little Curious, Crashbox, Babar, HBO Storybook Musicals, Lifestories: Families in Crisis, Dear America and The Little Lulu Show as well as acquisitions including The Wonderful Wizard of Oz, The Legend of White Fang, Shakespeare: The Animated Tales, Animated Hero Classics and The Country Mouse and the City Mouse Adventures. Beginning in 2001, most of the family- or kid-oriented programs had migrated to HBO Family, with only a limited amount of newer family-oriented series being produced for either the primary channel or HBO Family since. (HBO Family continued to maintain a limited slate of original children's programming until 2003.)
HBO ventured back into children's programming with its acquisition of first-run broadcast and streaming rights to Sesame Street, a long-running children's television series that had previously aired on the program's longtime broadcaster, PBS, for the vast majority of its run, in a five-year programming and development deal with Sesame Workshop that was announced in August 2015. Although struck with the intent to have the show remain on PBS in some fashion, the nonprofit production company reached the deal due to cutbacks resulting from declines in public and private donations, distribution fees paid by PBS member stations, and licensing for merchandise sales. Through the agreement, HBO obtained first-run television rights to Sesame Street, beginning with the January 2016 debut of its 46th season (with episodes being distributed to PBS, following a nine-month exclusivity window at no charge to its member stations); Sesame Workshop also produced original children's programming content for the channel, which also gained exclusive streaming rights to the company's programming library for HBO Go and HBO Now (assuming those rights from Amazon Video, Netflix and Sesame Workshop's in-house subscription streaming service, Sesame Go, the latter of which will cease to operate as a standalone offering). With the debut of HBO Max in May 2020, under contract renewal terms agreed upon between the studio and WarnerMedia in October 2019, Sesame Street and other Sesame Workshop content will shift from the linear television service to the streaming-based HBO Max later in the year.
Movie library
On average, movies occupy between 14 and 18 hours of the daily schedule on HBO and HBO2 (or as little as 12 hours on the latter, depending upon if HBO2 is scheduled to carry an extended "catch-up" marathon of an HBO original series), and up to 20 hours per day—depending on channel format—on its five thematic multiplex channels.
Since June 6, 1992, HBO has offered weekly pay television premieres of recent theatrical and original made-for-cable movies on Saturdays at 8:00 p.m. ET/PT. (Event presentations that have followed the movie—such as boxing coverage or concerts—have caused rare variances in the preceding film's start time; if a live event was scheduled, before the December 2018 discontinuation of HBO's boxing telecasts, the premiered film would air after the event—in reverse order from the Eastern feed scheduling—on the Pacific Time Zone feed.) From June 1996 until September 2006, the presentations were marketed as the "Saturday Night Guarantee" to denote a promise of "a new movie [premiering] every Saturday night" all 52 weeks of the year. (HBO had highlighted said "guarantee" in promotions for the Saturday premiere night dating to January 1994.) Before settling on having Saturday serve as its anchor premiere night, the scheduling of HBO's prime-time film premieres varied between Saturday, Sunday, and Wednesday, depending on competition from broadcast fare during the traditional network television season. First-run theatrical films debut on average from ten months to one year after a film's initial theatrical run has concluded, and no more than six months after their DVD or digital VOD download release. COVID-19-related postponements of newer theatrical releases by its distribution partners caused HBO to reduce the frequency of scheduled theatrical premieres in September 2020; since then, the Saturday 8:00 slot has been occupied by premieres of original specials and documentaries (scheduled at least once per month) and, since late December 2020, airings of older hit movies (mainly films released between 1979 and 2015) distributed under library content deals during gap weeks in the monthly premiere schedule.
As of 2023, HBO and sister channel Cinemax (as well as their associated streaming platforms) only maintain exclusive licensing agreements to first-run and library film content from Warner Bros. Pictures and their following subsidiaries:
Warner Bros. Pictures Group (since January 1987);
Subsidiaries: New Line Cinema (since January 2005), Warner Bros. Pictures Animation (since January 2014), DC Studios (since May 2017), and Castle Rock Entertainment (since January 2003);
Library content: Warner Independent Pictures (2003–2008 releases);
HBO also maintains sub-run agreements—covering television and streaming licensing of films that have previously received broadcast or syndicated television airings—for theatrical films distributed by Paramount Pictures (including content from subsidiaries or acquired library partners Miramax, Carolco Pictures, Nickelodeon Movies and Republic Pictures, all for films released prior to 2013), Universal Pictures (including content from subsidiaries Universal Animation Studios, DreamWorks Animation, Working Title Films, Illumination, and Focus Features, all for films released prior to 2022), Summit Entertainment (for films released prior to 2023), Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures (including content from Walt Disney Pictures, 20th Century Studios, and Searchlight Pictures (except films co-produced by Pixar), and former subsidiaries Touchstone Pictures, and Hollywood Pictures), Sony Pictures Entertainment (including content from subsidiaries/library partners Columbia Pictures, Sony Pictures Classics, ELP Communications, Morgan Creek Entertainment, Screen Gems, Revolution Studios, and former HBO sister company TriStar Pictures), and Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (including content from subsidiaries Orion Pictures, and former subsidiaries United Artists, The Cannon Group, and The Samuel Goldwyn Company).
HBO also produces made-for-cable television movies through a sister production unit HBO Films, which traces its origins to the 1983 founding of HBO Premiere Films. Originally developed to produce original television movies and miniseries with higher budgets and production values than other telefilms, the film unit's first original movie project was the 1983 biopic The Terry Fox Story. Differing from other direct-to-cable television films, most of HBO's original movies have been helmed by major film actors (such as James Stewart, Michael Douglas, Drew Barrymore, Stanley Tucci, Halle Berry and Elizabeth Taylor). The unit—which would be rechristened HBO Pictures in 1985—expanded beyond its telefilm slate, which was scaled back to focus on independent film production in 1984. The current HBO Films unit was formed in October 1999 through the consolidation of HBO Pictures and HBO NYC Productions (created as HBO Showcase in 1986, and following its June 1996 restructuring, had also occasionally produced drama series for the network). Since 1984, HBO Films has also maintained an exclusive licensing agreement with HBO (later expanded to include Cinemax) for theatrical productions produced by the unit and, since HBO became co-owned with the film division through the 1989 Time-Warner merger, distributed through Warner Bros. Entertainment.
Films to which HBO maintains traditional telecast and streaming rights will usually also be shown on the Cinemax television and streaming platforms during their licensing agreement period (either after a film title completes its HBO window or transfers between services over certain months during the contractual period). Feature films from the aforementioned studios that maintain joint licensing contracts encompassing both services will typically make their premium television debut on HBO approximately two to three months before their premiere on Cinemax and vice versa.
Background
HBO's relationship with Warner Bros. began with a five-year distribution agreement signed in June 1986, encompassing films released between January 1987 and December 1992; the estimated cost of the initial pay-cable rights was between $300 million and $600 million, depending on the overall performance of Warner's films and HBO/Cinemax's respective subscriber counts. Although the Warner deal was initially non-exclusive, a preemptive strategy if its co-owned rivals Showtime and The Movie Channel (which elected not to pick up any spare Warner titles) sought full exclusivity over movie rights, the terms gave Warner an option to require HBO to acquire exclusive rights to titles covered under the remainder of the deal for $60 million per year (in addition to a guaranteed $65 million fee for each year of the contract). As a result of the 1989 Time-Warner merger, HBO and Cinemax hold pay-cable exclusivity over all newer Warner Bros. films for the duration of their joint ownership.
Former first-run contracts
Being the first pay-cable service to go national, for many years, HBO was advantageous in acquiring film licensing rights from major and independent studios; until Showtime, The Movie Channel, and other premium channels started beefing up their movie product to compete with HBO in the early 1980s, HBO's dominance in the pay-cable led to complaints from many motion picture companies of the network holding monopoly power in the pay cable industry and a disproportionate advantage in film acquisition negotiations. During the early years of premium cable, the major American movie studios often sold the pay television rights to an individual theatrical film title to multiple "maxi-pay" and "mini-pay" services—often including HBO and later, Cinemax—resulting in frequent same-month scheduling duplication amongst the competing services. From its launch as a regional service, HBO purchased broadcast rights to theatrical movies on a per-title basis. The network pioneered the pay television industry practice, known as a "pre-buy", of buying the pay-cable rights to a movie from its releasing studio before it started filming, in exchange for agreeing to pay a specified share of a film's production costs; this allowed HBO to maintain exclusivity over film output arrangements and to save money allocated for film acquisitions. In June 1976, it signed a four-year exclusive deal with Columbia Pictures for a package of 20 films released between January 1977 and January 1981, in exchange for then-parent company Time, Inc. committing a $5-million production financing investment with Columbia over between 12 and 18 months.
Although HBO executives were reluctant at first to strike such arrangements, by the mid-1980s, the channel had transitioned to exclusive film output deals (now the standard among North American premium channels), in which a film studio licenses all or a proportion of their upcoming productions to a partner service over a multi-year contract. In 1983, HBO entered into three exclusive licensing agreements tied to production financing arrangements involving Tri-Star Pictures (formed as a co-production venture between Time, Inc./HBO, Columbia, and CBS Inc.), Columbia Pictures (an exclusivity-based contract extension initially covering 50% of the studio's pre-June 1986 releases with a non-compete option to purchase additional Columbia titles) and Orion Pictures (encompassing a package of 30 films, in return for financial participation and a $10-million securities investment; the deal was indirectly associated with Orion's buyout of Filmways the year prior, in which HBO bought pay television rights to the studio's films). All three deals were approved under a U.S. Department of Justice review greenlighting the Tri-Star venture in June of that year. (The Tri-Star deal became non-exclusive in January 1988, although Showtime elected not to acquire titles from HBO's film rights lessees.) After the exclusive contract transferred to Showtime in January 1994, in July 1995, HBO preemptively signed a five-year deal with the studio that took effect in January 2000, in conjunction with a five-year extension of its existing deal with Columbia Pictures. (Columbia and TriStar's respective output deals with HBO ended on December 31, 2004, when Sony Pictures transferred exclusive pay-cable rights for their films to Starz—which , holds rights to televise all recent releases from either studio through December 2021, after which in January 2022, under a five-year agreement signed in April 2021, Netflix will assume pay television rights to its newer Sony films—after HBO declined a request by Columbia during contract negotiations to allow the studio to experimentally distribute its theatrical films via streaming video during its contract window.)
In February 1983, HBO signed an agreement with Silver Screen Partners (a now-defunct joint venture between HBO, Silver Screen Management, Thorn EMI and The Cannon Group), in which HBO had right of first refusal in the film selection and received 5% of all profits derived from non-pay-cable distribution of the studio's films; the Silver Screen agreement concluded upon the studio's cessation in 1998. In early 1984, HBO abandoned the exclusivity practice, citing internal research that concluded that subscribers showed indifference to efforts by premium channels to secure rights to studios' full slate of recently released films from to distinguish their programming due to VHS availability preceding pay-cable distribution in the release window. This change came after the firing of then-HBO chairman Frank Biondi, reportedly for having "overextended the network in pre-buy and exclusive movie deals" as subscribership of pay-cable services declined. Biondi's replacement, Michael J. Fuchs, structured some of the subsequent deals as non-exclusive to allow HBO to divert more funding toward co-producing made-for-cable movies, other original programming, and theatrical joint ventures (via Tri-Star and Silver Screen Partners). In July 1986, the network had signed a three-year output deal with New World Pictures, whereas HBO would receive up to 75 New World films Showtime won't, which cost $50 million to sign a deal. On August 8, 1986, HBO had inked a non-exclusive agreement with Lorimar-Telepictures to enable a package of various Lorimar-Telepictures theatrical films up to 1989, and Lorimar-Telepictures would be involved as a production partner on several made-for-HBO television movies, in exchange for worldwide distribution rights, excluding pay television, and the current plans for the agreement enables five to six films per year from Lorimar-Telepictures.
In September 1986, the network signed a five-year agreement with MGM/UA Communications Co. for a package of up to 72 Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer and United Artists films. Also that month, HBO signed a pay cable and home video agreement with film producer Kings Road Entertainment, which will serve eight films, with the home video rights being assigned to subsidiary HBO/Cannon Video, and the first film under the eight-picture agreement between HBO and Kings Road would be Touch & Go, and will cost $65-$70 million. In November 1986, HBO signed an agreement with De Laurentiis Entertainment Group for films that ran between 1987 and 1990, along with a three-year home video rights contract for sister label HBO/Cannon Video. In December 1986, HBO signed a pact with Soviet Union producer Poseidon Films, to cover Soviet-based films that covered a non-specific timespan, with the network controlling US and Canada rights. In July 1987, HBO signed a five-year, $500-million deal for exclusive rights to 85 Paramount Pictures films to have been tentatively released between May 1988 and May 1993. (This solidified an existing alliance with Paramount dating to 1979, for the non-exclusive rights to the studio's films.) Though this contract would herald the end of its embargo on new film exclusivity deals, HBO's then-CEO Michael Fuchs cited Showtime–The Movie Channel parent Viacom (which, at the time, had debt in excess of $2.4 billion) for it having to obtain exclusivity for the Paramount package, which the studio approached HBO directly to bid. The Paramount package remained with HBO/Cinemax until December 1997; Showtime assumed the pay-cable rights to the studio's films in January 1998, under a seven-year deal reached as a byproduct of Viacom's 1994 purchase of Paramount from Paramount Communications, and held them until December 2008. (Shared rival Epix—created as a consortium between Paramount/Viacom, Lionsgate, and now-sole owner MGM—took over pay television rights upon that network's October 2009 launch.)
In March 1995, HBO signed a ten-year deal with the then-upstart DreamWorks SKG valued at between $600 million and $1 billion, depending on the total output of films and generated revenue during the contract, covering the studio's tentative releases between January 1996 and December 2006. By result of the 2004 spin-off of its animation arm DreamWorks Animation into a standalone company, DreamWorks' pay-cable distribution rights were split up into separate contracts: in March 2010, Showtime acquired the rights to live-action films from the original DreamWorks studio (coinciding with the transfer of co-production agreement from Paramount Pictures to Touchstone Pictures, then a Showtime distribution partner) for five years, effective January 2011. Then in September 2011, after HBO agreed to waive the last two years of its contract, Netflix acquired the DreamWorks Animation contract effective upon the December 2012 expiration of the HBO deal. (Before the 2015 launch of HBO Now, HBO required its studio output partners to suspend digital sales of their movies during their exclusive contractual window with the network; the Netflix deal was not subject to any distribution restrictions, allowing DreamWorks Animation to continue the re-sale of its films through digital download via third-party providers.)
20th Century Fox first signed a non-exclusive deal with HBO in January 1986, covering Fox films released between 1985 and 1988, along with a production co-financing agreement involving HBO original programs; the pact transitioned to an exclusivity arrangement with the 1988 renewal. The first-run film output agreement with Fox was renewed by HBO for ten years on August 15, 2012 (with a provision allowing the studio to release its films through digital platforms such as iTunes and Amazon Video during the channel's term of license of an acquired film for the first time). While The Walt Disney Company completed its acquisition of 20th Century Fox in March 2019, Disney maintains an output deal with its in-house streaming services Disney+ and Hulu for films produced or distributed by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures and its subsidiaries (which have not distributed their films over a traditional pay-cable service since the studio's agreement with HBO rival Starz ended in 2015). Disney continued to honor the output deal with HBO until November 2021, when WarnerMedia and Disney announced that the deal would be expanded to the end of 2022, with an amendment that would allow half of 20th Century Studios' 2022 slate to be shared between HBO or HBO Max and Disney+ or Hulu during the pay-one window beginning with Ron's Gone Wrong.
HBO's relationship with Universal first began in March 1984, when it signed a six-year non-exclusivity deal with the studio; in April 1990, Universal elected to sign a deal with CBS for the licensing rights to a package of the studio's ten 1989 releases, bypassing the traditional pay-cable window. The current Universal output deal—which began as an eight-year agreement that originally lasted through December 2010, assuming the studio's pay-cable rights from Starz—was renewed for ten years on January 6, 2013; the current deal gives HBO right of first refusal over select Universal titles, allowing the studio to exercise an option to license co-distributed live-action films to Showtime and animated films to Netflix if HBO elects not to obtain pay television rights to a particular film. (Universal put a 50% cap on title acquisitions for the first year of the initial 2003–10 contract, intending to split the rights between HBO and Starz as consolation for the latter outbidding HBO for the Sony Pictures output deal.) On July 6, 2021, Universal Filmed Entertainment Group announced it would begin releasing its theatrical films on Peacock after its exclusivity agreement with HBO concludes at the end of 2021, under a fragmented window (starting within 120 days of a film's theatrical release) through which Peacock will hold exclusive rights to Universal titles in bookending four-month windows at the beginning and end of the 18-month pay-one distribution period. Subsequently, Amazon (on July 8) and Starz (on July 16) signed separate multi-year sub-licensing agreements, in which Universal films would stream on Prime Video and IMDb TV in a 10-month non-exclusivity window during the middle of the period and air on Starz's linear and streaming platforms following the Peacock/Amazon windows; HBO will continue to release Universal's 2021 film slate under their existing contracts through 2022, while Netflix will continue to offer the studio's animated films thereafter.
The first-run output deal with Summit Entertainment—which initially ran through December 2017, and replaced Showtime (which had exclusive rights to its films from January 2008 until December 2012) as the studio's pay-cable output partner when it initially went into effect in 2013—was renewed by HBO for an additional four years on March 1, 2016. (Summit is currently the only "mini-major" movie studio and the only studio not among the five core majors that maintains an exclusive output deal with HBO.) On March 2, 2021, it was announced that the deal with HBO through to the end of 2022 expires.
Other film studios which formerly maintained first-run pay-cable contracts with HBO have included American Film Theatre (non-exclusive, 1975–1977), Walt Disney Productions (non-exclusive, 1978–1982), The Samuel Goldwyn Company (non-exclusive, 1979–1986), ITC Entertainment (non-exclusive, 1982–1990), New World Pictures (non-exclusive, 1982–1986), PolyGram Filmed Entertainment (non-exclusive, 1984–1989), Hemdale Film Corporation (non-exclusive, 1982–1986; exclusive, 1987–1991) De Laurentiis Entertainment Group (non-exclusive, 1988–1991) Lorimar Film Entertainment (non-exclusive, 1987–1990), Hemdale Film Corporation (non-exclusive, 1982–1986) and Savoy Pictures (exclusive, 1992–1997).
Specials
Alongside feature-length movies and other types of original programming, HBO has produced original entertainment specials throughout its existence. Five months after its launch, on March 23, 1973, the service aired its first non-sports entertainment special, the Pennsylvania Polka Festival, a three-hour-long music event broadcast from the Allentown Fairgrounds in Allentown, Pennsylvania.
The network has cultivated a reputation for its stand-up comedy specials, which have helped raise the profile of established comedians (including George Carlin, Alan King, Rodney Dangerfield, Billy Crystal and Robin Williams) and served as the launchpad for emerging comic stars (such as Dennis Miller, Whoopi Goldberg, Chris Rock, Roseanne Barr, Patton Oswalt, Margaret Cho and Dave Chappelle), many of whom have gone on to television and film careers. HBO premieres between five and seven comedy specials per year on average, usually making their initial broadcast in late Saturday prime time, following its weekly movie premiere presentation. Regular comedy specials on HBO began on December 31, 1975, with the premiere of An Evening with Robert Klein, the first of nine HBO stand-up specials that the comic headlined over 35 years. Positive viewer response to the special led to the creation of On Location, a monthly anthology series that presented a stand-up comedian's nightclub performance in its entirety and uncut; it premiered on March 20, 1976, with a performance by David Steinberg. HBO's stand-up comedy offerings would eventually expand with the HBO Comedy Hour, which debuted on August 15, 1987, with Martin Mull: Live from North Ridgeville, a variety-comedy special headlined by Mull that featured a mix of on-stage and pre-filmed sketches. The Comedy Hour typically maintained a virtually identical concept as On Location, taking that program's place as HBO's flagship stand-up series and ultimately resulting in On Locations phase-out after a 13-year run, ending with the premiere of Billy Crystal: Midnight Train to Moscow on October 21, 1989. A spin-off, the HBO Comedy Half-Hour, airing from June 16, 1994 (with the inaugural special Chris Rock: Big Ass Jokes) until January 23, 1998, maintained a short-form format in which the special's featured comedian presented their routine—usually recorded live at The Fillmore in San Francisco—only for 30 minutes.
George Carlin headlined the most comedy specials for the network, making 12 appearances between 1977 and 2008; his first, On Location: George Carlin at USC (aired on September 1, 1977), featured Carlin's first televised performance of his classic routine, "The Seven Words You Can Never Say on Television". As other cable channels incorporated comedy specials due to their inexpensive format, HBO began to model its strategy with its comedy specials after its music programming, focusing on a few specials each year featuring popular comedians. (HBO stopped billing its comedy specials under the Comedy Hour banner after the February 6, 1999, premiere of the Carlin-headlined You Are All Diseased.) The network's library of comedy specials would become part of the initial programming inventories of two comedy-focused basic cable networks started by HBO through Time Inc./Time Warner, The Comedy Channel (launched on November 15, 1989) and its successor, Comedy Central (launched on April 1, 1991, as a consolidation of The Comedy Channel and Viacom-owned Ha!).
At irregular intervals between 1986 and 2010, HBO served as the primary broadcaster of Comic Relief USA fundraising specials to help health and welfare assistance programs focused on America's homeless population. Developed by Comic Relief founder Bob Zmuda in conjunction with former HBO executive Chris Albrecht, all eleven HBO editions of the fundraisers aired between the aforementioned years (out of the 15 produced by the charity over its 24-year existence) was hosted by Williams, Crystal, and Goldberg, featuring performances by stand-up comedians, improvisational comics and impressionists, and appearances by celebrities and politicians as well as documentary segments showing issues affecting the homeless. HBO and other sponsors handled all or most of the incurred costs of the Comic Relief events to ensure that money raised or contributed is distributed to the charity.
Concert-based music specials are occasionally produced for the channel, featuring major recording artists performing in front of a live audience. One of HBO's first successful specials was The Fabulous Bette Midler Show, a stage special featuring Midler performing music and comedy routines, which debuted on June 19, 1976. It served as the linchpin for the creation of Standing Room Only, a monthly series featuring concerts and various stage "spectaculars" (including among others, burlesque shows, Vaudeville routines, ventriloquism and magic performances) taped live in front of an audience; SRO premiered on April 17, 1977 (with Ann Corio's 'This Was Burlesque as inaugural broadcast). For a time in the early 1980s, HBO produced a concert special almost every other month, featuring major music stars such as Boy George and the Who. After MTV's successful rollout in 1981, the Standing Room Only series began to produce fewer concerts, eventually ending on May 24, 1987 (with the premiere of the Liza Minnelli concert special Liza in London); HBO's concert telecasts also began to focus more on "world class" music events featuring artists such as Elton John, Whitney Houston, Tina Turner and Barbra Streisand, as well as fundraisers such as Farm Aid. Michael Jackson: Live in Bucharest, recorded on the first leg of his 1992–93 Dangerous World Tour, holds the record as HBO's highest-rated special with 3.7 million viewers (21.4 rating/34 share) watching the October 10, 1992, premiere telecast. The special is also believed to be the largest financial deal for a televised concert performance on television, with estimates from music industry executives indicating that HBO paid around $20 million for the rights. In recent years, concert specials have had an increasingly marginal role among HBO's television specials, limited to an occasional marquee event or the annual induction ceremony of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.
Sports programming
HBO broadcasts sports-related magazine and documentary series produced by HBO Sports, an in-house production division managed by Warner Bros. Discovery Sports (previously through Time Warner Sports from 1990 to 2018) that also produced selected sports event telecasts for the channel from its November 1972 launch until December 2018. HBO Sports has been headed by several well-known television executives over the years, including its founder Steve Powell (later head of programming at ESPN), Dave Meister (later head of the Tennis Channel), Seth Abraham (later head of MSG Network), and Ross Greenburg.
Professional and tournament sports
As HBO was being developed, the Time Inc./Sterling Communications partnership elected a local origination channel operated by Sterling Manhattan Cable Television (which served as the progenitor of the MSG Network) to handle production responsibilities for home game broadcasts involving the New York Knicks and New York Rangers—both based at Madison Square Garden—that would be televised on HBO throughout its initial Mid-Atlantic U.S. service area. (HBO founder Charles Dolan, through Cablevision, would purchase the arena and its headlining sports teams in a $1.075-billion joint bid with the ITT Corporation in August 1994; his son, James L. Dolan, has owned the Knicks and Rangers through The Madison Square Garden Company since 2015, and Madison Square Garden through Madison Square Garden Entertainment by way of the former company's 2020 spin-off of its non-sports entertainment assets.) The contracts related to this arrangement dated to May 1969, when Manhattan Cable Television first signed a one-year, $300,000 contract with Madison Square Garden to broadcast 125 sports events held at the arena, and was extended for five additional years in November 1970. On November 1, 1972, one week before HBO formally launched, Madison Square Garden granted Sterling the rights to televise its sporting events to cable television systems outside New York City.
The first game under this arrangement was the New York Rangers-Vancouver Canucks NHL game that launched Home Box Office on November 8, 1972 and served as its inaugural sports broadcast. For the 1974–75 Rangers and Islanders seasons, HBO contracted MSG announcers for play-by-play and color commentating duties; this created a burden on announcers to fill what otherwise would be dead air over the HBO feed of the games, since the service does not accept advertising, during the MSG Network's commercial airtime. National Basketball Association (NBA) and National Hockey League (NHL) coverage expanded with HBO's transition into a national satellite service, covering non-New York-based teams in both leagues (including the NBA's Milwaukee Bucks, Boston Celtics, Portland Trail Blazers, Golden State Warriors and Los Angeles Lakers; and the NHL's Los Angeles Kings) under individual agreements as well as select playoff games. (The NBA and NHL discontinued their HBO telecasts after their respective 1976–77 seasons. In May 1978, the New York Supreme Court ruled then-Islanders and Nets president Roy Boe had breached an exclusive contract with Dolan's successor firm Long Island Cable Communications Development Co. through the HBO agreement and concurring contracts with other New York-area cable systems.) In 1974, the network acquired the rights to broadcast World Football League (WFL) games from the New York Stars (later relocated to Charlotte as the Charlotte Hornets midway through the WFL's inaugural season) and the Philadelphia Bell; 18 WFL games aired on HBO throughout two seasons until the league abruptly folded midway through the 1975 season. In March 1973, HBO signed a $1.5-million contract to acquire the regional rights to a selection of American Basketball Association (ABA) games for five years; notably, it carried the 1976 ABA Finals—the league's last tournament game before the completion of its merger with the NBA—a six-game tournament in which the New York Nets beat the Denver Nuggets four games to two. The merger of the two professional basketball leagues resulted in an early termination of HBO's ABA contract, which was originally set to expire on July 1, 1977, following the conclusion of the 1975–76 season.
Through 1977, HBO carried other sporting events originating on the Sterling Manhattan/Manhattan Cable sports channel, including World Hockey Association regular season and playoff games; Eastern College Athletic Conference (ECAC) tournaments (including the Men's Ice Hockey Tournament and the ECAC Holiday Festival basketball tournament); World TeamTennis; international high school basketball invitationals; the National Horse Show; harness racing events from Yonkers Raceway; equestrian, roller derby and ice skating events; the World Professional Karate Championships; the Millrose Games track and field invitational; the Westchester Kennel Club Dog Show; and World Wide Wrestling Federation matches. (The regionalized sports focus was soon copied by other local subscription television services launched during the 1970s and early 1980s, most notably PRISM, ONTV and Wometco Home Theater.) NCAA Division I college basketball games held at Madison Square Garden and, after becoming a national service, other venues (including the National Invitational Tournament and the Holiday Basketball Festival) were also carried by the network until the 1978–79 season.
HBO also provided regional coverage of New York Yankees baseball games for the 1974 season. New York independent station WPIX (now a CW affiliate) provided microwave signal pickup assistance to HBO for the telecasts; through its right of first refusal on game selection in its local television contract with the team, covering the team's away games, WPIX preempted planned coverage of four Yankees games that HBO was scheduled to carry that season. (The Philadelphia Phillies reportedly rejected an offer for HBO to televise regular season games not shown locally on independent WPHL-TV [now a MyNetworkTV affiliate].) HBO's Yankees telecast spurred a complaint filed in June 1974 by National Association of Broadcasters Special Committee on Pay TV chairman Willard Walbridge, who alleged they violated anti-siphoning rules barring pay television services from carrying live sports televised regularly on broadcast stations within two years. HBO representatives contended that regulatory interference over the game broadcasts was prohibited under the First Amendment and that it offered only weekday games as WPIX held rights to selected Yankees weekend games; it also contended the anti-siphoning rules did not apply as there was not a per-program charge for the broadcasts. In September 1974, citing the games were unavailable on broadcast television, the FCC gave temporary authorization for HBO to carry no more than three of the team's remaining regular season games. (The Yankees telecasts ran only for that season.) From 1973 to 1976, HBO carried Professional Bowlers Association (PBA) tournament events; beginning with the Winston-Salem Open on June 10, 1973, the network aired around 25 PBA tournaments, including eight which HBO co-sponsored over those three years. Dick Stockton, Marty Glickman and Spencer Ross served as play-by-play announcers, and Skee Foremsky acted as the color commentator for the bowling telecasts.
With the assistance of programming consultation and acquisition firm Trans World International, the expansion into a national service resulted in HBO expanding its sports coverage to include a broader array of events from the United States and Canada, including the North American Soccer League (1976–1978), select Amateur Athletic Union tournaments (1976–1981), select LPGA golf tournaments (1976–1978), championship rodeo (1976–1978), the USGF National Gymnastics Championships (1976–1981), Skate Canada International (1976–1978), the Canadian Football League (1976–1978), non-basketball NCAA tournaments including the Men's Gymnastics Championships (1976–1978) and the Division I Baseball Championships (1977–1978). Most of the aforementioned events ceased to be part of HBO's sports offerings in 1978, citing much of its sporting events generally had regional appeal, "don't repeat" and were readily abundant on commercial television. The NCAA regular season and tournament events remained on HBO until the 1978–79 athletic season, shifting over to upstart basic cable network ESPN beginning with the 1979–80 athletic season under an exclusive national cable deal with the organization; USGF, AAU and select non-NCAA invitational events remained on the network until early 1981, thereafter limiting HBO's sports rights to boxing and Wimbledon.
Wimbledon tennis
In July 1975, HBO inaugurated regional coverage of the Wimbledon tennis tournament for its Mid-Atlantic U.S. subscribers. (That year saw Arthur Ashe defeat defending champion Jimmy Connors, 6–1, 6–1, 5–7, 6–4, in the Gentlemen's Singles final, becoming the first Black male to win a Wimbledon singles title.) Initially, the HBO telecasts of the tournament mainly consisted of replays culled from other video sources (including the BBC); HBO Sports began to employ an in-house team of commentators starting with the 1978 tournament. Throughout its tenure on the channel, Wimbledon coverage on HBO, which was the first to offer weekday tennis coverage on network television, consisted of singles and doubles events from the early rounds of the tournament; NBC (which had the over-the-air broadcast rights to Wimbledon since 1969) maintained rights to the quarterfinal, semi-final and final rounds as well as weekend early-round matches. (Before the arrival of Wimbledon, HBO also carried the men's and women's rounds of the U.S. National Indoor Championships from 1972 to 1976 and selected WTA Tour events from 1977 to 1979.)
On June 25, 1999, HBO Sports announced it would not renew its share of the Wimbledon television contract after the conclusion of that year's tournament, ending its 25-year broadcast relationship with the Grand Slam event. Seth Abraham, then-president of HBO Sports parent unit Time Warner Sports, said at the time that the decision was guided by a need to "refresh" its programming slate rather than because of issues with financial terms or stagnant viewership. (At the time of the announcement, HBO paid $8 million annually—under a $40-million deal over five years—to air the tournament.) Although ESPN, Fox Sports Net and USA Network each expressed interest in obtaining the cable package relinquished by HBO, Time Warner kept that portion of the Wimbledon contract within its corporate umbrella: on January 23, 2000, a co-owned subsidiary Turner Broadcasting System and NBC reached a joint three-year, $30 million contract with the All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club for the tournament rights. TNT (which would be folded into WarnerMedia Entertainment, alongside HBO, as part of the realignment resulting from AT&T's 2018 acquisition of Time Warner) and CNN/SI (later moved to the now-defunct CNNfn in 2002, after CNN/SI's shutdown), which would have their broadcasts produced through the TNT Sports unit, assumed cable rights to the event beginning with the 2000 tournament. (Since 2003, the Wimbledon cable rights have been held by ESPN, which assumed full U.S. television exclusivity over the championship in 2012.) Professional tennis briefly returned to HBO on March 2, 2009, when it broadcast the inaugural edition of the now-defunct BNP Paribas Showdown as a one-off special presentation.
Boxing
HBO's sports coverage was long synonymous with its boxing telecasts, fronted by matches featured on HBO Sports’ longtime flagship series, HBO World Championship Boxing. Its first boxing telecast, on January 22, 1973, was "The Sunshine Showdown", the world heavyweight championship bout from Kingston, Jamaica in which George Foreman defeated Joe Frazier in two rounds. Outside of high-profile matches held at exotic locales, most of the boxing events shown during HBO's early existence as a regional service were bouts held at Madison Square Garden; once HBO became a national service, boxing coverage began to regularly cover fights held at The Forum (as part of its television contract with the Los Angeles Lakers and Kings) and other arenas. On September 30, 1975, the "Thrilla in Manila" boxing match between Muhammad Ali and Joe Frazier aired on HBO (under a licensing agreement with television program distributor Video Techniques) and was the first program on the network to be broadcast via satellite. (HBO also provided the first interconnected satellite demonstration broadcast on June 18, 1973, in which a heavyweight championship match between Jimmy Ellis and Earnie Shavers was relayed via Anik A to a closed-circuit system at the Anaheim Convention Center in Anaheim, California and to a Teleprompter Cable system in San Bernardino.) Boxing telecasts aired on various scheduled nights through 1979, and mainly aired thereafter on Fridays; boxing telecasts moved to Saturdays full-time in 1987. (All boxing events shown on HBO aired on average in two- to three-week intervals.) Through 1979, HBO also carried various National Golden Gloves competitions, and from 1978 to 1979, carried the National Collegiate Boxing Association championships.
HBO expanded its boxing content to pay-per-view in December 1990, when it created a production arm to distribute and organize marquee boxing matches in conjunction with participating promoters, TVKO (rebranded HBO PPV in 2001 and HBO Boxing Pay-Per-View in 2013); the first TVKO-produced boxing event was April 19, 1991, "Battle of the Ages" bout between Evander Holyfield and George Foreman. (TVKO signed Holyfield away from Showtime, which had been carrying his matches since its Showtime Championship Boxing telecasts premiered in 1986, under an agreement with promoter Dan Duva during Holyfield's reign as cruiserweight champion.)
HBO expanded its boxing slate on February 3, 1996, when HBO Boxing After Dark (titled HBO Late Night Fights for its inaugural edition) premiered with title fights involving contenders in the junior featherweight (Marco Antonio Barrera vs. Kennedy McKinney) and junior bantamweight (Johnny Tapia vs. Giovanni Andrade) classes. The program typically featured fight cards involving well-known contenders (generally those not designated as "championship" or "title" bouts), and up-and-coming boxing talents that had previously been featured mainly on basic cable boxing showcases (such as ESPN's Friday Night Fights). A second franchise extension, KO Nation (which ran from May 6, 2000, to August 11, 2001), attempted to incorporate hip-hop music performances between matches involving up-and-coming boxers to attract the show's target audience of males 18 to 24 (later broadened to ages 18 to 34) to the sport; former Yo! MTV Raps VJ Ed Lover was the "face" of the show and acted as its ring announcer. (Internal research stated that males aged 18–34 accounted for 3% of boxing viewership, while men 50 and older made up 60% of the sport's audience.) KO Nation drew low ratings throughout its run, even after it was moved from Saturday afternoons to Saturday late nights in January 2001. HBO Sports then refocused its efforts at attracting younger viewers through Boxing After Dark. To court the sport's Hispanic and Latino fans, the network's boxing franchises expanded to HBO Latino with the January 2003 premiere of Oscar De La Hoya Presenta Boxeo De Oro, a showcase of up-and-coming boxers represented by the De La Hoya-founded Golden Boy Promotions. A second boxing series for HBO Latino, Generación Boxeo, premiered on the multiplex channel in April 2006.
On September 27, 2018, HBO announced it would discontinue its boxing telecasts after 45 years, following its last televised match on October 27, marking the end of live sports on the network. (Two additional World Championship Boxing/Boxing After Dark cards would follow that originally scheduled final broadcast, airing respectively on November 24 and December 8, 2018.) HBO's decision to bow out of boxing telecasts was due to factors that included the influx of sports-based streaming services (such as DAZN and ESPN+) and issues with promoters that hampered its ability to acquire high-profile fight cards, and resulting declining ratings and loss of interest in the sport among HBO's subscribers. Also factoring into the move was HBO parent WarnerMedia's then-recent ownership transfer to AT&T, and the network's efforts to focus on its scripted programming; network executives thought that "HBO [was] not a sports network." Since then, although it no longer produces sporting event telecasts, HBO Sports has continued to exist as a production unit for the network's sports magazine shows and documentaries.
Magazine and documentary series
Since 1977, HBO has offered documentary- and interview-based weekly series focusing on athletes and the world of athletics. On September 22, 1977, HBO premiered the channel's first original weekly series, and its first sports-related documentary and analysis series, Inside the NFL, a program that featured post-game highlights and analysis of the previous week's marquee National Football League games (using footage provided by NFL Films) as well as interviews with players, coaches and team management. The program was one of the first studio shows on cable television to offer weekly NFL game reviews, predating the launches of similar football review shows on ESPN and other sports-centered cable networks. Inside the NFL would go on to become the network's longest-running program, airing for 30 seasons until it ended its HBO run in February 2008. (After HBO canceled the program, Inside the NFL was subsequently acquired by Showtime, under arrangement with CBS Sports, formally moving to the rival premium channel in September 2008.) The network would build upon the concept behind Inside the NFL through the debuts of additional sports talk and documentary programs: the Major League Baseball-focused Race for the Pennant (1978–1992), HBO Sports Magazine (1981–1982), On the Record with Bob Costas (2001–2005) and its revamped iteration Costas Now (2005–2009), and Joe Buck Live (2009).
Another program built on similar groundwork, Real Sports with Bryant Gumbel—which eventually became the network's flagship sports newsmagazine—premiered on April 2, 1995. The hour-long monthly series (originally airing quarterly until 1999), hosted by veteran television journalist and sportscaster Bryant Gumbel, has regularly received positive reviews for its groundbreaking journalism and typically features four stories centering on societal and athletic issues associated with the sports world, investigative reports, and interviews with famous athletes and other sports figures. , Real Sports has received 33 Sports Emmy Awards (including 19 for Outstanding Sports Journalism) throughout its run, as well as two Peabody Awards (in 2012 and 2016) and three Alfred I. duPont-Columbia University Awards. Of note, the show's 2004 Sports Emmy win for "Outstanding Sports Journalism" and 2006 duPont–Columbia University Award win for "Outstanding Broadcast Journalism" was for a half-hour hidden camera investigative report—guided by human rights activist Ansar Burney—into slavery and torture in secret desert camps in the United Arab Emirates (UAE), where boys younger than age 5 were trained in camel racing. The segment uncovered a carefully hidden child slavery ring that bought or kidnapped hundreds of young boys in Pakistan and Bangladesh, who were then forced to become camel jockeys in the UAE and questioned the sincerity of U.S. diplomatic pressure on the UAE, an ally to the United States, to comply with the country's ban on children under age 15 from participating in camel racing. The documentary brought worldwide attention to the plight of child camel jockeys in the Middle East and helped the Ansar Burney Trust convince the governments of Qatar and the UAE to end the use of children in the sport.
In 2001, HBO and NFL Films began to jointly produce the documentary series Hard Knocks, which follows an individual NFL team each season during training camp and their preparations for the upcoming football season.
Branding
The original HBO logo—used from the channel's November 8, 1972, launch until April 30, 1975—consisted of a minimalist marquee light array surrounding a left-adjusted "Home Box Office" nameplate, rendered in mixed-caps, accompanied by a ticket stub image (the former and latter signifying the channel's initial film and event programming focus).
The first iteration of the current HBO lettermark, designed by then Time-Life art director Betty E. Brugger, was introduced on March 1, 1975; it consisted of bold, uppercase "HBO" text incorporating a bullseye mark—derived from the tuning knobs found on then-current television set and cable converter box models—inside the cylindrical "O". Because of inadvertent consumer impressions of the name appearing as "HEO", as the 1975 design had the "O" obscure the "B"s double-curve, marketing firm Bemis Balkind modified it into the current trimmer form; introduced in April 1980, it shifted the "O"—now attached to the “B”s full double-curve—"an eighth of an inch" rightward, and slightly widened the spacing of the lettering and bullseye mark. (The 1975 and 1980 versions were used concurrently in on-air identifications and certain network promos until the former was fully discontinued in June 1981.) The simplicity of the logo makes it fairly easy to duplicate, of which HBO has taken advantage over the years within its imaging; a proprietary typeface adapted from ITC Avant Garde (which, like the similar Kabel, had previously been used in some on-air and print marketing dating to 1978) that featured bullseye-like glyphs within the 'D' and 'O' capitals was developed internally in 2008 as a logotype for HBO Sports (including the unit's boxing productions and, by 2012, Real Sports with Bryant Gumbel), the linear HBO high-definition and VOD services, and was later used for the logotype for HBO Go.
The logo would become widely recognized through a program opening sequence, often nicknamed "HBO in Space", produced in late 1981 by New York City-based production firm Liberty Studios and used in some capacity from September 20, 1982, to October 31, 1997. (It replaced a series of six film-based animated "HBO Feature Movie" intros used since April 1979, which Canadian pay service First Choice Superchannel later reused for its 1984–87 movie intros.) The original 70-second version begins inside an apartment, where a man tunes a television set's converter box and sits down with his wife to watch HBO. (A variant that begins with a dark cloudscape fading into the city sequence replaced the early version in November 1983.) As the camera pans out of the apartment window, a continuous stop motion flight (filmed on a computer-controlled camera) occurs over a custom-built model cityscape and countryside set against a painted twilight cyclorama. After the camera pans skyward at the flight's end, a bursting "stargate" effect (made using two die-cut film slides) occurs, unveiling a chrome-plated, brass HBO logo that flies through a starfield. As the HBO "space station" rotates toward the "O", rainbow-hued light rays (created using a fiber optic lighting rig) encircle that letter's top side—sparkling to reveal its interior wall and a center axis in the bullseye mark area—and streak counter-clockwise inside the "O"s inner wall, fading in a slide displaying the program presentation type in three-dimensional, partially underlined block text—usually the "HBO Feature Presentation" card for theatrical movies, though varied title cards set mainly to custom end signatures of the accompanying theme music (including, among others, Standing Room Only, "HBO Premiere Presentation", "HBO Special", On Location and "HBO Family Showcase") were used for original programs and weekend prime time films—before more light streaks sweep and shine across the text and create a sparkling fadeout. (An abbreviated version—shown during most non-prime-time programming until October 31, 1986, and thereafter for early-prime-time movie telecasts, aside from premieres and most weekend presentations—commenced from the starburst and the flight of the HBO "space station".)
Most variants of this sequence—except for the feature presentation, "Saturday Night Movie" and "Sunday Night Movie" versions—were discontinued on November 1, 1986. (In September 1993, the latter two versions were discontinued and the "Feature Presentation" variant was extended to all films aired in early prime time, with the full-length version being used for Saturday premieres and Tuesday re-broadcasts.) Variants of the intro are available on YouTube, including one—a previously unaired version including two children sitting with the aforementioned couple—uploaded to HBO's official YouTube channel; the sequence is also used as a movie introduction at the annual HBO Bryant Park Summer Film Festival (held since 1992, near HBO's now-former New York City headquarters), and a seldom-used "World Premiere Presentation" variant was featured in the intro of the 2019 HBO stand-up comedy special Dan Soder: Son of a Gary. The twelve-note musical signature of the sequence's orchestral fanfare—originally composed for Score Productions by Ferdinand Jay Smith III of Jay Advertising, who adapted the theme from the Scherzo movement of Antonín Dvořák's Ninth Symphony—eventually became the network's audio logo in November 1997, being styled in various arrangements (including horns, guitar and piano, and sometimes arranged as an abridged nine-note variant) within HBO's programming bumpers and network IDs since then. (An extended pop rock version of the theme, alternately titled "Fantasy", was released as both instrumental and lyrical tracks on Smith's 1985 album "Music Made for Television".)
Another well-known HBO program opener, designed by Pacific Data Images in conjunction with the network and commonly nicknamed "Neon Lights", began non-prime-time movie presentations from November 1, 1986, to October 31, 1997. The sequence, set to a synth and electric guitar theme, begins with a rotation shot of a heliotrope HBO logo on a film strip as blue, green, and pink light rays penetrate it and four radiating CGI slots; one ray then reaches a field of varied-color spheres that zoom outward to reveal a light purple HBO logo, which is overlaid by a cursive magenta "Movie" script against a black and purple sphere-dotted background.
A CGI feature presentation bumper (designed by Pittard Sullivan) harkening to the 1982 sequence was used from November 5, 1999, to April 1, 2011. (The sequence replaced a series of six-second feature presentation bumpers designed by Telezign—also used in some capacity as ID bumpers until November 4, 1999—for an accompanying imaging package introduced on November 1, 1997, which showed the HBO logo in different situations/settings—such as appearing as a fish in water, as a celebrity arriving at a film premiere in a limousine, and as a large neon sign outlining the roof of a skyscraper.) It commenced outside a movie theater facade (displaying the HBO logo and the words "Feature Presentation" on the marquee), leading into a trek across countryside road, snowy mountain cliffside, and desert settings—respectively passing under an electrical transmission tower and an above-ground tunnel, and through a tank trailer cylinder shaped in each letter of the HBO lettermark; a metropolitan neighborhood follows, culminating in a flying leap above a bridge between two skyscrapers, and a slower-speed panning shot above an HBO-lettermark-shaped lake outlined by spotlights before a 3D animation of the "Feature Presentation" text forms. (An abbreviated variant that preceded movies aired outside of weekend prime time excerpts the footage following the skyscraper leap.)
Another sequence paying homage to the 1982 opening—designed by Imaginary Forces, and accompanied by a Smith-derived theme arranged by Man Made Music—debuted on March 4, 2017. (It replaced a shorter, minimalist intro based around cascading screenshots from theatrical films in HBO's program library that were introduced in April 2014—one of two brief sequences by Viewpoint Creative used between April 2, 2011, and March 3, 2017, that were modeled on the network's graphical imaging, preceded by a 2011–14 sequence designed by Viewpoint contractor Jesse Vartanian that centered on a 4:1 aurora landscape.) The live-action/CGI sequence, set inside a metropolis within the HBO letterforms, features groups of people (respectively a married couple, a pair of teenage siblings watching via tablet in their bedroom, a family with four children, and a group of adult friends) gathering in their homes to watch an HBO movie; the sequence's second and third living room segments include brief glimpses of the HBO "space station" segment from the 1982 intro. (The full 49-second version is used only for Saturday movie premieres; an eight-second variant—beginning at the reveal of the HBO metropolis letterform—has been used for most film presentations since September 2018. HBO Max has used a four-second variant to open films on its main HBO content portal since it launched in May 2020.)
Unlike other pay television networks (including the multiplex channels of sister channel Cinemax), HBO does not feature in-program on-screen logo bugs on its main feed and multiplex channels; however, until their respective "The Works"-era logos were discontinued in April 2014, channel-specific on-screen bugs were previously shown during promotional breaks between programs on the six thematic HBO multiplex channels.
Network slogans
Source:
1972–1975: "This is HBO, the Home Box Office. Premium Subscription Television from Time-Life."
1975–1976: "Different and First"
1976–1978: "The Great Entertainment Alternative"
1978–1979: "HBO is Something Else"/"The Best Seat in the House"
1979–1981: "HBO People Don't Miss Out"
1981–1983: "Great Movies Are Just the Beginning."
1981–1985: "America's Leading Pay TV Network"
1983–1985: "There's No Place Like HBO"
May–November 1985: "Make the Magic Shine" (image theme based on "This Is My Night" by Chaka Khan)
1985–1988: "Nobody Brings It Home Like HBO"
1988–1991: "The Best Time on TV" (general slogan); "The Best Movies" (promotional slogan for movies)
1988–1993: "We're Talkin' Serious Comedy Here" (promotional slogan for comedy specials)
1989–1991: "Simply The Best" ("The Best" by Tina Turner was used as the image theme)
1991–1993: "It Could Only Happen Here"
1993–1995: "Just You Wait"
1994–1996: "Comedy: It's an HBO Thing" (promotional slogan for comedy specials)
1995–1996: "Something Special's On"
1996–2009: "It's Not TV. It's HBO."
2006–2009: "Get More" (slogan for the HBO website)
2009–2011: "It's More Than You Imagined. It's HBO."
2010–2011: "This is HBO." (only used for IDs)
2011–2014: "It's HBO."
2014–2017: "So Original"
2017–2020: "It's What Connects Us"
2020–present:' "There's More to Discover"
International
Since 1991, the Home Box Office, Inc. oversaw the expansion of HBO's service to international markets, establishing three major subsidiaries in Latin America, Europe, and Asia, as well as forming several distribution partnerships to syndicate HBO programs to other broadcast networks, cable channels, and video services on request outside the United States.
HBO Latin America was launched in 1991 as a partnership between Warner Bros. and Omnivisión (Ole), which was later joined by Sony and Disney. The Brazilian channel was launched in 1994. It is available in Hispanic America, including the Caribbean. Disney and Sony left the shareholding in 2010 and Ole Communications in 2020. HBO Max OTT service is available.
HBO Europe was launched in Budapest in 1991 in partnership with Sony, which was joined by Disney in 1996. After its launch in Hungary, it has expanded to several Central European and Balkan countries such as the Czech Republic in 1994, Poland in 1996, Slovakia in 1997, Romania in 1998, Moldova in 1999, Bulgaria in 2001, Serbia, Montenegro and Bosnia and Herzegovina in 2006, and Northern Macedonia in 2009. It was also available in the Netherlands from 2012 to 2016 through a partnership with the Dutch cable operator Ziggo. In 2010, HBO bought the shares of Sony and Disney. HBO programs are available as well through the HBO Max OTT service. Furthermore, the programs are available exclusively through HBO Max in Denmark, Finland, Norway, Sweden, Spain, Portugal, and the Netherlands.
HBO Asia was launched in 1992 in Singapore as a partnership with Singtel and was later joined by Sony and UIP (Universal and Paramount). This was followed by an enlargement of Thailand and the Philippines in 1993, Taiwan and Indonesia in 1994, Hong Kong and Malaysia in 1995, and Vietnam in 2005. It has also been available in other Southeast Asian countries from 1997 to 2020 such as Brunei, Cambodia, South Korea, Macau, Myanmar, Mongolia, Nepal, Palau, Pope New Guinea, and Sri Lanka.
HBO South Asia has been a subsidiary of HBO Asia since 2000 broadcasting in Bangladesh, India, Pakistan, and the Maldives, which closed in 2020. Singtel left the joint venture, being followed in 2008 by Sony and Universal. The on-demand video program in Southeast and South Asia is still on the old HBO Go platform as of April 2022, while HBO Max being planned for launch in 2023.
HBO programs are also distributed through agreements with third parties and are available on premium TV channels of local operators: Fox Showcase in Australia, Be 1 in Belgium, HBO Canada (brand and programming licensed under agreement with Bell Media), Amazon Prime Video in France, Sky Atlantic in the United Kingdom and Ireland, Italy, Germany, Austria and Switzerland, SoHo in New Zealand, M-Net Binge in Sub-Saharan Africa and OSN First Series in the Middle East and North Africa. Apart from TV channels, the programs can also be watched on the OTT platforms of the operators. In Japan, it is exclusively available on U-Next video-on-demand service.
References
Notes
External links
HBO Program Schedules
1972 establishments in New York City
Cable television in the United States
Commercial-free television networks in the United States
Home Box Office, Inc.
Movie channels in the United States
English-language television stations in the United States
Television channels and stations established in 1972
Warner Bros. Discovery networks
Peabody Award winners
International Emmy Founders Award winners
Television networks in the United States
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor%20Taiwu%20of%20Northern%20Wei
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Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei
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Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei ((北)魏太武帝, 408 – 11 March 452), personal name Tuoba Tao (拓拔燾), Xianbei name Büri (佛貍), was an emperor of Northern Wei. He was generally regarded as a capable ruler, and during his reign, Northern Wei roughly doubled in size and united all of northern China, thus ending the Sixteen Kingdoms period and, together with the southern dynasty Liu Song, starting the Southern and Northern Dynasties period of ancient Chinese history. He was a devout Taoist, under the influence of his prime minister Cui Hao, and in 444, at Cui Hao's suggestion and believing that Buddhists had supported the rebellion of Gai Wu (蓋吳), he ordered the abolition of Buddhism, at the penalty of death. This was the first of the Three Disasters of Wu for Chinese Buddhism. Late in his reign, his reign began to be cruel, and his people were also worn out by his incessant wars against Liu Song. In 452, he was assassinated by his eunuch Zong Ai, who put his son Tuoba Yu on the throne but then assassinated Tuoba Yu as well. The other officials overthrew Zong and put Emperor Taiwu's grandson Tuoba Jun (son of Tuoba Huang the Crown Prince, who predeceased him) on the throne as Emperor Wencheng.
Early life
Tuoba Tao was born in 408, while his father Tuoba Si was still the Prince of Qi under his grandfather, Emperor Daowu, without having officially been made crown prince but was the heir presumptive, as the oldest and most favored son of Emperor Daowu. (Tuoba Tao's mother was later referred to in history as Consort Du (杜貴嬪), but was likely actually named Duguhun, as by the time that Wei Shu (the official history of Northern Wei) was written, the Duguhuns had their name changed to Du by Emperor Xiaowen.) He was Tuoba Si's oldest son. After Tuoba Si became emperor in 409 (as Emperor Mingyuan) following Emperor Daowu's assassination by his son Tuoba Shao (拓拔紹) the Prince of Qinghe, Tuoba Tao was assumed to be the eventual heir, but not given that title for a while. In Tuoba Tao's childhood, he was given the nickname Foli. In 420, Consort Du died, and he was thereafter raised by his wet nurse Lady Dou.
In 422, Emperor Mingyuan created Tuoba Tao the Prince of Taiping. Later that year, when he suffered a major illness, at Cui Hao's suggestion, he not only created Tuoba Tao crown prince, but further had Crown Prince Tao take the throne to serve as the secondary emperor. He commissioned his key advisors Baba Song (拔拔嵩), Cui, Daxi Jin (達奚斤), Anchi Tong (安遲同), Qiumuling Guan (丘穆陵觀), and Qiudun Dui (丘敦堆) to serve as the Crown Prince's advisor. From this point on, most matters, particularly domestic matters, were ruled on by Crown Prince Tao, while Emperor Mingyuan himself only ruled on important matters. Later that year, when Emperor Mingyuan led a major attack on rival Liu Song, Tuoba Tao headed north to guard against a possible Rouran attack.
In 423, soon after capturing most of modern Henan from Liu Song, Emperor Mingyuan died. Tuoba Tao succeeded to the throne as Emperor Taiwu.
Early reign
Almost immediately after Emperor Taiwu took the throne, Rouran attacked after its Mouhanheshenggai Khan, Yujiulü Datan heard about Emperor Mingyuan's death. Emperor Taiwu engaged Rouran troops, and on the very first engagement became surrounded by Rouran troops, but he fought his way out of danger, and subsequently, he made nearly yearly attacks against Rouran, and each year, Rouran forces would elude him by retreating north, only to return south after he withdrew. Meanwhile, in 425, he reestablished peaceful relations with Liu Song. He also, in an action that later became a Northern Wei tradition, honored his wet nurse Lady Dou as "nurse empress dowager".
Also, soon after he took the throne, Emperor Taiwu became a devout Taoist. It was around this time that the Taoist Kou Qianzhi became famed, and Cui Hao became Kou's follower and often praised Kou before Emperor Taiwu. Emperor Taiwu was pleased by prophecies that Kou was making, which implied that he was divine in origin, and he officially endorsed Kou's proselytization of his state.
In 426, Emperor Taiwu began to look for a target to make a concentrated attack—asking his officials for their opinions on whom to attack between Xia and Rouran, and his officials were divided in their opinions, and some proposed yet another third target, Northern Yan, although after the death of the Xia emperor Helian Bobo later that year, he settled on making Xia his target. When Baba Song opposed this, Emperor Taiwu showed his fierce temper by having his guards pound Baba's head on the floor, but he also showed how quickly that temper went away by not demoting Baba. He then sent Daxi Jin to attack Puban (蒲阪, in modern Yuncheng, Shanxi) and Pu Ji (普幾) to attack Shancheng (陝城, in modern Sanmenxia, Henan), while himself making a fast, cavalry-based attack on the Xia's heavily fortified capital Tongwan (統萬, in modern Yulin, Shaanxi). Catching the Xia emperor Helian Chang by surprise, the Northern Wei troops intruded into Tongwan before withdrawing with much loot, while in the south, Helian Chang's generals Helian Yidou (赫連乙斗) and Helian Zhuxing (赫連助興) abandoned not only Puban, but also Chang'an, allowing Daxi to occupy the Guanzhong region. In spring 427, Helian Chang sent his brother Helian Ding south to try to recapture Chang'an, but Helian Ding's forces became stalemated with Daxi's. In response, Emperor Taiwu made another attack on Tongwan. Helian Chang initially took Helian Ding's suggestion to try to defend Tongwan until he could defeat Daxi, but misinformation that Helian Chang received then induced him to come out of Tongwan to engage Northern Wei forces. Emperor Taiwu defeated him in battle, causing him to be unable to return to Tongwan and forcing him to flee to Shanggui (上邽, in modern Tianshui, Gansu), allowing Emperor Taiwu to capture Tongwan. In the start of what would be a string of marriages that could be characterized as either politically- or trophy-taking-related, he took three of Helian Bobo's daughters as his concubines. Upon hearing of Tongwan's fall, Helian Ding disengaged from Daxi and joined Helian Chang at Shanggui as well.
In 428, Daxi and Qiudun Dui, trying to capture Helian Chang, instead became trapped by Helian Chang in the city of Anding (安定, in modern Pingliang, Gansu). However, Daxi's subordinates Yuchi Juan (尉遲眷) and Anchi Jia (安遲頡) made a surprise attack and captured Helian Chang. Helian Ding took over as the emperor of Xia. Meanwhile, Emperor Taiwu treated Helian Chang as an honored guest, supplying Helian Chang with the same supplies that he himself used, and he married his sister Princess to Helian Chang and created him the Duke of Kuaiji; he also rewarded Yuchi and Anchi greatly and created them dukes. Subsequently, Daxi, humiliated that his subordinates captured Helian Chang and he himself appeared helpless, aggressively pursued Helian Ding, but instead was defeated and captured by Helian Ding. In fear, Qiudun and Tuoba Li (拓拔禮) the Prince of Gaoliang abandoned Chang'an as well and fled to Puban, allowing Xia to recapture Chang'an. In anger, although Qiudun had been a high-level official for him since the days that he was crown prince, he had Anchi execute Qiudun and take over his position. For the time being, Emperor Taiwu left Helian Ding alone, while preparing an assault on Rouran instead, since Rouran had been harassing the northern border region.
In light of the Xia campaign, the historian Sima Guang wrote this commentary about Emperor Taiwu, in his Zizhi Tongjian:
In 429, with only Cui Hao in support and most other officials opposing, Emperor Taiwu launched a major attack on Rouran. (The officials who opposed largely worried that Emperor Wen of Liu Song, who had for years wanted to regain the provinces south of the Yellow River that Emperor Mingyuan captured in 422 and 423, would attack.) Emperor Taiwu pointed out that even if Liu Song could attack, it became even more crucial to defeat Rouran first, lest that Rouran attacked at the same time that Liu Song did. He surprised Yujiulü Datan, whose people scattered, forcing him to flee. However, as he chased Yujiulü Datan, he himself became hesitant to advance further, and he withdrew. Only later did he hear that he was in fact very close to Yujiulü Datan's position and could have captured the Rouran khan had he chased further, and he regretted his withdrawal. On the way back, he also attacked Gaoche tribes, and along with the Rouran tribes that he captured, he resettled them south of the Gobi Desert and had them exercise agriculture. From this point on, Northern Wei's northern provinces became rich and no longer lacked livestock and leather. He greatly rewarded Cui, and from this point Cui's advice became what he accepted at all times.
In spring 430, Liu Song launched a major attack, and Emperor Taiwu, judging his own defenses south of the Yellow River to be unable to withstand a Liu Song attack, withdrew them north, judging correctly that Liu Song forces would stop at the Yellow River, planning to counterattack in the winter after the river froze. Meanwhile, hearing that Liu Song and Xia had subsequently entered into a treaty to attack him and divide Northern Wei lands, he judged correctly that despite the treaty Liu Song had no intention to cross the Yellow River north, and he decided to destroy Xia once and for all. In fall 430, he made a surprise attack on the new Xia capital Pingliang (平涼, also in modern Pingliang), while Helian Ding was engaging Western Qin's prince Qifu Mumo, putting Pingliang under siege, but although he then sent Helian Chang to Pingliang to try to persuade its defender, Helian Shegan (赫連社干, younger brother to both Helian Chang and Helian Ding), to surrender, Pingliang would not fall quickly. However, the Northern Wei general Tuxi Bi (吐奚弼) engaged Helian Ding as Helian Ding was trying to relieve Pingliang, defeating him and surrounding him at the Chungu Plains (鶉觚原, in modern Pingliang). Northern Wei forces surrounded him, and his army became hungry and thirsty. After several days, he forcibly fought his way out of the siege, but his forces mostly collapsed, and he himself was badly injured. He gathered the remaining forces and fled to Shanggui. Around the new year 431, Helian Shegan surrendered. Nearly all former Xia territory was now in Northern Wei hands. (Upon recovering Daxi Jin from Xia captivity, Emperor Taiwu punished him for his failures by temporarily making him the imperial porter in charge of serving meals, but soon pardoned him and restored him to his princely title.) (By 432, Helian Ding was no longer able to hold Shanggui, and he, after destroying Qifu Mumo's Western Qin, tried to head west to attack Northern Liang, but was intercepted by the khan of Tuyuhun, Murong Mugui (慕容慕璝), defeated, and captured. In 433, Murong Mugui, with promises of rewards, turned Helian Ding over to Emperor Taiwu, and he had Helian Ding executed.)
While Emperor Taiwu was on his Xia campaign, his generals, as he instructed, crossed the Yellow River when it froze in winter 430, and quickly recaptured Luoyang and Hulao. They soon forced the retreat of the main Liu Song force, under the command of the Liu Song general Dao Yanzhi (到彥之), and trapped the remaining Liu Song troops at Huatai (滑台, in modern Anyang, Henan). A relief mission by the Liu Song general Tan Daoji could not reach Huatai, and by spring 431, Huatai fell. All the lands lost to Liu Song a year earlier had been regained. (Emperor Taiwu, in another action typical of him, rewarded the Liu Song general Zhu Xiuzhi (朱脩之), who had held Huatai for months faithfully, by giving him a daughter of an imperial clan member in marriage.)
In summer 431, Emperor Taiwu made his first proposal of a marriage between the two imperial families to Liu Song. (Based on subsequent events, it appeared to be a proposal of marriage between a son of his and a daughter of Emperor Wen's, but by this point it was not completely clear.) Emperor Wen responded to it ambiguously. From this point on, Emperor Taiwu would repropose the marriage on a nearly yearly basis, with the same kind of response from Emperor Wen. At the same time, however, he did enter into peaceful relations with Rouran, by returning a number of captured Rouran generals.
Middle reign
In spring 432, Emperor Taiwu honored his wet nurse, Nurse Empress Dowager Dou, empress dowager. He also created one of Helian Bobo's daughters as his empress, and his oldest son Tuoba Huang, by his deceased concubine Consort Helan, crown prince.
In summer 432, Emperor Taiwu, with Xia destroyed, began to attack Northern Yan in earnest. By fall 432, he had put Northern Yan's capital Helong (和龍, in modern Jinzhou, Liaoning) under siege. While he had several victories over Northern Yan forces, he chose to withdraw at the start of winter, after seizing a large number of Northern Yan's people and forcibly resettling them in his own state. For the next few years, he would launch yearly attacks against Northern Yan with the same pattern—seeking to weaken Northern Yan gradually. While Emperor Taiwu was concentrating on Northern Yan, he also had Northern Liang on his mind, but at the advice of his minister Li Shun (李順), he decided to wait until Northern Liang's long-time prince, Juqu Mengxun, died.
In winter 432, the Northern Yan emperor Feng Hong's son Feng Chong (馮崇), who had feared that his father would put him to death because of false accusations by his stepmother Princess Murong, surrendered the important Northern Yan city of Liaoxi (遼西, in modern Tangshan, Hebei) to Northern Wei. To reward Feng Chong, Emperor Taiwu not only sent his brother Tuoba Jian (拓拔健) the Prince of Yongchang to save Feng Chong from his father's siege, but created him the Prince of Liaoxi with 10 commanderies as his fief.
In 433, Juqu Mengxun died, and Emperor Taiwu began to consider conquering Northern Liang. Still, initially, he continued to accept Juqu Mengxun's son Juqu Mujian as a vassal, and he took Juqu Mujian's sister as an imperial consort.
In spring 434, Helian Chang, for reasons lost to history, fled out of Pingcheng and apparently tried to start a rebellion. He was killed in battle, and Emperor Taiwu had Helian Chang's brothers put to death.
Also in spring 434, after initially refusing a peace offer from Northern Yan, Emperor Taiwu accepted after Feng Hong made an offer to give his daughter to Emperor Taiwu as a consort and returned the detained Northern Wei ambassador Huniuyu Shimen (忽忸于什門), who had been imprisoned by Feng Hong's brother and predecessor Feng Ba in 414 after being commissioned by Emperor Mingyuan. Emperor Taiwu, however, ordered Feng Hong to also send his crown prince Feng Wangren (馮王仁) to Pingcheng to meet him, and Feng Hong refused, ending the brief peace, and by summer 434, Northern Wei resumed its periodic attacks on Northern Yan. Meanwhile, around this time, he also took the sister of Rouran Chilian Khan Yujiulü Wuti, Lu Zuo Zhaoyi, as an imperial consort and married his sister or cousin Princess Xihai to Yujiulü Wuti, to further cement the peaceful relations.
In fall 434, while attacking the Xiongnu rebel Bai Long (白龍), Emperor Taiwu took Bai's forces lightly, and was nearly captured in an ambush, saved only by the efforts of his guard Houmochen Jian (侯莫陳建). He subsequently defeated Bai and slaughtered Bai's tribe.
In 436, Feng Hong sent another embassy, offering to send Feng Wangren as a hostage. Emperor Taiwu, not believing in Feng Hong's offer, refused, and prepared a final assault. When he arrived at Helong, however, Feng Hong had already requested assistance from Goguryeo, which sent troops to assist Feng Hong's plans of relocating his people to Goguryeo soil, and because Emperor Taiwu's general Tuxi Bi was drunk, the Northern Wei forces could not give chase, and in anger, Emperor Taiwu imprisoned and then demoted both Tuxi and his deputy, the general E Qing (娥清) to being common soldiers, although he subsequently made them generals again. He then sent messengers to Goguryeo, demanding that Goguryeo turn Feng Hong over. Goguryeo's King Jangsu refused, albeit humbly requesting to serve Emperor Taiwu together with Feng Hong. Emperor Taiwu, at the suggestion of his brother Tuoba Pi (拓拔丕) the Prince of Leping, did not immediately carry out a campaign against Goguryeo. (By 438, however, Feng Hong and Goguryeo would have a fall out, and King Jangsu would have Feng Hong executed.)
In late 436, the peaceful relations that Northern Wei had with Rouran since 431 ended, for reasons no longer known. Rouran continued its harassment of Northern Wei's northern border regions.
In 437, the marriage negotiations that Emperor Taiwu had with Liu Song's Emperor Wen appeared to reach some fruition, as Emperor Wen sent his official Liu Xibo (劉熙伯) to Northern Wei to discuss details of how one of his daughters would be married into the Northern Wei imperial household, but at this time, Emperor Wen's daughter died, and the negotiations ended.
Also in 437, exasperated by the rampant corruption that his local officials were engaging in (which was somewhat necessary for them because at this point, no Northern Wei officials received a salary), he issued an edict creating incentives for low-level officials and commoners to report officials for corruption. However, the edict did not have its calculated effect, as the people who had evidence of the officials' corruption instead used the knowledge to blackmail the officials, and the officials continued to be corrupt.
Later in 437, Emperor Taiwu married his sister Princess Wuwei to Juqu Mujian, and Juqu Mujian sent his heir apparent Juqu Fengtan (沮渠封壇) to Pingcheng to be a hostage. Despite this, he continued to consider conquering Northern Liang, but at Li Shun's urging, delayed it.
In 438, Emperor Taiwu launched a major attack on Rouran, but Rouran forces largely eluded his, and he made little gain.
In 439, aggravated that Juqu Mujian's sister and sister-in-law Lady Li (with whom Juqu Mujian was having an affair) had tried to poison Princess Wuwei, and also unhappy that Juqu Mujian had friendly relations with Rouran, decided to launch a major attack on Northern Liang. Li Shun, who had previously advised him to attack Northern Liang, by this point had somehow switched positions and, along with Tuxi Bi, opposed such military actions, stating falsely that there was so little water and grass for grazing in Northern Liang that Northern Wei troops would suffer from thirst and hunger. At Cui Hao's insistence, however, Emperor Taiwu believed that he could conquer Northern Liang, and he launched the campaign. He quickly reached the Northern Liang capital Guzang (姑臧, in modern Wuwei, Gansu) in the fall, capturing it after a short siege. Meanwhile, Yujiulü Wuti had launched a surprise attack on Pingcheng to try to save Northern Liang, but was repelled. (Cui Hao, who was a political enemy of Li Shun's, would attribute Li's switch in position to bribes by Juqu Mujian, and later Emperor Taiwu would force Li to commit suicide.) Northern Liang territory was largely in Northern Wei's control, and although both Juqu Mujian's brother Juqu Wuhui and Tufa Baozhou (禿髮保周), a son of Southern Liang's last prince Tufa Rutan, would try to hold various parts of Northern Liang territory, by 440 Tufa Baozhou would be dead by suicide after failures, and by 441 Juqu Wuhui had fled to Gaochang. Northern China was now united under Emperor Taiwu's reign, ending the Sixteen Kingdoms era and starting the Southern and Northern Dynasties era. He continued to treat Juqu Mujian as a brother-in-law, and Juqu Mujian was allowed to continue carry the title of Prince of Hexi.
Late reign
In 442, at Kou Qianzhi's urging, Emperor Taiwu ascended a platform and formally received Taoist amulets from Kou, and changed the color of his flags to blue, to show his Taoist beliefs and to officially approve Taoism as the state religion. From that point on, it became a tradition for Northern Wei emperors, when they took the throne, to receive Taoist amulets. Also at Kou and Cui Hao's urging, he started building Jinglun Palace (靜輪宮), intended to be so high that it would be quiet and close to the gods. (Crown Prince Huang, a Buddhist, opposed the construction project on the basis of cost, but Emperor Taiwu disagreed with him.)
An anti Buddhist plan was concocted by the Celestial Masters under Kou Qianzhi along with Cui Hao under the Taiwu Emperor. The Celestial Masters of the north urged the persecution of Buddhists under the Taiwu Emperor in the Northern Wei, attacking Buddhism and the Buddha as wicked and as anti stability and anti family. Anti Buddhism was the position of Kou Qianzhi. There was no ban on the Celestial Masters despite the nofullfilment of Cui Hao and Kou Qianzhi's agenda in their anti Buddhist campaign.
In fall 443, while attacking Rouran, Emperor Taiwu suddenly encountered Yujiulü Wuti, and Crown Prince Huang, who was with him, advised an immediate attack, but Emperor Taiwu hesitated, allowing Yujiulü Wuti to escape. From that point on, Emperor Taiwu began to listen to Crown Prince Huang's advice in earnest, and in winter 443, he authorized Crown Prince Huang to carry out all imperial duties except the most important ones, under assistance from Qiumuling Shou (丘穆陵壽), Cui, Zhang Li (張黎), and Tuxi Bi. Crown Prince Huang soon instituted a policy to encourage farming—by mandatorily requiring those who had extra cattle to loan them to those without, to be animals of burden, with the lease being paid for by those without cattle by tilling the grounds of the cattle owners, increasing the efficiency of the farmlands greatly.
In 444, the first major incident of much political infighting during Emperor Taiwu's late reign occurred. Dugu Jie (獨孤絜), a high-level official, who had opposed attacking Rouran, was accused by Cui Hao of being so jealous of Cui, whose suggestions of attacking Rouran were accepted by Emperor Taiwu, that he sabotaged Emperor Taiwu's war efforts by giving the generals the wrong times for rendezvous, and then further planning to have Emperor Taiwu captured by Rouran and then making Emperor Taiwu's brother Tuoba Pi emperor. Emperor Taiwu put Dugu to death, and Tuoba Pi died from anxiety. Further, because Dugu implicated them while being interrogated, fellow officials Zhang Song (張嵩) and Kudi Lin (庫狄鄰) were also put to death.
In summer 444, eight nephews of the Tuyuhun khan Murong Muliyan (慕容慕利延), after their brother Murong Weishi (慕容緯世) had been put to death by their uncle, surrendered to Northern Wei and suggested that he attack Tuyuhun. In response, Emperor Taiwu sent his son Tuoba Fuluo (拓拔伏羅) the Prince of Jin to attack Tuyuhun and defeated Tuyuhun forces, forcing Murong Muliyan to flee into the Bailan Mountains (白蘭山, in modern southwestern Qinghai). In 445, with Emperor Taiwu's distant cousin Tuoba Na (拓拔那) the Prince of Gaoliang in pursuit, Murong Muliyan fled west and occupied Yutian (Khotan). (However, after a few years, Tuyuhun would return to its original position.)
In 445, angry that Zhenda (真達), the king of Shanshan had refused Emperor Taiwu's messengers passage through Shanshan to other Xiyu kingdoms, Emperor Taiwu sent his general Tuwan Dugui (吐萬度歸) to attack Shanshan, and by fall 445 Zhenda had surrendered. Northern Wei occupied Shanshan.
In fall 445, responding to prophecies that "Wu" would destroy Wei, a Xiongnu man, Gai Wu, started an uprising against Northern Wei at Xingcheng (杏城, in modern Yan'an, Shaanxi), and he was quickly joined by a large number of other Xiongnu and Han people. Gai also submitted as a vassal to Liu Song, seeking Liu Song aid. Initial attempts by local officials to stamp out Gai's rebellion failed, and Gai became stronger and stronger, claiming the title of Prince of Tiantai. In spring 446, Emperor Taiwu personally attacked and defeated Gai's ally, the Han rebel Xue Yongzong (薛永宗), before facing Gai. Gai fled into the mountains, and Emperor Taiwu carried out harsh reprisals against those who had supported Gai, slaughtering them without mercy. After Emperor Taiwu reached Chang'an, he found a number of Buddhist temples with weapons in them, and he believed that the monks must be working with Gai, so he slaughtered the monks in Chang'an. Cui used this opportunity to encourage Emperor Taiwu to slaughter all monks throughout the empire and destroy the temples, statues, and sutras, and notwithstanding Kou's opposition, Emperor Taiwu proceeded to slaughter the monks in Chang'an, destroy the statues, and burn the sutras. He then issued an empire-wide prohibition of Buddhism. Crown Prince Huang, however, used delaying tactics in promulgating the edict, allowing Buddhists to flee or hide, but it was said that not a single Buddhist temple remained standing in Northern Wei. This was the first of the Three Disasters of Wu.
In spring 446, believing incorrectly that the Liu Song governor of Qing Province (青州, modern central and eastern Shandong), Du Ji (杜驥), was about to defect to him, Emperor Taiwu sent Tuoba Na and Tuoba Ren (拓拔仁, Tuoba Jian's son) the Prince of Yongchang to try to escort Du, and to attack Liu Song's Qing, Yan (兗州, modern western Shandong) and Ji (冀州, modern northwestern Shandong) Provinces, and while Northern Wei forces did not capture or hold those provinces, those provinces were greatly disturbed by the attack.
In summer 446, Gai returned to Xingcheng and restrengthened himself quickly. Emperor Taiwu sent Tuoba Na and Tuoba Ren to attack him, and Tuoba Na captured Gai's two uncles. Initially, Gai's uncles were to be delivered to Pingcheng, but the general Buliugu Qi (步六孤俟) suggested instead to make an oath with Gai's uncles and have them assassinate Gai. Tuoba Na agreed, and Gai's uncles assassinated him, ending Gai's rebellion.
In 447, believing that Juqu Mujian had secretly hidden Northern Liang treasures that he had claimed to be lost to pillaging troops, Emperor Taiwu first slaughtered nearly the entire Juqu clan, and then forced Juqu Mujian and Consort Juqu to commit suicide.
In 448, Emperor Taiwu created his general Chudahan Ba (出大汗拔) the Prince of Shanshan, effectively making Shanshan a part of his empire. He also had Tuwan Dugui attack a number of other Xiyu kingdoms, forcing their submission.
In winter 448 and spring 449, Emperor Taiwu and Crown Prince Huang attacked Rouran together, but Rouran's Chuluo Khan, Yujiulü Tuhezhen eluded them and did not engage them. In fall 449, however, Tuoba Na was able to inflict heavy losses on Rouran, and for several years Rouran did not attack.
In 450, Emperor Taiwu, accusing Liu Song's Emperor Wen of having fostered Gai's rebellion, attacked Liu Song, putting Xuanhu (懸瓠, in modern Zhumadian, Henan) under siege for 42 days but could not capture it, and he withdrew.
Later in 450, a major political mystery occurred in Northern Wei—for reasons not completely clear now, Emperor Taiwu had Cui Hao put to death, along with his particular cadet branch of his clan and any other person named Cui from Cui's home commandery of Qinghe (清河, roughly modern Xingtai, Hebei), as well as the cadet branches of several other clans with marital relations to Cui's. The publicly announced reason was that Cui had unduly revealed imperial infamy, when he wrote and published an official history, but what Cui did was never fully stated. The modern historian Bo Yang speculated that Cui had revealed that Emperor Taiwu's grandfather Emperor Daowu had been a traitor, and also that Cui was then in a major political confrontation with Crown Prince Huang, who manufactured part of the charges against Cui. (See here for details.) However, Bo's speculation, while having some evidentiary support, is not close to being conclusively shown, and why Emperor Taiwu suddenly so rashly and so severely punished the man that he had trusted for decades is fairly unclear. (It should be further noted that during the entire incident, Cui was described as being so fearful that he could not speak a single word, which appeared highly inconsistent with Cui's personality and character, suggesting that Cui had himself been poisoned; it should be further noted that immediately after executing Cui, Emperor Taiwu expressed regret of having done so.)
In fall 450, Liu Song's Emperor Wen launched a major attack on Northern Wei, again hoping to regain the provinces south of the Yellow River, making a two-pronged attack—with the eastern prong attacking Qiaoao (碻磝, in modern Liaocheng, Shandong) and Huatai, and the western prong attacking Shancheng and Tong Pass. Under Emperor Taiwu's orders, Northern Wei forces abandoned Qiaoao while defending Huatai, and he himself headed south to relieve Qiaoao while having Crown Prince Huang head north to defend against a potential Rouran attack. The Liu Song general Wang Xuanmo (王玄謨), whose army was strong, initially received popular support among the people near Huatai, but lost that popularity when he demanded that those who joined his forces to provide a large supply of pears—800 per household. With the popular support lost, he was unable to capture Huatai quickly, and as Emperor Taiwu arrived, the Liu Song forces collapsed. Upon hearing this, although the western Liu Song forces, under command of the general Liu Wenjing (柳文景), were successful in capturing Shancheng and Tong Pass and preparing to descend into the Guanzhong region, Emperor Wen withdrew them.
In retaliation for the Liu Song attack, Emperor Taiwu launched an all-out attack against Liu Song's northern provinces. Tuoba Ren quickly captured Xuanhu and Xiangcheng (項城, in modern Zhoukou, Henan) and pillaging his way to Shouyang. Emperor Taiwu himself advanced on Pengcheng, but did not put that heavily fortified city under siege; rather, he advanced south, claiming that he would cross the Yangtze River and destroy the Liu Song capital Jiankang. Both his main army and the other branch armies that he sent out carried out heavy slaughters and arsons, laying Liu Song's Huai River region to waste. Around the new year 451, Emperor Taiwu had reached Guabu (瓜步, in modern Nanjing, Jiangsu), across the river from Jiankang, but at this point he reproposed the marriage-peace proposal he made earlier—that if Emperor Wen married a daughter to one of his grandsons, he would be willing to marry a daughter to Emperor Wen's son, Liu Jun (who was then defending Pengcheng), to establish long-term peace. Emperor Wen's crown prince Liu Shao favored the proposal, but Jiang Dan (江湛) opposed, and the marital proposal was not accepted. In spring 451, worried that his forces were being overstretched and would be attacked in the rear by the Liu Song forces garrisoned at Pengcheng and Shouyang, Emperor Taiwu began a withdraw, and on the way, insulted by the Liu Song general Zang Zhi (臧質), he put Xuyi (盱眙, in modern Huai'an, Jiangsu) under siege, and, after both sides suffered heavy losses but with the defense holding, quickly withdrew. This campaign appeared to heavily wear out both empires and demonstrated the cruel parts of Emperor Taiwu's personality well, as Sima Guang described it in this manner:
The Wei forces laid South Yan, Xu, North Yan, Yu, Qing, and Ji Provinces to waste. The Song deaths and injuries were innumerable. When Wei forces encountered Song young men, the forces quickly beheaded them or cut them in half. The infants were pierced through with spears, and the spears were then shaken so that the infants would scream as they were spun, for entertainment. The commanderies and counties that Wei forces went through were burned and slaughtered, and not even grass was left. When sparrows returned in the spring, they could not find houses to build nest on, so they had to do so in forests. Wei soldiers and horses also suffered casualties of more than half, and the Xianbei people were all complaining.
Another part of Emperor Taiwu's personality that was revealed as how, even as the states were engaging wars, he was maintaining formal protocols of détente. For example, when he was outside of Pengcheng, he requested Liu Jun supply him with wine and sugarcanes, while offering Liu Jun a gift of camels, mules, and coats. Later, he requested oranges and gambling supplies from Liu Jun, while offering Liu Jun blankets, salts, and pickled beans. Similar things happened as he was at Guabu, as he requested and sent gifts to and from Emperor Wen. (How Zang aggravated him was by sending him urine when he requested wine, thus breaking the pattern of formal exchanges of gifts.)
In 451, there would be further political turmoil, with Crown Prince Huang and his associates being the victims. Crown Prince Huang had been considered able and all-seeing, but overly trusting of his associates, while privately managing farms and orchards and receiving profits from them. Crown Prince Huang greatly disliked the eunuch Zong Ai, and Zong decided to act first, accusing Crown Prince Huang's associates Chou'ni Daosheng (仇泥道盛) and Ren Pingcheng (任平城) of crimes, and Chou'ni and Ren were executed. Further, many other associates of Crown Prince Huang were dragged into the incident and executed. Crown Prince Huang himself grew ill in anxiety, and died in summer 451. Soon, however, Emperor Taiwu found out that Crown Prince Huang was not guilty, and became heavily regretful of his actions in pursuing the crown prince's associates. He did not create a new crown prince, although he briefly created Crown Prince Huang's son Tuoba Jun the Prince of Gaoyang—but then cancelled that creation, figuring that the heir of the crown prince should not be created a mere imperial prince, suggesting that he intended for Tuoba Jun to inherit the throne.
Because of how much Emperor Taiwu missed Crown Prince Huang, Zong Ai became anxious, and in spring 452 he assassinated Emperor Taiwu. Initially, a number of officials were going to make Emperor Taiwu's son Tuoba Han (拓拔翰) the Prince of Dongping emperor, but Zong also had bad relations with Tuoba Han, and so falsely issued orders in the name of Empress Helian to make another son of Emperor Taiwu's, Tuoba Yu the Prince of Nan'an, emperor, while putting Tuoba Han to death.
Family
Consorts and Issue:
Empress Taiwu, of the Helian clan (; d. 453)
Empress Jing'ai, of the He clan (; d. 428)
Tuoba Huang, Emperor Jingmu (; 428–451), first son
Zhaoyi, of the Yujiulü clan ()
Tuoba Yu, Prince Nan'anyin (; d. 452)
Jiaofang, of the Yue clan ()
Tuoba Fuluo, Prince Jin (; d. 447), second son
Jiaofang, of the Shu clan ()
Tuoba Han, Prince Dongping (; d. 452), third son
Jiaofang, of the Fu clan ()
Tuoba Tan, Prince Linhuaixuan (; d. 452), fourth son
Jiaofang, of the Fu clan ()
Tuoba Jian, Prince Guangyangjian (; d. 452), fifth son
Unknown
Tuoba Xiao'er ()
Tuoba Mao'er ()
Tuoba Zhen ()
Tuoba Hutou ()
Tuoba Longtou ()
Princess Shanggu ()
Married Yi Gui of Henan, Prince Xiping (), and had issue (one son)
Ancestry
In popular culture
Portrayed by Canti Lau in the 2016 Chinese TV series The Princess Weiyoung.
References
Book of Wei, vol. 4, part 1, part 2.
History of Northern Dynasties, vol. 2.
Zizhi Tongjian, vols. 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126.
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Northern Wei emperors
408 births
452 deaths
5th-century Chinese monarchs
Northern Wei Taoists
5th-century Taoists
People from Datong
Murdered Chinese emperors
Persecution of Buddhists
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breton%20nationalism%20and%20World%20War%20II
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Breton nationalism and World War II
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Long before World War II, the various Breton nationalist organizations were often anti-French and anti-colonialist, opposed to the Central Government's policy of linguistic imperialism, and critical to varying degrees of post-French Revolution-style Republicanism. Some Breton nationalists were openly pro-fascist. The extent to which this led Breton nationalists into collaboration with the Axis Powers and their motivations, remains a matter of often bitter historical controversy and debate.
Background
Before the occupation, Breton nationalists were divided between adherents of regionalism, federalism, and political independence. Essentially these factions, though divided, remained openly hostile to the Third French Republic's policies of centralized government, anti-Catholicism, the coercive Francization policy in the State educational system, and the continued ban against Breton-medium education. Among these groups, only the openly separatist Breton National Party remained organized; dissolved in 1939, it was rapidly reconstituted in the autumn of 1940 and became the most active political party in Brittany under the Occupation. Having broken in 1931 from regionalism, its founders (Olier Mordrel and François Debeauvais) were inspired by the success of the Irish War of Independence and played the secessionist card. When the war broke out, the Breton National Party chose a position of strict neutrality. This party's ideas were anti-republican and complacent towards xenophobia and antisemitism, influenced by German racism and close to all the varieties of European fascism. During the war the ideology of the Breton National Party was favored by the forces of occupation and other branches of the Breton movement accordingly found themselves marginalized.
Collaboration with the Vichy regime
On 15 December 1940 a "petition" signed by 46 Bretons requesting "administrative autonomy" in the confines of a united France was sent to Philippe Pétain. On 22 January 1941, the Vichy government named Hervé Budes de Guébriant President of the National Commission for Agricultural Cooperation. The daily journal La Bretagne was created by Yann Fouéré on 21 March 1941. Like other adherents of the deposed French Monarchy, La Bretagne favored the restoration of Brittany's pre-1789 regional autonomy and opposed the secessionist policies of the Breton National Party. An appreciable number of Breton nationalists were also found in the Consultative Committee of Brittany, created on 11 October 1942 by Jean Quénette, prefect of the region of Brittany. "An organization of study and work", according to Yvonnig Gicquel, it did not wield any executive or decisive powers (against the wishes of the provincial parliament which conceived the adoption of a Breton cultural and regional autonomy doctrine). The will of its members (including members of the Breton National Party Yann Fouéré, Joseph Martray, etc.) was to transform this consultative committee into a true legislative assembly to tackle regional problems. Many of its members were to resurface when CELIB was created.
Collaboration with Germany
German politics
The work of Henri Fréville and Kristian Hamon have opened up this field for research. Three different periods can be considered.
Before 1939, Germany was trying to stop France and the United Kingdom from entering the war. During the phony war, Germany planned to favor regionalist movements (particularly those of Flanders and Brittany) in order to undermine France. This was in revenge for the Treaty of Versailles, and to ensure that Germany remained the only Continental power, with no threats on its western border. Some weapons were delivered but never used. By the end of June and early July, some Breton nationalists could take it for granted the independence of Brittany was well on the way when the Germans appointed a military governor in Brittany ruling over the five départements of ancient Brittany.
However, after the defeat of France a settlement was quickly made with the occupying power. The projects to undermine France were abandoned and the support for the nationalists disappeared (in particular it was formally forbidden to proclaim a Breton state or to harm public order). Moreover, the formal annexation of Alsace-Lorraine was never proclaimed. After the Conference of Montoire nationalist movements were simply tolerated (transport permits were given as well as authorizations for purchases of gasoline that soon meant little in practice), and German support went no further than preventing the Vichy regime from suppressing the nationalist movements.
Ideology
Bretons were not considered untermenschen (subhuman) by the Nazis, unlike the Jews and Gypsies for example. Mordrel, Lainé and some other Celticists argued that the Bretons were a 'pure' strain of the Celtic race, who had retained their "Nordic" qualities, a view consistent with Nazi Aryan master race ideology. Other Nationalists, such as Perrot, adopted a more conservative-Catholic stance consistent with longstanding Breton anti-radical ideologies that had emerged among the Royalist-Catholic "Whites" during the French Revolution.
Strategic rationale
A main intention of the German occupiers was to break French national unity. Its support for Breton nationalism needs to be seen in this wider context which included other aspects, for example the division of France into the occupied zone and the Vichy zone. However Breton nationalists very soon realized that Germany was in practice trying to keep its friends in the Vichy government content and therefore refusing to give any priority at all to the Breton nationalist demands.
Nazi scholar Rudolf Schlichting toured the region and sent the following comment to his superiors: "from a racial point of view there would be no objection to a Germanization of the Breton population. It is evident that we have no interest in promoting the Breton national consciousness, once the separation [with France] is accomplished. Not a penny should be spent on the promotion of the Breton language. The French language will however be replaced by German. In one generation Brittany will be a predominately (sic) German country. This goal is definitely attainable through the schools, the authorities, the army and the press."
Breton National Party
Important members of the Breton National Party including Morvan Lebesque and Alan Heusaff began collaborating with the Germans to one degree or another. The example of Ireland, or even the ideal of an independent Brittany - continued to be their reference points. Recent studies have shown the close links that Breton separatist leaders such Célestin Lainé and Alan Louarn had with German military intelligence (the Abwehr), going back well before the war, to the Weimar Republic of the 1920s. After the defeat of 1940, the Germans used these separatist agents in military operations or in repression against the French Resistance. A short-lived breakaway faction of the Breton National Party, created in 1941, was the Mouvement Ouvrier Social-National Breton (Breton National-Socialist Workers Movement) led by Théophile Jeusset.
Brezona
At the end of 1940, Job Loyant — along with Kalondan, André Lajat, and Yves Favreul-Ronarc'h, a former leader of the Breton National Party in Loire-Atlantique — developed the doctrine of the Brezona movement: supremacy of the Breton race, formation of a national community, and government by the elite. This movement was to have but a brief existence. To prevent a possible takeover of the BNP by this splinter group, Yann Goulet appeared at Nantes to pronounce the excommunication of the Brezona as "deviationists." With his revolver in plain sight on the hip of the black uniform he wore as chief of the Youth Organizations, he left no doubt as to his intentions. The Nantes PNB meeting, at which the Brezona movement had hoped to take control, took place without incident.
Bezen Perrot
A number of Breton nationalists choose to join the Bezen Perrot organization, a German militia led by Célestin Lainé and Alan Heusaff. As many as 70 to 80 people joined its ranks at one point or another, with typically 30 to 66 at any one time depending on recruiting and defection. During the war a handful of Breton militants decided to ask for German support in the face of the assassination of several leading figures of the Breton cultural movement, such as l'Abbé Jean-Marie Perrot. Having originally been named Bezen Kadoudal, the 1943 assassination of the priest prompted Lainé to give his name to the organization in December of that year.
It had already been envisaged by German strategists that in the event of Allied invasion the Breton nationalists would form a rearguard, and that further nationalist troops could be parachuted into Brittany. In late 1943 sabotage dumps had been hidden for use by the militia.
Strolladoù Stourm
The Strolladoù Stourm (also known as Bagadoù stourm), led by Yann Goulet and Alan Louarn, was the armed wing of the Breton National Party. A handful of their members took part in a confrontation with the population of Landivisiau, on August 7, 1943. Yann Goulet, their leader, forbade participation in Bezen Perrot.
Landerneau Kommando
By April 1943, the Gestapo had created specific units to combat the French Resistance. Formed at the end of April 1944 in Landerneau, the Landerneau Kommando took part in these units. It was composed of 18 German soldiers and ten French agents (some of whom were Breton separatists as well as former Resistance members). They fought against the maquis (rural French Resistance units) of Trégarantec, Rosnoën, and Ploumordien. Several Resistance members were tortured, and the Kommando also summarily executed some prisoners.
Actions by the Resistance
Several Breton nationalists were assassinated by the Resistance in 1943. The best known was Abbé Perrot, killed on 12 December 1943 by Jean Thépaut, a member of the Communist Resistance. Earlier, on the 3 September, Yann Bricler had been shot in his office by three FTP members, and similarly Yves Kerhoas was killed by the Resistance when leaving a fete in the village of Plouvenez. When American troops arrived in 1944, communist maquis members began their repressive actions. Jeanne Coroller-Danio, the Breton historian who worked under the name Danio, was beaten to death along with her brother-in-law, Commander Le Minthier; the Tastevint brothers were castrated, and the Maubré sisters and their brother were savagely murdered in Morbihan.
The BNP, dissolved along with the French Communist Party in 1939, no longer legally existed. Its activists were hunted down and not distinguished from the Breton militants who wore the symbol of the dukes of Brittany ("ermine-trimmed berets"). Many were deported to detention camps; notably at the Camp Marguerite in Rennes where 150 nationalists were detained for alleged collaborationism. The Breton nationalists sought to defend the fact that their widespread image as an overtly fascist, even Nazi, movement had nothing to do with the actual political backgrounds of their activists, as varied as the Action française (royalist), the French Section of the Workers' International (SFIO, socialist), the separatist Breton National Party (PAB), or the French Communist Party. Moreover, Yann Goulet received financial and public backing from several communist militants at the time of the Liberation. Other militants accused of collaboration demonstrated to the courts that they had protected Jewish families during the occupation (Alan Eon–Yann Goulet).
Involvement in the Resistance
Several leading Breton activists – regionalists, federalists and separatists – joined the Resistance against the occupation. They had various motivations:
Sao Breiz
As early as 1940 some joined Sao Breiz, the Breton wing of the Free French. This included several members of the Union Régionaliste Bretonne (Breton Regionalist Union) and the Ar brezoneg er skol association, founded before the war by Yann Fouéré. M. de Cadenet, a member of the latter group, and some of his associates wrote a draft statute, presented to General Charles de Gaulle which would have given Brittany a number of political freedoms after the return of peace. According to Yann Fouéré, this plan was close in spirit to the one that the Breton Consultative Committee wanted to submit in 1943 to Marshal Pétain. Neither of these two plans resulted in anything.
Joining underground organisations
Activists like Francis Gourvil, Youenn Souffes-Després and Jean Le Maho had before the war been members of minority separatist or federalist movements such as the Parti Autonomiste Breton (PAB) or the Ligue fédéraliste de Bretagne. These organisations were always clearly anti-fascist and critical of the extreme right. This led their members directly into the underground Resistance. Others joined the Resistance as individuals and after the war restarted their involvement in Breton nationalism. The action of a few members of Bezen Perrot has often been used to conceal a far more nuanced reality, for example the members of Bagadou Stourm who founded the Forces Bretonnes de l'Intérieur (Breton Forces of the Interior, a Breton wing of de Gaulle's French Forces of the Interior), and were deported to Buchenwald.
Liberty Group
For other groups, such as the Liberty Group of Saint-Nazaire (composed of young defectors from the Bagadoù Stourm), pro-British feeling was the determining factor in pushing them to ally themselves with the French Resistance. The Liberty Group, under the name of Bataillon de la Poche ("Pocket Battalion"), helped to liberate Saint-Nazaire from a pocket of German holdouts in May 1945.
Breton nationalists linked to the London-based leadership of the Resistance
The painter René-Yves Creston, despite his involvement with L'Heure Bretonne (a Breton nationalist and antisemitic newspaper), was affiliated with the Resistance network of the Musée de l'Homme. He was engaged in reconnaissance work for the British. It seems that in October 1940, he received via Yann Fouéré a memo destined for London concerning Breton autonomy (to be continued by the Comité Consultatif de Bretagne), with a short preface specifying the origins of the "Breton question."
In 1940, the overtly pro-Nazi Olier Mordrel covertly sent Hervé Le Helloco on a mission to England (via the channels of the Resistance) in order to convince the leadership of the Resistance of the "Allied leanings" of the Breton movement. This effort went no further because of Helloco's track record, and the reaction of the Nazi-allied PNB.
The nationalist movement after the liberation of France
After France was liberated, it was as collaborators, not as separatists, that the PNB members were punished, and even then it was by no means all those members that were affected. Only 15 to 16 per cent of PNB members appeared in court, and few non-member sympathisers were prosecuted. Most leading members escaped in Ireland or Germany and were not judged. There was no mass repression as claimed in post-war separatist propaganda. However the post-war nationalist movements will tend to minimise the collaboration with Nazi Germany and will create the myth of the separatists' repression by the French government.
Despite the involvement of Breton nationalists with the French Resistance, an effort was made, however, by the post-war Government of the Fourth French Republic to discredit all Breton language, cultural, and political activism by depicting it is synonymous with Nazism, treason, and collaboration.
Still today, some people are worried by the "collective amnesia" of the current Breton autonomist movement about World War II or by their attempts to rehabilitate the nationalist collaborationists.
On the other hand, it is the standpoint of at least some modern Breton activists is that the collaboration of some Breton nationalists with the Axis Powers during World War II is being both exaggerated and exploited for propaganda by the French government and media to discredit the current aims of the Breton movement, such as language revival, political devolution, and the expansion of Breton-medium education.
Bibliography
In chronological order, earliest first
English language
Reece, Jack E. (1977) The Bretons against France: ethnic minority nationalism in twentieth-century Brittany. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press
Biddiscombe, Perry (2001) "The Last White Terror: the Maquis Blanc and its impact in liberated France, 1944-1945", in: The Journal of Modern History, 2001
Leach, Daniel (2008) "Bezen Perrot: the Breton nationalist unit of the SS, 1943-5"
Leach, Daniel (2009) Fugitive Ireland: European minority nationalists and Irish political asylum, 1937-2008. Dublin: Four Courts Press
French language
Le mouvement breton. Automatisme et fédéralisme. Carhaix, Éd. 'Armoricai, sans date (1937). by René Barbin
La Bretagne écartelée. Essai pour servir à l'histoire de dix ans. 1938-1948 -. Nouvelles éditions latines. 1962. by Yann Fouéré.
Complots pour une République bretonne -. La Table Ronde. 1967. by Ronan Caerleon
La Bretagne contre Paris -. La Table Ronde. 1969 de Jean Bothorel
La Bretagne dans la guerre. 2 volumes. France-Empire. 1969. by Hervé Le Boterf
Racisme et Culte de la race.- La Bretagne réelle. Celtia. (Rennes). Été 1970. Supplément à La Bretagne réelle N°300. par P.-M. de Beauvy de Kergalec.
Breiz Atao -. Alain Moreau. 1973. Olier Mordrel.
Le rêve fou des soldats de Breiz Atao. Nature et Bretagne. 1975. by Ronan Caerleon
Histoire résumée du mouvement breton-. Nature et Bretagne. 1977. by Yann Fouéré.
Nous ne savions que le breton et il fallait parler français -. Mémoire d'un paysan du Léon. Breizh hor bro. 1978. by Fanch Elegoët.
La Bretagne, Problèmes du régionalisme en France, Cornelsen-Velhagen & Klasing, Berlin 1979.
La Bretagne sous le gouvernement de Vichy -. Edition France-Empire. 1982. by Hervé Le Boterf.
Histoire du mouvement breton, Syros, 1982. by Michel Nicolas.
Archives secrètes de Bretagne, 1940-1944, Rennes, Ouest-France, 1985. d'Henri Fréville
Breizh/Europa. Histoire d'une aspiration -. Edition Ijin. 1994. Annaig Le Gars.
Les nationalistes bretons sous l'Occupation, Le Relecq-Kerhuon, An Here, 2001. by Christian Hamon.
L'hermine et la croix gammée. Le mouvement breton et la collaboration, Ed. Mango, 2001. by Georges Cadiou.
Les usages politiques de la Seconde Guerre mondiale en Bretagne : histoire, mémoire et identité régionale. Marc Bergère.
Archives secrètes de Bretagne 1940-1944 par Henri Fréville, éditions Ouest France, 2004
De 1940 à 1941, réapparition d'une Bretagne provisoirement incomplète, un provisoire destiné à durer, bulletin et mémoires de la Société archéologique et historique d'Ille-et-Vilaine, tome CXIV. 2010. by Etienne Maignen.
References
Breton nationalism
French home front during World War II
Breton collaborators with Nazi Germany
France in World War II
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visa%20policy%20of%20the%20United%20States
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Visa policy of the United States
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Visitors to the United States must obtain a visa from one of the U.S. diplomatic missions unless they come from one of the visa-exempt or Visa Waiver Program countries. The same rules apply for travel to all U.S. states, Washington, D.C., Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands, as well as to Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands with additional waivers, while similar but separate rules apply to American Samoa.
Overview
Travel documents
The U.S. government requires all individuals entering or departing the United States by air, or entering the United States by sea from outside the Americas, to hold one of the following documents:
U.S. passport
Foreign passport; for entry, a U.S. visa is also required except for:
Citizens of the freely associated states (Marshall Islands, Micronesia and Palau)
Nationals of certain neighboring jurisdictions (Canada and Bermuda generally; Bahamas, British Virgin Islands, Cayman Islands and Turks and Caicos Islands under certain conditions; and Mexico under limited categories)
Nationals of countries in the Visa Waiver Program (or of certain additional countries only for Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands)
U.S. permanent resident card (Form I-551) or temporary I-551 stamp
U.S. travel document serving as a re-entry permit (Form I-327) or refugee travel document (Form I-571)
U.S. advance parole authorization (Form I-512), or employment authorization document (Form I-766) annotated "valid for re-entry to U.S." or "serves as I-512 advance parole"
U.S. military or NATO identification with official travel order
U.S. merchant mariner credential indicating U.S. citizenship
NEXUS card indicating U.S. or Canadian citizenship (only to or from Canadian airports)
U.S. government-issued transportation letter or boarding foil (for entry only)
Foreign emergency travel document or U.S. removal order (for departure only)
For entry by land or sea from the Americas, individuals must present one of the documents acceptable for entry by air or one of the following:
U.S. passport card
NEXUS, SENTRI, FAST or Global Entry card indicating U.S. or Canadian citizenship
U.S. or Canadian enhanced driver's license
Enhanced tribal card, Native American photo identification card, or Canadian Indian status card
U.S. or Canadian birth certificate, U.S. Consular Report of Birth Abroad, U.S. naturalization certificate or Canadian citizenship certificate, only for children under age 16, or under age 19 in a supervised group
Government-issued photo identification along with U.S. birth certificate, Consular Report of Birth Abroad or naturalization certificate, only for travel by cruise ship returning to the same place of departure in the United States
Nationals of Mexico may use a Border Crossing Card, which serves as a visa when presented with a passport. Without a passport, the card on its own also allows entry by land or sea while remaining within from the Mexico–United States border (up to 75 miles in Arizona and 55 miles in New Mexico) for a stay of up to 30 days.
Children born to a U.S. permanent resident mother during a temporary visit abroad do not need a passport or visa at the mother's first re-entry to the United States within two years after birth. Similarly, children born abroad to a parent with a U.S. immigrant visa after its issuance do not need a passport or visa if listed in the parent's passport with a birth certificate.
Visas
While there are about 185 different types of U.S. visas, there are two main categories:
Nonimmigrant visa, for temporary stays such as for tourism, business, family visits, study, work or transit;
Immigrant visa: for permanent residence in the United States. At the port of entry, upon endorsement with an I-551 admission stamp, the visa serves as evidence of permanent residence for one year, and the visa holder is processed for a green card. A child with an IR-3 or IH-3 visa automatically becomes a U.S. citizen upon admission and is processed for a certificate of citizenship (N-560).
A U.S. visa does not authorize entry into the United States or a stay in a particular status, but only serves as a preliminary permission to travel to the United States and to seek admission at a port of entry. The final admission to the United States is made at the port of entry by a U.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP) officer. For those entering in a nonimmigrant visa status, the admission details are recorded by the CBP officer on a Form I-94 (or Form I-94W for nationals of the Visa Waiver Program countries for short visits), which serves as the official document authorizing the stay in the United States in a particular status and for a particular period of time. In order to immigrate, one should either have an immigrant visa or have a dual intent visa, which is one that is compatible with making a concurrent application for nonimmigrant and immigrant status.
Entering the United States on an employment visa may be described as a three-step process in most cases. First, the employer files an application with U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services requesting a particular type of category visa for a specific individual. If the employer's application is approved, it only authorizes the individual to apply for a visa; the approved application is not actually a visa. The individual then applies for a visa and is usually interviewed at a U.S. embassy or consulate in the native country. If the embassy or consulate grants the visa, the individual is then allowed to travel to the United States. At the airport, border crossing or other point of entry, the individual speaks with an officer from U.S. Customs and Border Protection to request admission, and if approved, the individual may then enter the United States.
In addition to immigration sponsored by a U.S. family member or employer, about 55,000 immigrant visas are available each year to natives of certain countries under the Diversity Immigrant Visa program, also known as the green card lottery.
Visa policy map
Visa exemption
Citizens of freely associated states
Nationals of neighboring jurisdictions
The United States grants visa-free entry to nationals of two neighboring jurisdictions under most circumstances:
Citizens of Canada do not need a visa to visit the United States under most circumstances. In addition, under the USMCA (and previously the NAFTA), they may obtain authorization to work under a simplified procedure.
British Overseas Territories citizens of Bermuda do not need a visa to visit the United States under most circumstances for up to 180 days. They may also enter to study there without a visa. To qualify for the visa exemption, they must present a British passport with "Government of Bermuda" on the cover, with the nationality listed as "British Overseas Territories Citizen" or "British Dependent Territories Citizen", and containing an endorsement stamp of "Holder is registered as a Bermudian", "Holder possesses Bermudian status" or "Holder is deemed to possess Bermudian status".
The United States also grants visa-free entry to nationals of some other neighboring jurisdictions under certain conditions:
Nationals of the Bahamas do not need a visa to the United States if they apply for admission at a U.S. preclearance facility located in the Bahamas. In addition to a Bahamian passport, applicants 14 years of age or older must present a police certificate issued by the Royal Bahamas Police Force in the previous six months indicating no criminal record.
British Overseas Territories citizens of the British Virgin Islands may travel without a visa to the U.S. Virgin Islands with their British Virgin Islands passport. They may also continue travel to other parts of the United States if they present a Certificate of Good Conduct issued by the Royal Virgin Islands Police Department indicating no criminal record.
British Overseas Territories citizens of the Cayman Islands may travel without a visa to the United States. To qualify, they must receive a visa waiver from the Cayman Islands Passport and Corporate Services Office, for which they must present a Cayman Islands passport valid for at least six months beyond their intended departure from the United States, a fee of 25 Cayman Islands dollars, and a police clearance certificate for applicants age 13 or older. The visa waiver is valid for only one entry and for travel directly from the Cayman Islands to the United States.
British Overseas Territories citizens of the Turks and Caicos Islands may travel to the United States without a visa for short stays for business or pleasure. To qualify, they must travel directly from the territory to the United States, present a Turks and Caicos Islands passport or another travel document stating that they are British Overseas Territory citizens with the right of abode in the Turks and Caicos Islands, and applicants 14 years of age or older must also present a police certificate issued in the previous six months indicating no criminal record.
Visa-free entry is also granted to limited categories of nationals of another neighboring country:
Some nationals of Mexico do not need a visa to travel to the United States: government officials not permanently assigned to the United States and their accompanying family members, holding diplomatic or official passports, for stays of up to six months; members of the Kickapoo tribes of Texas or Oklahoma, holding Form I-872, American Indian Card; and crew members of Mexican airlines operating in the United States. Other nationals of Mexico may travel to the United States with a Border Crossing Card, which functions as a visa and has similar requirements. Under the USMCA (and earlier NAFTA), they may also obtain authorization to work under a simplified procedure.
Visa Waiver Program
As of 2023, 41 countries have been selected by the U.S. government for inclusion in the Visa Waiver Program (VWP). Their nationals do not need a U.S. visa for short stays, but they are required to obtain an electronic authorization (ESTA) prior to arrival. Visitors may stay for up to 90 days in the United States, which also includes time spent in Canada, Mexico, Bermuda or the islands in the Caribbean if the arrival was through the United States.
The Electronic System for Travel Authorization (ESTA) is not considered a visa, but a prerequisite to traveling to the United States under the Visa Waiver Program. ESTA has an application fee of US$4, and if approved, an additional fee of $17 is charged, for a total of $21. Once obtained, the authorization is valid for up to two years or until the traveler's passport expires, whichever comes first, and is valid for multiple entries into the United States. Passengers are advised to apply for ESTA at least 72 hours before departure.
Travel by air or sea with ESTA must be made on a participating commercial carrier. The VWP does not apply at all if arriving by air or sea on an unapproved carrier (e.g. a private ship or plane), in which case a standard visa is required. ESTA is also required for entry by land.
As of 2023, those who have previously been in Iran, Iraq, Libya, North Korea, Somalia, Sudan, Syria or Yemen on or after March 1, 2011, or in Cuba on or after January 12, 2021, or who are dual nationals of Cuba, Iran, Iraq, North Korea, Sudan or Syria, are not eligible to travel under the VWP and must obtain a standard visa. However, those who traveled to such countries as diplomats, military, journalists, humanitarian workers or legitimate businessmen may have this ineligibility waived.
Visa waiver programs of Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands
Although the visa policy of the United States also applies to the U.S. territories of Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands, both territories have additional visa waiver programs for certain nationalities. The Guam–CNMI Visa Waiver Program, first enacted in October 1988 and periodically amended, permits nationals of 12 countries to visit Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands for up to 45 days for tourism or business without the need to obtain a U.S. visa or ESTA. A parole policy also allows nationals of China visa-free access to the Northern Mariana Islands for up to 14 days.
Travelers with a visa or ESTA are admitted to the territories in accordance with the terms of the visa or ESTA.
Travelers using the Guam–CNMI Visa Waiver Program or the parole are required to complete an I-736 form (online as of February 2018), hold a machine-readable passport and nonrefundable return ticket, and are not permitted to travel to other parts of the United States. Because of special visa categories for the Northern Mariana Islands' foreign workers, traveling between Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands still requires a full immigration inspection, and all visitors departing Guam or Northern Mariana Islands are inspected regardless of final destination.
American Samoa
U.S. visa policy does not apply to the territory of American Samoa, as it has its own entry requirements and maintains control of its own borders. Hence, neither a U.S. visa nor an ESTA can be used to enter American Samoa. If required, an entry permit or an electronic authorization called "OK Board" must be obtained from the Department of Legal Affairs of American Samoa.
To travel to American Samoa, U.S. nationals must present a valid U.S. passport, a valid American Samoan certificate of identity, or a certified birth certificate in combination with a valid identification card. Alternatively, they may apply online for an electronic authorization providing a copy of their birth certificate or expired travel document, a copy of their identification card (or of an accompanying adult's identification card if under age 18), itinerary, and a fee of US$50 for verification of vital records (no fee if under age 18). In addition to their identification document or electronic authorization, U.S. nationals must also show proof of residence or employment in American Samoa or a ticket for future departure from the territory. However, after entering American Samoa, U.S. nationals may reside there indefinitely and cannot be deported.
Nationals of countries in the American Samoa Entry Permit Waiver Program may visit the territory for up to 30 days without an entry permit. However, if arriving by air, they must apply online for an electronic authorization called "OK Board", at least 3 business days before travel, providing a copy of their passport valid for at least 6 months after their planned departure from the territory, a ticket for such departure, proof of accommodation, and a fee of US$40.
Nationals of Samoa may also apply for a similar electronic authorization to visit American Samoa for up to 7 days, for a fee of US$10. Up to 400 such authorizations are granted per month.
Entry permit waivers of American Samoa
Other visitors need an entry permit. To apply, they must have a local sponsor, who must appear in person at the Immigration Office of the Department of Legal Affairs. The application must be signed by the sponsor's saʻo (head chief), unless the sponsor provides a deed of private land, and by the sponsor's pulenuʻu (village mayor). Applicants must also provide a copy of their passport or identity document valid for at least 6 months after their planned departure from the territory, a ticket for such departure, clearances from the District Court of American Samoa and Lyndon B. Johnson Tropical Medical Center, police and medical clearances from the country of origin (medical clearance not required for nationals of Samoa), and a fee of US$40 (no fee if under age 5). The application for an entry permit must be made at least 3 business days before travel, and the permit is valid for a stay of up to 30 days, but an extension may be requested for a fee of US$50.
Business travelers may apply for a multiple-entry permit, for a fee of US$50 per month, up to one year. Nationals of Samoa traveling on business may also apply for an entry permit for a stay of up to 14 days, for a fee of US$10.
Transit travelers of any nationality may apply for an electronic authorization free of charge, allowing a stay of up to 24 hours.
Alaska
Residents of the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug in Russia who are members of the indigenous population do not need a visa to visit Alaska if they have relatives (blood relatives, members of the same tribe, native people who have similar language and cultural heritage) in Alaska. Entry points are in Gambell and Nome.
Individuals must be invited by a relative in Alaska, must notify local authorities at least ten days before traveling to Alaska, and must leave Alaska within 90 days.
The agreement establishing this policy was signed by Russia (then the Soviet Union) and the United States on September 23, 1989. The United States made it effective as of July 17, 2015.
American Indians born in Canada
Members of certain indigenous peoples born in Canada may enter and remain in the United States indefinitely "for the purpose of employment, study, retirement, investing, and/or immigration" or any other reason by virtue of the Jay Treaty of 1794, as codified in Section 289 of the Immigration and Naturalization Act.
In order to qualify, an individual must possess "at least 50 per centum blood of the American Indian Race". Tribal membership alone does not qualify an individual. The individual bears the burden of proof in establishing eligibility, typically by way of presenting identification based on reliable tribal records, birth certificates, and other documents establishing the percentage of Indian blood. A Canadian Certificate of Indian Status is insufficient proof because it does not indicate the percentage of Indian blood.
This provision does not extend to family members unless they qualify in their own right. However, qualifying American Indians residing in the United States are considered to be lawfully admitted for U.S. permanent residence and therefore may file a petition for their spouse and dependent children, subject to statutory numerical limitations and a potential backlog of applications.
Summary of visa exemptions
Restricted entry or visa issuance
Sanctions
The United States has suspended the issuance of certain types of visas for certain people from certain countries as sanctions for their lack of cooperation in accepting the return of their nationals deported from the United States. As of 2023, these sanctions apply to nationals of Eritrea and to certain government officials and their family members of Cambodia, China (also under separate sanctions), Laos, Myanmar, Pakistan and Sierra Leone.
The United States has also suspended the issuance of visas in Cuba and Venezuela due to the ordered departure of U.S. government personnel, but nationals of these countries may still apply for visas at U.S. embassies or consulates in other countries.
Outlying islands
Visits to the United States Minor Outlying IslandsBaker Island, Howland Island, Jarvis Island, Johnston Atoll, Kingman Reef, Midway Atoll, Navassa Island, Palmyra Atoll and Wake Islandare severely restricted. The islands are not accessible to the general public, and all visits require special permits from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, or from The Nature Conservancy for Palmyra Atoll, or from the U.S. Air Force for Johnston Atoll and Wake Island.
Qualification process
Applicants for visitor visas must show that they qualify under provisions of the Immigration and Nationality Act. The presumption in the law is that every nonimmigrant visa applicant (except certain employment-related applicants, who are exempt) is an intending immigrant unless otherwise proven. Therefore, applicants for most nonimmigrant visas must overcome this presumption by demonstrating that:
The purpose of their trip is to enter the U.S. for a specific, intended purpose;
They plan to remain for a specific, limited period; and
They have a residence outside the U.S. as well as other binding ties which will ensure their return at the end of their stay.
All visit, business, transit, student, and exchange visitor visa applicants must pay an application fee of US$185 to the consular section at a U.S. embassy or consulate in order to be interviewed by a consular officer who will determine if the applicant is qualified to receive a visa to travel to the United States (additionally, the officer may also ask the United States Department of State for a Security Advisory Opinion, which can take several weeks to resolve). The application fee is increased to $205 for most work visas and can be even higher for certain categories. If the applicant is rejected, the application fee is not refunded. If the application is approved, nationals of certain countries must also pay a visa issuance fee, based on reciprocity. Amongst the items included in the qualification decision are financial independence, adequate employment, material assets and a lack of a criminal record in the applicant's native country.
Admission statistics
The highest number of non-immigrant admissions for tourists and for business purposes into the United States in fiscal year 2014, 2015, 2016 and 2017 was from the following countries (listed over 700,000 admissions):
Classes of visas
Nonimmigrant visas
A visa
A visas are issued to representatives of a foreign government traveling to the United States to engage in official activities for that government. A visas are granted to foreign government ambassadors, ministers, diplomats, as well as other foreign government officials or employees traveling on official business (A-1 visa). Certain foreign officials require an A visa regardless of the purpose of their trip. The A visa is also granted to immediate family members of such foreign government officials, defined as "the principal applicant's spouse and unmarried sons and daughters of any age who are not members of some other household and who will reside regularly in the household of the principal alien" (A-2 Visa) and which "may also include close relatives of the principal alien or spouse who are related by blood, marriage, or adoption who are not members of some other household; who will reside regularly in the household of the principal alien; and who are recognized as dependents by the sending government (A-3 Visa).
B visa
The most common non-immigrant visa is the multiple-purpose B-1/B-2 visa, also known as the "visa for temporary visitors for business or pleasure." Visa applicants sometimes receive either a B-1 (temporary visitor for business) or a B-2 (temporary visitor for pleasure) visa, if their reason for travel is specific enough that the consular officer does not feel they qualify for combined B-1/B-2 status. Holders may also attend short non-credit courses. Mexican citizens are eligible for Border Crossing Cards.
From November 29, 2016, all holders of Chinese passports who also hold 10-year B visas are required to enroll in the Electronic Visa Update System (EVUS) before traveling to the United States. This requirement may be extended to other nationalities in the future.
Effective January 24, 2020, B visas are not issued to individuals expected to give birth during their stay, unless they demonstrate that the primary purpose of their visit is not to obtain U.S. citizenship for the child. In addition, B visa applicants seeking medical treatment in the United States must demonstrate their arrangements for the medical treatment and sufficiently establish their ability to pay for it.
Validity period
Adjusted visa refusal rate
The Adjusted Refusal Rate is based on the refusal rate of B visa applications. B visas are adjudicated based on applicant interviews; the interviews generally last between 60 and 90 seconds. Due to time constraints, adjudicators profile applicants. Certain demographics, such as young adults who are single and unemployed, almost never receive visas, unless they articulate a compelling reason. Adjudicators are evaluated on how fast they carry out interviews, not the quality of adjudication decisions. The validity of B visa decisions is not evaluated.
To qualify for the Visa Waiver Program, a country must have had a nonimmigrant visa refusal rate of less than 3% for the previous year or an average of no more than 2% over the past two fiscal years with neither year going above 2.5%. In addition, the country must provide visa-free access to United States citizens and has to be either an independent country or a dependency of a VWP country (which has precluded Hong Kong and Macau from participating in the program). (Until April 4, 2016, Argentina charged $160 to U.S. citizens to enter.)
The Adjusted Visa Refusal Rates for B visas were as follows:
Overstay rate
A number of visitors overstay the maximum period of allowed stay on their B-1/B-2 status after entered the U.S. on their B-1/B-2 visas. The Department of Homeland Security publishes annual reports that list the number of violations by passengers who arrive via air and sea. The table below excludes statistics on persons who left the United States later than their allowed stay or legalized their status and shows only suspected overstays who remained in the country.
The top 20 nationalities by the number of suspected in-country B-1/B-2 overstays in 2016 and 2017 were:
The top 10 nationalities by in-country B-1/B-2 visa overstay rate are:
Use for other countries
U.S. tourist visas that are valid for further travel are accepted as substitute visas for national visas in the following territories:
– 90 days
– 30 days; USD 100 visa waiver fee applies
– 90 days; 71 countries
– 30 days; USD 50 visa waiver fee applies.
– 30 days
– up to 6 months; nationals of certain countries who hold a valid U.S. non-immigrant visa may apply for an electronic travel authorization (eTA) for travel to Canada by air.
– 90 days; for nationals of China only.
– 90 days; for nationals of China, India, Thailand, and Vietnam.
– 30 days or less if the visa is about to expire; must hold a multiple-entry visa.
– 90 days;
– 90 days; nationals of certain countries who hold a valid multiple-entry visa for the United States.
– 90 days; not applicable to all nationalities.
– 90 days within any 180-day period;
– 90 days; not applicable to all nationalities.
– 90 days; not applicable to all nationalities.
– 30 days; not applicable to all nationalities.
– 15 days;
– 180 days;
– 30 days;
– certain nationalities can obtain an electronic Moroccan visa if holding a valid U.S. visa.
– 90 days; not applicable to all nationalities.
– 15 days;
– Indian nationals can obtain a visa on arrival to Oman if holding a valid U.S. visa.
– 30/180 days; visa must be multiple-entry; visa must have a validity of at least 6 months after date of arrival in Panama; visa must have been used at least once prior to arriving in Panama.
– 180 days; for nationals of China and India only.
– 7 days for nationals of China and 14 days for nationals India only.
– citizens of all nationalities who hold valid USA visa can obtain an Electronic Travel Authorization for up to 30 days. The visa may be extended online for 30 additional days
– 15 days;
– citizens of all nationalities who hold valid U.S. visa can get their visa upon arrival for 90 days within any 365-day period, provided it has been used at least once.
– 90 days;
– certain nationalities can obtain an online travel authority if holding a valid U.S. visa.
– certain nationalities can obtain an electronic Turkish visa if holding a valid U.S. visa.
– Indian nationals can obtain a 14-day visit visa to UAE upon arrival if holding a U.S. visa or green card that is valid for at least 6 months.
C visa
The C-1 visa is a transit visa issued to individuals who are traveling in "immediate and continuous transit through the United States en-route to another country". The only reason to enter the United States must be for transit purposes. A subtype C-2 visa is issued to diplomats transiting to and from the Headquarters of the United Nations and is limited to the vicinity of New York City. A subtype C-3 visa is issued to diplomats and their dependents transiting to and from their posted country.
D visa
D visa is issued to crew members of sea-vessels and international airlines in the United States. This includes commercial airline pilots and flight attendants, captain, engineer, or deckhand of a sea vessel, service staff on a cruise ship and trainees on board a training vessel. Usually a combination of a C-1 visa and D visa is required.
E visa
Treaty Trader (E-1 visa) and Treaty Investor (E-2 visa) visas are issued to citizens of countries that have signed treaties of commerce and navigation with the United States. They are issued to individuals working in businesses engaged in substantial international trade or to investors (and their employees) who have made a 'substantial investment' in a business in the United States. The variant visa issued only to citizens of Australia is the E-3 visa (E-3D visa is issued to spouse or child of E-3 visa holder and E-3R to a returning E-3 holder).
F visa
These visas are issued for foreign students enrolled at accredited US institutions. F-1 visas are for full-time students, F2 visas are for spouses and children of F-1 visa holders and F-3 visas are for "border commuters" who reside in their country of origin while attending school in the United States. They are managed through SEVIS.
G visa
G visas are issued to diplomats, government officials, and employees who will work for international organizations in the United States. The international organization must be officially designated as such. The G-1 visa is issued to permanent mission members; the G-2 visa is issued to representatives of a recognized government traveling temporarily to attend meetings of a designated international organization; the G-3 visa is issued to persons who represent a non-recognized government; the G-4 visa is for those who are taking up an appointment; and the G-5 visa is issued to personal employees or domestic workers of G1–G4 visa holders. G1–G4 visas are also issued to immediate family members of the principal visa holder, if they meet certain criteria.
NATO visa
Officials who work for the North Atlantic Treaty Organization require a NATO visa. The NATO-1 visa is issued to permanent representatives of NATO and their staff members, NATO-2 visa is issued to a representative of member state to NATO or its subsidiary bodies, advisor or technical expert of the NATO delegation visiting the United States, a member of the NATO military forces component or a staff member of the NATO representative, NATO-3 visa is issued to official clerical staff accompanying the representative of a NATO member state, NATO-4 visa is issued to foreign national recognized as a NATO official, NATO-5 visa is issued to a foreign national recognized as a NATO expert and NATO-6 visa is issued to a member of the civilian component of the NATO. All NATO visas are issued to immediate family members as well. NATO-7 visas are issued to personal employees or domestic workers of a NATO-1 – NATO-6 visa holders.
H visa
H visas are issued to temporary workers in the United States.
Specialty occupations, DOD Cooperative Research and Development Project Workers, and fashion models
The discontinued H-1A and H-1C visas existed during periods when the US experienced a shortage of nurses from 1989. The H-1A classification was created by the Nursing Relief Act of 1989 and ended in 1995. The H-1C visa was created by the Nursing Relief for Disadvantaged Area Act of 1999 and expired in 2005. Currently nurses must apply for H-1B visas.
The H-1B classification is for professional-level jobs that require a minimum of a bachelor's degree in a specific academic field. In addition, the employee must have the degree or the equivalence of such a degree through education and experience. There is a required wage, which is at least equal to the wage paid by the employer to similarly qualified workers or a prevailing wage for such positions in the geographic regions where the jobs are located. This visa also covers fashion models of distinguished merit and ability. The H-1B1 visa is the variant issued to citizens of Singapore and Chile.
Temporary agricultural workers
The H-2A visa allows a foreign national entry into the US for temporary or seasonal agricultural work for eligible employers under certain conditions (seasonal job, no available US workers).
Temporary nonagricultural workers
The H-2B visa allows a foreign national entry into the US for temporary or seasonal non-agricultural work for eligible employers under certain conditions (seasonal job, no available US workers).
Nonimmigrant trainee or special education exchange Visitor
The H-3 visa is available to those foreign nationals looking to "receive training in any field of endeavor, other than graduate medical education or training, that is not available in the foreign national's home country" or " participate in a special education exchange visitor training program that provides for practical training and experience in the education of children with physical, mental, or emotional disabilities".
Family members
H-4 visa is issued to immediate family members of H visa holders. In some cases, they are eligible for employment.
I visa
The I-1 visa is issued to representatives of the foreign media, including members of the press, radio, film, and print industries travelling to temporarily work in the United States in the profession.
J visa
The J-1 visa is issued to participants of work-and study-based exchange visitor programs. The Exchange Visitor Program is carried out under the provisions of the Fulbright-Hays Act of 1961, officially known as the Mutual Educational and Cultural Exchange Act of 1961 (, ). The purpose of the act is to increase mutual understanding between the people of the United States and the people of other countries by means of educational and cultural exchanges. The Exchange Visitor Program is administered by the Office of Exchange Coordination and Designation in the Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs. In carrying out the responsibilities of the Exchange Visitor Program, the department designates public and private entities to act as exchange sponsors. Spouses and dependents of J-1 exchange visitors are issued a J-2 visa.
Exchange visa categories are:
Au pair and EduCare
Camp counselor
College and university student
Government visitor
Intern
International visitor
Physician
Professor and research scholar
Secondary school student
Short-term scholar
Specialist
Summer Work Travel Program participant
Teacher
Trainee
Exchange Visitor Pilot Programs exist for citizens of Australia, Ireland, New Zealand and South Korea.
K visa
A K-1 visa is a visa issued to the fiancé or fiancée of a United States citizen to enter the United States. A K-1 visa requires a foreigner to marry his or her U.S. citizen petitioner within 90 days of entry, or depart the United States. Once the couple marries, the foreign citizen can adjust status to become a lawful permanent resident of the United States (Green Card holder). A K-2 visa is issued to unmarried children under the age of 21. Foreign same-sex partners of United States citizens are currently recognized by United States Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS) and accordingly can be sponsored for K-1 visas and for permanent resident status.
K-3/K-4 visas are issued to foreign spouses and children of US citizens.
L visa
The L-1 classification is for international transferees who have worked for a related organization abroad for at least one continuous year in the past three years and who will be coming to the United States to work in an executive or managerial (L-1A) or specialized knowledge capacity (L-1B). The L-2 visa is issued to dependent spouse and unmarried children under 21 years of age of qualified L-1 visa holders.
M visa
The M-1 visa is a type of student visa reserved for vocational and technical schools. Students in M-1 status may not work on or off campus while studying, and they may not change their status to F-1. The M-2 visa permits the spouse and minor children of an M-1 vocational student to accompany him or her to the United States.
O visa
The O visa is a classification of non-immigrant temporary worker visa granted to an alien "who possesses extraordinary ability in the sciences, arts, education, business, or athletics (O-1A visa), or who has a demonstrated record of extraordinary achievement in the motion picture or television industry and has been recognized nationally or internationally for those achievements," (O-1B visa) and to certain assistants (O-2 visa) and immediate family members of such aliens (O-3 visa).
P visa
P visas are issued to individuals or team athletes, or member of an entertainment group including persons providing essential support services (P-1 visa), artists or entertainers (individual or group) under a reciprocal exchange program (P-2 visa) and artists or entertainers (individual or group) visiting to perform, teach or coach under a program that is culturally unique (P-3 Visa). P-4 visas are issued to spouses, or children under the age of 21, of a P-1, P-2, or P-3 alien and who is accompanying, or following to join.
Q visa
The Q visa is issued to participants in an international cultural exchange program.
R visa
The R-1 visa is issued to temporary religious workers. They must have been a member of a religious denomination having a bona fide non-profit religious organization in the United States for at least 2 years. R-2 visa is issued to dependent family members.
S visa
S visas are nonimmigrant visas issued to individuals who have assisted law enforcement as a witness or informant. There is a limit of 200 S visas a year. A law enforcement agency can then submit an application for resident alien status, i.e. a green card on behalf of the witness or informant once the individual has completed the terms and conditions of his or her S visa.
TN visa
NAFTA Professional (TN) visa allows citizens of Canada and Mexico whose profession is on the NAFTA list and who must hold a bachelor's degree to work in the United States on a prearranged job. Canadian citizens usually do not need a visa to work under the TN status (unless they live outside Canada with non-Canadian family members) while Mexican citizens require a TN visa. Spouse and dependent children of a TN professional can be admitted into the United States in the TD status.
T and U visas
The T-1 visa is issued to victims of severe forms of human trafficking. Holders may adjust their status to permanent resident status. Subtypes of this visa are T-2 (issued to spouses of T-1), T-3 (issued to children of T-1), T-4 (issued to parents of T-1 under the age of 21), and T-5 (issued to unmarried siblings under the age of 18 of T-1 who is under 21).
The U-1 visa is a nonimmigrant visa which is set aside for victims of crimes (and their immediate family members) who have suffered substantial mental or physical abuse and are willing to assist law enforcement and government officials in the investigation or prosecution of the criminal activity. Subtypes of this visa are U-2 issued to spouses of U-1, U-3 issued to children of U-1, U-4 issued to parents of U-1 under the age of 21 and U-5 issued to unmarried siblings under the age of 18 of U-1 who is under 21.
V visa
The V visa is a temporary visa available to spouses and minor children (unmarried, under 21) of U.S. lawful permanent residents (LPR, also known as green card holders). It allows permanent residents to achieve family unity with their spouses and children while the immigration process takes its course. It was created by the Legal Immigration Family Equity Act of 2000. The Act is to relieve those who applied for immigrant visas on or before December 21, 2000. Practically, the V visa is currently not available to spouses and minor children of LPRs who have applied after December 21, 2000.
List of US visa types
All US visa types and subtypes are listed below:
Immigrant visas
The Trump administration issued new rules on August 12, 2019, that will reject applicants for temporary or permanent visas for failing to meet income standards or for receiving public assistance such as welfare, food stamps, public housing or Medicaid. Critics feared the new law, which was set to go into effect in October 2019, could negatively impact the lives of children who are U.S. citizens.
Nonimmigrant visas
Dual-intent visas
The concept of the dual intent visa is to grant legal status to certain types of visa applicants when they are in the process of applying for a visa with the intent to obtain a permanent residency/green card. There are a certain number of U.S. visa categories that grant permission for dual intent, or to get a temporary visa status while having an intention to get a green card and stay permanently in the United States of America.
Most visas are named after the paragraph of the Code of Federal Regulations that established the visa.
Visa denial
Section 221(g) of the Immigration and Nationality Act defined several classes of aliens ineligible to receive visas.
Grounds for denial may include, but are not limited to:
Risk of visa overstay
Financial insecurity
Having low or middle class income
Having an informal job
Unemployment
Not having children and/or being single
Relatives living in the United States
Political, economic or social instability in the country of origin
Incomplete education
Health grounds
Criminal history
Security fears
Public charge (charge means burden in this context)
Illegal entrants or immigration violators
Failure to produce requested documents
Ineligible for citizenship
Previously removed from the U.S.
The spouse of a U.S. Citizen is almost always denied a visitor's (B1/B2) visa on the grounds that the spouse might want to stay in the United States.
Section 214(b) of the Immigration and Nationality Act (also cited as 8 United States Code § 1184(b)) states that most aliens must be presumed to be intending to remain in the U.S., until and unless they are able to show that they are entitled to non-immigrant status. This means there are two sides to a 214(b) denial. Denials occur when applicants do not convince the consular officer of their intent to stay in the U.S. temporarily, or were qualified for the visa.
An example of a denial based upon the first ground would be an applicant for an F-1 student visa who the consular officer felt was secretly intending to remain in the U.S. permanently.
An example of a denial based upon the second ground would be an H-1B applicant who couldn't prove he possessed the equivalent of a U.S. bachelor's degree in a specialty field—such an equivalency being a requirement for obtaining an H-1B visa.
In order to thereafter obtain a visa applicants are recommended to objectively evaluate their situation, see in what way they fell short of the visa requirements, and then reapply.
In rare cases, Section 212(d)(3) of the Immigration and Nationality Act allows for the temporary entry of certain aliens who would otherwise be prohibited from entering the United States. The person applies for a Hranka waiver and pays the filing fee. When deciding whether to approve the waiver, the Board of Immigration Appeals considers whether there would be harm to society if the applicant were admitted to the United States, the seriousness of the applicant's prior violations, and the nature of the applicant's reasons for wishing to enter the United States. If approved for a Hranka waiver, the applicant would need to have this documentation when requesting entry to the United States.
Exceptions
There are cases when a U.S. visa has been granted to aliens who were technically ineligible. Japanese mafia (yakuza) leader Tadamasa Goto and three others were issued visas for travel between 2000 and 2004 to undergo liver transplant surgery at UCLA Medical Center. The FBI had aided the men in the visa application process hoping that they would provide information regarding yakuza activities in the U.S.
In 2005, Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi (then Chief Minister of Gujarat) was denied a diplomatic visa to the United States. The B-1/B-2 visa that had previously been granted to him was also revoked, under a section of the Immigration and Nationality Act which makes any foreign government official who was responsible or "directly carried out, at any time, particularly severe violations of religious freedom" ineligible for the visa. The violations of religious freedom in question were the 2002 Gujarat riots. Modi is the only person ever denied a visa to the U.S. under this provision. In 2014, after Modi's BJP political party won the 2014 Indian general election, U.S. President Barack Obama ended the visa issue by calling Modi to congratulate him on his victory, and invited him to the White House. On June 8, 2016, Modi addressed a joint meeting of the U.S. Congress.
See also
Diversity Immigrant Visa
Electronic System for Travel Authorization
Real ID Act
Security Advisory Opinion
U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services
U.S. Customs and Border Protection
U.S. Department of Homeland Security
U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement
Visa requirements for United States citizens
Visa Waiver Program
Western Hemisphere Travel Initiative
Notes
References
External links
U.S. Visas, Bureau of Consular Affairs, U.S. Department of State
List of diplomatic missions of the U.S.
U.S. Department of Homeland Security
U.S. Customs and Border Protection
Tourism in the United States
United States Department of State
Visa policy
United States
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drum%20Corps%20Associates%20Open%20Class%20World%20Champions
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Drum Corps Associates Open Class World Champions
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During Labor Day Weekend, Drum Corps Associates (DCA) Open Class corps compete to earn the title of DCA Open Class World Champion. The championships consist of 2 rounds (Prelims and Finals) held on 2 consecutive nights (the Saturday and Sunday nights of Labor Day weekend). All corps compete at Prelims, with the top 10 Open Class and top 4 Class A corps competing at Finals. The champion is determined by the overall high score in the Finals competition. There are also a number of caption awards (high brass, high percussion, high visual, etc.), though the process of determination for those awards has changed from year to year.
Only eleven corps have won at least one DCA title (including 2 ties):
Reading Buccaneers – 17 titles
Hawthorne Caballeros – 10 titles
Bushwackers – 6 titles (1 tie)
Long Island Sunrisers – 6 titles (1 tie)
Empire Statesmen – 5 titles (1 tie)
Syracuse Brigadiers – 5 titles (1 tie)
Connecticut Hurricanes – 3 titles
Skyliners – 3 titles
Minnesota Brass – 1 title
Westshoremen – 1 title
Cadets2 – 1 title
As of the conclusion of the 2019 competitive season, the Buccaneers, Bushwackers, Caballeros, Hurricanes, Skyliners, and Sunrisers remain in active Open Class competition. The Cadets2, Minnesota Brass, Brigadiers, Empire Statesmen, and Westshoremen are inactive.
1965
Champion: Reading Buccaneers of Reading, Pennsylvania
Repertoire:
Burke's Law
From This Moment On
Portrait of My Love
Maria
This Had Better Be The Night
El Cid
After You've Gone
Beyond the Sea
Score: 84.50
Location: Milford, Connecticut
Venue: Jonathan Law Field
Date: September 11
1966
Champion: New York Skyliners of New York, NY
Repertoire:
Charlie Welch (from Mr. Wonderful)
Columbia the Gem of the Ocean (from Thousands Cheer)
That Old Black Magic (from Bus Stop)
Flight of the Bumblebee
Once in Love with Amy (from Where's Charley?)
Hava Nagila
Oklahoma (from Oklahoma!)
Score: 84.53
Location: Bridgeport, Connecticut
Venue: JFK Stadium
Date: September 4
1967
Champion: Connecticut Hurricanes of Derby, Connecticut
Repertoire:
You Gotta Start Off Each Day With A Song
Just One Of Those Songs
Under the Double Eagle
National Emblem March
America I Love You
Rhapsody in Blue
Fiddler On the Roof
Return Of The Magnificent Seven
Score: 85.583
Location: Bridgeport, Connecticut
Venue: JFK Stadium
Date: September 3
1968
Champion: Reading Buccaneers of Reading, Pennsylvania
Repertoire: Unavailable
Score: 82.15
Location: Rochester, New York
Venue: Aquinas Stadium
Date: September 1
1969
Champion: Connecticut Hurricanes of Derby, Connecticut
Repertoire:
Queen of Sheba March
Hallelujah Chorus
Rhapsody in Blue
Walk on the Wild Side
Hang 'Em High
Magnificent Seven
Also Sprach Zarathustra (from 2001: A Space Odyssey)
Score: 79.745
Location: Rochester, New York
Venue: Aquinas Stadium
Date: August 31
1970
Champion: Hawthorne Caballeros of Hawthorne, New Jersey
Repertoire:
Captain From Castile
Ted Meets Johnny
Sabre Dance
1812 Overture
Samba de Orpheo
Score: 82.775
Location: Rochester, New York
Venue: Aquinas Stadium
Date: September 6
1971
Champion: New York Skyliners of New York, NY
Repertoire:
NY Montage
Little Old New York (from Tenderloin)
Longest Day
Alabama Jubilee
Lucretia McEvil
Comes Love
Slaughter on 10th Avenue (from On Your Toes)
Little Old New York (from Tenderloin)
East Side-West Side Fanfare
Score: 91.5
Location: Rochester, New York
Venue: Aquinas Stadium
Date: September 5
1972
Champion: Hawthorne Caballeros of Hawthorne, New Jersey
Repertoire:
El Gato Montes
Captain From Castile
Theme from Patton
Everybody's Everything
Sabre Dance
Flamenco Cha-Cha
Samba de Orpheo
Score: 90.6
Location: Jersey City, New Jersey
Venue: Roosevelt Stadium
Date: September 3
1973
Champion: Hawthorne Caballeros of Hawthorne, New Jersey
Repertoire:
Man of La Mancha
South Rampart Street Parade
Everybody's Everything
Sabre Dance
Flamenco Cha-Cha
Harmonica Man
Score: 89.85
Location: Rochester, New York
Venue: Aquinas Stadium
Date: September 2
1974
Champion: Hawthorne Caballeros of Hawthorne, New Jersey
Repertoire:
Man of La Mancha
Sweet Gypsy Rose
Soul Train
Mac Arthur Park
Flamenco Cha-Cha
Harmonica Man
Score: 83.5
Location: Rochester, New York
Venue: Aquinas Stadium
Date: September 1
1975
Champion: New York Skyliners of New York, NY
Repertoire:
How Could You Believe Me When I Said I Loved You
Hymn to Victory (from Victory at Sea)
West Side Story Medley
The Elks' Parade
Give My Regards to Broadway (from Yankee Doodle Dandy)
East Side-West Side Fanfare
Score: 91.28
Location: Rochester, New York
Venue: Holleder Memorial Stadium
Date: August 31
1976
Champion: Hawthorne Caballeros of Hawthorne, New Jersey
Repertoire:
Bully
Brazil (from The Gang's All Here)
Echano (from Children of Sanchez)
Flamenco Cha-Cha
Hill Where the Lord Hides
Score: 92.5
Location: Rochester, New York
Venue: Holleder Memorial Stadium
Date: September 5
1977
Champion: Long Island Sunrisers of Long Island, New York
Repertoire:
English Folk Song Suite by Ralph Vaughan Williams
Spain
Ol' Man River (from Show Boat) by Jerome Kern
Eli's Coming by Hoyt Axton
Dance Of The Wind-Up Toys (drum solo) by Chuck Mangione
Evergreen (from A Star is Born) by Paul Williams
Score: 94.15
Location: Allentown, Pennsylvania
Venue: J. Birney Crum Stadium
Date: September 3
1978
Champion: Long Island Sunrisers of Rockland County, New York
Repertoire:
English Folk Song Suite by Ralph Vaughan Williams
Malaga by Bill Holman (musician)
Farandole by Bizet, Georges
Evergreen (from A Star is Born) by Williams, Paul
Score: 90.85
Location: Allentown, Pennsylvania
Venue: J. Birney Crum Stadium
Date: September 3
1979
Champion: Reading Buccaneers of Reading, Pennsylvania
Repertoire:
Russian Sailor's Dance (from The Red Poppy) by Gliere, Reinhold
Fantasy by Earth, Wind and Fire
El Gato Triste by Mangione, Chuck
Feels So Good by Mangione, Chuck
Sylvia by Dilibes
Score: 90.5
Location: Hershey, Pennsylvania
Venue: Hershey Park Stadium
Date: September 2
1980
Champion: Reading Buccaneers of Reading, Pennsylvania
Repertoire:
The Sea Hawk by Korngold, Erik Wolfgang
Russian Sailor's Dance (from The Red Poppy) by Gliere, Reinhold
Spanish Dreams by Severinsen, Doc
Sambandrea Swing by Menza, Don
One Voice by Manilow, Barry
Sylvia by Dilibes
Score: 91.3
Location: Hershey, Pennsylvania
Venue: Hershey Park Stadium
Date: August 31
1981
Champion: Connecticut Hurricanes of Derby, Connecticut
Repertoire:
Queen of Sheba March by Respighi, Ottorino
Swing, Swing, Swing (from 1941) by Williams, John
Salute to Freedom by Statham, Frank
Devil Went Down to Georgia by Daniels, Charlie
It's My Turn by Sondheim, Stephen
Magnificent Seven by Bernstein, Elmer
Score: 89.65
Location: Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Venue: Franklin Field
Date: September 6
1982
Champion: Long Island Sunrisers of Rockland County, New York
Repertoire:
God Save the Queen by Ives, Charles
English Suite for Military Band by Vaughan Williams, Ralph
Barnum's Revenge by Coleman, Cy
Tiger of San Pedro by La Barbera, John
Legend of the One-Eyed Sailor by Mangione, Chuck
Send in the Clowns (from A Little Night Music) by Sondheim, Stephen
Come Follow the Band (from Barnum) by Coleman, Cy
Score: 89.85
Location: Allentown, Pennsylvania
Venue: J. Birney Crum Stadium
Date: September 5
1983
Champion: Long Island Sunrisers of Rockland County, New York
Repertoire:
Russian Meadowlands by Knipper, Lev
Alexander's Ragtime Band by Berlin, Irving
Legend of the One-Eyed Sailor by Mangione, Chuck
Peasant Dance by Hirschberg, David
Send in the Clowns (from A Little Night Music) by Sondheim, Stephen
Come Follow the Band (from Barnum) by Coleman, Cy
Score: 91.45
Location: Allentown, Pennsylvania
Venue: J. Birney Crum Stadium
Date: September 4
1984
Champion: Hawthorne Caballeros of Hawthorne, New Jersey
Repertoire:
Concierto de Aranjuez by Rodrigo, Joaquin
Nothing But D. Best by Best, Denzel de Costa
Malaguena by Lecuona, Ernesto
Don't Cry for Me Argentina (from Evita)
Score: 92.4
Location: Allentown, Pennsylvania
Venue: J. Birney Crum Stadium
Date: September 3
1985
Champion: Hawthorne Caballeros of Hawthorne, New Jersey
Repertoire:
Corre Nina by Purim, Flora
Upstart by Ellis, Don
Malaguena by Lecuona, Ernesto
L.A. Is My Lady by Jones, Quincy
Espana Cani by Marquina, Narro Pascual
Score: 92.5
Location: Allentown, Pennsylvania
Venue: J. Birney Crum Stadium
Date: September 1
1986
Champion: Bushwackers of Harrison, New Jersey
Repertoire:
Santos by Bellson, Louis
Quensabe Los Suertas de Los Tontos (from Cuban Fire Suite) by Richards, Johnny
La Suerte de Los Tontos (from Cuban Fire Suite) by Richards, Johnny
Egyptian Danza by Di Meola, Al
Ayres Eyes
Score: 92.45
Location: Allentown, Pennsylvania
Venue: J. Birney Crum Stadium
Date: August 31
1987
This championships were noted by rain so severe during Prelims that Final were cancelled (due to extensive damage to the grass field) and the standing Prelims stood as the Finals results
Champion: Long Island Sunrisers of Rockland County, New York
Repertoire:
Adventures on Earth (from E.T.) by Williams, John
Jupiter (from The Planets) by Holst, Gustav
Score: 94.84
Location: Allentown, Pennsylvania
Venue: J. Birney Crum Stadium
Date: September 6
1988
Champion: Bushwackers of Harrison, New Jersey / Long Island Sunrisers of Rockland County, New York
Bushwackers Repertoire:
Pellet Suite by McDougal, Ian
Inner Crisis by Willis, Larry
Mira, Mira by Ferguson, Maynard
Out of Africa (from Congo) by Bergman, Marilyn
Sunrisers Repertoire:
Savannah River Holiday by Nelson, Ron
Concerto in F by Gershwin, George
An American in Paris by Gershwin, George
Score: 96.36
Location: Hershey, Pennsylvania
Venue: Unavailable
Date: September 5
1989
Champion: Bushwackers of Harrison, New Jersey
Repertoire:
Time Check by Menza, Donald
In Her Family by Metheny, Pat
No Pasaran by Schanzer, Jeffrey
Mira, Mira by Ferguson, Maynard
Score: 95.1
Location: Allentown, Pennsylvania
Venue: J. Birney Crum Stadium
Date: September 3
There was actually a tie with the Sunrisers both had a score of 95.00 and Bush was given an extra .1 due to caption placements.
1990
Champion: Bushwackers of Harrison, New Jersey
Repertoire:
Prototype by Stephen Melilo
Score: 96.9
Location: Allentown, Pennsylvania
Venue: J. Birney Crum Stadium
Date: September 2
1991
Champion: Empire Statesmen of Rochester, New York
Repertoire:
Begin the Beguine (from Night and Day) by Porter, Cole
Sophisticated Lady by Ellington, Duke
American Patrol by Miller, Glenn
Don't Sit Under The Apple Tree by Miller, Glenn
In the Mood by Miller, Glenn
America the Beautiful by Ward, Samuel A.
Battle Hymn of the Republic by Steffe, William
Score: 96.7
Location: Scranton, Pennsylvania
Venue: Lackawanna County Stadium
Date: September 1
1992
Champion: Bushwackers of Harrison, New Jersey
Repertoire:
The Ballad of Sweeney Todd) by Sondheim, Stephen
My Friends (from Sweeney Todd) by Sondheim, Stephen
Worst Pies in London (from Sweeney Todd) by Sondheim, Stephen
History of the World
Epiphany (from Sweeney Todd) by Sondheim, Stephen
Nothin's Gonna Harm You (from Sweeney Todd) by Sondheim, Stephen
Score: 96.7
Location: Scranton, Pennsylvania
Venue: Lackawanna County Stadium
Date: September 6
1993
Champion: Bushwackers of Harrison, New Jersey
Repertoire:
Sunday in the Park with George
Putting It Together (from Sunday in the Park with George) by Sondheim, Stephen
Color and Light (from Sunday in the Park with George) by Sondheim, Stephen
Sunday in the Park (from Sunday in the Park with George) by Sondheim, Stephen
Sunday by Sondheim, Stephen
Score: 96.6
Location: Scranton, Pennsylvania
Venue: Lackawanna County Stadium
Date: September 6
1994
Champion: Empire Statesmen of Rochester, New York
Repertoire:
The Music of Frank Sinatra
Ol' Man River (from Show Boat) by Kern, Jerome
I've Got the World on a String (from I'll Get By) by Arlen, Harold
April in Paris (from The Helen Morgan Story) by Duke, Vernon
My Way by Anka, Paul
Score: 96.0
Location: Scranton, Pennsylvania
Venue: Lackawanna County Stadium
Date: September 3
1995
Champion: Hawthorne Caballeros of Hawthorne, New Jersey
Repertoire:
Spanish Fantasies
Malaguena by Lecuona, Ernesto
Conquistador by Chattaway, Jay
Spanish Fantasy by Corea, Chick
Concierto de Aranjuez by Rodrigo, Joaquin
Espana Cani by Marquina, Narro Pascual
Score: 97.7
Location: Scranton, Pennsylvania
Venue: Lackawanna County Stadium
Date: September 3
1996
Champion: Westshoremen of Harrisburg, Pennsylvania
Repertoire:
Suite for Westshore
Granada Smoothie
All the Things You Are
Explosion!
Marching Season
Carnival (from La Fiesta Mexicana)
Suite for Jazz Orchestra
Blues in the Night
Score: 96.9
Location: Rochester, New York
Venue: Frontier Field
Date: September 1
1997
Champion: Empire Statesmen of Rochester, New York / Syracuse Brigadiers of Syracuse, New York
Empire Repertoire:
Miss Saigon
Overture
Heat is On in Saigon
Sun and Moon
Dragon
Fall of Saigon
Brigadiers Repertoire:
Night and Day: A Tribute to Cole Porter
In the Still of the Night (from Night and Day)
Love for Sale (from Night and Day)
Night and Day
It's Alright With Me (from Can-Can)
Score: 96.3
Location: Allentown, Pennsylvania
Venue: J. Birney Crum Stadium
Date: August 31
1998
Champion: Empire Statesmen of Rochester, New York
Repertoire:
West Side Story
Fanfare
The Jets
Maria
America
Cool
The Rumble
Somewhere
Score: 97.9
Location: Allentown, Pennsylvania
Venue: J. Birney Crum Stadium
Date: September 6
1999
Champion: Syracuse Brigadiers of Syracuse, New York
Repertoire:
On the Town with Buddy and Mel
Channel One Suite by Reddie, Bill
Harlem Nocturne by Hagen, Earl
Mercy Mercy Mercy by Ochs, Michael
Score: 97.5
Location: Allentown, Pennsylvania
Venue: J. Birney Crum Stadium
Date: September 5
2000
Champion: Syracuse Brigadiers of Syracuse, New York
Repertoire:
City Rhythms
Slaughter on 10th Avenue (from On Your Toes) by Rodgers, Richard
Ballet in Brass by Brown, Les; Schoen, Victor
Artistry in Rhythm by Kenton, Stan
Harlem Nocturne by Hagen, Earle
Score: 98.0
Location: Syracuse, New York
Venue: P & C Stadium
Date: September 3
2001
Champion: Syracuse Brigadiers of Syracuse, New York
Repertoire:
Jazz Street, After Hours
Seven Year Itch by Newman, Alfred
Come Back to Me (from On A Clear Day You Can See Forever) by Lane, Burton
God Bless the Child by Herzog, Jr., Arthur; Holiday, Billy
Mac Arthur Park by Webb, Jimmy
Score: 97.95
Location: Syracuse, New York
Venue: P & C Stadium
Date: September 2
2002
Champion: Syracuse Brigadiers of Syracuse, New York
Repertoire:
Picasso Sketchbook
Spanish Fantasy by Corea, Chick
Day Danse by Corea, Chick
Guaganco by Sandoval, Arturo
All Or Nothing At All by Porter, Cole
Score: 98.6
Location: Scranton, Pennsylvania
Venue: Lackawanna County Stadium
Date: September 1
2003
Champion: Hawthorne Caballeros of Hawthorne, New Jersey
Repertoire:
El Toro Nuevo
El Toro Rojo by Poulan, Key
The Prayer by Bayer, Carol; Foster, David
El Toro Furioso by Poulan, Key
Score: 97.375
Location: Scranton, Pennsylvania
Venue: Lackawanna County Stadium
Date: August 31
2004
Champion: Empire Statesmen of Rochester, New York
Repertoire:
Go Hollywood!
Prologue and Theme (from City of Angels) by Coleman, Cy
With Every Breath I Take (from City of Angels)
Funny (from City of Angels)
Score: 96.513
Location: Scranton, Pennsylvania
Venue: Lackawanna County Stadium
Date: September 5
2005
Champion: Reading Buccaneers of Reading, Pennsylvania
Repertoire:
Variations in "B" – Music by Barber, Bartók, Bizet, and Britten
Farandole
Adagio for Strings
String Quartet #5 – Movement 4
A Young Person's Guide to the Orchestra
Score: 98.45
Location: Scranton, Pennsylvania
Venue: Lackawanna County Stadium
Date: September 4
2006
Champion: Reading Buccaneers of Reading, Pennsylvania
Repertoire:
Exotic Impressions
Bolero
Capriccio Espagnol
Claire de Lune
Scheherazade
Score: 97.238
Location: Rochester, New York
Venue: PAETEC Park
Date: September 3
2007
Champion: Reading Buccaneers of Reading, Pennsylvania
Repertoire:
Blue Era
New Era Dance
The Promise of Living
Malambo
Rhapsody in Blue
Score: 98.313
Location: Rochester, New York
Venue: PAETEC Park
Date: September 2
2008
Champion: Reading Buccaneers of Reading, Pennsylvania
Repertoire:
The Pursuit of Joy
Canon in D
Abram's Pursuit
Nessun Dorma
Ode to Joy
Score: 97.913
Location: Rochester, New York
Venue: PAETEC Park
Date: August 31
2009
Champion: Reading Buccaneers of Reading, Pennsylvania
Repertoire:
Demons & Angels
Dies Irae
A Simple Song
Ritual Fire Dance
Symphonia Resurrectus
Score: 99.025
Location: Rochester, New York
Venue: PAETEC Park
Date: September 6
2010
Champion: Reading Buccaneers of Reading, Pennsylvania
Repertoire:
Rome MMX
Pines of the Appian Way (fourth Movement from Pines of Rome)
Games at the Circus Maximus (Movement I from Roman Festivals)
Adagio from Spartacus
The Epiphany (Movement IV from Roman Festivals)
Score: 98.263
Location: Rochester, New York
Venue: PAETEC Park
Date: September 6
2011
Champion: Minnesota Brass of St. Paul, Minnesota
Repertoire:
Valhalla
Immigrant Song by Led Zeppelin
Children's Hour of Dream by Charles Mingus
Imagine by John Lennon
Ride of the Valkyries by Richard Wagner
Score: 98.35
Location: Rochester, New York
Venue: Sahlen's Stadium
Date: September 4
2012
Champion: Reading Buccaneers of Reading, Pennsylvania
Repertoire:
The Black Symphony
Warm Colors by Mark Lortz
The Four Sections for Orchestra, Mvt. IV by Steve Reich
New World (from Dancer in the Dark) by Björk
1812 Overture by Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky
Score: 99.03
Location: Annapolis, Maryland
Venue: Navy–Marine Corps Memorial Stadium
Date: September 2
2013
Champion: Reading Buccaneers of Reading, Pennsylvania
Repertoire:
Higher, Faster, Stronger
Symphony No. 11, Mvt IV by Dmitri Shostakovich
Original Composition by Mark Lortz
Chevaliers de Sangreal (from the film The Da Vinci Code) by Hans Zimmer
Danse Bacchanale (from the opera Samson and Delilah) by Camille Saint-Saëns
Score: 98.43
Location: Annapolis, Maryland
Venue: Navy–Marine Corps Memorial Stadium
Date: September 1
2014
Champion: Reading Buccaneers of Reading, Pennsylvania
Repertoire:
Break On Through
Break On Through (To the Other Side) by The Doors
Fourth Ballet Suite by Dmitri Shostakovich
Orawa for String Orchestra by Wojciech Kilar
Heat of the Day by Pat Metheny
Original Composition by Mark Lortz, Johnny Trujillo, and Greg Tsalikis
Score: 97.55
Location: Rochester, New York
Venue: Sahlen's Stadium
Date: August 31
2015
Champion: Reading Buccaneers of Reading, Pennsylvania
Repertoire:
Twist It
Pagliacci by Ruggero Leoncavallo
Palladio by Karl Jenkins
Moonlight Sonata by Ludwig van Beethoven
Going the Distance (from Rocky) by Bill Conti
William Tell Overture by Gioachino Rossini
Score: 97.58
Location: Rochester, New York
Venue: Sahlen's Stadium
Date: Sep 7
2016
Champion: Cadets2 of Allentown, Pennsylvania
Repertoire:
Full Circle
The Heat of the Day by Pat Matheny
First Circle by Pat Matheny
Third Wind by Pat Matheny
Both Sides Now by Joni Mitchell
Score: 97.95
Location: Rochester, NY
Venue: Capelli Sport Stadium
Date: Sep 4
2017
Champion: Reading Buccaneers of Reading, Pennsylvania
Repertoire:
Behind the Suit
Score: 98.93
Location: Rochester, NY
Venue: Capelli Sport Stadium
Date: Sep 3
2018
Champion: Reading Buccaneers of Reading, Pennsylvania
Repertoire:
Here to There
Score: 98.00
Location: Williamsport, PA
Venue: STA Stadium
Date: Sep 2
2019
Champion: Reading Buccaneers of Reading, Pennsylvania
Repertoire:
Dans Ma Chambre
"Benedictus" by Karl Jenkins
"Ruslan and Lyudmila Overture" by Mikhail Glinka
"Flashdance What a Feeling" by Irene Crane
"Bohemian Rhapsody" by Queen
Score: 98.225
Location: Williamsport, PA
Venue: STA Stadium
Date: Aug 31 (Prelims & Finals)
References
External links
Drum Corps Score Archive
Drum Corps Repertoire Database
Drum and bugle corps
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4767381
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cui%20Hao
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Cui Hao
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Cui Hao () (died 450 CE), courtesy name Boyuan (伯淵), was a shangshu of the Xianbei-led Northern Wei dynasty of China. Largely because of Cui's counsel, Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei was able to unify northern China, ending the Sixteen Kingdoms era and, along with the Liu Song dynasty in southern China, entering the Northern and Southern dynasties era. Also because of the influence of Cui, who was a devout Taoist, Emperor Taiwu became a devout Taoist as well. However, in 450, over reasons that are not completely clear to this day, Emperor Taiwu had Cui and his cadet branch executed.
During Emperor Daowu and Emperor Mingyuan's reigns
It is not known when Cui Hao was born. He was the oldest son of the ethnic Han Cui Hong (崔宏), a high-level official under Emperor Daowu, who carried the title of Marquess of Baima. In Cui Hao's youth, he was said to have studied a broad number of books, but was particularly known for his literary abilities, as well as his astrological prophecies. The first historical reference to Cui Hao was in 409, when he was a low-level official in Emperor Daowu's administration. At that time, Emperor Daowu was often violent and arbitrary in his actions, because of poisoning from pills he received from alchemists, and the imperial officials often found excuses to stay away from him lest that they be stricken by his anger. However, Cui Hong and Cui Hao were described of having served Emperor Daowu diligently despite this, and they were among the few officials who never received any punishment from him.
Later in 409, Emperor Daowu was assassinated by his son Tuoba Shao (拓拔紹) the Prince of Qinghe, who then tried to take over the regime, but was defeated and killed by his older brother Tuoba Si the Crown Prince, who then took the throne as Emperor Mingyuan. During Tuoba Shao's coup, he tried to get officials to follow him by awarding them with many things, but Cui Hong declined them all, and Cui Hong was therefore praised by Emperor Mingyuan and created the Duke of Baima. In 414, Cui Hao started teaching Emperor Mingyuan the mystical texts I Ching and Hong Fan (洪範), and because of this and the accuracy of a number of Cui Hao's predictions, Emperor Mingyuan began to trust him greatly. In 415, during the middle of a severe famine, it was at the advice of Cui Hao and Zhou Dan (周澹) that Emperor Mingyuan stopped the plan of moving the capital from Pingcheng (平城, in modern Datong, Shanxi) to Yecheng, as Cui and Zhou were concerned that moving the capital would quickly expose the Xianbei's numerical inferiority to the Han, leading to rebellions. Later that year, when an unusual astrological sign that portended the destruction of a state appeared, it was Cui Hao who made the prediction that it foretold Later Qin's destruction, and after Later Qin fell in 417, not only the emperor but the other officials became impressed at Cui Hao's abilities.
One matter at which Emperor Mingyuan did not listen to Cui Hao, however, was in his attempt to stop the Jin general Liu Yu from destroying Later Qin, as his wife Consort Yao was the Later Qin emperor Yao Hong's sister. In 416, when Liu Yu tried to advance his main fleet west on the Yellow River, Emperor Mingyuan ordered his army to harass the Jin fleet, against Cui's suggestion that doing so would make Northern Wei bear the brunt of Jin attack. Indeed, after some limited success in Northern Wei's harassment campaign, Liu Yu had his general Ding Wu (丁旿) land on the northern bank and deal Northern Wei a major defeat, before resuming the advancement. This ended Emperor Mingyuan's attempt to save Later Qin, and he regretted not listening to Cui in this matter. It was also around this time that Cui Hao made the perceptive observation that after Liu Yu destroyed Later Qin, he would return to the Jin capital Jiankang and usurp the throne, and that the troops that he left to hold Later Qin territory would become trapped. He also suggested that Northern Wei should be patient, and that one day the territory would be Northern Wei's. Pleased with Cui's analysis, Emperor Mingyuan awarded him wine and salt, stating to him, "Your words are just as like wine and salt, and therefore I want to share these with you." In 418, after another astrological sign appeared showing the end of a state, Cui publicly stated that it meant the end of Jin, and when Liu Yu seized the Jin throne in 419 and established Liu Song, Cui was shown to be correct. Also in 419, Cui Hao's father Cui Hong died. Cui Hao inherited his father's title of Duke of Baima.
In 422, Emperor Mingyuan suffered a major illness, apparently caused by medicines that alchemists had given him that were supposedly capable of extending lifespans. He consulted Cui Hao on what he should do to prepare for events after his death. Cui Hao predicted that he would recover, but advised him to create his oldest son, 14-year-old Tuoba Tao the Prince of Taiping, crown prince, and then transfer some of the authorities to the crown prince so that his own burdens could be lessened. The senior official Baba Song (拔拔嵩) also agreed, and Emperor Mingyuan created Tuoba Tao crown prince, and further had Crown Prince Tao take the throne to serve as the secondary emperor. He commissioned his key advisors Baba, Cui, Daxi Jin, Anchi Tong (安遲同), Qiumuling Guan (丘穆陵觀), and Qiudun Dui (丘敦堆) to serve as the Crown Prince's advisor. From this point on, most matters, particularly domestic matters, were ruled on by Crown Prince Tao, while Emperor Mingyuan himself only ruled on important matters. It was at this time that Emperor Mingyuan made positive remarks about each of the officials that he so charged with advising the crown prince, and as to Cui Hao, he stated, "Cui Hao is exceptionally knowledgeable and able to discern the will of Heaven and men."
Later in 422, after Liu Yu's death, Emperor Mingyuan decided to launch a major attack on Liu Song. Cui Hao opposed this, believing that Liu Song could not be conquered. However, this was one instance that Cui only appeared to be partially correct, as the armies under Emperor Mingyuan were able to capture Liu Song's northern regions, directly south of the Yellow River, although Emperor Mingyuan's original lofty goal of destroying Liu Song was nowhere close to being met.
During Emperor Taiwu's reign
In 423, Emperor Mingyuan died, and Crown Prince Tao succeeded him as Emperor Taiwu. Immediately, many of the other officials, jealous of Cui Hao, made accusations against him. Not willing to go against the majority of officials, Emperor Taiwu relieved Cui of his posts and had him retire to his mansion as the Duke of Baima. However, because Emperor Taiwu also knew Cui to be intelligent and wise, he still often consulted Cui on important matters. During this time, Cui spent much time caring for his skin, and his skin was said to be so fair and beautiful that it was comparable to beautiful women's. He also compared his own intelligence to that of the famed Han dynasty strategist Zhang Liang, and further believed that his own knowledge surpassed that of Zhang.
It appeared to be around this time that Cui became a Taoist. Previously, Cui was said to dislike Daode Jing and Zhuangzi, the most important Taoist works, but he particularly despised Buddhism, believing it to be a religion of barbarians. After he met the Taoist monk Kou Qianzhi, who had reorganized the Taoist religious thoughts but received few adherents, he became a follower of Kou, and he made many petitions to Emperor Taiwu endorsing Kou's writings. Emperor Taiwu was impressed and became a Taoist and a follower of Kou as well, giving official approval to Kou's followers' proselytization of Taoism throughout his empire and approving a large amount of stipend for Kou's religious ceremonies.
Shandong, Hebei, Henan, Shaanxi, and Shanxi were where the Celestial Masters northern branch operated, while Louguan and Guanzhong Daoism developed around Henan, Shanxi and Shaanxi. Celestial Masters are not believed to be connected with stele founded in Shaanxi.
An anti Buddhist plan was concocted by the Celestial Masters under Kou Qianzhi along with Cui Hao under the Taiwu Emperor. The Celestial Masters of the north urged the persecution of Buddhists under the Taiwu Emperor in the Northern Wei, attacking Buddhism and the Buddha as wicked and as anti stability and anti family. Anti Buddhism was the position of Kou Qianzhi. There was no ban on the Celestial Masters despite the nofullfilment of Cui Hao and Kou Qianzhi's agenda in their anti Buddhist campaign.
By 426, Cui Hao was again a minister in Emperor Taiwu's administration, and it was at this time that Emperor Taiwu was considering a target for his armies. Cui Hao was among the ministers who suggested that he attack Xia, believing that Xia's cruel laws made it the obvious target, and Emperor Taiwu agreed. It was also around this time that Emperor Taiwu considered making the minister Li Shun (李順), who was related to Cui by marriage, a major general. (Cui's younger brother was married to Li's sister, and his nephew was married to Li's daughter.) Cui believed Li to be frivolous and unsuitable and persuaded Emperor Taiwu of that belief. From this point on, Cui and Li became political enemies.
In 427, after fighting dangerously but with Cui at his side, Emperor Taiwu captured the Xia capital Tongwan (in modern Yulin, Shaanxi), forcing the Xia emperor Helian Chang to flee to Shanggui (上邽, in modern Tianshui, Gansu) and allowing Northern Wei to take more than half of Xia territory.
In 429, Emperor Taiwu commissioned Cui to continue writing Northern Wei's history, a project that had started under Emperor Daowu with the official Deng Yuan (鄧淵) in charge. Cui engaged Deng Yuan's son Deng Ying (鄧穎) to assist him. This project, however, would eventually have dire consequences for both Cui and Deng.
Also in 429, at the advice of Cui, and against the advice of all other officials and his wet nurse Nurse Empress Dowager Dou, Emperor Taiwu attacked Rouran. (Cui believed that further major conflicts with Liu Song were inevitable, and that Northern Wei must first deal Rouran a major defeat to avoid being attacked on both sides.) However, Cui did not accompany Emperor Taiwu on this campaign, although he did inform Kou, who was, that the main Rouran force must be found and destroyed. When Emperor Taiwu engaged Rouran and dealt it a major loss, but was unable to find its Mouhanheshenggai Khan, Yujiulü Datan, he did not want to advance any further in fear of a trap, and even when Kou informed him what Cui had said, he stopped the pursuit. Only later did he find out that he was actually close to Yujiulü Datan's position and could have easily found and destroyed Yujiulü Datan, and he regretted this greatly.
Around this time, for Cui Hao's contributions, Emperor Taiwu awarded him several high titles. Cui often observed the stars at night, and he soaked copper in vinegar. Whenever he would see something unusual, he would use the copper as a pen and write his findings on paper. Knowing this, Emperor Taiwu often visited Cui's house at night to consult him, and despite Cui's inability to serve him with gourmet food, Emperor Taiwu would often eat at least some of the food that Cui offered before returning to his palace. When new vassals, Gaoche chiefs, arrived in Pingcheng, he introduced Cui Hao to them, with this commentary:
When you see this man, he looks thin and weak, unable to bend bows and unable to bear spears. However, the power in his heart is greater than a million soldiers. Often, I have desire to conquer but not the resolution to do so, and I am able to accomplish what I have because of the teaching of this gentleman.
In 430, when it appeared that Emperor Wen of Liu Song was about to attack, Northern Wei's southern defense forces suggested making a preemptory attack against Liu Song, but Cui Hao opposed it, pointing out that if the attack were not quickly successful, it risked causing Liu Song to counterattack across the Yellow River, endangering Northern Wei's existence. Rather, it was probably at Cui Hao's suggestion that, when Liu Song forces did attack later that year, Emperor Taiwu withdrew Northern Wei forces south of the Yellow River, judging that all Emperor Wen intended was to recapture the region south of the Yellow River, and that once the Yellow River froze in the winter Northern Wei could counterattack easily. It was definitely at Cui Hao's suggestion that despite the loss of territory to Liu Song at this time, Emperor Taiwu instead launched one final attack against Xia's emperor Helian Ding (Helian Chang's brother), seizing what remained of Xia territory and forcing Helian Ding to flee west, where he was captured by Tuyuhun's khan Murong Mugui (慕容慕璝) in 431. Meanwhile, even without Emperor Taiwu, Northern Wei forces were able to advance south in winter 430, quickly recapturing most of the territory that Liu Song had captured, and regaining all of it by spring 431.
In 431, for reasons not completely clear, Cui and Li Shun appeared to have had a reconciliation, at Cui recommended Li for a mission to Northern Liang, whose prince Juqu Mengxun had recently become a vassal. Upon Li's return, he reported Northern Liang's conditions in great detail, greatly encouraging Emperor Taiwu's plans to conquer Northern Liang. Believing Li to be capable, Emperor Taiwu also made him a major advisor, and Li and Cui appeared to resume their rivalry from this point on.
In late 431, against the advice of his nephew Lu Xuan (盧玄), Cui Hao began a plan to reexamine the ancestry of the officials, believing, as the prevailing thoughts were at the time, that the officials should be ranked in accordance with the honors that their clan had gained in the past. This brought much resentment against Cui. It was also at this time that, at Emperor Taiwu's orders, Cui Hao rewrote criminal laws to try to make the criminal justice system more lenient. However, only several features of the Cui criminal code are referred to in history:
That five-year and four-year imprisonment terms were abolished, and one-year terms instituted.
That those who used witchcraft to harm others would have a goat tied to his or her back and a dog tied to the chest and thrown into a river.
That a sufficiently high-ranked official who committed a crime would be allowed to forgo his office in lieu of punishment.
That if a pregnant women were sentenced to death, she would be allowed to bear her child and be executed 100 days after giving birth.
That each governmental agency would have a drum next to its front door, so that those who believed that they had been unfairly punished could pound the drum and make their requests.
In 439, Emperor Taiwu, even though by this point he had taken Juqu Mengxun's daughter as a concubine and had married his sister Princess Wuwei to Juqu Mengxun's son and successor Juqu Mujian, became resolved to conquer Northern Liang, and Cui greatly encouraged him, despite opposition from other key officials, including Li Shun, Daxin Jin (達奚斤), and Tuxi Bi (吐奚弼). (Why Li switched his position from supporting a campaign to opposing it at this point was unclear, but Cui would later accuse him of having accepted bribes from Juqu Mengxun and Juqu Mujian.) Li and Tuxi argued that Northern Liang's territory was desolate, and that the Northern Wei army would run out of food and water. Emperor Taiwu followed Cui's suggestion, and was able to quickly conquer Northern Liang and force Juqu Mujian's surrender—and when he saw that the region around Northern Liang's capital Guzang (姑臧, in modern Wuwei, Gansu) was exceptionally fertile, he became very resentful of Li, and would eventually force Li to commit suicide in 442. Meanwhile, after the conquest of Northern Liang, at Cui's request, Juqu Mujian's officials Yin Zhongda (陰仲達) and Duan Chenggen (段承根) were added to Cui's staff of historians. He also added Gao Yun to his staff around this time.
In 442, at Kou Qianzhi's urging, Emperor Taiwu ascended a platform and formally received Taoist amulets from Kou, and changed the color of his flags to blue, to show his Taoist beliefs and to officially approve Taoism as the state religion. From that point on, it became a tradition for Northern Wei emperors, when they took the throne, to receive Taoist amulets. Also at Kou and Cui Hao's urging, he started building Jinglun Palace (靜輪宮), intended to be so high that it would be quiet and close to the gods. (Emperor Taiwu's crown prince Tuoba Huang, a Buddhist, opposed the construction project on the basis of cost, but Emperor Taiwu disagreed with him. This might be the first sign of growing tensions between Cui and the crown prince.)
In 444, similarly to how his father had transferred authority to him early, Emperor Taiwu transferred much of his authority to Crown Prince Huang. Also similarly to what his father had done, he made several of his key officials Crown Prince Huang's advisors, and Cui was among those officials. This did not appear to cause the relationship between Cui and the crown prince to warm, however.
Also in 444, Cui was involved in a major political event. Dugu Jie (獨孤絜), a high-level official, who had opposed attacking Rouran, was accused by Cui Hao of being so jealous of Cui, whose suggestions of attacking Rouran were accepted by Emperor Taiwu, that he sabotaged Emperor Taiwu's war efforts by giving the generals the wrong times for rendezvous, and then further planning to have Emperor Taiwu captured by Rouran and then making Emperor Taiwu's brother Tuoba Pi (拓拔丕) the Prince of Leping emperor. Emperor Taiwu put Dugu to death, and Tuoba Pi died from anxiety. Further, because Dugu implicated them while being interrogated, fellow officials Zhang Song (張嵩) and Kudi Lin (庫狄鄰) were also put to death.
In 446, the Xiongnu rebel Gai Wu (蓋吳) rose in the Guanzhong region, and when Emperor Taiwu personally attacked Gai, he found weapons in Buddhist temples and believed that Buddhists were conspiring against him. Cui, who despised Buddhism, fanned the flames, and Emperor Taiwu first slaughtered the Buddhist monks in Chang'an. Cui then, despite Kou Qianzhi's opposition, suggested to Emperor Taiwu to slaughter all monks in the empire. Emperor Taiwu proceeded to slaughter the monks in Chang'an, destroy the statues, and burn the sutras. He then issued an empire-wide prohibition of Buddhism. Crown Prince Huang, however, used delaying tactics in promulgating the edict, allowing Buddhists to flee or hide, but it was said that not a single Buddhist temple remained standing in Northern Wei. This was the first of the Three Disasters of Wu.
In 447, after receiving reports that Juqu Mujian was planning a rebellion, Emperor Taiwu sent Cui Hao to the residence that Juqu Mujian shared with Princess Wuwei, to force Juqu Mujian to commit suicide.
The Shi jing (Dietary Classic) was written by Cui Hao.
Death
In 450, Cui Hao, despite his honored and trusted status, would be put to death along with the particular cadet branch of his clan which he belonged to. The complete reasons are not clear, but what happened slightly prior to 450 and in 450 gave strong indications. The official announcement was that Cui Hao had defamed the imperial clan.
It was said that Cui had, sometime prior to 450, become so entrenched in his position and the favors of the emperor that he had recommended a large number of talented men to be officials, starting at the fairly high rank of commandery governors. Crown Prince Huang opposed, believing that the current lower level officials should be first promoted, while the men Cui recommended be given those lower ranks and gradually promoted. However, Cui insisted, and the men were given commandery governorships. When he heard this, Gao Yun commented, "It will be difficult for Cui Hao to avoid disaster. How will he be able to afford to oppose those more powerful than he, just to satisfy his own desires?"
Official version
In 450, at the suggestion of his staff members Min Dan (閔湛) and Chi Biao (郗標), Cui carved the text of the histories that he was the lead editor of onto stone tablets, and erected the tablets next to the altars to Heaven outside of Pingcheng. The tablets were said to have revealed much about Emperor Taiwu's ancestors, and the Xianbei were very angry, accusing Cui of revealing the ancestors' faults and damaging the image of the state. Emperor Taiwu, in anger, arrested Cui.
Meanwhile, Crown Prince Huang, wanting to spare Gao, brought him into the palace, and asked Gao to blame all of the writing on Cui. Gao, instead, ascribed the authorship of the various parts of histories as such:
The biography of Emperor Daowu was written by Deng Yuan.
The biographies of Emperor Mingyuan and Emperor Taiwu were written jointly by Cui and Gao, but Gao said that he actually wrote about two thirds.
Emperor Taiwu was initially going to put Gao to death as well, but then was said to be impressed by Gao's admission and spared him, also at Crown Prince Huang's urging. He then summoned Cui, and Cui was said to be so fearful that he was not able to respond. Emperor Taiwu then ordered Gao to draft an edict for him, ordering that Cui and Cui's staff—128 men in total—be executed, along with five family branches each. Gao refused—stating that not even Cui should be executed. Emperor Taiwu, in anger, was going to put Gao to death as well, but Crown Prince Huang again pleaded for Gao, and Gao was again spared, and in fact, Emperor Taiwu reduced the number of people to be executed. However, Emperor Taiwu still ordered a great slaughter of people related to Cui:
All men and women, regardless of age, named Cui and related to Cui Hao in Cui's home region of Qinghe Commandery (roughly modern Xingtai, Hebei)
Several cadet branches of prominent clans with marital connections to Cui's clan, including:
The Lu (盧) clan of Fanyang Commandery
The Guo (郭) clan of Taiyuan Commandery
The Liu (柳) clan of Hedong Commandery
Cui's staff members themselves were executed, although not their families.
Before execution, Cui was put into a caged cart and placed outside Pingcheng so that people could see him. Scores of soldiers guarded him, and they took turns urinating on Cui's face and body. Cui yelled out in grief, and he sounded like "Ao Ao." After Cui's death, Emperor Taiwu began to regret putting him to death, and mourned bitterly.
Despite the massacre Cui Hao's immediate cadet branch, his larger clan Cui clan of Qinghe which had several cadet branches survived into the Tang dynasty as did the larger clans of the other families like the Lu clan of Fanyang which survived into the Song dynasty. The Taiyuan Guo clan 太原郭氏 and the Hedong Liu clan 河東柳氏 both survived into the Tang dynasty.
Unresolved issues
What is not clear is what Cui had revealed that would bring such disaster on him. After all, Gao had admitted to writing most of the history, and yet he was spared and Cui was severely punished. Further, what Cui had revealed was not recorded in history. That had led to speculation that perhaps Cui had tried to start a Han rebellion, or that he had been the victim of a Buddhist conspiracy. Neither speculation appeared to be more than speculation.
Modern historian Bo Yang believed there to be two probable reasons to Cui's death:
He believed that Cui did reveal an infamy about the imperial clan—that Emperor Daowu was a traitor and had sold out his father Tuoba Shiyijian to Former Qin. (See here for more details; under the later official history, however, Tuoba Shiyijian was Emperor Daowu's grandfather, not father.)
He believed that Cui was in conflict with Crown Prince Huang, and that it was at Crown Prince Huang's direction that Gao attributed the histories' authorship as indicated—because the key problematic passage would come from Tuoba Shiyijian's biography, not Emperor Daowu's, and Gao was silent as to who wrote Tuoba Shiyijian's biography.
Bo's analysis is itself speculation, but might be considered a reasonable explanation for what happened to Cui. Bo also believed that Cui was poisoned—which would explain why he was not able to respond at all to Emperor Taiwu's interrogation, and was later only yelling "Ao Ao" in lament, unable to say anything.
References
Old Book of Tang, vol. 35.
History of Northern Dynasties, vol. 21.
Zizhi Tongjian, vols. 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125.
4th-century births
450 deaths
Northern Wei Taoists
5th-century Taoists
Chinese chancellors
Northern Wei historians
5th-century Chinese historians
Northern Wei poets
Northern Wei government officials
Executed Northern Wei people
People executed by Northern Wei
5th-century executions
Persecution of Buddhists
Cui clan of Qinghe
5th-century Chinese poets
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4767475
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1969%2024%20Hours%20of%20Le%20Mans
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1969 24 Hours of Le Mans
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The 1969 24 Hours of Le Mans was a motor race staged at the Circuit de la Sarthe, Le Mans, France on 14 and 15 June 1969. It was the 37th Grand Prix of Endurance and was the eighth round of the 1969 International Championship for Makes. The race was open to Group 6 Prototype Sports Cars, Group 4 Sports Cars and Group 3 Grand Touring Cars.
It was the last year with the traditional "Le Mans" style start, in which the drivers run across the track to enter their cars, start them, and race away. The previous year, Willy Mairesse crashed on the first lap while trying to properly close the door of his car at speed on the Mulsanne Straight; the crash would have been avoided entirely if not for the Le Mans-style start, and it ended Mairesse's racing career. During the 1969 start, eventual winner Jacky Ickx famously staged his own one-man protest by walking to his car, and taking his time doing up his belts. Meanwhile, privateer John Woolfe ran with the other drivers, flipped his car on the opening lap near Maison Blanche corner, and not yet strapped in properly, was killed when the car broke up.
The race was one of the most exciting in the event's history. Porsche had already wrapped up the International Championship for Makes, and were strong favourites to achieve their first outright win. More than one-third of the starting cars were Porsches, and the mighty 917s held the lead for 90% of the race. But when the Elford/Attwood car's gearbox broke at 11 a.m., it was the Ford of Ickx and Jackie Oliver that took over the lead. The race ended in a 3-hour sprint, with the Ford battling the pursuing Porsche 908 of Hans Herrmann and Gérard Larrousse non-stop. In the end, the Ford GT40 – the same chassis that had won the previous year – took the chequered flag just 120 metres ahead of the Porsche after 24 hours of racing.
Regulations
Heeding the calls of race promoters worried about diminishing fields, the FIA sought to fix things by reducing the minimum production figure to run in Group 4 from 50 to 25. Even though they had a 5 litre engine capacity limit, it was reasoned that it would not be a difference as the cars were not usually as competitive as the Group 6 Prototypes (which were limited to 3 litres). This however, left a large flaw in the system for big manufacturers with the resources to exploit the regulations. Porsche were able to construct 25 chassis of their new 917 prototype, with its 4.5-litre engine, to get it homologated for Group 4.
This year the Automobile Club de l'Ouest (ACO) brought the start-time forward to 2pm, to allow time for the largely French crowd to still be able to get to vote in the Presidential Elections on the Sunday afternoon. New Armco crash barriers were installed around the circuit, including on the Mulsanne Straight, where there was previously no protection from the trees, houses and embankments in the event of a car leaving the track. Sandbanks were replaced by barriers.
Entries
Into the second year of the new 3-litre regulations for Group 6 Prototypes, the initial entries closed with 109 applications – the biggest number in the past decade. However, after the requisite culling 60 cars were accepted, but a number of withdrawals meant only 51 practiced with non-starters reducing the final grid to only 45, the smallest field in the decade. After a dominant season to date, Porsche had already won the 1969 International Championship for Makes and arrived with easily the biggest representation with 16 cars, a third of the field.
Porsche had already wrapped up the championship after the seven races to date. Starting in July 1968, Porsche made a surprising and very expensive effort to conceive, design and build a whole new car for the Group 4 Sport category with one underlying goal: to win its first overall victory at Le Mans. In only ten months, the first Porsche 917 prototype was developed with a fibreglass body and Porsche's first 12-cylinder engine. Bored out to 4.5-litres, made from titanium, magnesium and exotic alloys, it produced a mighty 520 bhp. The 917 included another feature which would prove to be controversial in the week leading up to the race: movable aerodynamic wings linked to the suspension. These were banned by the CSI (Commission Sportive Internationale – the FIA's regulatory body) at the Monaco GP in May as dangerous. Porsche team manager, Rico Steinemann, protested that their test-sessions had shown the car was inherently unstable without them and that the cars had been homologated for Group 4 with the flaps. A last-minute decision the day before Le Mans by the FISA allowed them to race, although the 908s had to lose the flaps as they had previously run without them. Team Matra was particularly upset by this decision, but in a statement said they did not intend to protest. It was widely believed that if the ban was again reinstated because of a protest by other teams, Porsche would have pulled out of the 1969 race entirely.
By May the necessary 25 chassis were completed for homologation, intended to be sold to private racing teams at $35,000 each. The first was purchased by a private interest by the time of the Le Mans race, that of Briton John Woolfe. The cars had their first race at Spa, and three works entries were at Le Mans in langheck (longtail) form for Vic Elford/Richard Attwood and Rolf Stommelen/Kurt Ahrens, with Herbert Linge in the reserve car.
In the Prototype class, Porsche had three works 908s, also in langheck form, including regular team drivers Gerhard Mitter / Udo Schütz. This season's version was at least 20% lighter than the 1968 car. The new 908/2 spyder version that had been very successful through the season was run by the team's lead drivers, Jo Siffert and Brian Redman, through Siffert's sponsor, Hart Ski with strong works support. There were also a pair of privateer 910s in the 2-litre Prototype class.
After a tight season last year, Ford were no longer as competitive as their Porsche rivals. Although the GT40 was showing its age, five were entered. John Wyer's J.W. Automotive, managed by David Yorke, chose not to run the disappointing Group 6 Mirage M2s and instead entered two of the cars they ran in the previous year's race. They kept their regular driving combinations: Jacky Ickx / Jackie Oliver and David Hobbs / Mike Hailwood. There were also entries for Alan Mann Racing and a race-debut for Reinhold Joest, as a driver.
After an inauspicious debut in 1967, the Lola T70 Mk 3 had gradually improved, and with sufficient production now completed to put it into the Sports category, it could run the far more reliable, race-proven, Chevrolet 5-litre V8 engine. The new Mk 3B, designed by Eric Broadley, was the first racing car to use the new ultralight, ultra-strong, carbon-fibre. A victory in the opening championship round at Daytona for Roger Penske's team boded well. Lola withdrew its entries after Paul Hawkins burned to death in an accident in May driving a Lola at the RAC Tourist Trophy. Without the works team, it was Scuderia Filipinetti who ran a car for Jo Bonnier/Masten Gregory.
The SEFAC-Ferrari works team returned to Le Mans after a year's absence, with the new 312P prototype, a design strongly akin to the Can-Am 612P. It ran a 3-litre V12 engine based on the Ferrari Formula 1 engine, developing 430 bhp. Two cars were entered, for former race-winners Chris Amon and Pedro Rodriguez, partnered with hill-climb specialist Peter Schetty and David Piper respectively. The North American Racing Team (NART) once again had three different options entered in the Sports category: its 1965 race-winning 275LM car was back, with a new 365 GTB/4 in the over-2-litre class, and a Dino 206 S in the under-2-litre class.
Alpine returned with its A220, Gordini had now fuel-injected the Renault 3-litre to produce a still-underwhelming 330 bhp. Mauro Bianchi, badly injured at the 1968 race, was now the works-team manager after he failed the medical at the Monza round. As well as the three works cars, there was one for their regular customer team, the Ecurie Savin-Calberson. The two teams, alongside another French privateer team, Trophée Le Mans, ran four of the A210 in the smaller Prototype classes including one for French ski-champions Jean-Claude Killy and Bob Wollek.
After a strong showing in the 1968 race, the French team Matra gave up its Formula 1 development (leaving it to Ken Tyrrell's Matra International) to focus on its sports-car program. Aerodynamic engineer Robert Choulet designed a low-drag coupé specially for the Le Mans, the Matra 640, bearing a resemblance to his Panhard CD designs but with the Matra 3-litre V12 engine. Not ready in time for the March test weekend, Matra was able to get a special test in April. Henri Pescarolo took to the track, but at the first kilometres on the Mulsanne Straight, the car got airborne, doing a 360° loop, before smashing into roadside trees and catching fire. Pescarolo was pulled out alive but had two broken vertebrae and severe burns to his face and arms. The project was cancelled; however development was also proceeding on the 630. This led to a new open-top car, the 650. Only one had been finished (just before scrutineering ) for Jean-Pierre Beltoise / Piers Courage, while two former 630 chassis were converted (christened 630/650) for Johnny Servoz-Gavin/Herbert Müller and 'Nanni' Galli/Robin Widdows. There was also an MS630 for Nino Vaccarella/Jean Guichet who had won the 1964 race together for Ferrari. Meanwhile, Pescarolo did race commentary for French TV from his hospital bed.
Aside from the Lola, British cars were limited to the small manufacturers. The Chevron B8 had been homologated into Group 4, with a 2-litre BMW engine. Donald Healey had returned with its SR 2-litre prototype, improved from extensive testing at Silverstone. The Unipower GT had a 1275cc Mini Cooper S engine, while the Piper GTR had a 1300cc Ford engine. Smallest car in the field was the Abarth 1000SP
After their excellent result in the previous year's race, Alfa Romeo's Autodelta works team was favourites for a class-win. However, the team withdrew after the death of their lead-driver and 1968 race-winner, Lucien Bianchi, at the March test weekend trialing the new Tipo 33/3– the third driver death for the team in testing after Jean Rolland and Leo Cella in 1968. Instead it fell to the Belgian customer team VDS to run two of the older model Tipo 33/2, one with a 2.5-litre V8 engine.
The GT category was still a limited field. Scuderia Filipinetti had a lock on the over 2-litre class, with both entries – a Corvette Stingray and Ferrari 275 GTB/C. The under 2-litre class was only contested by 911 privateers – the Porsche already proving to be the car of choice in this class.
Alfa-Romeo and Abarth factory entries dropped out because of a customs strike, and Ferrari North America also scratched some entries.
Practice
The test weekend was held on 29/30 March and was marred by the fatal accident to Lucien Bianchi in the new 3-litre Alfa Romeo. Apparent mechanical failure hit the car on the Hunaudières straight, coming over the hump approaching the Mulsanne corner at over . The car crashed into a telephone pole and a transformer station and exploded. Bianchi was killed instantly by the impact.
From the test weekend Rolf Stommelen, in the brand new Porsche 917, recorded a 3:30.7 over three seconds quicker than Servoz-Gavin in the Matra. Paul Hawkins in a works Lola was third-quickest with a 3:35.2.
The power of the new Porsche 917 was shown by Stommelen on the first night of practice when he put in a blistering lap of 3:22.9 to take pole position. This was over 2 seconds faster than the sister car of Vic Elford. It was also 0.7 seconds faster than the lap record held by the big Mark IVs of Denny Hulme and Mario Andretti in 1967 (set without the Ford chicane present). Despite a top speed over 20 km/h slower than the Fords, this was achieved with the great advances in downforce. In the end, Porsche chose to only race two of their three 917s. Woolfe had busted his engine in practise grabbing 1st instead of 3rd but was able to get a replacement one from Porsche.
The Porsche 908s of Jo Siffert and Rudi Lins were third and fourth then came the Ferraris of Rodriguez and Amon with 3:35 laps. The best Matra was Servoz-Gavin in 11th (3:36.4) and Ickx put the top Ford in 13th. The underpowered Alpines were well off the pace of their contemporaries with qualifying laps in the 3:45s putting them midfield. The top 2-litre car was the Gosselin/Bourgoignie Alfa Romeo in 27th (4:09.8) with the first 911 doing 4:28.2 to qualify 35th.
NART had a bad practice when its Dino collided with its Daytona stablemate approaching the Mulsanne corner, putting both cars out for the race.
A curious incident happened in practice when Bonnier pitted his Lola and got out covered in blood and feathers. Apparently he had hit a bird and it had been sucked through a cooling vent into the cockpit. With the proviso that all cars had to qualify within 85% of the pole-sitting car's average speed for safety reasons, it meant that several cars failed to qualify.
Race
Start
After a sunny week, race-day was overcast, but dry with a huge crowd in attendance for the start. At the drop of the flag it was Stommelen, with a big power-slide, who was first under the Dunlop bridge. In yet another deadly year of motorsport Jacky Ickx, mindful of the accident that had ended the career of his former teammate Willy Mairesse's on the first lap of the previous year's race staged his own one-man protest. He rebelled against the traditional Le Mans starting procedure to run across the track to their cars, climb in, start the car, and move the car as quickly as possible to pull away from the grid. Instead Ickx walked slowly to his car, properly put on his safety belts, and only then moved the car. Doing so effectively relegated Ickx to the back of the starting grid.
His concern was borne out almost immediately. On the very first lap, the twitchy handling of the Porsche 917 and the inexperience of one of its drivers resulted in a major accident: the death of British gentleman-driver John Woolfe. Woolfe's purchased his 917 for £16000 (US$40,000) only days earlier and was quoted by a colleague as having said its power "scared the pants off me". Porsche racing manager Rico Steinemann was quoted as having pled with Woolfe before the race to allow his works-driver teammate Herbert Linge to drive the first stint, but he demurred. Woolfe crashed approaching Maison Blanche when he got two wheels on the grass and lost control. He was thrown free of the car as it spun, rolled, hit an embankment, and exploded. Woolfe was taken by helicopter to a nearby hospital, but was dead on arrival.
The nearly full fuel tank from Woolfe's car became dislodged and landed, burning, in front of the oncoming Ferrari 312P of Chris Amon. Amon ran over it, and Woolfe's fuel tank jammed underneath causing Amon's to rupture and explode as well. Amon set off the on-board fire extinguisher and was uninjured but forced to retire the car. Debris virtually blocked the road and a number of cars were affected including the Healey, Gardner's Ford and Jabouille's Alpine. The rest of the field was virtually halted and slowly picked its way through the carnage.
Stommelen led the race to the first pitstops, leading a train of five Porsches (Stommelen, Elford, Siffert, Mitter, Herrmann). Bonnier's Lola was sixth, but then Stommelen was delayed by oil leaking from the transmission. Gardner brought the Alan Mann Ford in several times with overheating because debris from the accident had holed the radiator. Jo Siffert and Brian Redman took over the lead until they too were crippled by an oil-leak in the gearbox after four hours. This moved the Elford/Attwood 917 to the lead, ahead of the other 908 team cars of Mitter/Schütz, Herrmann/Larrousse and Lins/Kauhsen, pursued by the Matra of Beltoise/Courage then the Wyer Ford of Ickx/Oliver in 6th. In the sixth hour a number of cars had problems: Herrmann was delayed for 20 minutes repairing the front suspension with parts from Siffert's car (dropping to 12th), and the Matra lost two laps fixing a faulty rear light. The leading Alpine of de Cortanze/Vinatier (running 11th) lost a wheel at Indianapolis corner. With a large crowd of observers he 'fortuitously' found the right tools on the grass verge but dropped well back. The Matra was being raced very hard and by dusk, at 9pm, had made it up to second only to be delayed repeatedly by slow pitwork.
Night
As night fell, the three works Porsches were ahead of the two Wyer Fords and also running in the top-3 of the Index of Performance. Bonnier and Gregory were having a good run in the Lola, running sixth, until overheating issues at 11pm forced a 3-hour pitstop to change heads and gaskets. 'Taf' Gosselin got it wrong approaching the Ford chicane, going straight on and crashing although the driver escaped without injury. The big Alpines had been plagued by engine issues, and just after midnight the last one suffered head gasket failure. At the 2am halfway mark Elford/Attwood had done 192 laps, four ahead of Schütz/Mitter and Lins/Kauhsen (187), then back to the Fords (both 184 laps) and the Vaccarella/Guichet Matra (183). Disaster struck the Porsches at 2.45am when the team cars of Schütz (running 3rd) and Larrousse (now 8th) collided at the Mulsanne kink. Schütz's car rolled, burst into flames and almost broke in half. However the driver escaped uninjured. Larrousse's car made it to the pits with bodywork damage and was quickly repaired.
Morning
Dawn saw the 917 of Elford/Attwood driving within itself and still leading the 908 of Lins/Kauhsen. The Wyer Fords were 3rd and 4th with the Herrmann/Larrousse Porsche motoring back through the field, up to 5th. The remaining 312P Ferrari was in 8th with ongoing oil-leak issues splitting the three remaining Matras until it finally retired just after 5am. Through the night the Matras had had their problems: Galli spent an hour getting new fuel pumps fitted and Courage had a broken headlight then clipped a Porsche 911 on Mulsanne, getting bodywork damage. But come the daylight he and Beltoise pushed hard to close in on the Fords. At 6am, as a heavy mist came down over the circuit the leaders had a 5-lap lead and there were only 19 cars still running.
The 1.5L Alpine, of Killy/Wollek, had been running very quickly and steadily moving up the order to as high as 11th leading the medium-engined cars and the Thermal Efficiency Index. But soon after 8am it was retired with broken suspension much to the disappointment of the French crowd.
Then around 10.15am, with barely 3 hours left to run, the two leading Porsches both came in with unscheduled pitstops. The mechanics examined them but to no avail – the Lins/Kauhsen car stopped on Mulsanne with a broken clutch. The 917 limped on for another half-hour before a cracked weld in its gearbox stopped it for good. Within a matter of minutes, the Ickx/Oliver Ford now found itself in the lead. The Herrmann/Larrousse Porsche had been driving hard making up time and when the other Wyer Ford lost two laps changing its rear brakes it moved up to second place.
Finish and post-race
Going into the final hour after their final pit-stops, both teams put their best drivers in the cars. Ickx and Herrmann were now on the same lap, barely 10 seconds apart. The Porsche 908 had fading brakes and an engine now 400rpm down on power and the Ford GT40 suffered from exhaust problems, making for a very even contest. In a dramatic finish, Ickx and Herrmann repeatedly overtook each other. Ickx knew if he led onto the Mulsanne straight, Herrmann would pass, but he could slipstream past him back again before the Mulsanne corner and then hold a lead for the rest of a lap. But by strange timing the cars crossed the line with less than a minute to go and had to go around one more time. The Ford had only ever done 23 laps on a tank of fuel, but now needed an extra lap. So on the last lap, Ickx let Herrmann pass him early on the Mulsanne Straight, faking a lack of power from fuel starvation. Ickx used the slipstream of Herrmann to pass him again just before the end of the 5 km straight. Ickx then managed to hold on and beat Herrmann by a few seconds, and a distance of about .
Ickx and Oliver won with the GT40 chassis #1075 (nicknamed the 'Old Lady'), the same car that had won the previous year. This was only the second time the same car had won two years in a row; a Bentley Speed Six had done it in 1929 and 1930. Ickx dedicated the team's victory to Lucien Bianchi, who had been killed earlier in the year, and had helped the Wyer team win the Le Mans the previous year.
The Hobbs and Hailwood Wyer Ford, after its delay, finished third four laps behind, just ahead of the Matra of Beltoise/Courage. The older Matra of Vaccarella/Guichet was 5th a distant 9 laps behind and the German Ford of Kelleners/Joest 6th an even further 18 laps behind them.
The veteran NART Ferrari 275LM finished eighth, covering less than its race-winning performance in 1965. With eight cars entered, Alpine had great expectations but the only one to finish was the smallest: the 1-litre A210 of Serpaggi/Ethuin finished 12th, 80 laps behind the Ford, but winning the lucrative Index of Performance covering almost 30% more distance than its small-engine target. For the first time since 1926 there were no all-British entries among the finishers.
So, once again Porsche, Matra and Renault left without their coveted Le Mans victory. It was the first win of six for Jacky Ickx (a record that stood until 2005 when beaten by Tom Kristensen). He had walked across the track at the start line and still won. The ACO's response to that was proactive and the iconic Le Mans start was discontinued. Ironically Ickx himself had a road accident near Chartres while driving to Paris on the Monday morning after the race. A car pulled in front of his Porsche 911. Ickx's car ended up crushed against a utility pole. Ickx unbuckled his seat belt and stepped unharmed from the wrecked Porsche.
Later in the month, Enzo Ferrari sold sufficient stock holdings in his company to the Fiat S.p.A. to raise their share to 50%.
In another bad year for motorsport accidents, the Porsche works team lost two of their drivers at August's German Grand Prix Gerhard Mitter, driving an F2 BMW was killed in practise. Then Vic Elford had a major accident on the first lap with Mario Andretti. He survived but had broken his arm in three places. The race had also marked the return to racing of Henri Pescarolo, in an F2 Matra, after his test-accident.
Finally, Jacques Loste, race director of the ACO since 1957, retired later in the year. His successor was the manufacturer/engineer, and Le Mans veteran, Charles Deutsch.
Official results
Finishers
Results taken from Quentin Spurring's book, officially licensed by the ACO Class Winners are in Bold text.
Did Not Finish
Did Not Start
Class Winners
Note: setting a new Distance Record.
Index of Thermal Efficiency
Note: Only the top nine positions are included in this set of standings.
Index of Performance
Taken from Moity's book.
Note: Only the top ten positions are included in this set of standings. A score of 1.00 means meeting the minimum distance for the car, and a higher score is exceeding the nominal target distance.
Statistics
Taken from Quentin Spurring's book, officially licensed by the ACO
Fastest Lap in practice – R. Stommelen, #14 Porsche 917 LH – 3:22.9secs;
Fastest Lap – V. Elford, #12 Porsche 917 LH – 3:27.2secs;
Winning Distance –
Winner's Average Speed –
Attendance – almost 400 000
International Championship for Makes Standings
As calculated after Le Mans, Round 8 of 10
Citations
References
Armstrong, Douglas – English editor (1969) Automobile Year #17 1969–70 Lausanne: Edita S.A.
Clarke, R.M. – editor (1997) Le Mans 'The Ford and Matra Years 1966–1974' Cobham, Surrey: Brooklands Books
Clausager, Anders (1982) Le Mans London: Arthur Barker Ltd
Henry, Alan (1988) Fifty Famous Motor Races Northamptonshire: Patrick Stephen Ltd
Laban, Brian (2001) Le Mans 24 Hours London: Virgin Books
Moity, Christian (1974) The Le Mans 24 Hour Race 1949–1973 Radnor, Pennsylvania: Chilton Book Co
Parker, Paul (2016) Sports Car Racing in Camera Vol 2 1960–69 Wincanton: Behemoth Publishing
Spurring, Quentin (2010) Le Mans 1960–69 Yeovil, Somerset: Haynes Publishing
External links
Racing Sports Cars – Le Mans 24 Hours 1969 entries, results, technical detail. Retrieved 4 May 2018
Le Mans History – Le Mans History, hour-by-hour (incl. pictures, YouTube links). Retrieved 4 May 2018
World Sports Racing Prototypes – results, reserve entries & chassis numbers. Retrieved 4 May 2018
Team Dan – results & reserve entries, explaining driver listings. Retrieved 4 May 2018
Unique Cars & Parts – results & reserve entries. Retrieved 4 May 2018
Formula 2 – Le Mans results & reserve entries. Retrieved 4 May 2018
Motorsport Memorial – details of the fatal accidents. Retrieved 4 May 2018
YouTube – Colour footage with music overlaid (5mins). Retrieved 15 May 2018
YouTube – Brief interview with Henri Pescarolo about his crash in testing (90sec). Retrieved 15 May 2018
YouTube – Brief interview with Frank Gardner about John Woolfe crash (30sec). Retrieved 15 May 2018
YouTube – B/w footage, in Dutch, news report (1min). Retrieved 15 May 2018
In media
La Ronde Infernale: Le Mans 1969 (commissioned by Castrol)
24 Hours of Le Mans races
Le Mans
1969 in French motorsport
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rule%20of%20Rose
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Rule of Rose
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Rule of Rose is a survival horror video game developed by Punchline for the PlayStation 2. Set in England in 1930, the plot revolves around a nineteen-year-old woman named Jennifer, who becomes trapped in a world ruled by young girls who have established a class hierarchy called the Red Crayon Aristocrats. It was first released in 2006 by Sony Computer Entertainment in Japan. After Sony Computer Entertainment's American and European branch did not express interest in localizing the title, it was published later that year by Atlus USA in North America and by 505 Games in Europe.
Development on Rule of Rose began after Punchline was asked by Sony Computer Entertainment to make a horror game. Punchline wanted to develop a "new type of horror game" with an emphasis on psychological horror. This decision led to the concept of childhood, specifically the "mysterious and misunderstood" nature of young girls. The team drew inspiration from the classic Brothers Grimm fairy tales for the narrative, and the Silent Hill series for graphics and art style. The entire score was produced by studio musicians in order to bring a human element to the game's atmosphere.
Rule of Rose was the subject of a moral panic in Europe prior to its publication there, based on rumors of its alleged content. These rumors ranged from erotic themes to obscene brutality. Various European authorities condemned the game and called for its banning. The game was cancelled in the United Kingdom, despite the Video Standards Council calling the complaints "nonsense". Rule of Rose received mixed reviews from critics, with gameplay being criticized the most. The game has been compared to Silent Hill and Haunting Ground, due to the psychological horror elements and the presence of a canine companion for the main character.
Gameplay
Rule of Rose is a survival horror game in which the player guides Jennifer through exploring the game environments and advances the plot by accomplishing tasks while sporadically encountering enemies and bosses.
Described as "essentially an interactive movie" by its director Shuji Ishikawa and associate producer Yuya Takayama, the narrative of Rule of Rose centers on the traumatic childhood memories of Jennifer, "an ordinary, vulnerable girl"; these memories sometimes manifest in exaggerated ways.
Combat is almost exclusively melee-based, with a variety of improvised weapons available, such as kitchen knives and pipes. Jennifer is a timid character: her melee attacks are neither powerful nor long-ranged. Evasion of enemies is often a more viable strategy instead of fighting. With the exception of a handful of bosses, all enemies in the game are imps—skinny, dolllike creatures the size of small children. Different animal-headed imps appear throughout the game, alongside regular imps.
Every level of the game takes place over a month. Each chapter begins with the reading of a homemade storybook related to the plot of the chapter.
During each level, Jennifer is tasked with finding a specific object that will be gifted to the Aristocracy.
Early in the game, Jennifer encounters and rescues a dog named Brown. Brown accompanies her throughout the game and responds to the player's commands. Brown can be ordered to track items by scent, be commanded to 'stay' and be called to Jennifer's side. Brown cannot attack enemies, but will growl to distract some imps and bosses, allowing Jennifer to retreat or attack without fear of retaliation. He can be injured to the point of collapse, causing him to stop distracting enemies or track items.
Brown's ability to locate items is an integral part of the game, and is used in every chapter to progress further. The same system allows the player to find health restoratives and other items which, while not essential to complete the game, can help the player survive enemy encounters. Players select an item from the inventory for Brown to locate, which is then connected to the 'find' command until changed or removed. Every item selected this way can be used to find at least one type of item. When tracking items, Brown will lead the player through the game environments, scratching at doors in his way, signaling the player to open the door. Most health restoratives and all tradable items are hidden and must be uncovered by Brown, though the player can choose to avoid searching for these items to progress quickly. Restorative items include snack foods, candy, and chocolate. The different types of restorative items heal varying amounts of health. Bones and other items can be used to restore Brown's health if he becomes injured. Other items such as marbles and ribbons have no immediate use, but may be traded with non-playable characters in order to obtain food, rare items, and weapons.
Most levels are puzzle based. The primary puzzles require the use of Brown's scent-finding ability in order to find objects that are related to one another in order to solve a larger puzzle. Others require finding markings on the wall in order to solve the chapter's puzzle. The game is largely linear and the player cannot affect the story through their actions, although they are rewarded for exploration with secret items, additional details and combat upgrades.
Plot
19-year-old Jennifer is given an unfinished storybook by a mysterious boy on a bus ride, but he runs away before she can return it. While following him to the dilapidated Rose Garden Orphanage, she finds a dog collar in a shed, and witnesses masked children beating a bloody sack. She infiltrates the orphanage before a funeral is announced, which the boy claims is for her "dear friend". After the funeral, Jennifer unearths the coffin and notices the bloody sack inside, but the orphans force her into the coffin and onto an airship, where she wakes up as the captive of the boy who introduces himself as the Prince of the Red Rose. She is made the lowest member of the Red Rose Aristocracy, who require monthly gifts as tithes for the Prince and Princess of the Red Rose, with failure leading to humiliation or sacrifice to a being called Stray Dog. The Prince gives Jennifer handmade storybooks to help recover her memories and releases her to participate in club activities. Jennifer frequently faces punishment for incidents caused by higher-ranking members, but manages to rescue a yellow Labrador named Brown, who accompanies her. She befriends other lower-class members, Amanda and Wendy, and gradually recalls an oath she had made as the experiences of Jennifer reflect the storybooks.
Jennifer is suddenly taken off the airship by a suicidal man, Gregory Wilson, and follows him into the basement of his home. She discovers a stuffed bear, storybooks, and letters between Wendy and a boy named Joshua, who address each other "Princess" and "Prince" respectively. Wendy rescues Jennifer after taking Gregory's gun to prevent him from committing suicide, and trades a rose-shaped brooch for Jennifer's stuffed bear. Back on the airship, the club is in a state of emergency trying to find the stolen stuffed bear. Amanda is revealed to be the thief, but frames Jennifer for stealing it. The Aristocrats attack Jennifer, who wakes up back at the orphanage where all the children from the airship are present, but they either ignore or harass her, except for Wendy. Jennifer learns that herself and Brown are wanted as the monthly gift. She follows a bloody trail to the attic and discovers Brown's corpse in the bloody sack. Wendy approaches Jennifer, revealing herself to be the Princess of the Red Rose. Outraged, Jennifer slaps Wendy and throws away her brooch, denouncing the Aristocrats and herself for not standing up to them. Wendy departs, humiliated.
Without a leader, the orphans elect Jennifer as their new Princess, but before she can decline, they see Wendy outside and leave to chase her away. Jennifer then follows their screams and encounters Wendy, disguised as the Prince and leading Stray Dog. Wendy confesses to having Brown killed out of jealousy and reveals that she manipulated Gregory into becoming Stray Dog and used him to massacre the Aristocrats by disguising herself as his son Joshua. Before she is killed by Gregory, Wendy gives Jennifer the gun to stop Gregory, but he asks for the gun and shoots himself instead.
Jennifer wakes up as her child self and realizes that all the events that have occurred were just her distorted memories of her childhood. Before meeting Wendy, Jennifer was kidnapped from an airship wreck by Gregory and made to live as a boy in order to replace his deceased son, the real Joshua. Wendy rescued and brought Jennifer to the orphanage for companionship and together they formed the Red Crayon Aristocrats as a means of escapism. They made a loyalty oath to each other and exchanged Jennifer's bear for Wendy's brooch. Soon after, Jennifer adopted a puppy she named Brown and started to neglect club duties to care for him. Jealous of Jennifer's love for Brown, Wendy demoted her from the position of Prince, and ultimately ordered Brown's death to force Jennifer's submission. The media abandoned the massacre story after realizing Jennifer was the only survivor, leaving the orphans forgotten. In the end, Jennifer locates Brown inside the shed within her memories, gives him the collar bearing his name, and inscribes her oath on a chalkboard. Vowing to protect her memories, she leaves the shed and closes the door behind her.
Development
The company Punchline, which had previously developed the video game Chulip, developed Rule of Rose for the PlayStation 2. A group of twenty-five developers, Punchline began the project after being asked by Sony Computer Entertainment to develop a horror video game; not wanting to create a game similar to the survival-horror series Resident Evil, Punchline decided on the goal of developing a "new type of horror game, one which wasn't the usual zombie, ghost and slasher type," with an emphasis on psychological horror rather than "surprise- and shock-based horror." A proposed early draft by Yoshiro Kimura was a dark fantasy "boy's story" that centered on a boy abducted by "a big man" and his attempts to escape, while encountering the ghosts of previous victims. Keywords included "Kidnapping, imprisonment, children, bullying, dwarfs, airship, escape." This concept was turned down by the publisher on the basis of being "too dangerous a topic," and Kimura turned to the idea of examining the "fear between girls."
This decision led to the concept of "a game surrounding childhood and children," but from both viewpoints to show how children and adults can find the other one terrifying, with a primary focus on the adult's perspective. Though the game has garnered comparisons with William Golding's 1954 allegorical novel Lord of the Flies, the developers did not draw inspiration from it, instead focusing on the "mysterious and misunderstood" nature of girls. The team visited Hyde Park for the accuracy of details such as the garden in the opening scene, and sought assistance from the British government and archives to gather information about the R101 airship that influenced the setting of the story. They ensured accurate architectural details due to Ishikawa's expertise. The story formed through trial and error as the developers figured out how to create a sense of fear, ultimately adding the children's secret society, the Red Crayon Aristocrats. They also included Brown as a way to balance Jennifer's "helpless and unhappy" personality and make the game more enjoyable. Because of budget and time problems, the combat system was left a little rough.
Rule of Roses graphics are heavily stylized, incorporating a series of visual filters similar to those used in the Silent Hill series. The developers researched the behavior of children, monitoring a group of European and American children, and photographed references for "the game's textures and models"; for the motion capture, the team had Japanese children act. At the request of the developers, the group of children also expressed through drawings or written words what caused them to be happy or afraid. The company Shirogumi worked on the computer-generated imagery present in Rule of Roses cutscenes. The musical score was composed by Yutaka Minobe, who also co-composed the music of Skies of Arcadia and some tracks from the Panzer Dragoon Orta soundtrack. The entire score was produced by studio musicians, including the Hiroshi Murayama Trio, and vocals by Kaori Kondo. According to the game's developers, the music was intended to bring a human element to the atmosphere in the game. A 6-track promotional soundtrack CD was produced by Atlus, which was issued to customers from certain retailers when Rule of Rose was pre-ordered.
Punchline included several themes in Rule of Rose, with the primary one being "intimate relationships between all people". A major theme in the game is the difference between a child's and an adult's way of thinking, and how children might treat adults if they were given power over them. Players are helpless to prevent their adult player character from being bullied by the children. Another theme is how attachment "to one thing can bring out the worst in people."
Controversy
Prior to its publication, Rule of Rose was the subject of a moral panic in Europe. At E3 2006 Atlus announced that it would be releasing Rule of Rose in the United States, following Sony's decision to pass on an American release, as the game "wasn’t really in sync with their corporate image" and the company had wanted the game to "be a bit tamer, if it were to have the Sony name in the U.S." The developers disagreed with this, saying that "the theme is supposed to be one of intimate familiarity" and that they had intended to portray how children behave "without the filter of guilt or sin." Rumors of violence towards children in the game tied into a larger discussion of morality and violence in video games appeared in the Italian magazine Panorama in November 2006, and were quickly picked up by the British media, which alleged that the game had scenes of "children buried alive underground, in-game sadomasochism, and underage eroticism." These allegations were untrue. At the time, Rule of Rose had already been rated by various video game advisory boards as suitable for an older teenage audience: in Japan, it was rated 15+; in the majority of Europe, 16+; and in North America, 17+.
European Union justice minister Franco Frattini attacked the game as containing "obscene cruelty and brutality." He also called for changes to the PEGI rating system in place across Europe and for government officials to engage in discussions with industry representatives. Frattini received a letter from Viviane Reding, commissioner for the information society and media, who criticized his actions: "It is...very unfortunate that my services were not pre-consulted before your letter to the Ministers of Interior was sent out," reminding him of the commission-backed self-regulating ratings system called PEGI that has operated across the European Union since 2003. The PEGI system of classification, according to Reding's letter, offers "informed adult choice" without censoring content: "This is in line with the Commission's view that measures taken to protect minors and human dignity must be carefully balanced with the fundamental right to freedom of expression as laid down in the Charter on Fundamental Rights of the European Union." On March 7, 2007, a group of MEPs presented a motion for a European Parliament resolution on a ban on the sale and distribution of the game in Europe, along with the creation of a "European Observatory on childhood and minors to be set up to preventively monitor video game content and define a single code of conduct for the sale and distribution of children’s video games." It was also proposed that the game be prohibited from being sold in France as part of an amendment presented by Député Bernard Depierre in the French Parliament, while the Deputy Minister of National Education in Poland, Mirosław Orzechowski, sought to prevent the game from being disseminated by submitting a report to the district prosecutor's office in Śródmieście, Warsaw, although he did not specify which article of the Polish Penal Code was allegedly being violated. At this time, the game had not yet been released in Europe; the public officials suggesting that Rule of Rose be banned had not actually played the game, but had only read about its alleged content or watched the trailer.
505 Games' Australian distributor, Red-Ant, cancelled the game's Australian and New Zealand release, and 505 Games later cancelled the United Kingdom release as a result of complaints by Frattini and other EU officials, and "largely misleading" commentary from the British press, although review copies had already shipped to video game journalists. It was released in the rest of Europe. The Video Standards Council, the British body which had granted the title its 16+ PEGI rating, defended their decision. In response to the press and Frattini's comments, the VSC's Secretary-General, Laurie Hall, stated: "I have no idea where the suggestion of in-game sadomasochism has come from, nor children being buried underground. These are things that have been completely made up. [...] We're not worried about our integrity being called into question, because Mr Frattini's quotes are nonsense." The Council further noted that "there isn't any underage eroticism. And the most violent scene does indeed see one of the young girls scare Jennifer with a rat on a stick. But the rat's actually quite placid towards her and even licks her face."
Reception
The game received mixed reviews, according to video game review aggregator Metacritic. The reviewer for video game magazine Play wrote: "I think everyone should experience this game, especially horror fans, but in order to do so, you're going to have to suffer through times of sheer agony—just like poor, unlucky Jennifer." According to Official UK PlayStation 2 Magazine, the game "[b]lends the stuff of nightmares with stylish sound and graphics. Sadly, the developer should have spent longer on the gameplay." Edge found neither plot nor gameplay appealing: "It’s just a murky brew of meaningless, exploitative dysfunction filling an empty game, and it leaves a bitter taste."
It is generally agreed that the title has an interesting plot, with The A.V. Club observing that "aside from a few deep curtsies and an unlockable Gothic Lolita costume, the characters are more sinister than sexualised". However, the gameplay is widely lambasted as clumsy, archaic, and unrewarding. The press was generally divided upon how much the gameplay detracts from one's ability to enjoy the story itself. GamesRadar described Jennifer as "a cringing, passive non-entity" and stated: "There's no denying that Rule of Rose is extremely pretty, atmospheric and disturbing.... but as an adventure game, Rule of Rose just sort of wilts." Acegamez, on the other hand, not only admired the game's plot but also found the gameplay appealing if slow, "a wonderful psychological thriller that will draw you in with its bizarrely compelling narrative, atmospheric presentation and thoughtful story-based gameplay".
In a retrospective article on survival horror games, GamePro's Michael Cherdchupan listed Rule of Rose as one of the classics of the genre, writing that the game was a work of art that lingered long after playing through; he praised it for its delicate handling of its subject matter and Jennifer's journey as she processes her trauma. IGN listed Rule of Rose as one of the worst horror games created after 2000. While enjoying the "refreshingly adult take on sexual awakening and repressed memories that's consistently unsettling without ever resorting to cheap shock tactics," it criticized the game's "totally broken" combat and "thoroughly excruciating" backtracking, controls, and camera angles.
Because of the limited number of copies published, Rule of Rose has garnered a reputation as one of the more expensive video games to buy second-hand.
Future
In 2021, Tokyo indie game developer Onion Games expressed interest in remastering Rule of Rose. Although they "can't guarantee that any of these initiatives will have more than a 1% chance of happening", they would like to give it a try after remastering a previous title for the Nintendo Switch called Moon.
The Onion Games title Black Bird, although the gameplay is completely different, shares common features of both theme and iconography with Rule of Rose and includes several specific references to it.
Notes
References
External links
2006 video games
505 Games games
Atlus games
Censored video games
Single-player video games
LGBT-related video games
Obscenity controversies in video games
PlayStation 2 games
PlayStation 2-only games
2000s horror video games
Psychological horror games
Sony Interactive Entertainment games
Survival video games
Video game controversies
Video games about dogs
Video games developed in Japan
Video games featuring female protagonists
Video games scored by Yutaka Minobe
Video games set in England
Video games set in 1930
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abi%20Branning
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Abi Branning
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Abi Branning is a fictional character from the BBC soap opera EastEnders, played by Lorna Fitzgerald. She was introduced by executive producer Kate Harwood on 3 July 2006 as an extension to the Branning family, along with father Max (Jake Wood), mother Tanya Branning (Jo Joyner) and older sister Lauren Branning (Madeline Duggan/Jacqueline Jossa). Her storylines involve her friendships and relationships with Ben Mitchell (Charlie Jones/Joshua Pascoe/Harry Reid) and Jay Brown (Jamie Borthwick), her toxic friendship with Babe Smith (Annette Badland), faking a pregnancy so that Ben would not leave her for Paul Coker (Jonny Labey), being a suspect in the murder of Lucy Beale (Hetti Bywater), her affair with Lauren's fiancé, Steven Beale (Aaron Sidwell), and falling pregnant by him.
In September 2017, it was announced that Fitzgerald and Jossa had been axed by executive consultant John Yorke. Abi's exit storyline involved her and Lauren falling from the roof of The Queen Victoria public house on Christmas Day 2017, leading to Abi giving birth prematurely to daughter, also named Abi, and being confirmed brainstem dead in later episodes. Abi's final scenes aired on 19 January 2018 after her life support is withdrawn. The character's funeral took place on 16 February 2018.
For her portrayal as Abi, Fitzgerald was nominated for Best Young Actor at the 2010 Inside Soap Awards, and went on to win Best Dramatic Performance from a Young Actor or Actress at the 2012 British Soap Awards. Kate White of Inside Soap praised her portrayal of Abi, saying that Fitzgerald is the "brightest young star in soap", adding "Abi's destined for great dramatic things". A writer from the Western Mail said that Abi's relationship with Jay Brown (Jamie Borthwick) is "Walford's answer to Romeo and Juliet". However, some critics were less positive, with one saying in 2012 that the audience were "not nearly" seeing as much of the "classic characters" due to the younger cast receiving more screen time.
Storylines
Abi moves to Albert Square with her parents Max Branning (Jake Wood) and Tanya Branning (Jo Joyner), and sister Lauren Branning (Madeline Duggan), where she befriends Ben Mitchell (Charlie Jones). Soon after, when Max's affair with his son Bradley Branning's (Charlie Clements) wife, Stacey Slater (Lacey Turner), is revealed, Max and Tanya separate and eventually divorce. Abi begins to live sporadically with each parent, frequently defending Max to Tanya and Lauren, until Max and Tanya reunite, however Abi leaves with Tanya after learning of Max's financial problems. Abi starts to take an interest in Max's lodger Darren Miller (Charlie G. Hawkins), who is left uncomfortable when she tries to kiss him, telling her she is too young. She later develops a crush on Jay Brown (Jamie Borthwick), and the two begin dating. Jay and Abi cuddle up as they are watching television, but Max believes they are about to have sex, so he throws Jay out and rips Abi's bridesmaid dress to Greg and Tanya's wedding. They go to buy a new one, but they have a car crash on Greg and Tanya's wedding day. They suffer minor injuries and both recover. Despite Abi's insecurities over Jay's friendship with Lola Pearce (Danielle Harold), she and Jay remain together, and eventually Max comes to accept them as a couple.
Jay proposes to Abi and she accepts, but she is faced with a dilemma when she is offered the chance to go to Costa Rica to help with sea turtle conservation. Jay gives Abi an ultimatum, threatening to break up with her if she goes to Costa Rica, but she goes regardless. She returns weeks later and the pair reconcile. Abi meets her cousin Dexter Hartman (Khali Best), not knowing they are related, and this causes Jay to be jealous until the truth of their relationship is revealed. Abi tries to support Lauren (now played by Jacqueline Jossa) with her drinking problem, however, this ends badly when Lauren destroys Abi's revision notes. Max is framed for causing a car crash that leaves Phil Mitchell (Steve McFadden) hospitalised. Abi and Lauren struggle to pay Max's legal costs, as well as their bills. Abi receives her exam results and discovers she has not gained the grades to go to university to become a vet, but Lauren, believing that Abi has passed the exams, throws a party, during which Abi blurts out that she blames Lauren for her poor results because she has an alcohol problem. Abi decides to continue studying, but when Max goes to prison, she has to take a job and struggles to find time for her studies. Max is proven innocent and returns home to support his family. In an argument between Jay and Dexter, Abi discovers that on a holiday, Jay kissed a barmaid. She also finds out that Lola knew and furiously confronts her. However, after a heart-to-heart with Jay, they decide to work through their issues and she fixes things with Dexter and Lola as well. She also takes in a stray dog, Tramp.
Abi's final A Level results come through and she tells everyone that she has got what she needed to get into the University of Liverpool. However, she later confides in Jay that she has been lying, as not to disappoint her family. He encourages her to go through clearing and she gets a position doing a similar course at the University of Bolton. Jay decides to go with Abi. Ben returns from prison and reveals he thinks Jay is in love with Lola, and he confesses this to Abi when she confronts him. He then ends things to stay in Walford. Devastated, she wants to leave for Bolton immediately, but when Max refuses to take her, she drives the car herself, accidentally running over Tramp, killing him; she callously declares that "things die". After her break up with Jay, Abi becomes a much nastier and bitter person. She begins a relationship with Ben (now played by Harry Reid), which is discovered by Emma Summerhayes (Anna Acton) who informs Max of the relationship. Max demands that Abi does not see Ben any more, which Abi refuses to do. After she moves in with him, Ben reveals to her that he might still be gay and is worried he will never get over his homosexuality, but Abi assures him that they will make things work.
Following Ben's arrest for Lucy Beale's (Hetti Bywater) murder, Abi tells Phil that Max assaulted Lucy to get Ben off. Despite being innocent, Max turns himself in and is formally charged while Ben is released. Stacey visits Max, who tells her that he thinks Abi killed Lucy. Stacey confronts Abi, who attacks Stacey, blaming her for her parents' split and Bradley's death. Ben and Abi continue their relationship, but Ben is secretly seeing Paul Coker (Jonny Labey). Babe Smith (Annette Badland) offers Abi work in the pub kitchen, and Abi tells Babe that she is able to turn a blind eye to Ben's homosexuality, as long as he loves her. However, when Abi finds a present that Ben has got for Paul, she realises he has feelings for Paul and confides in Babe, who helps her to publicly announce that she is pregnant. Ben asks Abi to have a termination but then changes his mind, saying he wants the baby. Abi then goes to Babe, panicking because she has lied and is not really pregnant. She decides to tell Ben the truth, but as she is about to do so, he tells her he has caught chlamydia. Abi later tests positive for chlamydia. Babe pushes Abi into Ben as he is pushed by Phil, knocking her to the ground. Babe takes Abi away from the square, and on their return, Abi tells Ben she has had a miscarriage. When she later sees Ben being comforted by Paul, she feels uneasy.
Abi and Babe discover that Ben's half-sister Louise Mitchell (Tilly Keeper) has been using Phil's credit card, so they force her to return everything she has bought. After a spat with Abi, Babe sends Ben a letter, telling him of the fake pregnancy. Louise finds the letter and blackmails Abi, telling her to move away with Ben. Abi tries to persuade Ben into moving but he refuses, saying he needs to be there for alcoholic Phil. Abi accidentally confesses, after which Ben gets drunk and kisses Abi in the pub toilets and starts to undress her, but then drags her into the pub in her underwear and reveals via the karaoke microphone that she made up her pregnancy. Babe emotionally blackmails Abi, forcing her to resign. Abi exposes Babe's secrets to the pub's landlord, Mick Carter (Danny Dyer), so he tells Abi that she can keep her job. Abi locks Babe in the kitchen freezer room as an act of revenge, although Babe frames her sister, Sylvie Carter (Linda Marlowe). Abi is then reinstated at the Vic by a seemingly apologetic Babe but her behaviour, when alone in the kitchen with Abi, is threatening. Babe later leaves Walford after being thrown out by her family, so Abi runs the kitchen alone.
Abi tells Lauren's boyfriend, Steven Beale (Aaron Sidwell), that they would make a good couple during a heart-to-heart. Abi and Steven have an affair and Abi learns that Steven is lying about having a brain tumour so that Lauren will not leave him. Despite being against the idea, Abi does not tell Lauren as Steven promises Abi he is planning to leave Lauren to be with her. Then Abi is stunned by Steven's public marriage proposal to Lauren. Jane overhears Abi and Steven talking about their relationship and confronts them. Abi then discovers she is pregnant by Steven. Abi helps Steven keep up the lie by giving him a brain scan from a dog and animal medication that will give him symptoms of an illness, as well as helping to keep Lauren away from doctor's appointments that Steven has invented. Abi discovers that Ian's restaurant is on fire and goes inside. She finds Jane on the floor struggling to breathe. A pipe falls onto Abi, knocking her unconscious, but Max and Steven soon find her and drag her out. She is taken to hospital with Lauren by her side in the ambulance. At the hospital, Abi tells Steven he is going to be a father. Steven declares his love for her and makes a promise that he will make their relationship work. Steven then dies from injuries inflicted by Max during the fire, leaving an unaware Abi devastated.
Out of jealousy that Lauren is getting all the attention, Abi tries to tell Lauren about her pregnancy, but Lauren angrily mistakes this as gloating about her own abortion. Upset at the accusation, Abi says that she wishes Lauren died instead and that she never deserved Steven. Steven's tumour lie is revealed, so Abi attends Steven's funeral as the sole mourner and declares her love. Abi is fired from her job at the vets when they have CCTV evidence of her stealing medication. She asks Mick to extend her working hours at the pub, but he makes her redundant as they need to save money. Lauren eventually learns the truth about Abi and Steven's affair when she catches Abi wearing her wedding dress. Lauren is disgusted to learn that Abi is pregnant with Steven's baby, but over time, Lauren becomes more supportive.
Abi goes away, and on her return, is confused when people are showing hatred towards Max, unaware that he was involved in a plan to redevelop Albert Square, including turning business into luxury flats and evicting people from their homes and places of work. Abi and Lauren discover that Max knows Abi is pregnant; Lauren disowns him while Abi tries to offer support, but he insults her. However, they later make amends. On Christmas Day, Tanya returns to take Lauren and Abi away from Walford, revealing that Max killed Steven and tried to kill Jane. Lauren and Abi reject Max. Max goes to the roof of the Queen Vic, planning to jump, so Lauren and Abi climb on to the ledge to try and stop him. As Max agrees to his daughter's pleas to not jump, Lauren slips on the wet surface and Abi grabs her hand to stop her falling; both sisters fall off to the ground. Still alive, they are taken to hospital, where an ultrasound shows Abi's baby is alive. Abi has a CT scan and Lauren has surgery. Lauren recovers but Dr. Harding (Nick Waring) tells Max that Abi is brainstem dead and has no chance of regaining consciousness. Abi's baby is delivered via cesarean section. Max is hopeful that Abi will recover and does not tell Lauren the truth, but she slaps Max when she finds out. Max obtains a court order to stop Abi's life support being withdrawn and plans to take her to the US for a treatment that will cost £2,000,000, but Harding urges Max to do the dignified thing for Abi as she is already dead and as Abi is not a minor, he has no legal right to take her. Max names her baby Abi Branning, in her memory.
Character creation and development
Introduction and characterisation
Abi was introduced into the series in 2006, by executive producer Kate Harwood. The character and her casting was announced on 25 May 2006. She and her immediate family, father Max (Wood), mother Tanya (Joyner) and older sister Lauren (Duggan, recast to Jossa in 2010), are an extension of the Branning family, who have appeared in EastEnders since 1993. Fitzgerald, in her first major television role, began filming for the soap in May 2006 and made her first on-screen appearance in July. Fitzgerald's mother commented on her daughter's casting: "Personally, I feel I want to show how proud we are of her and to thank everyone who has prayed for her and helped her in any way. At first, it is just the look they go for. Then it is more intensive and she had to read from a script. By the second audition, she was still up against 60 or 70 people. You start thinking about it when she gets to the third audition, but when the agent rang up and said she had got the part it was an overwhelming feeling. You don't know what it means until that point". Fitzgerald was offered the part about three months after her final audition. As Fitzgerald was only 10 years old when she got the part, she was required to balance her filming requirements with schooling in Northampton, and learning lines. In 2012, she told Inside Soap that she thought she had messed up her audition, and did not realise how big the show was until she was older. In 2014, she told BBC Radio 1 that when she met Wood and Joyner, her on-screen parents, she realised it did not matter that she had messed up her lines in her last audition, because she looked like them both. Fitzgerald was required to cry on her first day of filming, and admitted in 2014 that this was embarrassing, and she was unable to produce tears, but was "just making noises". Fitzgerald was chaperoned by her mother until she was 16.
Abi has been described by the official EastEnders website as the family's "golden girl" compared to Lauren, hinting that she knows how to get her own way. She has been described as "bubbly" and "self-assured" with a nose for mischief. She has also been described as having the biggest heart in Walford, bringing out the best in the people around her. Jane Simon of the Daily Mirror said that Abi is a "real soft touch". Jon Wise from The People said that after Abi received a makeover in 2010, she "actually turned out to be quite pretty". In 2012, Fitzgerald told Inside Soap Laura-Jane Tyler that Abi has grown up in her first six years on screen, and is now sensible, "like a mother hen" and has had to mature quickly because of the dramatic situations she has been involved in. Tyler added that Abi is the most level-headed and sensible member of the Branning family and "puts her [family] to shame with her mature approach to [their problems]."
Early development
Abi's earlier storylines consist of her parents fighting for custody of her and her siblings, being injured in a collision with Deano Wicks' (Di Angelo) car and helping her friend Ben (Jones) with his abuse from stepmother Stella Crawford (Thompson) In February 2011, Abi was involved in a car accident with Max and would suffer severe injuries after their car collides with a lorry on the way to Tanya's wedding to her new partner Greg (Booth). The crash scenes were filmed on 6 March 2011 and aired on 14 April 2011. After these minor storylines, Joyner said that Fitzgerald should be involved in more complex storylines in 2012. She said, "I think it's going to be an exciting year for Lorna. She's been a natural on the show ever since she was younger, and I think she's one of our best actresses. What's lovely about this year is that she'll be doing her GCSEs, and then once that's out of the way, she can get something that's a bit heavier and a bit bigger. She'll be old enough to work longer hours, so I think they'd be mad if they didn't give her something to sink her teeth into at some point this year".
In November 2010, after sister Lauren was recast to Jossa, Jossa stated that she enjoys working with Fitzgerald, adding the two have a lot in common. Jossa, in 2012, wanted Lauren and Abi to bond more. She commented: "I think realistically they would when they're going through a family problem like this. It would bring the family a little bit closer. I think they are quite close already and they have a lot of family banter! They may not like each other as people, but they love each other as family". In December 2012, Fitzgerald conducted her first magazine interview and spoke of a storyline where Abi comforts Lauren over a relationship break up, saying "It's nice to see the little [sister] taking care of the bigger one."
Jay Brown and Ben Mitchell
In March 2011, Abi starts a relationship with Jay (Jamie Borthwick). Borthwick admitted that he is enjoying filming Jay and Abi's relationship. Speaking of Jay and Abi's relationship, Borthwick told Inside Soap, "I think Abi and Jay are a good couple," he said. "Jay's a right one – he's already had a crack at Abi's sister Lauren and now he's going for the younger one. He's got an eye for the Branning women". Fitzgerald said that Jay and Abi are "cute together" but she cringes at Abi because she is "lovey-dovey". The couple split in 2014 and Abi begins a relationship with Ben, knowing that he is gay but dismissing this and branding it a "phase". Speaking of his role, newcomer Harry Reid stated that Ben would "manipulate" Abi in his attempts to prove that he is straight.
Departure
On 10 September 2017, it was announced that Fitzgerald had been axed from the show by executive consultant John Yorke, along with Jacqueline Jossa. A spokesperson said: "We can confirm Jacqueline and Lorna will be leaving. They have been wonderful to work with and we wish them all the best for the future." Fitzgerald's final episode was broadcast on 19 January 2018, in which the character dies. At the end of the episode, instead of the usual closing title sequence, the image, focused on Abi's face, fades to black and no theme music is played.
Reception
Fitzgerald was nominated for the "Best Young Actor" at the 2010 Inside Soap Awards for her portrayal of Abi though lost out to Coronation Street'''s, Alex Bain, who plays Simon Barlow. Fitzgerald won the award for "Best Dramatic Performance from a Young Actor or Actress" at the 2012 British Soap Awards 2012 an award which Tony Stewart from the Daily Mirror said was "well deserved". Fitzgerald said she did not expect to win the award. In January 2012, Kate White of Inside Soap praised both Fitzgerald and her character, saying "In Fitzgerald, EastEnders has the brightest young star in soap. The rest of her family are getting all the juicy stuff right now, but Abi's destined for great dramatic things. Mark our words". Her colleague, Steven Murphy, said Inside Soap had "long admired" Fitzgerald.
Stewart said, due to Max's past events with his family, what Abi might say when Max objects to her relationship with Jay, "It won't be her setting a gerbil on him", calling her a "goody-two-shoes". A writer from the Western Mail said that the Branning/Mitchell Feud makes Abi and Jay feel like "Walford's answer to Romeo and Juliet". Two writers from the Daily Mirror mocked the storyline where Abi turns down the trip to Costa Rica. One said, "An extreme case of soap agoraphobia as brilliant Abi sensibly turns down the chance to spend eight weeks in the tropical paradise of Costa Rica. But in the tiny micro-world of EastEnders, even the three-mile odyssey from Walford to the West End is considered an epic journey. So Central America is simply out of the question" with another saying, "Abi was a little girl arranging tearful funerals for her pets. But now she's a young teenager, secretly engaged to boyfriend Jay and planning to run away together. He then gives Abi an ultimatum: him or her trip to Costa Rica. Best pass her the suncream, then". However, Abi, along with the younger members of the cast were thought to be the blame of declining ratings for the show; "In the last two months, viewers have seen lots of Lauren, Lucy Beale (Hetti Bywater), Whitney Dean (Shona McGarty), Fatboy (Ricky Norwood), Ben Jay, Abi and Anthony Moon (Matt Lapinskas) – but not nearly so much of the classic characters". Inside Soap noted that Abi and Jay's relationship was popular with viewers.
The 2016 storyline in which Abi lies that she has suffered a miscarriage to cover up a pregnancy lie was criticised by Zoe Clark-Coates, co-founder and CEO of The Mariposa Trust, who said, "To regularly see TV shows using fake miscarriages as light entertainment could make people question genuine losses." In August 2017, Fitzgerald was longlisted for "Best Bad Girl" at the 2017 Inside Soap Awards, while she and Aaron Sidwell (Steven Beale) were longlisted for "Best Partnership". Fitzgerald made the viewer-voted shortlist in the "Best Bad Girl" category, but lost out to Gillian Kearney, who portrays Emma Barton in Emmerdale. The scene where Lauren and Abi fell from the roof of The Queen Vic was awarded "Scene of the Year" at the 2018 British Soap Awards, tying with Doctors who also won the same award for "The Bollywood Proposal". Abi's death was nominated for "Most devastating Soap Death" at the 2018 Digital Spy'' Reader Awards; it came in seventh place with 6.4% of the total votes.
See also
List of EastEnders characters (2006)
List of soap opera villains
"Who Killed Lucy Beale?"
References
External links
EastEnders characters
Television characters introduced in 2006
Child characters in television
Fictional receptionists
Fictional waiting staff
British female characters in television
Female villains
Teenage characters in television
Branning family
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeffrey%20Boam
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Jeffrey Boam
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Jeffrey David Boam (November 30, 1946 – January 26, 2000) was an American screenwriter and film producer. He is known for writing the screenplays for The Dead Zone, Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade, Innerspace, The Lost Boys, and Lethal Weapon 2 and 3. Boam's films had a cumulative gross of over US$1 billion. He was educated at Sacramento State College and UCLA. Boam died of heart failure on January 26, 2000, at age 53.
Early life and education
Boam was born in Rochester, New York. He grew up in Fair Lawn, New Jersey, and his family moved to Sacramento, California, when he was 11. His father was an aeronautical engineer. He developed a taste for action films by watching World War II film on television as a child. As a teenager, he saw the film Tom Jones, which he said "made the greatest impression" on him, ultimately making him "want to be in movies." He attended Sacramento State College, earning a B.A. in art in 1969. While interested in the film industry, he initially thought that his art training would lead him to a career in art direction or production design. Not wanting to "serve in the ranks", he decided that directing would be most satisfying. He entered graduate school at UCLA film school, hoping to start a career in directing. He couldn't afford to pay for his own film, processing, and equipment. But he did own a typewriter, so he took a writing course and prepared to study screenwriting instead of directing. At UCLA, he took classes under Richard Walter. Boam took an advanced screenwriting class taught by William Froug. He decided to "target" Froug, hoping to impress the writing teacher into accepting him to be a directed studies student. Boam was impressed by Froug's success, and wanted one-on-one help. He said, "I just knew that Bill could help me, but I needed more than the slightly impersonal, two-hour-a-week instruction of the class." He gave Froug two screenplays for review, but the writing teacher wasn't impressed with either of them. This didn't deter Boam, who persisted. Boam told Froug, "Well, I'll just have to write better." Froug relented and started mentoring him, and said that over the semesters Boam got "better and better, but ... was still struggling." The two collaborated on a screenplay called Johnny, about the bank robber John Dillinger. On the day the screenplay was finished, they learned that director John Milius was starting production on Dillinger, destroying their hopes of selling their script as a feature. However, their script was bought under a one-year option for $10,000 by producer Edward Lewis, who sold it to NBC as a possible television movie. In the end, the screenplay was never produced.
Boam graduated from UCLA in 1973, with a Master of Fine Arts degree. He got a job as a film booker for Paramount Pictures, where he kept track of film prints and made sure the movies were distributed to the correct theaters. All the while, he was writing scripts, trying to land a screenwriting job. Of the work at Paramount, Boam said, "I was ... in the worst kind of Siberia in Hollywood." He switched from Paramount to the film distribution office at 20th Century Fox, where he earned $200 a week. In 1976, Froug helped him get an agent, and some of his scripts were shopped around Hollywood. He got a flurry of meetings with film studio executives and producers, eventually meeting producer Tony Bill. Bill offered to pay Boam the same $200 per week he was making at Fox, but instead write screenplays. Bill's stipulation was that he get a free option on whatever was written. Before Boam entered into that arrangement, one of his scripts was optioned by director-producer Ulu Grosbard. This became Boam's first Hollywood writing job.
Career
Straight Time
Ulu Grosbard took on the directing job of the film Straight Time, after its original director, actor Dustin Hoffman, dropped out to focus on starring in the lead role. The film, based on the novel No Beast So Fierce by Edward Bunker, is about a thief who is released from prison and tries to live a straight life. Boam was asked to rewrite the script, and he quit his job at Fox to work with Grosbard. He received writing credit for the film, along with Bunker and Alvin Sargent.
The Dead Zone
As a film adaptation of Stephen King's 1979 novel The Dead Zone was being developed by Lorimar, producer Carol Baum gave the book to Boam, and asked him to write a screenplay. "I saw it had great possibilities and agreed to do it," Boam said. Boam developed a script with director Stanley Donen, who left the project before the film reached production at Lorimar. The company eventually closed its film division after a series of box office failures, and soon after, producer Dino de Laurentiis bought the rights to the novel. He initially disliked Boam's screenplay and asked King to adapt his own novel. De Laurentiis reportedly then rejected King's script as "involved and convoluted"; however, David Cronenberg, who ultimately directed the film, said that he was the one who decided not to use the script, finding it "needlessly brutal". De Laurentiis rejected a second script by Andrei Konchalovsky, eventually returning to Boam. The film was finally on track to be made when de Laurentiis hired a producer, Debra Hill, to work with Cronenberg and Boam.
Boam abandoned King's parallel story structure for The Dead Zone'''s screenplay, turning the plot into separate episodes. Boam told writer Tim Lucas in 1983, "King's book is longer than it needed to be. The novel sprawls and it's episodic. What I did was use that episodic quality, because I saw The Dead Zone as a triptych." His script was revised and condensed four times by Cronenberg, who eliminated large portions of the novel's story, including plot points about Johnny Smith having a brain tumor. Cronenberg, Boam, and Hill had script meetings to revise the screenplay page by page. Boam's "triptych" in the screenplay surrounds three acts: the introduction of Johnny Smith before his car accident and after he awakes from a coma, a story about Smith assisting a sheriff to track down the Castle Rock Killer, and finally Johnny deciding to confront the politician Stillson. Boam said that he enjoyed writing character development for Smith, having him struggle with the responsibility of his psychic abilities, and ultimately give up his life for the greater good. "It was this theme that made me like the book, and I particularly enjoyed discovering it in what was essentially a genre piece, a work of exploitation," he said. In Boam's first draft of the screenplay, Johnny does not die at the end, but rather has a vision about the Castle Rock Killer, who is still alive and escaped from prison. Cronenberg insisted that this "trick ending" be revised. Boam submitted the final draft of the screenplay on November 8, 1982.
King is reported to have told Cronenberg that changes the director and Boam made to the story "improved and intensified the power of the narrative." In an interview with film critic Christopher Hicks, Boam said that the success of the film is generally credited to Cronenberg, and that King would not give Boam credit for writing a good script. He said, "It's hard for him to admit that he's not the one who could crack that book. But I think that movie holds together as a real movie. It's not just some kind of weird concoction of Stephen King's."
Writing for Warner Bros.
Pleased with Boam's early work on Straight Time and a script called The Good Guys, Warner Bros. signed him to an exclusive contract as a staff writer. He was frequently asked to rewrite and polish scripts for "high concept" films with commercial potential. His contract with Warner Bros. was for $3 million, over three years, and had a great deal of flexibility built into it. He was able to pick and choose the projects he wanted to work on, and was able to decide on the rewrite he was offered. His contract also allowed for the possibility of producing and directing projects. His first producing project was for a science-fiction comedy called Space Case, about a Los Angeles detective who specializes in locating people abducted by aliens. The screenplay for Space Case was developed by Boam and screenwriter Richard Outten, and written by Outten. Despite skepticism by Warner Bros. executives, Boam encouraged Outten to finish the screenplay. However, they were beaten to production by another film with a similar story, Men in Black, and Space Case was never made.
Innerspace
When producer Peter Guber was developing Innerspace, a film about an explorer who is miniaturized and sent into another man's body, he hired a young writer named Chip Proser to write a script for the story. Director Joe Dante thought the story was too much like Fantastic Voyage, and didn't want to direct it. Guber later took the story to Warner Bros. with executive Bruce Berman. Director John Carpenter was briefly attached to the project. Warner Bros. asked Boam to rewrite the script, but he initially refused. "I balked at it," Boam said, "I didn't even think the premise had much merit." Carpenter convinced Boam there was a good story to tell, and Boam wrote a draft. He said, "I took the premise and basically invented everything else." Eventually Carpenter left the project to direct Big Trouble in Little China, and Dante joined as director. Dante said that Boam's screenplay was "a wonderful script ... completely the opposite of the first. It was ... imaginative, funny, clever ..." Dante was pleased that the new script was not a "rip off" of Fantastic Voyage. He said that although both Boam and Proser share writing credit for the film, it was Boam "who really wrote the picture." The script was given to Steven Spielberg, who liked it so much, he agreed to produce the film.
The Lost Boys
The original screenplay for The Lost Boys, written by James Jeremias and Janice Fischer, was a more innocent vision involving children in a Peter Pan-like plot. Its producer Richard Donner wanted to increase the appeal to teenagers. Boam was requested by director Joel Schumacher to rewrite the screenplay, hoping to "sex up the plot and up the ante on laughs and the violent disposal of vamps".
Funny Farm
In 1986, actor Chevy Chase bought the rights to Jay Cronley's novel Funny Farm. The story is a comedy about a couple from New York City that move to a small New England town, and the quirky troubles and encounters they have. Chase and his business partner Bruce Bodner hired Boam to adapt the book for film. The three spent several weeks developing the script. The screenplay was originally episodic, mirroring the structure of the novel. When George Roy Hill was hired as director, he insisted a new script be written, with a more definitive plot. Boam, Chase, and Bodner then spent the remainder of the year rewriting the screenplay.
Lethal Weapon filmsLethal Weapon was written by Shane Black, and was released in the spring of 1987. A buddy-cop story, it starred Mel Gibson as Martin Riggs, a suicidal detective who uses crazed antics to deal with criminals. He is paired with Roger Murtaugh (played by Danny Glover), a veteran detective with a traditional home-life. Boam was hired to make some changes on the script, after the producers found parts of it too grim. Though he contributed some scenes, he is uncredited on the screenplay. For the sequel, Lethal Weapon 2, Black submitted a script, but it was rejected by the film's producers as "too dark and violent". In Black's original script, the Martin Riggs character dies. Boam was hired again, this time to completely rewrite the sequel. He gained widespread notice for writing the screenplays for Lethal Weapon 2 and later for Lethal Weapon 3. Boam was crediteded somewhat unusually for Lethal Weapon 3; He is credited twice in the 'screenplay by' credits. This is because he did one draft by himself (granting him the first credit) and a second draft collaborating with Robert Mark Kamen (granting him the second credit). In this rare scenario, Boam was hired to rewrite his own script with a second writer. After receiving the unusual writing credits, the advertising department assumed it was a misprint and produced posters with the credits "Story by Jeffrey Boam, Screenplay by Jeffrey Boam and Robert Mark Kamen". After a few of the posters had been sent out, the WGA contacted the department, telling them that the initial credits were the correct ones, and ordering the posters to be recalled and destroyed. A few still remain in circulation, however.
Indiana Jones and the Last CrusadeIndiana Jones and the Last Crusade, the third film in the popular Indiana Jones series, went through a flimsy scripting process before Boam was hired to write a draft. As early as 1984, George Lucas was playing with the concept of having the fictional archeologist-adventurer encounter the fabled Holy Grail, the cup said to have been used by Jesus Christ during the Last Supper. Director Steven Spielberg rejected Lucas's script outlines, disliking the Grail idea. Screenwriter Diane Thomas wrote a haunted house story for Indiana Jones, but Spielberg said that after producing Poltergeist, he didn't want to do a similar film. Lucas hired Chris Columbus to write a draft for the film, and he submitted Indiana Jones and the Lost City of Sun Wu Kung, a story with evil spirits, ghosts, and demons. Again, Spielberg rejected the story as not believable enough. Lucas convinced him to go back to the Holy Grail idea, and Menno Meyjes was hired to develop another screenplay. The new script focused on the Arthurian legend aspect of the Holy Grail. Although the script was not to the liking of Lucas and Spielberg, it had elements that eventually became part of the finished film: the Holy Grail, and the introduction of Indiana Jones' father, Henry Jones Sr.
Spielberg suggested that Boam write the next draft, and Lucas agreed to it. Boam felt some nervousness going into the process. He joked that "the battlefield was littered with writers before I came on to the scene. There were four or five before me. Each writer had their script next to them covered with blood." Boam said that when Spielberg called to offer him the job, Spielberg said "something like, 'You wanna get real rich?' and I said, 'Yeah, why?' and he said, 'I think you should do the next Indiana Jones movie.'" Boam is reported to have replied to Spielberg's offer by saying, "I just don't know why you didn't come to me before." Boam spent two weeks filled with eight-hour days working with Lucas to develop the story. The two blocked out all other commitments to create the story, building it "beat by beat". Lucas already knew many of the set pieces that were to be in the movie. During the two-week story conference, Boam worked to incorporate it all into the new narrative. "Jeff was very collaborative," Lucas said, adding, "He'd try to include both Steven's ideas and my ideas, and tried to get what we wanted done."
Spielberg liked the story outline presented by Lucas and Boam, but wanted a first draft before making a decision to move forward. He was planning on directing the film Rain Man, but an Indiana Jones project would take precedence. Boam signed a contract on April 14, 1987. He wrote his first draft that summer, and turned it in on September 15, with another revision on September 30. It was at that time that Spielberg made a commitment to direct the Indiana Jones film over Rain Man, based on reading one of Boam's unfinished drafts. Spielberg said, "We licked it with Boam". Spielberg brought actor Sean Connery in to portray Henry Jones Sr., and Connery provided substantial input into the character, who Lucas originally conceived as an eccentric professor—"an Obi-Wan Kenobi type." Boam wanted to expand the father character, making him more central to the plot. He said that in Meyjes' original script, "the father was sort of a MacGuffin ... they didn't find the father until the very end. I said to George, 'It doesn't make sense to find the father at the end. Why don't they find him in the middle?'" He wanted the father-son relationship to be the main point, rather than the Grail. With the input of Spielberg and Connery, Boam altered the senior Jones from "a somewhat crotchety old character" to a man with more "vitality". Connery wanted the father to have a prior sexual relationship to the same female archeologist that Indiana Jones sleeps with. Boam incorporated this into the script, with Indiana's reaction to learning that he and his father slept with the same woman defused through humor. Boam said, "He's a bit humbled and surprised that his dad would be able to attract this young attractive woman ... but he isn't appalled by it."
Boam, who was raised Catholic, used many religious themes and metaphors in his script for the film. In preparing the story, he studied grail literature, but ultimately invented new mythology. He made the grail a symbol for faith. He said, "I guess the major given of faith is that it can't be proved otherwise you don't need faith. So that is why I created the idea that the grail can't be removed (from its hiding place). You can find the grail, but you can't really prove that you found it." When Indiana Jones finally discovers the grail hidden among decoys, its knight guardian tells him that he will die if he drinks from the wrong cup. Boam said that this scene is a metaphor for "the one true God vs. false gods". He worried that the film's religious themes would face criticism from the general audience, as well as religious scholars. He was relieved when the criticism didn't appear, saying, "Nobody working on this movie was a religious scholar ... I was wondering if the numerous allusions to Christ in Indiana Jones were going to put people off. I was afraid the kids in the audience would think it was not a very hip subject matter."Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade was a hit film, earning over $474 million worldwide.
Television
Boam met writer Carlton Cuse through producer Bernard Schwartz. According to Cuse, Boam approached him after his work on the television series Crime Story and asked that the two form a writing partnership. The two had plans to write original films together, but they eventually developed the stories and scripts for Lethal Weapon 2, Lethal Weapon 3, and Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade. They formed a production company, Boam/Cuse Productions, and produced a television pilot based on The Witches of Eastwick. NBC requested the pilot in 1992, and it starred Catherine Mary Stewart and Julia Campbell. They also planned a comedy series called Cat Canyon. With Cuse, Boam co-created and produced the series The Adventures of Brisco County, Jr. featuring Bruce Campbell, which premiered on the Fox Network in 1993. It was the only series Boam wrote that made it on to television.
Boam wrote and directed a 1993 episode of HBO's Tales From the Crypt, entitled "Creep Course", based on the EC comic Haunt of Fear number 23–1. The episode's story involves an archeology professor who enlists the aid of a jock in his class to trick an unsuspecting female student into becoming a human sacrifice to a mummy. In the end, she turns the tables on them, and they become victims of the mummy instead. Boam told EON Magazine in 1996 that he did not enjoy the directing experience, finding the work days too long and labor-intensive.
The Phantom and late scripts
Paramount hired Boam in 1992 to write a script for The Phantom, based on Lee Falk's comic strip character, with Joe Dante to direct. The box office failure of The Shadow, a similarly-themed period adventure, put the film on hold for several years. Boam's original script was intended to be a funny spoof of The Phantom. The studio restarted the film with Simon Wincer as director, who had Boam make changes to the original script, including a decision to keep the screenplay close in style and tone to the source material. Dante said that "nobody seemed to notice it was written to be funny, so it was—disastrously—played straight."
Boam worked on screenplay drafts for a feature-length movie based on the DC Comics World War II hero Sgt. Rock, which was not produced.
Writing style
Boam's action film scripts are character-driven and mixed with humor. He told The New York Times that he had no problem writing a contrived plot in service of character interactions. "Plot tries to engage intellectually, but that's not how an audience responds," he said, adding, "I want emotional reaction, not intellectual engagement. An audience wants to be wound up because it enjoys the pop at the end when it's liberated." Writing in Scr(i)pt magazine, Ray Morton said that Boam's scripts "showed a strong feel for genre and story construction as well as a solid aptitude for creating robust, well-developed characters, and clever, witty dialogue."
He rarely outlined a script, preferring to finish a story in his head, and then write the draft. Boam said, "I don't have any kind of routine, where I do notes or outlines or character sketches. I just try and live with it in my head, until it's ready to be spat out." He wrote every weekday, from 10:00 am to 6:00 pm, without taking breaks.
Personal life
Boam lived in the San Fernando Valley with his wife, Paula, a photographer and daughter of a Paramount Pictures vice president. They had three children, Tessa, Mia, and Dashiell. USA Today described Boam as "low-key", and The New York Times called him "a polite, soft-spoken family man without a trace of the frenzied energy of his films." Film critic Christopher Hicks said that Boam could be unusually candid, but that "Boam is simply Boam—a reclusive writer rather than a celebrity worried about his image. And what you see is what you get, if perhaps a bit outspoken and opinionated." He died on January 26, 2000, due to a heart failure from a rare lung disease.
Filmography
Straight Time (with Edward Bunker) (1978)
The Dead Zone (1983)
Innerspace (with Chip Proser, 1987)
The Lost Boys (with Janice Fischer and James Jeremias, 1987)
Funny Farm (1988)
Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade (1989)
Lethal Weapon 2 (1989)
Lethal Weapon 3 (with Robert Mark Kamen, 1992)The Witches of Eastwick (with Michael Cristofer and Carlton Cuse, 1992, TV)
The Adventures of Brisco County, Jr. (also co-creator and executive producer, with Carlton Cuse, 1993, TV)
Tales from the Crypt, episode No. 61, "Creep Course" (1993) (TV, also director)
The Phantom'' (1996, also co-producer)
References
External links
1946 births
2000 deaths
American male screenwriters
Film producers from New York (state)
People from Fair Lawn, New Jersey
UCLA Film School alumni
20th-century American businesspeople
Businesspeople from Rochester, New York
Writers from Rochester, New York
California State University, Sacramento alumni
Screenwriters from New York (state)
Screenwriters from New Jersey
Film producers from New Jersey
Hugo Award-winning writers
20th-century American male writers
20th-century American screenwriters
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special%20education%20in%20the%20United%20States
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Special education in the United States
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Special education in the United States enables students with exceptional learning needs to access resources through special education programs. These programs did not always exist. "The idea of excluding students with any disability from public school education can be traced back to 1893, when the Massachusetts Supreme Court expelled a student merely due to poor academic ability". This exclusion would be the basis of education for all individuals with special needs for years to come. In 1954, Brown v. Board of Education sparked the belief that the right to a public education applies to all individuals regardless of race, gender, or disability. Finally, special education programs in the United States were made mandatory in 1975 when the United States Congress passed the Education for All Handicapped Children Act (EAHCA) "(sometimes referred to using the acronyms EAHCA or EHA, or Public Law (PL) 94-142) was enacted by the United States Congress in 1975, in response to discriminatory treatment by public educational agencies against students with disabilities." The EAHCA was later modified to strengthen protections to students with disabilities and renamed the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). IDEA requires states to provide special education and related services consistent with federal standards as a condition of receiving federal funds.
IDEA entitles every student to a free and appropriate public education (FAPE) in the least restrictive environment (LRE). To ensure a FAPE, a team of professionals from the local educational agency and the student's parents to identify the student's unique educational needs, develop annual goals for the student, and determine the placement, program modification, testing accommodations, counseling, and other special services which meet the student's needs. Parents are supposed to be equal participants in this process as well as others that are knowledgeable about the child, the meaning of the data collected through the evaluation, and all placement options. The student's plan, to include the above items, is recorded in a written Individualized Education Program (IEP). The child's placement is typically determined by the annual assessment, based on the child's IEP, and as close in proximity to the child's home as possible. The school is required to develop and implement an IEP that meets the standards of federal and state educational agencies. The state department of education oversees its schools to make sure they are compliant to every student's IEP. If schools fail to comply to the child's IEP, the school district may be put on trial. Parents have the option of refusing Special Education services for their child if they choose.
Under IDEA, students with disabilities are entitled to receive special education services through their local school district from age 3 to age 18 or 21. To receive special education services, a student must demonstrate a disability in one of 13 specific categories, including autism, developmental disability, specific learning disability, intellectual impairment, emotional and/or behavioral disability, intellectual disability, speech and language disability, deaf-blind, visual impairment, hearing impairment, orthopedic or physical impairment, other health impaired (including attention deficit disorder), multiple disabilities and traumatic brain injury. Depending on the students' individual needs, they may be included, mainstreamed, or placed in a special school, and/or may receive many specialized services in separate classrooms. In addition to academic goals, the goals documented in the IEP may address self-care, social skills, physical, speech, and vocational training. The program placement is an integral part of the process and typically takes place during the IEP meeting.
Free Appropriate Public Education (FAPE)
A Free Appropriate Public Education means special education and related services that:
Are provided at public expense, under public supervision and direction, and without charge,
Meet state requirements and the requirements of federal regulations
Include an appropriate preschool, elementary school, or secondary school education in the State involved, and
Comply with a lawful Individual/Individualized Education Program
See 34 CFR 300.17
Least restrictive environment
The least restrictive environment is defined as "educating students with disabilities to the maximum extent appropriate with students without disabilities. It specifies that the removal of learners from the general education environment may occur only when the nature or severity of the student's disability precludes satisfactory instruction in general education classes, even with supplementary aids and services.
The least restrictive environment (LRE) mandate requires that all students in special education be educated with typical peers to the greatest extent possible, while still providing FAPE. The LRE requirement is intended to prevent unnecessary segregation of students with disabilities and is based on Congress' finding students with disabilities tend to have more success when they remain with or have access to typical peers. More students with disabilities are being educated in regular education classrooms. Up to 95% of students with disabilities spend at least part of their day in regular education classrooms 64% of Special Education students spend their day in a regular classroom.[4].
Although students should be educated in their LRE according to the law, there is something else we have to explore when it comes to a student's LRE. A student's behavior is key to the LRE. If the behavior is not appropriate in that LRE, then it can be addressed with restrictions and (BIP) Behavior Intervention Plan. A Behavior Intervention Plan is a plan that is based on the results of a functional behavioral assessment (FBA) and, at minimum, includes a description of the problem behavior, global and specific hypothesis as to why the problem behavior occurs, and intervention strategies that include positive behavior supports and services to address the behavior. School Systems must allow one of the following persons to write and train teachers on the plan, before implementation in the classroom. This plan will have to be merged with the IEP to ensure a successful learning environment.
Related services
Special education-related services include speech and language therapy, occupational therapy, and physical therapy. Certified orientation and mobility specialists, teachers of the visually impaired and board-certified behavior analysts, and music therapists may service students deemed eligible. Music therapy is a somewhat new related service, and it may not be widely accessible across the country. Services can be rendered in individual or small group sessions, in the general education classroom, or simply as a consult between the service provider and other team members. Each related service provider on the team must include goals in the IEP as well as specific time allocated to the student.
Setting for individualized services
Most recently, many schools are incorporating inclusive classrooms in which both a general education and special education teacher "co-teach." Together both educators work as a team to deliver instruction while implementing the legal modifications and accommodations of the special needs students in the class.
If a student is not able to learn in a fully inclusive situation, the special education team may decide to try the student in a more restrictive setting, usually partial inclusion. As the name implies, partial inclusion is when the student with disabilities participates in the general education setting for part of the day and receives the bulk of academic instruction in a pull-out classroom, such as the resource room, with the special education teacher or other staff.
Some students require life-skills-based academics due to the severity of their disabilities. Such students are usually assigned to a self-contained classroom where they will spend at least 60% of their school day working directly with the special education staff. These students may or may not participate in the general education classroom with typical peers.
If a student is unable to function within the general education classroom and/or the special education classroom, the team's next step is to consider placing the student at a school specializing in the education of children with extreme disabilities. The trend during the 1990s was to move away from this model, as previous research pointed to academic and behavioral growth among these students when taught via individualized instruction within the general setting.
If the student has a very severe health condition or is not able to attend school for some other reason, they will receive instruction at home. A special education teacher, staff, and related service providers go to the student's home to deliver instruction.
The highest level of restrictive placement is institutionalization. When the student's needs are such that he or she cannot function in any of the less restrictive environments, residential placement must be considered by the team. Very few students in the United States today are in residential placement. The goal is usually to get the student to a point where they are able to return to the public school campus, if at all possible.
History in the US
Until the passage of PL94-142 in 1975, American schools educated only one out of five children with disabilities. More than 1 million students were refused access to public schools and another 3.5 million received little or no effective instruction. Many states had laws that explicitly excluded children with certain types of disabilities, including children who were blind, deaf, and children labeled "emotionally disturbed" or "mentally retarded."
In the 1950s and 1960s, family associations began forming and advocating for the rights of children with disabilities. In response, the Federal government began to allocate funds to develop methods of working with children with disabilities and passed several pieces of legislation that supported developing and implementing programs and services to meet their needs and those of their families. Two laws provided training for professionals and teachers who worked with students with "mental retardation" ( PL 85–926 in 1958 and PL 86–158 in 1959). In 1961, the Teachers of the Deaf Act (PL 87-276) provided for training of teachers to work with the deaf or hard of hearing. In 1965, the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (PL 89–10) and the State Schools Act (PL 89-313) granted funds to states to help educate children with disabilities. In 1968, the Handicapped Children's Early Education Assistance Act of 1968 (PL 90-538) funded early childhood intervention for children with disabilities. Several landmark court decisions established the responsibility of states to educate children with disabilities (in particular, Pennsylvania Association for Retarded Citizens (PARC) v. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania (1971) and Mills v. Board of Education of the District of Columbia (1972)).
Rehabilitation Act of 1973
Section 504 of the 1973 Rehabilitation Act guaranteed civil rights for disabled people in the context of federally funded institutions or any program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance. It required accommodations in affected schools for disabled people including access to buildings and structures and improved integration into society. Act 504 applies to all people throughout their lifetimes, not just the span of 3–21 years. A person with a 504 plan does not have to have an educational disability. The spirit of 504 is to level the playing field for people with disabilities and is about access.
Education for All Handicapped Children's Act of 1975
In 1975, the Education for All Handicapped Children Act (EHA) Public Law 94-142 established the right of children with disabilities to receive a free, appropriate public education and provided funds to enable state and local education agencies to comply with the new requirements. The act stated that its purpose was fourfold:
To assure that all children with disabilities receive a free appropriate public education emphasizing special education and related services designed to meet their unique needs
To protect the rights of children with disabilities and their parents
To help state and local education agencies provide for the education of all children with disabilities
To assess and assure the effectiveness of efforts to educate all children with disabilities
In 1986 EHA was reauthorized as PL 99-457, additionally covering infants and toddlers below age 3 with disabilities, and providing for associated Individual Family Service Plans (IFSP), prepared documents to ensure individualized special service delivery to families of respective infants and toddlers.
Americans with Disabilities Act
Providing individuals with identified disabilities similar protections from discrimination as those granted by the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA) barred discrimination in employment (Title 1), public services and transportation (Title 2) public accommodations (Title 3), telecommunications (Title 4) and miscellaneous provisions (Title 5). It was a great step in normalizing the lives of disabled people. Title 3 prohibited disability based discrimination in any place of public accommodation with regard to full and equal enjoyment of the goods, services, facilities, or accommodations. Public accommodations included most places of education.
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)
The law regarding disability education underwent a change with the introduction of Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). Prior to that time, the statutory focus in EHA was to provide access to education for disabled students who had been marginalized in the public school system. Satisfied that the goal of "access" had been reached, in 1997 Congress enacted IDEA with the express purpose of addressing implementation problems resulting from "low expectations, and an insufficient focus on applying replicable research on proven methods of teaching and learning for children with disabilities." 20 U.S.C. § 1400(c)(4). The statute clearly stated its commitment to "our national policy of ensuring equality of opportunity, full participation, independent living, and economic self-sufficiency for individuals with disabilities." 20 U.S.C. § 1400(c)(1).
Arguably, passage of IDEA represented a significant shift in focus from the disability education system in place prior to 1997. IDEA added individualized transition plans (ITP) for transitioning individuals from secondary school to adult life or post secondary education. Special education coverage was extended to the categories of autism and traumatic brain injury (TBI). In 1997 IDEA was reauthorized as PL 105-17 and extended coverage to attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), functional behavioral assessments and intervention plans were added, and the ITP's were integrated within IEP's. An additional re-authorization was made in 2004 (below).
Like EHEA before it, the act's zero reject rule requires schools to provide educational services to every disabled child, even if there is no hope of the child benefiting from the services (e.g., if the child is in a coma).
No Child Left Behind
The Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 2001 (ESEA) PL 107–110, more popularly known as the No Child Left Behind Act required accountability for the academic performance of all school children, including those with disabilities. It called for 100% proficiency in reading and math by the year 2012.
The Assistive Technology Act of 2004 (ATA) PL 108-364 provided support for school-to-work transition projects and created loan programs for the purchase of assistive technology (AT) devices.
The 2004 Individuals with Disabilities Education Act reauthorization PL 108-446 changed learning disability identification procedures, required high qualification standards for special education teachers, stipulated that all students with disabilities participate in annual state or district testing or documented alternate assessments, and allowed in response to activities related to weapons, drugs or violence that a student could be placed in interim alternative educational setting.
Some student disability protections not covered by IDEA may be still covered under Section 504 or ADA due to a broader definitions of what constitutes a disability.
There are some rumors in the Education field about NCLB. There is a rumor that teachers are forced to test children with severe disabilities. IDEA does cover children under the Disability Act. The problem is that they group all children as having the same severe disability. Erin Dillon a former Senior Policy Analyst, states as a writer for "EducationSector" That all special education students do not fit the criteria of severely disabled. Students can reach grade level with tools and accommodations in place. NCLB has become more accountable by placing students in subgroups to identify the specific disability. Most of the students under IDEA have been put in the category of LEARNING DISABLED (LD). The LD label is there to ensure that students get the proper help needed to obtain grade level performances. Dillon notes that there are 4 groups that service 80% of special education; Learning Disabled (LD), Emotional Disturbed (ED), Speech and Language Impairments & other Health Impairments, such as ADD. Since 1977 the population of students with disabilities has increased from 8% to 14% to 2006(Dillon). African-American students account for 15% of the total student population, but carry a 21% of the identified special education students. Studies show that most Afro-American students are labeled in special education as MR or ED; white students are labeled as Autism. The major issue is how to count the scores and be fair to this population of special education students, (Quality Counts 2004, Count Me In).
Federal funding
According to a CSEF 2004 report special education enrollments and expenditures have been growing steadily since the implementation of the IDEA in 1975. It appears that total special education expenditures have been growing faster than general education expenditures, but that this is primarily because the enrollments and identification of special education students has increased faster than the rate of the overall student population. Increasing special education enrollments of children birth through 21 as a percentage of total student enrollments can be attributed to several factors, including rising numbers of at-risk school-age children, and increasing numbers of preschool children, as well as infants and toddlers (Birth to age 3) served through IDEA Part C. Special education expenditures have demonstrated steady increases paralleling and likely caused by this steady, uninterrupted growth in enrollments. Based on 1999-2000 data from the national SEEP, the 50 states and the District of Columbia spent approximately $50 billion on special education services alone, and $78.3 billion on all educational services required to educate students with disabilities (including regular education services and other special needs programs such as Title I and English language learners) amounting to $8,080 per special education student.
The main source of federal government funding for special education programs is the IDEA Part B. Part B is the legislature that mandates the federal disbursement of funds to the state government and regulation of special education programs. Once the state receives the disbursement, the funds are disbursed to each local school district in accordance to the IDEA Part B standards and the funding method of the state.
Part B of IDEA originally authorized Congress to contribute up to 40 percent of the national average per pupil expenditure for each special education student. 20 U.S.C. § 1411(a). Appropriations for special education have failed to implement that original authorization. A number of studies have sought to track the apparent disparity between the federal commitment to special education and the shortfall in funding. A 2003 study by SEEP, now the Center for Special Education Finance, determined that the per pupil expenditures for special education range from a low of $10,558 for students with specific learning disabilities to a high of $20,095 for students with multiple disabilities. According to the SEEP study, expenditures for students with specific learning disabilities were 1.6 times the expenditure for a regular education student, whereas expenditures for students with multiple disabilities were 3.1 times higher. Most states, in turn, have failed to make up the gap in federal funding, and this in turn has created financial pressures on local school districts. This has led to periodic calls for bringing appropriations in line with the original authorization.
During the 1999–2000 school year, the 50 states and the District of Columbia spent approximately $50 billion on special education services, amounting to $8,080 per special education student. The total spending on regular and special education services to students with disabilities amounted to $77.3 billion, or an average of $12,474 per student. An additional one-billion dollars was expended on students with disabilities for other special needs programs (e.g., Title I, English language learners, or gifted and talented students), bringing the per-student amount to $12,639. The total spending to educate students with disabilities, including regular education and special education, represents 21.4% of the $360.6 billion total spending on elementary and secondary education in the United States. The additional expenditure to educate the average student with a disability is estimated to be $5,918 per student. This is the difference between the total expenditure per student eligible for special education services ($12,474) and the total expenditure per regular education student ($6,556). Based on 1999-2000 school-year data, the total expenditure to educate the average student with disabilities is an estimated 1.90 times that expended to educate the typical regular education student with no special needs.
State funding systems
According to a CSEF Report on State Special Education Finance Systems, on the average, states provide about 45 percent and local districts about 46 percent of the support for special education programs, with the remaining 9 percent provided through federal IDEA funding. States use a variety of methods of allocating funds to school districts. Under a weighted special education funding system, (used by about 34% of the states), state special education aid is allocated on a per student basis. Under the weighted funding system, the amount of aid provided to local districts is based on the funding "weight" associated with each special education student, enabling districts serving students with greater needs to receive more money than districts whose students require fewer services. Under a flat grant system, (used in only one state) funding is based on a fixed funding amount per student.
Other states provide a flat grant based on the count of all students in a district, rather than on the number of special education students. Advocates for this system argue that it takes away the incentive to over-identify students for special education. However, the range of special education eligible students in various districts is so broad, that the flat grant based system creates significant disparities in the local effort required.
There are other funding systems in use. Under a resource-based system, funding is based on an allocation of specific education resources, such as teachers or classroom units. Resource-based formulas include unit and personnel mechanisms in which distribution of funds is based on payment for specified resources, such as teachers, aides, or equipment. Under a percentage reimbursement system, the amount of state special education aid a district receives is directly based on its expenditures for the program. The variable block grant is used to describe funding approaches in which funding is determined in part by base year allocations, expenditures, and/or enrollment. Many states use separate funding mechanisms to target resources to specific populations or areas of policy concern such as extended school year services or specialized equipment. According to the CSEF report, a growing number of states have a separate funding stream that can be accessed by districts serving exceptionally "high-cost" special education students.
Maintenance of effort
The purpose of federal special education funding is to maintain or improve the quality of special education services. This purpose would be undercut if additional federal dollars were "supplanted" by merely reducing the level of state or local funding for special education. For this reason, like many other such programs, the federal law and regulations contain accounting guidelines, requiring "maintenance of effort." The statute says that federal funds provided to the local education agency "(i) Shall be used only to pay the excess cost of providing special education and related services to children with disabilities; (ii) Shall be used to supplement State, local and other Federal funds and not to supplant such funds; and (iii) Shall not be used ...to reduce the level of expenditures for the education of children with disabilities made by the local education agency from local funds below the level of those expenditures for the preceding fiscal year. 20 USC 1413 Regulations implementing this requirement begin with a test that seeks to assure that funds provided to a local education agency (LEA) under Part B of IDEA may not be used to reduce the level of expenditures for the education of children with disabilities made by the LEA from local funds below the level of those expenditures for the preceding fiscal year. Implementing this requirement fairly at the local level requires some exceptions
Qualifying students for special education
By federal law, no student is too disabled to qualify for a free, appropriate education. Whether it is useful and appropriate to attempt to educate the most severely disabled children, such as children who are in a persistent vegetative state or in a coma, is debated. While many severely disabled children can learn at least simple tasks, such as pushing a buzzer when they want attention or using a brain implant if they are unable to move their hands, some children may be incapable of learning. However, schools are required to provide the services, and teachers design individual programs that expose the child to as much of the curriculum as reasonably possible. Some parents and advocates say that these children would be better served by substituting improved physical care for any academic program.
Referral
Parents who suspect or know that their child has a problem making adequate school progress should request an evaluation from their local school district. The request, called a "referral for evaluation," should be initiated in writing. The referral should be addressed to the principal of the local public school or the special education coordinator for the district, and should provide the child's name, date of birth, address, current school placement (if applicable), and the suspected area of disability or special need. Referrals can also be made by general education teachers or guidance counselors. Upon receipt of the referral, the school district will contact the parent to set up a meeting time in order to explain the process and obtain written consent to perform the necessary evaluations. To prepare for this meeting, parents should be able to describe their child's problems in depth, providing examples of their child's difficulties in the classroom. Parents can request any evaluations they feel are needed to add to the picture of the child's specific educational needs, such as speech and language testing, occupational therapy testing or neurological testing. All evaluations needed to provide a full picture of the child's disabilities must be provided by the school system at no cost to the family.
Evaluation
After the referral process, the district will begin the evaluation. The law requires a comprehensive and nondiscriminatory school evaluation involving all areas of suspected disability. Testing can be done in numerous places but it is most common in schools: Elementary schools, Middle Schools, High Schools, and Universities.
Testing must be in the native language of the child (if feasible). It must be administered by a team of professionals, which must include at least a general education teacher, one special education teacher, and a specialist who is knowledgeable in the area of the child's disability. Testing must be administered one-to-one, not in a group. Any tests or other evaluation materials used must be administered by professionals trained and qualified to administer them; i.e., psychological testing must be conducted by a psychologist trained to administer the specific tests utilized. Teachers also document any interventions they have already been using in the classroom. In addition, teachers will use formal tests such as DIBELS (Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills),DRA (Developmental Reading Assessment), WJ III (Woodcock Johnson Tests of Achievement) or the WIAT (Wechsler Individual Achievement Test) to see if they are on grade level or below. Anything a teacher or committee member can bring with them to help see the student's whole academic picture (e.g. grades) is extremely helpful.
In addition to testing, an observation of the child either in school or in a comparable situation is required for an initial evaluation, and often at later stages as well. It is through the observation that the child can be assessed while interacting with his peers and teachers. To insure objectivity and cross-referencing, this observation must be conducted by a person other than the child's classroom teacher. The observation need not be done exclusively in the child's classroom, especially when the child's suspected area of disability may become manifest in larger settings, such as the lunchroom, hallways or gym.
For children over twelve years of age, vocational testing is required. This requirement is in keeping with the spirit of the IDEA 1997 Amendments that encourage preparation of children for useful employment. The vocational testing should identify areas of interest and skills needed to attain employment after graduation from school. During the testing process, the parent is free to provide any privately obtained evaluative material and reports. Experts may include professionals such as psychotherapists, psychiatrists, neurologists, pediatricians, medical personnel, and tutors. Professionals who have been working with the child over time can often provide the district with a long-term view of the child's needs.
Classification
Once all the evaluative material is presented and reviewed at the meeting, the IEP team must first determine whether the child is eligible for special education services. An eligible child will require special education intervention in order to enable him/her to receive the benefits of instruction and an education. If the team finds the child eligible for special education, they must then classify the child in one of 13 categories.
The following is a data table on students in the U.S. and outlying areas aged 6 through 21 who received special education in the 2006–2007 school year.
The IDEA allows, but does not require, school districts to add the classifications of Attention- Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Pervasive Developmental Disorder (PDD) at their discretion.
Development of the Individual Education Program (IEP)
The Individual Education Program is developed by a team (sometimes referred to as the Committee on Special Education) that must include at least one parent and the professionals who work with the student. Teachers and a representative from the school administration are generally required to attend these meetings. Parents may additionally include anyone they choose, for any reason they choose.
Parents must be notified of the meeting in writing. The notification must indicate the purpose, time and location of the meeting and list the people who will be in attendance, including the name and position of each person. If parents are unable to attend at the appointed time, the meeting should be rescheduled to accommodate the needs of the family.
The Individual Education Program
The IEP must include:
A statement of the child's present levels of educational performance, which describes the effects of the child's disability on all affected areas of the child's academic and non-academic school performance.
A statement of annual goals including short-term objectives. Annual goals must describe what the child is expected to accomplish in a 12-month period in the special education program. Short-term objectives should describe the steps required to achieve the goals. Goals and objectives are specific in all areas in which the child is receiving special education services.
A statement of the specific special education and related services to be provided to the child and the extent to which the child will participate in regular education programs.
The projected dates for the initiation of services.
Determining the appropriate placement
After the IEP meeting the parents must be given written notice of exactly where and how the services will be provided for their child. Most often, the suggested program will be located within the public school system in the district. When a student's disability is such that his or her needs cannot be met in the district, the school district may suggest a placement in an out-of-district program. These programs can include a Day Treatment Program, a Non-public Special Education School, a Residential School or Home Instruction. In all cases, parents should visit the sites that are recommended to observe the program to determine if the program is appropriate for their child.
Procedural safeguards
Procedural safeguards are procedures in special education explained to a parent or guardian in order for them to be informed throughout the special education process. Typically they are presented at a team meeting, but can be provided sooner. They include:
Notice of procedural safeguards
Required content
Parental participation in process
Right to participate in all meetings, including identification, evaluation, placement, and all discussions regarding the educational plan.
Parent right to review all educational records
Parent right to an independent evaluation
Prior written notice
Prior written notice when a school proposes to initiate a service, conduct an evaluation, change a placement, or modify an IEP; or when the school refuses to provide a parent-requested service, identification, evaluation or change of placement or IEP
Content of prior written notice
Right to submit a complaint to SEA
Mediation
Voluntary mediation to be provided by SEA at no cost to parents
Impartial due process hearing
Impartial hearing/mediation
Parents may disagree with the program recommendation of the school district. In that event, parents may reject the district's recommendations by notifying the school district in a clear and concise manner of the reasons for the rejection of the IEP recommendation. This notice must be given in writing within 30 days of receipt of the program recommendation.
The IDEA provides for two methods of resolving disputes between parents and school districts. These include:
1. Mediation that may be a viable means to review small disagreements with the IEP, such as the number of sessions for a related service or the size of a special education class.
2. Impartial Hearing which is a due process-based formal proceeding that allows the parents to challenge the district's individual education plan in whole or in part.
Student conduct and discipline
A student that has engaged in behavior that is in violating of student conduct codes that is punished with a suspension or change in placement exceeding 10 days must be given a Manifestation Determination Hearing. The purpose of this hearing is to determine whether the bad behavior is caused by the disability. If it is, then the school district will attempt to change the student's program to address the problem or move the student into a more restrictive environment. If the bad behavior is not related to the disability (e.g., a student with dyslexia who hits another student), then the student can be punished exactly like any non-disabled student.
Students with disabilities generally may not be suspended for more than 10 days or expelled from school if the behavior problem is caused by the student's disability. If a student with special needs is suspended or expelled from school, then the school district normally must continue to provide educational services (for example, through a home study program).
Students with disabilities are not exempted from criminal laws, and are treated like any students in those respects. For example, under Missouri's Safe Schools Act, any student charged with or convicted of murder, forcible rape, or several other violent crimes must be removed from school; there is no exemption for special education students. Drug abuse, weapons possession, or inflicting serious bodily injury (e.g., by assaulting a staff person, student, or visitor to the school) can also result in longer suspensions, even if the violation was caused by the student's disability.
Methods to Teaching Special Education
There are so many different ways to teach special education and in the past decade, there has been an increase in the number of students with disabilities as well as the number of resources available to them. Students using special education services have grown 13.1 percent in 2009–10, and about 14.4 percent since 2019–20.
Co-Teaching
'Co-teaching offers a diversity that can provide flexibility and change daily, depending on students' individual needs. For special education, the co-teacher provides additional support and ideas for how to best support the student. Furthermore, having two teachers in the classroom allows students to get more immediate help because they do not have to wait as long for teachers to finish helping other students first.
Another element of co-teaching is that it allows students with learning disabilities to be integrated in a traditional classroom setting. Co-teaching requires communication between teachers about the best way to teach on a daily basis, and for special education students, this can be beneficial because they are able to coordinate and discuss the most effective way of teaching for that particular day. Being surrounded by peers who do not have learning disabilities can serve as another form of aid and interaction, rather than being completely isolated in their own classroom. Interaction among their classmates without learning disabilities can also provide a sense of belonging and acceptance which can further improve and encourage learning. Inclusion can raise student performance and enhance their learning in a traditional classroom setting.
Music
Learning disabilities for children disrupt a process in the brain where neurons fire upon learning something new. Due to the learning disability, neural networks may not necessarily work as efficiently which causes difficulty in retrieving information for these students. This means that students fall below the level of academic success that their peers are achieving, causing them to likely lash out or behave in a disturbing way as a result.
Cognitive behavior modification (CBM) is a blend of operant learning modification, social learning, and cognitive theory, and helps shape students' behaviors. Consistent consequences can shape students' behaviors. Overall, the combination of these three methods of learning allows for students to become active in the learning process which will allow for music teachers to create an effective learning environment. To combat this, music teachers can get students involved by clapping, or for more enthusiasm, playing the xylophone. A child with a learning disability does not automatically connect and organize new information. By associating them with music, they are more likely to internalize the information. One easy way for teachers to address the needs of these students is by providing a simple outline on the board or a handout to students as well. With younger students, this can be in the form of a picture board where teachers can review the content they are about to teach to these students. Ultimately, this allows for students to organize and have a general framework for the material they are about to learn. A specific strategy that provides an organizational framework is mnemonic devices. For example, the notes on a treble clef can be learned as FACe and lined notes are memorized as "Every Good Boy Does Fine." These measures are most impactful when the teachers take the time to teach the process, and when taught well, students learn how to evaluate their own work. For students who have ADHD, a structured environment in a music classroom will likely prove to be more effective. This means keeping a consistent arrangement day to day, assigned seating (placing ADHD students away from distractions), a consistent routine, setting clear expectations, minimizing downtime, and preparing the children for distractions are all ways to implement a structured environment. Music teachers can allow for movement and musical experiences to keep them intrigued and concentrated.
Studies and data
A variety of resources provide global analysis for policymaking in special education. The Special Education Elementary Longitudinal Study (SEELS) was a study of school-age students funded by the Office of Special Education Programs (OSEP) in the U.S. Department of Education and was part of the national assessment of the 1997 Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA 97). From 2000 to 2006, SEELS documented the school experiences of a national sample of students as they moved from elementary to middle school and from middle to high school. One important feature of SEELS was that it did not look at students' educational, social, vocational, and personal development at a single point in time. Rather, it was designed to assess change in these areas over time.
Since 1992, the Center for Special Education Finance (CSEF) has addressed fiscal policy issues related to the delivery and support of special education services throughout the United States. CSEF conducted The Special Education Expenditure Project (SEEP) the fourth such project sponsored by the Office of Special Education Programs (OSEP) and its predecessor to examine the nation's spending on special education and related services in the past 40 years. Eight SEEP studies are available on the Web.
IDEA requires that the Department of Education report annually on the progress made toward the provision of a free appropriate public education to all children with disabilities and the provision of early intervention services to infants and toddlers with disabilities. The 27th Annual Report consists of two volumes, and is electronically available.
On October 3, 2001, President George Bush established a temporary Commission on Excellence in Special Education to collect information and study issues related to Federal, State, and local special education programs with the goal of recommending policies for improving the education performance of students with disabilities. The President's Commission on Excellence in Special Education (PCESE) delivered its report to President Bush on July 1, 2002.
Data on the impact of regional special education programs is varied, and some research suggests results depend on how informed administrators are when making decisions regarding mainstreaming or inclusion programs. One study showed considerable benefit from inclusion in a secondary school, with students reporting a disability as an attribute rather than a stigma. Another showed an increase in baseline standardized test scores among students assigned to a resource room, along with special education teachers reporting dissatisfaction with the quality of special education knowledge among general education teachers and a general feeling of isolation among colleagues. Though, at least one group of special education teachers reported satisfaction in this role, noting that it helped them relate to their students.
Special education programs, when implemented by qualified professionals and competent administrators, has been shown to lead to long-term positive benefits to communities such as students with special needs able to lead more independent lives, prepared to enter the work force, and develop positive relationships among their peers.
African-Americans in special education
The studies found that grossly disproportionate numbers of minority students are identified as eligible for services, and too often placed in isolated and restrictive educational settings. When compared with their white counterparts, African-American children were almost three times more likely to be labeled "mentally retarded," according to a paper by Thomas B. Parrish, managing research scientist at the American Institutes of Research."
New statistics compiled on each state show both over and under-representation of minorities in the categories for "mental retardation," "specific learning disabilities," and "emotional disturbance." African-American students in Connecticut, Mississippi, South Carolina, North Carolina, and Nebraska are more than four times as likely to be identified as "mentally retarded" than white students living in those states. In Florida, Alabama, Delaware, New Jersey, and Colorado, the number of African-American students identified as intellectually disabled was more than three times that of white students. In early childhood education, we see minority children who live in poverty to be most likely to receive a variety of services. A longitudinal study viewed the proclivity of disability and potential disability through three categories. The indicators established were: biological risk, developmental risk, and received Part B services. 62 percent of children were assigned at least one indicator.
The Civil Rights Project at Harvard University looked to "identify and solve the problem" of minority children being misplaced in special education. Prompting their research, as shown in the Office for Civil Rights U.S. Department of Education, Elementary and Secondary School Civil Rights Reports (2000), African-American students made up only 17 percent of the total school enrollment; however, 33 percent of these students were classified as intellectually disabled. This displays a large disparity between African-American students and students of other races or ethnicities in special education. The total school enrollment of white students was 63 percent, while only 54 percent of these were classified as intellectually disabled (Losen, Orfield xvi). The total school enrollment of Hispanics was 15 percent; however, they were underrepresented in special education with only 10 percent of their total classified as intellectually disabled (Losen, Orfield xvi). Also, the rate for African-American students identified under emotional disturbance (ED) and specific learning disabilities (SLD) grew significantly. The Civil Rights Project "recognize[s] that concerns about special education are nested in concerns about inequities in education generally" (Losen, Orfield xvi).
There are several biases that may influence the way that a teacher or instrument diagnose a child. One type of bias is cultural bias, demonstrated by The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children III, which has proved to classify disproportionately more African-Americans that European-Americans as intellectually disabled.
The disproportionate number of African Americans in special education derives not only from a problem in special education, but a problem in the entire system. As Wanda Blanchett describes in her article published in 2006 in Educational Researcher: "White privilege and racism contribute to and maintain disproportionality in special education by (a) insufficiently funding schools attended primarily by African American and poor children; (b) employing culturally inappropriate and unresponsive curricula; and (c) inadequately preparing educators to effectively teach African American learners and other students of color" (Blanchett 24). It is problematic that educators are perpetuating the disproportionate number of African American students in special education when their role is often assumed to be working in the best interests of the students.
African American students in special education are also more likely to be segregated from their non-disabled peers. This problem is often at its worst in large urban school districts. New research has highlighted policies and practices that contribute to the segregation of African-American students in large school districts. A recent case study of a large urban school district and its special education policies revealed: (a) district-level inclusion policies that were broad and provided little guidance to schools; (b) inadequate funding and training that could enable greater inclusion; (c) the maintenance of fully segregated special education schools and special education programs; and (d) legal impediments related to due process complaints of parents (DeMatthews & Mawhinney, 2013).
School psychologists are also involved in the decision-making process as to whether a student should be referred to special education or not. A study published in 2005 showed that school psychologists believed cross-cultural competence was one of the greatest factors in making decisions about students, yet the "self-perceived cross-cultural competence was 36.8 out of a possible 56 points" (Kearns, Ford, Linney 304). This means that school psychologists believed they were only around 66% effective in dealing with the greatest factor for making decisions on behalf of students.
Bilingual special education
Based on 1980 Census and Immigration and Naturalization Services records, it is estimated that there are 79 million school-age language minority children in the United States. This bilingual population is distributed throughout the United States with heavier concentrations in the southwest and northeast. The highest concentration is in the large urban areas.
Considering the overall population with limited English proficiency (LEP) in the United States, a critical question for bilingual special educators is how many of these students also have disabilities. According to the U.S. Office of Special Education, an estimated 948,000 children may both be linguistically different and have disabilities—a substantial population who could benefit from bilingual special education services. In addition, a disproportionate number of minority students are placed in special education. Of particular concern is the over-representation of minority children in particular categories of disability such as "mental retardation" and emotional disturbance.
The educational landscape has changed a great deal since the passage of the individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEA, 2004). More and more states are following a Response to Intervention (RTI) process to decide which students qualify for special education. No longer is eligibility determined by establishing a discrepancy between students' potential, as measured by an intelligence test, and their achievement. Only when a student fails to respond to intervention is he or she referred for special education testing. Thus, RTI addresses some of the long-standing concerns about biased assessment procedures with ELLs (English language learners). Yet RTI tends to be implemented in one-size-fits-all ways that do not adequately take into account the diverse needs of these students (Klingner & Edwards, 2006). And although intelligence tests are not administered with the same frequency as in the past, some problematic assessment procedures continue.
Sports programs
Schools must provide students with disabilities appropriate access to school-sponsored extracurricular activities such as playing on sports teams. This is sometimes done by providing separate programs, such as a wheelchair division for racing, and other times done by having the student with disabilities play alongside students without disabilities. Schools are not required to place unqualified athletes on teams selected through tryouts, and they are not required to change any essential rules of the sports. There are schools that have partnerships with The Special Olympics, a sports organization specifically for students the Special Needs; and sometimes, schools will send their athletes to help out with Special Olympics sports events.
Transition services
The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 2004 addresses regulations regarding transition services for children with disabilities. Transition services are designed to focus on improving academic and functional achievement of the child, is based on the individual's needs, and provides instruction and experiences vital for employment and independent living. The goal of transitional services is to prepare students with disabilities for adult living and may provide instruction in functional living skills, social and community skills, work skills and self-advocacy skills. In most states, these services can be provided up to the age of 21 (age 26 in Michigan) or when the student meets his/her goals and objectives, which should be detailed in the student's IEP (Individualized Education Program).
Future
Many schools struggle to appropriately serve students with disabilities due to a lack of resources. One issue is a lack of post high school education programs that help individuals with severe disabilities. Universities across the country have been providing non-academic credit camps at colleges and universitas for intellectual disabilities. Such programs attempt to teach individuals who cannot obtain a higher education degree how to successfully live and take care of themselves, while also giving them the education required to apply for careers that interest them.
The most difficult aspect of these programs is the grading criteria, as traditional college grading is too demanding for people unable to meet the academic standards of higher education. Under the Americans with Disabilities Act and 504, higher education facilities can only offer 'reasonable accommodation' to the college students with disabilities admitted for a credit degree program. They cannot offer a separate curriculum.
These programs are working toward having classes with a fixed grading criteria specifically for the students with intellectual disabilities. All of these programs require up to date evaluations on students planning on applying to attend the universities.
See also
American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities
Early childhood intervention
Learning theory (education)
Instructional theory
National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities (NICHCY)
Special Education
Resource room
Special school
Royal Institute for Deaf and Blind Children
Education in the United States
References
Further reading
Oka, Noriko (岡 典子; University of Tsukuba). "Education of Children With Disabilities in Public Schools in the United States : Historical Review of Its Establishment, Development, and Significance" (Archive; アメリカ合衆国公立学校における障害者教育の成立・展開とその意義 : 史資料と方法の新段階). The Japanese Journal of Special Education (特殊教育学研究) 48(2), 147–155, 2010-07-31. 日本特殊教育学会. English abstract available. See profile at CiNii.
External links
President's Commission on Excellence in Special Education Report: A New Era: Revitalizing Special Education for Children and Their Families (2002)
Education Commission of the States, Special Education, What are States Doing
Teaching Students With Special Needs, A Look At Special Education By State
Disability in the United States
Education in the United States
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elmer%20Wayne%20Henley
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Elmer Wayne Henley
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Elmer Wayne Henley Jr. (born May 9, 1956) is a convicted American serial killer incarcerated in the Texas Department of Criminal Justice (TDCJ) system. Henley was convicted in 1974 for his role as a participant in a series of murders known colloquially as the Houston Mass Murders in which a minimum of 28 teenage boys and young men were abducted, tortured, raped and murdered by Dean Corll between 1970 and 1973. Henley and David Owen Brooks (Corll's other teenage accomplice), together and individually, lured many of the victims to Corll's home. Henley, then 17 years old, shot Corll dead on August 8, 1973.
Henley is serving six consecutive terms of 99 years for his involvement in the Houston Mass Murders, which at the time were characterized as "the deadliest case of serial murders in American history". As a result of Henley killing Corll and Brooks dying in prison in 2020 from COVID-19, Henley is the only one of the trio still alive.
Early life
Henley was born May 9, 1956, in Houston, Texas, the eldest of four sons born to Elmer Wayne Henley Sr. (September 21, 1938 – June 18, 1986) and Mary Pauline Henley (née Weed) (born May 4, 1937). His father was an alcoholic who physically assaulted his wife and sons. Despite the abuse, Mary Henley tried to ensure that her children received a good education and stayed out of trouble. The couple divorced in 1970 when Henley was 14. Henley's mother—who worked as a cashier at a parking lot—retained custody of her four sons.
Initially, Henley was an excellent student at school; but after his parents' divorce he took a series of menial part-time jobs to help his mother with household finances, and his grades dropped sharply. At the age of 15, Henley dropped out of high school. He would later develop a minor criminal record, being arrested for assault with a deadly weapon in 1971 and burglary one year later.
Prior to his leaving high school, Henley became acquainted with a youth one year his senior named David Brooks. The two became friends and often played truant together. Through his acquaintance with Brooks, Henley became aware that his friend spent a lot of his free time in the company of an older man with whom he himself gradually became a casual acquaintance: Dean Corll. Initially, Henley was oblivious to the true extent of Corll's and Brooks' relationship. He later stated that though he admired Corll because he worked hard, he also suspected that Corll was homosexual, and concluded that Brooks was "hustling himself a queer."
Nonetheless, in late 1971, Henley also began spending time in Corll's company. Corll told Henley that he was involved in organized theft, and he, Brooks and Henley burgled several addresses, for which Henley was paid small sums of money. On one occasion, in an apparent test of character, Corll asked Henley if he would be willing to kill if required, to which Henley replied, "Yes."
The same year, Henley became aware of an insidious pattern of disappearances in his neighborhood: since the previous December, a minimum of eight boys ages 13 to 17 had disappeared from Houston Heights. Henley was friends with two of the youths, David Hilligiest and Gregory Malley Winkle, who had disappeared on May 29, 1971, on their way to a local swimming pool. Henley himself had actively participated in the search for them.
Introduction to Dean Corll
In the winter of 1971, when he was 15, Wayne Henley was again taken by David Brooks to meet Corll. In his confession given almost two years later, Henley told detectives Brooks lured him to Corll's home on the promise he could participate in "a deal where I could make some money." At Corll's home (where he was possibly taken as an intended victim), the youth was told by Corll that he belonged to an organization based in Dallas which recruited young boys for a child sex slavery ring. Henley was offered the same fee as Brooks ($200) for any boy whom he could bring to Corll.
Henley later told police that he ignored Corll's offer for several months. However, in early 1972, he decided he would "help find a boy" for Corll, as he was in dire financial circumstances. At Corll's home, Corll and Henley devised a ruse in which they would lure a youth to Corll's home and Henley would then cuff his hands behind his back, release himself, then con the victim into placing the handcuffs upon himself. The pair then drove around Houston Heights and, at the corner of 11th and Studewood, Henley persuaded a youth to enter Corll's Plymouth GTX. Henley lured the victim to Corll's Schuler Street apartment on the promise of smoking some marijuana. At Corll's address, Henley helped con the teenager into donning the handcuffs, then watched Corll pounce on the youth, tie his feet and place tape over his mouth. Henley then left the youth alone with Corll, believing he was to be sold into the sex slavery ring. The next day, Corll paid Henley $200.
The identity of this first victim in whose abduction Henley assisted remains unknown.
Participation in killings
On March 24, Henley, in the company of Corll and Brooks, persuaded an 18-year-old friend of his named Frank Aguirre to accompany him to Corll's home on the promise of smoking marijuana with the trio. At Corll's home, Aguirre was supplied with marijuana, then persuaded to handcuff himself. Corll dragged Aguirre to his bedroom and secured him to his torture board where he was raped, tortured and strangled before being buried at High Island Beach. Henley later claimed that he attempted to talk Corll out of raping and killing Aguirre, but Corll adamantly refused. At this point, Corll told him the youth he had previously assisted in the abduction of had been killed and that Aguirre was to suffer the same fate. Corll rented a boat shed on Silver Bell Street in southwest Houston (where police eventually found eight bodies) Later, Corll and Brooks told Henley that his childhood friend, David Hilligiest, had also been killed and buried in that same boat shed along with his swimming companion Gregory Malley Winkle.
Despite the revelations to the reality of the fate of the boys brought to Corll, Henley nonetheless continued to assist Corll and Brooks in the abductions and murders of youths, who would be lured to Corll's home either alone or in pairs. Less than one month later, Henley and Brooks persuaded another friend of theirs, 17-year-old Mark Scott, to attend a party at Corll's home. As had been the case with Frank Aguirre, Scott was raped, tortured, strangled and buried at High Island Beach before another two Heights youths, Billy Gene Baulch Jr. and Johnny Ray Delome, were also murdered and buried at High Island on May 21.
Corll moved to an address at Westcott Towers in June 1972 and within one month, a 17-year-old youth named Steven Sickman had been murdered. On October 3, Henley assisted Corll in the abduction and murder of two Heights boys named Wally Simoneaux and Richard Hembree. David Brooks later stated Hembree was accidentally shot in the mouth by Henley who, according to Brooks' confession "just came in (the room where the two boys were bound) waving the .22 and accidentally shot one of the boys in the jaw." The two boys were killed by strangulation later the same day. Both were later buried in the boat shed. Sometime in the following month, an 18-year-old named Willard Karmon Branch Jr. was emasculated and shot before his body was buried in Corll's boat shed. The same month, a 19-year-old named Richard Kepner was abducted while walking to phone his fiancée from a pay phone.
By the time Richard Kepner had been killed and buried at High Island, Henley had assisted in the abduction and murder of a minimum of nine teenage boys. On February 1, 1973, Corll abducted and killed a 17-year-old youth named Joseph Lyles, apparently without the assistance of Henley, who had temporarily moved to Mount Pleasant in early 1973.
In the spring of 1973, Henley attempted to enlist in the U.S. Navy, but his application was rejected on June 28 due to the fact he had dropped out of high school and—although a later intelligence test would reveal his IQ to be 126—possessed a limited education. In a 2010 interview, Henley stated: "I couldn't leave anyway. If I did go, I knew Dean would go after one of my little brothers, who he always liked a little too much."
Nonetheless, between June and July 1973: Henley, Brooks and Corll killed a further seven victims between the ages of fifteen and twenty, at least five of whom Henley participated in either the abduction or murder.
On June 4, a 15-year-old friend of Henley's named Billy Lawrence was abducted and, after 3 days of abuse and torture at an address Corll had moved to in Pasadena, strangled with a ligature and buried at Lake Sam Rayburn.
Less than two weeks later, a 20-year-old hitchhiker named Raymond Blackburn was likewise strangled and buried at Lake Sam Rayburn before a 15-year-old South Houston youth named Homer Garcia was shot and buried at the same location after his July 7 abduction. Two additional youths, John Sellars and Michael Baulch, were killed on July 12 and 19. 15-year-old Michael Baulch was the younger brother of Billy Gene Baulch Jr., who was murdered the previous spring. On July 25, Henley lured two friends of his named Charles Cobble and Marty Jones to Corll's apartment where, two days later, Cobble was shot and Jones strangled before the youths were buried in Corll's boat shed.
On August 3, Brooks and Corll – without the assistance of Henley – abducted and killed a 13-year-old boy named James Dreymala, who was strapped to Corll's torture board, raped, tortured and strangled before being buried in Corll's boat shed.
August 8 party
On August 8, 1973, Henley brought a further potential victim, 19-year-old Timothy Kerley, to Corll's home upon the promise of a party. Before Corll was able to manacle Kerley to his torture board, the pair left Corll's home to purchase sandwiches. Henley and Kerley later returned to Corll's home – in the company of a 15-year-old girl named Rhonda Williams. Corll was furious that a girl had been brought to his house, telling Henley in private he had "ruined everything." Externally, however, Corll remained calm: he waited until Henley and the other two teenagers fell asleep from a night of drinking and smoking marijuana before binding and gagging them.
Henley woke to find Corll placing handcuffs upon his wrists, Kerley and Williams had each been bound and gagged and lay alongside Henley on the floor.
Corll then dragged Henley by his cuffed hands into his kitchen and placed a .22 caliber pistol against his stomach, threatening to shoot him. Henley pleaded for his life, promising to participate in the torture and murder of the other youths if Corll released him. Corll agreed and untied Henley, then carried Kerley and Williams into his bedroom and tied them to opposite sides of his plywood torture board: Kerley on his stomach; Williams on her back.
Henley was handed a long hunting knife by Corll, who ordered him to cut away Williams' clothes, insisting that he would rape and kill the youth as Henley would do likewise to Rhonda Williams. Henley began cutting away the girl's clothes as Corll placed the pistol upon a table, undressed and climbed on top of Kerley.
Shooting of Corll
As Corll began to assault and torture Tim Kerley, Henley began to cut away Williams' clothes with the knife Corll had handed him. As he did so, Williams lifted her head and asked Henley, "Is this for real?" Henley replied in the affirmative and Williams then asked Henley whether he intended to "do anything about it," upon which Henley grabbed the pistol Corll had laid on a bedside table and ordered Corll to stop what he was doing, shouting, "You've gone far enough, Dean!"
Even with a weapon pointed at him, Corll was not cowed: he walked towards Henley, shouting, "Kill me, Wayne! You won't do it!" Henley fired a round at Corll, hitting him in the forehead. As Corll continued to advance upon him, Henley shot him a further two times in the shoulder, upon which Corll staggered out of the room where the teenagers were held. Henley then fired a further three rounds into the rear of his right shoulder and upper back, killing him. He then released Kerley and Williams, phoned the Pasadena police and subsequently confessed to his role in the Houston Mass Murders.
Confession
On the evening of August 8, Henley confessed to police that for almost three years, he and David Brooks had helped procure teenage boys – some of whom had been their own friends – for Dean Corll. Henley unequivocally stated that since the winter of 1971, he had actively participated in the abductions and, later, the murders of the victims. He stated that Brooks had also been an active accomplice – albeit for a longer period of time than he.
Henley stated to police that Corll had paid him and Brooks $200 for each victim they were able to lure to his apartment, and informed police that Corll had buried most of his victims in a boatshed in Southwest Houston, and others at Lake Sam Rayburn and High Island Beach. He agreed to accompany police to each of the burial sites to assist in the recovery of the victims.
In one of the more dramatic moments in Houston television history, Jack Cato, a reporter for Houston's NBC television affiliate KPRC-TV, accompanied Henley and police as Henley led them to the storage shed where he and Corll had buried some of the murder victims' bodies. Cato allowed Henley the use of his mobile radio telephone to call Henley's mother, at which time Henley blurted the words, "Mama, I killed Dean," into the receiver, confessing to her that he had killed Dean Corll, all while Cato was capturing the conversation on film. The footage played several times on KPRC-TV's local news and was picked up for nationwide broadcast by NBC Nightly News that evening.
Between August 8 and 13, 1973, a total of 27 boys between the ages of 13 and 20 were found buried at the three locations Henley (and later, Brooks) had stated they and Corll had buried the victims, with an additional victim being discovered in 1983. Seventeen of the victims were found buried in the boat shed, a further four victims were found at Lake Sam Rayburn, six bodies were found buried at High Island Beach (although the body of a seventh victim buried at High Island, Mark Scott, still lies undiscovered at this location) and the body of a 28th victim was found buried at Jefferson County Beach in August 1983.
All the victims found were young males and many had been sexually tortured in addition to being sexually assaulted. Autopsies revealed each victim had been killed by either strangulation, shooting or a combination of both.
At Henley's trial in 1974, one of the six bodies found buried at High Island, that of 17-year-old John Manning Sellars, was disputed as being a victim of Corll by a forensic pathologist who examined his remains. The youth, who vanished on July 12, 1973, had died of four gunshot wounds fired from a rifle, whereas each other victim of the Houston Mass Murders had either been strangled or killed with the .22 caliber pistol Henley had used to kill Dean Corll. However, Henley and Brooks had led police to Sellars' body on August 13, 1973, and the youth's body was found bound hand and foot and buried in a manner similar to Corll's other known victims.
Indictment
On August 13, 1973, a grand jury convened in Harris County to hear evidence against Henley and Brooks. The jury heard evidence from both Rhonda Williams and Tim Kerley, who each testified to the events of August 7 and 8 leading to the shooting of Dean Corll, plus the testimony from various police officers who recited and discussed the written statements each youth had made and described how both Brooks and Henley had led them to each of the burial sites. The assembled jury also heard the testimony of a youth named Billy Ridinger, who had been abducted by Corll, Henley and Brooks in 1972 and who testified as to his torture and abuse at the hands of the trio.
After listening to the evidence presented, the jury initially indicted Henley on three counts of murder and Brooks on one count. Bail was set at $100,000. Henley was not charged with the death of Dean Corll, which was ruled self-defense.
On October 8, Henley and Brooks were brought to court to face a formal arraignment. Henley was charged with six counts of murder and Brooks with four counts. Both youths pleaded not guilty to the charges against them.
Trial and conviction
Henley was brought to trial in San Antonio in July 1974, charged with the murders of six teenage boys whom he himself had lured to Corll's apartment between March 1972 and July 1973. Throughout his trial, Henley was represented by Will Gray and Edwin Pegelow.
The State of Texas presented a total of 82 pieces of evidence throughout Henley's trial, including the written confession Henley had given on August 8, which was read to the court in which he admitted killing or assisting in the abduction and murder of several youths, including the 6 teenagers for whose murder he was on trial. Other pieces of evidence presented included the wooden box used to transport the victims' bodies to the various burial sites and the plywood body board upon which many victims had been restrained. Within the wooden box, investigators had found several strands of human hair which examiners had concluded came from Charles Cobble. A total of 25 witnesses testified as to Henley's involvement in the abductions and murders, including Detective David Mullican. At one point during the trial, Mullican testified that Henley had informed him that in order to restrain the youths; he, Brooks and Corll had "handcuffed (the victims) to the board and sometimes to a wall with their mouths taped so they couldn't make any noise".
Following advice from his defense counsel, Henley did not take the stand to testify in his own defense, although one of his attorneys, Will Gray, did cross examine a number of witnesses. On more than 300 occasions, Henley's attorneys raised objections to the testimony given or evidence presented against Henley which was overruled by the judge presiding at his trial.
On July 16, 1974, after hearing closing arguments from both prosecution and defense, the jury retired to consider their verdict. After one hour of deliberation they reached their conclusion: Henley was found guilty and sentenced to six consecutive 99-year terms of imprisonment. On July 25, Henley and his attorneys filed an appeal, contending that Henley had been denied an evidentiary hearing; that the jury had not been sequestered; that a motion to move the initial trial away from San Antonio had also been denied and that the presence of news media in the courtroom had also prejudiced his trial.
Appeal
Henley's conviction was overturned on appeal on December 20, 1978. He was tried for a second time in June 1979 and was again convicted of six murders and again sentenced to six life terms although to run concurrently rather than consecutively.
Elmer Wayne Henley first became eligible for parole on July 8, 1980; on this occasion—and each successive parole hearing to date—he has been denied parole. Henley's next eligible parole date is October 2025 when he will be 69 years old.
Henley is incarcerated in the Stiles Unit in Jefferson County.
David Brooks
David Brooks was tried for the June 1973 murder of Billy Ray Lawrence in February 1975. He was convicted and sentenced to life imprisonment on March 4. Brooks died of COVID-19 complications in May 2020.
Art
In 1994, at the suggestion of a Louisiana art dealer, Henley began to paint as a hobby, in part as a means of generating income for himself and his mother.
In interviews, Henley has stated that he suffers from a severe color deficiency in his eyesight that makes it impossible for him to clearly distinguish between reds and greens. To compensate, any people Henley paints are in black and white while his other works are usually in color. Henley refuses to paint or draw any images of a violent or exploitative nature: many of his works depict serene imagery such as landscapes, buildings and flowers and the majority being created using acrylics and graphite.
A pen pal with whom Henley has corresponded has also organized several exhibitions of his artwork. In 1997, the Hyde Park Gallery in Houston's Neartown area hosted Henley's first art show. This exhibition drew outrage from some victims' relatives. In 1999 the city of Houston expressed interest in building a monument to victims of violent crime, which Henley said he would be willing to help pay for with part of the proceeds from a second art show.
Media
Film
A film loosely inspired by the Houston Mass Murders, Freak Out, was released in 2003.
Production of a film directly based upon the Houston Mass Murders, In a Madman's World, finished in 2014. Directed by Josh Vargas, In a Madman's World is directly based upon Elmer Wayne Henley's life before, during, and immediately after his involvement with Dean Corll and David Brooks. Limited edition copies of the film were released in 2017.
Bibliography
Christian, Kimberly (2015). Horror in the Heights: The True Story of The Houston Mass Murders. CreateSpace. .
Gurwell, John K. (1974). Mass Murder in Houston. Cordovan Press.
Hanna, David (1975). Harvest of Horror: Mass Murder in Houston. Belmont Tower.
Rosewood, Jack (2015). Dean Corll: The True Story of The Houston Mass Murders. CreateSpace .
Television
A 1982 documentary, The Killing of America, features a section devoted to the Houston Mass Murders.
FactualTV host a documentary focusing upon the murders committed by Corll and his accomplices. Dr. Sharon Derrick is among those interviewed for the documentary.
The Investigation Discovery channel has broadcast a documentary focusing upon the Houston Mass Murders within their documentary series, Most Evil. This documentary, entitled "Manipulators", was first broadcast in December 2014.
Episode 4 of Season 2 of the 2017 Netflix series Mindhunter follows a storyline involving interviews with Henley (portrayed by Robert Aramayo), centered around his involvement with Corll and the Houston Mass Murders.
Music
Australian band The Mark of Cain included a sample of Henley's confession to his mother over the phone on their 1989 album Battlesick; it is at the start of the song "You Are Alone."
See also
List of serial killers in the United States
List of serial killers by number of victims
Notes
References
External links
Contemporary news article pertaining to Elmer Wayne Henley's 1974 trial
Contemporary news article pertaining to Elmer Wayne Henley's initial 1974 conviction
Elmer Wayne Henley, Jr. vs. The State of Texas: Full transcript of Henley's 1978 appeal against his 1974 convictions
in the case of Elmer Wayne Henley
TDCJ Online Offender Search
1956 births
1972 murders in the United States
20th-century American criminals
American male criminals
American murderers of children
American people convicted of murder
American prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment
American serial killers
Criminals from Texas
Living people
Criminals from Houston
People convicted of murder by Texas
Prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment by Texas
Serial killers from Texas
Violence against men in North America
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verb%E2%80%93object%E2%80%93subject%20word%20order
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Verb–object–subject word order
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In linguistic typology, a verb–object–subject or verb–object–agent language, which is commonly abbreviated VOS or VOA, is one in which most sentences arrange their elements in that order. That would be the equivalent in English to "Drank cocktail Sam." The relatively rare default word order accounts for only 3% of the world's languages. It is the fourth-most common default word order among the world's languages out of the six. It is a more common default permutation than OVS and OSV but is significantly rarer than SOV (as in Hindi and Japanese), SVO (as in English and Mandarin), and VSO (as in Filipino and Irish). Families in which all or many of their languages are VOS include the following:
the Algonquian family (including Ojibwa)
the Arawakan family (including Baure and Terêna)
the Austronesian family (including Dusun, Malagasy, Toba Batak, Tukang Besi, Palauan, Gilbertese, Fijian and Tsou)
the Chumash family (including Inoseño Chumash)
the Mayan family (including Huastec, Yucatec, Mopán, Lacondón, Chol, Tzeltal, Tzotzil, Chuj, Tojolabal, Cakchiquel, Tzutujil, Sacapultec, Pocomam, Pocomchí and Kekchi)
the Otomanguean family (including Mezquital Otomi and Highland Otomi)
the Salishan family (including Coeur d'Alene and Twana)
Incidence
Typology
VOS word order is the fourth-most-common of the world's languages, and is considered to have verb-initial word order, like VSO. Very few languages have a fixed VOS word order, most primarily in the Austronesian and Mayan language families. Many verb-initial languages exhibit a flexible word order (such as St’át’imcets, Chamorro, and Tongan), alternating between VOS and VSO. VOS and VSO are usually classified as verb-initial because they share many similar properties, such as the absence of the verb "have" and predicate-initial grammar.
Though not as universal, many verb-initial languages also have ergative clauses. For instance, most Mayan languages have an ergative-absolutive system of verb agreement and most Austronesian languages have an ergative-absolutive system of case marking.
Occurrence
VOS occurs in many languages, including Austronesian languages (such as Malagasy, Old Javanese, Toba Batak, Dusun, and Fijian), Mayan languages (such as Kaqchikel and Tzotzil), and even Assyrian Neo-Aramaic, the last of which has a very free word order with inversions.
In Hadza, the default order is VSO, but VOS is very common as well. This is also the case for some Salishan languages.
In Arabic, the typical order is VSO, but VOS is an option and in some sentences mandatory.
Arabic (special cases)
Arabic is a language that is primarily SVO order. However, VSO also occurs from subject adjunction. The first table (note that Arabic is written from right to left) will illustrate the SVO form of the sentence, the second table will illustrate the VSO form, and the third table will illustrate the VOS form:
The first table is meant to give a basic understanding of the general form of sentences in Arabic.
The second table displays a VSO sentence in which the verb appears at the beginning of the sentence and is followed by the subject and the object. Such a sentence is produced by moving the verb to the empty CP, which is the sister of the IP, and results in the production from SVO to VOS. The subject (the teacher) uses the nominative case, and the object (the lesson) uses the accusative case.
The third table displays a VOS sentence. At first glance, that process seems very similar to the VSO word order, but the reality is rather different. Rather than the V moving forward, the S actually moves from the beginning position of SVO to the end position of VOS. That is because of a process known as subject adjunction in which the subject may be unmentioned. Here is an example of subject adjunction:
Context: *The teacher has taught a class and read a specific lesson. Both speakers are wary that either a male or female teacher read a specific lesson.
Question: "Who read the lesson?
Response: He read the lesson/The teacher read the lesson
Based on the context provided, both speakers are wary of a specific lesson taking place and refer to a set of entities being a male and a female teacher. To differentiate between both entities, the use of an anaphoric expression matching in gender results in the capability to differentiate between them. One of the qualities of Arabic verbal morphology is the immediate integration of gender and plurality in the verb. As a result, the subject no longer needs to be mentioned since there is an anaphora attached to the verb. Since the subject has been moved to the end of the sentence, the property of extended projection principle must be fulfilled since there is no specifier. The specifier of the inflectional phrase is thus PRO. The subject (the teacher) uses the nominative case, and the object (the lesson) uses an accusative case.
Baure
Baure is an Arawakan language that also follows verb-initial word order. One of Baure's primary features is the importance in agreement of phi features. This example illustrates not only the verb-object-subject order but also the affixes for each verb:
That sentence displays a transitive verb with markers, indicating agreement in phi features for the subject and the object. The analysis of each affix is as follows:
Pi (1): The "Pi" refers to the second-person singular, indicating that the sentence involves direct conversation. One may assume that the person being identified is "you."
Ri: The "Ri" refers to a third-person entity that is feminine. The sentence states "take her to the..." and so the "Ri" acts like the pronoun "her."
Pi (2): The "Pi" of the second word refers to the same person with whom is directly conversed, "you."
Čo: The "čo" refers to the applied form since it matches the suffix of the first verb, which refers to "her." However, in the sentence, it contributes to no semantic meaning.
Cantonese (special cases)
Despite being a SVO language, there is evidence to suggest that Cantonese uses VOS word order in some cases, such as in casual speech or relative clauses.
Relative clause
Unlike English, which places a relative clause (RC) after the head noun that it modifies, Cantonese is very unusual among SVO languages by placing relative clauses before head nouns and by having prenominal relative clauses, which cause a VOS word order, as is seen in most subject-gapped relative clauses. Object-gapped relative clauses do not follow a VOS word order.
Subject-gapped RCs and object-gapped RCs in English:
Subject-gapped RC:
The head noun, "mouse," is placed before the relative clause (postnominal RC) in a subject-gapped RC in English. That is not the case in Cantonese and Mandarin in which head nouns are always placed after the RC (prenominal RC).
Object-gapped RC:
In object-gapped RCs, the object is placed before the relative clause in English.
Example of subject-gapped RC in Cantonese:
A subject-gapped RC behaves differently in Cantonese from English by being after the head noun (prenominal RC), which always yields a VOS order. It is extremely rare for SVO languages to adopt a prenominal RC structure. In a sample of 756 languages, only 5 languages have that VOS combinationless than 0.01%), one of which is Cantonese.
Casual speech
In casual speech, Cantonese-speakers often produce a VOS sentence in answering a question.
Example
Here is a typical response for a question such as "你食左飯未呀?", which translates to "did you eat yet?" in English.
Ch'ol
Ch'ol is another ergative Mayan language that is one of the Ch'olan-Tseltalan and has VOS as its basic word order. Subjects, objects, and possessors (nominal arguments) may be omitted.
Clemens and Coon propose that the language has three paths that motivate three types of VOS clauses:
Subjects contained in the high topic position after the verbs
Phonologically-heavy subjects are NP-shifted
Bare NP objects undergo prosodic reordering
Ch'ol objects in a VOS order are generally not full DPs, or the sentence is ungrammatical. The order is derived as VSO if the object is a full DP, as is shown in the table:
If the postverbal argument in the example above were a bare NP (without a determiner), instead of a proper name, there would have been a natural interpretation of the VOS order.
Coeur d'Alene
Coeur d’Alene is a Salishan language that has VOS as its dominant word order but does use word order to distinguish subject nouns from object nouns or agent nouns from patient nouns.
European Portuguese
Portuguese is a Western Romance language spoken in many places around the globe: Portugal, Brazil, Macau, etc. The language is split into European Portuguese and Brazilian Portuguese. European Portuguese is said to have a very flexible word order, and one of its grammatical possibilities is VOS.
Halkomelem
Halkomelem, an aboriginal language in British Columbia, has the same basic characteristics the other Salish languages by being inherently VSO. However, VOS is also sometimes possible. While some speakers do not accept VOS as grammatical, others allow it depending on the context. VOS may occur if there are two direct noun phrases in a clause, and the object is inanimate. Also, VOS is used if the content of the phrase disambiguates the agent from the patient:
The sentences below indicate that the object in a VOS sentence in Halkomelem is interpreted in its base position (VSO) for the purposes of binding theory.
Italian (special case)
Italian is most commonly a SVO language, but inversion can occur. If the subject may appear before the verb, it may appear also after the verb. VSO and VOS order, however, are notably rare, especially the latter.
Kaqchikel
Kaqchikel is an ergative and head-marking Mayan language in Guatemala. There is no case marking on the subject or the object. Instead, the verb classifies the person and numeric (plural or singular) agreement of the subjects and objects. Kaqchikel's basic structure is VOS, but the language allows for other word orders such as SVO. Since the language is head-marking, a sentence focuses on the subject that is before the verb. A sentence may be either VOS or VSO if switching the subject and the object semantically changes the meaning, but VOS is more common. An example is shown in the table below:
Malagasy
Malagasy is an Austronesian language that is the national language of Madagascar. It is a classic example of a language that has a fixed VOS structure:
This sentence shows the consistency of VOS in Malagasy with transitive verbs:
The extraction pattern in Malagasy, in which subjects can be relativized, but non-subjects within the VP lead to ungrammaticality, is consistent with a VP-raising hypothesis. This sentence show the possibility of relativizing surface subjects:
This sentence shows how extraction from within the VP is ungrammatical (*):
The empty spaces (___) are the extraction sites and the square brackets indicate the VP phrase.
Mandarin (special cases)
Unlike English, which places head nouns before relative clauses, Mandarin places head nouns after relative clauses. As a result, subject-gapped relative clauses in Mandarin, just like in Cantonese, result in a VOS order.
Example of subject-gapped relative clauses in Mandarin:
It is considered extremely rare for a SVO language to adopt a prenominal RC structure. In a sample of 756 languages, only 5 languages have that VOS combination, less than 0.01%, one being Mandarin.
Modern Greek (special cases)
Greek has a relatively flexible word order. However, there is an ongoing discussion of how VOS is rendered. The table below shows an example of a VOS sentence in Modern Greek:
Georgiafentis and Sfakianaki provide claims of four different researchers, who focus on how prosody affects the generated VOS in Greek:
Alexiadou suggests that the prominent constituent in VOS is the DP-subject. The DP-object moves over the DP-subject into a specifier position of VoiceP to derive the VOS order. The object movement to the specifier position is a result of scrambled objects and manner adverbs wanting to both move to VoiceP. Thus, the main stress is given to the DP-subject.
Philippakki-Warburton claims there are two intonation patterns that cause VOS in Greek:
The prominent constituent is something other than the DP-subject, like the verb or the DP-object. Therefore, the DP-subject is unstressed.
VOS is produced by p-movement (prosodic movement), from the DP-subject being emphatically stressed or from it being stressed because of Chomsky and Halle's Nuclear Stress Rule (NSR)
Haidou proposes that VOS has two possible intonations: whether a pause or not precedes the DP-subject will change the focus of the sentence. If there is a preceding pause (indicated with a comma intonation), the DP-subject does not possess the main focus. The focus is then instead on the object, as demonstrated in the table below.
Georgiafentis argues that subject focusing in VOS is derived from three intonational situations:
The main stress is acquired by a constituent other than the DP-subject (same discussion as Philippaki-Warbuton)
The DP-subject acquires main stress through NSR
The DP-subject is contrastively focused
Here is an example of a Greek contrastively-focused DP-subject (capitalized words indicate a contrastive focus):
Georgiafentis states that both the second and the third situation above are derived from p-movement.
Seediq
Seediq, an Atayalic language with a fixed VOS order, is spoken by Taiwanese indigenous people in northern Taiwan and the Taroko. Only the subject, which is always fixed in its clause-final position, may correspond to an argument with an absolutive case. No other clause-internal constituents may have an absolutive DP in Seediq.
Twana
Twana, a Coast Salishan language, has VOS as its basic word order, which distinguishes subject noun phrases from object noun phrases in sentences with active transitive verbs. Twana avoids using VSO, at least according to the evidence that was provided by the last proficient speaker.
Tzotzil
Tzotzil, like almost all other Mayan languages except Ch'orti', is a verb-initial word order language and is predominantly VOS but has been shown to permit SVO readily. In Tzotzil, the subject is not assumed to raise (in overt syntax) to the specifier of the clausal head, unlike Italian, which is a special case. A sample Tzotzil sentence is in the table below. The "ʔ" represent a glottal stop.
VP-raising, as expressed in the previous section, cannot account for Tzotzil's normal word order. If VP-raising had occurred, any further movement of direct objects or prepositional phrases would have been made prevented. Aissen, however, showed that Tzotzil allows direct objects to be extracted since wh-movement occurs:
Tzotzil also allows propositional phrases before the subject and all of those in verb phrases to undergo wh-movement. Also, an interrogative phrase of a transitive verb must entirely be pied-piped to be grammatical.
VOS clauses in Tzotzil cannot thus be derived by VP-raising. Chung proposes that languages without VP-raising may be assumed to have VOS, instead of SVO, as their basic word order.
Generative analysis
VP-raising
There is ongoing debate in generative linguistics as to how VOS clauses are derived, but there is significant evidence for verb-phrase-raising. Kayne's theory of antisymmetry suggests that VOS clauses are derived from SVO structure via the leftward movement of a VP constituent that contains a verb and object. The principles and parameters theory sets VOS and SVO clause structures as syntactically identical but does not account for SVO being typologically more common than VOS. According to the principles and parameters theory, the difference between SVO and VOS clauses is the direction in which parameters are set for projection of a T category's specifier. When the parameter is to the right of T(ense)'s specifier, VOS is realized, and when it is to the left, SVO is realized.
The motivation for movement from SVO to VOS structure is still undetermined, as some languages show inconsistencies with SVO underlying structure and an absence of VP-raising (such as Chamorro and Tzotzil). In verb-initial languages, the extended projection principle causes overt specifier movement from the strong tense [T], verb [V], or predicate [Pred] features.
Chung proposes a syntactic profile for verb-initial languages that are derived through VP-raising:
VP coordination is allowed.
The subject and other constituents outside the verb phrase can be extracted.
The subject has narrow scope over sentential elements.
VOS can be derived from SVO, but Maria Polinsky suggests that verb-initial languages (V1 languages) display other properties that correlate with verb-initiality and are crucial to analysis of V1 order.
Subject-only restriction
The subject-only restriction (SOR) exists in most, if not all, Austronesian languages and follows from the VP-raising account of VOS.
In a given clause, only one argument such as the external arguments, the subjects, or the sentence's most prominent argument, is attainable for "extraction" to undergo movements, which includes A-bar movements like wh-movement, topicalization, and relativization. No other arguments, such as the internal arguments or VP adjuncts, may undergo such movement. Since SOR restricts any internal arguments and VP adjuncts from undergoing any movements, the VP-internal or low adjuncts are not qualified to behave as if they are stranded by VP-raising. As a result, VOS is retained in those languages.
Examples in Seediq:
VP-external constituents are the only accessible constituents when structures require movements (like relative clauses or topicalization). In other words, structures requiring movements may access constituents only if they are external to VP. Any movement regarding the VP-internal or adjuncts constituents fails to satisfy the subject-only restriction.
Since movements with respect to internal arguments and VP adjuncts are not allowed in Seediq, and only VP-external movement is possible (unless the predicate undergo a change in voice morphology), only VOS is grammatical.
VP-remnant raising
Remnant raising and clause-final adjuncts
VP-raising accounts for Toba Batak are proposed by Cole and Herman. However, prior to the VP moving to its final position, they argue that adverbs and prepositions move out of the VP. If there are adjuncts present, VP-raising is considered as a type of remnant movement.
In contrast to Cole and Herman's prediction, Massam's proposal states that indirect objects and obliques that are generated higher than the VP have grammatical subextraction unless they move from the VP.
Remnant raising and VSO
If the object evacuates the VP before the VP moves into a higher position within the clause, it derives VSO order instead, of VOS. Massam looks at the difference between VP-raising accounts of VOS and VSO by investigating the Niuean language. Massam argues that whether a NP object or a DP is selected by the verb determines if there is VP or VP-remnant raising. To get the structure of a VOS clause, an NP object is selected by the verb; the selected NP does not need case and so it will stay in the VP. Consequently, the object is pseudo-incorporated into the verb in the VOS clause. If a DP object is selected by the verb, VP-remnant movement occurs and creates VSO.
Both possibilities are shown in the tables below:
Niuean VSO
Niuean VOS
VP-raising and VSO/VOS alternations
For languages whose alternations between VOS and VSO are more difficult to characterize, other factors help distinguish the word order. Unlike Niuean, whose objects are case-marked in VSO, not in VOS, Kroeger proposes that factors such as thematic role and grammatical functions help characterize word order such as in Tagalog. In reference to the verb, the argument with the highest thematic role should be the closest to it, and the highest grammatical function should be the farthest. For specifically-active voice clauses, the competition between the two situations helps to explain the variation of word order in Tagalog. Since there is no conflict in non-active clauses, there is less variation in word order.
Flexible linearization (FL) approach
Bury proposed that any phrase containing a subject and a constituent with a verb and an object can be linearized with the subject to the left or to the right of the verb-object constituent. That is called the flexible linearization (FL) approach, and with the combination of verb movement, it can account for most, if not all, VOS and VSO derivations. Under the assumption, word orders in languages surface as VOS because they may have been linearized with the subject, in this case to the right of the verb-object constituent.
FL approach differs from most other analyses such as by not assuming whether VOS or VSO has a more basic and rigid structure in the language and that the other one is derived from a special rule. FL approach emphasizes less on syntax and word orders and assumes that both VOS and VSO can occur underlyingly in different languages. Thus, alternation between VOS and VSO is expected in verb-initial languages unless the position of the subject or the object has some grammatical role:
Structure (not linearized): [ H [S [V O]] ] (where H stands for a head) can be pronounced as H + V S O conventionally.
Under the FL approach however, that structure can be pronounced as H + V O S, as the phrase is said to be linearized with the subject to the right of the verb-object constituent. Consequently, we see a VOS order.
Both pronunciations are linearizations of the same structure, but unless there are independent constraints on word order in a given language, both VSO and VOS orders are attainable in the same language.
Scrambling VSO
Scrambling in languages after VSO allows the derivation of VOS. A primary example is from Tongan:
Tongan VSO
Tongan VOS
Both sentences above in translation share the same meaning. However, the possibility of scrambling allows Tongan to scramble from its initial VSO state to a VOS form.
Right-branching
Right-branching occurs if the initial language has a subject that acts as a right-branching specifier. That means that the specifier becomes the sister of the V' located to the right. One of the forms of right-branching in VOS is parameterized right-branching, which moves the subject out of the right-branching VP domain and into a left-branching position. That is found in Tz'utujil in which right-branching occurs when the specifier begins with a lexical category, but left-branching occurs when the specifier begins with a functional category. These two tables below these examples:
In that sentence, the normal word order is VOS. In a tree however, "rats," would appear as the sister to the V'. The V' would then branch out into the VP (eat) and the object (clothes). That is what would be referred to as right+branching.
In that sentence, word order changes from VOS to SVO from left-branching to right-branching. As previously mentioned, one of the rules of Tz'utujil is if the specifier begins with a functional category, it is left branched. That means that the specifier will be placed as the sister to the left of V', and V' will branch as normally.
p-movement
Zubizarreta (1998) proposes p-movement as an analysis of certain movement operations in Spanish. Firstly, the VOS order is not a basic order but is instead derived from VSO or SVO by preposing the object. VOS order is allowed only in contexts that indicate that the subject is focused. That movement is triggered when the subject needs to be focused and so it is not a feature driven movement but instead a prosodically-motivated movement, hence the name p-movement.
p-movement is also a strictly-local process. Zubizaretta claims that the stress on the subject is neutral. It is the Nuclear Stress Rule (NSR), rather than her proposed additional focal stress rule, that assigns stress to the subject in VOS structures. The NSR allows for focus projection and so it is expected that wide focal interpretations are available in VOS, just like in VSO and in SVO.
Thus, it can be understood that fronting the object is motivated by allowing the subject to be at the place that nuclear stress falls.
See also
Subject–object–verb
Subject–verb–object
Object–subject–verb
Object–verb–subject
Verb–subject–object
References
Word order
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Ashley%20%28actor%29
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John Ashley (actor)
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John Ashley (December 25, 1934 – October 3, 1997) was an American actor, producer and singer. He was best known for his work as an actor in films for American International Pictures, producing and acting in horror films shot in the Philippines, and for producing various television series, including The A-Team.
Early life
Ashley never knew his unmarried parents who gave him up for adoption. He was adopted by a doctor, Roger Atchley and his wife Lucille, and reared in Tulsa, Oklahoma, where he had a younger sister, Kathryn.
He attended Will Rogers High School in Tulsa, where he was a champion wrestler, then went to Oklahoma State University in Stillwater on a wrestling scholarship, where he earned a bachelor's degree in economics.
Acting career
While still in college, Ashley was holidaying in California. He visited an alumnus of his college fraternity, Sigma Chi, who was a press agent who represented Dick Powell and John Wayne. The agent took him to the set of The Conqueror (1956), where he met Wayne, who had also belonged to Sigma Chi. Wayne was impressed with the young man's good looks and set him up with an interview with William Castle.
Castle was then making the TV anthology series Men of Annapolis, and was looking for someone to play a role that involved wrestling. Ashley's wrestling experience helped him get the job, and he did two episodes of the series, which helped him get an agent.
American International Pictures
Ashley broke into films when he accompanied a girlfriend to an audition at American International Pictures for a part in Dragstrip Girl (1957), directed by Edward L. Cahn. "We had a date at 6 p.m. but first she had to read for a part in a movie", he later recalled. "I was sitting in American International Picture's waiting room and a guy walked out and said, `Have we read everyone? What about this young man here?' It was the old Hollywood story -- I got a part in the film and she didn't." He ended up getting the part as the villain; his audition included an Elvis Presley impersonation. AIP signed Ashley to a four-picture non-exclusive contract expected to run for two years.
Dragstrip Girl was a success relative to its small budget. Ashley became a particular favorite of the daughters of James H. Nicholson, one of the main figures at AIP, and Nicholson always hoped Ashley would become a big star. Ashley unsuccessfully auditioned for the lead in I Was a Teenage Werewolf (1957) but appeared in several of AIP's other movies.
Ashley's second role for AIP, Motorcycle Gang (1957), was almost identical to Dragstrip Girl (it was again directed by Cahn). By this stage, Ashley had been drafted, and production was held up until he completed his basic training and could go on leave.
Ashley only served six months in the Army, at the Presidio in San Francisco. AIP got an early release for him to appear in a war film, Suicide Battalion (1958), directed by Cahn.
Outside AIP, he had a small role as a singer for Paramount's Zero Hour! (1957), had the lead in Frankenstein's Daughter (1958) and guest starred on Jefferson Drum (1958) in the episode "Arrival".
Music career
In addition to acting, Ashley was also a singer. His manager, Jerry Capeheart, also managed Eddie Cochran and in July 1957 his first single was released on Intro Records – the standard "Bermuda" and the song "Let Yourself Go Go Go"; Ashley performed the latter in Zero Hour!. The release of the single was timed to coincide with the release of Dragstrip Girl.
Ashley went on to make a number of records, including the singles "Seriously in Love" (1958), "Let the Good Times Roll" (1958), "Born to Rock" (1958), and "Little Lou" (1961). In 1959, he recorded a double-sided single, "The Net" and "The Hangman," both of which were early collaborations between songwriters Burt Bacharach and Hal David.
Ashley would perform the occasional concert; one of his musicians for a time was Glen Campbell. Ashley later said Randy Wood, head of Dot Records, "was terrific... but the kind of music he wanted me to sing was the kind of material I really didn't feel I sang that well. He was a very clean cut image guy. He didn't necessarily want a hard rocker."
In 2001, the German label Hydra Records released Born to Rock, a compact disc collection of Ashley's music.
Ashley was given a cameo as a singer in AIP's How to Make a Monster (1958) at the request of Nicholson. Ashley later said "that was casting more or less against type at that point because I had been playing delinquents and heavies."
AIP wanted Ashley to make a film called Hot Rod Gang (1958) aka Fury Unleashed, written by Rusoff and directed by Lew Landers. Gene Vincent played himself and sang several songs, as did Ashley. It was Ashley's first sympathetic lead role.
He was offered a part on the TV series Matinee Theatre, in an episode called "The Alleyway" with Janis Paige, and asked for the movie to be postponed so he could take it. However, Samuel Arkoff of AIP refused, and got an injunction preventing Ashley from appearing on TV. "I never really forgave him for that", said Ashley. "I was very upset about it. I felt they could shift the schedule one day to allow me to do it. As it turned out, and I'm sure they had their reasons, they couldn't do it." This led to Ashley's refusing to re-sign his contract with AIP.
Television
After his AIP contract wound up, Ashley worked steadily on TV. He was cast in the episode "Elkton Lake Feud" of the syndicated western television series Frontier Doctor, starring Rex Allen and directed by William Witney. He also appeared in the Henry Fonda show The Deputy ("The Wild Wind"), The Millionaire ("Susan Johnson", playing an aspiring singer) and Wagon Train ("The Amos Gibben Story"). Ashley thought he was often cast in Westerns because "I was from Oklahoma, and could ride, and had a bit of an accent when I first came out here. I always seemed the young Billy the Kid gunslinger."
Ashley returned to features with the lead in High School Caesar (1960), playing a tyrant at high school; it was made for an even smaller budget than his AIP films and was distributed by Roger Corman's Filmgroup. He went back to TV, guesting on Death Valley Days ("The Holdup-Proof Sale").
Ashley later said that at this stage of his career, he had no interest in the production side of things. "I was just having fun doing it", he said.
Straightaway
From 1961 to 1962, Ashley was cast in a co-starring role with Brian Kelly on the ABC adventure series Straightaway, set in an automobile mechanic shop and often focusing on the sport of drag racing. Ashley would occasionally sing. It ran for 26 episodes.
While a cast member of Straightaway, Ashley appeared in the 1961 episode, "The Holdup-Proof Safe" of then syndicated western anthology series, Death Valley Days, hosted by Stanley Andrews. He played the role of Sandy, a young rodeo performer who wants to become a deputy sheriff so that he can marry his sweetheart, Katie Downs (Susan Crane). However, he is arrested for the theft of funds from the "holdup-proof" safe in the building of merchant Gus Lammerson (Regis Toomey). With Katie's aid, Sandy escapes jail to find the real thieves.
Ashley also appeared in another episode of Wagon Train ("The Abel Weatherly Story"), as well as Rawhide ("Incident in the Garden of Eden"), The Beverly Hillbillies ("Elly Becomes a Secretary") and Petticoat Junction ("Spur Line to Shady Rest"). Ashley had a part in Hud (1963), perhaps his most acclaimed film, although several of his scenes wound up being cut in the final edit.
Beach party movies
Ashley was one of the few AIP lead actors who made the transition from juvenile delinquent movies to beach party films when he was called back to the studio to play Ken, Frankie Avalon's best friend in Beach Party (1963). "The wounds had healed", said Ashley later. The movie was a success and AIP signed Ashley to do two more movies.
Ashley returned for the sequels Muscle Beach Party (1964) and Bikini Beach (1964), playing "Johnny" (essentially the same role as in Beach Party). He guest starred on Dr Kildare in "Night of the Beast" (1964).
Ashley was not in Pajama Party (1964), but did appear in Sergeant Deadhead (1965), once again playing Avalon's best friend. He was in Beach Blanket Bingo (1965), this time playing Avalon's rival. Both Sergeant Deadhead and Bingo featured Deborah Walley, whom Ashley had married in 1962.
Ashley later recalled shooting one of the beach party scenes with Avalon, saying, "Our backs were to the water camera and we were walking and talking and Frankie said, 'Man, can you believe us? Two 30-year-old guys out here in body make-up and red trunks.'"
Beach Blanket Bingo was the only beach movie where Ashley had much to do. "That was the only one where there was really a character", he said. "Other than that, it was basically 'Frankie's buddy stands – the guy in the red bathing suit.'"
Ashley was given a lead role for Azalea Films' The Eye Creatures (1965), filmed in Texas and directed by Larry Buchanan as a remake of AIP's Invasion of the Saucer Men (1957). Ashley later estimated his fee took up more than half the budget.
For Allied Artists, he played Baby Face Nelson in Young Dillinger (1965) alongside Nick Adams and Robert Conrad. He was reportedly going to do Three to Make Zero, a thriller with Conrad from a script by Richard Bakalyan but it was not made. Also announced but not made was Runaway Skis, meant to star Ashley and Walley, from a script by James Stacy and directed by Frank Paris.
Ashley's final beach party movie was How to Stuff a Wild Bikini (1965), where he played "Johnny"; he sang a few songs on the soundtrack. Ashley did not appear in the final film in the series, The Ghost in the Invisible Bikini (1966), although he was originally announced as starring in it and Walley did appear.
He guest starred on Conrad's show The Wild Wild West, appearing in "The Night of Watery Death", and was back on The Beverly Hillbillies in "The Cat Burglar" and "Mr. Universe Muscles".
The Philippines and Eddie Romero
In 1968, Ashley received an offer to make a film in the Philippines. As his marriage to Walley ended, he was keen to get out of the country and accepted. He made Brides of Blood (1968) for producer Eddie Romero, the second movie in Romero's "Blood Island" horror film series. Ashley also had a supporting role in a war film for Romero that starred James Shigeta titled Manila, Open City (1968).
Ashley starred in Hell on Wheels (1967), playing the brother of Marty Robbins. He also had a small role in 2001: A Space Odyssey playing an astronaut, a part that was cut from some editions of the film.
Ashley then returned to Oklahoma, where he ran some movie theaters. A distributor friend of Ashley's found success screening Brides of Blood and suggested that Ashley return to the Philippines to make another film there. Ashley agreed and returned to the Philippines to star in The Mad Doctor of Blood Island in 1969, co-directed by Romero. It did well at the box office, beginning a long-running association with the Philippines and with Romero. Ashley returned to the Philippines to make a sequel to Mad Doctor, Beast of Blood (1970) for Hemisphere Pictures, again directed by Romero.
"It was a release for me to live in the Philippines for three months a year", said Ashley. "I bought a condo there; it was like a vacation for me".
Romero recalled Ashley as "very easy to get along with, very companionable."
Producer
Four Associates
After finishing Beast of Blood, Romero suggested to Ashley that they finance their own movies. They formed their own company, Four Associates Ltd; its first release was Beast of the Yellow Night (1971). Ashley next appeared in a Western called Smoke in the Wind, his first acting appearance in an American-shot film for a number of years; it was not widely seen, however, and was not released until 1975.
Additional funding for Yellow Night came from Corman and his New World Pictures. Corman told Ashley about The Big Doll House (1971), which he wanted to make in Puerto Rico; Ashley encouraged Corman to produce it in the Philippines and the director agreed. Ashley worked as executive producer, providing the above-the-line costs. The film was a huge success and initiated a cycle of women in prison films.
Ashley starred in and produced The Woman Hunt (1972), a remake of The Most Dangerous Game, for Romero and Corman. Ashley and Romero then made The Twilight People (1972), an adaptation of The Island of Dr Moreau, for Dimension Pictures, which Ashley considered one of his favorite films.
Ashley and Romero produced (but Ashley did not appear in) Black Mama White Mama (1973), a variation on The Defiant Ones, for AIP. It was his most financially successful feature as a producer.
He appeared in and produced Beyond Atlantis (1973) for Dimension, a variation on The Treasure of the Sierra Madre starring Patrick Wayne and directed by Romero. The film was aimed at a family audience and was less violent than other Romero/Ashley films – it performed less well at the box office. Ashley later said it was the only film he had money in which "didn't make it".
Ashley produced and appeared in Black Mamba (1974), but the movie was not released until after Ashley's death in 1997. He also acted in and produced Savage Sisters (1974) (aka Ebony Ivory and Jade) for AIP; the Los Angeles Times said he played his role in the latter with "surprising flair".
In April 1974 he was given a special award for his contribution to the Philippines film industry at the Filipino Academy of Movies Arts and Sciences; he had made 11 movies there.
Ashley produced and had a support role in Sudden Death (1977), directed by Romero and starring Robert Conrad.
Apocalypse Now
During 1975–76, Ashley acted as Philippines liaison for Apocalypse Now (1979). He said,
Fred Roos made up a list: Can you provide the following things? He used my company on a loan-out basis so he didn't have to go into the tax situation of starting a new company. One of the things we were able to provide was about a half-dozen Huey helicopters, the kind that had been used in Vietnam.
Ashley spent a year working with Francis Ford Coppola and Roos on Apocalypse Now until he returned to Oklahoma to manage his theaters. "I told Francis a year was too long to be away from my theater business, and I went back to Oklahoma", he said. By the late 1970s, the Philippines was becoming less attractive as a filming destination, and Ashley made no further films there.
Return to the U.S.
Ashley announced he would make Cheerleaders (about three cheerleaders) and Hard Time Aces (the latter starring Conrad) for New World, but never made the films.
By this stage, Ashley had about 40 screens in Oklahoma, which he ended up selling to a major theater circuit. "I couldn't compete with the big boys", he said. He took about a year off, "watched my two sons play football for about a year, and then my (third) wife said, 'What are you going to do? You'll go crazy here.' So four years ago, we moved to Los Angeles."
Ashley went to work as a producer at Conrad's production company. He produced two TV movies starring Conrad, Coach of the Year (1980) and Will: G. Gordon Liddy (1982).
The A Team
Ashley was hired by Stephen J. Cannell to work on The Quest (1982). During the filming of an episode in France, Ashley had a heart attack. "I was a little overweight, I had put on a few pounds, and I got some diet pills and they caused a spasm in my heart", he recalled.
Ashley recovered, and when The Quest was canceled due to poor ratings, Cannell offered Ashley The A Team. He was one of three supervising producers, along with Frank Lupo, of a hit show that ran for 98 episodes (Ashley went from "producer" to "executive producer" for the last few seasons). Ashley also served as the narrator of the opening title sequence during the show's first four seasons and made a cameo during the first season.
"You can never predict a hit", Ashley later reflected, "but we were shooting the pilot... in Mexico, and a lot of crew members said, 'I got a feeling about this'. It's like catching lightning, this kind of success -- it only happens once in your life, finding someone like Mr. T and having him and the show become the phenomenon they have".
Frank Lupo persuaded Ashley to play a cameo in the show's second two-hour special, as a backer for a bogus horror movie proposed by series regular Dirk Benedict, called The Beast of the Yellow Night. A few seconds from that episode, showing Benedict with his arm around Ashley, can be glimpsed in the series' opening credits sequence.
"One of the things I like about the series is working with young actors who come in and read for us", he said in 1985. "A lot of them have their own little bits of business. Sometimes it's funny, sometimes it's a little sad. But I know what it's like. I've been there."
Later career
Ashley then produced Werewolf (1987), created by Lupo, which ran for 28 episodes.
He produced Something Is Out There (1988), a miniseries which led to a short-lived series.
He also worked on Police Story: Gladiator School (1988) with Conrad, Hardball (1989), the TV movie Dark Avenger (1990), The Raven (1992) and the TV movie Journey to the Center of the Earth (1993).
Ashley produced some seasons of Walker, Texas Ranger. He did another TV series for Cannell, Marker (1995), and a series starring Brian Bosworth, Lawless (1997), which was canceled after one episode.
Ashley briefly returned to acting with a small role in Invisible Mom (1996), directed by his friend Fred Olen Ray. He had previously turned down a role in the 1987 beach party parody Back to the Beach.
His last film as producer was Scar City (1998).
Personal life
Ashley married actress Deborah Walley in 1962. They had one son, Anthony Ashley, before they divorced in 1966. Ashley later married his second wife, Nancy Moore, and had a son, Cole Ashley. He later married his third wife, Jan Ashley Glass.
Ashley was a noted fundraiser for President Lyndon B. Johnson.
Death
On October 3, 1997, Ashley died of a heart attack in New York City at the age of 62. He had just left the set of the movie Scar City, and died in his car in the parking lot outside the studio.
Selected filmography
Dragstrip Girl (1957) – Fred Armstrong
Motorcycle Gang (1957) – Nick Rogers
Zero Hour! (1957) – TV singer
Suicide Battalion (1958) – Pvt. Tommy Novello
How to Make a Monster (1958) – John Ashley
Hot Rod Gang (1958) – John Abernathy III
Frankenstein's Daughter (1958) – Johnny Bruder
High School Caesar (1960) – Matt Stevens
Hud (1963) – Hermy
Beach Party (1963) – Ken
Muscle Beach Party (1964) – Johnny
Bikini Beach (1964) – Johnny
Beach Blanket Bingo (1965) – Steve Gordon
Young Dillinger (1965) – "Baby Face" Nelson
How to Stuff a Wild Bikini (1965) – Johnny
Sergeant Deadhead (1965) – Airman Filroy
The Eye Creatures (1965, TV movie) – Stan Kenyon
Hell on Wheels (1967) – Del Robbins
Brides of Blood (1968) – Jim Farrell
Manila, Open City (1968) – Morgan, a Medic
The Mad Doctor of Blood Island (1968) – Dr. Bill Foster
Beast of Blood (1970, also producer) – Dr. Bill Foster
Beast of the Yellow Night (1971, also producer) – Joseph Langdon/Philip Rogers
The Big Doll House (1971, associate producer only)
The Twilight People (1972, also producer) – Matt Farrell
The Woman Hunt (1972, also producer) – Tony
Black Mama, White Mama (1972, producer only)
Beyond Atlantis (1973, also producer) – Logan
Savage Sisters (1974, also producer) – W. P. Billingsley
Black Mamba (1974, also producer) – Dr. Paul Morgan
Smoke in the Wind (1975) – Whipple Mondier
Sudden Death (1977) – John Shaw
Apocalypse Now (1979, associate producer only)
Invisible Mom (1997) – Herbert Pringle (voice) (final film role)
Scar City (1998, producer only)
Television
Men of Annapolis (1957) – Joe/Tony Bellor
Jefferson Drum (1958) – Tim Keough
The Deputy (1959) – Trooper Nelson
The Millionaire (1960) – Ken Clarkson
Death Valley Days (1961) – Sandy
Straightaway (1961–1962) – Clipper Hamilton
Wagon Train (1960–1963) – Michelangelo Fratelli/Bill Collier
Petticoat Junction (1963) – Fred
The Beverly Hillbillies (1963–1967) – Troy Apollo/Mike Wilcox/Bob Billington
Dr Kildare (1964) – Mitch
The Wild Wild West (1966) – Lt. Keighley
Coach of the Year (1980, producer only)
Will: G. Gordon Liddy (1982, producer only)
The A-Team (1983–1986, executive producer) – narrator/radio newscaster/announcer (voice, uncredited)
The Quest (1982, producer)
Werewolf (1987, executive producer only)
Something Is Out There (1988, producer only)
Hardball (1989, producer only)
Raven (1992, executive producer only)
Journey to the Centre of the Earth (1993, producer only)
Walker, Texas Ranger (1993–1994, executive producer only)
Marker (1995, producer only)
Lawless (1997, producer only)
Unmade projects
Thorns of Bonaparte (1967)
Select discography
Singles
"Let Yourself Go-Go-Go"/"Bermuda" (August 1957, Intro Records) – his first single
"Pickin' on the Wrong Chicken"/"Born to Rock" (May 1958, Dot Records)
"Seriously in Love"/"I Want to Hear It from You" (1958, Silver Records)
"My Story"/"Let the Good Times Roll" (December 1958, Dot Records)
"Suddenly You Want to Dance"/"Return by Heart" (Feb 1959)
"The Hangman"/"The Net" (April 1959, Dot Records) - Variety said this had "a stirring Western beat"
"I Want To Hear It From You"/"Seriously In Love" (December 1959, Silver Records)
"Cry of the Wild Goose"/"One Love" (March 1960, Silver Records)
"Little Lou"/"I Need Your Lovin'" (May 1961, Capehart Records)
Compilation albums
Born to Rock (2001, Hydra Records)
From Hot Rod Gang
"Believe Me" (1958)
"Annie Laurie" (1958)
"Hit and Run Lover" (1958)
From How to Stuff a Wild Bikini
"How to Stuff a Wild Bikini" (1965) – sung in the film
"That's What I Call a Healthy Girl" (1965) – sung in the film
"The Boy Next Door" (1965) – cover version of song from the film
"After the Party" (1965) – cover version of song from the film
"Follow Your Leader" (1965) – cover version of song from the film
Other songs
"You Gotta Have Eee-Ooo"
"Don't Let Them Tear Us Apart"
"Mean Mean Woman"
"Can't Let You Go"
Notes
References
Weaver, Tom, "Interview with John Ashley", Interviews with B Science Fiction and Horror Movie Makers: Writers, Producers, Directors, Actors, Moguls and Makeup, McFarland 1988
External links
John Ashley at Brian's Drive In Theatre
John Ashley at TCMDB
Fred Olen Ray, 'Remembering John Ashley', The Astounding B Monster Archive
1934 births
1997 deaths
20th-century American businesspeople
20th-century American male actors
20th-century American male singers
20th-century American singers
American male film actors
American male television actors
American television producers
Male actors from Oklahoma
Singers from Oklahoma
Oklahoma State University alumni
Will Rogers High School alumni
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4769018
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public%20hospital
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Public hospital
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A public hospital, or government hospital, is a hospital which is government owned and is fully funded by the government and operates solely off the money that is collected from taxpayers to fund healthcare initiatives. In some countries, this type of hospital provides medical care free of charge to patients, covering expenses and wages by government reimbursement.
The level of government owning the hospital may be local, municipal, state, regional, or national, and eligibility for service, not just for emergencies, may be available to non-citizen residents.
Americas
Brazil
The Brazilian health system is a mix composed of public hospitals, non-profit philanthropic hospitals, and private hospitals. The majority of the low- and medium-income population uses services provided by public hospitals run by either the state or the municipality. Since the inception of 1988 Federal Constitution, health care is a universal right for everyone living in Brazil: citizens, permanent residents, and foreigners. To provide this service, the Brazilian government created a national public health insurance system in which all publicly funded hospitals (public and philanthropic entities) receive payments based on the number of patients and procedures performed. The construction and operation of hospitals and health clinics are also a responsibility of the government.
The system provides universal coverage to all patients, including emergency care, preventive medicine, diagnostic procedures, surgeries (except cosmetic procedures) and medicine necessary to treat their condition. However, given budget constraints, these services are often unavailable in the majority of the country with the exception of major metropolitan regions, and even in those cities access to complex procedures may be delayed because of long lines. Despite this scenario, some patients were able to successfully sue the government for full SUS coverage for procedures performed in non-public facilities.
Recently, new legislation has been enacted forbidding private hospitals to refuse treatment to patients with insufficient funds in case of life-threatening emergencies. The law also determines that the healthcare costs in this situation are to be paid by the SUS.
According to the World Health Organization, in 2014, total expenditure on health reached 8.3% of GDP, i.e. $1,318 per capita.
Canada
In Canada all hospitals are funded through Medicare, Canada's publicly funded universal health insurance system and operated by the provincial governments. Hospitals in Canada treat all Canadian citizens and permanent residents regardless of their age, income, or social status.
According to the World Health Organization, in 2014, total expenditure on health reached 10.4% of GDP, i.e. $4,641 per capita.
Hospital funding in Canada follows provincial health plans and hospitals are required by law to operate within their budgets. Provincial health plans aim to cover wide area of medical services and procedures, from hospital records to nutritional care. On average physician services receive approximately 15% of provincial health funding, while hospitals get around 35%.
Even though hospitals are mostly funded by taxpayers, some hospitals, as well as medical research facilities, receive charitable donations. Besides this, there is increasing trend of privatisation of some hospital services if those services go beyond provincial health budgets. That is usually done in a form of "outsourcing". Hospitals are inclined to outsource any service that is not related to the basic patient care. That includes hospital security, maintenance of information systems, catering service, record keeping. Those services are increasingly provided by private sector. Companies like Data General, Johnson Controls, Versa are main providers of outsourced hospital services in Canada.
United States
In the United States, two thirds of all urban hospitals are non-profit. The remaining third is split between for-profit and public, public hospitals not necessarily being not-for-profit hospital corporations. The urban public hospitals are often associated with medical schools. The largest public hospital system in the U.S. is NYC Health + Hospitals.
According to the World Health Organization (WHO), in 2014, total expenditure on health reached 17.1% of GDP, i.e. $9,403 per capita.
History
The safety-net role of public hospitals has evolved since the 1700s when the first U.S. public hospital sheltered and provided medical healthcare to the poor. Until the late 20th century, public hospitals represented the "poor house" that undertook social welfare roles. The "poor house" also provided secondary medical care, specifically during epidemics. For this reason, these "poor houses" were later known as "pest" houses. Following this phase was the "practitioner period" during which, the then welfare oriented urban public hospitals changed their focus to medical care and formalized nursing care. This new phase was highlighted by the private physicians providing care to patients outside their private practices into inpatient hospital settings. To put into practice the demands of the Flexner Report published in 1910, public hospitals later benefited from the best medical care technology to hire full-time staff members, instruct medical and nursing students during the "academic period". The privatization of public hospitals was often contemplated during this period and stalled once an infectious disease outbreak such as influenza in 1918, tuberculosis in the early 1900s, and the polio epidemic in the 1950s hit the U.S.. At this time, with the goal to improve people's health and welfare by allowing for effective health planning and the creation of neighborhood health centers, health policies like the Social Security Act were enacted. This was followed by Medicare and Medicaid Act in 1965 that gave poor people in the U.S., access to inpatient and outpatient medical care from public hospitals after racial segregation ended in the South. With their mandate to care for low income patients, the public hospital started engaging in leadership roles in the communities they care for since the 1980s.
There was a 14% decrease in public hospitals in the United States from 2008 to 2018, compared to 4% of the total number of hospitals. In 2021 there were 965 public hospitals in the United States, compared to 5,198 hospitals total.
Repercussions of accumulated uncompensated care
In the U.S., public hospitals receive significant funding from local, state, and/or federal governments. Currently, many urban public hospitals in the U.S. playing the role of safety-net hospitals, which do not turn away the under insured and uninsured, may charge Medicaid, Medicare, and private insurers for the care of patients. Public hospitals, especially in urban areas, have a high concentration of uncompensated care and graduate medical education as compared to all other American hospitals. 23% of emergency care, 63% of burn care and 40% of trauma care are handled by public hospitals in the cities of the United States. Many public hospitals also develop programs for illness prevention with the goal of reducing the cost of care for low-income patients and the hospital, involving Community Health Needs Assessment and identifying and addressing the social, economic, environmental, and individual behavioral determinants of health.
For-profit hospitals were more likely to provide profitable medical services and less likely to provide medical services that were relatively unprofitable. Government or public hospitals were more likely to offer relatively unprofitable medical services. Not-for-profit hospitals often fell in the middle between public and for-profit hospitals in the types of medical services they provided. For-profit hospitals were quicker to respond to changes in profitability of medical services than the other two types of hospitals.
Public hospitals in America are closing at a much faster rate than hospitals overall. The number of public hospitals in major suburbs declined 27% (134 to 98) from 1996 to 2002. Much research has proven the increase in uninsured and Medicaid enrollment entwined to unmet needs for disproportionate share subsidies to be associated with the challenges faced by public hospitals to maintain their financial viability as they compete with the private sector for paying patients. Since the creation of the Affordable Care Act (ACA) in 2010, 15 million of the 48 million previously uninsured receive Medicaid. It is projected that this number will grow to about 33 million by 2018. The provision of good quality ambulatory specialty care for these uninsured and Medicaid enrolled patients has particularly been a challenge for many urban public hospitals. This accounts for many factors ranging from a shortage of specialists who are more likely to practice in the more profitable sectors than in the safety-net, to the lack of clinical space. To overcome this challenge, some public hospitals have adopted disease prevention methods, the increase of specialty providers and clinics, deployment of nurse practitioners and physician assistants in specialty clinics, asynchronous electronic consultations, telehealth, the integration of Primary Care Providers (PCP) in the specialty clinics, and referral by PCP's to specialists.
Asia
China
After the Cultural Revolution, public healthcare was mandatory and private hospitals became public, state run hospitals. Each person was taken care of by the community, both for his or her job and for his or her health. Medicine focused mainly on primary care and basic prevention. The reception structures corresponded to Western dispensaries or hospitals. Because of the welfare state, both hospitals and dispensaries were public. Patients did not pay for the care they receive. However, in hospitals there were differences in the quality of care between managers, their families, deserving workers and other patients. Epidemic prevention posts was set up in 1954 throughout the country and made it possible to eradicate many epidemics. Large-scale vaccination campaigns and the strengthening of medical care in impoverished rural areas made it possible to prevent many diseases. Life expectancy rose from 35 years in 1949 to 65.86 years in 1978.
The 1979 reform of the health system reduced public funding for hospitals from 90% to 15%. Hospitals must be 85% self-financing. As a result, patients have to pay for their health care. Thus, many people can no longer afford to go to hospital for treatment. In 2005, 75% of the rural inhabitants and 45% of the urban inhabitants stated that they could not afford to go to hospital for economic reasons. Urbanization and the abandonment of the countryside mean that 80% of medical resources are located in cities. In 2009, health expenditure represented 4.96% of GDP, or 72.1 euros per capita. Public funding represents 24.7% of total health expenditure. In comparison, public funding in the United States is 50% and it is nearly 80% in Japan and European countries.
Since the SARS crisis in 2003, the Chinese authorities have undertaken health system reforms and health insurance revival. In 2006, the objectives of the health reform were defined as:
Since 2009, an investment plan of 850 billion yuans (over 92 billion euros) was devoted to this reform. In order to improve public hospitals, several recommendations were published in February 2010:
In February 2010, sixteen hospitals in sixteen different cities were designated to test this comprehensive reform.
In November 2010, the Council of State Affairs encouraged the development of private institutions to pluralize the offering of care. To this end, it introduced tax and other benefits to encourage compliance with quality standards, laws and regulations. By 2018 one private hospital network had 8,000 hospitals. "American financial firms like Sequoia Capital and Morgan Stanley have invested billions of dollars" in this network.
According to the World Health Organization, in 2014, total expenditure on health in China reached 5.5% of GDP, i.e. $731 per capita.
India
In India, public hospitals (called Government Hospitals) provide health care free at the point of use for any Indian citizen or legal resident. These are usually individual state funded. However, hospitals funded by the central (federal) government also exist. State hospitals are run by the state (local) government and may be dispensaries, peripheral(Public) health centers, rural hospital, district hospitals or medical college hospitals (hospitals with affiliated medical college). In many states (like Tamil Nadu) the hospital bill is entirely funded by the state government with patient not having to pay anything for treatment. However, other hospitals will charge nominal amounts for admission to special rooms and for medical and surgical consumables. The reliability and approachability of doctors and staff in private hospitals have resulted in preference of people from the public to private health centers. However state owned hospitals in India are known for high patient load.
According to the World Health Organization, in 2014, total expenditure on health reached 4.7% of GDP, i.e. $267 per capita.
Oceania
Australia
In Australia, public hospitals are operated and funded by each individual state's health department. The federal government also contributes funding. Services in public hospitals for all Australian citizens and permanent residents are fully subsidized by the federal government's Medicare Universal Healthcare program. Hospitals in Australia treat all Australian citizens and permanent residents regardless of their age, income, or social status.
Emergency Departments are almost exclusively found in public hospitals. Private hospitals rarely operate emergency departments, and patients treated at these private facilities are billed for care. Some costs, however (pathology, X-ray) may qualify for billing under Medicare.
Where patients hold private health insurance, after initial treatment by a public hospital's emergency department, the patient has the option of being transferred to a private hospital.
According to the World Health Organization, in 2014, total expenditure on health reached 9.4% of GDP, i.e. $4,357 per capita.
Europe
France
In France, there are public and private hospitals.
Public hospitals are managed by a board of directors and have their own budget. Since there is social insurance for everyone in France, people almost do not have to pay for medical interventions. So, the purpose of public hospital in France is to heal everyone, participate in public health actions, participate in university teaching and research, ... It must guarantee equal access for all to health care.
All services provided by public hospitals in France can be grouped in 4 categories:
Health care,
Prevention,
Education and training,
Research.
Public hospital is mainly financed by employees contributions and health insurance, all of which is public money.
Some important laws and reforms made public hospitals what it is nowadays in France :
1996 reform : Creation of « regional hospitalization agencies » to plan and control;Inclusion of users representatives on the board of directors.
2005 reform : Creation of an executive council;Simplification of the internal organization, highlighting « business areas » with a greater autonomy;Replacement of the budget by a statement of estimates of revenues and expenditures Establishment of procedures in case of financial problems.
2009 reform : Modification of the governance of public health care institutions by setting up a director with a board of directors and a supervisory board;No more executive council.
Administrative organization:
The Director is the legal representative of the public health care institution. He has important responsibilities and is mainly responsible for the day-to-day management of the hospital, under the supervision of the supervisory board;
The board of directors is chaired by the director. There are between 7 and 9 members. It advises the director and must be consulted on certain decisions;
The supervisory board, with only 9 members, supervises the activity of the institution and adopts certain decisions;
The « Medical Board » is the body representing the medical and pharmaceutical staff of the institution. It is consulted on the principal projects and plays an evaluation role;
The « technical committee » is the body of representing of the non-medical staff;
The « Health, safety and working conditions » committee.
In 2020, with the coronavirus crisis, we can see a health crisis. Indeed, between 2006 and 2016, 64 000 beds had been removed. There was also a « wage freeze » and budgetary constraints. It has been a problem during the coronavirus crisis because public hospitals have been needed more than ever, with not enough beds to cope with the huge number of sick people.
University-affiliated hospital (CHU in French) :
It is a public hospital that is working with a university. Their purpose is to teach medicine to students, and to practice research. They have been created in 1958 in France. The creation of university hospital centres has led to the emergence of a mixed hospital and university status for employees (doctors, ...). They are attached to a hospital department and a university department, usually within a research laboratory. Among this staff, there are : professors, university lecturers, doctors, clinic managers, ...
According to the World Health Organization, in 2014, total expenditure on health reached 11.5% of GDP, i.e. $4,508 per capita.
Germany
German healthcare system consists of public hospitals (55 percent of total hospitals), voluntary charitable hospitals (38 percent of total hospitals) and private hospitals (7 percent of total hospitals). In Germany, public hospitals are run by local or federal state authorities. These include Germany's university hospitals. Hospital costs will be taken care of by insurance companies for all people who are covered by public health insurance. On the other hand, clients which are covered by private insurance have to pay additional fees. Children under 18 years of age do not have to pay any costs.
According to the World Health Organization, in 2014, total expenditure on health reached 11.3% of GDP, i.e. $5,182 per capita.
Italy
In Italy, the health system is organised by the National Health Service (SSN, Servizio Sanitario Nazionale) but the management of the health care system is done at the regional level by Regional Health Agencies working with Local Health Authorities (ASL, Azienda Sanitaria Locale). The SSN provides health coverage that allows access to basic medical care (general medicine, paediatrics, dental care, hospitalization, and some medicines).
According to the World Health Organization, in 2014, total expenditure on health reached 9.2% of GDP, i.e. $3,239 per capita.
There are private and public hospitals. Hospitals contracted by the SSN allow the patient's care to be paid for. Italian hospitals are classified into 3 categories according to their specialities and their capacity to handle emergencies:
Basic hospitals: limited number of specialties, population area between 80,000 and 150,000 inhabitants.
Level 1 hospitals: high number of specialties, population area between 150,000 and 300,000 inhabitants.
Level 2 hospitals: high speciality university hospitals and scientific research institutes, population area between 600 000 and 1.2 million inhabitants.
Norway
In Norway, all public hospitals are funded from the national budget and run by four Regional Health Authorities (RHA) owned by the Ministry of Health and Care Services. In addition to the public hospitals, a few privately owned health clinics are operating. The four Regional Health Authorities are: Northern Norway Regional Health Authority, Central Norway Regional Health Authority, Western Norway Regional Health Authority, and Southern and Eastern Norway Regional Health Authority. All citizens are eligible for treatment free of charge in the public hospital system. According to The Patients' Rights Act, all citizens have the right to Free Hospital Choices.
According to the World Health Organization (WHO), in 2014, total expenditure on health reached 9.7% of GDP, i.e. $6,347 per capita.
Portugal
In Portugal, three systems work together to provide health care. The National Universal Health Service, health subsystems and health insurance plans. The National Universal Health Service is a universal system funded through taxation. Adhesion to a health insurance is done through the professional network or voluntarily.
Primary care is provided in public health centres. To receive care in hospital you must have a prescription for a general practitioner except in case of emergency. Hospitals provide secondary and tertiary care as well as emergencies. Portugues hospitals are classified into five groups:
- Group I: Hospitals providing some internal medicine and surgery services and some specialities like oncology, hematology. This depends on the type of population and the framework set by the Central Administration of the Health System.
- Group II: Hospitals providing some internal medicine and surgery services and some specialities that are not able in Group I's hospitals.
- Group III: Hospitals providing all internal medicine and surgery services and all specialities that are not able in Group II's hospitals.
- Group IV: Hospitals specialized in oncology, internal medicine, rehabilitation, psychiatry and mental health.
The lack of coordination between hospitals and primary care centres and the fact that many people went directly to the emergency room. without going to a general practitioner before, have led to the creation of local health units that include one or more hospitals as well as primary centres. These units were created according to geographical location, the balance of specialties and the availability of emergency services.
According to the World Health Organization (WHO), in 2014, total expenditure on health reached 9.5% of GDP, i.e. $2,690 per capita.
Spain
The Spanish public health system is universal: anyone in need of medical care can apply for it, even those who are not affiliated to the Spanish Social Security and who, in case of need, can go to the emergency room for treatment.
People without Social Security and without the European Health Insurance Card must pay for health care. The Spanish national healthcare system covers almost every Spanish. It is financed by taxes, so that Spanish do not have to pay directly for it.
Hospital treatment can be provided in different types of hospitals:
- General hospitals from the national health system: they provide care in different specialties (internal medicine, general medicine, paediatrics, radiology, orthopaedics, obstetrics and gynaecology, etc.).
- Regional hospitals: they provide tertiary treatment or very specialized care which require advanced technologies. They are located in urban zones.
- National reference centres specialized in specific pathologies.
- Private hospitals under contract.
According to the World Health Organization, in 2014, total expenditure on health reached 9.0% of GDP, i.e. $2,966 per capita.
United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, public hospitals provide health care free at the point of use for the patient, excluding outpatient prescriptions. Private health care is used by less than 8 percent of the population. The UK system is known as the National Health Service (NHS) and has been funded from general taxation since 1948.
According to the World Health Organization (WHO), in 2014, total expenditure on health reached 9.1% of GDP, i.e. $3,377 per capita.
Africa
South Africa
South Africa has private and public hospitals. Public hospitals are funded by the Department of Health. The majority of the patients use public hospitals in which patients pay a nominal fee, roughly $3–5. The patients point of entry usually is through primary health care (Clinics) usually run by nurses. The next level of care would be district hospitals which have General Practitioners and basic radiographs. The next level of care would be Regional hospitals which have general practitioners, specialists and ICU's, and CT SCANS. The highest level of care is Tertiary which includes super specialists, MRI scans, and nuclear medicine scans.
Private patients either have healthcare insurance, known as medical aid, or have to pay the full amount privately if uninsured.
According to the World Health Organization (WHO), in 2014, total expenditure on health reached 8.8% of GDP, i.e. $1,148 per capita.
Zambia
"In the main hospital" in Lusaka, Zambia "a surgeon makes about $24,000 a year;" by comparison, "the median salary of a surgeon in New Jersey is $216,000."
References
Publicly funded health care
Social programs
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4769108
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eileen%20Joyce
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Eileen Joyce
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Eileen Alannah Joyce CMG (died 25 March 1991) was an Australian pianist whose career spanned more than 30 years. She lived in England in her adult years.
Her recordings made her popular in the 1930s and 1940s, particularly during World War II. At her zenith she was compared in popular esteem with Gracie Fields and Vera Lynn. When she played in Berlin in 1947 with the Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra, an eminent German critic classed her with Clara Schumann, Sophie Menter and Teresa Carreño. When she performed in the United States in 1950, Irving Kolodin called her "the world's greatest unknown pianist".
She became even better known during the 1950s, when she played 50 recitals a year in London alone, which were always sold out. She also performed a series of "Marathon Concerts", playing as many as four concertos in a single evening. Her Mozart was described as "of impeccable taste and feeling", she was a Bach player "of commanding authority", and "a Lisztian of both poetry and bravura". Her playing of the second movement of Rachmaninoff's 2nd Piano Concerto in the films Brief Encounter and The Seventh Veil (both 1945) helped popularise the work. A 1950 biography of Joyce's early life became a best-seller and was translated into various languages. A feature film, Wherever She Goes (1951), was based on the book, but was much less successful.
Despite her fame, her name slipped from public sight after her retirement in the early 1960s. Her recordings have resurfaced on CD.
Biography
Early life and education
Eileen Joyce was born in Zeehan, a mining town in Tasmania. She was born in Zeehan District Hospital and not, as many reference works claim, in a tent. She frequently claimed her birthday was 21 November in either 1910 or 1912, but a search of Tasmanian birth registrations shows she was born on 1 January 1908. (NOTE: It was common practice for birth dates to be registered as 1 January when the birth does not occur in a hospital and thus not registered on the exact date, but rather later, which means if 21 November was indeed her date of birth, she was likely born in 1907.) She was the fourth of seven children of Joseph Thomas Joyce (born 1875), grandson of an Irish immigrant, and Alice Gertrude May. One of her three elder sisters (all born in Zeehan) died shortly after birth, and one of her three younger brothers died at age two.
The family had moved to Western Australia by 1911. They lived firstly in Kununoppin and later in Boulder. Despite their poverty, her parents encouraged her musical development and she began music lessons at age 10.
She attended St Joseph's Convent School in Boulder where she was taught music by Sister Mary Monica Butler. When she was aged 13, her family's financial circumstances meant that Eileen had to leave school. However, they managed to find enough money to pay for piano lessons with a private teacher, Rosetta Spriggs (a great-grandpupil of Antonín Dvořák). She made Eileen known to a visiting Trinity College examiner, Charles Schilsky, a former violinist with the Lamoureux Orchestra in Paris. Schilsky was extremely impressed with Joyce: he later wrote "There is no word to explain Miss Joyce's playing other than genius. She is the biggest genius I have ever met throughout my travels".
He approached the Roman Catholic Archbishop of Perth and arranged for Eileen to be sent to Loreto Convent in Claremont, Perth, to continue her schooling. Her music teacher there was Sister John More. Joyce entered the 1925 and 1926 Perth Eisteddfods, winning the Grand Championship in 1926. Schilsky continued to make her name known, and wrote a letter to Perth newspapers urging her to be sent to Paris to study.
In May 1926, the Premier of Western Australia, Philip Collier, set up an "Eileen Joyce Fund" with the aim of collecting £1,000 to help Joyce's future career. In August 1926, Percy Grainger, on a concert tour, was introduced to Joyce by Sister John More. He heard her play, and then wrote an open letter to the people of Perth: "I have heard Eileen Joyce play and have no hesitation in saying that she is in every way the most transcendentally gifted young piano student I have heard in the last twenty-five years. Her playing has that melt of tone, that elasticity of expression that is, I find, typical of young Australian talents, and is so rare elsewhere". He suggested she would have the same celebrity as Teresa Carreño and Guiomar Novaes.
Grainger recommended she study with an Australian master so that her playing would not become "Europeanised" or "Continentalised", and in his view Ernest Hutcheson, then teaching in New York, was the best choice. A short time after Grainger left, Wilhelm Backhaus arrived for a tour of Western Australia. He also heard her and suggested the Leipzig Conservatorium, then regarded as the mecca of piano teaching, would be more suitable (Hutcheson himself had studied there).
From 1927 to 1929, she studied at the Leipzig Conservatorium, firstly with and later with Robert Teichmüller. There, she learnt unusual repertoire such as Max Reger's Piano Concerto and Richard Strauss's Burleske in D minor. She then went to the Royal College of Music in London where, with assistance from Myra Hess, she studied under Tobias Matthay. She also had lessons with Adelina de Lara for a short period in 1931.
Career
On 6 September 1930, she made her professional debut in London at a Henry Wood Promenade Concert, playing Prokofiev's Piano Concerto No. 3. Her first solo recital in England was on 23 March 1931. In 1932, she attended Artur Schnabel's masterclasses in Berlin for two weeks. In 1933, she made the first of her many recordings. The session produced Franz Liszt's Transcendental Étude in F minor and Paul de Schlözer's Étude in A-flat, Op. 1, No. 2.
In 1934, for the Proms' 40th season, Joyce played Busoni's Indian Fantasy. She became one of the BBC's most regular broadcasting artists, as well as being in demand for concert tours in the provinces. In 1935, she was a supporting artist for Richard Tauber.
Joyce was the first pianist to play Shostakovich's piano concertos in Britain – the First on 4 January 1936, with the BBC Symphony Orchestra under Sir Henry Wood. She also played the Second on 5 September 1958, with the same orchestra, under Sir Malcolm Sargent, at the Royal Albert Hall.
In 1938, Eric Fenby said he was thinking of writing a concerto for her, but that did not happen. On 18 July 1940, the London Philharmonic Orchestra (LPO) presented a "Musical Manifesto" concert to raise funds, after its founder, Sir Thomas Beecham, said he could no longer afford to fund it. The author J. B. Priestley, a longtime supporter of the orchestra, made a speech, which was widely publicised and which helped attract public support. Three conductors – Sir Adrian Boult, Basil Cameron and Malcolm Sargent – took part, and Joyce played Grieg's Piano Concerto in A minor, under Cameron's direction. During the war she performed regularly with Sargent and the LPO, especially in blitzed areas. She was a frequent performer in Jack Hylton's "Blitz Tours" during the war, and she appeared regularly at the National Gallery concerts organised by Dame Myra Hess.
Although small in stature, Joyce was strikingly beautiful, with chestnut hair and green eyes. She changed her evening gowns to suit the music she was playing: blue for Beethoven, red for Tchaikovsky, lilac for Liszt, black for Bach, green for Chopin, sequins for Debussy, and red and gold for Schumann. She also arranged her hair differently depending on the composer – up for Beethoven, falling free for Grieg and Debussy, and drawn back for Mozart. Until 1940, she designed her own gowns, but in August she volunteered as a firewatcher, which revived her chronic rheumatism so, on the LPO tours, she had to wear a plaster cast encasing her shoulder and back. She bought gowns specially designed by Norman Hartnell to cover the cast, and she often wore Hartnell thereafter. Richard Bonynge was a music student in Sydney during her 1948 tour, and said: "She brought such glamour to the concert stage. We all used to flock to her concerts, not least because of the extraordinary amount of cleavage she used to show!".
She had numerous recital programs and over 70 concertos in her repertoire, including such unusual works as the Piano Concerto in E-flat major by John Ireland and Rimsky-Korsakov's Piano Concerto in C-sharp minor. In 1940, she made the first recording of the Ireland concerto, with the Hallé Orchestra under Leslie Heward, and was chosen to play it at a 1949 Proms concert with the LPO under Sir Adrian Boult, celebrating Ireland's 70th birthday. The performance was recorded and released commercially.
However, there were three concertos that Joyce played more than any others, and were her firm favourites: the Grieg Piano Concerto in A minor, the Tchaikovsky Piano Concerto No. 1, and most of all, the Rachmaninoff Piano Concerto No. 2. She never played any other Rachmaninoff concertos.
She appeared with all the principal UK orchestras as well as many overseas orchestras. She toured Australia in 1936, during which she was the soloist at the Adelaide Symphony Orchestra's first Celebrity Concert, conducted by William Cade. She toured in 1948, and performed the Grieg concerto at the gala opening concert of the Tasmanian Symphony Orchestra, under Joseph Post. In June 1947, she appeared at Harringay Arena in the Harringay Music Festival with Sir Malcolm Sargent.
She had planned to tour the United States in 1940 and 1948, but both tours were cancelled, the first one on account of the war. She finally appeared in Philadelphia] and Carnegie Hall, New York, in 1950, with the Philadelphia Orchestra under Eugene Ormandy. She had earlier appeared with them in Britain in 1948, on the orchestra's first major overseas tour. While her Philadelphia concerts attracted excellent reviews, the New York critics were much less impressed. This was possibly due to the conservative repertoire she chose on Ormandy's strong advice (Beethoven's "Emperor" Concerto and Prokofiev's 3rd), rather than the works she would prefer to have played (the Grieg concerto, Rachmaninoff's 2nd and Tchaikovsky's 1st). She was never particularly popular or even well known in the United States, and she never returned.
Her other tours abroad were to New Zealand in 1936 and 1958, France in 1947, the Netherlands in 1947 and 1951, and Germany in 1947, where she played for Allied troops. She was the first British artist for more than a decade to give concerts with the Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra. She toured Germany again in 1949 and 1958, Italy in 1948, Belgium in 1950 and 1952, South Africa in 1950, and Norway in 1950. She had planned to tour Sweden on that trip, but fell down a flight of stairs after performing the Grieg concerto in Oslo, and the remainder of her trip was cancelled. She did, however, visit Sweden in 1951 and 1954, Yugoslavia in 1951, visiting Belgrade, Zagreb, and Ljubljana, Brazil and Argentina in 1952, Finland in 1952, Spain and Portugal in 1954, the Soviet Union in 1956 and 1958, Denmark and other Scandinavian countries in 1958, and India and Hong Kong in 1960.
In November 1948, Joyce broke the previous record of 17 appearances at London's Royal Albert Hall in a single calendar year. She had often performed two concertos in a single concert and, in the late 1940s and early 1950s, she gave a series of "Marathon Concerts", in which she played up to four concertos in a single evening. For example, on 10 December 1948, in Birmingham, she played César Franck's Symphonic Variations, Manuel de Falla's Nights in the Gardens of Spain, Dohnányi's Variations on a Nursery Tune and Grieg's Piano Concerto in A minor. On 6 May 1951 at the Royal Albert Hall she performed Haydn's D minor Harpsichord Concerto, Tchaikovsky's Piano Concerto No. 1, John Ireland's Concerto in E-flat major, and Grieg's concerto, with the Philharmonia Orchestra, under conductor Milan Horvat. On another occasion, she played Chopin's Piano Concerto No. 1, Rachmaninoff's Piano Concerto No. 2, John Ireland's concerto and Beethoven's "Emperor" Concerto.
She expressed a new-found interest in the harpsichord, receiving lessons from Thomas Goff and, in 1950, she gave the first of a number of harpsichord recitals. In the 1950s, she also gave a series of concerts featuring four harpsichords, her colleagues including players such as George Malcolm, Thurston Dart, Denis Vaughan, Simon Preston, Raymond Leppard, Geoffrey Parsons and Valda Aveling.
In 1956, Joyce was Gerard Hoffnung's first choice as soloist in Franz Reizenstein's parodic Concerto Popolare, to be played at the inaugural Hoffnung Music Festival, but she declined, and the job went to Yvonne Arnaud. She appeared as soloist at Sir Colin Davis's debut as a conductor, with the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra (RPO), on 22 September 1957, playing Tchaikovsky's Concerto No. 1. On 28 November 1957, she participated in the premiere performance of Malcolm Arnold's Toy Symphony, Op. 62, at a fund-raising dinner for the Musicians Benevolent Fund. The work has parts for 12 toy instruments, which were taken by Joyce, Eric Coates, Thomas Armstrong, Astra Desmond, Gerard Hoffnung, Joseph Cooper, and other prominent people, all conducted by the composer.
In 1960, during her tour of India, her Delhi recital was attended by the Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru. During that tour, which also included Hong Kong, she announced she was retiring, and her final recital was at a festival in Stirling, Scotland, on 18 May 1960, where she played two sonatas by Domenico Scarlatti, Beethoven's Appassionata sonata, and works by Mendelssohn, Debussy, Chopin, Ravel, Granados and Liszt. She did, however, return to the concert platform a handful of times over the next 21 years, the first not until 1967, when she played Rachmaninoff's Piano Concerto No. 2 with the RPO conducted by Anatole Fistoulari, at the Royal Albert Hall. That was the work that had made her famous in the film Brief Encounter in 1945, and it was to be her last concerto performance. Also in 1967, she appeared with three other harpsichordists and the Academy of St Martin in the Fields under Neville Marriner.
In 1967, she started to foster the career of the ten-year-old Terence Judd. In 1969, she appeared alongside fellow Australian pianist Geoffrey Parsons in a two-piano recital at Australia House, London. In 1979, she gave a two-piano recital with Philip Fowke. She appeared again with Geoffrey Parsons on 29 November 1981 at a fund-raising concert at the Royal Opera House, Covent Garden. That proved to be her very last appearance as a pianist because another performance, scheduled in 1988, had to be cancelled).
In August 1981, Eileen Joyce served on the jury of the 2nd Sydney International Piano Competition of Australia (SIPCA), alongside Rex Hobcroft, Cécile Ousset, Abbey Simon, Claude Frank, Gordon Watson, Roger Woodward and others. In 1985, she conducted preliminary auditions in London for the 3rd SIPCA, and attended the competition in Sydney as Music Patron and deputy chairman of the jury. She gave Rex Hobcroft an anonymous donation of $20,000 for the competition. She was also Music Patron for the 4th SIPCA in 1988.
On 21 March 1991 she fell in her bathroom, fracturing her hip. She was taken to East Surrey Hospital, where she died on 25 March. On 8 April, she was cremated and her ashes were interred at St Peter's Anglican Church, Limpsfield, next to Sir Thomas Beecham. On 7 June, a memorial service was conducted at St Peter's Church.
Conductors
The list of conductors with whom Joyce worked includes: Ernest Ansermet, Sir John Barbirolli, Sir Thomas Beecham, Eduard van Beinum, Sir Adrian Boult, Warwick Braithwaite, Basil Cameron, Sergiu Celibidache, Albert Coates, Sir Colin Davis, Norman Del Mar, Anatole Fistoulari, Grzegorz Fitelberg, Sir Alexander Gibson, Sir Dan Godfrey, Sir Hamilton Harty, Sir Bernard Heinze, Milan Horvat, Enrique Jordá, Herbert von Karajan, Erich Kleiber, Henry Krips, Constant Lambert, Erich Leinsdorf, Igor Markevitch, Sir Neville Marriner, Jean Martinon, Charles Münch, Eugene Ormandy, Joseph Post, Clarence Raybould, Victor de Sabata, Sir Malcolm Sargent, Carlos Surinach, and Sir Henry J. Wood.
In a 1969 interview she said the greatest conductor she had ever worked with was Sergiu Celibidache. She said "he was the only one who got inside my soul". In the late 1940s and 1950s, she and her partner Christopher Mann worked tirelessly to get Celibidache good engagements in Britain.
Films
With her partner Christopher Mann's influence, Joyce contributed to the soundtracks of a number of films. She is best known as the soloist in Rachmaninoff's Piano Concerto No. 2, used to great effect in David Lean's film Brief Encounter (1945).
She also provided the playing for the piano music in the 1945 film The Seventh Veil, but this was uncredited in the film. This music again included the Rachmaninoff 2nd Concerto, and also Grieg's Concerto in A minor; as well as solo pieces by Mozart, Chopin and Beethoven (the slow movement of the Pathétique Sonata assumed a particular importance in the film).
She appeared in Battle for Music, a 1945 docu-drama about the struggles of the London Philharmonic Orchestra during the war, in which a number of prominent composers and performers appeared as themselves.
Arthur Bliss's music for the 1946 film Men of Two Worlds (released in the US as Kisenga, Man of Africa, and re-released as Witch Doctor) includes a section for piano, male voices and orchestra, titled "Baraza", which Bliss said was "a conversation between an African Chief and his head men". Joyce played this for the film, with Muir Mathieson conducting. Bliss also wrote this out as a stand-alone concert piece, which Joyce both premiered in 1945 and recorded in 1946. This recording was more favourably received than the film was.
She was in the 1946 British film A Girl in a Million, in which she plays a part of Franck's Symphonic Variations. In 1947, her playing of Schubert's Impromptu in E-flat is heard in the segment "The Alien Corn" in the Dirk Bogarde film Quartet. She was also seen as herself in Trent's Last Case (1952), playing Mozart's C minor Concerto, K. 491 at the Royal Opera House with an orchestra under Anthony Collins.
Prelude: The Early Life of Eileen Joyce by Lady Clare Hoskyns-Abrahall was a best-selling 1950 biography that was translated into several languages as well as Braille. While it told the main elements of her story, it was heavily fictionalised in places. The book was dramatised for radio in the UK, Australia, New Zealand, the Netherlands, South Africa, Norway and Sweden. Wherever She Goes was a 1951 black-and-white feature film based on the book, directed by Michael Gordon. Released in Australia under the title, Prelude, 1950, it was shot on location in Australia and in a studio in Sydney. Joyce's character was played by Suzanne Parrett, the only film she ever made<,) and Parrett's performance double was Pamela Page. Joyce briefly appeared as herself at the start and end of the film, playing the Grieg concerto. The film was much less successful than the book on which it was based, although it was one of the very few Australian films made before 1970 to be given a (limited) release in New York.
Tim Drysdale, son of artist Sir Russell 'Tas' Drysdale, played the role of Joyce's brother in the movie when he was age 11.
Honours
In 1971, Joyce was awarded an honorary Doctorate of Music by the University of Cambridge. She was extremely proud of that and insisted on being referred to as "Doctor Joyce". She was awarded similar honours by the University of Western Australia in 1979 and the University of Melbourne in 1982. Her memorial headstone refers to her as "Dr. Eileen Joyce".
In 1981, she was appointed a Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George (CMG) in the Queen's Birthday Honours, for services to music. While happy to accept the award, she made no secret of her disappointment that she was not made a dame.
On 10 February 1989, a special Australian Broadcasting Corporation tribute concert to her was presented at Sydney Town Hall. Stuart Challender conducted the Sydney Symphony Orchestra, with Bernadette Harvey-Balkus playing the first movement of the Rachmaninoff Piano Concerto No. 2. Although now frail, Joyce flew to Australia to attend the concert, where she addressed the audience. The playwright Nick Enright interviewed her for the radio broadcast.
Her portrait was painted by Augustus John, John Bratby, Rajmund Kanelba and others. A bronze bust by Anna Mahler stands at the Eileen Joyce Studio at the University of Western Australia in Perth. She was also the subject of photographic portraits by Cecil Beaton, Angus McBean and Antony Armstrong-Jones.
The UWA Conservatorium of Music at the University of Western Australia, in Perth, named the main keyboard studio, which houses a collection of historical and notable keyboard instruments, the Eileen Joyce Studio.
Legacy
In the days of her greatest fame, the critical climate was still stuffy, and her mass appeal and her succession of different-coloured glamorous gowns, some designed by Norman Hartnell, provoked snobbish reaction and led to her being musically under-rated. Her surviving recordings show that such patronising judgements were very misplaced. She was a fine musician and technically very proficient. For example, her 1941 recording of the Étude in A-flat, Op. 1, No. 2 by Paul de Schlözer is considered unsurpassed. That brief, three-minute work is so demanding that few pianists even attempt it. Sergei Rachmaninoff was said to play it every morning as a warm-up exercise.
Modern virtuoso pianists such as Stephen Hough have expressed amazement that Joyce is not more highly rated among great 20th century pianists than she is. In the foreword to Richard Davis's biography Eileen Joyce: A Portrait, Hough writes: "she displayed all the dazzle and scintillating virtuosity of many great players of the past ... she has to be added to the list of great pianists from the past".
In Zeehan, Tasmania, there is a small park called the Eileen Joyce Reserve. The University of Western Australia maintains a collection of her documents and some personal effects, as well as a collection of antique instruments in a facility named after her. The house where she grew up at 113 Wittenoom Terrace, Boulder, has a commemorative plaque.
In 2011, Appian Publications & Recordings issued a 5-CD box set, Complete Parlophone & Columbia Solo Recordings, 1933–45. In 2017, Decca Eloquence released a 10-CD box set, The Complete Studio Recordings. This release coincided with the publication of Destiny: The Extraordinary Career of Pianist Eileen Joyce, an examination of Joyce's career in concerts, films and recordings, by David Tunley, Victoria Rogers and Cyrus Meher-Homji.
Personal life
On 16 September 1937, Joyce married Douglas Legh Barratt, a stockbroker. Their son, John Barratt, was born on 4 September 1939, the day after the start of World War II. The marriage failed and they separated. Douglas Barratt served with the British Navy, and was killed on active service off Norway on 24 June 1942 when his ship HMS Gossamer was bombed and sunk. For reasons she never explained, Joyce always maintained he had died off North Africa but, in 1983, she corrected the record.
Her second partner was Mayfair Film executive Christopher Mann. They lived together from late 1942 until his death in 1978. Mann had previously been married to the Norwegian actress Greta Gynt, and had been Madeleine Carroll's publicist and manager. Mann proved an unsympathetic stepfather to Joyce's son, John, and Joyce herself, between punishing touring schedules and bouts of ill-health, also found little time for him. From the early age of three years and three months, John was sent to boarding school. Joyce's guilt over her neglect of her son, combined with overwork, contributed to a breakdown in 1953. John himself was estranged from his mother from an early age, and he was left nothing in her will, the bulk of her estate going to her grandson, John's son Alexander.
In 1957, Joyce and Christopher Mann bought Chartwell Farm (not the Chartwell historic home) and Bardogs Farm, Kent, from Sir Winston Churchill. Their home in London was bought by the actor Richard Todd.
Joyce and Christopher Mann had always claimed they were legally married, but that did not occur until 1978, after he had been diagnosed with terminal cancer. The wedding took place at Aylesbury, Buckinghamshire, with Joyce using the name Eileen Barratt. Mann died at Chartwell on 11 December 1978, aged 75.
Joyce experienced considerable ill health throughout her adult years, particularly severe rheumatism in her shoulders, which at one time necessitated the wearing of a plaster cast, and she also suffered from sciatica. Towards the end of her life, she developed senile dementia. She died in 1991, aged 83, at East Surrey Hospital, Redhill, Surrey.
References
Further reading
Eileen Joyce: A Portrait, Richard Davis, with foreword by Stephen Hough; Fremantle Arts Centre Press, 2001
External links
Biography, bach-cantatas.com
Eileen Joyce at the National Portrait Gallery, London
1900s births
1991 deaths
Year of birth uncertain
Date of birth uncertain
Australian classical pianists
Australian women pianists
Australian people of Irish descent
University of Music and Theatre Leipzig alumni
Alumni of the Royal College of Music
Australian expatriates in England
Australian harpsichordists
Musicians from Tasmania
Pupils of Tobias Matthay
Australian Companions of the Order of St Michael and St George
20th-century classical pianists
20th-century Australian musicians
People from Zeehan
20th-century Australian women
20th-century women pianists
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic%20mass
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Electromagnetic mass
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Electromagnetic mass was initially a concept of classical mechanics, denoting as to how much the electromagnetic field, or the self-energy, is contributing to the mass of charged particles. It was first derived by J. J. Thomson in 1881 and was for some time also considered as a dynamical explanation of inertial mass per se. Today, the relation of mass, momentum, velocity, and all forms of energy – including electromagnetic energy – is analyzed on the basis of Albert Einstein's special relativity and mass–energy equivalence. As to the cause of mass of elementary particles, the Higgs mechanism in the framework of the relativistic Standard Model is currently used. However, some problems concerning the electromagnetic mass and self-energy of charged particles are still studied.
Charged particles
Rest mass and energy
It was recognized by J. J. Thomson in 1881 that a charged sphere moving in a space filled with a medium of a specific inductive capacity (the electromagnetic aether of James Clerk Maxwell), is harder to set in motion than an uncharged body. (Similar considerations were already made by George Gabriel Stokes (1843) with respect to hydrodynamics, who showed that the inertia of a body moving in an incompressible perfect fluid is increased.) So due to this self-induction effect, electrostatic energy behaves as having some sort of momentum and "apparent" electromagnetic mass, which can increase the ordinary mechanical mass of the bodies, or in more modern terms, the increase should arise from their electromagnetic self-energy. This idea was worked out in more detail by Oliver Heaviside (1889), Thomson (1893), George Frederick Charles Searle (1897), Max Abraham (1902), Hendrik Lorentz (1892, 1904), and was directly applied to the electron by using the Abraham–Lorentz force. Now, the electrostatic energy and mass of an electron at rest was calculated to be
where is the charge, uniformly distributed on the surface of a sphere, and is the classical electron radius, which must be nonzero to avoid infinite energy accumulation. Thus the formula for this electromagnetic energy–mass relation is
This was discussed in connection with the proposal of the electrical origin of matter, so Wilhelm Wien (1900), and Max Abraham (1902), came to the conclusion that the total mass of the bodies is identical to its electromagnetic mass. Wien stated, that if it is assumed that gravitation is an electromagnetic effect too, then there has to be a proportionality between electromagnetic energy, inertial mass, and gravitational mass. When one body attracts another one, the electromagnetic energy store of gravitation is according to Wien diminished by the amount (where is the attracted mass, the gravitational constant, the distance):
Henri Poincaré in 1906 argued that when mass is in fact the product of the electromagnetic field in the aether – implying that no "real" mass exists – and because matter is inseparably connected with mass, then also matter doesn't exist at all and electrons are only concavities in the aether.
Mass and speed
Thomson and Searle
Thomson (1893) noticed that electromagnetic momentum and energy of charged bodies, and therefore their masses, depend on the speed of the bodies as well. He wrote:
In 1897, Searle gave a more precise formula for the electromagnetic energy of charged sphere in motion:
and like Thomson he concluded:
Longitudinal and transverse mass
From Searle's formula, Walter Kaufmann (1901) and Max Abraham (1902) derived the formula for the electromagnetic mass of moving bodies:
However, it was shown by Abraham (1902), that this value is only valid in the longitudinal direction ("longitudinal mass"), i.e., that the electromagnetic mass also depends on the direction of the moving bodies with respect to the aether. Thus Abraham also derived the "transverse mass":
On the other hand, already in 1899 Lorentz assumed that the electrons undergo length contraction in the line of motion, which leads to results for the acceleration of moving electrons that differ from those given by Abraham. Lorentz obtained factors of parallel to the direction of motion and perpendicular to the direction of motion, where and is an undetermined factor. Lorentz expanded his 1899 ideas in his famous 1904 paper, where he set the factor to unity, thus:
,
So, eventually Lorentz arrived at the same conclusion as Thomson in 1893: no body can reach the speed of light because the mass becomes infinitely large at this velocity.
Additionally, a third electron model was developed by Alfred Bucherer and Paul Langevin, in which the electron contracts in the line of motion, and expands perpendicular to it, so that the volume remains constant. This gives:
Kaufmann's experiments
The predictions of the theories of Abraham and Lorentz were supported by the experiments of Walter Kaufmann (1901), but the experiments were not precise enough to distinguish between them. In 1905 Kaufmann conducted another series of experiments (Kaufmann–Bucherer–Neumann experiments) which confirmed Abraham's and Bucherer's predictions, but contradicted Lorentz's theory and the "fundamental assumption of Lorentz and Einstein", i.e., the relativity principle. In the following years experiments by Alfred Bucherer (1908), Gunther Neumann (1914) and others seemed to confirm Lorentz's mass formula. It was later pointed out that the Bucherer–Neumann experiments were also not precise enough to distinguish between the theories – it lasted until 1940 when the precision required was achieved to eventually prove Lorentz's formula and to refute Abraham's by these kinds of experiments. (However, other experiments of different kind already refuted Abraham's and Bucherer's formulas long before.)
Poincaré stresses and the problem
The idea of an electromagnetic nature of matter, however, had to be given up. Abraham (1904, 1905) argued that non-electromagnetic forces were necessary to prevent Lorentz's contractile electrons from exploding. He also showed that different results for the longitudinal electromagnetic mass can be obtained in Lorentz's theory, depending on whether the mass is calculated from its energy or its momentum, so a non-electromagnetic potential (corresponding to of the electron's electromagnetic energy) was necessary to render these masses equal. Abraham doubted whether it was possible to develop a model satisfying all of these properties.
To solve those problems, Henri Poincaré in 1905 and 1906 introduced some sort of pressure ("Poincaré stresses") of non-electromagnetic nature. As required by Abraham, these stresses contribute non-electromagnetic energy to the electrons, amounting to of their total energy or to of their electromagnetic energy. So, the Poincaré stresses remove the contradiction in the derivation of the longitudinal electromagnetic mass, they prevent the electron from exploding, they remain unaltered by a Lorentz transformation (i.e. they are Lorentz invariant), and were also thought as a dynamical explanation of length contraction. However, Poincaré still assumed that only the electromagnetic energy contributes to the mass of the bodies.
As it was later noted, the problem lies in the factor of electromagnetic rest mass – given above as when derived from the Abraham–Lorentz equations. However, when it is derived from the electron's electrostatic energy alone, we have where the factor is missing. This can be solved by adding the non-electromagnetic energy of the Poincaré stresses to , the electron's total energy now becomes:
Thus the missing factor is restored when the mass is related to its electromagnetic energy, and it disappears when the total energy is considered.
Inertia of energy and radiation paradoxes
Radiation pressure
Another way of deriving some sort of electromagnetic mass was based on the concept of radiation pressure. These pressures or tensions in the electromagnetic field were derived by James Clerk Maxwell (1874) and Adolfo Bartoli (1876). Lorentz recognized in 1895 that those tensions also arise in his theory of the stationary aether. So if the electromagnetic field of the aether is able to set bodies in motion, the action / reaction principle demands that the aether must be set in motion by matter as well. However, Lorentz pointed out that any tension in the aether requires the mobility of the aether parts, which is not possible since in his theory the aether is immobile. (unlike contemporaries like Thomson who used fluid descriptions) This represents a violation of the reaction principle that was accepted by Lorentz consciously. He continued by saying, that one can only speak about fictitious tensions, since they are only mathematical models in his theory to ease the description of the electrodynamic interactions.
Mass of the fictitious electromagnetic fluid
In 1900 Poincaré studied the conflict between the action/reaction principle and Lorentz's theory. He tried to determine whether the center of gravity still moves with a uniform velocity when electromagnetic fields and radiation are involved. He noticed that the action/reaction principle does not hold for matter alone, but that the electromagnetic field has its own momentum (such a momentum was also derived by Thomson in 1893 in a more complicated way). Poincaré concluded, the electromagnetic field energy behaves like a fictitious fluid („fluide fictif“) with a mass density of (in other words ). Now, if the center of mass frame (COM-frame) is defined by both the mass of matter and the mass of the fictitious fluid, and if the fictitious fluid is indestructible – it is neither created or destroyed – then the motion of the center of mass frame remains uniform.
But this electromagnetic fluid is not indestructible, because it can be absorbed by matter (which according to Poincaré was the reason why he regarded the em-fluid as "fictitious" rather than "real"). Thus the COM-principle would be violated again. As it was later done by Einstein, an easy solution of this would be to assume that the mass of em-field is transferred to matter in the absorption process. But Poincaré created another solution: He assumed that there exists an immobile non-electromagnetic energy fluid at each point in space, also carrying a mass proportional to its energy. When the fictitious em-fluid is destroyed or absorbed, its electromagnetic energy and mass is not carried away by moving matter, but is transferred into the non-electromagnetic fluid and remains at exactly the same place in that fluid. (Poincaré added that one should not be too surprised by these assumptions, since they are only mathematical fictions.) In this way, the motion of the COM-frame, including matter, fictitious em-fluid, and fictitious non-em-fluid, at least theoretically remains uniform.
However, since only matter and electromagnetic energy are directly observable by experiment (not the non-em-fluid), Poincaré's resolution still violates the reaction principle and the COM-theorem, when an emission/absorption process is practically considered. This leads to a paradox when changing frames: if waves are radiated in a certain direction, the device will suffer a recoil from the momentum of the fictitious fluid. Then, Poincaré performed a Lorentz boost (to first order in ) to the frame of the moving source. He noted that energy conservation holds in both frames, but that the law of conservation of momentum is violated. This would allow perpetual motion, a notion which he abhorred. The laws of nature would have to be different in the frames of reference, and the relativity principle would not hold. Therefore, he argued that also in this case there has to be another compensating mechanism in the ether.
Poincaré came back to this topic in 1904. This time he rejected his own solution that motions in the ether can compensate the motion of matter, because any such motion is unobservable and therefore scientifically worthless. He also abandoned the concept that energy carries mass and wrote in connection to the above-mentioned recoil:
These iterative developments culminated in his 1906 publication "The End of Matter" in which he notes that when applying the methodology of using an electric or magnetic field deviations to determine charge-to-mass ratios, one finds that the apparent mass added by charge makes up all of the apparent mass, thus the "real mass is equal to zero." Thus he goes on to postulate that electrons are only holes or motion effects in the aether while the aether itself is the only thing "endowed with inertia."
He then goes on to address the possibility that all matter might share this same quality and thereby his position changes from viewing aether as a "fictitious fluid" to suggesting it might be the only thing that actually exists in the universe, finally stating "In this system there is no actual matter, there are only holes in the aether."
Finally he repeats this exact problem of "Newton's principle" from 1904 again in 1908 publication in his section on "the principle of reaction" he notes that the actions of radiation pressure cannot be tied solely to matter in light of Fizeau's proof that the Hertz notion of total ether drag is untenable. This, he clarifies in the next section in his own explanation of Mass–energy equivalence:
Thus Poincaré's mass of a fictitious fluid led him to, instead, later find that the mass of matter itself was "fictitious."
Einstein's own 1906 publication grants credit to Poincare for previously exploring the mass-energy equivalence and it is from these comments that it is commonly reported that Lorentz ether theory is "mathematically equivalent."
Momentum and cavity radiation
However, Poincaré's idea of momentum and mass associated with radiation proved to be fruitful, when in 1903 Max Abraham introduced the term „electromagnetic momentum“, having a field density of per cm3 and per cm2. Contrary to Lorentz and Poincaré, who considered momentum as a fictitious force, he argued that it is a real physical entity, and therefore conservation of momentum is guaranteed.
In 1904, Friedrich Hasenöhrl specifically associated inertia with radiation by studying the dynamics of a moving cavity. Hasenöhrl suggested that part of the mass of a body (which he called apparent mass) can be thought of as radiation bouncing around a cavity. The apparent mass of radiation depends on the temperature (because every heated body emits radiation) and is proportional to its energy, and he first concluded that . However, in 1905 Hasenöhrl published a summary of a letter, which was written by Abraham to him. Abraham concluded that Hasenöhrl's formula of the apparent mass of radiation is not correct, and on the basis of his definition of electromagnetic momentum and longitudinal electromagnetic mass Abraham changed it to , the same value for the electromagnetic mass for a body at rest. Hasenöhrl recalculated his own derivation and verified Abraham's result. He also noticed the similarity between the apparent mass and the electromagnetic mass that Poincaré would comment on in 1906. However, Hasenöhrl stated that this energy-apparent-mass relation only holds as long a body radiates, i.e. if the temperature of a body is greater than 0 K.
Modern view
Mass–energy equivalence
The idea that the principal relations between mass, energy, momentum and velocity can only be considered on the basis of dynamical interactions of matter was superseded, when Albert Einstein found out in 1905 that considerations based on the special principle of relativity require that all forms of energy (not only electromagnetic) contribute to the mass of bodies (mass–energy equivalence). That is, the entire mass of a body is a measure of its energy content by , and Einstein's considerations were independent from assumptions about the constitution of matter. By this equivalence, Poincaré's radiation paradox can be solved without using "compensating forces", because the mass of matter itself (not the non-electromagnetic aether fluid as suggested by Poincaré) is increased or diminished by the mass of electromagnetic energy in the course of the emission/absorption process. Also the idea of an electromagnetic explanation of gravitation was superseded in the course of developing general relativity.
So every theory dealing with the mass of a body must be formulated in a relativistic way from the outset. This is for example the case in the current quantum field explanation of mass of elementary particles in the framework of the Standard Model, the Higgs mechanism. Because of this, the idea that any form of mass is completely caused by interactions with electromagnetic fields, is not relevant any more.
Relativistic mass
The concepts of longitudinal and transverse mass (equivalent to those of Lorentz) were also used by Einstein in his first papers on relativity. However, in special relativity they apply to the entire mass of matter, not only to the electromagnetic part. Later it was shown by physicists like Richard Chace Tolman that expressing mass as the ratio of force and acceleration is not advantageous. Therefore, a similar concept without direction dependent terms, in which force is defined as , was used as relativistic mass
This concept is sometimes still used in modern physics textbooks, although the term 'mass' is now considered by many to refer to invariant mass, see mass in special relativity.
Self-energy
When the special case of the electromagnetic self-energy or self-force of charged particles is discussed, also in modern texts some sort of "effective" electromagnetic mass is sometimes introduced – not as an explanation of mass per se, but in addition to the ordinary mass of bodies. Many different reformulations of the Abraham–Lorentz force have been derived – for instance, in order to deal with the -problem (see next section) and other problems that arose from this concept. Such questions are discussed in connection with renormalization, and on the basis of quantum mechanics and quantum field theory, which must be applied when the electron is considered physically point-like. At distances located in the classical domain, the classical concepts again come into play. A rigorous derivation of the electromagnetic self-force, including the contribution to the mass of the body, was published by Gralla et al. (2009).
problem
Max von Laue in 1911 also used the Abraham–Lorentz equations of motion in his development of special relativistic dynamics, so that also in special relativity the factor is present when the electromagnetic mass of a charged sphere is calculated. This contradicts the mass–energy equivalence formula, which requires the relation without the factor, or in other words, four-momentum doesn't properly transform like a four-vector when the factor is present. Laue found a solution equivalent to Poincaré's introduction of a non-electromagnetic potential (Poincaré stresses), but Laue showed its deeper, relativistic meaning by employing and advancing Hermann Minkowski's spacetime formalism. Laue's formalism required that there are additional components and forces, which guarantee that spatially extended systems (where both electromagnetic and non-electromagnetic energies are combined) are forming a stable or "closed system" and transform as a four-vector. That is, the factor arises only with respect to electromagnetic mass, while the closed system has total rest mass and energy of .
Another solution was found by authors such as Enrico Fermi (1922), Paul Dirac (1938) Fritz Rohrlich (1960), or Julian Schwinger (1983), who pointed out that the electron's stability and the 4/3-problem are two different things. They showed that the preceding definitions of four-momentum are non-relativistic per se, and by changing the definition into a relativistic form, the electromagnetic mass can simply be written as and thus the factor doesn't appear at all. So every part of the system, not only "closed" systems, properly transforms as a four-vector. However, binding forces like the Poincaré stresses are still necessary to prevent the electron from exploding due to Coulomb repulsion. But on the basis of the Fermi–Rohrlich definition, this is only a dynamical problem and has nothing to do with the transformation properties any more.
Also other solutions have been proposed, for instance, Valery Morozov (2011) gave consideration to movement of an imponderable charged sphere. It turned out that a flux of nonelectromagnetic energy exists in the sphere body. This flux has an impulse exactly equal to of the sphere electromagnetic impulse regardless of a sphere internal structure or a material, it is made of. The problem was solved without attraction of any additional hypotheses. In this model, sphere tensions are not connected with its mass.
See also
History of special relativity
Abraham–Lorentz force
Wheeler–Feynman absorber theory
Secondary sources ( references)
Primary sources
Special relativity
Obsolete theories in physics
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Boston%20Red%20Sox
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History of the Boston Red Sox
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The history of the Boston Red Sox begins in , as one of the original franchises of the American League.
Early years
1900–1909
In 1900, Ban Johnson's minor Western League, based in the Midwest, declared its equality with the National League, then the only major league in baseball. Johnson changed the name of his league to the American League. Competing in the streets, the upstart placed franchises in two of the largest and most important NL cities, Philadelphia and Boston. Despite the National League club having been previously well established in the city, beginning play in 1871, the new American League club managed to immediately surpass their in-city rivals in popularity. Factors contributing to this include the signing away of many of the star players from the "Nationals" to the "Americans" to more lucrative contracts, a more accessible location of their home park, animosity between Boston baseball fans and "Nationals" owner Arthur Soden, and more efforts made by the "Americans" to attract the growing Irish-American population to their games, as opposed to the "Nationals" preferring to market themselves more to Anglo-Saxons. Playing their home games at Huntington Avenue Grounds, the Boston franchise (often called the Americans during this time) finished second and third place in their first two seasons before capturing their first pennant in 1903 and repeating the feat in 1904. These early Boston teams were led by manager and star third baseman Jimmy Collins and by pitcher Cy Young, both signings away from the NL club, whose 1901 to 1904 seasons both rank among the best four-year runs ever. In addition, the Americans received significant contributions from outfielders Chick Stahl, Buck Freeman and Patsy Dougherty. In 1903, the Americans participated in the first modern World Series, beating the favored Pittsburgh Pirates and winning the best-of-nine series five games to three. The Americans were aided both by chants of "Tessie" from their Royal Rooters fan club and by their stronger pitching staff.
The 1904 club was almost as good as the previous year's team, but due to the emergence of the New York Highlanders as a strong contender, the Americans found themselves in a tight pennant race through the last games of the season. Foreshadowing what would eventually become a storied rivalry, the 1904 race featured such controversial moves as the trade of Patsy Dougherty to the Highlanders for Bob Unglaub.
However, the arguable climax of the season occurred during the season's final doubleheader at the Highlanders' home stadium, Hilltop Park. In order to win the pennant, New York needed to take both games from Boston. With Jack Chesbro, the Highlanders' 41-game winner, on the mound, New York seemed to have a good chance of winning the first game. However, in the top of the ninth inning with the score tied 2–2 with a man on third in the top of the ninth, a spitball got away from Chesbro allowing Boston's Lou Criger to score the go-ahead run on one of the most famous wild pitches in history. Unfortunately the NL champion New York Giants had previously declined to play any postseason series, fearing it would give their New York rivals credibility (they had expected the Highlanders to win), but a sharp public reaction led to the two leagues immediately turning the World Series into a permanent championship, starting in 1905.
These successful times quickly ended, as the Americans would finish the 1906 season in last place in the American League with a 49-105 record. But several new star players would soon help the newly renamed Red Sox reverse their fortunes once again.
1910–1919
By 1909, center fielder Tris Speaker had become a fixture in the Boston outfield, and the Red Sox worked their way up to third place in the American League. However, the Red Sox would not win the pennant again until their 105-win 1912 season, finishing with a club-record .691 winning percentage while anchored by an outfield considered to be among the finest in the game (Tris Speaker, Harry Hooper and Duffy Lewis). Boston was also led by superstar pitcher Smoky Joe Wood, with whom the Red Sox beat the New York Giants 4–3–1 in the 1912 World Series that has become best known for "Snodgrass's Muff". From 1913 to 1916, the Red Sox were owned by Joseph Lannin, who signed Babe Ruth, soon to become one of the best-known and most-revered baseball players ever. In Ruth's debut as a pitcher he got a win vs. the Indians, then in 1915 his first major league home run was against the Yankees, who he would ironically play for later in his career. Another 101 wins in 1915 propelled the Red Sox to the 1915 World Series, where they beat the Philadelphia Phillies four games to one. In the 1915 World Series, Harry Hooper hit two home runs, and Duffy Lewis batted .444 with a home run. The 1916 team once again earned the AL pennant, though Tris Speaker was traded to the Cleveland Indians in the off-season. His departure was more than compensated for, however, by the emergence of Babe Ruth as a star pitcher. Once again, the Red Sox won the World Series, this time defeating the Brooklyn Robins. In game two Ruth would pitch a 14 inning complete game victory. Also third baseman Larry Gardner hit a 3-run inside-the-park home run. After the Series, Lannin sold the team to New York theater producer Harry Frazee.
By 1918, the team found itself at the top of the heap again, led by Ruth to another Series championship over the Chicago Cubs. The 1918 victory for Boston was provided by the pitching of Ruth and submarine pitcher Carl Mays.
Curse of the Bambino
Sale of Babe Ruth
On December 26, 1919, Frazee reached an agreement to sell Babe Ruth to the rival New York Yankees for $125,000. The deal was not officially announced until January 5, 1920. In addition to the $125,000 agreed for Ruth, Frazee was given a loan of a $350,000. Ruth had just broken the single-season home run record, hitting 29 in 1919. Legend has it that Frazee did so in order to finance the Broadway play No, No, Nanette, starring "a friend", but the play did not open on Broadway until 1925 (the play is in fact what paid off the loan).
During that period, the Red Sox, White Sox and Yankees had a détente; they were called "Insurrectos" because their actions antagonized league president Johnson. Although Frazee owned the Red Sox franchise, he did not own Fenway Park (it was owned by the Fenway Park Trust, which was in turn controlled by the Taylors), making his ownership a precarious one; Johnson could move another team into the ballpark. Frazee thus felt the need to purchase the park even though he was in debt (which he did in 1920). Further, providing the Yankees with a box office attraction would help that mediocre club, which had sided with him against Johnson and "the Loyal Five" clubs. He also needed cash to pay on the note he had used to buy the Red Sox from Lannin. Finally, Ruth was considered a serious disciplinary problem, a reputation to be replicated in New York. Frazee moved to stabilize finances and cut distractions. It was a straight sale, no players in return.
The sale of Babe Ruth came to be viewed as the beginning of the Yankees – Red Sox rivalry, described as the "Greatest Rivalry on Earth" by some journalists. The sale would later be attributed as the cause of the "Curse of the Bambino", a tongue-in-cheek curse blamed for the inability of the Red Sox to win the World Series, from 1918 to 2004.
1920–1939
The Red Sox had finished 6th in 1919, only a year after winning the World Series. Frazee intended to use the money from selling Ruth to rebuild the team. However, he ran into trouble with his theater interests from 1918 onward, leaving him without enough money to service the debts on both Fenway Park and the Red Sox. He was thus forced to sell his star players in order to stay afloat. Unfortunately for Frazee, he was all but forced to deal with the Yankees. The "Loyal Five" were still unwilling to deal with him, and the White Sox' image had taken a beating from the Black Sox Scandal, leaving the Yankees as his only realistic trading partner. Over the next three years, Frazee sent nearly all of his star players to the Yankees, earning a total of $305,000.
In the winter of 1920, Wally Schang, future star pitcher Waite Hoyt, Harry Harper, and Mike McNally were traded to the Yankees for Del Pratt, Muddy Ruel, John Costello, Hank Thormahlen, Sammy Vick and cash.
The following winter, iron man shortstop Everett Scott, and pitchers Bullet Joe Bush and Sad Sam Jones were traded to the Yankees for Roger Peckinpaugh (who would be immediately shipped to the Washington Senators), Jack Quinn, Rip Collins, Bill Piercy and $50,000.
One particularly controversial deal was that of Joe Dugan and Elmer Smith, who were traded to the Yankees on July 23, 1922, for Elmer Miller, Chick Fewster, Johnny Mitchell, and future superstar Lefty O'Doul, who was at the time a mediocre pitching prospect. The trade of Dugan helped the Yankees edge the St. Louis Browns in a tight pennant race, and the resulting uproar helped create a June 15 trading deadline that went into effect the next year.
Perhaps an even more outrageous deal was the trade of Herb Pennock, occurring in early 1923. Pennock was traded by the Red Sox to the Yankees for Camp Skinner, Norm McMillan, George Murray and $50,000.
Several notable trades involving Frazee and the Yankees occurred before the Babe Ruth sale. On December 18, 1918, outstanding outfielder Duffy Lewis (mentioned above), pitcher Dutch Leonard, and pitcher Ernie Shore were traded to the Yankees for pitcher Ray Caldwell, Slim Love, Roxy Walters, Frank Gilhooley and $15,000.
As all three players were well regarded in Boston—Lewis had been a key player on the 1910s championship teams, Shore had famously relieved Babe Ruth and retired 27 straight, and Leonard had only four years before set a modern record for earned run average—this trade was regarded as not such a good one in Boston. Then, on July 13, 1919, submarine-style pitching star Carl Mays was traded to the Yankees for Bob McGraw, Allan Russell and $40,000.
Mays would go on to have several good years for the Yankees.
With the loss of so much talent, the money Frazee earned from these trades was not nearly enough to keep the Red Sox competitive. For the next 14 years, the Red Sox were fixtures in the second division, never finishing closer than 20 games out of first. On July 11, 1923, Frazee sold the team to Bob Quinn for $1,000,000. The losses continued under the new ownership, and over an eight-year period from 1925 to 1932, the Red Sox averaged over 100 losses in a season. The team bottomed out in 1932 with a ghastly 43–111 record, 64 games out of first—still the worst record in franchise history. One of the few bright spots on these teams was Earl Webb, who set the all-time mark for most doubles in a season in 1931 with 67.
The Red Sox' fortunes began to change in 1933, however, when Tom Yawkey bought the Red Sox. He hired former A's and White Sox great Eddie Collins, a longtime friend, as general manager. Yawkey told Collins that he was to acquire as much talent as possible to get the Red Sox out of the American League basement. Among Collins' notable acquisitions were Lefty Grove, one of the greatest pitchers of all-time, Joe Cronin, who was one of the best hitting shortstops as well as manager, Jimmie Foxx, the slugging first baseman, and Wes Ferrell, an outstanding pitcher. Wes Ferrell's brother Rick Ferrell was an outstanding catcher whose .303 batting average is 12th on the all time Red Sox list. These moves paid off in 1934, when the Red Sox finished with their first .500 record since the 1918 World Series run, followed by their first winning record since then in 1935. The Red Sox would remain competitive for the remainder of the 1930s.
1940–1949
In 1939, the Red Sox purchased the contract of outfielder Ted Williams from the San Diego Padres of the Pacific Coast League, ushering in an era sometimes called the "Ted Sox". Williams is generally considered one of the greatest hitters of all time, because he consistently hit for both high power and high average. Stories of his ability to hold a bat in his hand and correctly estimate its weight down to the ounce have floated around baseball circles for decades. His book The Science of Hitting is widely read by students of baseball. He is also the last player to hit over .400 for a full season, hitting .406 in 1941. Williams feuded with sports writers his whole career, calling them "The Knights of the Keyboard", and his relationship with the fans was often rocky as he was seen spitting towards the stands on more than one occasion.
In 1946, with the help of a mid-season trade (Rudy York from Detroit), the Sox were able to win the 1946 Pennant (The first one in 28 years). Along with Williams, the Red Sox reached the 1946 World Series, but lost to the St. Louis Cardinals in seven games, in part because of the use of the "Williams Shift", in which the shortstop would move to the right side of the infield to make it harder for the left-handed-hitting Williams to hit to that side of the field. Some have claimed that Williams was too proud to hit to the other side of the field, not wanting to let the Cardinals take away his game. Williams did not fare well in the series, gathering only five singles in 25 at-bats, for a .200 average. However, his performance may have been affected by an elbow injury he had received a few days before when he was hit by a pitch in an exhibition game. Williams would never play in a World Series again. Williams served two stints in the United States Marine Corps as a pilot and saw active duty in both World War II and the Korean War, and missed at least five full seasons of baseball.
In the series however, Rudy York would hit game-winning home runs in games 1 and 3. Bobby Doerr would hit .409 with a 2-run homer in the game four loss. The loss to the Cardinals in game 7 of 1946 World Series is not without controversy as the Cardinals' Enos Slaughter scored the go ahead run all the way from first base on a base hit to left field. The throw from Leon Culberson was cut off by shortstop Johnny Pesky who relayed the ball to the plate just a hair too late. Some say Pesky hesitated or "held the ball" before he turned to throw the ball, but this has been disputed. OF Leon Culberson was in the game because Dom DiMaggio was injured while sliding into second base after his 2-run base hit that tied the game. Despite Leon Culberson's throwing blunder he did hit a home run in game five.
The right-field bullpens in Fenway Park were built in part for Williams' left-handed swing, and are sometimes called "Williamsburg". Before this addition to right field, it was over in that area of the ballpark. On June 9, 1946, Williams would hit the longest homer in Fenway Park at , where a red seat still marks its landing spot.
The Red Sox featured several other players during the 1940s, including SS Johnny Pesky (for whom the right field foul pole in Fenway—"Pesky's Pole"—is affectionately named by fans, and in 2006 the Red Sox officially named it such), 2B Bobby Doerr, and CF Dom DiMaggio (brother of Joe DiMaggio).
The Red Sox narrowly lost the AL pennant in 1948 and 1949. In 1948, they finished in a tie with Cleveland, and their loss to Cleveland in a one-game playoff ended hopes of an all-Boston World Series. Curiously, manager Joe McCarthy chose journeyman Denny Galehouse to start the playoff game when the young lefty phenom Mel Parnell was available to pitch. In 1949, the Sox were one game ahead of the New York Yankees, with the only two games left for both teams being against each other, and they lost both of those games.
1950–1959
The 1950s were viewed as a time of tribulation for the Red Sox. After Williams returned from the Korean War in 1953, many of the best players from the late 1940s had retired or been traded. The stark contrast in the team led critics to call the Red Sox' daily lineup "Ted Williams and the Seven Dwarfs". Also, unlike many other teams, owner Tom Yawkey refused to sign players of African descent, even passing up chances at future Hall-of-Famers Jackie Robinson and Willie Mays, both of whom tried out for Boston and were highly praised by team scouts. Jackie Robinson was even worked out by the team at Fenway Park, however it appeared that owner Tom Yawkey did not want an African American player on his team at that time. Ted Williams hit .389 at the age of 38 in 1957, but there was little else for Boston fans to root for. Williams retired at the end of the 1960 season, famously hitting a home run in his final at-bat as memorialized in the John Updike story "Hub fans bid Kid adieu". The Sox finally became the last Major League team to field an African American player when they promoted infielder Pumpsie Green from their AAA farm team in 1959. Green made his debut at Fenway Park on August 4, where he played second base and was the leadoff hitter. With his first at-bat, Green hit a triple off of the Green Monster and then scored a run when Pete Runnels grounded out to first base. The 1950s had bright highlights like Pete Runnels .322 batting average in '58 and Jackie Jensen's 1958 MVP award.
(1960–1969) 1960s
1960–1969: Resurgence to the Impossible Dream
The 1960s also started poorly for the Red Sox, though 1961 saw the debut of Carl "Yaz" Yastrzemski, (uniform #8) who developed into one of the better hitters of a pitching-rich decade. In 1967 the Red Sox also had slugging 1B George Scott, SS Rico Petrocelli (who would hit 40 home runs in the '69 season), rookie center fielder Reggie Smith and Cy Young Award winner Jim Lonborg.
Red Sox fans refer to 1967 as the year of the "Impossible Dream". The 1967 season is remembered as one of the great pennant races in baseball history because four teams were in the AL pennant race until almost the last game. The team had finished the 1966 season in ninth place, but they found new life with Yastrzemski as the team went to the 1967 World Series. Yastrzemski won the American League Triple Crown (the last player to accomplish such a feat until Miguel Cabrera in 2012) with a .326 average, 44 home runs and 121 RBI, and put forth what is considered one of the best seasons in baseball history. But the Red Sox lost the series—again to the St. Louis Cardinals, in seven games. Legendary pitcher Bob Gibson stymied the Sox, winning three games.
The season started with a Billy Rohr one-hitter at Yankee Stadium. In Detroit, Yastrzemski hit a game tying home run in the ninth, then Dalton Jones won it with a homer in the following inning. 1967 also saw the renewal of a rivalry with the Yankees. In a series at the Bronx, Boston third baseman Joe Foy hit a grand slam in the opener then the following night hit another homer. The Yankee pitching took revenge and started throwing the ball at Red Sox hitters. At Fenway one night against the Angels, rookie Reggie Smith hit 3 home runs in one night (which included hit from both sides of the plate). Newly acquired 2nd baseman Jerry Adair won it in extra innings with a home run into the Green Monster net in LF. The Red Sox won the final games against the Minnesota Twins at Fenway Park. In the first game 1B George Scott broke the tie with a home run to center field. Then Carl Yastrzemski won the AL home run contest by hitting his 44th into the bullpen. This broke a tie with the Twins' Harmon Killebrew. In the next game Jim Lonborg surprised everyone by bunting for a hit in the 5th inning. The BoSox scored 5 times that inning to take the lead. Twins pinch hitter Rich Collins popped to Rico Petrocelli to give the Red Sox their first pennant since 1946.
Also during the 1960s, a local Bostonian named Tony Conigliaro slugged 24 home runs as an 18-year-old rookie in 1964. On July 23, 1967, "Tony C." became the youngest player in the history of the American League to hit 100 home runs. However, tragedy would strike on August 18, when California Angels pitcher Jack Hamilton threw a high and inside fastball that struck Conigliaro on the left cheek just below the temple. Conigliaro collapsed to the ground with an imploded eyeball, and lay motionless on the ground before he was carried out on a stretcher. As a result of this injury Conigliaro missed the rest of the 1967 season, as well as the 1968 season with the exception of a limited participation in Spring Training.
The Red Sox went to the World Series to face the St. Louis Cardinals. In the opener at Fenway Park, Red Sox pitcher José Santiago hit a home run off legendary Bob Gibson. But they lost 2–1. In the following game Jim Lonborg pitched a no-hitter until the 8th inning when Julián Javier hit a leadoff double. Carl Yastrzemski hit two home runs in a 5–0 victory. The Series then shifted to St. Louis. In the third game Cardinal Nelson Briles pitched a 5–2 victory, Reggie Smith homered for the Sox. In game 4 Gibson shut out Boston 6–0 in a complete game victory. Down 3 games to 1 the Red Sox had Jim Lonborg to start game five. He pitched a 3-hitter and catcher Elston Howard hit a bloop single that gave them the win. In game six at Fenway Park, Manager Dick Williams started rookie pitcher Gary Waslewski to start it in an 8–4 victory. In the 4th inning Carl Yastrzemski, Reggie Smith and Rico Petrocelli hit home runs. Rico also homered in the 2nd inning. In game 7 Gibson won against Lonborg 7–2 to end the season.
1970–1979
Soon after the Impossible Dream, the team began to wear a red hat with a navy blue B and a navy blue brim—sporting them for four seasons from 1975 to 1978—in contrast to the traditional navy hat with a red B.
Although the Red Sox played competitive baseball for much of the late 1960s and early 1970s, they never finished higher than second place in their division. The closest they came to a divisional title was 1972, when they lost by a half-game to the Detroit Tigers. The start of the season was delayed by a players' strike, and because games cancelled by the strike were not made up, the Red Sox were scheduled for one less game than the Tigers, and ended up losing the division title to the Tigers by a half-game. On October 2, 1972, they also lost the second to last game of the year to the Tigers, 4–1; in that game, Luis Aparicio fell rounding third (after Yastrzemski hit an apparent triple in the third inning) and tried to scamper back to third, but Yastrzemski was already on third. (As the lead runner, and not forced to advance, Aparicio was awarded the base, and Yastrzemski was out, his hit being reduced to a double.)
1975
The Red Sox won the AL pennant in 1975, with Yastrzemski surrounded by other players such as rookie outfielders Jim Rice and Fred Lynn the "Gold Dust Twins", veteran outfielder Dwight Evans "Dewey", catcher Carlton Fisk "Pudge", and pitchers Luis Tiant "El Tiante" and eccentric junkballer Bill Lee "The Spaceman". With many different personalities in the clubhouse, the 1975 Red Sox were as colorful as they were talented. Fred Lynn won both the American League Rookie of the Year award and the Most Valuable Player award, a feat which had never been accomplished at that time and was not duplicated until Ichiro Suzuki did it in 2001. Lynn would hit .331 with 21 home runs and Jim Rice would tally 22 homers and a .309 average. In the playoffs, the Red Sox swept the Oakland A's. Carl Yastrzemski returned to left field and had two assists. Yaz also helped the offense with a home run off Vida Blue in game two, Rico Petrocelli hit a game-winning home run off future hall of fame closer Rollie Fingers.
In the 1975 World Series, they faced the Cincinnati Reds, also known as The Big Red Machine, a team considered a baseball dynasty during the 1970s. Luis Tiant won games 1 and 4 of the World Series but after five games, the Red Sox trailed the series 3 games to 2. Game 6 played at Fenway Park is thought to be one of the greatest, if not the greatest, game in postseason history. The Sox struck first on a 1st inning Fred Lynn blast. But by the 8th they were down 6–3 in the bottom of the eighth when pinch hitter Bernie Carbo hit a three-run homer into the center field bleachers off Reds fireman Rawly Eastwick to tie the game. In the top of the eleventh inning, right fielder Dwight Evans made a spectacular catch of a Joe Morgan line drive and doubled Ken Griffey Sr. at 1st base to preserve the tie. The Red Sox ultimately prevailed in the bottom of the twelfth inning when Carlton Fisk hit a deep fly ball which sliced towards the left field foul pole above the Green Monster. As the ball sailed into the night, Fisk waved his arms frantically towards fair territory, seemingly pleading with the ball not to go foul. The ball hit approximately six inches to the fair side of the foul pole and bedlam ensued at Fenway as Fisk rounded the bases to win the game 7–6.
The Red Sox lost game 7 even though they had an early 3–0 lead on a RBI single by Carl Yastrzemski. Starting pitcher Bill Lee threw a slow looping curve which he called a "Leephus pitch" or "space ball" to Reds first baseman Tony Pérez who hit the ball over the Green Monster and across the street. The Reds scored the winning run in the 9th inning. Carlton Fisk said famously about the 1975 World Series, "We won that thing 3 games to 4."
1976
After the 1975 World Series, the Red Sox were in a financial dilemma. The Red Sox had to sign prospective free agents Lynn, Carlton Fisk, and Rick Burleson. The Red Sox were explaining that they could not afford Lynn, Burleson, and Fisk. To make matters worse, the Red Sox were about to buy Rollie Fingers and Joe Rudi from the Oakland A's. Many fans wondered how Boston could afford to sign Fingers and Rudi if they did not have the money to sign the three players that led them to the 1975 World Series. However, commissioner Bowie Kuhn stepped in and vetoed the deal, thus allowing Boston to re-sign Lynn, Fisk, and Burleson. Thanks to this distraction, the Red Sox won 83 games in 1976, finishing in third place.
1977
The 1977 season was a bounce-back with the hiring of Don Zimmer as manager and the signing of reliever Bill Campbell from the Minnesota Twins. They fought with the Baltimore Orioles for first place for much of the first half, even sporting seven All-Stars at the All-Star game at Yankee Stadium. However, the Yankees eclipsed them both after the All-Star game. The Orioles and Red Sox would finish tied for 2nd place with 97 victories apiece.
Jim Rice, George Scott, Carl Yastrzemski, Carlton Fisk, Fred Lynn and Butch Hobson helped the Red Sox with 213 home runs.
1978
The 1978 season began with three more signings. The first brought in pitcher Dennis Eckersley from Cleveland. The other brought speedy second baseman Jerry Remy from the California Angels. The third stole Mike Torrez away from the hated Yankees. With these acquisitions, the Red Sox took off and fought with the Milwaukee Brewers for first place much of the first half. Just like the previous season, they sported seven All-Stars in the All-Star game at Jack Murphy Stadium. However, injuries to Fisk and Burleson would prevent the Sox to retain first place as the Yankees caught up to them.
In 1978, the Red Sox and the Yankees were involved in a tight pennant race. The Yankees were games behind the Red Sox in July behind the hitting of MVP Jim Rice, Yaz, Carlton Fisk, Fred Lynn and George Scott, but on September 10, after completing a 4-game sweep of the Red Sox (known as "The Boston Massacre"), the Yankees tied for the divisional lead.
For the final three weeks of the season, the teams fought closely and the lead changed hands several times. By the final day of the season, the Yankees' magic number to win the division was one—which meant either a win over Cleveland or a Boston loss to Toronto would clinch the division for the Yankees. However, New York lost 9–2 and Boston won 5–0, forcing a one-game playoff to be held at Fenway Park on Monday, October 2.
The Red Sox took a 2–0 lead on a Yastrzemski homer and a run scoring single by Rice. Although Bucky Dent's three-run home run in the 7th inning off Mike Torrez just over the Green Monster—which gave the Yankees their first lead—is the most remembered moment from the game, it was Reggie Jackson's solo home run in the 8th that proved the difference in the Yankees' 5–4 win, which ended with Yastrzemski popping out to Graig Nettles with Rick Burleson representing the tying run at third. Although Dent became a Red Sox demon, the Red Sox would get retribution in 1990 when the Yankees fired Dent as their manager during a series at Fenway Park.
After the 1978 season, things would go bad for Boston as they let go of two clubhouse leaders. First, Luis Tiant would sign with the hated Yankees. Also, Bill Lee ended up on the upcoming Montreal Expos.
After the loss in 1978, John Cheever said to Diane White, "All literary men are Red Sox fans. To be a Yankee fan in literary society is to endanger your life". He also compared the Red Sox-Yankees rivalry to the Trojan War, with the Red Sox portraying the Trojans (broadbacked Carl Yastrzemski in a noble frieze, his poignant popup soaring beyond the topless towers of Troy before the dream is dashed by the grit-gloved Graig Nettles).
1979–1989
After the 1978 playoff game, the Red Sox did not reach the postseason for the next seven years. In 1979, Carl Yastrzemski would hit his 3000th career hit and Fred Lynn won the batting crown. The Sox would finish in third with a 91–69 record. Despite plus-.500 finishes in 1980 and 1981, the Red Sox decided not to resign Fred Lynn, Carlton Fisk, and Rick Burleson. Fisk would go to the White Sox, Lynn and Burleson went to the California Angels, in two separate trades that brought in Frank Tanana, Joe Rudi, Carney Lansford who would win the 1981 batting title, Rick Miller, and Mark Clear. The Red Sox would win 89 games in 1982 with 14 wins from reliever Mark Clear and a .349 batting average from rookie Wade Boggs. Carl Yastrzemski retired after the 1983 season, during which the Red Sox finished sixth in the seven-team AL East, posting their worst record since 1966.
However, in 1986, it appeared that the team's fortunes were about to change. The team's hitting and offense had remained strong with Jim Rice, Dwight Evans, Bill Buckner, Don Baylor, and future Hall of Famer Wade Boggs who would win 5 batting titles. Roger Clemens led the pitching staff, going 24–4 with a 2.48 ERA to win both the American League Cy Young and Most Valuable Player awards. Clemens became the first starting pitcher to win both awards since Vida Blue in 1971. This feat has been replicated twice since then (Justin Verlander in 2011, Clayton Kershaw in 2014).
The Red Sox won the AL East for the first time in 11 seasons, prompting a playoff series against the California Angels in the AL Championship Series. The teams split the first two games in Boston, but the Angels won the next two games at their home stadium, taking a 3–1 lead in the series. With the Angels poised to win the series, the Red Sox trailed 5–2 heading into the ninth inning of Game 5. A two-run homer by Baylor cut the lead to one. With two outs and a runner on, and one strike away from elimination, Dave Henderson homered off Donnie Moore to put Boston up 6–5. Although the Angels tied the game in the bottom of the ninth, the Red Sox won in the 11th on a Henderson sacrifice fly off Moore. The Red Sox then found themselves with six- and seven-run wins at Fenway Park in Games 6 and 7 to win the American League title.
1986 World Series and Game Six
In the 1986 World Series the Red Sox played the New York Mets. Boston won the first two games in Shea Stadium but lost the next two at Fenway, knotting the series at 2 games apiece. After Bruce Hurst recorded his second victory of the series in Game 5, the Red Sox returned to Shea Stadium looking to garner their first championship in 68 years. However, Game 6 would go down as one of the most devastating losses in club history. After pitching seven strong innings, Clemens was lifted from the game with a 3–2 lead. Years later, Manager John McNamara said Clemens was suffering from a blister and asked to be taken out of the game, a claim Clemens denied. The Mets then scored a run off reliever Calvin Schiraldi to tie the score 3–3. The game went to extra innings, where the Red Sox took a 5–3 lead in the top of the 10th on a solo home run by Henderson, a double by Boggs and an RBI single by second baseman Marty Barrett. After recording two outs in the bottom of the 10th, the Red Sox were one strike away from breaking their championship drought. The champagne was on ice in the Red Sox clubhouse, a graphic appeared on the NBC telecast hailing Barrett as the World Series MVP, and a message even appeared briefly on the Shea Stadium scoreboard congratulating the Red Sox as world champions. After so many years of abject frustration, Red Sox fans around the world could taste victory. However, after three straight singles off Schiraldi and a wild pitch by Bob Stanley, the Mets tied the game at 5. It looked as though the Red Sox would record the third out leaving the score tied when Mookie Wilson hit a slow ground ball to first; the ball rolled through Bill Buckner's legs, allowing Ray Knight to score the winning run from second. While Buckner was singled out as responsible for the loss, many observers—as well as both Wilson and Buckner—have noted that even if Buckner had fielded the ball cleanly, Wilson possibly would still have been safe, leaving the game-winning run at third with two out. Many observers questioned why Buckner was in the game at that point considering he had bad knees and that Dave Stapleton had come in as a late-inning defensive replacement in prior series games. It appeared as though McNamara was trying to reward Buckner for his long and illustrious career by leaving him in the game. The Sox took a 3–0 lead on home runs by Dwight Evans and Rich Gedman but the Mets then won Game 7, concluding the devastating collapse and feeding the myth that the Red Sox were "cursed".
This World Series loss had a strange twist: Red Sox General Manager Lou Gorman was vice president, player personnel, of the Mets from 1980 to 1983. Working under Mets' GM Frank Cashen, with whom Gorman served with the Orioles, he helped lay the foundation for the Mets' championship.
The Red Sox returned to the postseason in 1988. With the club in fourth place midway through the 1988 season at the All-Star break, manager John McNamara was fired and replaced by Joe Morgan on July 15. Immediately the club won 12 games in a row, and 19 of 20 overall, to surge to the AL East title in what would be referred to as Morgan Magic. But the magic was short-lived, as the team was swept by the Oakland Athletics in the ALCS. Ironically, the MVP of that Series was former Red Sox pitcher and Baseball Hall of Fame player Dennis Eckersley, who saved all four wins for Oakland.
1990s
The 1990 season would provide a memorable end for Boston. The Red Sox held a -game lead in the American League East on September 2, but lost 15 of their next 21 games and surrendered the lead to the Toronto Blue Jays. However, the Red Sox managed to avoid a collapse by winning six of their final eight games to take back the American League East. The Red Sox again faced the Athletics in the ALCS. However, the outcome was the same, with the A's sweeping the ALCS in four straight. During the season, the Red Sox acquired reliever Larry Andersen via trade from the Houston Astros in order to bolster their bullpen. However, the player traded for Andersen turned out to be Boston native and future Hall of Famer Jeff Bagwell, who went on to play all 15 Major League seasons as a first baseman with the Astros.
That same year, Yankees fans started to chant "1918!" to taunt the Red Sox. The demeaning chant would echo at Yankee Stadium each time the Red Sox were there. Also, Fenway Park became the scene of Bucky Dent's worst moment as a manager, although it was where he had his greatest triumph. In June, when the Red Sox swept the Yankees during a four-game series at Fenway Park, the Yankees fired Dent as their manager. Red Sox fans felt retribution to Dent being fired on their field, while the Yankees used him as a scapegoat. However, Dan Shaughnessy of The Boston Globe severely criticized Yankees Owner George Steinbrenner for firing Dent—his 18th managerial change in as many years since becoming owner—in Boston and said he should "have waited until the Yankees got to Baltimore" to fire Dent. He said that "if Dent had been fired in Seattle or Milwaukee, this would have been just another event in an endless line of George's jettisons. But it happened in Boston and the nightly news had its hook." "The firing was only special because ... it's the first time a Yankee manager—who was also a Red Sox demon—was purged on the ancient Indian burial grounds of the Back Bay."
Tom Yawkey died in 1976, and his wife Jean Yawkey took control of the team until her death in 1992. Their initials are shown in two stripes on the Left field wall in Morse code. After Jean Yawkey's death, control of the team passed to the Yawkey Trust, led by John Harrington. The trust sold the team in 2002, concluding 70 years of Yawkey ownership.
In 1994, general manager Lou Gorman was replaced by Dan Duquette, a Massachusetts native who had worked for the Montreal Expos. Duquette revived the team's farm system, which during his tenure produced players such as Nomar Garciaparra, Carl Pavano, and David Eckstein. Duquette also spent money on free agents, notably an eight-year, $160 million deal for Manny Ramírez after the 2000 season.
Many fans were upset when Roger Clemens and Mo Vaughn left the team as free agents. After Clemens had turned 30 and then had four seasons, 1993–96, which were by his standards mediocre at best, Duquette said the pitcher was entering "the twilight of his career". Clemens went on to pitch well for another ten years and win four more Cy Young awards. In 1999, Duquette called Fenway Park "economically obsolete" and, along with Red Sox ownership, led a push for a new stadium. Despite support from the Massachusetts Legislature and other politicians, issues with buying out neighboring property and steadfast opposition within Boston's city council eventually doomed the project.
On the field, the Red Sox had some success during this period, but were unable to return to the World Series. In 1995, they won the newly realigned American League East, finishing seven games ahead of the Yankees. However, they were swept in three games in a series against the Cleveland Indians. Their postseason losing streak reached 13 straight games, dating back to the 1986 World Series. During the 1990s a group of young talented players joined the team such as infielders Nomar Garciaparra and John Valentin. Garciaparra would win the 1997 rookie of the year honor while hitting 60 home runs in his first two full seasons. John Valentin would make 1994 triple play while being one of the best AL hitters.
The 1996 season certainly had its individual highlights. Roger Clemens tied his major league record by fanning 20 Detroit Tigers on September 18 in what would prove to be one of his final appearances in a Red Sox uniform. Mo Vaughn had another All-Star season (.326 batting average, 44 home runs, 143 runs batted in) and newcomer Heathcliff Slocumb saved 31 games. However the Red Sox lost 19 of their first 25 games and finished third with an 85–77 record. They led the league in unearned runs. Even so, home attendance increased over 1995, to 2.3 million fans. Out of contention in 1997, the team traded closer Slocum to Seattle for catching prospect Jason Varitek and right-handed pitcher Derek Lowe.
In 1998, the Red Sox dealt pitchers Tony Armas Jr. and Carl Pavano to the Montreal Expos in exchange for pitcher Pedro Martínez. Martínez became the anchor of the team's pitching staff and turned in several outstanding seasons. In 1998, the team won the American League Wild Card, but again lost the American League Division Series to the Indians.
A year later, the 1999 Red Sox were finally able to overturn their fortunes against the Indians. Cleveland took a 2–0 series lead, but Boston won the next three games behind strong pitching by Derek Lowe, Pedro Martínez and his brother Ramón Martínez. Game 4's 23–7 win by the Red Sox was the highest-scoring playoff game in major league history. Game 5 began with the Indians taking a 5–2 lead after two innings, but Pedro Martínez, nursing a shoulder injury, came on in the fourth inning and pitched six innings without allowing a hit while the team's offense rallied for a 12–8 win behind two home runs and seven RBIs from outfielder Troy O'Leary . After the ALDS victory, the Red Sox lost the American League Championship Series to the Yankees, four games to one. The one bright spot was a lopsided win for the Sox in the much-hyped Martinez-Clemens game.
2000s: The World Series Years
Early 2000s
In 2000, the Red Sox failed to take advantage of Nomar Garciaparra's career year and Pedro Martínez's historic season (18–6, 1.74 ERA, and his third Cy Young Award). Despite a few other standouts, they stumbled to an 85–77 clip. In 2001, though the Red Sox got an outstanding performance from new acquisition Manny Ramírez who would hit a home run in his first at bat at Fenway as a member of the Red Sox, the Red Sox struggled and, with a record of 65–53, fired manager Jimy Williams and replaced him with pitching coach Joe Kerrigan, under whom they went 17–26.
In 2002, the Red Sox were sold by Yawkey trustee and president Harrington to a consortium called New England Sports Ventures headed by principal owner John Henry. The group underbid the next highest bidder, James L. Dolan, in a complex deal arranged by consortium part-owner George Mitchell and MLB commissioner Bud Selig.
Tom Werner served as executive chairman, Larry Lucchino served as president and CEO, and serving as vice chairman was Les Otten. Within 24 hours, Dan Duquette was fired as GM of the club on February 28, with former Angels GM Mike Port taking the interim helm for the 2002 season. A week later manager Joe Kerrigan was fired and replaced by Grady Little.
While nearly all offseason moves were made under Dan Duquette, such as signing outfielder Johnny Damon away from the Oakland A's, the new ownership made additions after their purchase of the team, including trading for outfielder Cliff Floyd and relief pitcher Alan Embree. Nomar Garciaparra, Manny Ramírez, and Floyd (in limited time) all hit well, while Pedro Martínez put up his usual outstanding numbers. Derek Lowe, newly converted into a starter, won 20 games—becoming the first player to save 20 games in one season and win 20 games the following season. The Red Sox won 93 games but they finished games behind the Yankees for the division and 6 behind the Angels for the wild card.
In the off season, Port was replaced by Yale graduate Theo Epstein after Oakland's Billy Beane turned down the position. At the age of 28, Epstein became the youngest general manager in the history of the Major Leagues up to that point. He was raised in Brookline.
The "Idiots" of 2004 arose out of the "Cowboy Up" team of 2003, a nickname derived from first baseman Kevin Millar's challenge to his teammates to show more determination. In addition to Millar, the team's offense was so deep that eventual 2003 batting champion Bill Mueller was 7th in the lineup behind sluggers Manny Ramírez and the newly acquired David Ortiz.
Ortiz started the season as a platoon player with Mueller, Shea Hillenbrand, and Jeremy Giambi, with the four collectively playing first base, third base, and designated hitter. However, Hillenbrand became upset with his lack of playing time. GM Theo Epstein, noting that Mueller was hitting very well in his limited role, traded Hillenbrand to the Arizona Diamondbacks for pitcher Byung-hyun Kim. Receiving much more playing time following the trade, Ortiz settled down and contributed significantly in the second half of the season. Epstein's decision ended up greatly benefiting the team, as the Red Sox broke many batting records and won the AL Wild Card on September 25 with a victory over the Baltimore Orioles at Fenway.
In the 2003 American League Division Series, the Red Sox rallied from a 0–2 series deficit against the Oakland Athletics to win the best-of-five series. In extra innings of game three at Fenway pinch hitter Trot Nixon belted a homer into the center field bleachers to give the Sox victory. Derek Lowe, who had become a starter after several years as a relief pitcher, returned to his former role to save Game 5, a 4–3 victory, by striking out the A's Terrence Long with the tying run on third base. The team then faced the New York Yankees in the 2003 American League Championship Series. In the deciding seventh game Boston took a 4–0 lead on home runs by Nixon and Kevin Millar. But two Giambi homers made it 4–2. Boston led 5–2 thanks to a shot by David Ortiz in the eighth inning, but Pedro Martínez, who was still pitching into the 8th inning, allowed three runs to tie the game, including a two-run bloop double by Jorge Posada. The Red Sox could not score off Mariano Rivera over the last three innings and eventually lost the game 6–5 when Yankee third baseman Aaron Boone hit a solo home run off Red Sox pitcher Tim Wakefield.
Some placed the blame for the loss on manager Grady Little for failing to remove Martínez in the 8th inning after some observers believe he began to show signs of tiring. Others credited Little with the team's successful season and dramatic come-from-behind victory in the ALDS. Nevertheless, Boston's management decided a change was in order. Little's contract expired after the season, and the organization decided not to exercise his option. He was replaced by former Philadelphia Phillies manager Terry Francona.
2004
During the 2003–04 offseason, the Red Sox acquired another ace pitcher, Curt Schilling, and a closer, Keith Foulke. Expectations once again ran high that 2004 would be the year that the Red Sox ended their championship drought. The regular season started well in April, but through mid-season the team struggled due to injuries, inconsistency and defensive woes.
Pitching remained strong from Pedro Martínez, Curt Schilling and Tim Wakefield. Offense was too much for the 2004 Red Sox led by Ortiz, Ramirez, Damon and Jason Varitek. But management shook up the team at the MLB trading deadline on July 31, when they traded the team's popular yet often injured shortstop, Nomar Garciaparra, to the Chicago Cubs, receiving Orlando Cabrera of the Montreal Expos and Doug Mientkiewicz of the Minnesota Twins in return. In a separate transaction, the Red Sox also traded minor leaguer Henri Stanley to the Los Angeles Dodgers for center fielder Dave Roberts. Many Sox fans initially blasted the trade as bringing the team inadequate compensation for Garciaparra. However, the club would turn things around soon after, winning 22 out of 25 games and qualifying for the playoffs as the AL Wild Card. Players and fans affectionately referred to the players as "The Idiots", a term coined by Johnny Damon and Kevin Millar during the playoff push to describe the team's eclectic roster and devil-may-care attitude toward their supposed curse.
2004 ALDS and ALCS
Boston began the postseason by sweeping the AL West champion Anaheim Angels in the ALDS. However, Curt Schilling suffered a torn ankle tendon in Game 1 when he was hit by a line drive. The injury was exacerbated when Schilling fielded a ball rolling down the first base line. In the third game of the series, what looked to be a blowout turned out to be a nail-biter, as Vladimir Guerrero hit a grand slam off Mike Timlin in the 7th inning to tie the game. However, David Ortiz hit a walk-off two-run homer in the 10th inning to win the game. The Sox advanced to a rematch in the 2004 American League Championship Series against the New York Yankees.
The series started very poorly for the Red Sox. Schilling, pitching with an injured ankle, was routed for six runs in three innings. Yankees starter Mike Mussina had six perfect innings, and despite Boston's best efforts to come back, they ended up losing 10–7. In Game 2, with his Yankees leading 1–0 for most of the game, John Olerud hit a two-run home run to put New York up for good. Following this, the Red Sox were down three games to none after a crushing 19–8 loss in Game 3 at home. In that game, the two clubs set the record for most runs scored in a League Championship Series game. At that point in the history of baseball, no team had come back to win from a 3–0 series deficit. In Game 4, the Red Sox found themselves facing elimination, trailing 4–3 in the ninth with Yankees closer Mariano Rivera on the mound. After Rivera issued a walk to Kevin Millar, Dave Roberts came on to pinch run and promptly stole second base. He then scored on an RBI single by Bill Mueller which sent the game to extra innings. The Red Sox went on to win the game on a two-run home run by David Ortiz in the 12th inning. In Game 5, the Red Sox were again down late (by the score of 4–2) as a result of Derek Jeter's bases-clearing triple. But the Sox struck back in the eighth, as Ortiz hit a homer over the Green Monster to bring the Sox within a run. Then Jason Varitek hit a sacrifice fly to bring home Dave Roberts, scoring the tying run. The game would go for 14 innings, featuring many squandered opportunities on both sides. In the bottom of the 14th, Ortiz would again seal the win with an RBI single that brought home Damon. The 14-inning game set the record for the longest American League Championship Series game ever played.
With the series returning to Yankee Stadium for Game 6, the comeback continued with Schilling pitching on a bad ankle. The three sutures in Schilling's ankle bled throughout the game, making his sock appear bloody red. Schilling struck out four, walked none, and only allowed one run over seven innings to lead the team to victory. Mark Bellhorn also helped in the effort as he hit a three-run home run in the fourth inning. In the bottom of the ninth, the Yankees staged a rally and brought former Red Sox player Tony Clark to the plate as the potential winning run. Keith Foulke, pitching for the third day in a row, struck out Clark to end the game and force the deciding Game 7. In this game, the Red Sox completed their historic comeback owing to the strength of Derek Lowe's one-hit, one-run pitching and Johnny Damon's two home runs (including a grand slam in the second inning). The New York Yankees were defeated 10–3. Ortiz, who had the game-winning RBIs in Games 4 and 5, was named ALCS Most Valuable Player. The Red Sox joined the 1942 Toronto Maple Leafs and 1975 New York Islanders as the only professional sports teams in history to win a best-of-seven games series after being down three games to none, as would the 2010 Philadelphia Flyers and 2014 Los Angeles Kings.
2004 World Series: Death of the Curse of the Bambino
The Red Sox faced the St. Louis Cardinals in the 2004 World Series. The Cardinals had posted the best record in MLB in 2004, and had previously defeated the Red Sox in the and 1967 World Series. The Sox began the series when Ortiz hit a 3-run homer to start the night. However Boston made many errors which allowed St. Louis to tie the game 9-all. But in the 8th inning the Red Sox won 11–9, marked by Mark Bellhorn's game-winning home run off Pesky's Pole. It was the highest scoring World Series opening game ever (breaking the previous record set in 1932). The Red Sox would go on to win Game 2 in Boston thanks to another great performance by the bloody-socked Curt Schilling. Boston scored all six runs with two-out RBI hits by Varitek, Orlando Cabrera and Varitek. In Game 3, Manny Ramirez got Boston started with a 1st-inning solo home run. Pedro Martínez (in his first World Series performance) shut out the Cardinals for seven innings and led Boston to a 4–1 victory. In Game 4, Damon led off the game with a home run and the Red Sox did not allow a single run, and the game ended as Édgar Rentería hit the ball back to closer Keith Foulke. After Foulke lobbed the ball to first baseman Doug Mientkiewicz, the Sox had won their first World Championship in 86 years. Boston held the Cardinals' offense to only three runs in the final three games and never trailed in the series. Fox commentator Joe Buck famously called the final play of the game with: "Back to Foulke. Red Sox fans have longed to hear it: The Boston Red Sox are World Champions!"
Manny Ramírez was named World Series MVP. To add a final, surreal touch to Boston's championship season, on the night of Game 4 a total lunar eclipse colored the moon red over Busch Stadium. The Red Sox won the title about 11 minutes before totality ended.
The Red Sox held a "rolling rally" for the team on Saturday, October 30, 2004. A crowd of more than three million people filled the streets of Boston to celebrate as the team rode on the city's famous Duck Boats. The Red Sox earned many accolades from the sports media and throughout the nation for their incredible season. In December, Sports Illustrated named the Boston Red Sox the 2004 Sportsmen of the Year.
With the New England Patriots winning Super Bowl XXXVIII in February, Boston became the first city since Pittsburgh in 1979 to have both Super Bowl and World Series champions in the same year. Their winning Super Bowl XXXIX during the offseason made Boston the first city since Pittsburgh in 1979–1980 to have two Super Bowl and World Series championships over a span of 12 months. After the Bruins won the 2011 Stanley Cup Finals, which made Boston the first city to win championships in all four sports leagues in the new millennium, Dan Shaughnessy of The Boston Globe ranked all seven championships by the Patriots, Red Sox in 2004 and , the Celtics in , and the Bruins and picked the Red Sox win in 2004 as the greatest Boston sports championship during the ten-year span.
2005–2006
After winning its first World Series in 86 years, Red Sox management was left with the challenge of dealing with a number of high-profile free agents. Pedro Martínez, Derek Lowe, and Orlando Cabrera were replaced with David Wells, Matt Clement, and Édgar Rentería, respectively. The club re-signed its catcher, Jason Varitek, and named him team captain. On April 11, the Red Sox opened their home season with a ring ceremony and the unveiling of their 2004 World Series Championship banner.
Pitchers Curt Schilling and Keith Foulke, key players in the previous year's playoff drive, spent large parts of the season on the disabled list. More of the team's struggles stemmed from the declining performances of some of its key role players: first baseman Kevin Millar (only 9 home runs), second baseman Mark Bellhorn (struck out once every 2.6 AB), and setup man Alan Embree (7.65 ERA). Without Foulke and Embree anchoring the pen, Theo Epstein took a chance on a number of journeymen who failed to bring stability. For much of the season Boston held first place in the AL East but down the stretch the team struggled, squandering its lead over the Yankees and allowing the Cleveland Indians to close the gap in the Wild Card race. The division crown would be decided on the last weekend of the season, with the Yankees coming to Fenway Park with a one-game lead in the standings. The Red Sox won two of the three games to finish the season with the same record as the Yankees, 95–67. However, a playoff was not needed. The Indians had a record of 93–69, thus qualifying both the Yankees and Red Sox for the playoffs. Since the Yankees had won the season series, 10–9, they won the division, whereas the Red Sox settled for the Wild Card. In the 2005 playoffs, the Red Sox faced the AL Central champion Chicago White Sox but were swept in three games.
On October 31, 2005, general manager Theo Epstein resigned on the last day of his contract, reportedly turning down a three-year, $4.5 million contract extension. On Thanksgiving evening, the Red Sox officially announced the acquisition of pitcher Josh Beckett from the Florida Marlins. Boston also added third baseman Mike Lowell and relief pitcher Guillermo Mota in the deal, while sending minor league prospects Hanley Ramírez, Aníbal Sánchez, Jesús Delgado, and Harvey García to the Marlins. On December 7, the Sox traded backup catcher Doug Mirabelli to the San Diego Padres for second baseman Mark Loretta (the team would later reacquire Mirabelli in May 2006). On December 8, the Sox gave up on Édgar Rentería, trading him and cash to the Atlanta Braves for third base prospect Andy Marte. On December 20, Johnny Damon declined arbitration and a few days later signed a four-year, $52 million deal with the New York Yankees. With Mike Lowell now on board, the Sox let Bill Mueller go via free agency to the Dodgers. Meanwhile, Kevin Millar was not offered arbitration and signed with the Baltimore Orioles.
On January 19, 2006, the Red Sox announced that Theo Epstein would be rejoining the Red Sox in a "full-time baseball operations capacity" and, five days later, he was renamed general manager. The Sox signed Bronson Arroyo to a three-year contract, but later traded him to the Reds for outfielder Wily Mo Peña. Veteran shortstop Álex González was signed to a one-year contract to replace Édgar Rentería. The team also filled the vacancy in center field left by Johnny Damon's departure by trading Mota, Marte, and prospect Kelly Shoppach to the Cleveland Indians for center fielder Coco Crisp, relief pitcher David Riske, and backup catcher Josh Bard. However, Crisp fractured his left index finger after playing only the first five games of the 2006 season. Crisp would miss over 50 games during the season and did not live up to expectations.
Third baseman Mike Lowell rediscovered his offense after a difficult season in Florida, and together with shortstop Álex González, second baseman Mark Loretta, and new first baseman Kevin Youkilis, the Red Sox had one of the best-fielding infields in Major League Baseball. On June 30, Boston set a major league record of 17 straight errorless games. This streak helped the Red Sox commit the fewest errors in the American League in 2006. During this span, they also recorded 12 consecutive victories, all in interleague play. The winning streak was the third longest in club history, behind only the 15 wins posted by the 1946 club and 13 victories in 1948. The Red Sox were well represented in the 2006 All-Star Game. David Ortiz and Mark Loretta started for the American League squad. Manny Ramírez, though elected to a starting role, did not appear due to a knee injury.
One of the brightest spots of the 2006 season was the emergence of new closer Jonathan Papelbon. The 25-year-old rookie fireballer was given the chance to save the April 5 game against the Texas Rangers. Two months later, he had saved 20 games in a row. On September 1, Papelbon left the game after experiencing shoulder pain. He would eventually be shut down for the rest of the season. Papelbon ended up setting a Red Sox rookie record with 35 saves while recording a minuscule 0.92 ERA and earning an All-Star appearance. Also, David Ortiz provided a late-season highlight by hitting 54 home runs, breaking the record of most home runs in a single season by a Red Sox player, previously set by Jimmie Foxx in 1938 with 50 home runs.
Down the stretch, the Sox wilted under the pressure of mounting injuries and poor performances. Boston would compile a 9–21 record in the month of August, with two six-game losing streaks included during that stretch. Despite Curt Schilling's resurgence in the starting rotation (15–7, 3.97 ERA), Josh Beckett had an inconsistent season, winning 16 games but allowing 36 homers and posting a 5.01 ERA. Injuries to Tim Wakefield, rookie Jon Lester (diagnosed with lymphoma), and Matt Clement left the rotation with major holes to fill. Injuries to Jason Varitek, Trot Nixon, Wily Mo Pena, and Manny Ramírez severely hurt the offense. On September 21, 2006, The Red Sox finished 2006 with an 86–76 record and third place in the AL East, their lowest placing in nine seasons.
2007: Seventh World Series Championship
General Manager Theo Epstein's first major step toward restocking the team for 2007 was to pursue one of the most anticipated acquisitions in recent history. On November 14, Major League Baseball announced that the Red Sox had won the bid for the rights to negotiate a contract with Japanese superstar pitcher Daisuke Matsuzaka. Boston placed a bid of $51.1 million, and had 30 days to complete a deal. On December 13, just before the deadline, Matsuzaka signed a 6-year, $52 million contract.
In the hopes of solidifying the starting rotation, the team announced that closer Jonathan Papelbon would become a starter in 2007. With Papelbon becoming a starter and Keith Foulke leaving the team, the Red Sox began building up their bullpen in search of a new closer. J. C. Romero, Brendan Donnelly, Joel Piñeiro, and Japanese lefty Hideki Okajima all joined the Boston bullpen. However, no clear closer candidate emerged during Spring training. Eventually, Papelbon wanted to return to the closer role, and Sox officials believed Papelbon had rehabilitated himself so well in the offseason that his health of this shoulder was no longer a concern. The Red Sox had a star closer once again.
Shortstop Álex González was allowed to leave via free agency for the Cincinnati Reds. The Sox replaced him with Julio Lugo. Mark Loretta also was allowed to leave which opened up a spot for youngster Dustin Pedroia. Fan favorite Trot Nixon filed for free agency and agreed on a deal with the Cleveland Indians. With an opening in right field, the Sox pursued J. D. Drew, who had recently opted out of the remainder of his contract with the Los Angeles Dodgers to become a free agent. On January 25, 2007, the Red Sox and Drew agreed to a 5-year, $70 million contract. Another fan favorite, outfielder Gabe Kapler, announced his retirement at age 31 to fulfill his lifelong dream of becoming a manager. The Red Sox named him manager of their Class A affiliate, the Greenville Drive.
The Red Sox started quickly, moving into first place in the AL East by mid-April and never relinquishing their division lead. While Ortiz and Ramirez provided their usual offense, it was the hitting of Mike Lowell, Kevin Youkilis, and Dustin Pedroia that surprisingly anchored the club through the first few months. While Drew, Lugo, and Coco Crisp struggled to provide offense, Lowell and Youkilis more than made up for it with averages well above .300 and impressive home run and RBI totals. Pedroia started badly, hitting below .200 in April. Manager Terry Francona stuck with him and his patience paid off as Pedroia hit over .400 in May and finished the first half over .300. On the mound, Josh Beckett emerged as the ace of the staff, starting the year 9–0 and finishing 12–2 at the break. His success was needed as Schilling, Matsuzaka, Wakefield, and Tavarez provided consistent and occasionally good starts, but all struggled at times. The Boston bullpen, on the other hand, was there to pick up the starters often, anchored once again by Papelbon, a more experienced Manny Delcarmen, and Okajima. While Papelbon served as the stopper, the rise of Okajima as a legitimate setup man and occasional closer was a boon for the Sox, giving them more options late in the game. Okajima posted an ERA of 0.88 through the first half and was voted into the All-Star Game by the fans as the final selection. By the All-Star break, Boston had the best record in baseball and held their largest lead in the American League East, 10 games over intra-division rivals the Toronto Blue Jays and New York Yankees.
In the second half, more stars emerged for the Sox as they continued to lead the AL East division. Beckett continued to shine, reaching 20 wins for the first time in his career. At one point, veteran Tim Wakefield found himself atop the American League in wins, posting decisions in his first 26 starts, and finishing with a 17–12 record. However, as Wakefield, Matsuzaka, and Okajima became tired down the stretch, minor league call-up Clay Buchholz provided a spark on September 1 by pitching a no-hitter in his second career start. Another call-up, outfielder Jacoby Ellsbury, was thrust into the starting lineup while Manny Ramírez rested through most of September. Ellsbury played brilliantly during the month, hitting .361 with 3 HR, 17 RBI, and 8 stolen bases. Mike Lowell continued to carry the club, hitting cleanup in September and leading the team in RBI for the season, setting a team record for a third baseman with 120 runs driven in. And eventual 2007 Rookie of the Year Dustin Pedroia finished his outstanding first full season with 165 hits and a .317 average. The Red Sox became the first team to clinch a playoff spot for the 2007 season on September 22 with a come-from-behind defeat of the Tampa Bay Devil Rays. Boston captured their first AL East title since 1995 after a win on September 28 against the Minnesota Twins and a loss by the New York Yankees against the Baltimore Orioles.
In the playoffs, the Red Sox swept the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim in the ALDS. Facing the Cleveland Indians in the ALCS, Josh Beckett won Game 1 but the Sox stumbled, losing the next three games. Facing a 3–1 deficit and a must-win situation, Beckett pitched eight innings while surrendering only one run and striking out 11 in a masterful Game 5 win. The Sox captured their 12th American League pennant by outscoring the Indians 30–5 over the final three games, winning the final two games at Fenway Park.
In the 2007 World Series, the Red Sox faced the Colorado Rockies. Beckett once again set the tone, pitching seven strong innings as the offense provided more than enough in a 13–1 victory. In Game 2, Schilling, Okajima, and Papelbon held the Rockies to one run again in a 2–1 game. Moving to Colorado, the Sox offense made the difference again in a 10–5 win. Finally, in Game 4, Jon Lester took Tim Wakefield's spot in the rotation and gave the Sox an impressive start, pitching 5⅔ shutout innings. The Rockies threatened, but thanks to World Series MVP Mike Lowell and aided by a pinch-hit home run by outfielder Bobby Kielty, Papelbon registered another save as the Red Sox swept the Rockies in four games. The Red Sox captured their second title in four years.
2008–2010
The end of February 2008 sparked a controversy between Hank Steinbrenner and Red Sox Nation.
Due to Steinbrenner's comments, Red Sox owner John Henry inducted Hank Steinbrenner into Red Sox Nation, allowing him to receive perks such as a shirts, pins, Green Monster seats, and an autographed hat by David Ortiz.
On the field, the Red Sox got off to a hot start in 2008, leading the American League Eastern Division for the first two months. In the process, Manny continued to be Manny by high-fiving a Red Sox fan in Baltimore while making a catch. Later that month in the same place, Manny Ramirez hit his 500th career home run. Despite the positive progress, David Ortiz was injured on May 31. As a result, the usually quiet J. D. Drew stepped up by reinventing his image. He hit .337 with 27 RBI in June 2008. Another part of the Red Sox' reinvention occurred in an early June game against the Tampa Bay Rays where pitcher James Shields hit Coco Crisp, resulting in Crisp going straight to Shields. Shortly after, both benches cleared out in a brawl. In July, the defending champions sent seven All-Stars to the game at the hated Yankee Stadium, Dustin Pedroia, David Ortiz, J. D. Drew, Manny Ramirez, Jonathan Papelbon, Jason Varitek, and Kevin Youkilis, with Ramirez, Youkilis, and Pedroia named starters to Francona's American League squad. In the 2008 Major League Baseball All-Star Game at Yankee Stadium, J. D. Drew hit a two-run home run in the seventh inning. He earned All-Star Game MVP honors due to his stellar performance.
The Red Sox caught the Tampa Bay Rays during the summer as the Rays began to decline slightly. While the pennant race caught fire, Manny Ramirez did not want any part of it since the Red Sox did not offer him a sufficient contract for the 2009 season. As a result, Manny Ramirez went to the Los Angeles Dodgers in a three-way trade involving the Pittsburgh Pirates. The trade brought Jason Bay to the Red Sox. In September, the Rays held on to win the Eastern Division title with a 97–65 record. As for Boston, they won 95 games with a Wildcard berth. After defeating the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim in the ALDS once again, they lost to the Rays in a seven-game ALCS.
After losing to the Tampa Bay Rays in the ALCS, the Red Sox debuted new road uniforms similar to their old 1986 road uniforms. The following offseason had the Red Sox sign Rocco Baldelli, John Smoltz, and Brad Penny. The Red Sox saw a postseason berth via the winning of the AL Wild Card, only to be swept away in the first round by the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim.
On December 22, 2009, Sports Illustrated named general manager Theo Epstein as number 3 on its list of the Top 10 GMs/Executives of the Decade (in all sports).
Despite the additions of former Angels pitcher John Lackey, shortstop Marco Scutaro, third baseman Adrián Beltré and outfielder Mike Cameron, 2010 saw the Red Sox miss the playoffs for only the second time in the Terry Francona era, due largely to season-ending injuries to Kevin Youkilis, Dustin Pedroia and Jacoby Ellsbury. However, they did deny the defending World Series champion Yankees from clinching the AL East title, instead relegating them to the Wild Card on the final day of the regular season. The Red Sox began and ended their season playing the Yankees for the first time since . After the season, third baseman Mike Lowell announced his retirement.
2011–12: Epic collapse and fall to the bottom
After missing the playoffs in 2010, the Red Sox made a statement in the 2010–11 offseason, acquiring first baseman Adrián González, outfielder Carl Crawford, and relief pitchers Bobby Jenks, Andrew Miller, Matt Albers, and Dan Wheeler. However, the Red Sox lost their first 6 regular season games, and 10 of their first 12 games.
Although the Red Sox recovered from their early-season struggles, the pitching staff was plagued by injuries and underachievement throughout the year. Veteran starter John Lackey spent significant time on the disabled list, while also having one of the worst seasons by a Red Sox starting pitcher ever, posting a 6.41 ERA and 1.62 WHIP. Érik Bédard was obtained from the Seattle Mariners on July 31, but also had injury issues. Ace pitchers Jon Lester and Josh Beckett and rookie Kyle Weiland proved ineffective down the stretch as well.
Despite the injuries, the Red Sox led the Tampa Bay Rays by 9 games on September 3, when their odds of reaching the playoffs peaked at 99.6%. After September 3, the Red Sox lost 18 of 24 games for a 7–20 record in September. On the final day of the season, September 28, a blown save by Jonathan Papelbon in the 9th inning coupled with a come-from-behind Rays victory over the Yankees eliminated the Red Sox from playoff contention for the 2nd year in a row. They finished the season at 90–72.
After the season, manager Terry Francona and general manager Theo Epstein left the organization after controversial reports of starting pitchers Beckett, Lester, and Lackey drinking beer, eating fried chicken and playing video games in the Red Sox clubhouse during their off days, while their team was losing most of their September games.
The Red Sox did not improve the following season, as they went 69–93 and finished last in the American League East for the first time since 1992.
2013: Eighth World Series Championship
Under new manager John Farrell, the Red Sox finished first in the American League East with a record of 97 wins and 65 losses. In the postseason, the Red Sox first defeated the AL wild card Tampa Bay Rays in the ALDS. In the ALCS, the Red Sox defeated the American League Central champion Detroit Tigers in six games. Advancing to the World Series, the Red Sox defeated the National League champion St. Louis Cardinals in six games to capture the franchise's eighth championship overall and third in ten years. The Red Sox became the second team to win the World Series the season after finishing last in their division; the first had been the 1991 Minnesota Twins. Amazing postseasons offensively from David Ortiz and Jacoby Ellsbury helped lead the way along with great pitching from Jon Lester, John Lackey and Jake Peavy.
2014–17: Falling back down and getting back up
The Red Sox fell back to earth in 2014, finishing last in the AL East with a 71–91 record. They became the first team in history to go from last place to first place to last place in three successive seasons. The Red Sox finished last again in 2015 with a 78–84 record; it was the first time since 1929 and 1930 that the team finished last in back-to-back seasons. However, the Red Sox immediately reverted back to their winning ways, winning back-to-back AL East crowns in 2016 and 2017.
2018: Ninth World Series Championship
Under first year manager Alex Cora, the team finished with a 108–54 regular season record, winning the American League East division title for the third consecutive season, and finished eight games ahead of the second-place New York Yankees. The Red Sox were the first MLB team to post 100 wins during the season, reaching that milestone for the first time since 1946; they were also the first team to clinch a berth in the 2018 postseason. The team set a new franchise record for wins in a season by surpassing the prior mark of 105 that had been set in 1912; they also won the most games by any MLB team since the 2001 Seattle Mariners won 116.
The Red Sox entered the postseason as the top seed in the American League, and defeated the Yankees in four games in the Division Series. They then defeated the defending champion Houston Astros in five games in the Championship Series, advancing to the World Series where they defeated the Los Angeles Dodgers in five games.
Bob Melvin of the Oakland Athletics was named the AL Manager of the Year, while Cora was listed as runner-up. Mookie Betts was named the American League Most Valuable Player for 2018 as well as winning the batting title with a .346 average while adding 42 doubles, five triples, 32 homers, 129 runs, 80 RBIs and 30 stolen bases. Betts received 28 of a possible 30 first-place votes from the Baseball Writers' Association of America.
2019–2023: The Chaim Bloom Era and the Years of Mediocrity
After their World Series victory, the Red Sox went 84–78 in 2019 and missed the playoffs. Chaim Bloom was hired on October 2, 2019, to be the new president of baseball operations after the firing of Dave Dombrowski. On February 10, 2020, the Red Sox traded Mookie Betts to the Los Angeles Dodgers, who subsequently signed him to a 12-year extension. In the 2020 season, which was shortened to 60 games due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the Red Sox finished last in the AL East with a 24–36 record.
In 2021, the Red Sox clinched an AL wild card spot in a tight race with the New York Yankees, the Toronto Blue Jays and the Seattle Mariners. They defeated the Yankees in the AL Wild Card Game and faced the Tampa Bay Rays in the ALDS. The Red Sox won three games to one, walking off in the final two games. In the ALCS, the Red Sox would be eliminated by the Houston Astros in six games.
In 2022, the Red Sox fell back into the cellar of the AL East with a 78–84 record. The offseason saw the departure of shorstop Xander Bogaerts, who signed an 11-year contract with the San Diego Padres.
On September 4, 2023, the Red Sox fired Chaim Bloom, ending his tenure. The Red Sox ended the season with a 78-84 record and last place in the AL East for the second straight year.
See also
The Sports Museum (in TD Garden)
Further reading
Cohen, Robert W. (2014). The 50 Greatest Players in Boston Red Sox History. Down East Books.
Golenbock, Peter (2005). Red Sox Nation: An Unexpurgated History of the Boston Red Sox. Triumph Books.
Nowlin, Bill; Silverman, Matthew. (2010). Red Sox By the Numbers: A Complete Team History of the Boston Read Sox by Uniform Number. Sports Publishing.
Babe Ruth at the Boston Red Sox: A Scrapbook.(2016). Blurb.
References
Boston Red Sox
Boston Red Sox
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General%20Atomics%20MQ-9%20Reaper
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General Atomics MQ-9 Reaper
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The General Atomics MQ-9 Reaper (sometimes called Predator B) is an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) capable of remotely controlled or autonomous flight operations, developed by General Atomics Aeronautical Systems (GA-ASI) primarily for the United States Air Force (USAF). The MQ-9 and other UAVs are referred to as Remotely Piloted Vehicles/Aircraft (RPV/RPA) by the USAF to indicate ground control by humans.
The MQ-9 is a larger, heavier, more capable aircraft than the earlier General Atomics MQ-1 Predator and can be controlled by the same ground systems. The Reaper has a 950-shaft-horsepower (712 kW) turboprop engine (compared to the Predator's piston engine). The greater power allows the Reaper to carry 15 times more ordnance payload and cruise at about three times the speed of the MQ-1.
The aircraft is monitored and controlled by aircrew in the Ground Control Station (GCS), including weapons employment. The MQ-9 is the first hunter-killer UAV designed for long-endurance, high-altitude surveillance. In 2006, Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force General T. Michael Moseley said: "We've moved from using UAVs primarily in intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance roles before Operation Iraqi Freedom, to a true hunter-killer role with the Reaper."
The USAF operated over 300 MQ-9 Reapers as of May 2021. Several MQ-9 aircraft had been retrofitted with equipment upgrades to improve performance in "high-end combat situations", and all new MQ-9s would have those upgrades. 2035 is the projected end of the service life of the MQ-9 fleet. The average unit cost of an MQ-9 is estimated at $ million The Reaper is also used by the U.S. Customs and Border Protection and the militaries of several other countries. The MQ-9A has been further developed into the MQ-9B, which (based on mission and payload) are referred to by General Atomics as SkyGuardian or SeaGuardian.
Development
Origins
The General Atomics "Predator B-001", a proof-of-concept aircraft, first flew on 2 February 2001. Abraham Karem is the designer of the Predator. The B-001 was powered by an AlliedSignal Garrett TPE331-10T turboprop engine with . It had an airframe that was based on the standard Predator airframe, except with an enlarged fuselage and wings lengthened from to . The B-001 had a speed of and could carry a payload of to an altitude of with an endurance of 30 hours.
The company refined the design, taking it in two separate directions. The first was a jet-powered version; "Predator B-002" was fitted with a Williams FJ44-2A turbofan engine with thrust. It had payload capacity of , a ceiling of and endurance of 12 hours. The USAF ordered two aircraft for evaluation, delivered in 2007. The two prototype airframes B-001 and B-002 have been retired to the USAF museum at Wright-Patterson AFB. B-002 was originally equipped with the FJ-44 engine but it was removed and a TPE-331-10T was installed so that the USAF could take delivery of two aircraft in the same configuration.
The second direction the design took was the "Predator B-003", referred to by GA as the "Altair", which has a new airframe with an wingspan and a takeoff weight of approximately . Like the Predator B-001, it is powered by a TPE-331-10YGD turboprop. This variant has a payload capacity of , a maximum ceiling of , and an endurance of 36 hours.
In October 2001, the USAF signed a contract for an initial pair of Predator Bs (001 and 002) for evaluation. Designated YMQ-9s due to their prototype role, they were delivered in 2002. The USAF referred to it as "Predator B" until it was renamed "Reaper". The USAF aimed for the Predator B to provide an improved "deadly persistence" capability, flying over a combat area night-and-day waiting for a target to present itself, complementing piloted attack aircraft, typically used to drop larger quantities of ordnance on a target, while a cheaper RPV can operate almost continuously using ground controllers working in shifts, but carrying less ordnance.
Operation
MQ-9 Reaper crews (pilots and sensor operators), stationed at bases such as Creech Air Force Base, near Las Vegas, Nevada, can hunt for targets and observe terrain using multiple sensors, including a thermographic camera. One claim was that the onboard camera is able to read a license plate from away. An operator's command takes 1.2 seconds to reach the drone via a satellite link.
The MQ-9 is fitted with six stores pylons. The inner stores pylons can carry a maximum of each and allow carriage of external fuel tanks. The mid-wing stores pylons can carry a maximum of each, while the outer stores pylons can carry a maximum of each. An MQ-9 with two external fuel tanks and of munitions has an endurance of 42 hours. The Reaper has an endurance of 14 hours when fully loaded with munitions.
The MQ-9 carries a variety of weapons including the GBU-12 Paveway II laser-guided bomb, the AGM-114 Hellfire II air-to-ground missiles, the AIM-9 Sidewinder, and the GBU-38 Joint Direct Attack Munition (JDAM). Tests are underway to allow for the addition of the AIM-92 Stinger air-to-air missile.
By October 2007, the USAF owned nine Reapers, and by December 2010 had 57 with plans to buy another 272, for a total of 329 Reapers. Critics have stated that the USAF's insistence on qualified pilots flying RPVs is a bottleneck to expanding deployment. USAF Major General William Rew stated on 5 August 2008, "For the way we fly them right now"—fully integrated into air operations and often flying missions alongside manned aircraft—"we want pilots to fly them." This reportedly has exacerbated losses of USAF aircraft in comparison with US Army operations. In March 2011, U.S. Department of Defense Secretary Robert Gates stated that, while manned aircraft are needed, the USAF must recognize "the enormous strategic and cultural implications of the vast expansion in remotely piloted vehicles..." and stated that as the service buys manned fighters and bombers, it must give equal weight to unmanned drones and "the service's important role in the cyber and space domains."
the USAF had taken delivery of 287 out of 366 MQ-9 Reapers on contract with General Atomics. The total program quantity is set at 433, including Foreign Military Sales.
In 2013, the Air Force Special Operations Command (AFSOC) sought the ability to pack up an MQ-9 in less than eight hours, fly it anywhere in the world aboard a C-17 Globemaster III, and then have it ready to fly in another eight hours to support special operations teams at places with no infrastructure. MQ-1 and MQ-9 drones must fly aboard cargo aircraft to travel long distances as they lack the refueling technology or speed to travel themselves; the C-17 is large enough to carry the aircraft and support systems and can land on short runways. Pilots traveling with the Reaper will use the ground control station to launch and land the aircraft, while most of the flying will be done by US-based pilots.
Testbed and upgrades
In November 2012, Raytheon completed ground verification tests for the ADM-160 MALD and MALD-J for integration onto the Reaper for an unmanned suppression of enemy air defenses capability. On 12 April 2013, a company-owned MQ-9 equipped with a jamming pod and digital receiver/exciter successfully demonstrated its electronic warfare capability at Marine Corps Air Station (MCAS) Yuma, performing its mission in coordination with over 20 participating aircraft. A second electronic warfare test, fitted with the Northrop Grumman Pandora EW System, was conducted on 22 October 2013 with other unmanned aircraft and Northrop Grumman EA-6B Prowlers, showing effectiveness in a multi-node approach against a more capable IADS.
In 2011, the U.S. Missile Defense Agency (MDA) reported its interest in using the Reaper and its MTS-B sensor to provide firing quality data for early interception of ballistic missile launches. The MDA is exploring concepts to use the UAV's EO/IR sensor to achieve "launch-on-remote" capabilities with missile interceptors before detection by Aegis radars. At least two aircraft would be needed to triangulate a target to provide high-fidelity data. The MTS-B includes short and mid-wave IR bands, optimal for tracking launch and rocket burn.
In 2013, the MDA terminated plans to build a follow-on to the two orbiting Space Tracking and Surveillance System (STSS) satellites due to near-term costs, opting to continue testing the Reaper for ballistic missile target discrimination. The MDA planned to test the improved MTS-C sensor, which adds a long-wave IR detector optimized for tracking cold bodies such as missiles and warheads after booster burnout, or plumes and exhaust. The goal is to use data from multiple high-flying UAVs to provide an offboard cue to launch an SM-3 missile from an Aegis ship. Two Reapers demonstrated their ability to track ballistic missiles using their MTS-B EO/IR turret during a test in late June 2016.
In June 2015, a study by the USAF's Scientific Advisory Board identified several improvements for operating the Reaper in contested airspace; adding readily available sensors, weapons, and threat detection and countermeasures could increase situational awareness and enable riskier deployments. Suggestions included a radar warning receiver (RWR) to know when it's being targeted, air-to-air and miniature air-to-ground weapons, manned-unmanned teaming, multi-UAV control, automatic take-offs and landings, and precision navigation and timing systems to fly in GPS-denied areas. Another idea was redesigned ground control stations with user-friendly video game-like controllers and touchscreen maps to access data without overwhelming operators.
In October 2015, Air Force Deputy Chief of Staff for ISR Robert Otto suggested redesigning the MQ-9's GCS to be operated by one person for most missions rather than two (to fly and work the sensors) to simplify operations and reduce manpower requirements by hundreds of sensor operators. Introducing an auto-land capability would also reduce the Reaper's manpower requirements to staff launch and recovery teams. Automatic take-off and landing capabilities are already present in the RQ-4 Global Hawk and MQ-1C Gray Eagle, and are planned to be provided to the MQ-9 in 2017. The Air Force requires the manually loaded Reaper to operate from a runway at least long, but automated take-offs and landings would enable it to operate from a runway.
In April 2017, an MQ-9 Block 5 flew with a Raytheon ALR-69A RWR in its payload pod to demonstrate the aircraft's ability to conduct missions in the proximity of threat radars and air defenses, the first time this capability was demonstrated on a remotely piloted aircraft. In September 2020, a Reaper was flown carrying two Hellfire missiles on each of the stations previously reserved for 500 lb bombs or fuel tanks. A software upgrade doubled the aircraft's capacity to eight missiles.
Pentagon wants to upgrade MQ-9 Reaper with directed-energy weapons such as low-powered laser and high-powered microwave beams. A high-field optical module to act on the human nervous system is also under consideration.
In September 2020, GA-ASI conducted captive carry tests of the Sparrowhawk small UAS on the MQ-9, with the Reaper itself acting as a drone mothership. The MQ-9B Sky Guardian will be able to carry up to four Sparrowhawks upon the sUAS's entry to service.
Design
A typical MQ-9 system consists of multiple aircraft, ground control station, communications equipment, maintenance spares, and personnel. A military flight crew includes a pilot, sensor operator, and Mission Intelligence Coordinator. The aircraft is powered by a turboprop, with a maximum speed of about and a cruising speed of .
With a wingspan, and a maximum payload of , the MQ-9 can be armed with a variety of weaponry, including Hellfire missiles and laser-guided bomb units. Its endurance is 30 hours when conducting ISR missions, which decreases to 23 hours if it is carrying a full weapons load. The Reaper has a range of and an operational altitude of , which makes it especially useful for long-term loitering operations, both for surveillance and support of ground troops.
The Predator and Reaper were designed for military operations and not intended to operate among crowded airline traffic. The aircraft typically lack systems capable of complying with FAA See-And-Avoid regulations. In 2005, requests were made for MQ-9s to be used in search and rescue operations following Hurricane Katrina but, as there was no FAA authorization in place at the time, it was not used. On 18 May 2006, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) issued a certificate of authorization allowing MQ-1 and MQ-9 UAVs to fly in U.S. civil airspace to search for survivors of disasters.
An MQ-9 can adopt various mission kits and combinations of weapons and sensors payloads to meet combat requirements. Its Raytheon AN/AAS-52 multi-spectral targeting sensor suite includes a color/monochrome daylight TV, infrared, and image-intensified TV with laser rangefinder/laser designator to designate targets for laser guided munitions. The aircraft is also equipped with the Lynx Multi-mode Radar that contains synthetic aperture radar (SAR) that can operate in both spotlight and strip modes, and ground moving target indication (GMTI) with Dismount Moving Target Indicator (DMTI) and Maritime Wide-Area Search (MWAS) capabilities.
The Reaper was used as a test bed for Gorgon Stare, a wide-area surveillance sensor system. Increment 1 of the system was first fielded in March 2011 on the Reaper and could cover an area of ; increment 2, incorporating ARGUS-IS and expanding the coverage area to , achieved initial operating capability (IOC) in early 2014. The system has 368 cameras capable of capturing five million pixels each to create an image of about 1.8 billion pixels; video is collected at 12 frames per second, producing several terabytes of data per minute.
In January 2012, General Atomics released a new trailing arm design for the Reaper's main landing gear. Benefits include an over 30% increase in landing weight capacity, a 12% increase in gross takeoff weight (from to ), a maintenance-free shock absorber (eliminating the need for nitrogen pressurization), a fully rejected takeoff brake system, and provisions for automatic takeoff and landing capability and Anti-lock Brake System (ABS) field upgrades. In April 2012, General Atomics announced possible upgrades to USAF Reapers, including two extra fuel pods under the wings to increase endurance to 37 hours. The wingspan can also be increased to , increasing endurance to 42 hours.
The USAF has bought 38 Reaper Extended Range (ER) versions, carrying external fuel tanks (which don't affect weapon capacity), the heavy-weight landing gear, a four-bladed propeller, a new fuel management system which ensures fuel and thermal balance among external tank, wing, and fuselage fuel sources, and an alcohol-water injection (AWI) system to shorten required runway takeoff length. These features increase endurance from 27 to 33–35 hours, while the company is still pitching the lengthened wing option. The Reaper ER first flew operationally in August 2015.
The aircraft also has the sensor ball replaced with a high-definition camera, better communications so ground controllers can see the higher quality video, software to enable automatic detection of threats and tracking of 12 moving targets at once, and the ability to "super ripple" fire missiles within 0.32 seconds of each other.
On 25 February 2016, General Atomics announced a successful test flight of the new Predator-B/ER version. This new version has had the wingspan extended to , increasing its endurance to 40 hours. Other improvements include "short-field takeoff and landing performance and spoilers on the wings which enable precision automatic landings. The wings also have provisions for leading-edge de-ice and integrated low- and high-band RF antennas."
Operational history
U.S. Air Force
On 1 May 2007, the USAF's 432nd Wing was activated to operate MQ-9 Reaper as well as MQ-1 Predator UAVs at Creech Air Force Base, Nevada. The pilots first conducted combat missions in Iraq and Afghanistan in the summer 2007. On 28 October 2007, the Air Force Times reported an MQ-9 had achieved its first "kill", successfully firing a Hellfire missile against Afghanistan insurgents in the Deh Rawood region of the mountainous Oruzgan province. By 6 March 2008, according to USAF Lieutenant General Gary North, the Reaper had attacked 16 targets in Afghanistan using bombs and Hellfire missiles.
In 2008, the New York Air National Guard 174th Attack Wing began the transition from F-16 piloted fighters to MQ-9A Reapers, becoming the first fighter unit to convert entirely to unmanned combat aerial vehicle (UCAV) use. On 17 July 2008, the USAF began flying Reaper missions within Iraq from Balad Air Base. It was reported on 11 August 2008 that the 174th Fighter Wing would consist entirely of Reapers. By March 2009 the USAF had 28 operational Reapers. Beginning in September 2009, Reapers were deployed by the Africa Command to the Seychelles islands for use in Indian Ocean anti-piracy patrols.
On 13 September 2009, positive control of an MQ-9 was lost during a combat mission over Afghanistan, after which the control-less drone started flying towards the Afghan border with Tajikistan. An F-15E Strike Eagle fired an AIM-9 missile at the drone, successfully destroying its engine. Before the drone impacted the ground, contact was reestablished with the drone, and it was flown into a mountain to destroy it. It was the first US drone to be destroyed intentionally by allied forces.
By July 2010, thirty-eight Predators and Reapers had been lost during combat operations in Afghanistan and Iraq, another nine were lost in training missions in the U.S. In 2010, the USAF conducted over 33,000 close air support missions, a more-than-20 percent increase compared with 2009. By March 2011, the USAF had 48 Predator and Reaper combat air patrols flying in Iraq and Afghanistan compared with 18 in 2007.
As of March 2011, the USAF was training more pilots for advanced unmanned aerial vehicles than for any other single weapons system. In 2012, the Reaper, Predator and Global Hawk were described as "... the most accident-prone aircraft in the Air Force fleet."
In October 2011, the USAF began operating Reapers out of Arba Minch Airport in Ethiopia for surveillance-only operations in Somalia. In 2012, both Reapers and Predators were deployed in Benghazi, Libya after the attack that killed the US ambassador in that city. In February 2013, the U.S. stationed a Predator at Niamey to provide intelligence for French forces during Operation Serval in Mali; it was later replaced by two MQ-9 Reapers. In April 2013, one of these Reapers crashed on a surveillance flight due to mechanical failure.
On 22 October 2013, the USAF's fleets of MQ-1 Predator and MQ-9 Reaper UAVs reached 2,000,000 flight hours. The RPA program began in the mid-1990s, taking 16 years for them to reach 1 million flight hours; the 2 million hour mark was reached just two and a half years later.
The high demand for UAVs has caused Air Combat Command to increase pilot output from 188 in 2015 to 300 in 2017 at Holloman.
On 13 November 2015, the Pentagon reported that an MQ-9 had killed ISIL member Mohammed Emwazi, popularly known as "Jihadi John", who was responsible for executing several Western prisoners.
In 2015, a record number (20) of USAF drones crashed; investigators identified three parts of the starter-generator that were susceptible to breakdowns, but could not determine why they were failing. Col. William S. Leister informed Pentagon officials that investigators from the USAF, General Atomics and Skurka had investigated the problem for more than a year. The team, he said, had identified "numerous manufacturing quality issues" yet had been unable to determine the exact cause of the failures.
On 2 October 2017, U.S. Central Command stated that an MQ-9 had been shot down by Houthi air defense systems over Sanaa in western Yemen the previous day. The aircraft took off from Chabelley Airport in Djibouti, and was armed.
On 18 September 2018, the USAF announced that an MQ-9 armed with an air-to-air missile successfully shot down a smaller target drone in November 2017. The drone was operated by the 432nd Wing. While the destruction of a target drone is a routine USAF exercise, this event was the first instance of a Reaper destroying a small, maneuvering aerial target.
On 6 June 2019, Houthis shot down a US MQ-9 Reaper over Yemen. According to United States Central Command, it was shot down by an SA-6 surface-to-air missile that was enabled with Iranian assistance. On 21 August 2019, another unarmed MQ-9 was shot down by Houthis over Dhamar, Yemen, by a Yemini made Fater-1 missile, an improved SA-6.
On 23 November 2019, a US MQ-9 Reaper was shot down by a Pantsir system operated by the Libyan National Army or Wagner Group over Tripoli, Libya. According to journalist David Cenciotti, the drone was lost after being jammed by Russian Wagner militias working in support of the Libyan National Army.
On 3 January 2020, a US MQ-9 missile strike at Baghdad International Airport killed Qasem Soleimani, the commander of the Iranian Quds Force, and Abu Mahdi al-Muhandis, the deputy commander of Iraqi Popular Mobilization Forces.
On 18 August 2020, US Department of Defense announced that two US MQ-9 Reapers had crashed in a mid-air collision over Syria. However, claims from local media said that at least one drone might have been shot down by Syrian Opposition rebel fighters or Turkish forces.
In April 2021, U.S. and Polish militaries have agreed on a long-negotiated plan to increase the American presence in Poland with two units of MQ-9 Reapers deployed by the USAF.
On 14 July 2022, a MQ-9 Reaper operated by the 25th Attack Group crashed during a training mission in Romania. The MQ-9 drones have been deployed to the Romanian 71st Air Base in 2021, starting their operational flights on 1 February 2021.
On 14 March 2023, one of two intercepting Su-27 fighters of the Russian Federation collided with an MQ-9 Reaper flying in international airspace over the Black Sea. US Air Force Gen. James Hecker, commander of the United States Air Forces in Europe – Air Forces Africa, stated, "At approximately 7:03 am (CET), one of the Russian Su-27 aircraft struck the propeller of the MQ-9, causing U.S. forces to have to bring the MQ-9 down in international waters. Several times before the collision, the Su-27s dumped fuel on and flew in front of the MQ-9 in a reckless, environmentally unsound and unprofessional manner. This incident demonstrates a lack of competence in addition to being unsafe and unprofessional." Russia says it will attempt to retrieve the drone. The US government claimed that it was prepared for such an outcome. John Kirby, National Security Council Coordinator for Strategic Communications, said that "their ability to exploit useful intelligence will be highly minimised". While the US Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Gen. Mark A. Milley said that there were "mitigating measures" to ensure that Russia obtained no access to valuable tech. He also confirmed that the US would look for the drone as well; however, the water in which it crashed was deep. Brigadier General Pat Ryder claimed that drone was "unflyable and uncontrollable" and it likely damaged the Su-27 during the collision. The US has since released footage over the Black Sea.
On 23 July 2023, a Russian fighter aircraft unprofessionally intercepted a US Air Force MQ-9 over Syria and deployed flares in front of it, damaging the propeller. The drone returned to base safely. This was the third near-collision of MQ-9 with Russian aircraft over Syria for the month, with previous incidents on 5 July and 6 July.
NASA
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) initially expressed interest in a production version of the B-002 turbofan-powered variant, but instead leased an unarmed Reaper variant, which carries the GA-ASI company name "Altair". Altair is one of the first three "Predator-B" airframes. The other two airframes, known as "Predator-B 001" and "Predator-B 002", had a maximum gross weight of .
The Altair differs from these models in that it has an long wingspan ( greater than early and current MQ-9s). The Altair has enhanced avionics systems to better enable flights in FAA-controlled civil airspace and demonstrate "over-the-horizon" command and control capability from a ground station. These aircraft are used by NASA's Earth Science Enterprise as part of the NASA ERAST Program to perform on-location science missions.
In November 2006, NASA's Dryden Flight Research Center obtained an MQ-9 (and mobile ground control station), named Ikhana, for the Suborbital Science Program within the Science Mission Directorate. In 2007, Ikhana was used to survey the Southern California wildfires, supporting firefighter deployments based upon the highest need. The California Office of Emergency Services requested NASA support for the Esperanza Fire, and the General Atomics Altair was launched less than 24 hours later on a 16-hour mission to map the fire's perimeter. The fire mapping research is a joint project with NASA and the US Forest Service.
The NASA Ikhana was used to survey the descent of the Orion Exploration Flight Test 1 (EFT-1) module on its first test mission 5 December 2014. The aircraft loitered at , used its IR camera to detect the capsule, then switched to the optical camera to observe its descent through parachute deployment and landing in the Pacific Ocean.
U.S. Homeland Security
U.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP) operated nine MQ-9s in August 2012. Two were based in North Dakota at Grand Forks Air Force Base, four were based in Arizona, at Fort Huachuca and one was based at the Naval Air Station Corpus Christi, Texas. These aircraft were equipped with GA-ASI's Lynx synthetic aperture radar and Raytheon's MTS-B electro-optical infrared sensors.
The CBP also had two maritime MQ-9s called Guardians, based at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, Florida and Naval Air Station Corpus Christi, Texas. The Guardians were equipped with the SeaVue marine search radar; their electro-optical infrared sensor was optimized for maritime operations. The CBP operates one MQ-9 Guardian jointly with the U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) out of land-based stations in Florida and Texas.
The United States Department of Homeland Security initially ordered one Predator B for border protection duty, referred to as MQ-9 CBP-101. It began operations 4 October 2005 and crashed in the Arizona desert on 25 April 2006. The US's NTSB determined that the crash's most likely cause was pilot error by the ground-based pilot, inadvertently shutting down the UAV's engine by failing to follow the checklist. During its operational period, the aircraft flew 959 hours on patrol and played a role in 2,309 arrests. It also contributed to the seizure of four vehicles and of marijuana.
A second Predator B, called "CBP-104" (initially referred to as "CBP-102"), was delivered in September 2006 and commenced limited border protection operations on 18 October 2006. The president's FY2006 emergency supplemental budget request added $45 million for the program and the FY2007 Homeland Security Appropriations Bill added an additional $20 million. In October 2006, GA-ASI announced a $33.9 million contract to supply two more Predator B systems by the fall 2007. On 16 February 2009, the program was further expanded to include patrols of the Canada–US border.
On 14 October 2013, an MQ-9 began patrolling the Manitoba portion of the U.S.-Canada border. The UAV is based at Grand Forks Air Force Base and will watch the -long border. The drone will not carry weapons and needs permission to enter Canadian airspace. U.S. authorities fear that drug smugglers, migrants, and terrorists may exploit the long border. The use of the unmanned surveillance aircraft is an enhancement of the partnership between U.S. and Canadian agencies.
In January 2014, Customs and Border Protection grounded its UAVs temporarily after an unmanned aircraft was ditched off the coast of California by the operator due to a mechanical failure on 27 January 2014.
On 29 May 2020, during the George Floyd protests, CBP flew an unarmed Predator B drone above Minneapolis to watch protesters. The agency said it was at the request of federal law enforcement in Minneapolis.
U.S. Marine Corps
Marine Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Squadron 1 (VMU-1) began operations with the MQ-9 on a contractor owned, contractor operated basis in 2018, and accepted delivery of the Marine Corps' first two MQ-9A air frames in September 2021. Marine Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Squadron 3 (VMU-3), based out of MCAS Kaneohe Bay, HI received their first two MQ-9A air frames in April 2023, and reached initial operational capability (IOC) ahead of schedule in August 2023. Marine Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Squadron 2 (VMU-2) was re-designated as VMUT-2 in July 2023. VMUT-2 will serve as the Fleet Replacement Squadron and training squadron for the Marine Corps' UAS officers and enlisted sensor operators.
Other users
Belgium
In January 2018, the Belgian Ministry of Defence reportedly decided on the MQ-9 to fulfill its medium-altitude long-range UAV requirement. Ministry officials stated that a request for information had been sent to potential suppliers of the system, and that they had received responses from all of them. In October 2018, Belgium confirmed its selection of the MQ-9B SkyGuardian variant, adding that it would be considered a "reconnaissance" asset, suggesting it will not be used to carry weapons. In March 2019, the US Department of State approved the sale of four MQ-9B SkyGuardian UAVs to Belgium for $600 million (~$ in ), pending approval by US Congress. In July 2022, work began on adapting the Florennes Air Base to host, fly and maintain the planes.
Dominican Republic
The Predator UAV "Guardian" has been used by the Dominican Republic, under U.S. supervision and funding, against drug trafficking from mid-2012.
France
On 31 May 2013, French Defense Minister Jean-Yves Le Drian confirmed the order of two MQ-9 Reapers, to be delivered by the end of 2013. It was chosen to replace the EADS Harfang and was picked over the Israeli Heron TP. On 27 June 2013, the U.S. Defense Security Cooperation Agency notified Congress of a possible Foreign Military Sale to France for 16 unarmed MQ-9s, associated equipment, ground control hardware, and support, worth up to $1.5 billion total. On 26 August 2013, France and the US Department of Defense concluded the deal for 16 Reapers and 8 ground control stations, with French operators beginning training.
On 24 September 2013, France's first pair of MQ-9 pilots conducted a two-hour training sortie at Holloman Air Force Base, New Mexico. Both French pilots had prior UAV experience and went through a five-week ground-based training course and 5 hours on a flight simulator before the first flight. Two additional crews were also receiving instruction at the facility. General Atomics is due to deliver two Reapers and one ground control station to the French Air Force by the end of 2013. On 26 November 2013, France declared that six pilots in three teams were operational, following 100 hours on flight simulators and 4 flights. French MQ-9s were first put into action in January 2014 at Niamey Air Base in Niger for border reconnaissance in the Sahel desert.
On 16 January 2014, France's first MQ-9 flight occurred from Niger. The first two Reapers to enter French service are designated Block 1 and use U.S. equipment; further orders are to be modified with European payloads such as sensors and datalinks. On 31 March 2014, French Air Force Reapers accumulated 500 flight hours in support of Operation Serval. In July 2014, a French MQ-9 helped to locate the wreckage of Air Algérie Flight 5017, which had crashed in Mali.
Germany
Germany made a request to purchase five Reapers and four ground control stations, plus related support material and training. The request, being made through the Foreign Military Sales process, was presented to Congress through the Defense Security Cooperation Agency on 1 August 2008 and is valued at US$205 million (~$ in ). However, Germany did not go through with this procurement for the time being and decided to lease the IAI Heron offered by IAI and Rheinmetall instead, initially for the duration of one year, representing a stop-gap measure before a long-term decision on a MALE-system is being made.
Greece
On 21 April 2022, a well-known Greek military journalist revealed in an interview that the Hellenic Air Force is discussing the purchase of three MQ-9 UCAVs along with the Israeli Heron TPs. Given that the US Air Force has long been operating MQ-9s from Larissa Air Base, Greece has some past experience with it from joint exercises. On 5 July 2022, the Hellenic Parliament approved the acquisition of 3 MQ-9B SeaGuardian UAVs along with two ground stations. On 28 July 2022, the Greek Minister of Nation Defence, Nikolaos Panagiotopoulos, confirmed the acquisition of the three UAVs.
India
In June 2017, the US State Department approved the sale of 22 drones to India, costing around $2–3 billion. As of February 2020, a deal to purchase 30 drones with 10 drones for each of the three Indian armed services, was expected to be signed by the end of the fiscal year. In November 2020, the Indian Navy began operating two leased MQ-9B SeaGuardians. The lease agreement was valid for one year and has been extended subsequently. The drones are deployed at the Naval Air Station Rajali located in Tamil Nadu. and it had logged close to 3,000 hours covering over 14 million square miles of operating area by August 2022. In February 2022, it was reported that Indian Navy had put the deal on the backburner and was instead looking at more indigenous options from the DRDO as well as upgrading its current fleet of IAI Heron drones. On 27 February 2022, PTI reported that the procurement for the 30 armed Predator B drones – 10 each for the Indian Army, Indian Navy and Indian Air Force is in the advanced stage and disputed earlier reports of the deal being put on the backburner with India reportedly providing "good feedback" on the SeaGuardians already on lease. On 15 June 2023, Reuters reported that the Indian side has approved the purchase of 31 drones worth slightly over $3 billion. The formal announcement of the deal is expected during Modi's visit to the U.S. later in the month.
Italy
On 1 August 2008, Italy submitted a FMS request through the Defense Security Cooperation Agency for four aircraft, four ground stations and five years of maintenance support, all valued at US$330 million. Italy ordered two more aircraft in November 2009. On 30 May 2012, it was reported that the U.S. planned to sell kits to arm Italy's six Reapers with Hellfire missiles and laser-guided bombs. However Gen. Alberto Rosso has expressed frustration at American delays in integrating additional weapons onto the platform and suggested that Italy may have to seek UAS alternatives. Italian Reapers were used:
in Libya, since 10 August 2011, as part of its contribution to NATO's Operation Unified Protector (flew about 300 hours)
in Kosovo, since 13 March 2012 inbound NATO KFOR "Joint Enterprise" operation
on "Mare Nostrum" mission (Mediterranean sea, migrants search and rescue operation) by October 2013
into Afghanistan theater by January 2014 (to replace Predator A+).
On 3 November 2015, the U.S. approved a deal covering weapons integration onto Italy's Reaper aircraft, which would make it the first country outside the UK to weaponize the drone. The potential for increased contribution to NATO coalition operations improved operational flexibility, and enhanced survivability for Italian forces prompted the request.
On 20 November 2019, an Italian Air Force MQ-9 was shot down by a Pantsir system operated by the Libyan National Army or Wagner Group, near the city of Tarhuna, Libya. The Libyan National Army claimed to have shot down the drone that, based on the initial reports, was thought to be a Turkish operated drone, supporting the opposed Government of National Accord. The Italian Defense confirmed the loss stating the cause of the crash is under investigation.
Netherlands
On 19 June 2013, General Atomics and Fokker Technologies signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) to offer the MQ-9 Reaper to the Dutch government for their need of a MALE UAV. The MOU recognizes that Fokker will assist in maintenance and support of the aircraft in the Netherlands if a deal goes through.
On 21 November 2013, the Dutch Minister of Defense announced that the Royal Netherlands Air Force (RNLAF) has selected the MQ-9 Reaper Block-V as its new MALE UAV. The new MALE UAV 306 squadron will be based at Leeuwarden Air Base. In July 2018 the Dutch government signed a Letter of Acceptance for the acquisition through the Foreign Military Sales process.
The Dutch MQ-9 is to have the Synthetic Aperture Radar with the Maritime Search option and also a special ground search radar with more range and electronic sensors to detect ground radar and signals. The RNLAF bought four ground stations (two at Homebase, two at forward operating base) and four MQ-9s Block-V. The aircraft are to reach full operational status in 2023. Four more systems are planned. The decision was also made to arm the Reapers.
Spain
On 6 August 2015, the Spanish Ministry of Defence announced it would buy four Reaper surveillance aircraft with two ground control stations for €25 million ($27 million) in 2016, costing €171 million over five years. General Atomics will partner with Spanish Company SENER to deliver unarmed versions to Spain, making it the fifth European country to order the Reaper. In addition to selecting the Reaper, Spain is interested in the joint German-French-Italian project to develop a European MALE UAV.
The Defense Department cleared the purchase on 6 October 2015. Spain selected the Reaper over the Heron TP to perform homeland security, counter-insurgency, and counter-terrorism operations. The Spanish government agreed to purchase the system on 30 October. The Reaper was selected over the Heron TP mainly for commonality with NATO allies who also use the airframe. Although Spain's immediate priority is for surveillance, they will eventually try to weaponize the platform. The first two aircraft and first GCS is planned for delivery in 2017, with the third aircraft in 2018 when they achieve IOC, and the last in 2020 achieving full operational capability (FOC).
United Kingdom
On 27 September 2006, the U.S. Congress was notified by the Defense Security Cooperation Agency that the United Kingdom was seeking to purchase a pair of MQ-9A Reapers. They were initially operated by No. 39 Squadron from Creech Air Force Base, Nevada, later moving to RAF Waddington. A third MQ-9A was in the process of being purchased by the RAF in 2007. On 9 November 2007, the UK Ministry of Defence (MoD) announced that its Reapers had begun operations in Afghanistan against the Taliban. In April 2008, following the crash of one of the UK's two Reapers, British special forces were sent to recover sensitive material from the wreckage before it was blown up to prevent the enemy from obtaining it. By May 2011, five Reapers were in operation, with a further five on order.
The second RAF squadron to operate five Reapers is No. XIII Squadron, which was formally activated and commissioned on 26 October 2012. No. 39 Squadron personnel were planned to gradually return to the UK in 2013 and in time both squadrons would each operate five Reapers from RAF Waddington. In April 2013, XIII Squadron started full operations from RAF Waddington, exercising control over a complement of 10 Reapers, at that point all based in Afghanistan.
Five Reapers can provide 36 hours of combined surveillance coverage in Afghanistan with individual sorties lasting up to 16 hours. A further five vehicles increases this to 72 hours. In total, RAF Reapers flew 71,000 flight hours in Afghanistan, and dropped 510 guided weapons (compared to 497 for Harrier and Tornado).
In April 2013, it was revealed that the MoD was studying the adoption of MBDA's Brimstone missile upon the MQ-9. In December 2013, several successful test firings of the Brimstone missile from a Reaper at Naval Air Weapons Station China Lake to support integration onto RAF Reapers. Nine missiles were fired at an altitude of 20,000 ft at distances of from the targets; all nine scored direct hits against static, accelerating, weaving, and fast remotely controlled targets.
In 2014, the MoD decided that its Reaper fleet will be brought into the RAF's core fleet once operations over Afghanistan cease. Procurement of the MQ-9A was via an urgent operational capability requirement and funded from the Treasury reserve, but induction into the core fleet will have them funded from the MoD's budget. The Reapers were retained for contingent purposes, mainly to perform intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance (ISR), until its replacement enters service around 2018. On 4 October 2015 David Cameron announced that the RAF would replace its existing fleet of 10 Reapers with more than 20 of the "latest generation of RPAS", named as "Protector",
In an April 2016 document, the MoD revealed that Protector will be a version of the MQ-9B SkyGuardian, formally known as Certifiable Predator B (CPB), made to fly in European airspace, to be acquired from 2018 to 2030. In July 2018, it was announced that this aircraft will be designated Protector RG Mk 1 in RAF service, and is to be delivered in 2023.
On 16 October 2014, the MoD announced the deployment of armed Reapers in Operation Shader, the UK's contribution to the United States-led military intervention against Islamic State, the first occasion the UK had used its Reapers outside Afghanistan. The number of aircraft out of the RAF's 10-plane fleet was not disclosed, but it was expected that at least two were sent; more were dispatched as the UK drew down from Afghanistan. RAF Reapers' primary purpose is to provide surveillance support and situational awareness to coalition forces. On 10 November 2014, the MoD reported that an RAF Reaper had conducted its first airstrike against Islamic State forces, firing a Hellfire missile at militants placing an IED near Bayji.
RAF Reapers based at RAF Akrotiri in Cyprus conducted one surveillance mission over Syria in November 2014, four in December 2014, and eight in January 2015. On 7 September 2015, Prime Minister David Cameron announced that two Islamic State fighters from Britain had been killed in an intelligence-led strike by an RAF Reaper near Raqqa, Syria, the first armed use of RAF assets in Syria during the civil war. By January 2016, RAF Reapers had flown 1,000 sorties in support of Operation Shader. Compared to operations in Afghanistan, where RAF Reapers fired 16 Hellfire missiles in 2008, 93 in 2013, and 94 in 2014, in operations against ISIL, 258 Hellfires were fired in 2015.
In May 2023, the UK announced it would be acquiring a carrier-based variant of the MQ-9, the General Atomics Mojave, for seven months of trials aboard its s.
United Arab Emirates
On 10 November 2020, the US State Department approved the sale of up to 18 MQ-9Bs to the UAE pending approval by Congress.
Taiwan
On 3 November 2020, the US State Department approved the sale of 4 MQ-9B, along with Control Stations and Embedded Global Positioning System/Inertial Navigations Systems (EGI) with Selective Availability Anti-Spoofing Module (SAASM) to Taiwan.
Japan
On 15 October 2020, General Atomics Aeronautical Systems conducted validation flights of the SeaGuardian UAV for the Japan Coast Guard (JCG). The test flight was conducted at a Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force (JMSDF) air base in Hachinohe. Both the JCG and JMSDF have expressed interest in acquiring SeaGuardian UAVs in order to conduct more ocean surveillance.
On 15 March 2023, the JMSDF will acquire a MQ-9B SeaGuardian for trials as part of its Medium-Altitude, Long-Endurance (MALE) RPAS Trial Operation Project.
Morocco
After the Israel–Morocco normalization agreement in 2020, the US is to approve the sale of four MQ-9B SeaGuardians to Morocco.
Potential operators
Canada
As of 25 September 2023, Royal Canadian Air Force is looking at purchasing the MQ-9 along with AGM-114 Hellfire missiles, in a CA$5 billion contract. The drones are reportedly to be stationed at CFB Greenwood and CFB Comox, with personnel in Ottawa and Yellowknife to support the program. A contract is expected to be approved by Spring 2024.
Finland
As of Autumn 2021, Finnish Defence Forces is doing test flights with the MQ-9.
Poland
The Polish Ministry of National Defense announced on 28 February 2022 that it plans to purchase an unspecified number of MQ-9 Reaper drones.
Cancelled acquisitions
Australia
In September 2006, the General Atomics Mariner demonstrator aircraft was operated by the Australian Defence Science and Technology Group (DSTO) in an exercise designed to evaluate the aircraft's ability to aid in efforts to stem illegal fishing, drug running and illegal immigration. The Mariner operated from Royal Australian Air Force bases Edinburgh, South Australia and Learmonth, Western Australia in conjunction with a Royal Australian Navy Armidale class patrol boat, the Joint Offshore Protection Command, and the Pilbara Regiment.
In February 2015, it was announced that six RAAF personnel had been sent to Holloman AFB, New Mexico and Creech AFB, Nevada to undergo training.
In August 2015, it was revealed that Australians had begun flying MQ-9s over Syria, the first time Australia expanded operations past Iraq during the Military intervention against the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant. Five RAAF personnel were embedded with the USAF 432nd Operations Group, which flies armed Reapers, performing operational duties with the unit as MQ-9 system pilots and sensor operators.
In November 2018, the Defence Minister Christopher Pyne announced that Australia would purchase 12 to 16 MQ-9s. In November 2019, Australia announced the selection of the MQ-9B for its armed Medium-Altitude Long-Endurance (MALE) RPAS requirement under Project Air 7003.
In April 2021, the State Department approved a possible Foreign Military Sale to the Government of Australia of 12 MQ-9B Reapers and related equipment for an estimated cost of $1.651 billion (~$ in ).
The Australian Government canceled the planned Reaper acquisition in March 2022. The funding intended for the project was redirected to expanding the Australian Signals Directorate.
Variants
SeaGuardian
A navalized Reaper, named Mariner, was proposed for the U.S. Navy's Broad Area Maritime Surveillance (BAMS) program. It had an increased fuel capacity for an endurance of up to 49 hours. Variations included one for aircraft carrier operations with folding wings for storage, shortened, reinforced landing gear, an arresting hook, cut-down or eliminated ventral flight surfaces and six stores pylons for a total load of 3,000 pounds (1,360 kilograms). The Northrop Grumman RQ-4N was selected as the BAMS winner.
US Customs and Border Protection (CBP) operates two maritime variants of the MQ-9, known as Guardians. The U.S. Coast Guard evaluated the Guardian, including performing joint operations with CBP. CBP and the Coast Guard operate one MQ-9 Guardian jointly out of land-based stations in Florida and Texas.
General Atomics continued with the Naval Reaper concept, turning it into the SeaGuardian. It has an endurance of more than 18 hours and can mount an eight-hour patrol at a radius of . A key part of its mission set is the Leonardo Seaspray 7500E V2 AESA radar mounted as a centerline pod with inverse synthetic aperture radar that can spot surface targets including ships, submarine periscopes, and people during search and rescue operations.
General Atomics studied testing a sonobuoy launch capability from the Guardian in 2016 to demonstrate its ability to carry them, control them, and send information back to the ground station over a SATCOM link. In November 2020, a company-owned Reaper carried out a trial releasing sonobuoys, then processing information from them to track a training target. This led to the creation of an anti-submarine warfare package for the SeaGuardian, the first self-contained ASW package for a UAS. The package comprises podded sonobuoy dispenser systems (SDS), using a pneumatic launch system to launch 10 A-size or 20 G-size buoys from each pod, and a sonobuoy management and control system (SMCS); the aircraft can carry up to four pods.
MQ-9 Block 5
On 24 May 2012, General Atomics conducted the successful first flight of its upgraded MQ-9 Block 1-plus Reaper. The Block 1-plus version was designed for increased electrical power, secure communications, automatic landing, increased gross takeoff weight (GTOW), weapons growth, and streamlined payload integration capabilities. A new high-capacity starter generator offers increased electrical power capacity to provide growth capacity; a backup generator is also present and is sufficient for all flight-critical functions, improving the electrical power system's reliability via three independent power sources.
New communications capabilities, including dual ARC-210 VHF/UHF radios with wingtip antennas, allow for simultaneous communications between multiple air-to-air and air-to-ground parties, secure data links, and an increased data transmission capacity. The new trailing arm main landing gear allows the carriage of heavier payloads or additional fuel. Development and testing were completed, and Milestone C was achieved in September 2012. Follow-on aircraft will be redesignated MQ-9 Block 5. On 15 October 2013, the USAF awarded General Atomics a $377.4 million contract for 24 MQ-9 Block 5 Reapers. The MQ-9 Block 5 flew its first combat mission on 23 June 2017.
SkyGuardian
International demand for a MALE RPAS capable of being certified for operation within civilian airspace drove General Atomics to develop a version of the platform known by GA-ASI as MQ-9B SkyGuardian, previously called Certifiable Predator B, to make it compliant with European flight regulations to get more sales in European countries. In order to fly over national airspace, the aircraft meets NATO STANAG 4671 airworthiness requirements with lightning protection, different composite materials, and sense and avoid technology.
Performance changes include a wingspan that has winglets and enough fuel for a 40-hour endurance at . Features include High Definition EO/IR Full Motion Video sensor, De/Anti-Icing System, TCAS, and Automatic Take-Off & Land. The system also includes a completely redesigned & modernized integrated ground control station with 4 crew stations.
On 28 November 2019, the Australian Government announced the selection of the General Atomics Aeronautical Systems (GA-ASI) MQ-9B SkyGuardian as its preferred version of the Predator B for the RAAF's Project AIR 7003 MALE armed remotely piloted aircraft system (RPAS) requirement.
The SeaGuardian is a proposed version of SkyGuardian but also fitted with Multimode 360 Maritime Surface Search Radar and automatic identification system (AIS).
Protector
In April 2016, the United Kingdom announced that it intended to place an order for the Certifiable Predator B as part of its Protector MALE UAV program for the Royal Air Force. According to the 2015 Strategic Defence and Security Review, the Royal Air Force was to operate at least 20 Protector systems by 2025, replacing all of the ten MQ-9A Reapers. The order was subsequently limited to 16 systems.
On 15 July 2018, a GA-ASI Company-owned MQ-9B SkyGuardian was flown from the United States to RAF Fairford in the UK for the first transatlantic flight of a MALE UAV. It was displayed at the Royal International Air Tattoo (RIAT) air show, where the aircraft was given markings of No. 31 Squadron. This followed an announcement by the RAF's Chief of Air Staff that No. 31 Squadron would be the first RAF Squadron to operate a similar version of the MQ-9B aircraft, to be known as the Protector RG Mark 1 (RG1), starting in 2023. In July 2020, the Ministry of Defence signed a contract for three Protector UAVs with an option on an additional thirteen aircraft. It was announced in September 2021 that No. XIII Squadron will become the second Protector squadron.
Protector will be able to carry up to 18 Brimstone 2 missiles or Paveway IV bombs. The first of 16 Protector UAVs was delivered in September 2023 with initial operating capability in 2025 and full operating capability from 2026.
Operators
French Air and Space Force (Armée de l'air et de l'espace)
Cognac – Châteaubernard Air Base, Charente
Escadron de Drones 1/33 Belfort
Indian Navy – 2 on lease since Nov. 2020.
INS Rajali, Tamil Nadu
31 to be ordered
Italian Air Force (Aeronautica Militare)
Amendola Air Base, Province of Foggia
32° Stormo
28° Gruppo
Naval Air Station Sigonella, Sicily
32° Stormo
61° Gruppo Volo
Japan Coast Guard - 3 SeaGuardian in operational use since October 2022.
Royal Netherlands Air Force – 4 on order as of 2020 with 4 more to be ordered in 2022.
Leeuwarden Air Base, Friesland
No. 306 Squadron
Tdy at Curaçao International Airport
Polish Air Force - unspecified number of leased units in service since Feb 2023
Spanish Air and Space Force
Talavera la Real Air Base, Extremadura
ALA 23
233 Escuadrón
Royal Air Force – 10 ordered with 9 in active service. 1 more ordered in March 2021; 16 Protector UAVs ordered for delivery starting in 2023 to replace Reaper.
RAF Waddington, Lincolnshire
No. XIII Squadron
No. 54 Squadron (Operational Conversion Unit; converting to Protector UAV from 2023/24)
No. 31 Squadron (to form on Protector UAV from 2023/24)
Former: Creech Air Force Base, Nevada
No. 39 Squadron (2007–2022)
United States Air Force
Air Combat Command
49th Wing (Holloman Air Force Base, New Mexico)
6th Attack Squadron
16th Training Squadron
9th Attack Squadron
29th Attack Squadron
53d Wing (Eglin Air Force Base, Florida)
556th Test and Evaluation Squadron (Creech Air Force Base, Nevada)
432d Wing (Creech Air Force Base, Nevada)
11th Attack Squadron
15th Attack Squadron
20th Attack Squadron (Whiteman Air Force Base, Missouri)
22d Attack Squadron
50th Attack Squadron (Shaw Air Force Base, South Carolina)
89th Attack Squadron (Ellsworth Air Force Base, South Dakota)
482d Attack Squadron (Shaw Air Force Base, South Carolina)
489th Attack Squadron
United States Air Forces in Europe – Air Forces Africa
31st Operations Group
731st Expeditionary Attack Squadron (71st Air Base, Romania)
52d Expeditionary Operations Group
Detachment 2 (12th Air Base, Poland)
Air Force Special Operations Command
27th Special Operations Wing (Cannon Air Force Base, New Mexico)
33d Special Operations Squadron
58th Special Operations Wing (Kirtland Air Force Base, New Mexico)
551st Special Operations Squadron
Air National Guard
107th Attack Wing (Niagara Falls Air Force Base, New York)
136th Attack Squadron
174th Attack Wing (Hancock Field Air National Guard Base, New York)
138th Attack Squadron
111th Attack Wing (Horsham Air Guard Station, Montgomery, Pennsylvania)
103d Attack Squadron
118th Wing (Berry Field, Nashville, Tennessee)
105th Attack Squadron
132d Wing (Des Moines Air National Guard Base, Des Moines, Iowa)
124th Attack Squadron
147th Attack Wing (Ellington Field Joint Reserve Base, Houston, Texas)
111th Reconnaissance Squadron
163d Attack Wing (March AFB, California)
160th Attack Squadron
196th Attack Squadron
178th Wing (Springfield-Beckley Air National Guard Station, Springfield, Ohio)
188th Wing (188 WG) (Ebbing Air National Guard Station, Fort Smith, Arkansas)
184th Attack Squadron
110th Wing (Battle Creek Air National Guard Base, Battle Creek, Michigan)
172d Attack Squadron
Air Force Reserve Command
919th Special Operations Wing (Duke Field, Florida)
2d Special Operations Squadron
U.S. Customs and Border Protection
Sierra Vista, Arizona
Grand Forks Air Force Base, North Dakota
Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, Florida
Naval Air Station Corpus Christi, Texas
Specifications
MQ-9A Reaper
MQ-9B Skyguardian
See also
References
This article contains material that originally came from the web article Unmanned Aerial Vehicles by Greg Goebel, which exists in the public domain.
External links
MQ-9 Predator Factsheet on U.S. Air Force site
General Atomics Aeronautical Systems YMQ-9 Reaper – National Museum of the United States Air Force
MQ-9 "Reaper" Predator B UAV Defense-Update.com
General Atomics MQ-9 Reaper (Predator B), Designation-Systems.net
Q-09 Reaper
Airborne military robots
Signals intelligence
Single-engined pusher aircraft
Unmanned aerial vehicles of the United States
2000s United States attack aircraft
2000s United States military reconnaissance aircraft
War on terror
Synthetic aperture radar
Aircraft first flown in 2001
Single-engined turboprop aircraft
Unmanned military aircraft of the United States
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SSAT%20%28The%20Schools%20Network%29
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SSAT (The Schools Network)
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SSAT (The Schools Network) Limited (branded as SSAT, the Schools, Students and Teachers network) is a UK-based, independent educational membership organisation working with primary, secondary, special and free schools, academies and UTCs. It provides support and training in four main areas: teaching and learning, curriculum, networking, and leadership development.
The company was set up in May 2012, to carry out the business of the previous Specialist Schools and Academies Trust. Based in the UK, SSAT operates worldwide through its international arm, iNet. SSAT has almost 3,000 member schools in England and overseas.
The Chief Executive of SSAT is Sue Williamson, a former headteacher of Monks' Dyke Technology College in Lincolnshire, and former Strategic Director of Leadership, and Innovation at the Specialist Schools and Academies Trust.
History
1986–1996
In January 1986, a Centre for Policy Studies meeting was held in the House of Lords. The meeting was organised by Cyril Taylor and focused on the growing issue of unemployment amongst the youth. Among the attendees were Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, Secretary of State for Employment David Young and 60 other business leaders and politicians. It was decided that around 100 schools would be funded to specialise in technology via direct grants to fulfil business qualifications. The resulting City Technology Colleges (CTC) programme was announced at that year's Conservative Party Conference by Secretary of State for Education and Science Kenneth Baker. CTCs were state specialist schools independent from local authority control, specialising in science and technology. Baker and Thatcher requested that Taylor establish the City Technology Colleges Trust to oversee the establishment of CTCs. Taylor became Baker's adviser and founded the trust in 1987. It was given government grants amounting to, at most, £200,000 by 1991. These grants would fund the trust's efforts in acquiring campuses and attracting potential sponsors for CTCs. The first chief executive, Susan Fey, was appointed in 1988.
In 1990, Susan Fey appointed the trust's six curriculum development directors (CDDs), individuals who would visit CTCs to develop their ethos and curricula and support teacher trainees. The Department for Education and Science granted a sum of £2 million to support their appointment. CDDs influenced the creation of the specialist schools programme and the CTC Trust's affiliation scheme, both of which were first conceptualised in 1992. The affiliation scheme's first meeting was held in December 1992 and was hosted by the BRIT School CTC.
Originally, the target for schools with CTC status was 200, but only 15 could be established over a five-year period. In response, Cyril Taylor proposed the creation of the new specialist Technology College. As a result, in 1992, the Major government released their education white paper Technology colleges: schools for the future. New Technology Colleges specialising in mathematics, technology and science were to be established from already existing secondary schools in hopes of furthering the CTC programme's impact and adding diversity to the school system. The next year's education white paper Choice and Diversity: a New Framework for Schools resulted in the policies implemented by the Education Act 1993. The act allowed secondary schools to specialise in non-core subjects, thus introducing the new Technology Colleges (later specialist schools) programme. The trust was assigned to deliver the programme on behalf of the Department for Education and did so by helping schools raise the required sponsorship bid of £100,000 and then £50,000 for specialist designation.
In 1993, the trust was appointed by Secretary of State for Education John Patten to manage the CTC training scheme. The scheme trained teachers from five CTCs and Technology Colleges and was initially found by education inspectorate Ofsted as "failing". Later inspections reported the scheme as "satisfactory". The trust also had a new chief executive, Kathleen Lund. Lund led the CTC Trust's efforts to cooperate with local authorities from 1994, who had previously opposed the trust due to the CTC and specialist schools programmes (which, in the case of the specialist schools programme, had excluded them until 1994). Specialist schools in language were also introduced at this time.
1996–2002
In 1996 the majority of specialist schools were Technology Colleges; the CTC Trust became the Technology Colleges Trust (TCT) to reflect this fact. The affiliation scheme grew to include 300 schools and Arts and Sports Colleges were introduced. Unlike the other specialist schools, Sports Colleges were instead supported by the Youth Sports Trust. The trust's first annual conference was held, in which Labour's Shadow Secretary of State for Education David Blunkett was a guest. In December the trust's founder and chairman, Cyril Taylor, convinced Labour leader Tony Blair to support the specialist schools programme. Labour were in opposition but were largely expected to win the 1997 general election. Once this had occurred, Blunkett became education secretary. Blunkett pledged to expand the programme in order to modernise the comprehensive system.
In 2000 Professor David Jesson authored a study that compared results at GCSE with the comparative key stage 2 (KS2) primary school data from 1995. The analysis showed a value added score of +5.4 for specialist schools compared with −1.1 for non-specialist schools. For the first time, there was evidence that specialist status was linked to higher results at GCSE, whether it was on the 5+ A*-C measure, value-added or contextual value added. Schools began to make extensive use of the data themselves to evaluate their performance. The study became an annual project and is still provided today, known as Educational Outcomes.
The 2001 Green Paper Schools: Building on success introduced four new specialisms: science, mathematics & computing, business & enterprise and engineering.
The Trust was moving from an organisation which primarily provided bidding advice and support, to an organisation that held a much extended role.
2002–04
In 2002 Charles Clarke succeeded Estelle Morris as Secretary of State for Education, and quickly announced a lifting of the financial cap that had previously limited the number of schools that could be designated in any bidding round. A collaborative rather than a competitive approach would further accelerate the growth of specialist schools, and a new target was set of 2000 specialist schools by 2006.
A second aspect of Clarke's vision for what he termed a 'specialist system' was a more balanced approach to the spread of specialisms in any one area. As many schools struggled to raise the required £50,000 sponsorship, he established a Partnership Fund – a mix of private money (donated by the Garfield Weston Foundation) and public money – to which schools could apply to make up any shortfall.
The effect of lifting the cap on new designations, plus the four new specialisms (as announced in the 2001 Green Paper) was a rapid rise in the number of specialist schools. In 2002 there were 992 specialist schools and by 2004 their number had risen to 1954.
In 2003 a further two new specialisms were announced: humanities and music. An SEN specialism for special schools was announced in 2004. In 2003 the Trust changed its name to the Specialist Schools Trust (SST). The Trust's network of schools continued to grow – the number of schools affiliated passed 1500 in 2002 and reached 2500 in 2004.
A regional structure was established in 2002, to cope with the size of the network. Full-time regional coordinators worked with a committee of volunteer headteachers in their region, setting the local agenda for events and other activities. 2003 saw the establishment of the National Headteachers Steering Group, initially made up of the chairs of each regional steering group. Its task was to steer the Trust's strategy for its services to schools. This was the 'by schools, for schools' model taking shape.
Practitioner-led programmes become more prominent between 2002 and 2004, with leadership programmes beginning with courses for aspirant headteachers and 'developing leaders'.
A major venture of the Trust between 2002 and 2004 was the development of its international arm – International Networking for Educational Transformation – known as iNet. This network grew in response to demand from schools in England and overseas, starting principally in Australia. It exists and flourishes today, with networks in the United States, China, the Netherlands and Wales.
The Leading Edge programme was announced in 2003 as a response to the idea of specialism in school improvement, first proposed by Estelle Morris in 1998. Again a practitioner-led philosophy, many schools had joined the programme by 2004.
Following a challenge from the then Schools Minister David Miliband, the Trust began working with headteachers to define personalising learning. Professor David Hargreaves held a series of workshops with 200 headteachers and identified the nine gateways to personalising learning. A series of five conferences with ASCL (then SHA) followed to examine the gateways. After each conference, Hargreaves produced a pamphlet with case studies from schools. By the time of the last conference in January 2006, the nine gateways had been clustered into four groups: deep learning, deep experience, deep support and deep leadership. The National Conference in 2006 focused on these four topics and consequently a number of schools restructured their leadership teams on this basis.
2005–10
In September 2005 the Trust took on a central role in the government's academies programme. Originally announced by David Blunkett in 2000, its aim was to challenge under achievement in the country's poorest performing schools. The programme had many similarities to the CTC programme of the early 1990s and required the Trust to once again change its name, it became the Specialist Schools and Academies Trust (SSAT).
In 2007, the Trust formed a system redesign network – initially partnering 10 highly successful, innovative schools – to determine the building blocks of system redesign in education for the 21st century in England.
By 2008, the structure of the Trust's funding had changed dramatically. In 2003/4 the DfES specialist schools grant represented 43% of funding. By 2007/8 it accounted for 24% while 37% came from other commissioned work from the DfES and 35% from commercial income – work won by competitive tender along with affiliation fees and income earned from events, training provision and so on.
2010–12
In May 2010, after a hung parliament, the coalition Government were sworn into office. In September 2010, Government decided to end ring-fencing of grants to schools to fund their specialist status.
Throughout 2010 and 2011, the organisation decreased in size but continued to win contracts overseas. The most notable of these was in Abu Dhabi where, as SSAT Middle East, it continues to operate a network of schools and work closely with the Abu Dhabi Educational Council.
The trust's contract with the Department for Education to support the sponsored academies programme ended in August 2011 although it continues its close links with academy principals and sponsors, and supports schools converting to academy status.
The Trust was now supported primarily by affiliation fees from its thousands of affiliated schools and the delivery of its events and activities. As a result, the Trust changed its name to The Schools Network – reflecting the organisation's new position in education. Its affiliation scheme, regional steering groups and practitioner-led training programmes all contributed to the feeling that a country-wide schools network was now established.
Chief Executive, Elizabeth Reid left the Network in December 2011 and was replaced by Sue Williamson.
2012 to date
In June 2012, after an announcement the previous month that The Schools Network would be going into administration, a management buy-out ensured that a new company, SSAT (The Schools Network) would continue The School Network's work. SSAT purchased parts of the UK operations of the Trust from the administrators and has since traded profitably, delivering education improvement services to schools in the UK.
SSAT (The Schools Network) relocated to Islington, London with around 50 full-time staff. In December 2012, the 20th National Conference was held in Liverpool. The conference saw the launch of Redesigning Schooling, SSAT's campaign to ensure that the future of education is shaped by high quality practice and research within the profession.
The 2013 National Conference was held at Manchester Central on 5–6 December and welcomed over 800 delegates across two days of keynotes, workshops and panel debates. The importance of professional capital was a key aspect of the overarching theme of a new professionalism for the country's leaders and teachers.
Subsequent conferences included:
SSAT National Conference 2014: "The learner" – held at Manchester Central in December 2014.
SSAT National Conference 2015: "Quality and equity" – at Manchester Central in December 2015.
SSAT National Conference 2016: "Leading – making the impossible possible" – at ICC Birmingham in December 2016.
In September 2015, the organisation rebranded as "SSAT, the Schools, Students and Teachers network" under a new corporate identity.
The SSAT National Conference 2017: "Illuminating learning" will take place in Manchester Central from 30 November to 1 December 2017.
The company continues to trade profitably and now has over 70 full-time staff.
Redesigning Schooling
Redesigning Schooling gathered pace in the Spring of 2013 through a series of events in London and Manchester. These events gave delegates an opportunity to engage in lively debate with leading educational thinkers and academics, and to examine much needed change in education from a variety of perspectives. Speakers including Andy Hargreaves, Dylan Wiliam and Tim Oates led workshops that have provided the foundation for a series of publications that have been distributed to SSAT member schools.
Current work
SSAT runs a number of continuous professional development programmes for teachers, and offers support to sponsored academies and schools converting to academy status. It also offers support to schools and academies in the use of data analysis and supports networks of schools and academies across a number of subject areas.
It runs numerous events for teachers and school leaders, including the annual SSAT National Conference.
Events
SSAT National Conference
Each December, SSAT's National Conference brings together leading educationalists, thinkers and researchers with headteachers and practitioners from all over the world. The SSAT National Conference 2017: Illuminating learning will be held at Manchester Central on 30 November - 1 December 2017.
SSAT Achievement Show
Each June, The SSAT Achievement Show provides a one-day opportunity for the country's outstanding practitioners to share their best practice and successes with their peers. The event is divided into subject areas, with a full programme providing a huge range of different workshops and keynotes for attendants.
SSAT Annual Lecture and Debate
The SSAT Annual Lecture and Debate will take place in October 2017.
International work
SSAT supports the iNet network of schools in 34 countries. iNet was established in 2004 and currently includes schools in Wales, China, the United States of America, New Zealand, Mauritius, the United Arab Emirates and South Africa.
In 2006 the trust established the world's first school-based Confucius Institute, in partnership with the Office of Chinese Language Council International (Hanban) the Confucius Institute now has a network of 34 Confucius Classrooms in schools, specialising in the teaching of Mandarin Chinese. This work was sold to the Department for Education in 2011.
In November 2010 the trust signed an agreement with Hanban to train 1,000 teachers of Chinese.
The trust also manages a number of schools in Abu Dhabi.
References
External links
Department for Education
Education in England
Education in the London Borough of Islington
Organisations based in the London Borough of Islington
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Where%20in%20the%20World%20Is%20Carmen%20Sandiego%3F%20%28game%20show%29
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Where in the World Is Carmen Sandiego? (game show)
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Where in the World Is Carmen Sandiego? is an American half-hour children's television game show based on the Carmen Sandiego computer game series created by Broderbund. The show was hosted by Greg Lee, who was joined by Lynne Thigpen, and the a cappella vocal group Rockapella, who served as the show's house band and comedy troupe. The series was videotaped in New York City at Chelsea Studios and Kaufman Astoria Studios (the latter of which also housed the set of Sesame Street) and co-produced by WQED and WGBH-TV, and aired on PBS stations from September 30, 1991, to December 22, 1995, with reruns continuing to air until May 31, 1996. A total of 295 episodes over five seasons were recorded.
The show won seven Daytime Emmys and a 1992 Peabody Award. In 2001, TV Guide ranked the show at No. 47 on its list of 50 Greatest Game Shows of All Time.
The show was created partially in response to the results of a National Geographic survey that indicated Americans had alarmingly little knowledge of geography, with one in four being unable to locate the Soviet Union or the Pacific Ocean. The show's questions were verified by National Geographic World, who also provided prizes to the contestants in the form of subscriptions to their magazine.
Gameplay
Each episode consisted of three middle-school-aged contestants (10–14 years of age) competing against one another answering geography-related trivia questions to determine the location of one of Carmen Sandiego's cronies and eventually Carmen herself. Throughout the program the contestants are referred to as "gumshoes", in reference to fledgling detectives just starting out in the profession.
Round One
After Lee meets the day's gumshoes at the beginning of the show, the Chief briefs them on the crime and the crook who committed it, often adding the crook's reason for committing the crime. The gumshoes began with 50 ACME Crime Bucks each. Assorted live action, celebrity, musical, animated, and costumed comedy sketches were performed, each providing clues to a geographical location of the day's crook. A map with three possible locations was shown on-screen to the gumshoes, Lee reminded them of the clues, and each gumshoe chose an answer. Ten Crime Bucks were added to each gumshoe's score for a correct answer, and there was no penalty for a wrong guess.
Various elements of the first round included:
The Lightning Round: Partway through round one, a thunderclap/lightning effect played in the office signaling the start of the Lightning Round. Three toss-up questions, all multiple-choice related to the area in the previous question, were asked to the gumshoes, and each right answer earned five more Crime Bucks. This section, along with The Chase, required the gumshoes to use their buzzers to answer questions.
Chief's Office: After the Lightning Round, the Chief called Lee into her office for a brief conference. This was used as a comedy break, during which the Chief and Lee engaged in a brief skit, usually brought to a close by either announcing the show's grand prize: a trip to anywhere in the Continental United States (beginning in season 2, the prize was expanded to include anywhere in North America) to the gumshoe who captured Carmen Sandiego by the end of the episode (seasons 1 and 2), or they described a home viewer contest in which viewers could win a Carmen Sandiego T-shirt, and some winners of the home viewer contest (season 3 onward).
Training Exercise (Season 5 only): In this game (which began in between the Chief's Office and the Phone Tap), the gumshoes were each given a trash can to rummage through to find a card; each card providing a different clue for another location. After all of the clues were read, the first gumshoe to find their card and re-close their trash can got the first chance to answer, the right answer earning ten Crime Bucks.
Phone Tap: After visiting the Chief's office (or after the Training Exercise in season 5) and returning to the game set, Lee played a "Phone tap" recording for the gumshoes on the game monitor: in it, Carmen conversed with the crook of the day, providing more clues for another location to which the crook has gone.
The Chase (beginning in season 2): Similar to the "Lightning Round", and also requiring contestants to answer with their buzzers, Lee asked a series of five toss-up questions which provided clues about locations that followed a path, indicating that the gumshoes were hot on the trail of the crook; each correct answer earned five Crime Bucks. This segment was introduced with a brief chase skit performed by Rockapella comically running across the stage, sometimes accompanied by others, including Lee, the Chief, some stagehands, and even members of the studio audience.
The Final Clue: To end the first round, Lee showed the gumshoes a map of three locations to where the crook may have traveled. Before the clues were given, Lee gave them a few seconds (during which Rockapella sang special "think music") to wager up to 50 of their Crime Bucks, in increments of 10 (or they could risk nothing), on their answer. The final clue was then given, and the gumshoes were allowed to pick and set aside their answer. Starting with the lowest scoring gumshoe up to that point, each gumshoe then first revealed their wager and then their answer. Their wager was added to their score if they answered correctly, but deducted from their score if incorrect. At round's end, the lowest scoring gumshoe received consolation prizes from the Chief and was eliminated from the game.
If the first round ended in a tie for second place, Lee read clues related to a famous person or place (typically a U.S. state). Gumshoes could buzz in as often as they wanted; the first gumshoe to buzz in with the correct answer received an additional five Crime Bucks and moved on to Round 2. Generally speaking, the last clue contained the answer. If the round ended in a three-way tie, then Lee read two tiebreaker questions and only two gumshoes were tied and moved on to the next round.
Round Two: Jail Time Challenge
The two higher scoring gumshoes continued on to Round Two, following the crook to their next destination (the same destination described in the Final Clue from Round One). The Chief briefed the two on their destination, using a "Photo Recon" to describe different landmarks and venues in the location from the final question of the first round. Fifteen trilons were then displayed on a large game board, each one labeled with the name of a different landmark, including those shown during the Chief's briefing. Hidden behind three of the trilons were the day's stolen loot, an arrest warrant, and the crook him/herself, and behind the other twelve were shoe prints, which indicated nothing was there.
The higher of the two scoring gumshoes from round one chose first. If the two gumshoes were tied for first place, a coin toss determined who started. The gumshoes then alternated taking turns until one of them found all three of the key items in the required order:
First, the loot, the evidence required for the warrant.
Second, the warrant to arrest the crook.
Third, only after finding the loot and the warrant, the crook him/herself.
Finding either the loot, warrant, or crook at any time allowed the gumshoe to take another turn, but if one of these was found in the incorrect order (such as if the crook was uncovered before either the loot or warrant were), Lee would remind the gumshoe that the items needed to be found in the correct order and the gumshoe therefore would have to choose a space that was blank and pass control.
At round's end, the winning gumshoe pulled a ring on a chain rope, activating a foghorn and incarcerating the crook. A consolation prize was announced by the Chief to the losing and departing gumshoe, after which Lee reminded the winning gumshoe of the grand prize.
Bonus Round: Carmen's World Map
At the end of the second round, Lee then handed a portfolio to the winning gumshoe for them to secretly write down their chosen destination if they were to win the grand prize in the Bonus Round, after which the gumshoe received a phone call from the apprehended crook, who instructed them to look for Carmen on a certain continent: Asia, Africa, Europe, South America or the United States (the latter of which expanded to include the rest of North America beginning in season 3), and the Chief then gave a list of thirteen locations on the chosen continent.
Lee and the gumshoe then moved to a giant map that covered the entire floor in front of the studio audience. The map showed small red circles denoting cities of countries or states, and later added red arrows marking bodies of water and red squares for national parks and monuments.
To capture Carmen, the gumshoe had to identify seven different locations on the map (eight beginning in season 2) in 45 seconds or less, each time grabbing one of a set of large markers with police beacons mounted on top, and quickly placing the marker on one of the red spots on the map.
If they correctly identified a location, the beacon on the marker flashed and a police siren sounded briefly, while incorrect guesses were marked by a two-note "uh-oh" buzzer; one incorrect guess per location was allowed, but a second incorrect guess forced the gumshoe to leave the marker behind and go on to the next location.
What made the round especially challenging was that the map was upside down from the gumshoe's perspective.
If the gumshoe succeeded, they won the grand prize of the trip; Lee then revealed the location the gumshoe wrote down in the portfolio.
If the gumshoe failed to capture Carmen, she will get away and the gumshoe will received a consolation prize but the trip destination was not revealed.
Regardless of the result, the Chief promoted the gumshoe to "sleuth" with her congratulations.
Characters
The Chief
The Chief (Lynne Thigpen) is head of the fictional "ACME Crimenet". As the de facto announcer for the show, the Chief eloquently uses dialogue rife with puns, alliteration and all forms of word play. The Chief became so popular that Thigpen reprised the role in later editions of the PC games, and also in the subsequent TV series Where in Time Is Carmen Sandiego?
Rockapella
New York City a cappella group Rockapella was the house band for the show and also contributed to the comic relief. During the series run, their lineup included:
Scott Leonard (high tenor)
Sean Altman (tenor)
Elliott Kerman (baritone)
Barry Carl (bass)
Jeff Thacher (vocal percussion; season 5 only)
The group performed the theme music and also brief musical interludes and introductions. They also performed the "think music" during the wager period of the first round and the section where the winner writes where they want to go if they capture Carmen. They also provided brief humorous musical sound effects during the Jail Time Challenge round of the game, as well as background music during the 45-second bonus round.
V.I.L.E.
V.I.L.E. is Carmen's gang of crooks and the rogues' gallery of ne'er-do-wells comprises the following:
Carmen Sandiego: Master thief, criminal mastermind and the leader of V.I.L.E. During the show's "Phone Tap" segments, she was heard talking to the episode's crook, giving them advice to evade detection. The ultimate goal of the game is to capture Carmen after the crook was caught.
Vic the Slick: A tactless salesman who wears a loud polyester suit. He also has a seedy moustache, shifty eyes and slicked black hair.
The Contessa (Appearing in seasons 1, 4 & 5): A so-called criminal of style who fancies herself to be near-royalty.
Top Grunge: A burly and unkempt biker who was always riding his chopper motorcycle. Dirty and surrounded by flies, he continually sneezed, snorted, and coughed during conversations.
Eartha Brute: A muscular, dimwitted woman.
RoboCrook (Unit-059): A cyborg spoof of RoboCop.
Patty Larceny: A flighty, blonde schoolgirl with a sweet and giggly personality. Her name is a pun on the phrase "petty larceny".
Double Trouble: A pair of Yin and Yang party-boy twins with quarter moon-shaped heads. They speak in a voice similar to Jack Nicholson.
Kneemoi: A shape-shifting alien from the planet Roddenberry who is introduced in season 2. Her name is a reference to Leonard Nimoy best known for playing Spock of Star Trek and her home planet to the franchise's creator Gene Roddenberry.
Wonder Rat: A superhero parody in a makeshift rat costume who is introduced in season 2. He also possesses his own helicopter.
Sarah Nade: A loud, obnoxious teenage punk rocker with rainbow-colored hair who is introduced in season 3. Her name is a pun on the word "serenade".
Production
A staff of 150 worked to produce the show. Each season was produced in six weeks. Typically three to four episodes were taped each shooting day in a New York studio. Producers contacted local New York schools and considered children aged 8–13; entrants were required to take a geography test. Prospective contestants who passed the test were then interviewed by producers.
Original music and theme song
All of the music on the series (including assorted short stings and stagers) was arranged and performed by Rockapella. The theme song played in full over the animated end credits as the studio audience danced to the music on the map, and in later episodes the audience joined in singing along. The main theme song was written by Rockapella co-founder Sean Altman and David Yazbek, and appears on the 1992 soundtrack album Where in the World Is Carmen Sandiego? and also in the compilation Television's Greatest Hits Volume 7: Cable Ready (TVT 1996).
Animation
Graphic designer Gene Mackles recalled: "I took on the assignment to produce about 2 hours of animation for the [show]. With a ridiculously tight deadline and budget, the only possibility for this to work at the time involved purchasing half a dozen Macintosh computers and assembling a team of animators using Macromind Director to get it to happen. Amazingly enough it worked, and Chris Pullman and I won a daytime Emmy for our effort". All the animated characters were created on the Mac.
Geopolitical changes
Following the completion of taping for the first season, massive geopolitical changes in the world—including the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the breakup of Yugoslavia—rendered the entire season geographically inaccurate. Starting in the second season, a disclaimer aired in the closing stating "All geographic information was accurate as of the date this program was recorded."
Critical reception
NerdHQ deemed the series the "crown jewel" of the Carmen Sandiego franchise.
Awards and nominations
Aside from the aforementioned Emmy and Peabody wins, the show was nominated for several other awards.
International versions
Disney's Buena Vista Productions International (BVPI) co-produced the series in Germany with MDR in Chemnitz (formerly Karl-Marx-Stadt) where it aired on national broadcaster ARD and was entitled Jagd um die Welt – Schnappt Carmen Sandiego (Chase Around the World: Catch Carmen Sandiego) in 1994. In the same year, BVPI also co-produced the Italian series in Naples with national broadcaster RAI (entitled Che fine ha fatto Carmen Sandiego?, "What has come of Carmen Sandiego?"), and also co-produced the Spanish version, ¿Dónde se esconde Carmen Sandiego?, ("Where is Carmen Sandiego hiding?") which was co-produced in Valencia with national broadcaster TVE in 1995.
Canada's Télé-Québec produced a French-language version called Mais, où se cache Carmen Sandiego? (But, Where is Carmen Sandiego Hiding?), which aired between 1995 and 1998 and stars Pauline Martin as "The Chief" and Martin Drainville as the ACME Agent in Charge of Training New Recruits.
A French version produced by Marina Productions, also entitled Mais où se cache Carmen Sandiego?, was launched in April 1995 and aired Sundays on France 3.
There was also a New Zealand version of Carmen Sandiego that lasted from 1996 to 1999. Radio Television of Malaysia produced their own iteration of the show in 1998 titled Di Mana Joe Jambul (Where Is Pompadour Joe). In this version, contestants composed of two teams of three kids try to find clues and stop Pompadour Joe and his gang's criminal activities around the world. The show was rebooted in 2012 with a new set, animation and rules.
References
External links
Where in the World Is Carmen Sandiego? at kyranthia
Where In The World Is Carmen Sandiego? at seanaltman.com
Where in the World Is Carmen Sandiego at everything2.com
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1993%20NASCAR%20Winston%20Cup%20Series
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1993 NASCAR Winston Cup Series
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The 1993 NASCAR Winston Cup Series was the 45th season of professional stock car racing in the United States and the 22nd modern-era Cup season. The season began on February 7 and ended on November 14. Dale Earnhardt of Richard Childress Racing won the title, the sixth of his career.
1993 was marked by the deaths of two Winston Cup drivers, though neither were on-track in any form. 1992 Champion Alan Kulwicki was killed on April 1 in a plane crash near Blountville, Tennessee. He was travelling to Bristol International Raceway in a corporate jet belonging to his sponsor, Hooters. Davey Allison died on July 13, a day after a helicopter crash at Talladega Superspeedway left him with a severe head trauma. The accidents robbed the sport two of its brightest young stars and denied Kulwicki the chance to defend his 1992 title.
The season also saw the introduction of electronic scoring, giving instantaneous interval numbers.
This was the first season without NASCAR legend Richard Petty since 1957.
Teams and drivers
Complete schedule
Limited schedule
Schedule
Race scheduled for March 14, but postponed due to the 1993 Storm of the Century.
Races
Busch Clash
The Busch Clash, an invitational event for all pole winners of the previous season, was held February 7 at Daytona International Speedway. Ernie Irvan drew the pole.
Top ten results
3-Dale Earnhardt
25-Ken Schrader
4-Ernie Irvan
6-Mark Martin
5-Ricky Rudd
28-Davey Allison
42-Kyle Petty
8-Sterling Marlin
11-Bill Elliott
7-Alan Kulwicki
Gatorade 125s
The Gatorade 125s, qualifying races for the Daytona 500, were held February 11 at Daytona International Speedway. Kyle Petty and Dale Jarrett won the poles for both races, respectively.
Race one: top ten results
24-Jeff Gordon
11-Bill Elliott
42-Kyle Petty
25-Ken Schrader
90-Bobby Hillin Jr.
28-Davey Allison
83-Lake Speed
44-Rick Wilson
9-Chad Little
14-Terry Labonte
Race two: top ten results
3-Dale Earnhardt
15-Geoff Bodine
18-Dale Jarrett
4-Ernie Irvan
7-Alan Kulwicki
5-Ricky Rudd
8-Sterling Marlin
41-Phil Parsons
27-Hut Stricklin
26-Brett Bodine
With the win, Jeff Gordon became the first rookie ever to win a qualifying race, only to be matched by Denny Hamlin in 2006. In the second race, defending Indy 500 winner Al Unser Jr. (entering his first and only NASCAR race) wrecked on lap 10, but still managed to qualify for the Daytona 500 based on speed.
Daytona 500 by STP
The 1993 Daytona 500 by STP was held February 14 at Daytona International Speedway. Kyle Petty's #42 car won the pole, putting a Petty on the Daytona 500 pole for the first time since 1966, and only the second time ever. Kyle was also the first North Carolina driver to win the 500 pole since Benny Parsons in 1982. His father Richard waved the green flag in the first Winston Cup race held since his retirement.
Top ten results
18-Dale Jarrett
3-Dale Earnhardt
15-Geoff Bodine
27-Hut Stricklin
24-Jeff Gordon*
6-Mark Martin
21-Morgan Shepherd
25-Ken Schrader
8-Sterling Marlin
16-Wally Dallenbach Jr.
Failed to qualify: 85-Dorsey Schroeder, 48-James Hylton, 45-Rich Bickle, 29-Kerry Teague, 0-Delma Cowart, 77-Mike Potter, 73-Stanley Smith, 99-Brad Teague, 31-Steve Kinser, 51-Jeff Purvis, 50-A. J. Foyt, 23-Eddie Bierschwale, and 95-Ken Ragan
The race was marked by a grinding crash involving Rusty Wallace who was spun out by Michael Waltrip on the backstretch and sent Wallace on a series of horrific barrel rolls in the grass. He was uninjured although.
Jeff Gordon made his first Daytona 500 start on his first Winston Cup full season. He became the first rookie ever to win one of the qualifying races. He also led the 1st lap and finished 5th, which is considered one of the most successful Daytona 500 debuts ever.
The "Dale and Dale Show" commenced as Jarrett passed Earnhardt in the tri-oval as they took the white flag. As the leaders exited Turn 2, the CBS Sports producers came on the headsets of Ken Squier, Neil Bonnett, and Ned Jarrett, telling Ned to "call his son home", leading to an emotional finish.
This Daytona 500 was the first not to feature Richard Petty as a driver in the starting lineup since 1965.
Last career pole for Kyle Petty.
This was Jeff Gordon's first Top 5 and Top 10 finish.
GM Goodwrench 500
The GM Goodwrench 500 was held on February 28 at North Carolina Speedway. Mark Martin won the pole.
Top ten results
2-Rusty Wallace
3-Dale Earnhardt
4-Ernie Irvan
7-Alan Kulwicki
6-Mark Martin
18-Dale Jarrett
55-Ted Musgrave
41-Phil Parsons
15-Geoff Bodine, 1 lap down
14-Terry Labonte, 1 lap down
Failed to qualify: 49-Stanley Smith
Pontiac Excitement 400
The Pontiac Excitement 400 was held March 7 at Richmond International Raceway. Ken Schrader won the pole.
Top ten results
28-Davey Allison
2-Rusty Wallace
7-Alan Kulwicki
18-Dale Jarrett
42-Kyle Petty
24-Jeff Gordon
6-Mark Martin
17-Darrell Waltrip
33-Harry Gant
3-Dale Earnhardt, 1 lap down
Failed to qualify: 45-Rich Bickle
This would be Davey Allison's final Winston Cup win.
Last career Top 5 for Alan Kulwicki.
Motorcraft Quality Parts 500
The Motorcraft Quality Parts 500 was scheduled for March 14 at Atlanta Motor Speedway. However, it was postponed and moved to March 20 in the aftermath of the 1993 Storm of the Century. Rusty Wallace won the pole.
Top ten results
21-Morgan Shepherd
4-Ernie Irvan
2-Rusty Wallace
24-Jeff Gordon, 1 lap down
5-Ricky Rudd, 1 lap down
15-Geoff Bodine, 1 lap down
42-Kyle Petty, 1 lap down
26-Brett Bodine, 1 lap down
11-Bill Elliott, 2 laps down
12-Jimmy Spencer, 3 laps down
Failed to qualify: 45-Rich Bickle, 84-Rick Crawford, 48-James Hylton, 61-Rick Carelli
Jeff Gordon appeared headed to his first Winston Cup win until during the last pit stop he went past his pit box line and had to back up losing too much time, then scraping the wall trying to stay ahead of Rusty Wallace. Morgan Shepherd passed him and won the event, his final victory as of , his fourth career NASCAR Cup victory overall, and his third at Atlanta Motor Speedway.
This was the last time until the 2018 Martinsville spring race that a race in the NASCAR's premier series was postponed due to snow.
This race was originally scheduled to air on ABC; however by the time the race was rescheduled, ABC was unable to carry the race due to scheduling conflicts, resulting in the broadcast airing on TNN instead.
TranSouth 500
The TranSouth 500 was held March 28 at Darlington Raceway. Qualifying was rained out and the starting grid was lined up based on points. Dale Earnhardt started from the pole.
Top ten results
3-Dale Earnhardt
6-Mark Martin
18-Dale Jarrett
25-Ken Schrader
2-Rusty Wallace, 1 lap down
7-Alan Kulwicki, 1 lap down
42-Kyle Petty, 1 lap down
15-Geoff Bodine, 1 lap down
14-Terry Labonte, 1 lap down
21-Morgan Shepherd, 2 laps down
Failed to qualify: 62-John McFadden
This was the last time the spring race was 500 miles until the track went to one race a year for the top division of NASCAR in 2005. The 400 mile spring race would return in 2021
This was Alan Kulwicki's final NASCAR race, as four days later, he was fatally injured in a plane crash.
Food City 500
The Food City 500 was held April 4 at Bristol International Raceway. Rusty Wallace won the pole.
Top ten results
2-Rusty Wallace
3-Dale Earnhardt
42-Kyle Petty
12-Jimmy Spencer
28-Davey Allison
17-Darrell Waltrip
21-Morgan Shepherd, 1 lap down
6-Mark Martin, 2 laps down
26-Brett Bodine, 3 laps down
1-Rick Mast, 3 laps down
Failed to qualify: 48-James Hylton
Withdrawn: 7-Alan Kulwicki
On the evening of April 1st, defending Cup champion Alan Kulwicki and three Hooters executives were killed in a plane crash on their way to this race.
After being spun out by Bobby Hillin Jr., Dale Jarrett threw his helmet at the #90 car during the caution period that ran from lap 210 to 216.
After taking the checkered flag, Rusty Wallace made a Polish Victory Lap in memory of the deceased Winston Cup Champion Alan Kulwicki who made it famous.
In what would have been the big story prior to the loss of Alan Kulwicki; this race marked the first day race at Bristol since switching from asphalt to its present concrete surface.
First Union 400
The First Union 400 was held April 18 at North Wilkesboro Speedway. Brett Bodine won the pole.
Top ten results
2-Rusty Wallace
42-Kyle Petty
25-Ken Schrader
28-Davey Allison
17-Darrell Waltrip
14-Terry Labonte
5-Ricky Rudd
21-Morgan Shepherd
8-Sterling Marlin
11-Bill Elliott, 2 laps down
Failed to qualify: 49-Stanley Smith
Jimmy Hensley was named the interim substitute driver for the #7 car, filling the seat formerly held by the late Alan Kulwicki. Sponsor Hooters pulled out of the team, but Bojangles stepped in to sponsor the car, promoting the Easter Seals charity on the car's hood.
The biggest news story of the week leading up to the race was the official announcement of the inaugural Brickyard 400, scheduled for August 6, 1994.
Hanes 500
The Hanes 500 was held April 25 at Martinsville Speedway. Geoff Bodine won the pole.
Top ten results
2-Rusty Wallace
28-Davey Allison
18-Dale Jarrett
17-Darrell Waltrip
42-Kyle Petty, 1 lap down
15-Geoff Bodine, 3 laps down
26-Brett Bodine, 3 laps down
24-Jeff Gordon, 3 laps down
14-Terry Labonte, 3 laps down
6-Mark Martin, 4 laps down
Failed to qualify: 52-Jimmy Means, 9-P. J. Jones
This was Rusty Wallace's 3rd consecutive victory.
Winston 500
The Winston 500 was held May 2 at Talladega Superspeedway. Dale Earnhardt won the pole.
Top ten results
4-Ernie Irvan
12-Jimmy Spencer
18-Dale Jarrett
3-Dale Earnhardt
20-Joe Ruttman
2-Rusty Wallace
28-Davey Allison
98-Derrike Cope
7-Jimmy Hensley
30-Michael Waltrip
Failed to qualify: 9-P. J. Jones, 48-James Hylton, 0-Delma Cowart, 31-Steve Kinser, 62-Ben Hess, 71-Dave Marcis, 73-Phil Barkdoll, 65-Jerry O'Neil, 49-Stanley Smith
On the final lap approaching the checkered flag, Rusty Wallace was spun and flipped end over end. He was tapped in the left rear by Dale Earnhardt, who proceeded to check on him while on his cooldown lap.
This race would be the last victory for Ernie Irvan behind the wheel of the #4 Morgan-McClure Motorsports Kodak Film Chevrolet Lumina before his departure later that season.
Save Mart Supermarkets 300K
The Save Mart Supermarkets 300K was held May 16 at Sears Point Raceway. Dale Earnhardt won the pole.
Top ten results
15-Geoff Bodine
4-Ernie Irvan
5-Ricky Rudd
25-Ken Schrader
42-Kyle Petty
3-Dale Earnhardt
16-Wally Dallenbach Jr.
44-Rick Wilson
14-Terry Labonte
27-Hut Stricklin
Failed to qualify: 51-Rick Scribner, 09-R. K. Smith, 48-Jack Sellers
This was the last win for the famous Bud Moore team.
Geoff Bodine celebrated the win at the same time as he was finalizing a deal to purchase the assets to the late Alan Kulwicki's #7 team.
The Winston Open
The Winston Open, a 50 lap last chance race to qualify for The Winston, was held on May 22, 1993, at Charlotte Motor Speedway. Jeff Gordon won the pole. The top four finishers would qualify for The Winston later that night.
Top five results
8-Sterling Marlin
25-Ken Schrader
26-Brett Bodine
30-Michael Waltrip
1-Rick Mast
Jeff Gordon was dominating the race leading the first 22 laps until he crashed out of the race on the 23rd lap.
The Winston
The 1993 edition of The Winston, took place on May 22, 1993. Ernie Irvan won the pole.
Criteria to qualify
All active 1992 and 1993 race winning drivers.
All active 1992 and 1993 race winning car owners.
All active former Winston Cup Champions.
Top 4 finishers from The Winston Open
Top ten results
3-Dale Earnhardt
6-Mark Martin
4-Ernie Irvan
25-Ken Schrader
15-Geoff Bodine
17-Darrell Waltrip
8-Sterling Marlin
2-Rusty Wallace
28-Davey Allison
26-Brett Bodine
Dale Earnhardt becomes the first three time winner of this race. He only led the race's final two laps.
Richard Childress Racing also becomes the first team to win this race three times.
Coca-Cola 600
The Coca-Cola 600 was held May 30 at Charlotte Motor Speedway. Ken Schrader won the pole.
Top ten results
3-Dale Earnhardt
24-Jeff Gordon
18-Dale Jarrett
25-Ken Schrader
4-Ernie Irvan
11-Bill Elliott
12-Jimmy Spencer
22-Bobby Labonte
21-Morgan Shepherd, 1 lap down
15-Geoff Bodine, 1 lap down
Failed to qualify: 85-Ken Bouchard, 48-James Hylton, 84-Rick Crawford, 38-Bobby Hamilton, 65-Jerry O'Neil, 49-Stanley Smith, 64-Johnny Chapman
For the first time, the race was moved to a late afternoon start, and ended under the lights. The race was no longer to be held at the same time as the Indianapolis 500.
Dale Earnhardt overcame two penalties (one for speeding on pit road, the other for wrecking Greg Sacks on a restart) to win his third Coca-Cola 600.
First career top 10 for Bobby Labonte.
Budweiser 500
The Budweiser 500 was held June 6 at Dover Downs International Speedway. Ernie Irvan won the pole, but totaled his car in final practice, being forced to go to a back-up car and having to start last.
Top ten results
3-Dale Earnhardt
18-Dale Jarrett
28-Davey Allison
6-Mark Martin
25-Ken Schrader
1-Rick Mast
33-Harry Gant, 1 lap down
12-Jimmy Spencer, 1 lap down
21-Morgan Shepherd, 2 laps down
38-Bobby Hamilton, 5 laps down
Failed to qualify: 80-Jimmy Horton, 56-Jerry Hill, 85-Ken Bouchard
Champion Spark Plug 500
The Champion Spark Plug 500 was held June 13 at Pocono Raceway. Ken Schrader won the pole.
Top ten results
42-Kyle Petty
25-Ken Schrader
33-Harry Gant
12-Jimmy Spencer
55-Ted Musgrave
28-Davey Allison
21-Morgan Shepherd
8-Sterling Marlin
5-Ricky Rudd
11-Bill Elliott
Failed to qualify: 80-Jimmy Horton
During the race, a fan later identified as Chad Blaine Kohl, darted onto the track as Kyle Petty and Davey Allison were battling for the lead; narrowly avoiding being hit. Kohl would eventually be charged with arson, risking a catastrophe, criminal mischief, disorderly conduct and public drunkenness.
During a round of Green Flag pitstops on lap 60, Ricky Rudd finally led his first lap of the season.
Trevor Boys finished 39th in this, the final race he would successfully qualify for.
Miller Genuine Draft 400
The Miller Genuine Draft 400 was held June 20 at Michigan International Speedway. Brett Bodine won the pole.
Top ten results
5-Ricky Rudd
24-Jeff Gordon
4-Ernie Irvan
18-Dale Jarrett
2-Rusty Wallace
6-Mark Martin
21-Morgan Shepherd
8-Sterling Marlin
11-Bill Elliott
33-Harry Gant
Failed to qualify: 48-Trevor Boys, 81-Jeff Davis
Mark Martin ran out of fuel after 191 laps of 200, handing Ricky Rudd the lead, he would not run out of fuel and win.
This was Rudd's final victory for Hendrick Motorsports as he would leave the team at seasons end to form his own team with Tide sponsorship following him in following season.
Pepsi 400
The Pepsi 400 was held July 3 at Daytona International Speedway. Ernie Irvan won the pole after Ken Schrader who had originally set the fastest time failed post-qualifying inspection due to an illegal carburetor designed to bypass the restrictor plate. Schrader was forced to start in last place.
Top ten results
3-Dale Earnhardt
8-Sterling Marlin
25-Ken Schrader
5-Ricky Rudd
24-Jeff Gordon
6-Mark Martin
4-Ernie Irvan
18-Dale Jarrett
14-Terry Labonte
55-Ted Musgrave
Failed to qualify: 45-Rich Bickle, 62-Clay Young, 29-Kerry Teague, 0-Delma Cowart, 31-Stan Fox, 49-Stanley Smith, 35-Bill Venturini, 65-Jerry O'Neil, 48-James Hylton, 73-Phil Barkdoll, 79-Andy Belmont, 77-Mike Potter, 86-Mark Thompson, 82-Mark Stahl, 83-Lake Speed, 85-Ken Bouchard, 89-Jim Sauter, 95-Jeremy Mayfield, 23-Eddie Bierschwale, 99-Brad Teague
This was Sterling Marlin's 9th 2nd place finish. He would finally break through with a victory in 1994.
Slick 50 300
The inaugural Slick 50 300 was held on July 11 at New Hampshire International Speedway. Mark Martin won the pole.
Top ten results
2-Rusty Wallace
6-Mark Martin
28-Davey Allison
18-Dale Jarrett
5-Ricky Rudd
8-Sterling Marlin
24-Jeff Gordon
42-Kyle Petty, 1 lap down
11-Bill Elliott, 1 lap down
22-Bobby Labonte, 1 lap down
Failed to qualify: 62-Clay Young
Rusty Wallace's victory would be all the more impressive considering he started 33rd.
This was the last race for Davey Allison, who would die from injuries suffered in a helicopter accident two days later.
Jeff Burton and Joe Nemechek made their Winston Cup debuts in this race. Both would fall out before the halfway point (Burton - starting 6th - would finish 37th after crashing out, Nemechek - who began the race in 15th place - would finish 36th after the rocker arm of his engine broke).
Miller Genuine Draft 500
The Miller Genuine Draft 500 was held July 18 at Pocono Raceway. Ken Schrader won the pole.
Top ten results
3-Dale Earnhardt
2-Rusty Wallace
11-Bill Elliott
21-Morgan Shepherd
26-Brett Bodine
25-Ken Schrader
8-Sterling Marlin
18-Dale Jarrett
33-Harry Gant
17-Darrell Waltrip
Failed to qualify: 52-Jimmy Means, 78-Jay Hedgecock, 56-Jerry Hill, 57-Bob Schacht
This was the first race after the death of Davey Allison. Out of respect, his team Robert Yates Racing did not enter the event with a replacement driver.
Bill Elliott, after having a disastrous 1993 to this point, gets his first top five finish of 1993.
After getting the victory, Dale Earnhardt would do a polish victory lap with a Davey Allison flag.
In his victory lane interview, Earnhardt said of Davey: "I'd run second to him in a heartbeat if it'd bring him back."
DieHard 500
The DieHard 500 was held July 25 at Talladega Superspeedway. Bill Elliott won the pole.
Top ten results
3-Dale Earnhardt
4-Ernie Irvan
6-Mark Martin
42-Kyle Petty
18-Dale Jarrett
68-Greg Sacks
21-Morgan Shepherd
33-Harry Gant
26-Brett Bodine
16-Wally Dallenbach Jr.
Failed to qualify: 45-Rich Bickle, 38-Bobby Hamilton, 46-Buddy Baker, 62-Clay Young, 29-Kerry Teague
This race marked the first time the Robert Yates Racing #28 Havoline-Texaco car was entered following the death of Davey Allison, with Robby Gordon serving as a substitute driver. During the pre-race ceremonies; the invocation by the Rev. Hal Marchman was preceded by the reading of a poem by Davey Allison's widow Liz, while CBS ran a montage of Allison's life and career mixed with footage of Davey Allison's uncle Donnie driving the car around the track as the song "The Fans" by the group Alabama played in the background.
The race was marked by two major accidents: Stanley Smith suffered near-fatal head injuries in a lap 69 accident while Jimmy Horton flew over the wall in-between turns 1 and 2 and landed on an access road outside the track in the same crash. Later in the race, on lap 132, Neil Bonnett flew into the catch fence similar to the Bobby Allison crash in 1987 and just like the Allison crash required a lengthy red flag to repair the fence. That resulted in the introduction of roof flaps in 1994.
The margin of victory was 5 one-thousandths of a second (.005), setting a new record.
Race winner Dale Earnhardt who took his second consecutive victory again just like the previous race made a Polish Victory Lap with the #28 flag of Davey Allison on his memory, who died 12 days before.
Budweiser at The Glen
The Budweiser at The Glen was held August 8 at Watkins Glen International. Mark Martin won the pole.
Top ten results
6-Mark Martin
16-Wally Dallenbach Jr.
12-Jimmy Spencer
11-Bill Elliott
25-Ken Schrader
8-Sterling Marlin
22-Bobby Labonte
9-P. J. Jones
40-Kenny Wallace
33-Harry Gant
Failed to qualify: 77-Davy Jones, 71-Dave Marcis, 81-Jeff Davis, 29-Kerry Teague, 65-Jerry O'Neil
Mark Martin won the pole and had the all-dominating car in the race. However, problems in the pits at one point put him out of the top 20 in the race. Martin raced up through the field and inherited the lead with 5 laps to go when the two leaders, Kyle Petty and Dale Earnhardt, crashed in the esses.
This was Martin's first victory from the pole in his twenty-first attempt.
This was the second race in a row where the red flag stopped the race for an accident. This time it was due to Rick Mast's crash in turn 6 on lap 9, which required a lengthy guardrail repair. Mast was uninjured.
Champion Spark Plug 400
The Champion Spark Plug 400 was held August 15 at Michigan International Speedway. Ken Schrader won the pole.
Top ten results
6-Mark Martin
21-Morgan Shepherd
24-Jeff Gordon
18-Dale Jarrett
55-Ted Musgrave
2-Rusty Wallace
28-Lake Speed
22-Bobby Labonte
3-Dale Earnhardt
11-Bill Elliott
Failed to qualify: 37-Loy Allen Jr., 48-James Hylton,
95-Jeremy Mayfield, 53-Richie Petty, 85-Ken Bouchard, 76-Ron Hornaday Jr., 62-Clay Young, 29-John Krebs, 81-Jeff Davis, 02-T. W. Taylor, 48-Andy Genzman
Andy Genzman may have made a second attempt in the James Hylton car.
This was Mark Martin's second consecutive victory.
This was the last time this race was sponsored by Champion Spark Plugs, a sponsorship that dates back to 1975.
Brickyard 400 test session
A day after the Champion Spark Plug 400, the top 35 teams in the standings were invited to participate in an open test session for the 1994 Brickyard 400. On the way home from Michigan, the teams stopped at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway for two days of practice. Retired driver Richard Petty took a few fast laps on the second day, then donated the car to the Speedway museum.
Bud 500
The Bud 500 was held August 28 at Bristol International Raceway. Mark Martin won the pole.
Top ten results
6-Mark Martin
2-Rusty Wallace
3-Dale Earnhardt
33-Harry Gant
1-Rick Mast
7-Jimmy Hensley
26-Brett Bodine
15-Geoff Bodine
40-Kenny Wallace*, 1 lap down
30-Michael Waltrip, 2 laps down
This was Mark Martin's third consecutive victory.
Dick Trickle relieved Wallace in his car. Wallace had broken his scapula during testing at Indianapolis Motor Speedway in preparation for next year's inaugural running of the Brickyard 400.
This was Ernie Irvan's final race in the #4 Kodak Chevrolet Lumina for Morgan-McClure Motorsports before leaving to drive the Robert Yates Racing #28 Havoline-Texaco Ford Thunderbird that had been driven by the late Davey Allison. Irvin would finish in 26th, completing only 316 of 500 laps due to engine failure.
Failed to qualify: 55-Ted Musgrave, 75-Todd Bodine, 9-P. J. Jones, 45-Rich Bickle
Mountain Dew Southern 500
The Mountain Dew Southern 500 was held September 5 at Darlington Raceway. Ken Schrader won the pole.
Top ten results
6-Mark Martin
26-Brett Bodine
2-Rusty Wallace
3-Dale Earnhardt
28-Ernie Irvan, 1 lap down
5-Ricky Rudd, 1 lap down
33-Harry Gant, 1 lap down
21-Morgan Shepherd, 2 laps down
25-Ken Schrader, 2 laps down
40-Kenny Wallace, 3 laps down
Failed to qualify: 48-Trevor Boys, 56-Jerry Hill, 29-Jeff McClure
The race was shortened from 367 laps to 351 laps (15 laps) due to a lengthy rain delay of over 3 hours and the track did not have lights, that would change in time for the race in 2004. As the race came towards the end, the teams were told on a restart with 25 laps to go that there would only be 10 laps remaining due to darkness, and due to this the race ended at approximately 7:30 PM ET.
Ernie Irvan negotiated out of his contract with Morgan-McClure Motorsports in order to take over the #28 Ford for Robert Yates Racing to finish 5th in his first outing for the team.
This was Mark Martin's 4th consecutive victory, tying the Modern-era record for most consecutive victories.
Miller Genuine Draft 400
The Miller Genuine Draft 400 was held September 11 at Richmond International Raceway. Bobby Labonte won the pole.
Top ten results
2-Rusty Wallace
11-Bill Elliott
3-Dale Earnhardt
5-Ricky Rudd
26-Brett Bodine
6-Mark Martin
17-Darrell Waltrip
14-Terry Labonte
42-Kyle Petty
24-Jeff Gordon
Failed to qualify: 80-Jimmy Horton, 45-Rich Bickle, 53-Richie Petty, 02-T. W. Taylor
Rusty Wallace who had not won since the inaugural New Hanpshire race, ends Mark Martin's winning streak at 4. This was Rustys 6th win of the season.
SplitFire Spark Plug 500
The SplitFire Spark Plug 500 was held September 19 at Dover Downs International Speedway. Rusty Wallace won the pole.
Top ten results
2-Rusty Wallace
25-Ken Schrader
17-Darrell Waltrip
18-Dale Jarrett
33-Harry Gant
12-Jimmy Spencer
22-Bobby Labonte
14-Terry Labonte
21-Morgan Shepherd, 1 lap down
11-Bill Elliott, 2 laps down
Failed to qualify: 48-Trevor Boys, 84-Norm Benning, 66-Mike Wallace, 02-T. W. Taylor, 9-P. J. Jones, 77-Mike Potter
Among other driver changes, Geoff Bodine left Bud Moore Engineering after the previous race to drive for the #7 Ford team, a team that he had just purchased from the family of the late Alan Kulwicki.
This race was mired with tire issues resulting in cut tires and 16 cautions for 103 of the 500 laps, and the average speed was 100.334 mph. The race took 4 hours and 59 minutes to complete.
Goody's 500
The Goody's 500 was held September 26 at Martinsville Speedway. Ernie Irvan won the pole.
Top ten results
28-Ernie Irvan
2-Rusty Wallace
12-Jimmy Spencer
5-Ricky Rudd
18-Dale Jarrett, 1 lap down
26-Brett Bodine, 1 lap down
14-Terry Labonte, 1 lap down
30-Michael Waltrip, 1 lap down
21-Morgan Shepherd, 2 laps down
42-Kyle Petty, 2 laps down
Failed to qualify: 52-Jimmy Means
This was Robert Yates Racing's first trip to victory lane since Davey Allison's death and the crew was reported to have had tears in their eyes as they went to victory lane.
This was the last race with an entry list of less than 40 cars until the 2016 Folds of Honor QuikTrip 500, where only 39 cars entered. NASCAR limited race fields to a maximum of 40 cars starting with the 2016 season.
Tyson/Holly Farms 400
The Tyson/Holly Farms 400 was held October 3 at North Wilkesboro Speedway. Ernie Irvan won the pole.
Top ten results
2-Rusty Wallace
3-Dale Earnhardt
28-Ernie Irvan
42-Kyle Petty
5-Ricky Rudd, 1 lap down
33-Harry Gant, 2 laps down
14-Terry Labonte, 2 laps down
1-Rick Mast, 3 laps down
18-Dale Jarrett, 3 laps down
25-Ken Schrader, 3 laps down
Failed to qualify: 52-Jimmy Means, 48-James Hylton, 68-Greg Sacks, 71-Dave Marcis, 45-Rich Bickle, 37-Loy Allen Jr.
This was the Billy Hagen team's final top 10 finish.
In a moment that no one driver wants to remember, Jeff Gordon sweeps last place (34th) at both North Wilkesboro races in 1993.
Mello Yello 500
The Mello Yello 500 was held October 10 at Charlotte Motor Speedway. Jeff Gordon won his first career pole.
Top ten results
28-Ernie Irvan
6-Mark Martin
3-Dale Earnhardt
2-Rusty Wallace
24-Jeff Gordon
12-Jimmy Spencer
42-Kyle Petty
5-Ricky Rudd, 1 lap down
25-Ken Schrader, 2 laps down
11-Bill Elliott, 2 laps down
Failed to qualify: 71-Dave Marcis, 47-Billy Standridge, 37-Loy Allen Jr., 35-Bill Venturini, 63-Norm Benning, 99-Brad Teague, 83-Jeff McClure, 02-T. W. Taylor
Ernie Irvan flat out dominated this race leading 328 of the 334 laps (98.2%).
This would be the first race in NASCAR history that 2 sets of 3 brothers all competed against each other: The Wallace's (Rusty, Mike, & Kenny), and The Bodine's (Geoff, Brett, & Todd). The eldest brother of each set (Rusty & Geoff) finished ahead of the younger brothers. The Wallace's finished 4th (Rusty), 30th (Mike), & 35th (Kenny). The Bodine's finished 13th (Geoff), 15th (Brett), & 42nd/Last (Todd). All drivers but Todd saw the checkered flag and finished the race. Rusty was the only one to finish on the lead lap.
This was Rick Wilson's 200th career start. He would finish 32 laps down to the winner in 36th.
This was the final race Neil Bonnett called on TBS before his death at Daytona in February 1994.
AC Delco 500
The AC Delco 500 was held October 24 at North Carolina Speedway. Mark Martin won the pole.
Top ten results
2-Rusty Wallace
3-Dale Earnhardt
11-Bill Elliott
33-Harry Gant
6-Mark Martin, 1 lap down
28-Ernie Irvan, 1 lap down
17-Darrell Waltrip, 1 lap down
25-Ken Schrader, 1 lap down
41-Dick Trickle, 2 laps down
7-Geoff Bodine, 2 laps down
Failed to qualify: 47-Billy Standridge, 63-Norm Benning, 65-Jerry O'Neil, 05-Ed Ferree
Last career top 5 for Harry Gant.
This was the final career start for Jimmy Means. He would complete 467 of 492 laps, finishing in 26th.
Slick 50 500
The Slick 50 500 was held October 31 at Phoenix International Raceway. Bill Elliott won the pole.
Top ten results
6-Mark Martin
28-Ernie Irvan
42-Kyle Petty
3-Dale Earnhardt
11-Bill Elliott
5-Ricky Rudd
17-Darrell Waltrip
22-Bobby Labonte
30-Michael Waltrip
1-Rick Mast
Failed to qualify: 52-Scott Gaylord, 36-Butch Gilliland, 13-Stan Fox, 48-Jack Sellers, 81-Jeff Davis, 51-Rick Scribner
This was the final Cup series race Neil Bonnett called on TNN before his death at Daytona in February 1994.
Hooters 500
The Hooters 500 was held November 14 at Atlanta Motor Speedway. Harry Gant won the pole.
Top ten results
2-Rusty Wallace
5-Ricky Rudd
17-Darrell Waltrip
11-Bill Elliott
41-Dick Trickle
30-Michael Waltrip
18-Dale Jarrett
55-Ted Musgrave
75-Phil Parsons*
3-Dale Earnhardt, 1 lap down
Failed to qualify: 47-Billy Standridge, 95-Jeremy Mayfield, 52-Jimmy Means, 62-Clay Young, 57-Bob Schacht, 72-John Andretti, 63-Norm Benning, 9-P. J. Jones, 84-Rick Crawford, 48-Andy Genzman
Dale Earnhardt won his sixth Winston Cup championship, needing only to finish in 34th place or better to score enough points to clinch the title; he finished 10th. On lap 117, enough cars had dropped out of the race to mathematically clinch the championship for Earnhardt. Rusty Wallace (the 1989 champion) gave the maximum effort in his 300th career Winston Cup start. Wallace led the most laps and won the race, his tenth win of the 1993 season. But it was not enough as he fell 80 points shy of Earnhardt, and wound up second in the championship to Earnhardt.
Rusty Wallace became the first driver since Dale Earnhardt in 1987 to win ten or more Cup Series races in a single season. This would be the second time in Bob Latford's 1975 Winston Cup points system history, however, that a driver winning ten or more races in a season failed to win the championship.
This was Wallace's 31st and final victory driving a Pontiac, as he and Penske South Racing would switch to Ford in 1994. Pontiac left NASCAR at the end of 2003, and GM discontinued the Pontiac division in 2010. Wallace holds the NASCAR record for most wins by a Pontiac driver (the first 31 of his 55 career wins).
During practice, Dale Earnhardt, Ken Schrader, and Jeff Gordon all had crashes. However, all three were uninjured and qualified for the race.
This race was a day of remembrance, as mentioned in the television broadcast opening. Exactly a one-year prior, the 1992 race ended up being one of the greatest races of all time - and two of the key fixtures Alan Kulwicki and Davey Allison were killed in aviation accidents during the season.
Neil Bonnett qualified for the race in a backup car (#31) for RCR, and executed one of the first start and park situations in NASCAR. The team arranged that Bonnett would climb out of the #31 car, at the last minute, in the event that Earnhardt's primary #3 car, after pre-race inspection, suffered mechanical failure on the grid or during the pace laps. If Earnhardt quickly hopped in and took the green flag to start the race in the #31 car, by rule, he would be awarded full points for that entry. The car Bonnett qualified was even prepared with Earnhardt's exact chassis set-ups. Earnhardt started his primary car (#3) without incident, and Bonnett pulled off the track to finish last after 3 laps. The team gave the reason of "engine failure". Bonnett's intentional "start and park" also helped maximize Earnhardt's finishing position, as only seven additional cars had to drop out for Earnhardt to mathematically clinch the title. RCR pulled out all the stops in preparation for this race. They brought a truck filled with extra spare parts, including an entire pre-assembled rear end and a framing machine to fix the car in case of a crash. This was also Bonnett's final ever NASCAR race he competed in before his death at Daytona in February 1994.
Due to fog at the airport, several pit crew members on several teams were late arriving at the track. Darrell Waltrip started the race without his entire pit crew.
Jeff Gordon secured the rookie of the year award, but in a mild surprise, he did not manage to win a points-paying race during the season nor did he finish in the top-ten in points.
Todd Bodine, the contracted driver of car 75, was injured in the previous day's Busch Grand National race, so he was replaced for the race by Phil Parsons.
Final points standings
(key) Bold - Pole position awarded by time. Italics - Pole position set by owner's points standings. *- Most laps led.
Rookie of the Year
After his contract was bought from Bill Davis Racing, Jeff Gordon drove the #24 Hendrick Motorsports Chevy in 1993. He won one pole, had eleven top-tens and finished 14th in points. His next closest competitor was Bobby Labonte who had replaced Gordon at BDR. He had six top-tens and one pole, while third-place finisher Kenny Wallace had only three top-tens. The last place runner was P. J. Jones, who declared late in the season and only ran six races for Melling Racing.
See also
1993 NASCAR Busch Series
References
External links
Winston Cup Standings and Statistics for 1993
NASCAR Cup Series seasons
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Where%20in%20Time%20Is%20Carmen%20Sandiego%3F%20%28game%20show%29
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Where in Time Is Carmen Sandiego? (game show)
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Where in Time Is Carmen Sandiego? is an American half-hour children's television game show loosely based on the computer game of the same name created by Broderbund Software. Just like its predecessor, the show was produced by WGBH Boston and WQED Pittsburgh. The program ran for two seasons on PBS, consisting of 115 episodes (65 in Season 1 and 50 in Season 2), which ran from October 7, 1996 to December 12, 1997, with reruns airing until September 25, 1998. The show starred Lynne Thigpen as "The Chief", Kevin Shinick as "ACME Time Pilot Squadron Leader" replacing Greg Lee and "The Engine Crew" who is considered a replacement for Rockapella as various informants. The show replaced Where in the World Is Carmen Sandiego?, and was recorded entirely at Kaufman Astoria Studios in Queens, New York City, the longtime home of Sesame Street.
Gameplay
Opening
Before the show began, the viewing audience would see Carmen Sandiego in her V.I.L.E. headquarters. In Season 1, Carmen appeared in a fourth wall type of narration. In Season 2, a surveillance nano-probe from ACME filmed Carmen in her lair where it went unnoticed. She would be complaining to herself and plotting to steal the historical "seed" of her complaint. Carmen then summoned one of her V.I.L.E. henchmen or henchwomen and told him/her what to steal and where to go. In Season One, she would shine an "Info-Beam" on the villain to give the details of the object in question. In Season Two, she would give the thief a "Loot Orb" or "Cybersphere" to contain it and are just told to bring the object back to her when they find it. Once the villain takes off to do their mission, The Chief then told the audience that one of Carmen's chosen henchman had stolen something from the past. She tells them to recover the loot in 28 minutes (the length of each episode) to prevent temporal paradox. The show then began with the Engine Crew preparing the ACME Chronoskimmer (a flying saucer capable of time travel) for launch like activating the Chrono-Computer, launching the Time Pods, powering up the boosters, and then singing the show's theme song while dancing. Afterward, the Chief would introduce host "Kevin Shinick". In the first season, Kevin would directly enter from the left of the Chronoskimmer. In Season 2, Kevin was seen goofing around in his room until the Chief called him to do the show. He would then enter from the right of the Chronoskimmer.
Each episode's general theme stemmed from the loot of the day, which helped to shape the history of its kind. For example, when Carmen stole P.T. Barnum's "The Greatest Show on Earth" slogan, the episode focused on the history of advertising.
Round One
Three players (ages 10–14) known as "Time Pilots" competed. Each was given 100 'Power Points' to begin. Each section of the round had an informative skit, a question, and then a warp to pursue the villain through time; the round had four sections in Season 1 and three in Season 2.
After a skit, Kevin would present three possible answers to the pilots. The viewer could see the individual choices represented by an individual color (pink, green, or blue). All three pilots answered the question, and anyone with the correct answer scored 10 Power Points, with no penalty for incorrect answers.
Skits include the following:
Mission Profile: The Chief briefs Kevin and the Time Pilots by identifying the time and place of the crime, as well as some background information on the loot. This is the first skit in every episode.
Cluefinder: The Cluefinder was an alarm identifying a clue, either leading into one of the other skits below or causing a historical figure or object to appear aboard the Chronoskimmer to reveal more clues. The person brought aboard could be a famous figure such as Elisha Gray or Ada Lovelace or a normal person caught in a famous event, such as a Navajo Code talker or the opening of Coney Island.
V.I.L.E. Villain: The show's villain was shown revealing a clue, ostensibly against his or her intention. When this happened, Kevin often exclaimed "We're losing communications!" if the villain was taking over the ship. On other occasions, the ship's nano-probes would film the villain reporting to Carmen, still giving the clue to the contestants.
Collision Alert: Kevin conversed with a possible 'future' version of himself, to acquire clues.
Parallel Universe: Clues were given by Commisaar (an evil Chief) and an evil Kevin from ACME Slimenet, the evil version of ACME Timenet.
Omnicia: On certain occasions, when Kevin ran out of clues, he would ask the Chief to contact an omniscient informant known as Omnicia. According to the Chief, contacting Omnicia took a lot of power, and she always cited the risk of crippling the Chronoskimmer before using a computer secured in a briefcase to input the enabling codes.
Engine Crew's Clues: The Engine Crew sang the clues from the Engine Room. On other occasions, the Engine Crew were in the Chronoskimmer's cafeteria conversing with Libby the Cafeteria Robot (portrayed by Thigpen) as other passengers dine in the background. One episode where Kevin interacted with Eleanor Roosevelt during the "Cluefinder" skit had him stating that the cafeteria is for the Engine Crew and some other people he doesn't know.
Intruder Alert: The Intruder Alert alarm alerted Kevin to an intruder in his bedroom, which was Sector 5, where a figure identified as his mother revealed the clue.
Millenia: "The world's oldest woman;" Millenia (portrayed by Thigpen) ostensibly had been around for almost everything. Sitting on a rocking chair on her front porch, she recalls a memory relevant to the current case.
Elephant Guy: A businessman (portrayed by Owen Taylor) being chased through a jungle by an elephant gave clues to the time pilots, displayed in black and white.
The Unknown Explorer: An old bearded sailor riding on a raft provided a clue. Portrayed by John Latham.
ACME Street Entertainers: Three street entertainers (portrayed by The Engine Crew) performed in front of some of the studio audience members and gave out a clue.
Molecular Generator Clue: Kevin found clues inside the Chronoskimmer's Molecular Generator.
TIMENET Weather Report: A weather woman with a southern accent (portrayed by Alaine Kashian) gave clues during her weather report.
Other events during the round are:
Data Boost: Immediately after a warp, Kevin gave the pilots a choice of 2 or 3 answers and then read several questions (usually five) on a given subject using those answers (e.g., listing terms and asking whether they were cars or facial hair; listing people's names and asking if they were already dead or not yet born in the year they've traveled to; simple true/false questions; etc.). The first pilot to buzz in and guess the correct answer scored 5 Power Points, but lost 5 Power Points if they gave a wrong answer. The Data Boost happened twice per episode in Season One and once per episode in Season Two; in Season One, the first time was because they ran out of Fact Fuel after a warp and the second time was due to the villain sabotaging the Chronoskimmer. In Season Two, it was always the villain's sabotage. After the first Data Boost, Kevin always said, "Just a reminder: all our fact fuel is verified by Encyclopædia Britannica."
Global Pursuit: Immediately after a warp, the villain begins "globe-hopping" to try shaking off the time pilots. The time pilots looked at a map with certain areas circled on their screens and Kevin read clues about the locations, with three answer choices displayed alongside the map. Like the Data Boost, correct answers scored 5 Power Points while incorrect answers lost 5 Power Points. This round occurred once per episode and played similarly to the Chase round of Where in the World is Carmen Sandiego? In Season 1, pilots could ring in during the question, as was the case on World. In Season 2, pilots could only ring in after Kevin had finished reading the question.
Ultimate Data Boost: The final event in Round One, with twice as many questions as a normal Data Boost and with the value of the questions doubled.
The two pilots with the highest scores after the first round advanced to the second round, while the third-placed pilot was eliminated from the game. If there was a tie between two pilots for second place or a three-way tie for first place, Kevin asked a tiebreaker question, which was always identifying a President of the United States.
Round Two
With Kevin in command, the two remaining pilots fast forward to the present day and activated the Loot Tractor Beam to capture the stolen artifact. The Chief then listed eight events related to the day's theme that the pilots had to recite in reverse chronological order, with the final item being the day's loot; whichever pilot had the higher score from Round One chose who went first, with a coin toss as a tiebreaker. The first pilot to recite the events in the correct order restored the loot to its proper place in time and advanced to the Bonus Round to capture Carmen and the day's villain.
Bonus Round: The Trail of Time
The Trail of Time consisted of six "Time Portals," each one themed on a different era, which the winning pilot had ninety seconds to navigate. At each portal, Carmen would ask them a question on the day's theme with two answer choices. If the pilot answered correctly, the gate opened automatically; if not, he/she had to perform a small manual task to open the gate (spinning a wheel, turning a crank, pulling a rope, etc.).
Once through the second or third gate, the pilot captured the day's villain and began chasing after Carmen. If the pilot passed through the sixth gate before time ran out, they took the energized "Capture Crystal" and placed it into the "Chronolock Chamber" to capture Carmen.
The show always ended with Kevin, the pilot, and the Engine Crew saying: "At ACME Time Net, history is our job, and the future is yours!" followed by the theme song being played again, as they all headed back to the present.
Episodes
Season 1 lasted 65 episodes and ran from October 7, 1996 until January 3, 1997. Season 2 lasted for 50 episodes and ran from October 6, 1997 until December 12, 1997. Reruns of the show continued on PBS until September 25, 1998.
V.I.L.E.
Other than playing the Engine Crew, Owen Taylor, Jamie Gustis, Alaine Kashian, and John Lathan as well as James Greenberg (who was also one of the show's producers) and Paula Leggett Chase also portrayed Carmen's V.I.L.E. minions.
Carmen Sandiego (portrayed by Janine LaManna in Season 1, Brenda Burke in Season 2) – V.I.L.E.'s mastermind, portrayed as a straight villain. Though her iconic red trench coat and fedora were visible, her face was largely obscured. Carmen herself was played by general cast members Janine LaManna and Brenda Burke. They were not credited, because the actresses also played "good" characters who would help the contestants.
Baron Wasteland (portrayed by James Greenberg) – A moustached villain wearing a V-marked eyepatch; a wealthy aristocrat who loves pollution and enjoys destroying the environment. His name is a play on "barren wasteland" and he is supposedly a native of the Industrial Era. He was only in the first season, being replaced by Buggs Zapper in Season 2 (see below). His getaway animation showed his body shattering into several triangular shards. When assaulting the Chronoskimmer, he would shock it with lightning emitted by his cane. He was the only villain on the show not adapted into the newer version of the computer game, although the game featured a different villain holding the title of baron, that being Baron Grinnit ("grin and bear it").
Buggs Zapper (portrayed by James Greenberg) – Buggs Zapper is a New York-accented gangster with a fear of insects who wears a pinstriped suit and constantly carries an old-fashioned bug sprayer. He was introduced in the second season, replacing Baron Wasteland (see above). In the computer game's manual, it is stated that his only goal in life is to "rub out" a single fly that may exist only in his imagination. When assaulting the Chronoskimmer, he was shown spraying a cloud of pesticide from his bug sprayer into an open hatch. His time era is presumably the 1920s to the 1930s. His name is a play on "bug zapper" and gangster Bugsy Malone.
Dr. Belljar (portrayed by Owen Taylor in Season 1, Jamie Gustis in Season 2) – A cyborg mad scientist. His name apparently refers to bell jars. He appeared on both of the show's seasons, but his appearance was drastically retooled for the second season. His getaway animation in the first season showed him disintegrated into a multitude of cubes through a device mounted on his wrist. In the second, he was simply obscured by television static. In season 1, he assaulted the Chronoskimmer by zapping it with electricity from his fingertips (identified as the "Misinformation Missiles"). In the second season, he sabotaged the systems directly.
Jacqueline Hyde (portrayed by Alaine Kashian) – Jacqueline Hyde is a split personality, one ("Jacqueline") being sweet-tempered and innocent with the other ("Hyde") being vindictive and insane. She repeatedly alternates between her personalities, with each surfacing for a few seconds. She wears a red blazer, a pink blouse, a red miniskirt and knee-length stockings, perhaps to suggest a traditional schoolgirl uniform of the early-to-mid-20th century. Her getaway was becoming a sphere and floating from sight. In the first season, she assaulted the Chronoskimmer by throwing an orb of electricity; whereas in the second season, she physically sabotaged the craft at an open maintenance panel. Her name is a play on "Dr. Jeykll & Mr. Hyde".
Medeva (portrayed by Paula Leggett Chase) – Medeva is a witch from the Middle Ages who mostly speaks in rhyme. In season one, she assaulted the Chronoskimmer by breathing fire at it. In the second, she would cast a spell into an open maintenance panel that would cause something to happen to the Engine Crew causing a Data Boost to be done to undo the spell. Her name seems to be a portmanteau of Medea (a sorceress in Greek mythology) and "diva", or a play on the term medieval.
Sir Vile (portrayed by John Lathan) – Sir Vile is an obsequious medieval knight. In the first season, his armor was a dull silver; but appeared fiery red in the second. In season one, he assaulted the Chromoskimmer by striking it with lightning; whereas in the second season, he was shown ripping a cable from a maintenance panel and breathing fire into the opening. His name is a play on the adjective "servile", owing to how obsequious he acts around Carmen Sandiego.
Prizes
The budget was smaller on this version of the show compared to World. As a result, the grand prize for a winning pilot capturing Carmen was a computer system instead of a trip.
The third-place player received an "ACME TimeNet Mission Pack." It contained a Britannica world atlas; a Where in Time is Carmen Sandiego? t-shirt, baseball cap, and wristwatch; and a collection of Carmen Sandiego CD-ROM games (all of which also featured Lynne Thigpen as the Chief) and board games: Where in Time Is Carmen Sandiego?, Where in the U.S.A. Is Carmen Sandiego?, and Where in Space is Carmen Sandiego? The second-place player received a Mission Pack and a CD player.
If the first-place player won the Bonus Round and captured Carmen, he/she won the grand prize of a complete multimedia computer system (specifically, the Gateway 2000 P5-120) a year of Britannica Online, a Britannica CD-ROM encyclopedia, and a 32-volume set of Encyclopædia Britannica. If Carmen escaped, the pilot received a portable music system in addition to a 32-volume set of Encyclopædia Britannica (in season 1) or an ACME TimeNet Mission Pack (in season 2).
Production
Conception
The series was created as a spin-off of the long-running geography game show, Where in the World Is Carmen Sandiego?. Executive producers Kate Taylor of WGBH and Jay Rayvid of WQED wanted to refocus the show on history as a recent study had shown American children were weak in this area, and because Broderbund had already created a game in this field. Taylor noted that it was important to them to create something new and fresh and different for fans of the original show.
Around 10% of each half-hour episode consisted of computer-generated animation and 3-D special effects, and the graphics/illustration for all episodes in a season were produced in around four months. The budget for each episode of the show' was $46,000. Animator David J. Masher spent $120,000 for animation equipment in his studio -he worked with a tight schedule and low budget. The question writers worked with the Encyclopædia Britannica and a panel of history teachers.
Educational goals
Rayvid noted that history can be more politically charged than the more cut-and-dried geography, noting, for instance, how the nature of historical documents led to bias toward male white stories. Moving away from a pro-American bias, in a World War II themed episode, the show spoke candidly about American internment camps for Japanese-Americans, citing this as an example of how "We try to deal with controversy in a very straightforward, educational way". Another aim of the show was to give young viewers "a sense of time", in that things happened before they were born that influenced their current reality.
Production
The music on the show was performed by The Engine Crew. The music package included the theme song and the songs about clues in the engine room. The theme was played in the opening and closing sequences. When the contestant was heading for the trail of time, the theme was sometimes edited after the crew sang, "We're on the case" and the villains say, "And they're chasing us through history!" (used in first season). In the second season, when the contestant headed for The Trail of Time, the ending was normal instead of the villains singing the end part. The show's main theme song was written by Sean Altman of Rockapella and David Yazbek, and is sung by The Engine Crew.
Like its predecessor series, which faced outdated information during its run, the end of every episode had an audible disclaimer from Lynne Thigpen stating that "All historic information has been verified by Encyclopedia Britannica (and was accurate as of the date this program was recorded)." with the recording date shown with the copyright information at the end of each episode.
The show was funded primarily by the Corporation for Public Broadcasting and by the annual financial support from the viewers/stations of PBS throughout the entire series. Delta Air Lines and the National Endowment for Children's Educational Television both provided funding during the show's first season.
Scott Wells served as the 3-D animator while Raeford Dwyer was the animation producer; together they gave the show a style that mixed computer-treated video FMV performances computer-generated two- and three-dimensional animation and special effects.
A live version of the World and Time shows ("Carmen Sandiego Live") was performed at 85 sites across the United States and Canada from 1993 to 1997.
Critical reception
The New York Times felt the show stood out among new afternoon series.
Awards
Where in Time is Carmen Sandiego has been nominated thirteen times for awards. It also won a Daytime Emmy Award in 1998.
International versions
– A French-Canadian version of the show, titled À la poursuite de Carmen Sandiego (In pursuit of Carmen Sandiego), was produced by Radio-Canada in 1998 (with reruns airing through at least 2001), shortly after the original American version of the show ended, taped in Montreal using the same set as the American series. The French theme song was written and produced by Randy Vancourt. This version of the show stars Brigitte Paquette as "The Chief", Patrick Labbé as "ACME Time Pilot Squadron Leader", and Daniel Dô, Marie-Hélène Fortin, and Widemir Normil as "The Engine Crew". Gameplay in this version stayed the same as the original, with each pilot going through all six gates and capturing Carmen Sandiego wins a grand prize package that included a mountain bike instead of a computer system.
References
External links
Where In Time Is Carmen Sandiego? at kyranthia
Public Historians and Public Television: Collaborating on "Where in Time Is Carmen Sandiego?"
1996 American television series debuts
1997 American television series endings
1990s American children's game shows
1990s American time travel television series
American children's education television series
American television spin-offs
American television shows based on video games
American time travel television series
Time
English-language television shows
PBS original programming
PBS Kids shows
Television series by WGBH
Television shows set in New York City
Television shows filmed in New York City
Live action television shows based on video games
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%206
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John 6
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John 6 is the sixth chapter of the Gospel of John in the New Testament of the Christian Bible. It records Jesus' miracles of feeding the five thousand and walking on water, the Bread of Life Discourse, popular rejection of his teaching and Peter's confession of faith. The final verses anticipate Jesus' betrayal by Judas Iscariot.
The author of the book containing this chapter is anonymous, but early Christian tradition uniformly affirmed that John composed this Gospel.
Text
The original text was written in Koine Greek. This chapter is divided into 71 verses.
Textual witnesses
Some early manuscripts containing the text of this chapter are:
Papyrus 75 (AD 175–225)
Papyrus 66 (c. 200)
Papyrus 28 (c. 250)
Codex Vaticanus (325–350)
Codex Sinaiticus (330–360)
Codex Bezae (c. 400)
Codex Alexandrinus (400–440; extant verses 1–49)
Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus (c. 450; extant: verses 39–71)
Some writers place this chapter ahead of John 5. Swedish-based commentator René Kieffer considers the case for this reordering unproven, but he does recognise that chapter 6 may have been inserted into a putative second edition of the gospel. H. W. Watkins, in Ellicott's Commentary for English Readers (1905), considered whether "a portion of the Gospel between John 5 and 6 has been lost", but treats this as a "purely arbitrary supposition".
Old Testament references
: ;
: ; ; Psalm ;
: ;
New Testament references
: – "He came to His own, and His own did not receive Him"
Places
Events recorded in this chapter refer to the following locations in Galilee:
on a mountain in a deserted place, probably to the eastern side of the Sea of Galilee (or "Sea of Tiberias") ( and )
on the Sea of Galilee itself (John 6:16–21a)
in Capernaum (John 6:21b, 6:24 and 6:59).
Boats which had come from Tiberias and sail onwards to Capernaum are also mentioned ().
Structure
The New King James Version organises this chapter as follows
: Feeding the five thousand
: Jesus walks on the sea
: The Bread from Heaven
: Rejected by his own
: Many disciples turn away
Alfred Plummer, in the Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges, prefers not to break up the text from to , arguing that this text "forms one connected discourse spoken at one time in the synagogue at Capernaum".
Introduction
The events recorded in chapter 5 are set in Jerusalem. As chapter 6 opens, the setting has moved to the Sea of Galilee, one hundred miles further north.
"After these things Jesus went over (or away to) the Sea of Galilee, which is the Sea of Tiberias" (New King James Version and English Standard Version texts). The Greek text reads μετα ταυτα (meta tauta, "after these things"). The New International Version translates these words as "some time after this" to remove any suggestion that the transition is immediate.
Plummer observes that "the scene shifts suddenly from Judaea to Galilee; but we are told nothing about the transit. We see more and more as we go on, that this Gospel makes no attempt to be a complete or connected whole. There are large gaps in the chronology."
Jesus travels over, or beyond (), the lake: presumably from west to east. This is Albert Barnes' view, and that of Plummer. A large crowd has followed Jesus, attracted by his healings, which the Gospel describes as "signs" () - a distinctive word and theme in John's Gospel. Jesus ascends the mountain and sits with his disciples - a similar setting to the opening of the Sermon on the Mount in Matthew's Gospel (), in contrast to the Gospel of Luke, where the comparable event is known as the Sermon on the Plain ().
And Jesus went up on the mountain, and there He sat with His disciples.
Watkins suggests that "the mountain" refers to "the hill-country" to the east of the lake, rather than to a specific mountain. The Complete Jewish Bible in like manner states that Jesus "went up into the hills".
Verse 4
Now the Passover, a feast of the Jews, was near.
Not a mere chronological note, but according to Watkins, a key to the interpretation of the passage. For Kieffer, "the approach of Passover in chapter 6 anticipates the last Passover" in chapters 13-17.
Feeding the five thousand
Jesus sees a multitude coming towards him, and wants to feed the crowd and to test his disciples, in this case Philip and Andrew. Unlike the other Gospels, John does not present the feeding of the multitude in an 'evening' setting: in , "it was evening ... already late"; in , "the day was now far spent", and in "the day had begun to wear away". John advises his readers that "the Passover, a feast of the Jews, is approaching", but he does not refer to a journey to Jerusalem for the feast (compare ). According to the narrative of chapters 6 and 7, Jesus and his disciples did not visit Jerusalem for the Passover that year at all: they remain in Galilee until relates a discussion as to whether they should go to Jerusalem for the subsequent Feast of Tabernacles.
In verse 5, Jesus asks Philip where they could buy sufficient bread for the crowd, assuming that the crowd (apart from one boy) had not brought their own provisions. Methodist minister Joseph Benson suggested that Jesus "addressed himself to Philip particularly, because he, being a native of Bethsaida, was best acquainted with that country" although according to , Peter and Andrew were also from Bethsaida. Philip may have been the group member who looked after their money and "the care of the supply of provisions", as he was aware that they held 200 denarii between them (), although attributes this responsibility to Judas Iscariot. Philip "swiftly calculates that "two hundred denarii worth of bread is not sufficient for [the crowd], that every one of them may have a little". According to , the labourers in the parable of the labourers in the vineyard were paid one denarius per day, so 200 denarii would equate to 200 days' labour, hence the New International Version translates Philip's reply as "It would take more than half a year's wages to buy enough bread for each one to have a bite" and in the New Living Translation his words are "Even if we worked for months, we wouldn't have enough money to feed them!" In the King James Version, 200 denarii was rendered as "200 pennyworth".
Andrew, one of Jesus' disciples, Simon Peter's brother, said to Jesus: "There is a lad here who has five barley loaves and two small fish, but what are they among so many?". It is curious that Andrew is "introduced" here to the reader, "in apparent forgetfulness" that an introduction has already been given in , where he was the first of John the Baptist's disciples to follow Jesus and where he himself went to find Peter. Some texts state that there was "one boy" (), but the ('one') "is rejected by modern editors". Watkins notes that where it appears in some manuscripts, it conveys a sense of "One lad! What could he bear for so many?" The word occurs only here in the New Testament, and in Matthew's account the disciples themselves "have only five loaves and two fish", prompting theologian John Gill to suggest that the boy may have "belonged to Christ and his disciples, and was employed to carry their provisions for them".
No-one suggests going to the nearby lake to catch extra fish, but Jesus' actions show that the small supply of bread and fish is sufficient: he instructs his disciples to "make the people sit down" and "having given thanks" (, 'eucharistēsas', from which the word Eucharist is derived) for the bread and likewise for the fish, he gave them to his disciples to distribute among the crowd. The Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges suggests that giving thanks for the food was not only the customary thanksgiving for food but also "the means of the miracle" taking place, because (1) all four [gospel] narratives notice it; (2) it is pointedly mentioned again in :
After the meal, the fragments of the barley loaves which were left over were collected by the disciples and found to have filled twelve baskets. According to the Pulpit Commentary, "the number 'twelve' naturally suggests that each one of the twelve apostles had been employed in the collection of the fragments", although at this stage in the Gospel, "the twelve" have not yet been mentioned. Lutheran theologian Christoph Luthardt linked the twelve baskets to the twelve tribes of Israel.
Prophet and King
The crowd recognise Jesus as "the prophet who is to come" (verse 14), foretold by Moses, whose witness Jesus had affirmed in the previous chapter of the gospel (, compare ), but the crowd interpret this politically and come to make Jesus king "by force". This is not Jesus' intention, so he leaves again to spend time alone on the mountain (), staying until evening. Some copies add "and he prayed there"; the Syriac, Ethiopic, and Persic versions leave out the word "again"; and the latter, contrary to all others, renders it, "Christ departed from the mountain alone". St. Augustine suggests that in their desire to make Jesus king by force, they erred both in thinking of an earthly kingdom, and in thinking that the time for the kingdom of God had now arrived. "He was certainly not such a king as would be made by men, but such as would bestow a kingdom on men". Augustine notes that "He had come now, not to reign immediately, as He is to reign in the sense in which we pray, Thy kingdom come".
Lutheran theologian Harold H. Buls considers that "this event must have been a great source of temptation, and therefore He needed to pray. He needed to pray also for His disciples".
The disciples set off by boat to cross back to Capernaum on the north-western side of the lake, leaving without Jesus ():
This was a westward journey which should have allowed them to follow the coast, but for a north wind coming down from the upper Jordan valley, and the disciples are forced out into the sea. From it seems that this boat carrying the disciples was the only one to make the journey across the sea and the crowd in general remained overnight on the eastern shore.
Jesus walks on the sea
Verse 17
And entered into a ship, and went over the sea toward Capernaum. And it was now dark, and Jesus was not come to them.
"A ship": that is, a "boat" that was large enough to hold the twelve disciples. After a period of drought and low lake levels in 1986 a fishing boat from the first century CE was discovered on the western shore of the Sea of Galilee, which can now be seen in the Yigal Allon Museum in Kibbutz Ginosar north of Tiberias, with the size (of the remains) of long and wide, equipped with a mast for a sail and could be rowed by four rowers. The boat is now known as the "Jesus boat" or the "Sea of Galilee boat" although there is no known historical connection with Jesus or his disciples, but it has provided much information about design and construction of boats on the Sea of Galilee in that period.
When the disciples had rowed about twenty five or thirty stadia (three or four miles), and were therefore in "the broadest portion of the lake", they saw Jesus walking on the sea and drawing near their boat. At its widest, the lake is about five miles broad. The disciples "willingly receive Jesus into the boat, and immediately the boat was at the land where they were going" (i.e. Capernaum) (). Theologian John Gill, taking his lead from the 4th or 5th century poet Nonnus, discusses whether this verse indicated an additional miracle of "immediate travel":
The word is translated as "immediately" in most English translations but "presently" in the Douai Rheims version. The Pulpit Commentary notes a number of occasions in the New Testament where ευθεως does not "mean instantaneously, but simply that the next thing to notice or observe".
The crowd search for Jesus
Plummer considers that "We have here a complicated sentence very unusual in S. John (but compare ); it betrays a certain literary awkwardness, but great historical accuracy ... the structure of the sentence is no argument against the truth of the statements which it contains." Boats arrive from Tiberias, the new city built by Herod Antipas on the western side of the lake, and the crowd use these boats to travel to Capernaum in search of Jesus. The Geneva Bible and the King James Version describe the boats as "shipping"; the Disciples' Literal New Testament describes them as "small boats"; and Bengel's Gnomen identifies them as "small vessels".
The crowd find Jesus "on the other side of the sea" (verse 25); they ask him, "Rabbi, when did You come here?" Jesus does not answer their question or satisfy their curiosity. George Leo Haydock suggests that he does not answer their words, "but he replied to their thoughts". Jesus comments in verse 26 that people had been looking for him, not because of the signs they had seen but because they had eaten of the loaves and were filled, although in verse 14 the evangelist had testified that they had seen the sign that Jesus did and from this sign they had recognised Him as the prophet foretold by Moses. The Pulpit Commentary argues that the distinction reflects their superficial understanding:
Discourse in the Capernaum synagogue (6:25–58)
Verses 25 to 58 present a series of dialogues and discourses which are set within the synagogue in Capernaum (cf. verse 59), and comparable to Jesus' previous dialogues with Nicodemus (chapter 3) and the Samaritan woman (chapter 4): Plummer calls the whole of this section "the Discourse on the Son as the Support of Life".
The first section (verses 25 to 34) presents a dialogue between Jesus and the Jews:
"Do not labor for the food (or meat) which perishes, but for the food which endures to everlasting life, which the Son of Man will give you, because God the Father has set His seal on Him." ()
"What shall we do, that we may work the works of God?" ()
"This is the work of God, that you believe in Him whom He sent." ()
"What sign will You perform then, that we may see it and believe You? What work will You do? Our fathers ate the manna in the desert; as it is written, 'He gave them bread from heaven to eat. ()
"Most assuredly, I say to you, Moses did not give you the bread from heaven, but My Father gives you the true bread from heaven. For the bread of God is He who comes down from heaven and gives life to the world." ()
"Lord (or Sir) (), give us this bread always." ()
The link between toil or painful labour (sorrow in the King James Version, travail in the Wycliffe Bible) and obtaining food was established in and the writer of Ecclesiastes observed that "all the labour of man is for his mouth, and yet the appetite is not filled" (). William Robertson Nicoll noted in the Expositor's Greek Testament that even "the food which [Jesus] had given them the evening before He called 'food which perishes' (): they were already hungry again, and had toiled after Him for miles to get another meal". Instead Jesus promises a different type of food which his hearers should work for: the food which endures to everlasting life (). Many English translations state that Jesus (the Son of Man) will provide the food which endures, but there are variant translations which suggest that the gift Jesus refers to is eternal life, rather than imperishable food. Thus the Living Bible's paraphrase reads:
In the same verse, the evangelist refers again to the concept of a seal () which he has previously mentioned in . John the Baptist declared that those who would accept the testimony of Jesus would thereby certify () that God is true; Jesus here declares that God the Father has set His seal () on Himself. The reformer John Calvin wrote of this declaration:
The distinction between "works" () and "work" () in verses 28-29 provides one of the scriptural foundations for the Protestant doctrine, Sola fide ("faith alone"). Theologian Heinrich August Wilhelm Meyer commented:
The dialogue ends with the Jews asking Jesus, "Lord (or Sir) (), give us this bread always" (). The Voice translation renders 'κυριε' as 'Master', while Plummer argues that:
In reply, Jesus makes a declaration:
Coming to Jesus is equated to believing in Him. Although the generally means "said", the New International Version translates it more formally as "declared". This is the first of seven occasions in John's Gospel where Jesus makes a declaration in the form "I am ...". Lutheran theologian Rudolf Ewald Stier counted 35 references to "I" or "me" by Jesus in the remainder of this discourse.
At some stage, Jesus must have said to the Galileans, or possibly to others:
He refers back to that saying now, but there is no other record of this saying. "Some have supposed it to refer to an unrecorded conversation (Alford, Westcott), or even to some written sentence which is now a lost fragment of the discourse". The interplay between seeing and believing is often referred to in John's Gospel: for example, in , the Jews ask for a sign, so that they may see and believe; after Jesus' resurrection, the "disciple who reached the tomb first" went into the tomb, "he saw, and he believed" (); a week later, Thomas, called the twin, "believed because he had seen" (, a), and Jesus commended all "those who have not seen and yet have believed" (, b). According to , it is the will of God that "everyone who sees ... and believes ... may have everlasting life".
Jesus refers to his incarnation as a mission to fulfil the will of His Father, who had sent him (). His mission is 'conservative' in the sense that He is expected "not to lose anything from what he has been given", and 'eschatological' in that He is to raise up the gift of His Father on the last day (). Several commentators have noted that "All that the Father gives the Son" () () is a singular neuter noun: "the whole mass, so to speak, is gifted by the Father to the Son as a unity".
Rejected by His own
The Jews, including Jesus' disciples, complained among themselves (John 6:41, 43, 52, 60). The features of Jesus' teaching which were challenged were:
His claim to have come down from heaven
His statement, "I am the bread which came down from heaven"
His offer to believers to eat his flesh (and, by extension, to drink his blood).
These sayings appear to have stimulated collective debate and intellectual difficulty. The Common English Bible portrays the Jewish community in 'debate' about Jesus' sayings, whereas the Disciples' Literal New Testament says they were 'fighting'. Wycliffe used the words 'grutched' or 'grumbled'; the word in was "constantly used in the Septuagint of the murmuring of Israel in the wilderness". John Gill's commentaries highlight the Jews' consistency: they grumbled "for want of bread" in the desert, and they grumbled about Jesus' teaching "when they found that he spoke of himself as the true bread, the bread of God, and bread of life". For Jesus' disciples, His teaching was challenging. The Disciples' Literal New Testament regards it as "not hard to understand, but hard to accept, offensive, harsh, objectionable".
Jesus' claim to "have come down from heaven" is dismissed on the basis of local knowledge of Jesus and his parents:
The Pulpit Commentary notes that the evangelist does not here make reference to the virgin birth or the synoptic gospels' accounts of the conception and birth of Jesus:
Nor does John's account make reference to the brothers of Jesus, unlike comparable sections of the synoptic gospels:
Many disciples turn away
Verse 59
These things said he in the synagogue, as he taught in Capernaum.
Verse 59 implies a break in the narrative: the preceding verses represent Jesus' teaching to the Jewish community in the Capernaum synagogue, whereas the following verses portray His private discussions with the disciples struggling to grasp the meaning of His teaching. These followers were "the disciples in the wider sense; those who more or less fully were accepting His teaching, and were regarded as His followers" but they reaction was now to think:
This teaching was "not merely harsh, but insufferable", Theologian Albert Barnes commented that "The word 'hard' here means 'offensive, disagreeable' – that which they could not bear. Some have understood it to mean 'difficult to be understood', but this meaning does not suit the connection. The doctrine which he delivered was opposed to their prejudices; it seemed to be absurd, and they therefore rejected it." Jesus' response, "Does this offend you? What then if you should see the Son of Man ascend where He was before? () could be interpreted as:
or it could mean
William Robertson Nicoll suggests that "the second interpretation gives the better sense: you will find it easier to believe I came down from heaven, when you see me returning thither". In John's Gospel, Jesus' ascension "to where he was before" takes place through His death and resurrection: the Ascension on the Mount of Olives 40 days after Jesus' resurrection is not recorded in John's Gospel.
The evangelist notes that Jesus lost some of his following from that [time] or "at this point" or "for this reason". The text makes clear that "many left Him" and "no longer walked with Him". Jesus then asks "the twelve" whether they would also walk away (). This is John's first reference to "the twelve": they have not previously been mentioned as a group or as the "twelve apostles", nor have twelve named disciples yet been introduced. (In , Andrew and Simon Peter, Philip and Nathaniel were named; Judas, son of Simon Iscariot is here named as one of the twelve whom Jesus had "chosen"). On behalf of the twelve, Simon Peter replies:
The New International Version adopts the alternative translation found in some texts:
Peter's acclamation concludes a journey of learning and faith: "we have come to believe and to know ...". Buls instead translates "we have realized ..."
The disciples "[take] Peter's answer to [Jesus'] question as delivered in the name of them all, and as expressing their mind and sense".
Jesus answered them, “Did I not choose you, the twelve, and one of you is a devil?" ()
Verse 71 appears to have been added by an editor: "the editor seeks to rescue Peter from the rejection saying of the Lord in verse 70. Jesus can't have called Peter 'a devil'; he must have meant Judas, the obvious traitor – so the editor appears to have reasoned". The final verse of the chapter is written in the third person style with reference to Jesus because the Evangelist explains the meaning of the previous Word of God. Despite the latter statement and as it was said before, has also a possible secondary reference to the Cefa' temporary betrayment of Jesus again predicted in .
At this point, the division of the text into chapters (attributed to Stephen Langton) brings chapter 6 to its close. The chapter 7 starts with the choice of Jesus to avoid the Judea and the Tribe of Judah, the tribe of the lion of Judah which is identified with Christ himself, because they "sought to kill him." If the belonging tribe of Judas the Iscariot and of Peter aren't specified, Nathanael's words "can there any good thing come out of Nazareth?" () show the Tribe of Judas had a bad reputation among the other tribes.
The same kind of reputation can reasonably be extended to Judas the Iscariot whose unusual epithet was chosen by God ignoring his father's patriarchal right to the lineage, and anyway in order to be distinguished by the most common name of his native and purportedly namesake tribe. Moreover, some Christian authors affirmed Saint Matthias, who replaced the Iscariot among the Twelve after the betrayment, came from the same Tribe of Judah, probably the unique tribe remained without a councilor member in the highest organism governed by the prophesied King of Israel. We don't know the number of the members who in the Old Testament ruled on the Twelve Tribes of Israel together with the patriarchs, but other biblical passages suggest the patriarch (the King of Israel before entering in the Promised Land) was recommended by God to systematically consult them () and that they were twelve in many relevant moments of the life of Israel ( and ). Going back to the New Testament, the King of Israel fully reconfirmed the whole Mosaic Law (), even in the never interrupted and divine election of the governing system of the Twelve Tribes of Israel.
It is a textual comment linking John 6 to other parts of the Old and New Testament, needing a more accurate and complex evaluation of the Holy Scripture.
See also
Bread of Life Discourse
Capernaum
Jesus Christ
Manna
Sea of Galilee
Related Bible parts: Exodus 16, Matthew 14, Mark 6, Luke 9, John 8, John 10, John 14, John 15
Notes
References
External links
King James Bible - Wikisource
English Translation with Parallel Latin Vulgate
Online Bible at GospelHall.org (ESV, KJV, Darby, American Standard Version, Bible in Basic English)
Multiple bible versions at Bible Gateway (NKJV, NIV, NRSV etc.)
John 06
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John 7
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John 7 is the seventh chapter of the Gospel of John in the New Testament of the Christian Bible. It recounts Jesus' visit to Jerusalem for the feast of Tabernacles, the possibility of his arrest and debate as to whether he is the Messiah. The author of the book containing this chapter is anonymous, but early Christian tradition uniformly affirmed that John composed this Gospel. Alfred Plummer, in the Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges, describes this chapter as "very important for the estimate of the fourth Gospel. In it the scene of the Messianic crisis shifts from Galilee to Jerusalem; and, as we should naturally expect, the crisis itself becomes hotter. The divisions, the doubts, the hopes, the jealousies, and the casuistry of the Jews are vividly portrayed." to is sometimes referred to as the "Tabernacles Discourse". Raymond E. Brown describes the Tabernacles Discourse as "a polemic collection of what Jesus said in replies to attacks by the Jewish authorities on his claims".
Text
The original text was written in Koine Greek. This chapter is divided into 53 verses.
Textual witnesses
Some early manuscripts containing the text of this chapter are:
Papyrus 75 (AD 175–225)
Papyrus 66 (c. 200).
Codex Vaticanus (325-350)
Codex Sinaiticus (330-360)
Codex Bezae (c. 400)
Codex Alexandrinus (400-440)
Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus (c. 450; extant verses 1–2)
Old Testament references
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
: ;
Sub-divisions
The New King James Version organises this chapter as follows:
= Jesus’ Brothers Disbelieve
= The Heavenly Scholar
= Could This Be the Christ?
= Jesus and the Religious Leaders
= The Promise of the Holy Spirit
= Who Is He?
= Rejected by the Authorities
= An Adulteress Faces the Light of the World (referring to John 7:53-8:12)
The Unbelief of Jesus’ Brothers (7:1–9)
The evangelist states that Jesus' brothers (or "brethren" in some translations) did not believe in Him () but they suggest that he goes to Jerusalem for the forthcoming Feast of Tabernacles, which was one of the three feasts which the Book of Deuteronomy prescribes that all Jewish men should attend (). They suggest that Jesus wants to publicise his works and that in Galilee his activities are hidden from the view of his Judean disciples (), but Jesus suggests that His brothers attend the feast but he will remain in Galilee. The Feast of Tabernacles began on 'the fifteenth day of the seventh month' (), i.e., the 15th of Tishri, which corresponds to September, so the interval from Passover to Tabernacles is about five months. Jesus says that it is "their time" to go to Jerusalem, but "his time" () has not yet come.
Verse 1
After these things Jesus walked in Galilee: for he would not walk in Jewry, because the Jews sought to kill him.
Chapter 7 opens in Galilee, where the events and discourses of the previous chapter have taken place. In Galilee, Jesus had taught in the synagogue at Capernaum, but many people including many of his own disciples, had refused to believe. implies that nevertheless Jesus felt safe in Galilee, whereas in Judea or "Jewry" (e.g. King James Version), the Jews (or the Jewish ruling authorities) wanted to kill Jesus. He probably did not go to Jerusalem for the Passover mentioned in , although theologian John Gill suggested that "he went to Jerusalem, to keep the passover; and finding that the Jews still sought to take away his life, he returned to Galilee, and 'walked' there".
Chapters 5, 6 and 7 all commence with the words μετα ταυτα (meta tauta), "after these things", "a typical Johannine transition" (chapter 7: and after these things).
Verse 3
His brothers therefore said to Him, "Depart from here and go into Judea, that Your disciples also may see the works that You are doing".
The "brothers", unlike the "disciples", are still unbelievers. Plummer notes that He observes the bluntness of the suggestion in verse 3, Depart from here, "given almost as a command", which "shews that they presumed upon their near relationship. It would be more natural in the mouths of men older than Christ, and therefore is in favour of their being sons of Joseph by a former marriage".
Verse 4People don't hide what they are doing if they want to be well known. Since you are doing these things, let the whole world know about you!”Johann Bengel describes the brothers' reasoning as a use of the rhetorical device diasyrmus.
Verse 8
[Jesus said to His brothers:] "You go up to the [or this] feast. I am not yet going up to this feast, for My time has not yet fully come."
Feast of Tabernacles (7:10–52)
Jesus does then go to Jerusalem for the feast. The evangelist unfolds his attendance in three steps:
He initially directs that his brothers will attend but He will remain in Galilee ()
Afterwards he does go to Jerusalem, "not openly, but as it were in secret" (, NKJV translation) ()
"But when the middle feast day came, Jesus went up into the temple, and taught" (, Wycliffe Bible).
H. W. Watkins supposes that the main party travelling from Galilee to Jerusalem would have taken the route to the east of the River Jordan, and that Jesus took the alternative route through Samaria, as he had done when he travelled back from Jerusalem to Galilee in chapter 4 and the Jamieson-Fausset-Brown Bible Commentary agrees that He may have travelled "perhaps by some other route".
When Jesus began to teach in the Temple, he was perceived as being uneducated and yet learned (), not having received rabbinical, priestly or Sadduceean training. Jesus was known not to have learned through contemporary routes of Jewish learning such as the House of Hillel or the House of Shammai, and it is likely that both the content and the style of His teaching were seen as distinct from the teaching of the "Jews" of these schools, to whom the evangelist refers. "His teaching on this occasion was expository", based on the Hebrew Bible: Albert Barnes writes that "Jesus exhibited in his discourses such a profound acquaintance with the Old Testament as to excite [the] amazement and admiration" of other learned scholars, but He explains that His teaching is not His own, but "but His who sent Me" (). Jesus does not disown His teaching, but He does not claim to be its originator or its authority:
"The 'my' refers to the teaching itself, the 'mine' to the ultimate authority on which it rests. I am not a self-taught Man, as though out of the depths of my own independent human consciousness I span it ... 'He who sent me' gave [it] to me. I have been in intimate communion with HIM. All that I say is Divine thought."
The evangelist has already referred to four witnesses to the validity of Jesus' testimony (), and now adds that anyone who wants to do God's will know the authority of His teaching ().
Learned discussion on Laws
In a discussion which demonstrates this point to the learned Jews, Jesus then refers to the Mosaic law, and to the law and tradition of the patriarchs. The law of circumcision prescribed by Moses () originated with God's covenant with Abraham and required every male child to be circumcised on his eighth day. If this day was a Sabbath, the obligation to circumcise that day overrode the obligation to rest on the Sabbath (). Jews familiar with both laws would also have been familiar with the rule of precedence between them. But Jesus then refers to the healing at the Temple on the Sabbath day of a man who had had an infirmity for thirty-eight years (), on account of which the Jews wanted to kill Jesus ():
"Are you angry with Me because I made a man completely well on the Sabbath?" ()
The responses to Jesus' teaching identified in this section are:
Some people were impressed: "He is good" (, a)
Others said, "No, on the contrary, He deceives the people" (, b)
Discussion is restricted: "no one spoke openly of Him for fear of the Jews" ()
Some people marveled, saying, "How does this Man know letters, having never studied?" ()
Some wanted to kill Him ()
Some suggested He was "crazy and perhaps paranoid": "You have a demon. Who is seeking to kill You?" ()
Some were angry with Him ()
Some recognized Him as the Messiah and believed in Him ()
Some denied that He could be the Messiah: "We know where this Man is from; but when the Christ comes, no one knows where He is from" ()
No one laid a hand on Him, because (according to the evangelist), "His hour had not yet come". ()
The debate or "murmurings" about whether Jesus could be the Messiah came to the attention of the Pharisees, and they and the Chief Priests "sent officers in order to take him into custody".(). In this verse and in verse , "the reader is for the first time informed that the Pharisees and the chief priests try to arrest Jesus but do not succeed. This anticipates their new initiatives in chapters 9 to 12, where they finally achieve their plans.
Jesus' impending departure
Then Jesus said "I shall be with you a little while longer, and then I go to Him who sent Me. You will seek Me and not find Me, and where I am you cannot come." () The evangelist has noted twice in this chapter that Jesus' time has not yet come ( and ), but in a little while (), the time will come for Jesus to depart. The word in , I go away, is a distinctively Johannine word, used 15 times throughout the gospel. The Pulpit Commentary suggests that "a little while" amounts to six months, as "six months would bring round the last Passover".
The statement "You will seek Me and not find Me, and where I am you cannot come" produces consternation and the Jewish scholars suppose that Jesus might be intending to visit the Jews of the diaspora "where our people live scattered among the Greeks" (John 7:35 - New International Version translation), and also to teach the Greeks themselves. According to (referring to the Feast of Pentecost in the year after the Feast of Tabernacles described here), "there were dwelling in Jerusalem Jews, devout men, from every nation under heaven". The Jews therefore contemplate whether Jesus might be planning to visit their home cities and teach in their synagogues. Theologian Heinrich August Wilhelm Meyer regards the Jews' supposition as "an insolent and scornful supposition, which they themselves, however, do not deem probable (therefore the question is asked with , not)" Non-conformist theologian Philip Doddridge described it as "a sarcasm" and the International Standard Version offers the translation as follows:
Verse 35"Surely he's not going to the Dispersion among the Greeks and [to] teach the Greeks, is he?"However, it is not an unreasonable supposition, as the mission to the Jewish diaspora formed "the very mode of proceeding afterwards adopted by the Apostles" and the synoptic gospels represent Jesus as having visited "the region of Tyre and Sidon" to teach, and as having healed there "the daughter of a Greek woman, a Syro-Phoenician by birth" (). The evangelist leaves this section with a question which remains unanswered:
Verse 36"What is this thing that He said, 'You will seek Me and not find Me, and where I am you cannot come'?"Peter asks the same question of Jesus when He has privately told His disciples that He is leaving them, and "where [He is] going, [they] cannot come". Peter is told "you cannot follow Me now, but you shall follow Me afterwards” ().
The promise of the Holy Spirit
Verses 37-38
On the last day, that great day of the feast, Jesus stood and cried out, saying,
"If anyone thirsts, let him come to Me and drink.
He who believes in Me, as the Scripture has said, out of his heart will flow rivers of living water."
The Book of Leviticus prescribed that the Feast of Tabernacles should last for seven days, and that on the eighth day:You shall have a holy convocation, and you shall offer an offering made by fire to the Lord. It is a sacred assembly, and you shall do no customary work on it. ()
On this sacred day, Jesus stood (presumably at the Temple) and cried out:If anyone thirsts, let him come to Me and drink. He who believes in Me, as the Scripture has said, out of his heart will flow rivers of living water. ()
Many translations include the scriptural reference within the words Jesus cried out. The Jerusalem Bible breaks up the text differently:
... Jesus stood there and cried out:
"If any man is thirsty, let him come to me!
Let the man come and drink who believes in me!"As scripture says: From his breast shall flow fountains of living water.The quote "If anyone thirsts, let him come to Me and drink" is a reference to Isaiah 55:1. Meyer explains that "there is no exactly corresponding passage, indeed, in Scripture" for the words out of his heart will flow rivers of living water. He suggests that "it is simply a free quotation harmonizing in thought with parts of various passages, especially , and ". The writer himself notes, explaining the figurative expressions of Christ, that Jesus was speaking of the [Holy] Spirit, whom those believing in him would receive (later): "the [Holy] Spirit had not yet been given, because Jesus was not yet glorified" (). Literally, the text states "the (Holy) Spirit was not yet", but this "strange and startling statement" is best read as "the Holy Ghost (Spirit) was not yet given; the word "given" is not in the original text; but is very properly supplied, as it is in the Vulgate Latin, Syriac, and Persic versions. The Arabic version renders it, "for the Holy Ghost was not yet come".
Some portion of Jesus' audience, on hearing His words, said "this is certainly the Prophet" (). In the Textus Receptus and English translations drawn from it, the number described as recognizing Jesus as the Prophet is , many, but Watkins advises that "the reading of the best manuscripts is, some of the people therefore, when they heard these sayings ..." The reference is to the prophet foretold by Moses in , who was expected to precede the coming of the Messiah. Others went further: "This is the Christ" (John 7:41).
The people of Jerusalem, debating at whether Jesus could be the Messiah, cast doubt on this interpretation of Jesus' works because "when the Christ comes, no one [will] know where He is from”. In John 7:42, some of the crowd reason that "the Christ [will] come from the seed of David and from the town of Bethlehem, where David was” and therefore Jesus, who came from Galilee, could not be the Messiah.
Verse 42Has not the Scripture said that the Christ comes from the seed of David and from the town of Bethlehem, where David was?”It is written in Micah 5:2:But you, Bethlehem Ephrathah, though you are small among the clans of Judah, out of you will come for me one who will be ruler over Israel, whose origins are from of old, from ancient times ( NIV)
The Gospels of Matthew and Luke give an account of how Jesus of Nazareth in Galilee could also be from Bethlehem, as He was born there, but John's Gospel has no parallel account. The Pulpit Commentary identifies a number of theologians (De Wette, Baur, Weisse, Keim and others) who "have tried to prove from this that the evangelist was ignorant of Christ's birth at Bethlehem", whereas Bengel argued that "John takes [this] for granted as known from the other evangelists".
So opinion about Jesus was "divided" () - a arose, "whence our word ‘schism’, meaning 'a serious and possibly violent division'" is derived. This division extended to the issue of whether Jesus should be arrested: "some of them" - "i.e. [some] of those who refused to accord him Messianic reception because he had not commenced his ministry at Bethlehem, and had not flaunted his Davidic ancestry" - wanted to arrest Him, but "no one laid a hand on him" (). The chief priests and the Pharisees questioned why Jesus had not been detained - in they had dispatched officers for this purpose - and the returning officers replied that "No man ever spoke like this Man" (). Ellicott states that "some of the oldest manuscripts, including the Vatican, have a shorter text, Never man spake thus; but the longer reading is to be preferred", with the additional words , as this man speaks, which are retained by the Textus Receptus. The officers "were so impressed and awed with what he said that they dared not take him"; the Pharisees said they were "deceived" (), suggesting that none of the rulers - "the members of the Sanhedrin, who were supposed to have control over the religious rites and doctrines of the nation - had believed. The evangelist reminds his readers that Nicodemus, "one of them" (i.e. one of the Sanhedrin) had met Jesus before (). Nicodemus reminds his colleagues:
Verse 51"Does our law judge a man before it hears him and knows what he is doing?"
This is reminder of the words in :You shall not show partiality in judgment; you shall hear the small and the great alike ()
The Sanhedrin advises Nicodemus that he should study the scriptures further:
Verse 52They answered and said to him, "Are you also from Galilee? Search and look, for no prophet has arisen out of Galilee."Pericope Adulterae (7:53–8:11)
Verse 53And everyone went to his own house.''
At this point, the division of the text into chapters (attributed to Stephen Langton) brings chapter 7 to its close, with the words "Then they all went home". Chapter 8 opens with the words "[b]ut Jesus went to the Mount of Olives". Young's Literal Translation and the Jerusalem Bible both unite these phrases as a single sentence. Bengel argues for Jesus' visit to the Mount of Olives to be treated as part of chapter 7. The Pulpit Commentary queries whether the departure home refers only to the breaking up of the Sanhedrin (with Barnes)
or to "the scattering of the crowd or the return of the pilgrims to Galilee". The pilgrims' return home at the end of the Feast of Tabernacles provides a natural end to the chapter, but "a very improbable consequence of verse 52".
The pericope commencing with John 7:53 is considered canonical, but not found in most of the early Greek Gospel manuscripts. It is not in P66 or in P75, both of which have been assigned to the late 100s or early 200s. Nor is it in two important manuscripts produced in the early/mid 300s, Sinaiticus and Vaticanus. The first surviving Greek manuscript to contain the pericope is the Latin/Greek diglot Codex Bezae, produced in the 400s or 500s (but displaying a form of text which has affinities with "Western" readings used in the 100s and 200s). Codex Bezae is also the earliest surviving Latin manuscript to contain it. Out of 23 Old Latin manuscripts of John 7-8, seventeen contain at least part of the pericope, and represent at least three transmission-streams in which it was included. The New King James Version includes the text with the explanation that the words from John 7:53 to 8:11 are bracketed by NU-Text "as not original. They are present in over 900 manuscripts of John" and the Jerusalem Bible claims "the author of this passage is not John".
See also
Related Bible parts: Isaiah 55, Micah 5, Matthew 2, Luke 2, John 3, John 8, John 9, John 10
References
Sources
External links
King James Bible - Wikisource
English Translation with Parallel Latin Vulgate
Online Bible at GospelHall.org (ESV, KJV, Darby, American Standard Version, Bible in Basic English)
Multiple bible versions at Bible Gateway (NKJV, NIV, NRSV etc.)
John 07
Nicodemus
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Library%20of%20the%20Philippines
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National Library of the Philippines
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The National Library of the Philippines ( or , abbreviated NLP, ) is the Philippines' official repository of information on cultural heritage and other literary resources. It is located in Ermita neighboring culturally significant buildings such as the Museum of Philippine Political History and the National Historical Commission. Like its neighbors, it is under the jurisdiction of the National Commission for Culture and the Arts (NCCA).
The national library is notable for being the home of the original copies of the defining works of José Rizal: Noli Me Tangere, El Filibusterismo and Mi último adiós.
History
Origins (1887–1900)
The National Library of the Philippines can trace its history to the establishment of the Museo-Biblioteca de Filipinas (Museum-Library of the Philippines), established by a royal order of the Spanish government on August 12, 1887. It opened on October 24, 1891, at the Intendencia in Intramuros, then home of the Manila Mint (as the Casa de la Moneda), with around 100 volumes and with both Julian Romero and Benito Perdiguero as director and archivist-librarian, respectively.
Romero resigned in 1893 and was briefly replaced by Tomás Torres of the Escuela de Artes y Ofícios in Bacolor, Pampanga (now the Don Honorio Ventura Technological State University), who in turn was replaced by Don Pedro A. Paterno on March 31, 1894. By that time, the library had moved to a site in Quiapo near the present site of the Masjid Al-Dahab. Later on, Paterno published the first issue of the Boletin del Museo-Biblioteca de Filipinas (Bulletin of the Museum-Library of the Philippines) on January 15, 1895.
The Museo-Biblioteca was abolished upon the onset of the American colonization of the Philippines. By the time of its abolition, the library held around 1,000 volumes and averaged around 25–30 visitors a day. The entire collection would later be transferred at Paterno's expense to his own private library, of which some books would form the basis for the Filipiniana collection of subsequent incarnations of the National Library.
Establishment (1900–1941)
As the Philippine–American War died down and peace gradually returned to the Philippines, Americans who had come to settle in the islands saw the need for a wholesome recreational outlet. Recognizing this need, Mrs. Charles Greenleaf and several other American women organized the American Circulating Library (ACL), dedicated in memory of American soldiers who died in the Philippine–American War. The ACL opened on March 9, 1900, with 1,000 volumes donated by the Red Cross Society of California and other American organizations. By 1901, the ACL's collection grew to 10,000 volumes, consisting mostly of American works of fiction, periodicals and newspapers. The rapid expansion of the library proved to be such a strain on the resources of the American Circulating Library Association of Manila, the organization running the ACL, that it was decided that the library's entire collection should be donated to the government.
The Philippine Commission formalized the acceptance of the ACL's collections on March 5, 1901, through Act No. 96, today observed as the birthdate of both the National Library and the Philippine public library system. With the ACL now a Philippine government institution, a board of trustees and three personnel, led by librarian Nelly Y. Egbert, were appointed by the colonial government. At the same time, the library moved to Rosario Street (now Quintin Paredes Street) in Binondo before its expansion warranted its move up the street to the Hotel de Oriente on Plaza Calderón de la Barca in 1904. It was noted in the 1905 annual report of the Department of Public Instruction (the current Department of Education) that the new location "was not exactly spacious but at least it was comfortable and accessible by tramway from almost every part of the city". At the same time, the ACL, acting on its mandate to make its collections available to American servicemen stationed in the Philippines, established five traveling libraries, serving various, if not unusual, clientele across the islands. In November 1905, Act No. 1407 placed the library under the Bureau of Education and subsequently moved to its headquarters at the corner of Cabildo (now Muralla) and Recoletos Streets in Intramuros, on which today the offices of the Manila Bulletin stand.
On June 2, 1908, Act No. 1849 was passed, mandating the consolidation of all government libraries in the Philippines into the ACL. Subsequently, Act No. 1935 was passed in 1909, renaming the ACL the Philippine Library and turning it into an autonomous body governed by a five-member Library Board. At the same time, the Act mandated the division of the library into four divisions: the law, scientific, circulating and Filipiniana divisions. The newly renamed library was headed by James Alexander Robertson, an American scholar who, in collaboration with Emma Helen Blair, wrote The Philippine Islands, 1493–1898, and recognized today as both the first director of the modern National Library and the father of Philippine library science. Robertson would later abolish the library's subscription fees for books in general circulation in 1914.
Act No. 2572, passed on January 31, 1916, merged the Philippine Library with two other government institutions: the Division of Archives, Patents, Copyrights and Trademarks (later to become the National Archives, the Copyright Office of the National Library and the Intellectual Property Office) and the Law Library of the Philippine Assembly, forming the Philippine Library and Museum. In addition, the Philippine Library and Museum was placed under the supervision of the Department of Justice. However, on December 7, 1928, Act No. 3477 was passed, splitting the Philippine Library and Museum into the National Library and the National Museum (now the National Museum of the Philippines). The newly formed National Library was placed under the supervision of the Philippine Assembly, subsequently moving to the Legislative Building on Padre Burgos Street in Ermita. This arrangement continued with the convocation of the National Assembly at the dawn of the Commonwealth era in 1935. However, supervision of the National Library would return to the Department of Public Instruction in 1936.
World War II (1941–1946)
The dawn of World War II and the subsequent invasion of the Philippines by the Japanese had no significant impact on the National Library, with the institution still remaining open and the government at the time making few significant changes to the library, such as the abolition of the Research and Bibliography Division and the subsequent suspension of work on the national in 1941. However, by late 1944, with the impending campaign of combined American and Filipino forces to recapture the Philippines, Japanese forces stationed in Manila began setting up fortifications in large buildings, including the Legislative Building. Despite the occupation of the Legislative Building, the Japanese commanding officer permitted library officials to vacate the premises within two weeks of their occupation, with the library subsequently moving into the building housing the Philippine Normal School (now the Philippine Normal University). Two weeks later, however, Japanese troops also moved to occupy that building as well, with the same commanding officer giving library officials only until that afternoon to vacate the premises. All collections of the National Library were moved into a 1.5-cubic meter vault under the Manila City Hall, the closest building at the time. However, most of the library's Filipiniana collection, having been overlooked by moving staff and due to time constraints, was left behind at the Philippine Normal School.
The Battle of Manila would prove to be disastrous to the cultural patrimony of the Philippines and the collections of the National Library in particular. Most of the library's collections were either destroyed by fires as a result of the ensuing battle between American, Filipino and Japanese forces, lost or stolen by looters afterward. Pieces lost from the library's collections included an urn where Andrés Bonifacio's remains were stored, as well as valuable Filipiniana pieces such as some of the manuscripts of José Rizal. Of the 733,000 volumes the library had in its collections prior to World War II, only 36,600 remained. However, luckily for library officials, a locked box containing the "crown jewels" of the National Library: the original copies of Rizal's Noli Me Tangere, El Filibusterismo and Mi último adiós, was left intact. Tiburcio Tumaneng, then the chief of the Filipiniana Division, described the event as a happy occasion.
Word of the books' discovery by Tumaneng was relayed to professor H. Otley Beyer, then chairman of the Committee on Salvage of Government Libraries, through officer-in-charge Luis Montilla. Having found a new sense of optimism after the books' discovery, Beyer and a group of volunteers began scouring the ruins of the Legislative Building and the Philippine Normal School for any and all books they could find. However, much to their surprise, the entire collection stored under Manila City Hall disappeared, lost to looters who ransacked the ruins of public buildings. All salvaged materials were brought back to Beyer's residence on Aviles Street, near Malacañan Palace.
With the return of Commonwealth rule, the National Library reopened and relocated to the site of the Old Bilibid Prison (today the Manila City Jail) on Oroquieta Street in Santa Cruz while the Legislative Building was being restored. It also sought the assistance of friendly countries to rebuild its collections. According to Concordia Sanchez in her book The Libraries of the Philippines, many countries, mainly the United States, donated many thousands of books, although some were outdated and others were too foreign for Filipino readers to understand. Although rebuilding the General Reference and Circulation Divisions was easy, rebuilding the Filipiniana Division was the hardest of all.
Reconstruction (1946–1964)
In 1947, one year after the independence of the Philippines from the United States, President Manuel Roxas signed Executive Order No. 94, converting the National Library into an office under the Office of the President called the Bureau of Public Libraries. The name change was done reportedly out of a sense of national shame as a result of World War II, with Roxas preferring to emphasize the library's administrative responsibilities over its cultural and historical functions. Although the library was offered its original headquarters in the newly rebuilt Legislative Building, the newly convened Congress of the Philippines forced it to relocate to the old Legislative Building at the corner of Lepanto (now Loyola) and P. Paredes Streets in Sampaloc, near the current campus of the University of the East. The Circulation Division, originally meant to cater to the residents of the city of Manila, was abolished in 1955 after it was determined that the city's residents were already adequately served by the four libraries under the supervision of the Manila city government. That same year, it was forced to relocate to the Arlegui Mansion in San Miguel, then occupied by the Department of Foreign Affairs.
During this time, much of the library's Filipiniana collection was gradually restored. In 1953, two folders of Rizaliana (works pertaining to José Rizal) previously in the possession of a private Spanish citizen which contained, among others, Rizal's transcript of records, a letter from his mother, Teodora Alonso, and a letter from his wife, Josephine Bracken, were returned by the Spanish government as a gesture of friendship and goodwill. Likewise, the 400,000-piece Philippine Revolutionary Papers (PRP), also known as the Philippine Insurgent Records (PIR), were returned by the United States in 1957.
After many moves throughout its history, the National Library finally moved to its present location on June 19, 1961, in commemoration of the 100th birthday of José Rizal. It was renamed back to the National Library on June 18, 1964, by virtue of Republic Act No. 3873.
Contemporary history (1964–)
Although no major changes occurred in the National Library immediately after its relocation, two significant events took place in the 1970s: first, the issuance of Presidential Decree No. 812 on October 18, 1975, which allowed the National Library to exercise the right of legal deposit, and second, the resumption of work on the Philippine National Bibliography (PNB) which had been suspended since 1941. For this purpose, the library acquired its first mainframe computer and likewise trained library staff in its use with the assistance of both UNESCO and the Technology and Livelihood Resource Center. The first edition of the PNB was published in 1977 using simplified MARC standards, and subsequently updated ever since. The library subsequently purchased three microcomputers in the 1980s and, through a Japanese grant, acquired three IBM PS/2 computers and microfilming and reprographics equipment. The Library for the Blind Division was organized in 1988 and subsequently launched in 1994.
Scandal arose in September 1993 when it was discovered that a researcher from the National Historical Institute (now the National Historical Commission of the Philippines), later identified as Rolando Bayhon, was pilfering rare documents from the library's collections. According to some library employees, the pilfering of historical documents dates back to the 1970s, when President Ferdinand Marcos began writing a book on Philippine history titled Tadhana (Destiny), using as references library materials which were subsequently not returned. Having suspected widespread pilferage upon assuming the directorship in 1992, then-Director Adoracion B. Mendoza sought the assistance of the National Bureau of Investigation in recovering the stolen items. Some 700 items were recovered from an antique shop in Ermita and Bayhon was arrested. Although convicted of theft in July 1996, Bayhon was sentenced in absentia and still remains at large. The chief of the Filipiniana Division at the time, Maria Luisa Moral, who was believed to be involved in the scandal, was dismissed on September 25, but subsequently acquitted on May 29, 2008. Following Bayhon's arrest, Mendoza made several appeals calling on the Filipino people to return items pilfered from the library's collections without criminal liability. Around eight thousand documents, including the original copy of the Philippine Declaration of Independence among others, were subsequently returned to the library by various persons, including some six thousand borrowed by a professor of the University of the Philippines.
In 1995, the National Library launched its local area network, consisting of a single file server and four workstations, and subsequently its online public access catalog (named Basilio, after the character in Rizal's novels) in 1998, as well as its website on March 15, 2001. Following the retirement of Mendoza in 2001, Prudenciana C. Cruz was appointed director and has overseen the continued computerization of its facilities, including the opening of the library's Internet room on July 23, 2001. That same year, the library began digitization of its collections, with an initial 52,000 pieces converted into a digital format. This digitization was one of the factors which led to the birth of the Philippine eLibrary, a collaboration between the National Library and the University of the Philippines, the Department of Science and Technology, the Department of Agriculture and the Commission on Higher Education, which was launched on February 4, 2004, as the Philippines' first digital library. The Philippine President's Room, a section of the Filipiniana Division dedicated to works and documents pertaining to Philippine presidents, was opened on July 7, 2007.
On September 26, 2007, the National Library was reorganized into nine divisions per its rationalization plan. In 2010, Republic Act No. 10087 was signed, renaming the National Library to the National Library of the Philippines.
Building
In 1954, President Ramon Magsaysay issued an executive order forming the José Rizal National Centennial Commission, entrusted with the duty of "erecting a grand monument in honor of José Rizal in the capital of the Philippines". The Commission then decided to erect a cultural complex in Rizal Park with a new building housing the National Library as its centerpiece, a memorial to Rizal as an advocate of education. To finance the construction of the new National Library building, the Commission conducted a nationwide public fundraising campaign, the donors being mostly schoolchildren, who were encouraged to donate ten centavos to the effort, and library employees, who each donated a day's salary. Because of this effort by the commission, the National Library of the Philippines is said to be the only national library in the world built mostly out of private donations, and the only one built out of veneration to its national hero at the time of its construction.
Construction on the building's foundation began on March 23, 1960, and the superstructure on September 16. During construction, objections were raised over the library's location, claiming that the salinity of the air around Manila Bay would hasten the destruction of the rare books and manuscripts that would be stored there. Despite the objections, construction still continued, and the new building was inaugurated on June 19, 1961, Rizal's 100th birthday, by President Carlos P. Garcia, Magsaysay's successor.
The current National Library building, a six-storey, edifice, was designed by Hexagon Architects (composed of Jose Zaragoza, Francisco Fajardo, Edmundo Lucero, Gabino de Leon, Felipe Mendoza, and Cesar Vergel de Dios) and constructed at a cost of 5.5 million pesos. With a total floor area of , the library has three reading rooms and three mezzanines which currently occupy the western half of the second, third and fourth floors. Each reading room can accommodate up to 532 readers, or 1,596 in total for the entire building. The 400-seat Epifanio de los Santos Auditorium and a cafeteria are located on the sixth floor. There are also provisions for administrative offices, a fumigation room, an air-conditioned photography laboratory and printing room, two music rooms and an exhibition hall. The library's eight stack rooms have a total combined capacity of one million volumes with ample room for expansion. In addition to two staircases connecting all six floors, the National Library building is equipped with a single elevator, servicing the first four floors.
Part of the National Library building's west wing is occupied by the National Archives.
Collections
The collections of the National Library of the Philippines consist of more than 210,000 books; over 880,000 manuscripts, all part of the Filipiniana Division; more than 170,000 newspaper issues from Metro Manila and across the Philippines; some 66,000 theses and dissertations; 104,000 government publications; 3,800 maps and 53,000 photographs. The library's collections include large numbers of materials stored on various forms of non-print media, as well as almost 18,000 pieces for use of the Library for the Blind Division.
Overall, the National Library has over 1.6 million pieces in its collections, one of the largest among Philippine libraries. Accounted in its collections include valuable Rizaliana pieces, four incunabula, the original manuscript of Lupang Hinirang (the National Anthem), several sets of The Philippine Islands, 1493–1898, a collection of rare Filipiniana books previously owned by the Compañía General de Tabacos de Filipinas, and the documents of five Philippine Presidents. The most prized possessions of the National Library, which include Rizal's Noli Me Tangere, El Filibusterismo and Mi último adiós, three of his unfinished novels and the Philippine Declaration of Independence, are kept in a special double-combination vault at the rare documents section of the Filipiniana Division's reading room.
A significant portion of the National Library's collections are composed of donations and works obtained through both legal deposit and copyright deposit due to the limited budget allocated for the purchase of library materials; the 2007 national budget allocation for the library allocated less than ten million pesos for the purchase of new books. The library also relies on its various donors and exchange partners, which numbered 115 in 2007, for expanding and diversifying its collections. The lack of a sufficient budget has affected the quality of the library's offerings: the Library for the Blind suffers from a shortage of books printed in braille, while the manuscripts of Rizal's masterpieces have reportedly deteriorated due to the lack of funds to support 24-hour air conditioning to aid in its preservation. In 2011, Rizal's manuscripts were restored with the help from German specialist. Major documents in the National Library of the Philippines, along with the National Archives of the Philippines, have great potential to be included in the UNESCO Memory of the World Register according to the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.
References
External links
National Library of the Philippines
National Library of the Philippines Online Public Access Catalog
Libraries in Metro Manila
Philippines
1901 establishments in the Philippines
Libraries established in 1901
Buildings and structures in Ermita
Library buildings completed in 1961
Deposit libraries
Cultural Properties of the Philippines in Metro Manila
20th-century architecture in the Philippines
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical%20sociology
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Mathematical sociology
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Mathematical sociology or the sociology of mathematics is an interdisciplinary field of research concerned both with the use of mathematics within sociological research as well as research into the relationships that exist between maths and society.
Because of this, mathematical sociology can have a diverse meaning depending on the authors in question and the kind of research being carried out. This creates contestation over whether mathematical sociology is a derivative of sociology, an intersection of the two disciplines, or a discipline in its own right. This is a dynamic, ongoing academic development that leaves mathematical sociology sometimes blurred and lacking in uniformity, presenting grey areas and need for further research into developing its academic merit.
History
Starting in the early 1940s, Nicolas Rashevsky, and subsequently in the late 1940s, Anatol Rapoport and others, developed a relational and probabilistic approach to the characterization of large social networks in which the nodes are persons and the links are acquaintanceship. During the late 1940s, formulas were derived that connected local parameters such as closure of contacts – if A is linked to both B and C, then there is a greater than chance probability that B and C are linked to each other – to the global network property of connectivity.
Moreover, acquaintanceship is a positive tie, but what about negative ties such as animosity among persons? To tackle this problem, graph theory, which is the mathematical study of abstract representations of networks of points and lines, can be extended to include these two types of links and thereby to create models that represent both positive and negative sentiment relations, which are represented as signed graphs. A signed graph is called balanced if the product of the signs of all relations in every cycle (links in every graph cycle) is positive. Through formalization by mathematician Frank Harary, this work produced the fundamental theorem of this theory. It says that if a network of interrelated positive and negative ties is balanced, e.g. as illustrated by the psychological principle that "my friend's enemy is my enemy", then it consists of two sub-networks such that each has positive ties among its nodes and there are only negative ties between nodes in distinct sub-networks. The imagery here is of a social system that splits into two cliques. There is, however, a special case where one of the two sub-networks is empty, which might occur in very small networks.
In another model, ties have relative strengths. 'Acquaintanceship' can be viewed as a 'weak' tie and 'friendship' is represented as a strong tie. Like its uniform cousin discussed above, there is a concept of closure, called strong triadic closure. A graph satisfies strong triadic closure If A is strongly connected to B, and B is strongly connected to C, then A and C must have a tie (either weak or strong).
In these two developments we have mathematical models bearing upon the analysis of structure. Other early influential developments in mathematical sociology pertained to process. For instance, in 1952 Herbert A. Simon produced a mathematical formalization of a published theory of social groups by constructing a model consisting of a deterministic system of differential equations. A formal study of the system led to theorems about the dynamics and the implied equilibrium states of any group.
The emergence of mathematical models in the social sciences was part of the zeitgeist in the 1940s and 1950s in which a variety of new interdisciplinary scientific innovations occurred, such as information theory, game theory, cybernetics and mathematical model building in the social and behavioral sciences.
Approaches
Mathematics in sociology
Focusing on mathematics within sociological research, mathematical sociology uses mathematics to construct social theories. Mathematical sociology aims to take sociological theory and to express it in mathematical terms. The benefits of this approach include increased clarity and the ability to use mathematics to derive implications of a theory that cannot be arrived at intuitively. In mathematical sociology, the preferred style is encapsulated in the phrase "constructing a mathematical model." This means making specified assumptions about some social phenomenon, expressing them in formal mathematics, and providing an empirical interpretation for the ideas. It also means deducing properties of the model and comparing these with relevant empirical data. Social network analysis is the best-known contribution of this subfield to sociology as a whole and to the scientific community at large. The models typically used in mathematical sociology allow sociologists to understand how predictable local interactions are and they are often able to elicit global patterns of social structure.
Society and mathematics
Interested in the relationship between society and mathematical knowledge, mathematical sociology or the sociology of mathematics forms a complementary sphere from disciplines like the sociology of knowledge and sociology of science that tries to understand the social roots of mathematics as well as the impact maths has had on society. This reflexivity on the development and use of maths within sociology attempts to understand how the facts of mathematics related to social constructions and the implications of bias that maths may bring when applied to efforts in understanding social phenomanon.
Further developments
In 1954, a critical expository analysis of Rashevsky's social behavior models was written by sociologist James S. Coleman. Rashevsky's models and as well as the model constructed by Simon raise a question: how can one connect such theoretical models to the data of sociology, which often take the form of surveys in which the results are expressed in the form of proportions of people believing or doing something. This suggests deriving the equations from assumptions about the chances of an individual changing state in a small interval of time, a procedure well known in the mathematics of stochastic processes.
Coleman embodied this idea in his 1964 book Introduction to Mathematical Sociology, which showed how stochastic processes in social networks could be analyzed in such a way as to enable testing of the constructed model by comparison with the relevant data. The same idea can and has been applied to processes of change in social relations, an active research theme in the study of social networks, illustrated by an empirical study appearing in the journal Science.
In other work, Coleman employed mathematical ideas drawn from economics, such as general equilibrium theory, to argue that general social theory should begin with a concept of purposive action and, for analytical reasons, approximate such action by the use of rational choice models (Coleman, 1990). This argument is similar to viewpoints expressed by other sociologists in their efforts to use rational choice theory in sociological analysis although such efforts have met with substantive and philosophical criticisms.
Meanwhile, structural analysis of the type indicated earlier received a further extension to social networks based on institutionalized social relations, notably those of kinship. The linkage of mathematics and sociology here involved abstract algebra, in particular, group theory. This, in turn, led to a focus on a data-analytical version of homomorphic reduction of a complex social network (which along with many other techniques is presented in Wasserman and Faust 1994).
In regard to Rapoport's random and biased net theory, his 1961 study of a large sociogram, co-authored with Horvath turned out to become a very influential paper. There was early evidence of this influence. In 1964, Thomas Fararo and a co-author analyzed another large friendship sociogram using a biased net model. Later in the 1960s, Stanley Milgram described the small world problem and undertook a field experiment dealing with it. A highly fertile idea was suggested and applied by Mark Granovetter in which he drew upon Rapoport's 1961 paper to suggest and apply a distinction between weak and strong ties. The key idea was that there was "strength" in weak ties.
Some programs of research in sociology employ experimental methods to study social interaction processes. Joseph Berger and his colleagues initiated such a program in which the central idea is the use of the theoretical concept "expectation state" to construct theoretical models to explain interpersonal processes, e.g., those linking external status in society to differential influence in local group decision-making. Much of this theoretical work is linked to mathematical model building, especially after the late 1970s adoption of a graph theoretic representation of social information processing, as Berger (2000) describes in looking back upon the development of his program of research. In 1962 he and his collaborators explained model building by reference to the goal of the model builder, which could be explication of a concept in a theory, representation of a single recurrent social process, or a broad theory based on a theoretical construct, such as, respectively, the concept of balance in psychological and social structures, the process of conformity in an experimental situation, and stimulus sampling theory.
The generations of mathematical sociologists that followed Rapoport, Simon, Harary, Coleman, White and Berger, including those entering the field in the 1960s such as Thomas Fararo, Philip Bonacich, and Tom Mayer, among others, drew upon their work in a variety of ways.
Present research
Mathematical sociology remains a small subfield within the discipline, but it has succeeded in spawning a number of other subfields which share its goals of formally modeling social life. The foremost of these fields is social network analysis, which has become among the fastest growing areas of sociology in the 21st century. The other major development in the field is the rise of computational sociology, which expands the mathematical toolkit with the use of computer simulations, artificial intelligence and advanced statistical methods. The latter subfield also makes use of the vast new data sets on social activity generated by social interaction on the internet.
One important indicator of the significance of mathematical sociology is that the general interest journals in the field, including such central journals as The American Journal of Sociology and The American Sociological Review, have published mathematical models that became influential in the field at large.
More recent trends in mathematical sociology are evident in contributions to The Journal of Mathematical Sociology (JMS). Several trends stand out: the further development of formal theories that explain experimental data dealing with small group processes, the continuing interest in structural balance as a major mathematical and theoretical idea, the interpenetration of mathematical models oriented to theory and innovative quantitative techniques relating to methodology, the use of computer simulations to study problems in social complexity, interest in micro–macro linkage and the problem of emergence, and ever-increasing research on networks of social relations.
Thus, topics from the earliest days, like balance and network models, continue to be of contemporary interest. The formal techniques employed remain many of the standard and well-known methods of mathematics: differential equations, stochastic processes and game theory. Newer tools like agent-based models used in computer simulation studies are prominently represented. Perennial substantive problems still drive research: social diffusion, social influence, social status origins and consequences, segregation, cooperation, collective action, power, and much more.
Research programs
Many of the developments in mathematical sociology, including formal theory, have exhibited notable decades-long advances that began with path-setting contributions by leading mathematical sociologists and formal theorists. This provides another way of taking note of recent contributions but with an emphasis on continuity with early work through the use of the idea of “research program,” which is a coherent series of theoretical and empirical studies based on some fundamental principle or approach. There are more than a few of these programs and what follows is no more than a brief capsule description of leading exemplars of this idea in which there is an emphasis on the originating leadership in each program and its further development over decades.
(1) Rational Choice Theory and James S. Coleman: After his 1964 pioneering Introduction to Mathematical Sociology, Coleman continued to make contributions to social theory and mathematical model building and his 1990 volume, Foundations of Social Theory was the major theoretical work of a career that spanned the period from 1950s to 1990s and included many other research-based contributions. The Foundation book combined accessible examples of how rational choice theory could function in the analysis of such sociological topics as authority, trust, social capital and the norms (in particular, their emergence). In this way, the book showed how rational choice theory could provide an effective basis for making the transition from micro to macro levels of sociological explanation. An important feature of the book is its use of mathematical ideas in generalizing the rational choice model to include interpersonal sentiment relations as modifiers of outcomes and doing so such that the generalized theory captures the original more self-oriented theory as a special case, as point emphasized in a later analysis of the theory. The rationality presupposition of the theory led to debates among sociological theorists. Nevertheless, many sociologists drew upon Coleman’s formulation of a general template for micro-macro transition to gain leverage on the continuation of topics central to his and the discipline's explanatory focus on a variety of macrosocial phenomena in which rational choice simplified the micro level in the interest of combining individual actions to account for macro outcomes of social processes.
(2) Structuralism (Formal) and Harrison C. White: In the decades since his earliest contributions, Harrison White has led the field in putting social structural analysis on a mathematical and empirical basis, including the 1970 publication of Chains of Opportunity: System Models of Mobility in Organizations which set out and applied to data a vacancy chain model for mobility in and across organizations. His very influential other work includes the operational concepts of blockmodel and structural equivalence which start from a body of social relational data to produce analytical results using these procedures and concepts. These ideas and methods were developed in collaboration with his former students François Lorraine, Ronald Breiger, and Scott Boorman. These three are among the more than 30 students who earned their doctorates under White in the period 1963-1986. The theory and application of blockmodels has been set out in detail in a recent monograph. White's later contributions include a structuralist approach to markets and, in 1992, a general theoretical framework, later appearing in a revised edition.
(3) Expectation states theory and Joseph Berger: Under Berger’s intellectual and organizational leadership, Expectation States Theory branched out into a large number of specific programs of research on specific problems, each treated in terms of the master concept of expectation states. He and his colleague and frequent collaborator Morris Zelditch Jr not only produced work of their own but created a doctoral program at Stanford University that led to an enormous outpouring of research by notable former students, including Murray Webster, David Wagner, and Hamit Fisek. Collaboration with mathematician Robert Z. Norman led to the use of mathematical graph theory as a way of representing and analyzing social information processing in self-other interactions. Berger and Zelditch also advanced work in formal theorizing and mathematical model building as early as 1962 with a collaborative expository analysis of types of models. Berger and Zelditch stimulated advances in other theoretical research programs by providing outlets for the publication of new work, culminating in a 2002 edited volume that includes a chapter that presents an authoritative overview of Expectation states theory as a program of cumulative research dealing with group processes.
(4) Formalization in Theoretical Sociology and Thomas J. Fararo: Many of this sociologist’s contributions have been devoted to bringing mathematical thinking into greater contact with sociological theory. He organized a symposium attended by sociological theorists in which formal theorists delivered papers that were subsequently published in 2000. Through collaborations with students and colleagues his own theoretical research program dealt with such topics as macrostructural theory and E-state structuralism (both with former student John Skvoretz), subjective images of stratification (with former student Kenji Kosaka), tripartite structural analysis (with colleague Patrick Doreian) and computational sociology (with colleague Norman P. Hummon). Two of his books are extended treatments of his approach to theoretical sociology.
(5) Social Network Analysis and Linton C. Freeman: In the early 1960s Freeman directed a sophisticated empirical study of community power structure. In 1978 he established the journal Social Networks. It rapidly became a major outlet for original research papers that used mathematical techniques to analyze network data. The journal also publishes conceptual and theoretical contributions, including his paper “Centrality in Social Networks: Conceptual Clarification.” The paper has been cited more than 13,000 times. In turn, the mathematical concept defined in that paper led to further elaborations of the ideas, to experimental tests, and to numerous applications in empirical studies. He is the author of a study of the history and sociology of the field of social network analysis.
(6) Quantitative Methodology and Kenneth C. Land: Kenneth Land has been on the frontier of quantitative methodology in sociology as well as formal theoretical model building. The influential yearly volume Sociological Methodology has been one of Land’s favorite outlets for the publication of papers that often lie in the intersection of quantitative methodology and mathematical sociology. Two of his theoretical papers appeared early in this journal: “Mathematical Formalization of Durkheim's Theory of Division of Labor” (1970) and “Formal Theory” (1971). His decades-long research program includes contributions relating to numerous special topics and methods, including social statistics, social indicators, stochastic processes, mathematical criminology, demography and social forecasting. Thus Land brings to these fields the skills of a statistician, a mathematician and a sociologist, combined.
(7) Affect Control Theory and David R. Heise: In 1979, Heise published a groundbreaking formal and empirical study in the tradition of interpretive sociology, especially symbolic interactionism, Understanding Events: Affect and the Construction of Social Action. It was the origination of a research program that has included his further theoretical and empirical studies and those of other sociologists, such as Lynn Smith-Lovin, Dawn Robinson and Neil MacKinnon. Definition of the situation and self-other definitions are two of the leading concepts in affect control theory. The formalism used by Heise and other contributors uses a validated form of measurement and a cybernetic control mechanism in which immediate feelings and compared with fundamental sentiments in such a way as to generate an effort to bring immediate feelings in a situation into correspondence with sentiments. In the simplest models, each person in an interactive pair, is represented in terms of one side of a role relationship in which fundamental sentiments associated with each role guide the process of immediate interaction. A higher level of the control process can be activated in which the definition of the situation is transformed. This research program comprises several of the key chapters in a 2006 volume of contributions to control systems theory (in the sense of Powers 1975 ) in sociology.
(8) "Distributive Justice Theory" and Guillermina Jasso: Since 1980, Jasso has treated problems of distributive justice with an original theory that uses mathematical methods. She has elaborated upon and applied this theory to a wide range of social phenomena. Her most general mathematical apparatus – with the theory of distributive justice as a special case—deals with any subjective comparison between some actual state and some reference level for it, e.g., a comparison of an actual reward with an expected reward. In her justice theory, she starts with a very simple premise, the justice evaluation function (the natural logarithm of the ratio of actual to just reward) and then derives numerous empirically testable implications.
(9) Collaborative research and John Skvoretz. A major feature of modern science is collaborative research in which the distinctive skills of the participants combine to produce original research. Skvoretz, in addition to this other contributions, has been a frequent collaborator in a variety of theoretical research programs, often using mathematical expertise as well as skills in experimental design, statistical data analysis and simulation methods. Some examples are: (1) Collaborative work on theoretical, statistical and mathematical problems in biased net theory. (2) Collaborative contributions to Expectation States Theory. (3) Collaborative contributions to Elementary Theory. (4) Collaboration with Bruce Mayhew in a structuralist research program. From the early 1970s, Skvoretz has been one of the most prolific of contributors to the advance of mathematical sociology.
The above discussion could be expanded to include many other programs and individuals including European sociologists such as Peter Abell and the late Raymond Boudon.
Awards in mathematical sociology
The Mathematical Sociology section of The American Sociological Association in 2002 initiated awards for contributions to the field, including The James S. Coleman Distinguished Career Achievement Award. (Coleman had died in 1995 before the section had been established.) Given every other year, the awardees include some of those just listed in terms of their career-long research programs:
2022: Guillermina Jasso, New York University
2020: Noah Friedkin, University of California, Santa Barbara
2018: Ronald Breiger, University of Arizona
2017: Lynn Smith-Lovin, Duke University.
2014: Philip Bonacich, University of California, Los Angeles.
2012: John Skvoretz, University of South Florida.
2010: David R. Heise, Indiana University.
2008: Scott Boorman, Yale University.
2006: Linton Freeman, University of California, Irvine.
2004: Thomas Fararo, University of Pittsburgh.
2002: Harrison White, Columbia University.
The section's other categories of awards and their recipients are listed at ASA Section on Mathematical Sociology
Texts and journals
Mathematical sociology textbooks cover a variety of models, usually explaining the required mathematical background before discussing important work in the literature (Fararo 1973, Leik and Meeker 1975, Bonacich and Lu 2012). An earlier text by Otomar Bartos (1967) is still of relevance. Of wider scope and mathematical sophistication is the text by Rapoport (1983). A very reader-friendly and imaginative introduction to explanatory thinking leading to models is Lave and March (1975, reprinted 1993). The Journal of Mathematical Sociology (started in 1971) has been open to papers covering a broad spectrum of topics employing a variety of types of mathematics, especially through frequent special issues. Other journals in sociology who publish papers with substantial use of mathematics are Computational and Mathematical Organization Theory, Journal of social structure, Journal of Artificial Societies and Social Simulation
Articles in Social Networks, a journal devoted to social structural analysis, very often employ mathematical models and related structural data analyses. In addition – importantly indicating the penetration of mathematical model building into sociological research – the major comprehensive journals in sociology, especially The American Journal of Sociology and The American Sociological Review, regularly publish articles featuring mathematical formulations.
See also
Isaac Asimov's Foundation series, based on a massive expansion of the premise
Positivism
Statistics
Computational sociology
Game Theory
Thomas Schelling
Peter Blau
Harrison White
Nicolas Rashevsky
Society for Mathematical Biology
Interpersonal ties
James Samuel Coleman
James D. Montgomery
Thomas Fararo
Social network
References
Further reading
Bartos, Otomar. 1967. "Simple Models of Group Behavior." Columbia University Press.
Berger, Joseph. 2000. "Theory and Formalization: Some Reflections on Experience." Sociological Theory 18(3):482-489.
Berger, Joseph, Bernard P. Cohen, J. Laurie Snell, and Morris Zelditch, Jr. 1962. Types of Formalization in Small Group Research. Houghton-Mifflin.
Berger, Joseph and Morris Zelditch Jr. 2002. New Directions in Contemporary Sociological Theory Rowman and Littlefield.
Bonacich, Philip and Philip Lu. Introduction to Mathematical Sociology. Princeton University Press.
Coleman, James S. 1964. An Introduction to Mathematical Sociology. Free Press.
_. 1990. Foundations of Social Theory. Harvard University Press.
Doreian, Patrick, Vladimir Batagelj, and Anuska Ferligoj. 2004. Generalized Blockmodeling. Cambridge University Press.
Edling, Christofer R. 2002. "Mathematics in Sociology," Annual Review of Sociology.
Fararo, Thomas J. 1973. Mathematical Sociology. Wiley. Reprinted by Krieger, 1978.
_. 1984. Editor. Mathematical Ideas and Sociological Theory. Gordon and Breach.
_. 1989. The Meaning of General Theoretical Sociology: Tradition and Formalization. Cambridge University Press.
Freeman, Linton C. 2004. The Development of Social Network Analysis. Empirical Press.
Heise, David R. 1979. Understanding Events: Affect and the Construction of Social Action. Cambridge University Press.
Helbing, Dirk. 1995. Quantitative Sociodynamics. Kluwer Academics.
Lave, Charles and James March. 1975. An Introduction to Models in the Social Sciences. Harper and Row.
Leik, Robert K. and Barbara F. Meeker. 1975. Mathematical Sociology. Prentice-Hall.
Rapoport, Anatol. 1983. Mathematical Models in the Social and Behavioral Sciences. Wiley.
Nicolas Rashevsky.: 1965, The Representation of Organisms in Terms of Predicates, Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics 27: 477-491.
Nicolas Rashevsky.: 1969, Outline of a Unified Approach to Physics, Biology and Sociology., Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics 31: 159-198.
Rosen, Robert. 1972. "Tribute to Nicolas Rashevsky 1899-1972." Progress in Theoretical Biology 2.
Leik, Robert K. and Barbara F. Meeker. 1975. Mathematical Sociology. Prentice-Hall.
Simon, Herbert A. 1952. "A Formal Theory of Interaction in Social Groups." American Sociological Review 17:202-212.
Wasserman, Stanley and Katherine Faust. 1994. Social Network Analysis: Methods and Applications. Cambridge University Press.
White, Harrison C. 1963. An Anatomy of Kinship. Prentice-Hall.
_. 1970. Chains of Opportunity. Harvard University Press.
_. 1992. Identity and Control: A Structural Theory of Action. Princeton University Press.
_. 2008. Identity and Control: How Social Formations Emerge. 2nd Ed. (Revised) Princeton University Press.
External links
Home Page of Mathematical Sociology Section of the American Sociological Association
The Society for Mathematical Biology
Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics
European Society for Mathematical and Theoretical Biology (ESMTB)
Mathematical Sociology Section Home Page
Sociology of science
Applied mathematics
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French%20Cochinchina
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French Cochinchina
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French Cochinchina (sometimes spelled Cochin-China; ; , chữ Hán: ) was a colony of French Indochina, encompassing the whole region of Lower Cochinchina or Southern Vietnam from 1862 to 1946. The French operated a plantation economy whose primary strategic product was rubber.
After the end of Japanese occupation (1941–45) and the expulsion from Saigon of Communist-led nationalist Viet Minh in 1946, the territory was established by the French as the Autonomous Republic of Cochinchina, a controversial decision that helped trigger the First Indochina War. In a further move to deny the claims of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam declared in Hanoi by the Viet Minh in 1949, Cochinchina was formally united with Annam and Tonkin in the State of Vietnam within the French Union.
Nam Kỳ originated from the reign of Minh Mạng of the Nguyễn dynasty, but became a name associated with the French colonial period and so Vietnamese, especially nationalists, prefer the term Nam Phần to refer to Southern Vietnam.
History
French conquest
In 1858, under the pretext of protecting the work of French Catholic missionaries, which the imperial Vietnamese Nguyễn dynasty increasingly regarded as a political threat, French Admiral Charles Rigault de Genouilly, with the assistance of Spanish forces from the Philippines, attacked Tourane (present day Da Nang) in Annam. Early in 1859 he followed this up with an attack on Saigon, but as in Tourane was unable to seize territory outside of the defensive perimeter of the city. The Vietnamese Siege of Saigon was not lifted until 1861 when additional French forces were able to advance across the Mekong Delta.
The Vietnamese conceded in 1862 and signed the Treaty of Saigon. This ensured the free practice of the Catholic religion; opened the Mekong Delta (and three ports in the north, in Tonkin) to trade; and ceded to France the provinces of Biên Hòa, Gia Định and Định Tường along with the islands of Poulo Condore. In 1867, French Admiral Pierre de la Grandière forced the Vietnamese to surrender three additional provinces, Châu Đốc, Hà Tiên and Vĩnh Long. With these three additions all of southern Vietnam and the Mekong Delta fell under French control.
Consolidation of power
In 1871 all the territories ceded to the French in southern Vietnam were incorporated as colony of Cochinchina, with Admiral Dupré as its first governor.
In 1887, the colony became a confederal member of the Union of French Indochina. Unlike the protectorates of Annam (central Vietnam) and Tonkin (northern Vietnam), Cochinchina was ruled directly by the French, both de jure and de facto, and was represented by a deputy in the National Assembly in Paris.
Within Indochina, Cochinchina was the territory with the greatest European presence. At its height, in 1940, it was estimated at 16,550 people, the vast majority living in Saigon.
Plantation economy
The French authorities dispossessed Vietnamese landowners and peasants to ensure European control of the expansion of rice and rubber production. By 1930, the French controlled more than a quarter of Cochinchina's farmlands. However, French-Vietnamese landlords remained intrinsic dominant in the Mekong Delta, which controlled most of the region's farm ownership and rice productions. The French began rubber production in Cochinchina in 1907 seeking a share of the monopoly profits that the British were earning from their plantations in Malaya. Investment from metropolitan France was encouraged by large land grants allowing for rubber cultivation on an industrial scale. Virgin rainforests in eastern Cochinchina, the highly fertile 'red lands', were cleared for the new export crop.
These developments contributed to the 1916 Cochinchina uprising. Insurgents attempted to storm Saigon central prison, and maintained a prolonged resistance in the Mekong Delta. 51 were hanged.
As they expanded in response to the increased rubber demand after the First World War, the European plantations recruited, as indentured labour, workers from "the overcrowded villages of the Red River Delta in Tonkin and the coastal lowlands of Annam". These migrants, despite Sûreté efforts at political screening, brought south the influence of the Communist Party of Nguyen Ai Quoc (Ho Chi Minh), and of other underground nationalist parties (the Tan Viet and Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng—VNQDD). At the same time, the local peasantry were driven into debt servitude, and into plantation labour, by land and poll taxes. By 1930, 80% of riceland was owned by 25% of landowners, and 57% of the rural population were landless peasants working on large estates. This combination led to widespread and recurring unrest and to strikes. Of these the most significant, leading to armed confrontations, was the refusal of work by labourers Phu Rieng Do, a sprawling 5,500 hectares Michelin rubber plantation in 1930.
In response to rural unrest and to growing labour militancy in Saigon, between 1930 and 1932 the French authorities detained more than 12,000 political prisoners, of whom 88 were guillotined, and almost 7000 sentenced to prison or to hard labour in penal colonies.
Popular Front promise of reform
In 1936 the formation in France of the Popular Front government led by Leon Blum was accompanied by promises of colonial reform. In Cochinchina the new governor-general of Indochina Jules Brévié, sought to defuse the tense and expectant political situation by amnestying political prisoners, and by easing restrictions on the press, political parties, and trade unions.
Saigon witnessed further unrest culminating in the summer of 1937 in general dock and transport strikes. In April of that year the Communist Party and their Trotskyist left opposition ran a common slate for the municipal elections with both their respective leaders Nguyễn Văn Tạo and Tạ Thu Thâu winning seats. The exceptional anti-colonial unity of the left, however, was split by the lengthening shadow of the Moscow Trials and by growing protest over the failure of the Communist-supported Popular Front to deliver constitutional reform. Colonial Minister Marius Moutet, a Socialist commented that he had sought "a wide consultation with all elements of the popular [will]," but with "Trotskyist-Communists intervening in the villages to menace and intimidate the peasant part of the population, taking all authority from the public officials," the necessary "formula" had not been found.
War and the Insurrection of 1940
In April 1939 Cochinchina Council elections Tạ Thu Thâu led a "Workers' and Peasants' Slate" into victory over both the moderate Constitutionalists and the Communists' Democratic Front. Key to their success was popular opposition to the war taxes ("national defence levy") that the Communist Party, in the spirit of Franco-Soviet accord, had felt obliged to support. Brévié set the election results aside and wrote to Colonial Minister Georges Mandel: "the Trotskyists under the leadership of Ta Thu Thau, want to take advantage of a possible war in order to win total liberation." The Stalinists, on the other hand, are "following the position of the Communist Party in France" and "will thus be loyal if war breaks out."
With the Hitler-Stalin Pact of 23 August 1939, the local Communists were ordered by Moscow to return to direct confrontation with the French. Under the slogan "Land to the Tillers, Freedom for the workers and independence for Vietnam", in November 1940 the Party in Cochinchina instigated a widespread insurrection. The revolt did not penetrate Saigon (an attempted uprising in the city was quelled in a day). In the Mekong Delta fighting continued until the end of the year.
Japanese occupation
After a brief cross-border confrontation with French forces in September 1940, Japanese forces occupied Tonkin. On 9 December 1940, an agreement was reached with the Vichy government whereby French sovereignty over its army and administrative affairs was confirmed, while Japanese forces were free to fight the war against the Allies from Indochinese soil. A large scale movement of troops did not occur until after the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union in late June 1941. With the Soviets tied down, the high command concluded that a "strike south" would solve the problems posed for Japan by the American-led oil embargo. To prepare for an invasion of the oil-rich Dutch East Indies, some 140,000 Japanese troops occupied southern French Indochina on 28 July 1941.
French troops and the civil administration were allowed to remain, albeit under Japanese supervision. While the Japanese government’s policy of “maintaining peace” in Indochina limited interactions between the Japanese and Vietnamese, the contradiction of mutual coexistence between France, as the “missionary of civilisation,” and Japan, as the “liberator of Asia” from Western colonialism, could not be concealed. The tensions contributed to nationalist, anti-colonial feeling. Drawing on the local Coadaist sect, the Japanese began to encourage nationalist groups in Cohinchina from 1943.
Following the liberation of Paris in 1944, Japan increasingly suspected that the French authorities would assist Allied operations. In March 1945, a Japanese coup d'état in French Indochina took the Europeans into custody and imposed their direct authority. The coup had, in the words of diplomat Jean Sainteny, "wrecked a colonial enterprise that had been in existence for 80 years." In August 1945, as they faced defeat, the Japanese belatedly created a puppet state, incorporating Cochinchina in the Empire of Vietnam under the nominal authority of the Bảo Đại.
The August Revolution and the return of French rule
On 2 September 1945, in Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh and his new Front for the Independence of Vietnam, the Viet Minh, proclaimed the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. Already on 24 August the Viet Minh had declared a provisional government (a Southern Administrative Committee) in Saigon. When, for the declared purpose of disarming the Japanese, the Viet-Minh accommodated the landing and strategic positioning of their wartime "democratic allies", the British, rival political groups turned out in force including the syncretic Hoa Hao and Cao Dai sects. On 7 and 8 September 1945, in the delta city of Cần Thơ the Committee had to rely on the Jeunesse d'Avant-Garde/Thanh Niên Tiền Phong (Vanguard Youth), who had contributed to civil defence and policing under Japanese. They fired upon crowds demanding arms against the French.
In Saigon, the violence of a French restoration assisted by British and surrendered Japanese troops, triggered a general uprising on 23 September. In the course of what became known as the Southern Resistance War (Nam Bộ kháng chiến) the Viet Minh defeated rival resistance forces, executing their leading cadres, but, by the end of 1945, had been pushed out of Saigon and major urban centres into the countryside.
Incorporation into the State of Vietnam
On 1 June 1946, while the Viet Minh leadership was in France for negotiations, at the initiative of High Commissioner d'Argenlieu and in violation of the 6 March Ho–Sainteny agreement, a local territorial assembly proclaimed an "Autonomous Republic". War between France and the Viet Minh followed (1946–54). Nguyễn Văn Thinh, the first head of its government, died in an apparent suicide in November of the same year. He was succeeded by Lê Văn Hoạch, a member of the caodaist sect. In 1947, Nguyễn Văn Xuân replaced Lê and renamed the "Provisional Government of the Autonomous Republic of Cochinchina" as the "Provisional Government of Southern Vietnam", suggesting that his aim was to reunite the whole country.
The next year, the Provisional Central Government of Vietnam was proclaimed with the merger of Annam and Tonkin: Xuân became its Prime minister and left office in Cochichina, where he was replaced by Trần Văn Hữu. Xuân and the French had agreed to reunite Vietnam, but Cochinchina posed a problem because of its ill-defined legal status. The reunification was opposed by the French colonists, who were still influential in the Cochinchinese council, and by Southern Vietnamese autonomists: they delayed the process of reunification by arguing that Cochinchina was still legally a colony – as its new status as a Republic had never been ratified by the French National Assembly – and that any territorial change therefore required the approval of the French parliament. Xuân issued a by-law reuniting Cochinchina with the rest of Vietnam, but it was overruled by the Cochinchinese council.
Cochinchina remained separated from the rest of Vietnam for over a year, while former Emperor Bảo Đại – whom the French wanted to bring back to power as a political alternative to Ho Chi Minh – refused to return to Vietnam and take office as head of state until the country was fully reunited. On 14 March 1949, the French National Assembly voted a law permitting the creation of a Territorial Assembly of Cochinchina. This new Cochinchinese parliament was elected on 10 April 1949, with the Vietnamese representatives then becoming a majority. On 23 April, the Territorial Assembly approved the merger of the Provisional Government of Southern Vietnam with the Provisional Central Government of Vietnam. The decision was in turn approved by the French National Assembly on 20 May, and the merger was effective on 4 June. The State of Vietnam was then be proclaimed, with Bảo Đại as head of state.
Administration
Government
Following the French colonial invasion, Vietnamese mandarins withdrew from Cochinchina, forcing the French to adopt a policy of direct rule.
The highest office in the government of French Cochinchina was the Governor of Cochinchina (統督南圻, Thống đốc Nam Kỳ), who after 1887 reported directly to the Governor-General of French Indochina. As French Cochinchina was a directly-ruled colony the French colonial apparatus operated at every level of government including at the provincial, district, and communal levels.
Each Cochinchinese province was headed by French official with the title of "Chủ tỉnh" (主省) or "Tỉnh trưởng" (省長), these French officials had similar roles and responsibilities as the equivalent French "Công sứ" (公使) had in the provinces of the Nguyễn dynasty. The provinces of French Cochinchina was further divided into districts known as "Tong" headed by a "Chanh tong", which were further divided into communes known as "xã" (社), which were headed by a "Huong ca". Both the district and commune chiefs were salaried employees of the French colonial administration.
Laws
During the early periods of French rule in Cochinchina both French laws and Nguyễn dynasty laws applied and offenders of both faced trial in French courts. Initially French people were tried using French laws and Vietnamese people (then known as "Annamese people") were tried using the Nguyễn dynasty's laws alongside a new set of provisions that the French had introduced for their colonial subjects. The French courts applied their rulings based on the two different legal systems. After their consolidation of power the Nguyễn's laws were completely abolished in French Cochinchina and only French laws applied to everyone in the colony.
On 6 January 1903, the Governor-General of French Indochina Jean Baptiste Paul Beau issued a decree that stated that offences for both French and indigenous laws would go to French courts and that offenders would only be tried against French Cochinchina's penal code. During this period the Governor-General of French Indochina also issued a decree that introduced new laws to fine people for a number of common offences outside of the French penal code.
Gallery
See also
Cochinchina
French Indochina
Protectorate of Annam
Protectorate of Tonkin
List of administrators of the French colony of Cochinchina
List of French possessions and colonies
State of Vietnam
Notes
References
Works cited
Further reading
Encyclopedia of Asian History, Volume 4 (Vietnam) 1988. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York.
Vietnam – A Long History by Nguyễn Khắc Viện (1999). Hanoi, Thế Giới Publishers
ArtHanoi Vietnamese money in historical context
WorldStatesmen- Vietnam
French Indochina
Former countries in Vietnamese history
Former colonies in Asia
Former French colonies
French colonisation in Asia
Former countries in Southeast Asia
States and territories established in 1862
States and territories established in 1945
States and territories disestablished in 1945
States and territories disestablished in 1949
1862 establishments in Vietnam
1945 establishments in Vietnam
1945 disestablishments in Vietnam
1949 disestablishments in Vietnam
1862 establishments in the French colonial empire
1945 establishments in the French colonial empire
1945 disestablishments in French Indochina
1949 disestablishments in French Indochina
History of South Vietnam
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crossbones%20%28character%29
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Crossbones (character)
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Crossbones (Brock Rumlow) is a supervillain appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. Created by Mark Gruenwald and Kieron Dwyer, the character first made a cameo appearance in Captain America #359 (October 1989), before he was fully introduced later that month in issue #360 and his name was revealed in issue #362 (November 1989).
In his comic book appearances, Crossbones is depicted as a mercenary who is often employed by other villains such as the Red Skull and Hydra. He serves as one of the most enduring adversaries of Captain America, and even played a part in his assassination in the aftermath of the superhero Civil War. A black-and-white skull mask and an insignia on his chest symbolic of his namesake serve as Crossbones' visual motif.
Crossbones has been adapted in various media incarnations, having been portrayed in live-action by Frank Grillo in the Marvel Cinematic Universe films Captain America: The Winter Soldier (2014), Captain America: Civil War (2016) and Avengers: Endgame (2019). Grillo has also voiced alternate versions of the character in the Disney+ animated series What If...?.
Fictional character biography
Young Brock Rumlow led the Savage Crims gang on New York City's Lower East Side. After he brutalized fifteen-year-old Rachel Leighton, two of her brothers assaulted Rumlow and he killed them. Rumlow fled, entering the Taskmaster's school for criminals, and within three years he became an instructor there under the name Bingo Brock.
As a mercenary, Rumlow enlisted with Albert Malik, the communist Red Skull, in Algeria, serving him as Frag until he was sent to invade Arnim Zola's Switzerland chateau. Ultimately the only team member to survive the assault, Rumlow met and impressed Johann Shmidt, the original Nazi Red Skull, who accepted Brock’s services and codenamed him "Crossbones".
The true Red Skull sent Crossbones to observe Baron Helmut Zemo's progress acquiring the Bloodstone fragments and to obtain them. He stowed aboard Captain America's flagship, and entered Zemo's ship to steal the Bloodstone fragments. He overpowered Diamondback, and shot a crossbow bolt that coupled with Captain America's shield. Crossbones was forced to shatter the Bloodstone fragments when the alien entity known as the Hellfire Helix used it to take control of Baron Heinrich Zemo's body; the destruction of the Bloodstone discorporated the Hellfire Helix. Knowing that his employer would be infuriated by the Bloodstone's loss, Crossbones kidnapped Diamondback to Madripoor as bait for Captain America. He challenged Captain America to retrieve Diamondback, but the Captain defeated him, although Diamondback escaped, and the Red Skull ordered Crossbones to desist and return to headquarters. The Red Skull then ordered him to retrieve the Controller after the Controller's breakout from the Vault. With the Machinesmith, Crossbones investigated the Red Skull's disappearance.
Crossbones assembled the Skeleton Crew from the Red Skull's henchmen and led them on a search for the Red Skull, who had been missing since Magneto imprisoned him in an underground bunker. They battled the Black Queen and her Hellfire Club mercenaries. Crossbones enlisted the aid of psychic Tristam Micawber to locate the Red Skull. Upon finding his employer, Crossbones took the Red Skull to Skullhouse for convalescence.
He next attended AIM's weapons exposition. He battled Daredevil during a failed assassination attempt against the Kingpin. He battled Bullseye during Bullseye's failed assassination attempt against the Red Skull. He battled Captain America again and was defeated. He later recounts how he met the Red Skull. The Red Skull assigned him to discover who killed the Red Skull's spare clone bodies. Alongside the Skeleton Crew, he battled the Schutzheilligruppe in an attempt to rescue the Red Skull but was captured. He was rescued from the Schutzheilligruppe's custody by Arnim Zola's fake Avengers. Crossbones was eventually fired for questioning the Red Skull's decision to ally himself with the Viper.
Desperate to regain his position as leader of the Skeleton Crew, Crossbones kidnapped Diamondback, imprisoning in an abandoned subway station and forced into a brutal regime of combat training. Crossbones believed that he had brainwashed Diamondback into betraying Captain America, but Diamondback was actually laying a trap for Crossbones. Diamondback stole samples of Captain America's blood from the Avengers' mansion, then accompanied Crossbones to the Red Skull's mountain fortress. The two were captured and imprisoned, and the Red Skull rehired Crossbones on a temporary basis. He was later attacked by Cutthroat, the Skeleton Crew's new leader, who feared that Crossbones will try to take back his position as the Red Skull's right-hand man. Crossbones killed Cutthroat, never realizing that Cutthroat was actually Diamondback's older brother. Crossbones later stabbed Diamondback during Diamondback's escape attempt, only to later save with a blood transfusion to use as bait. He was critically wounded by flying shrapnel during an assault on the fortress by Captain America and the Falcon, and imprisoned.
Imprisoned in the Raft when Electro breaks the inmates out, Crossbones was seen fighting Captain America and Spider-Man. Spider-Man kicked Crossbones in the face, knocking him out.
After he escaped from prison, Crossbones became a mercenary and assassin for a number of organizations, until he was rehired by the Red Skull who was later apparently assassinated by the Winter Soldier. Crossbones and his new lover, Synthia Schmidt (the Red Skull's daughter), began hunting Aleksander Lukin, the Winter Soldier's commander. They plotted to crash a stolen World War II era plane into the new Kronas Headquarters in London, only to have their plane destroyed by the Red Skull's Sleeper robot. While they escape the destruction of the plane, they found Agent 13, and are about to kill Sharon Carter, only to be stopped by the Red Skull's appearance. They begin working with Red Skull/Lukin whose minds both share Lukin's body.
Following the "Civil War" storyline, Captain America's Anti-Registration heroes surrendered to Iron Man's Pro-Registration heroes. While being led from Federal Courthouse, Captain America was shot in the shoulder by Crossbones taking the Red Skull's orders. Crossbones tries to escape in a helicopter but was tracked by the Falcon and the Winter Soldier. The Winter Soldier then beat Crossbones into unconsciousness, while Crossbones simply laughed. Falcon then turned Crossbones over to S.H.I.E.L.D. custody.
In Fallen Son: The Death of Captain America, Wolverine, along with Daredevil and Doctor Strange, broke into S.H.I.E.L.D. to interrogate Crossbones and threatened to kill him. Crossbones revealed no knowledge of his hiring by the Red Skull. Wolverine left him a bloody mess on the floor after being convinced by Daredevil to spare his life.
S.H.I.E.L.D. Director Tony Stark arranged for Professor X to scan Crossbones' mind for information, but Professor X found that someone had erased several parts of his memory to prevent such a scan. Sin and a new incarnation of the Serpent Squad have broken Crossbones free of S.H.I.E.L.D. custody. They then capture the Winter Soldier when confronting Lukin to find out a relationship with the Red Skull.
When Sin and the Serpent Squad attacked the Senate Building, Bucky Barnes arrived as the new Captain America. After battling and injuring many of the Squad, Crossbones attacked Barnes. After a brutal fight in which Crossbones launched Barnes out of the building. Bucky was saved by the Natalia Romanova's intervention, and Bucky shot Crossbones several times in the chest. The gravely wounded Crossbones was then taken into S.H.I.E.L.D. custody once again.
At the start of the "Heroic Age" event, Crossbones has become a member of the new Thunderbolts team formed in the aftermath of Siege. Government agents, working with Luke Cage, add Crossbones to the team knowing that he cannot be reformed, hoping that his extreme methods will alienate the other Thunderbolt members and push them towards rehabilitation. During the team's first mission, Crossbones was exposed to corrupted Terrigen Mists; during the events of Shadowland, Crossbones manifested the ability to fire a powerful, piercing beam of energy from his face, theorizing that this ability originates from his exposure to the Terrigen mists. He uses this ability to murder a police officer. Fearing that the Thunderbolts are close to being disbanded following Cage's decision to leave, Crossbones attempted to escape alongside Ghost and Juggernaut. During the attempt, Crossbones used his new ability to fight the unsuspecting Steve Rogers. Crossbones was defeated and discharged from the Thunderbolts, after Ghost revealed his murder of the police officer. Crossbones is shown incarcerated in a padded cell wearing a straitjacket, apparently no longer able to use his energy beam.
During the "Fear Itself" storyline, Crossbones was constantly harassed while he was behind bars, because he was both a former Thunderbolt member and a Neo-Nazi. Shortly after when he was being beaten up by more thugs, Juggernaut unintentionally causes a break out in the prison facility called the Raft. Man Mountain Mario (the cousin of Man Mountain Marko) helps defend Crossbones from the thugs. While the two of them were trying to escape, Mario told Crossbones about his grandma who helps criminals leave the border. Crossbones manages to escape and returns the favor by killing Mario to help with his escape. He confronts some of the former Avengers Initiative members in New Jersey after he escapes the Raft. He fights Gravity, Frog-Man, Geiger, Scarlet Spiders, and Firestar. When he's surrounded, he tosses a grenade at Gravity but Geiger catches it and is seriously injured, creating an easy distraction for him to escape.
During the "Ends of the Earth" storyline, Crossbones was seen in one of Doctor Octopus' facilities. Sabra fights past some Octobots until Crossbones shoots Sabra.
Crossbones later appears as a member of Hydra who are planning to spread poisonous blood extracted from an Inhuman boy named Lucas. He fights Sam Wilson as the new Captain America on Bagalia. Just as he was about to kill Wilson, he is defeated by Misty Knight who was undercover at that moment. He is later defeated by Wilson when he attacks a Hydra base located on Florida.
During the "Avengers: Standoff!" storyline, Crossbones was an inmate of Pleasant Hill, a gated community established by S.H.I.E.L.D. When Steve Rogers was at the Pleasant Hill Bowling Alley trying to reason with Kobik, Crossbones attacks Rogers. Before Crossbones can kill Rogers, Kobik's powers de-age Rogers back to physical prime, which allows the Captain to defeat Crossbones. In the aftermath of the events at Pleasant Hill, Crossbones founds a new version of Hydra with the Red Skull and Sin.
During the "Secret Empire" storyline, Crossbones appears as a member of the Army of Evil and took part in the attack on Manhattan in retaliation for what happened at Pleasant Hill. Crossbones and Sin are shown to be in charge of a super-prison that was established by Hydra. Their super-prison was raided by the Underground in their mission to free their captive friends.
During the "Devil's Reign" storyline, Crossbones appears as a member of Mayor Wilson Fisk's incarnation of the Thunderbolts at the time when Mayor Fisk passed a law that forbids superhero activity. He leads the NYPD into raiding Rand Corporation to arrest Danny Rand. As he didn't have his "iron fist" ability, Danny held his own against Crossbones and the NYPD operatives with him before they defeated him.
Powers and abilities
An expert combatant trained in warfare, Crossbones is an accomplished military tactician, and is thus able to formulate strategies on the battlefield. He also has extensive training in martial arts, street-fighting, marksmanship, and various forms of hand-to-hand combat. He once served as a student at the Taskmaster's school for criminals before becoming an instructor there himself. Physically, Crossbones is tall and well built, but moves with an athletic grace uncommon for a man of his bulk. In addition, he is proficient in the use of various weapons, such as guns, bows, and throwing knives. One of Crossbones' primary weapons are spring-loaded stiletto blades housed in his gauntlets. He also has experience with torture and brainwashing, having effectively "reprogrammed" Sin, and nearly so with Diamondback.
As a member of the Thunderbolts, Crossbones was exposed to corrupted Terrigen Mists during a mission, and shortly after manifested the ability to generate a circle of energy in front of his face which could fire energy beams capable of piercing and burning his targets. The ability developed to the point where flames engulfed the entirety of his head while still allowing him to fire focused energy beams, though these flames could seemingly be doused in water. While his power is active, Crossbones does not appear to be entirely impervious to the flames he generates. After the flames died following his first usage, his mask appeared to have been burnt away and his face was heavily scarred.
Other versions
Heroes Reborn
Crossbones appears in the Heroes Reborn universe as a partner/enforcer for the Red Skull and Master Man's World Party. This version also gets mutated by gamma radiation to combat Falcon and Captain America. He is killed by Rebel O'Reilly.
House of M
In the alternate reality depicted in the 2005 "House of M" storyline, Crossbones appeared as a member of Hood's extensive Masters of Evil. Before the Red Guard attacked Santo Rico, Crossbones left the team alongside, Cobra, Mister Hyde, and Thunderball.
Old Man Logan
In the pages of Old Man Logan that took place on Earth-21923, Crossbones is among the villains who work to take out the superheroes all at once. During the fight in Connecticut, Crossbones kills Wonder Man before being stepped on by Giant-Man.
Ultimate Marvel
A teenaged Crossbones appears in the Ultimate Marvel universe as a street punk and a member of the Serpent Skulls gang.
In other media
Television
Crossbones appears in Avengers Assemble, voiced by Fred Tatasciore.
Crossbones appears in Ultimate Spider-Man, voiced again by Fred Tatasciore.
Crossbones appears in Spider-Man, voiced again by Fred Tatasciore.
Crossbones appears in Marvel Disk Wars: The Avengers, voiced by Masato Obara in the Japanese version and by Wally Wingert in the English dub.
Crossbones appears in Marvel Future Avengers, voiced again by Masato Obara in the Japanese version and reprised by Fred Tatasciore in the English dub.
Crossbones appears in Lego Marvel Avengers: Loki in Training, voiced by Giles Panton.
Marvel Cinematic Universe
Frank Grillo portrays Brock Rumlow / Crossbones in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU).
The character is introduced in Captain America: The Winter Soldier (2014).
Rumlow returns as Crossbones in Captain America: Civil War (2016).
An alternate timeline version of Rumlow appears in Avengers: Endgame (2019).
Alternate timeline versions of Rumlow appear in the Disney+ animated series What If...?.
Video games
Crossbones appears as a boss in Captain America and the Avengers.
Crossbones appears as a playable character in Lego Marvel's Avengers, voiced by Darren O'Hare. Additionally, the MCU incarnation of Brock Rumlow is also playable, initially in his STRIKE uniform before his Crossbones design was added later via DLC.
Crossbones appears in Marvel Avengers Academy.
Crossbones appears in Marvel Heroes.
Crossbones appears in Marvel Contest of Champions.
Crossbones appears as a playable character in Marvel Strike Force.
Crossbones appears as a playable character in Marvel: Future Fight.
Crossbones appears as a boss in Marvel's Avengers via the "War for Wakanda" DLC, voiced again by Fred Tatasciore.
Crossbones appears in Marvel's Midnight Suns, voiced by Rick D. Wasserman.
References
External links
Crossbones at Marvel.com
Action film villains
Captain America characters
Characters created by Mark Gruenwald
Comics characters introduced in 1989
Fictional assassins in comics
Fictional gunfighters in comics
Fictional henchmen
Fictional mass murderers
Fictional mercenaries in comics
Fictional military strategists
Fictional torturers and interrogators
Hydra (comics) agents
Marvel Comics martial artists
Marvel Comics neo-Nazis
Marvel Comics supervillains
Villains in animated television series
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim%20Corrigan
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Jim Corrigan
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Jim Corrigan is the name of three fictional characters that have appeared in numerous comic books published by DC Comics.
The first Corrigan initially appeared in More Fun Comics #52 (February 1940), a deceased cop acting as host to the cosmic entity the Spectre, and was created by Jerry Siegel and Bernard Baily.
The second Jim Corrigan was an African-American policeman who has no relation with the original character, first appeared in Superman's Pal Jimmy Olsen #149 (May 1972). The character was created by John Albano and José Delbo. He later became a regular supporting character in Black Lightning beginning with #4.
The third Jim Corrigan appeared years later in issue #12 of Gotham Central, a series about the Gotham City Police Department. The character, created by Greg Rucka, Ed Brubaker, and Michael Lark although similar to the first Corrigan in being a police detective, again is not related to him and served as a red herring of who would become the new Spectre. This Corrigan is later revealed to be a corrupt, self-serving malefactor who murders his colleague Crispus Allen; Allen then becomes the host to the Spectre.
Jim Corrigan appeared in a live-action portrayal by Emmett J. Scanlan in the television series Constantine. Stephen Lobo also portrayed the character in the Arrowverse crossover Crisis on Infinite Earths.
Fictional character biography
More Fun Comics and All-Star Comics
Jim Corrigan began his career as the Spectre in the early 1940s, when the hard-boiled police detective was murdered. Put into cement and thrown into the water by crime-boss Gat Benson, Jim Corrigan's soul left his body and went on towards the afterlife. Instead of going into Heaven, his spirit refused to pass into the afterlife, and his rage was heard by the archangel Michael, who bonded Jim's spirit to the spirit of God's vengeance, the Spectre. He was condemned to return to Earth for sixty years of punishing wrongdoings.
As the Spectre, Jim Corrigan returned to the mortal plane as a partial human, where he proceeded to rain his vengeance on Gat Benson and his accomplices. In the process however, Jim's fiancée, Clarice Winston, was mortally wounded. Using his newfound power, he was able to return Clarice to life, but later ended their relationship in order to spare her any further pain. He also broke off with his partner, and became more of a lone agent, trying to distance himself from his mortal ties, although he retained his job on the police force.
As the popularity of superhero comics began to decline in the mid-1940s, the Spectre suffered as a result. He was reduced to playing the role of "guardian angel" to a bumbling character called "Percival Popp, the Super Cop." Introduced in #74, December 1941 (aside from a head-shot in a one-panel preview at the end of #73's Spectre story), he was a would-be civilian sleuth who, in his words, latched onto Corrigan "of all the detectives on the force because it appeared to me that you are the most intelligent of the lot! You and I ought to be an unbeatable combination, sir!" In the following story, the Voice allowed the physical body of Jim Corrigan, still in cement at the bottom of the river, to be resurrected with the Ring of Life, which had helped the Spectre out of some jams in a few previous stories. The Ghostly Guardian found that he could emerge from Corrigan and maintain a separate existence. In More Fun #90, April 1943, Jim Corrigan per se was completely removed from the feature — he enlisted in the military for World War II service — and the Spectre's reduction to guardian angel status was complete; he even became invisible to everybody but Percy.
As the Spectre, Jim Corrigan ran with the JSA, but he was replaced in 1944, and afterwards Jim Corrigan and the Spectre disappeared from the DC Universe for more than 20 years.
Spectre
When the Spectre was revived in Showcase #60, (January–February 1966), Jim Corrigan played an important part, as editor Julius Schwartz and writer Gardner Fox made significant use of the resurrection of Corrigan's body depicted back in More Fun Comics #75. While the Ghostly Guardian crossed from one mystical plane of existence to another fighting occult menaces, Corrigan, now a captain of Gateway City's police force, was fighting his own battles against a more mundane criminal element. However, Corrigan often got involved in the Spectre's conflicts. In that first story, another spirit, named Azmodus, took possession of a small-time criminal, and while the two astral beings engaged in cosmic combat, the two mortal men slugged it out.
In Showcase #64, September–October 1966, when the Spectre took possession of the body of a dying man, Ace Chance, to preserve its spark of life after his soul had departed, that spirit found the living but soulless Corrigan and entered him. With Chance's physical form hospitalized and on life-support, the Spectre found he could not re-enter Jim. Ace had no desire to give up this body and began romancing heiress Mona Marcy. After Chance was put back into his proper body, Corrigan wondered what he was going to do about Mona, who had no idea who she had really been dating. In fact, a year later the Spectre was awarded his own comic, and in #2 (January–February 1968), Jim asks his astral alter ego for a little privacy, as he has a date with Mona.
While she was not mentioned again, things became more involved for Corrigan. This series established that prolonged separation from his corporeal body diminished the Spectre's energies, and more than once, Jim's will power could keep his spirit form from entering him. The latter instance found Corrigan pinned down by criminals he was after, and his demands for the Spectre's help resulted in the tired spirit acting harshly and hurting an innocent man in the vicinity. Shortly after this, the Spectre was chained to the Journal of Judgment and Corrigan made no more appearances in this era.
Bronze Age
The next time Jim Corrigan was seen was in the brief but controversial Spectre series in Adventure Comics #431–440 (March–April 1974 – July–August 1975). Here, writer Michael Fleisher, ably abetted by atmospheric art from Jim Aparo (Frank Thorne and Ernie Chan spelled him on the pencils once and twice, respectively, when his schedule became too tight), took the Spectre back to his earliest days. As in the first two years in More Fun Comics, the hero and his civilian identity were simply two guises of the same entity. Nevertheless, Corrigan's "life" did get interesting. Now a lieutenant in New York City, Jim was investigating the murder of wealthy businessman Adrian Sterling and met the victim's daughter Gwen. Despite his assertions that romance was out of the question for him, she fell in love with Corrigan. In saving her life from her father's murderer, he had to reveal his true nature. Gwen fell under the influence of a medium, told him about Corrigan's situation, and asked him if he could restore the detective to life. Unfortunately, he was a con artist that the department, and Corrigan in particular, were investigating, and he took advantage of what he presumed was the woman's mental illness to trap and kill Corrigan. As he was already dead, the plan backfired horribly.
Not long later, a reporter named Earl Crawford noticed the number of gruesome finishes that many local criminals had been meeting recently and suspected a connection. By lying to his editor as to just what he had in mind, he arranged an assignment to ride around with a police criminal investigator and, of all people, Lt. Jim Corrigan was the lucky cop. Crawford soon saw the Spectre in action for himself. Despite being a ghost, Corrigan returned Gwen's feelings and pleaded into the night in his dark apartment for a reprieve. Without telling him, the Voice granted the request and he awoke the next morning a mortal man. Corrigan did not realize this until he was shot in the line of duty a few hours later. Once out of the hospital, he proposed to Gwen, who promptly accepted. However, Corrigan was again murdered by criminals and again sent back to Earth by the Voice as the Spectre. He took vengeance upon his killers, then appeared to Gwen to give her the news.
A direct follow-up to this run appeared a few years later as a three-issue story arc in the Dr. Thirteen the Ghost-Breaker series that Paul Kupperberg was writing in Ghosts #97–99 (February–April 1981). Here, the Spectre was still slaughtering particularly brutal criminals and Earl Crawford was still looking for a way to stop the supernatural entity that he knew was responsible, but now Dr. Thirteen was trying to prove he was something normal. Even though Earl and Terry came up with the idea that Lt. Jim Corrigan was somehow connected to the killings, his appearances here were brief and perfunctory.
Another sequel to the Adventure run was published seven years later. A deluxe format miniseries, Wrath of the Spectre, reprinted the original 10 stories in its first three issues, and in its fourth presented, newly drawn by Jim Aparo and various inkers, three stories that had been written by Michael Fleisher in 1975 but left on the proverbial shelf when the series was replaced with Aquaman (even though Fleisher was already on the record in 1980 as having left just two stories). Here, Earl Crawford is charged with murdering a criminal that was actually eliminated by the Spectre, but found not guilty by reason of insanity, and committed to an asylum. Corrigan demonstrates compassion, first by having a disguised Gwen Sterling visit and comfort him, then by using the powers of the Spectre to clear him.
Jim Corrigan also appeared in each of the Spectre's three The Brave and the Bold team-ups with Batman during this era, one of which included fighting against the evil sorcerer Wa'arzen (issues #116 (December 1974-January 1975), 180 (November 1981) and 199 (June 1983)). One other instance is worth noting: in the revived All Star Comics, Jim Corrigan, this time an Inspector with the Gotham City P.D., was seen in issue #70 (January–February 1978).
Spectre (vol. 2)
Among the many changes made to DC Comics' characters during the later half of the 1980s (following the 12-issue miniseries Crisis on Infinite Earths), the Spectre (and thereby Jim Corrigan) was largely depowered. First, in the conclusion to Alan Moore's Swamp Thing storyline "American Gothic", the Spectre was defeated by evil incarnate as it advances to destroy Heaven. Finally, the Spectre, in Last Days of the Justice Society of America, failed to resolve the situation and is punished by God for his failure. Under the authorship of Doug Moench, he became nearly a generic mystical figure, with Corrigan joining an occult detective agency.
This was largely notable because now, Jim Corrigan and the Spectre became two separate entities (although the body of Jim Corrigan was, in fact, a piece of the Spectre's ectoplasm, as later revealed). The body of Corrigan still served as a host to the Spectre, but the Spectre could move on his own separately for a whole day, afterwards needing to return to Corrigan's body to replenish his energy. This allowed for Corrigan to actually team up with the Spectre (rather than the two being one), in essence splitting the 'workload' in two, since one could handle research and the other could get the job done. It also allowed for Corrigan to become a full-fledged detective again.
Nonetheless, if the two were separated for too long, it would spell disaster for both, and therefore Madame Xanadu, who was not only instrumental in returning the Spectre to Earth (and 'separating' Jim Corrigan from him) but also held her place of operations in the same building as Corrigan's agency, introduced a guardian for Corrigan. The attractive young woman Kim Liang became not only Jim's secretary, but also a caretaker, herself a separated piece of Xanadu's soul (although this was unknown to her at the time). The importance of Xanadu in these actions later set the stage for her role in Corrigan's life when John Ostrander set up a new Spectre title.
Spectre (vol. 3)
#1-12
Jim Corrigan's status quo was changed when John Ostrander landed the job as writer to a new Spectre ongoing series. Jim Corrigan and the Spectre were now one once more and he had moved out of his agency. Throughout Ostrander's tenure, Jim Corrigan started to come into conflict with the Spectre as he started to grow as a person. He learned that his old methods no longer applied to the world he lived in and he was forced to make certain concessions.
Corrigan's transformation begins in the first few issues of the new volume. Corrigan meets Amy Beitermann, a social staff worker and Inspector Nate Kane, a friend of Amy. While investigating the old murder of a woman, Corrigan learns that although he is able to solve her murder, he is unable to understand the victim, whose ghost continues to wander the scene of her death. When Corrigan exchanges memories with Amy, she learns of his true purpose: "To confront and to comprehend evil", an element newly introduced by Ostrander. Amy serves as Corrigan's spiritual guide from then, until she is murdered by a serial killer in issue #12.
#13–26
Troubled, Jim Corrigan turns to the church, where he meets Father Richard Craemer (a character introduced by Ostrander in Suicide Squad), a somewhat unorthodox one at that though, often disagreeing with the church method. After Corrigan's confession, Craemer gives his advice, mentioning Vlatava, a country torn by civil war.
The Spectre razes the country of Vlatava and he concludes that in order to eradicate evil, he will need to destroy Earth. The Phantom Stranger gathers a group of mages to stop him and Madame Xanadu gathers the Israeli sorcerer Ramban (also a character Ostrander used in Suicide Squad) and Craemer.
The group, led by the Stranger, face an Eclipso-controlled Spectre while the other group reaches out to Corrigan's soul. Thanks to Craemer, Corrigan is able to reassert control of the Spectre and see the error of his ways. The archangel Michael appears, stating that Corrigan now finally truly can do his work as the Spectre. From then on, Craemer becomes a spiritual advisor to Jim Corrigan.
The Spectre, however, is deemed a threat to the American government, and with the help of a Professor Hazard is confronted by Superman, who holds the Spear of Destiny, the only weapon known to be able to hurt the Spectre. The Spectre is eventually able to defeat Superman and banish the Spear. Corrigan also learns that, unbeknownst to him, he has been keeping his old fiancé Clarice Winston alive with his powers. She is almost killed by her granddaughter Clarissa, and as punishment the Spectre switches their souls.
#27–36
Azmodus eventually returns and restores Clarissa Winston's (now trapped in her grandmother's body) youth. This body is still connected to the Spectre, and thereby Azmodus can tap into the Spectre's power. The Spectre confronts Azmodus, but is captured as he is shocked to learn that Azmodus is, in part, a previous host of the Spectre. His friends, most notably again Father Craemer and the reluctant Nate Kane, are able to free him and beat Azmodus, separating Caraka, the first host to the Spectre, from the demon he was bonded with. In order to defeat Azmodus, however, the Spectre is required to cut his lifeline to Clarice's body; he decides to switch again with her repentant granddaughter. As Clarice goes to Heaven, it is revealed that she was, in fact, Caraka's soulmate all along, and was attracted to Jim because of their similarities. After this ordeal, Jim Corrigan continues to serve as the Spectre, now once more a step closer to his redemption, with Craemer as his advisor.
In order to find his connection to humanity again, Jim Corrigan gets himself assigned as Nate Kane's partner, the two becoming a police duo. Eventually the Spectre is seduced by the demon Neron and Jim is allowed to go into Heaven, now separated from the Spectre, but he refuses. He retakes control of the Spectre, although he learns that he was not as much in control as he thought.
#37–50
Nate Kane is shot, and the two become involved in a plot concerning a mystical talisman that represents the iconic America. Near the end of that quest for the various broken pieces of the talisman, Nate Kane and Jim Corrigan are once again forced to grow closer after Jim has to enter Nate's body in order to heal himself after a short side-adventure in which he had to use his Spectre powers to keep the Earth alive during The Final Night.
During the course of the search for the talisman, Jim also comes to new insights, as he not only meets the spirit of his old childhood friend Lonetree, but is also confronted with the fact that he was a man of the 1930s. As a hardboiled no-nonsense cop in the 1930s, Corrigan was a different man faced with different situations.
Corrigan was finally able to see the current American world, including its segregation of the African Americans, the abuse of the Native Americans, but also the subjugation of women (and the connected witch-hunts) and other parts of America's past.
Ultimately, with the help of his friends, and various spirits that represent the spirit of America today, a new American talisman is created, and Jim Corrigan also finds himself starting to change into a different man, and what he believes to be a better man.
#51–62
As Nate Kane and Jim Corrigan share the body of Kane, Nate comes to experience certain memories of Corrigan's revolving around a murder case from the 1930s. Intrigued, Nate Kane investigates further and he comes upon facts that indicate that Jim Corrigan might have been a murderer before his involvement with the Spectre. Meanwhile, the Spectre grows more savage, among other things killing all of the guilty on death row in a New York jail. Craemer continues to try and guide him. Corrigan also learns of what Nate is doing and the two part ways. To atone for his murdering of the criminals in the New York jail, Corrigan helps to prove the innocence of the one man he did not kill, but loses control once more, killing a bunch of corrupt police officers. During this time, he also comes across the troubled Michael Holt, whom he influences to become the second Mr. Terrific.
The Spectre continues on his merciless way, dispensing justice on every guilty person that he comes across. He also finally meets Nate Kane and the woman he previously thought he had murdered. Trying to come to grips with his own sins as well as hers (she had killed her mother and tried to frame Corrigan for it), the woman's granddaughter mercy-killed her grandmother in fear of what the Spectre would do. Forced to judge her, Corrigan and the Spectre fight and decide that they will need the judgement of God on their own existence.
To their surprise, God has gone missing, as has Heaven. The two decide to work together and they visit various pantheons, as well as entering the Source Wall. Given only two cryptic messages, the Spectre demands to confront God. He is bombarded with the nature of God and becomes one with every particle in the universe. The experience again conflicts the Spectre and Corrigan, and pushed to the brink, they are ejected from the Source Wall. They then learn that the gap between the two has grown so wide that they can separate themselves. At the advice of Father Craemer, the two travel inside themselves and are eventually confronted by a seemingly crazy God who resembles Corrigan's father.
God assumed the form of Corrigan's father, a travelling preacher, because he was the most influential person during Jim Corrigan's youth. Jim's father tried to imprint his black and white view of good and evil on the young boy (usually through both physical and verbal abuse), even though he himself often gave into sin. Eventually the ruse is uncovered and it turns out that Jim has undergone his final test and is ready to leave the mantle of the Spectre.
With the help of the Spectre, Jim Corrigan's old (dead) body is given a proper burial and his funeral is attended by many superheroes and friends. Then Jim Corrigan relinquishes the Spectre, and as Father Craemer bids his last respects to his friend, from the heavens, a message is carved upon the formerly blank gravestone of Jim Corrigan, stating: "James Corrigan, servant of God".
Day of Judgment
Although Corrigan was laid to rest, the power of the Spectre was still in the world. During the miniseries Day of Judgment, the Spectre is controlled by the fallen angel Asmodel, who uses the Spectre's awesome might to freeze Hell and unleash hordes of demons upon the world.
In an effort to stop the Spectre, the magical heroes divide into groups, of which one is sent to collect the soul of Jim Corrigan so that he can reclaim the Spectre mantle. Amongst his old friends of the JSA and his love Amy in Heaven, Corrigan refuses to leave the afterlife to rejoin with the Spectre, stating that he is finally at peace and that his time in Heaven has sapped his will to the point that he would no longer be able to control the Spectre anyway. The heroes decide to respect Jim's wishes and they eventually recruited the soul of Hal Jordan from Purgatory to assume the mantle of the Spectre, the Spectre accepting Hal when he declares that he deserves to be punished for his actions in life. Corrigan later reappears to give Jordan his blessing.
During the recent resurrection of the Spirit King - due to Hal's attempts to turn the Spectre's role to one of redemption having weakened the Spectre's hold on the spirits that he had damned in the past - Father Craemer appeared to try and advise Hal Jordan on how to regain control of the spirit, saying that Jim Corrigan had sent him to help, but it was left unclear if he had actually been contacted by Jim Corrigan or if he simply meant that his experience with Jim had helped him recognise what was happening and inspired him to help for the sake of his friend.
The New 52
In September 2011, The New 52 rebooted DC's continuity. In this new timeline, Jim Corrigan is a Gotham City Police Detective whose fiancé was kidnapped. He is guided by the Phantom Stranger on the instructions of The Voice. He leads Jim Corrigan to the abandoned warehouse where she is being kept, but this turns out to be a trap. Jim Corrigan and his girlfriend are killed by the kidnappers and he is then transformed into the Spectre, who accuses the Phantom Stranger of betraying him. As the Spectre is about to attack the Phantom Stranger, The Voice intervenes and sends the Spectre off to inflict his wrath on those who are more deserving of the Spectre's wrath.
It is revealed that The Voice chose him, like he did the Stranger, to be "the mirror of his desire for justice" (though Corrigan believes in vengeance) and imbued him with divine powers. Jim returns to work as a police detective in Gotham City. The rage-filled Jim was performing his duties as the Spectre by practicing vengeance rather than justice, until the Phantom Stranger attacked his police precinct, convinced he was the one who kidnapped his family out of revenge. After exchanging blows physically and verbally, "The Voice" (God) himself intervened in the form of a Scottish Terrier (his sense of humor) and informed the Stranger of his mistake and set him on the right path. "The Voice" also set Corrigan straight on his duties and told him that he is meant to exact justice and not wrath.
In the "Watchmen" sequel "Doomsday Clock," Lois Lane finds a flash-drive among the mess while at the Daily Planet. It shows her footage of Spectre and the rest of the Justice Society.
In the pages of "The New Golden Age", Spectre was among the Justice Society members who partook in a group photo. When a Huntress from a possible future ended up in 1940, Spectre is among the Justice Society members that meet her. As Doctor Fate tries to read Huntress' mind about the threat in her future, Spectre is among those that are knocked down by the magical feedback.
Powers and abilities
As the Spectre, Jim has all the abilities of God, including, but not limited to, manipulation of time and space, manipulation of matter and energy, invulnerability, limitless strength, and reality alteration. Virtually anything he wishes to do to those he judges is possible. He has no discernible weakness other than needing a human host to be able to be a fair and impartial judge, although he has been tricked before by the Psycho-Pirate and Eclipso. The Spectre is immune to most damage, although he can be hurt by powerful magic. Though he is widely considered to be the most powerful superhero in terms of abilities, the Spectre does not harm the innocent (unless being tricked into doing so). The Spectre is usually immune to mind control effects.
Other characters named Jim Corrigan
Jim Corrigan (1970s)
An African American police officer based in Metropolis who worked with both Jimmy Olsen and Black Lightning. He first appeared in Superman's Pal Jimmy Olsen #149 (May 1972). He later became a regular supporting character in (vol. 1) of Black Lightning beginning with issue #4.
Jim Corrigan (2000s)
A Crime Scene Unit officer in the Gotham City Police Department, Jim Corrigan is, like so many of that city's police force, corrupt. He routinely abuses his position by selling crime scene memorabilia such as bullets, as well as more extravagant items lost by the city's colourful villains.
Although the Internal affairs division was aware of his activities, they could not interfere due to an explosive encounter between Corrigan and Renee Montoya, of the Major Crimes Unit, when Crispus Allen had been accused of murder.
Allen, who loathed the fact that Corrigan had gotten off due to Montoya's desire to protect him, had begun investigating Corrigan. Just as his investigation began to bear fruit, however, Corrigan shot and killed Detective Allen.
This spurred the GCPD to arrest Corrigan, but unfortunately, the past incident with Montoya, along with a decent alibi, had given Corrigan the defense he needed to avoid both court and jail.
Montoya, who was blind with fury and had been slowly falling into a deep depression over the past few months, had finally snapped with the loss of Allen. She stormed into Corrigan's apartment and after knocking out his girlfriend, threatened to kill Corrigan by placing a gun in his mouth. The previously smug CSI officer broke down and tearfully began pleading Montoya to spare his life. Despite her thirst for vengeance, Montoya simply beats and let's him go and then resigned from the force.
In the final issue of the three-issue miniseries Crisis Aftermath: The Spectre, a miniseries about Crispus Allen dealing with his new role as the Spectre, it was revealed that Corrigan had spent the time after Montoya's attack drinking (Allen found him this way, but did not take vengeance on him — it was too easy and too personal), but one night upon stumbling into an alley, he was confronted by Allen's young son Mal and shot multiple times, killing him. Later stories instead identify Corrigan's killer as Mal's brother, Jacob Allen.
Other versions
Kingdom Come
In the four-issue Elseworlds miniseries Kingdom Come, The Spectre is just Jim Corrigan, a once-human soul imbued with angelic powers by God. In a near-apocalyptic world the Spectre takes a preacher named Norman McCay through the events of a possible future of the DC Universe. Here, Spectre is to determine who is responsible for an impending apocalyptic event. However, here his "faculties are not what they once were", and he is said to need an outside perspective to properly judge the events they witness.
A conversation between McCay and Deadman reveals that, with the passing of time, Corrigan has become further and further removed from humanity, now only wearing his cloak to cover an otherwise nude body (similar to Doctor Manhattan). He is reminded by McCay of his humanity to see things through the perspective as the man he once was and decides no one is to blame. Corrigan becomes a member of McCay's congregation and they become friends.
In the epilogue set in a superhero-themed restaurant, he expresses irritation that the meal named after him, the "Spectre Platter", is a mix of spinach and cottage cheese.
Vertigo
Police detective Jim Corrigan appeared in Sandman Mystery Theatre #42 (September 1996). As this was a Vertigo series, DC Universe canonicity is unclear.
In other media
Arrowverse
Variations of Jim Corrigan appear in TV series set in the Arrowverse:
Corrigan appears in Constantine, portrayed by Emmett J. Scanlan. This version is a police officer from New Orleans.
An alternate universe version of Corrigan from an unspecified Earth appears in the crossover event "Crisis on Infinite Earths", portrayed by Stephen Lobo. He passes the Spectre's power to Oliver Queen so he can save the multiverse from the Anti-Monitor.
Film
Jim Corrigan / Spectre appears on a comic book cover depicted in Under the Hood.
Jim Corrigan / Spectre appears in DC Showcase: The Spectre, voiced by Gary Cole.
Miscellaneous
Jim Corrigan / Spectre appears in Justice League Unlimited #37.
Jim Corrigan appears in the Injustice: Gods Among Us prequel comic. Sometime prior, he was "Jokerized" and left for dead in Arkham Asylum, allowing Mister Mxyzptlk to usurp him as the Spectre and aid Superman's Regime.
References
External links
DCU Guide: Jim Corrigan I
DCU Guide: Jim Corrigan II
Comics characters introduced in 1940
Comics characters introduced in 1972
Comics characters introduced in 2003
DC Comics characters with superhuman durability or invulnerability
DC Comics characters with superhuman strength
DC Comics male superheroes
DC Comics male supervillains
Golden Age superheroes
Fictional American police detectives
Fictional ghosts
Fictional murderers
DC Comics undead characters
Fictional African-American people
Characters created by Jerry Siegel
Characters created by Ed Brubaker
Characters created by Greg Rucka
Gotham City Police Department officers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire%20of%20Vietnam
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Empire of Vietnam
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The Empire of Vietnam (; Literary Chinese and Contemporary Japanese: ; Modern Japanese: ) was a short-lived puppet state of Imperial Japan governing the former French protectorates of Annam and Tonkin between March 11 and August 25, 1945. At the end of its rule, the empire also successfully reclaimed Cochinchina as part of Vietnam.
History
During World War II, after the fall of France and establishment of Vichy France, the French had lost practical control in French Indochina to the Japanese, but Japan stayed in the background while giving the Vichy French administrators nominal control. This changed on 9 March 1945 when Japan officially took over. To gain the support of the Vietnamese people, Imperial Japan declared that it would return sovereignty to Vietnam. On 11 March 1945, Emperor Bảo Đại was permitted to announce the Vietnamese "independence", this declaration had been prepared by Yokoyama Seiko, Minister for Economic Affairs of the Japanese diplomatic mission in Indochina and later advisor to Bảo Đại
Bảo Đại declared the Treaty of Huế made with France in 1884 void. Trần Trọng Kim, a renowned historian and scholar, was chosen to lead the government as prime minister.
Policies
Constitutional issues
Kim and his ministers spent a substantial amount of time on constitutional matters at their first meeting in Huế on 4 May 1945. One of their first resolutions was to alter the national name to Việt Nam. This was seen as a significant and urgent task. It implied territorial unity; "Việt Nam" had been Emperor Gia Long's choice for the name of the country since he unified the modern territory of Việt Nam in 1802. Furthermore, this was the first time that Vietnamese nationalists in the northern, central and southern regions of the country officially recognized this name. In March, activists in the North always mentioned Đại Việt (Great Việt), the name used before the 15th century by the Lê dynasty and its predecessors, while those in the South used Vietnam, and the central leaders used An Nam (Peaceful South) or Đại Nam (Great South, which was used by the Nguyễn Lords, precursor of Nguyễn dynasty).
Kim also renamed the three regions of the country—the northern (former Tonkin or Bắc Kỳ) became Bắc Bộ, the central region (former Annam or Trung Kỳ) became Trung Bộ, and the southern areas (former Cochinchina or Nam Kỳ) became Nam Bộ. Kim did this even though at the time the Japanese had only given him direct authority over the northern and central regions of Vietnam. When France had finished its conquest of Vietnam in 1885, only southern Vietnam was made a direct colony under the name of Cochinchina. The northern and central regions were designated as protectorates as Tonkin and Annam. When the Empire of Vietnam was proclaimed, the Japanese retained direct control of Cochinchina, in the same way as their French predecessors.
Thuận Hóa, the pre-colonial name for Huế, was restored. Kim's officials worked to find a French substitute for the word "Annamite", which was used to denote Vietnamese people and their characteristics as described in French literature and official use. "Annamite" was considered derogatory, and it was replaced with "Vietnamien" (Vietnamese). Apart from Thuận Hóa, these terms have been internationally accepted since Kim ordered the changes. Given that the French colonial authorities emphatically distinguished the three regions of "Tonkin", "Annam", and "Cochinchina" as separate entities, implying a lack of national culture or political integration, Kim's first acts were seen as symbolic and the end of generations of frustration among Vietnamese intelligentsia and revolutionaries.
On 12 June 1945, Kim selected a new national flag—a yellow, rectangular banner with four horizontal red stripes modeled after the quẻ Ly (☲, one of bagua) in the Book of Changes—and a new national anthem, the old hymn Đăng đàn cung (The King Mounts His Throne). This decision ended three months of speculation concerning a new flag for Vietnam.
Educational reform
Kim's government strongly emphasised educational reform, focusing on the development of technical training, particularly the use of Vietnamese alphabet (chữ Quốc Ngữ) as the primary language of instruction. After less than two months in power, Kim organized the first primary examinations in Vietnamese, the language he intended to use in the advanced tests. Education minister Hoàng Xuân Hãn strove to Vietnamese public secondary education. His reforms took more than four months to achieve their results, and have been regarded as a stepping stone for the successor Viet Minh government's launch of compulsory mass education. In July, when the Japanese decided to grant Vietnam full independence and territorial unification, Kim's government was about to begin a new round of reform, by naming a committee to create a new national education system.
Judicial reform
The Justice minister Trịnh Đình Thảo launched an attempt at judicial reform. In May 1945, he created the Committee for the Reform and Unification of Laws in Huế, which he headed. His ministry reevaluated the sentences of political prisoners, releasing a number of anti-French activists and restoring the civil rights of others. This led to the release of a number of Communist cadres who returned to their former cells, and actively participated in the destruction of Kim's government.
Encouragement of mass political participation
One of the most notable changes implemented by Kim's government was the encouragement of mass political participation. In memorial ceremonies, Kim honoured all national heroes, ranging from the legendary national founders, the Hùng kings to slain anti-French revolutionaries such as Nguyễn Thái Học, the leader of the Vietnamese Nationalist Party (Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng) who was executed with twelve comrades in 1930 in the aftermath of the Yên Bái mutiny.
A committee was organised to select a list of national heroes for induction into the Temple of Martyrs (Nghĩa Liệt Tử). City streets were renamed. In Huế, Jules Ferry was replaced on the signboards of a main thoroughfare by Lê Lợi, the founder of the Lê dynasty who expelled the Chinese in 1427. General Trần Hưng Đạo, who twice repelled Mongol invasions in the 13th century, replaced Paul Bert. On August 1, the new mayor of Hanoi, Trần Văn Lai, ordered the demolition of French built statues in the city parks in his campaign to Wipe Out Humiliating Remnants. Similar campaigns were enacted in southern Vietnam in late August. Meanwhile, the freedom of the press was instituted, resulting in the publication of the pieces of anti-French movements and critical essays on French collaborators. Heavy criticism was even extended to Nguyễn Hữu Độ, the great-grandfather of Bảo Đại who was notable in assisting the French conquest of Đại Nam in the 1880s. Kim put particular emphasis on the mobilisation of youth. Youth Minister Phan Anh, attempted to centralise and heavily regulate all youth organizations, which had proliferated immediately after the Japanese coup. On May 25, an imperial order decreed an inclusive, hierarchical structure for youth organizations. At the apex was the National Youth Council, a consultative body, which advised the minister. Similar councils were to be organised down to the district level. Meanwhile, young people were asked to join the local squads or groups, from provincial to communal levels. They were given physical training and were charged with maintaining security in their communes. Each provincial town had a training centre, where month-long paramilitary courses were on offer.
The government also established a national center for the Advanced Front Youth (Thanh niên tiền tuyến) in Huế. It was inaugurated on June 2, with the intention of being the centrepiece for future officer training. In late July, regional social youth centers were established in Hanoi, Huế, and Saigon. In Hanoi, the General Association of Students and Youth (Tổng hội Sinh viên và Thanh niên) was animated by the fervor of independence. The City University in Hanoi became a focal point of political agitation. By May and June, there was evidence that communist Cadres of the Viet Minh front, had infiltrated the university's youth and famine relief associations. In the face of the rising Viet Minh front, the Japanese attempted to contact its leaders, but their messengers were killed by the Viet Minh. The Kempeitai (Japanese MP and also secret police) retaliated, arresting hundreds of pro-communist Vietnamese youths in late June.
Territorial unification
The most notable achievement of Kim's Empire of Vietnam was the successful negotiation with Japan for the territorial unification of the nation. The French had subdivided Vietnam into three separate regions: Cochinchina (in 1862), and Annam and Tonkin (both in 1884). Cochinchina was placed under direct rule while the latter two were officially designated as protectorates. Immediately after terminating French rule, the Japanese authorities were not enthusiastic about the territorial unification of Vietnam. However, after the formation of Kim's cabinet in April, Japan quickly agreed to transfer what was then Tonkin and Annam to Kim's authority, although it retained control of the cities of Hanoi, Hải Phòng, and Đà Nẵng. Meanwhile, southern Vietnam remained under direct Japanese control, just as Cochinchina had been under French rule.
Beginning in May 1945, Foreign Minister Trần Văn Chương negotiated with the Japanese in Hanoi for the transfer of the three cities to Vietnamese rule, but the Japanese stalled because Hanoi and Haiphong were seen as strategic points in their war effort. It was only in June and July that the Japanese allowed the process of national unification to take place. On June 16, Bảo Đại issued a decree proclaiming the impending reunification of Vietnam. On June 29, General Yuitsu Tsuchihashi signed a series of decrees transferring some of the duties of the government (including customs, information, youth, and sports) to the governments of Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia, effective July 1. Bảo Đại then issued imperial orders establishing four committees to work on a new regime: the National Consultative Committee (Hội đồng Tư vấn Quốc gia); a committee of fifteen to work on the creation of a constitution; a committee of fifteen to examine administrative reform, legislation, and finance; and a committee for educational reform. For the first time, leaders from southern regions were invited to join these committees.
Other developments in southern Vietnam in early July were seen as preparatory Japanese steps towards granting territorial reunification to Vietnam. In early July, when southern Vietnam was abuzz with the spirit of independence and mass political participation due to the creation of the Vanguard Youth organizations in Saigon and other regional centres, Governor Minoda announced the organization of the Hội nghị Nam (Council of "the South", i.e. Cochinchina) to facilitate his governance. This council was charged with advising the Japanese based on questions submitted to it by the Japanese and for overseeing provincial affairs. Minoda underlined that its primary aim was to make the Vietnamese population believe that they had to collaborate with the Japanese, because "if the Japanese lose the war, the independence of Indochina would not become complete." At the inauguration of the Council of the South on July 21, Minoda implicitly referred to the unification of Vietnam. Trần Văn An was appointed as the president of the council, and Kha Vạng Cân, a leader of the Vanguard Youth, was appointed to be his deputy.
On July 13, Kim arrived in Hanoi to negotiate directly with Governor-General Tsuchihashi. Tsuchihashi agreed to transfer control of Hanoi, Hải Phòng, and Đà Nẵng to Kim's government, taking effect on July 20. After protracted negotiation, Tsuchihashi agreed that the south (Cochinchina) would be united with the Empire of Vietnam and that Kim would attend the unification ceremonies on August 8 in Saigon.
Military
After the creation of the puppet Empire of Vietnam, the Japanese began raising an army to help police the local population. The Vietnamese Imperial Army was officially established by the IJA 38th Army to maintain order in the new country. The Vietnamese Imperial Army was under the control of Japanese lieutenant general Yuitsu Tsuchihashi, who served as adviser to the Empire of Vietnam.
Decline
Kim's historic achievement was immediately overshadowed by external pressure and domestic infighting. On July 26, the leaders of the Allies issued a declaration demanding the unconditional surrender of Japan. Japan was on the defensive and quickly losing ground, and its aim was no longer to win the war, but simply to find an honorable ceasefire. On the Vietnamese front, the possibility of future punishment by the Allied forces for collaboration with the Japanese discouraged many possible supporters of Kim. His ministers and public servant corps began to dwindle in number. The Imperial Commissioner of the North (Tonkin), Phan Kế Toại, accompanied by his son and other Viet Minh sympathisers and secret communists such as Nguyễn Mạnh Hà and Hoàng Minh Giám, submitted his resignation. Nguyễn Xuân Chữ, a leader of the Vietnamese Patriotic Party (Viet Nam Ái quốc Đảng) and one of the five members of Cường Để's National Reconstruction Committee, refused the offer of replacing Toại. Returning to Thuận Hóa, Kim arrived to find increasing conflict among his ministers. Chương wanted credit for arranging the integration of the three ceded cities and southern Vietnam to Kim's government and was regarded as having Prime Ministerial designs himself. The government meetings of August 5 and 6 were headlined by personal disputes and the resignation of the ministers of interior, economy, and supplies. Hồ Tá Khanh, the economic minister, went further and demanded the resignation of the government. Khanh proposed that the Viet Minh be given a chance to govern because of its strength. The government resigned on August 7. Bảo Đại asked Kim to form a new government, but the end of the war made this impossible.
On 6 and 9 August 1945, respectively, the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki took place; on August 8, 1945, the Soviet Union declared war on Japan and invaded Manchuria, and Japan's resistance to the Allies was quickly ended. Japan decided to give Kim and Vietnamese nationalists the full independence and territorial unification that they had sought for decades. Kim was urged many times to come to Saigon to officially accept control of Nam Bộ. Multiple factors prevented Kim from leaving the capital. From August 8 onward, Phạm Khắc Hòe, Bảo Đại's office director, was instructed by Tôn Quang Phiệt (the future chairman of the Viet Minh's Revolutionary Committee in Huế) to persuade the Emperor to abdicate voluntarily.
In order to carry out his mission, Hoe persistently disrupted Kim's activities, particularly by citing Kim's failure to call the most influential figures to Thuận Hóa to form a new government. Meanwhile, Interior Minister Nam, cited the communist uprisings in Thanh Hóa and Quảng Ngãi in central Vietnam to discourage Kim from traveling to Saigon. The acceptance of the handover of the South (Cochinchina) was thus temporarily placed at the feet of the Council of the South.
On August 14, Bảo Đại appointed Nguyễn Văn Sâm, former president of the Journalists' Syndicate, to the post of Imperial Commissioner of the South. Sâm left Thuận Hóa for Saigon. However, he was delayed en route as the Viet Minh had taken advantage of the military power vacuum caused by the Japanese surrender to launch a general insurrection with the aim of seizing control of the country.
Viet Minh takeover
In August, Vietnam went through a period regarded as one of its most eventful phases, amidst the backdrop of rapid change in global politics. On the one hand, the Allies began to put into effect their postwar plans for Vietnam, which included the disarmament of Japanese troops and the division of Vietnam into spheres of influence. The Japanese military and civilian personnel in Vietnam were hamstrung by the unconditional surrender of their government and the possibility of Allied retribution. With respect to the Vietnamese, the Japanese were split psychologically and ideologically. Some Japanese favoured the Viet Minh, releasing Communist political prisoners, arming the Viet Minh front, and even volunteering their services. Others, including senior military officers, wanted to use their forces to support Kim's government and to crush the communists. Amid the political confusion and power vacuum engulfing the country, a race to power by diverse Vietnamese political groups took place.
On the eve of Japan's surrender, Kim and his supporters tried to take control of the situation. On August 12, Kim's outgoing government was retained as "Provisional Government" to oversee the day-to-day running of the country. Kim asked Bảo Đại to issue an imperial order on August 14 repealing the treaties of Saigon of 1862 and 1874, thus removing the last French claims to sovereign rights over Vietnam. Messengers were sent from the central capital to northern and southern Vietnam to reunify diverse groups under the central government in Thuận Hóa, but they were apprehended en route by the Viet Minh.
Even though Bảo Đại's messengers were cut off, non-communist leaders in northern and southern Vietnam attempted to challenge the Viet Minh. In Bắc Bộ, Nguyễn Xuân Chữ obtained Kim's approval to form the Committee for National Salvation, and he was appointed by Kim as chairman of the Political Directorate of Bắc Bộ. In Nam Bộ, on August 17, it was announced that all non-Viet Minh factions, including Trotskyists and the southern religious sects of Cao Đài and Hòa Hảo, had joined forces to create the Mặt trận Quốc gia Thống nhất (National Unified Front). Trần Quang Vinh, the Cao Đài leader, and Huỳnh Phú Sổ, the founder of the Hòa Hảo, also issued a communique proclaiming an alliance. On August 19 in Saigon, the Vanguard Youth organised their second official oath-taking ceremony, vowing to defend Vietnamese independence at all costs. The next day, Hồ Vân Nga assumed the interim office of Imperial Commissioner and appointed Kha Vạn Cân, the Vanguard Youth leader, commander of Saigon and Chợ Lớn. Nguyễn Văn Sâm's arrival in Saigon on August 22 provided the National Unified Front with the official declaration of national independence and territorial reunification.
Nevertheless, the Viet Minh prevailed in the power struggle with their August Revolution. On August 17, Viet Minh cadres in Hanoi took control of a mass demonstration organised by the General Association of Civil Servants. The rally was originally aimed at celebrating independence and territorial reunification and supporting Kim's government. Two days later, Nguyễn Xuân Chữ was forced to hand over authority to the Viet Minh. Combined with the official cease-fire of the Japanese army on August 21, this threw Kim's government into disarray and it collapsed. On August 23, the Viet Minh seized power in Huế. Two days later, Bảo Đại officially abdicated, and Nguyễn Văn Sâm handed over power to the Viet Minh in Saigon. The Empire of Vietnam had fallen along with Japan's Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere.
See also
Vietnam during World War II
French Indochina in World War II
Japanese invasion of French Indochina
Japanese coup d'état in French Indochina
Vietnamese famine of 1945
Democratic Republic of Vietnam
War in Vietnam (1945–1946)
State of Vietnam
Notes
References
External links
1945 establishments in Vietnam
1945 disestablishments in Vietnam
1945 in French Indochina
1945 in Vietnam
Axis powers
Vietnam
Vietnam, Empire of
Vietnam, Empire of
Vietnam, Empire of
.
South-East Asian theatre of World War II
States and territories established in 1945
States and territories disestablished in 1945
Vietnamese collaborators with Imperial Japan
Vietnamese independence movement
World War II occupied territories
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wrongful%20execution
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Wrongful execution
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Wrongful execution is a miscarriage of justice occurring when an innocent person is put to death by capital punishment. Cases of wrongful execution are cited as an argument by opponents of capital punishment, while proponents say that the argument of innocence concerns the credibility of the justice system as a whole and does not solely undermine the use of the death penalty.
A variety of individuals are claimed to have been innocent victims of the death penalty. Newly available DNA evidence has allowed the exoneration and release of more than 20 death-row inmates since 1992 in the United States, but DNA evidence is available in only a fraction of capital cases. At least 190 people who were sentenced to death in the United States have been exonerated and released since 1973, with official misconduct and perjury/false accusation the leading causes of their wrongful convictions. The Death Penalty Information Center (U.S.) has published a partial listing of wrongful executions that, as of the end of 2020, identified 20 death-row prisoners who were "executed but possibly innocent".
Judicial murder is a type of wrongful execution.
Specific examples
Australia
Colin Campbell Ross was hanged in Melbourne in 1922 for the murder of 12-year-old Alma Tirtschke the previous year in what became known as the Gun Alley Murder. The case was re-examined in the 1990s using modern techniques and Ross was eventually pardoned in 2008, by which time capital punishment in Australia had been abolished in all jurisdictions.
Ronald Ryan was the last person executed in Australia. His execution took place on 3 February 1967. He and a fellow inmate, Peter John Walker, attempted to escape from Pentridge Prison on 19 December 1965, when prison guard George Hodgson was shot and killed. Multiple witnesses swore that they saw Ryan fire the shot that killed Hodgson, so he was found guilty. The true identity of the shooter is in contention as two other guards admitted to firing several shots, and in 2007, Peter John Walker said that it would have been impossible for Ryan to have shot the guard as his rifle had jammed.
People's Republic of China
Wei Qing'an (, born 1961) was a Chinese citizen who was executed for the rape of Kun Liu, a woman who had disappeared. The execution was carried out on 3 May 1984 by the Intermediate People's Court. In the next month, Tian Yuxiu () was arrested and admitted that he had committed the rape. Three years later, Wei was officially declared innocent.
Teng Xingshan () was a Chinese citizen who was executed for supposedly having raped, robbed and murdered Shi Xiaorong (石小荣), a woman who had disappeared. An old man found a dismembered body, and incompetent police forensics claimed to have matched the body to the photo of the missing Shi Xiaorong. The execution was carried out on 28 January 1989 by the Huaihua Intermediate People's Court. In 1993, the previously missing woman returned to the village, saying she had been kidnapped and taken to Shandong. The absolute innocence of the wrongfully executed Teng was not admitted until 2005.
Nie Shubin (, born 1974) was a Chinese citizen who was executed for the rape and murder of Kang Juhua (), a woman in her thirties. The execution was carried out on 27 April 1995 by the Shijiazhuang Intermediate People's Court. In 2005, ten years after the execution, Wang Shujin () admitted to the police that he had committed the murder.
Qoγsiletu or Huugjilt (Mongolian: , , born 1977) was an Inner Mongolian who was executed for the rape and murder of a young girl on 10 June 1996. On 5 December 2006, ten years after the execution, Zhao Zhihong () wrote the Petition of my Death Penalty admitting he had committed the crime. Huugjilt was posthumously exonerated and Zhao Zhihong was sentenced to death in 2015.
Ireland
Sir Edward Crosbie, 5th Baronet was wrongfully executed in Carlow in 1798. Accused of being a United Irishman, his innocence was later proved.
Harry Gleeson was executed in Ireland in April 1941 for the murder of Moll McCarthy in County Tipperary in November 1940. The Gardaí withheld crucial evidence and fabricated other evidence against Gleeson. In 2015, he was posthumously pardoned.
Taiwan
Chiang Kuo-ching (Chiang is the family name; , born 1975) was a Republic of China Air Force soldier who was executed by a military tribunal on 13 August 1997 for the rape and murder of a five-year-old girl. On 28 January 2011, over 13 years after the execution, Hsu Jung-chou (), who had a history of sexual abuse, admitted to the prosecutor that he had been responsible for the crime. In September 2011 Chiang was posthumously acquitted by a military court who found Chiang's original confession had been obtained by torture. Ma Ying-jeou, the Republic of China's president, apologised to Chiang's family.
UK
In 1660, in a variety of events known as the Campden Wonder, an Englishman named William Harrison disappeared after going on a walk, near the village of Charingworth, in Gloucestershire. Some of his clothing was found slashed and bloody on the side of a local road. Investigators interrogated Harrison's servant, John Perry, who eventually confessed that his mother and his brother had killed Harrison for money. Perry, his mother, and his brother were hanged. Two years later, Harrison reappeared, telling the incredibly unlikely tale that he had been abducted by three horsemen and sold into slavery in the Ottoman Empire. Though his tale was implausible, he indubitably had not been murdered by the Perry family.
Timothy Evans was tried and executed in March 1950 for the murder of his wife and infant daughter. An official inquiry conducted 16 years later determined that it was Evans' fellow tenant, serial killer John Reginald Halliday Christie, who was responsible for the murders. Christie also admitted to the murder of Evans' wife, following a conviction for murdering five other women and his own wife. Christie, who was himself executed in 1953, may have murdered other women, judging by evidence found in his possession at the time of his arrest, but it was never pursued by the police. Evans was posthumously pardoned in 1966 after the inquiry concluded that Christie had also murdered Evans' daughter. The case was a major factor leading to the abolition of capital punishment in the United Kingdom.
George Kelly was executed in March 1950 for the 1949 murder of the manager of the Cameo Cinema in Liverpool, UK and his assistant during a robbery that went wrong. This case became known as the Cameo Murder. Kelly's conviction was overturned in 2003. Another man, Donald Johnson, had confessed to the crime but the police bungled Johnson's case and had not divulged his confession at Kelly's trial.
Somali-born Mahmood Hussein Mattan was executed in 1952 for the murder of Lily Volpert. In 1998 the Court of Appeal decided that the original case was, in the words of Lord Justice Rose, "demonstrably flawed". The family were awarded £725,000 compensation, to be shared equally among Mattan's wife and three children. The compensation was the first award to a family for a person wrongfully hanged.
Derek Bentley was a learning disabled young man who was executed in 1953. He was convicted of the murder of a police officer during an attempted robbery, despite the fact that it was his accomplice who fired the gun and that Bentley was already under arrest at the time of the shooting. Christopher Craig, the 16-year-old who actually fired the fatal shot, could not be executed as he was under 18. Craig served only ten years in prison before he was released.
United States
University of Michigan law professor Samuel Gross led a team of experts in the law and in statistics that estimated the likely number of unjust convictions. The study, published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences determined that at least 4% of people on death penalty/death row were and are likely innocent.
Statistics likely understate the actual problem of wrongful convictions because once an execution has occurred there is often insufficient motivation and finance to keep a case open, and it becomes unlikely at that point that the miscarriage of justice will ever be exposed. For example, in the case of Joseph Roger O'Dell III, executed in Virginia in 1997 for a rape and murder, a prosecuting attorney argued in court in 1998 that if posthumous DNA results exonerated O'Dell, "it would be shouted from the rooftops that ... Virginia executed an innocent man." The state prevailed, and the evidence was destroyed.
We-Chank-Wash-ta-don-pee, or Chaska (died December 26, 1862) was a Native American of the Dakota who was executed in a mass hanging near Mankato, Minnesota in the wake of the Dakota War of 1862, despite the fact that President Abraham Lincoln had commuted his death sentence days earlier.
Chipita Rodriguez was hanged in San Patricio County, Texas in 1863 for murdering a horse trader, and 122 years later, the Texas Legislature passed a resolution exonerating her.
Thomas and Meeks Griffin were executed in South Carolina in 1915 for the murder of a man involved in an interracial affair two years previously but were pardoned 94 years after execution. It is thought that they were arrested and charged because they were viewed as wealthy enough to hire competent legal counsel and get an acquittal.
In 1920, two Italian immigrants, Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti, were controversially accused of robbery and murder in Braintree, Massachusetts. Anti-Italianism, anti-immigrant, and anti-Anarchist bias were suspected as having heavily influenced the verdict. As details of the trial and the men's suspected innocence became known, sporadic protests were held in major cities all around the world calling for their release, especially after Portuguese migrant Celestino Madeiros confessed in 1925 to committing the crime absolving them of participation. However, the Supreme Court refused to upset the verdict, and in spite of worldwide protests, Sacco and Vanzetti were eventually executed in 1927. On August 23, 1977, Massachusetts Governor Michael Dukakis issued a proclamation vindicating Sacco and Vanzetti, stating that they had been treated unjustly and that "any disgrace should be forever removed from their names". Later analyses have also added doubt to their culpability.
In October 1930, a 16-year-old black teenager named Alexander McClay Williams was accused of murdering Vida Robare, a white matron of his reform school, during an attempted sexual assault. Authorities coerced Williams into confessing to the murder, although he later recanted his confession. Overall, authorities subjected Williams to five interrogations without his parents or an attorney present; he signed three different confessions, the last of which was altered to match the crime scene details and the story that Williams had attempted to sexually assault Robare, as Williams's first confession had not matched the crime scene details or the allegations authorities made against him. At his trial, Williams faced an all-white jury while being represented by his county's first black attorney. After a judge formally sentenced him to death, Williams yelled out that he had been promised that authorities would not pursue the death penalty against him if he confessed. His appellate attorneys unsuccessfully tried to stop his execution by arguing that he was a "psychopathic inferior," and he was executed on June 8, 1931, still at the age of 16, becoming the youngest person executed in Pennsylvania. In 2015, a descendant of his attorney, Samuel Lemon, began researching Williams's case and concluded that the most likely culprit behind Robare's murder was her ex-husband, who had supposedly discovered her body; Robare had obtained a divorce against her ex-husband on the grounds of "extreme cruelty" due to his domestic abuse against her. Lemon posited that Williams's wrongful prosecution stemmed largely from his race and the "racially charged" atmosphere present at the time. In 2022, following a posthumous review of Williams's case, his conviction was overturned, and all charges against him were dismissed, effectively exonerating him.
Joe Arridy (1915–1939) was a mentally disabled American man executed for rape and murder and posthumously granted a pardon. Arridy was sentenced to death for the murder and rape of a 15-year-old schoolgirl from Pueblo, Colorado. He confessed to murdering the girl and assaulting her sister. Due to the sensational nature of the crime precautions were taken to keep him from being hanged by vigilante justice. His sentence was executed after multiple stays on January 6, 1939, in the Colorado gas chamber in the state penitentiary in Canon City, Colorado. Arridy was the first Colorado prisoner posthumously pardoned in January 2011 by Colorado Governor Bill Ritter, a former district attorney, after research had shown that Arridy was very likely not in Pueblo when the crime happened and had been coerced into confessing. Among other things, Arridy had an IQ of 46, which was equal to the mental age of a 6-year-old. He did not even understand that he was going to be executed, and played with a toy train that the warden, Roy Best, had given to him as a present. A man named Frank Aguilar had been executed in 1937 in the Colorado gas chamber for the same crime for which Arridy ended up also being executed. Arridy's posthumous pardon in 2011 was the first such pardon in Colorado history. A press release from the governor's office stated, "[A]n overwhelming body of evidence indicates the 23-year-old Arridy was innocent, including false and coerced confessions, the likelihood that Arridy was not in Pueblo at the time of the killing, and an admission of guilt by someone else." The governor also pointed to Arridy's intellectual disabilities. The governor said, “Granting a posthumous pardon is an extraordinary remedy. But the tragic conviction of Mr. Arridy and his subsequent execution on Jan. 6, 1939, merit such relief based on the great likelihood that Mr. Arridy was, in fact, innocent of the crime for which he was executed, and his severe mental disability at the time of his trial and execution."
George Stinney, a 14-year old African-American boy, was electrocuted in South Carolina in 1944 for the murder of Betty June Binnicker, age 11, as well as Mary Emma Thames, age 8. The arrest occurred on March 23, 1944 in Alcolu, inside of Clarendon County, South Carolina. Supposedly, the two girls rode their bikes past Stinney's house where they asked him and his sister about a certain type of flower; after this encounter, the girls went missing and were found dead in a ditch the following morning. After an hour of interrogation by the officers, a deputy stated that Stinney confessed to the murder. He was the youngest person executed in the United States. More than 70 years later, a judge threw out the conviction, calling it a "great injustice."
Carlos DeLuna was executed in Texas in December 1989 for stabbing a gas station clerk to death. Subsequent investigations cast strong doubt upon DeLuna's guilt for the murder of which he had been convicted. His execution came about six years after the crime was committed. DeLuna was found blocks away from the crime scene with $149 in his pocket. A wrongful eyewitness testimony and DeLuna's previous criminal record were used against him. Carlos Hernandez, who many believe to be the true killer, was a repeat violent offender who had a history of assaulting women with knives, and was said to have looked very similar to Carlos DeLuna. Hernandez was reported to have bragged about the killing of Lopez, the gas station clerk. In 1999, Hernandez was imprisoned for attacking his neighbor with a knife.
Jesse Tafero was convicted of murder and executed via electric chair in May 1990 in the state of Florida for the murders of a Florida Highway Patrol officer and a Canadian constable. The conviction of a co-defendant was overturned in 1992 after a recreation of the crime scene indicated a third person had committed the murders. Not only was Tafero wrongly accused, his electric chair malfunctioned as well – three times. As a result, Tafero's head caught on fire. After this encounter, a debate was focused around humane methods of execution. Lethal injections became more common in the states rather than the electric chair.
Johnny Garrett of Texas was executed in February 1992 for allegedly raping and murdering a nun. In March 2004 cold-case DNA testing identified Leoncio Rueda as the rapist and murderer of another elderly victim killed four months earlier. Immediately following the nun's murder, prosecutors and police were certain the two cases were committed by the same assailant. The flawed case is explored in a 2008 documentary entitled The Last Word.
Roy Michael Roberts was executed March 1999 in Missouri, for assisting the murder of a correctional officer named Tom Jackson in Missouri's Moberly Correctional Center in July 1983. A 2005 investigation was opened to investigate the possibility of Roberts' innocence. No physical evidence connected Roberts to the crime. Four eyewitnesses, including three corrections officers, testified that Roberts had participated in the murder, while nine witnesses, including another corrections officer, had testified that Roberts had been elsewhere at the moment of the stabbing.
Cameron Todd Willingham of Texas was convicted and executed for the death of his three children who died in a house fire. The prosecution charged that the fire was caused by arson. He has not been posthumously exonerated, but the case has gained widespread attention as a possible case of wrongful execution. A number of arson experts have decried the results of the original investigation as faulty. In June 2009, five years after Willingham's execution, the State of Texas ordered a re-examination of the case. Dr. Craig Beyler found "a finding of arson could not be sustained". Beyler said that key testimony from a fire marshal at Willingham's trial was "hardly consistent with a scientific mind-set and is more characteristic of mystics or psychics". The Texas Forensic Science Commission was scheduled to discuss the report by Beyler at a meeting on October 2, 2009, but two days before the meeting Texas Governor Rick Perry replaced the chair of the commission and two other members. The new chair canceled the meeting, sparking accusations that Perry was interfering with the investigation and using it for his own political advantage. In 2010, a four-person panel of the Texas Forensic Science Commission acknowledged that state and local arson investigators used "flawed science" in determining the blaze had been deliberately set.
In 2015, the Justice Department and the FBI formally acknowledged that nearly every examiner in an FBI forensic squad overstated forensic hair matches for two decades before the year 2000. Of the 28 forensic examiners testifying to hair matches in a total of 268 trials reviewed, 26 overstated the evidence of forensic hair matches and 95% of the overstatements favored the prosecution. Defendants were sentenced to death in 32 of those 268 cases.
The executions of Nathaniel Woods, Dustin Higgs, and Troy Davis have been cited by some as possible cases of wrongful executions.
In 2003, Juan Catalan was arrested and indicted for the shooting death of 16-year-old Martha Puebla, and was facing capital punishment for the charges. The charges against Catalan were dropped after pre-production footage of an episode of Curb Your Enthusiasm was obtained by his lawyer, showing him in the background of a scene. This corroborated his claim that he was attending a Los Angeles Dodgers baseball game at the time of the murder.
Russia
Aleksandr Kravchenko was executed in 1983 for the 1978 murder of nine year old Yelena Zakotnova in Shakhty, a coal mining town near Rostov-on-Don. Kravchenko as a teenager, had served a prison sentence for the rape and murder of a teenage girl but witnesses said he was not at the scene of Zakotnova's murder at the time. Under police pressure the witnesses altered their statements and Kravchenko was executed. Later it was found that the girl had been murdered by Andrei Chikatilo, a serial killer nicknamed "the Red Ripper" and "the Butcher of Rostov", who was executed in 1994.
Exonerations and pardons
Kirk Bloodsworth was the first American to be freed from death row as a result of exoneration by DNA evidence. Bloodsworth was a Marine before he became a waterman on the Eastern Shore of Maryland. At the age of 22, he was wrongly convicted of the murder of a nine-year-old girl; she had been sexually assaulted, strangled, and beaten with a rock. An anonymous call to the police claiming that the witness had seen Bloodsworth with the girl that day, and he matched up with the description from the police sketch. Five witnesses claiming that they saw Bloodsworth with the victim, as well as a statement in his testimony where he claimed that he had "done something terrible that day" that would affect his relationship with his wife, did not help his case. No physical evidence connected Bloodsworth to the crime, but he was still convicted of rape and murder which led to him receiving a death sentence. In 1992, DNA from the crime scene was tested against Bloodsworth's and found that he could not have been the killer. After serving nine years in prison, he was released in June 1993.
Ray Krone is the 100th American to have been sentenced to death and then later exonerated. Krone was convicted of the murder of Kim Ancona, thirty-six year old victim in Phoenix, Arizona. Ancona had been found nude, fatally stabbed. The physical evidence that the police had to rely on was bite marks on Ancona's breasts and neck. After Ancona had told a friend that Krone, a regular customer, was going to help her close the bar the previous night, the police brought him in to make a Styrofoam impression of his teeth. After comparing the teeth marks, Krone was arrested for the murder, kidnapping, and sexual assault of Ancona on December 31, 1991. At the trial in 1992, Krone pled innocence, but the teeth mark comparison led the jury to find him guilty and he was sentenced to death as well as a consecutive twenty-one year term of imprisonment. Krone's family also believed that he was innocent, which led them to spend over $300,000 in order to fight for his freedom.
The Death Penalty Information Center has identified at least 190 former death-row prisoners in the United States who have been exonerated since 1973. DPIC reported in February 2021 that exonerated death-row prisoners had been wrongly convicted and sentenced to death in 29 different states and in 118 different counties. The leading causes of these wrongful capital convictions were official misconduct by police, prosecutors, or other government officials and perjury or false accusation. Underscoring the often intentional nature of wrongful capital convictions, more than half of all exonerations involved both official misconduct and perjury or false accusation, and at least one or the other was present in nearly 83% of the cases.
In the UK, reviews prompted by the Criminal Cases Review Commission have resulted in one pardon and three exonerations for people that were executed between 1950 and 1953 (when the execution rate in England and Wales averaged 17 per year), with compensation being paid. Timothy Evans was granted a posthumous free pardon in 1966. Mahmood Hussein Mattan was convicted in 1952 and was the last person to be hanged in Cardiff, Wales, but had his conviction quashed in 1998. George Kelly was hanged at Liverpool in 1950, but had his conviction quashed by the Court of Appeal in June 2003. Derek Bentley had his conviction quashed in 1998 with the appeal trial judge, Lord Bingham, noting that the original trial judge, Lord Goddard, had denied the defendant "the fair trial which is the birthright of every British citizen."
Colin Campbell Ross (1892–1922) was an Australian wine-bar owner executed for the murder of a child which became known as The Gun Alley Murder, despite there being evidence that he was innocent. Following his execution, efforts were made to clear his name, and in the 1990s old evidence was re-examined with modern forensic techniques which supported the view that Ross was innocent. In 2006 an appeal for mercy was made to Victoria's Chief Justice and on 27 May 2008 the Victorian government pardoned Ross in what is believed to be an Australian legal first.
U.S. mental health controversy
There has been much debate about the justification of imposing capital punishment on individuals who have been diagnosed with mental disabilities. Some have argued that the execution of people with serious mental illness or intellectual disability constitutes cruel and unusual punishment in violation of the Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution. While the U.S. Supreme Court has interpreted cruel and unusual punishment to include those punishments that fail to take into account the defendant's degree of criminal culpability, it has never held that it is unconstitutional to apply the death penalty to those with serious mental illness and did not determine that executing intellectually disabled individuals constitutes cruel and unusual punishment until 2002.
In 1986, in Ford v. Wainwright, the US Supreme Court ruled that it is unconstitutional to execute a person who does not understand the reason for or the reality of his or her punishment. The issue of whether it is constitutional to execute those with severe mental illness has repeatedly arisen in the state of Texas, where at least 25 individuals with documented diagnoses of paranoid schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and other severe persistent mental illnesses have been put to death. However, Ford applies only to the mental competency of the prisoner at the time of execution, not to the constitutionality of his or her death sentence. The US Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit, the federal appeals court that handles cases from Texas, has narrowly construed Ford and has never found a death-row prisoner to be incompetent to be executed. In Panetti v. Quarterman, the Fifth Circuit held that a man with a long history of paranoid schizophrenia was competent to be executed because, despite his delusions, he was aware that the state intended to execute him for committing a particular murder. The US Supreme Court reversed, finding that the Fifth Circuit's incompetency standard was "too restrictive." The appropriate Eighth Amendment inquiry, the Court said, was whether Panetti had a "rational understanding" of the reason for his execution, not whether he was aware of the State’s rationale for executing him.
In 2019, in the case of Alabama death-row prisoner Vernon Madison, the Court again addressed the proper standard for determining competency to be executed. Madison had cognitive dementia resulting from a series of strokes that, his lawyers said, left him without a rational understanding of why Alabama intended to execute him. The Alabama courts had declared him competent to be executed, ruling that Panetti applied only to cases in which prisoners understanding of the reasons for their pending execution were distorted by delusional mental illness. In Madison v. Alabama, the US Supreme Court disagreed, holding that the critical inquiry was whether the prisoner had a rational understanding of the reasons for the execution, not the type of disorder that caused him or her to lack a rational understanding.
A distinct, but related, issue in the U.S. death penalty is the constitutionality of applying capital punishment to those with intellectual disability. Intellectual disability is a developmental disorder characterized by significantly subaverage intellectual functioning, substantially impaired daily functioning, and onset during the developmental period. The US Supreme Court first addressed this issue in 1989 in the case of Penry v. Lynaugh, in which Texas death-row prisoner Johnny Paul Penry argued that the application of the death penalty to individuals with mental retardation, as the disorder was then known, constituted cruel and unusual punishment in violation of the Eighth Amendment. Penry presented evidence that his that his IQ ranged from 50 to 63 — far below the 70-75 IQ level that is typically considered evidence of intellectual disability — and that he possessed the mental abilities of a six-and-a-half-year-old. The Texas state and federal courts denied Penry's challenge and, in a five-to-four decision, the US Supreme Court ruled that the Eighth Amendment did not categorically prohibit the execution of individuals with mental retardation. Following the ruling, sixteen states as well as the federal government passed legislation that banned the execution of offenders with mental retardation.
The Supreme Court revisited Penry in 2002 in the case of Atkins v. Virginia. By a vote of 6-3, the Court held that the Eighth Amendment prohibition against cruel and unusual punishment applied to those with intellectual disability. The Court referred to the clinical definitions of the disorder in use by the medical community but ultimately left to the states the determination of who qualified as intellectually disabled.
In 2014, the Supreme Court ruled in Hall v. Florida that states cannot apply an IQ cut-off score of 70 to arbitrarily limit which individuals qualify as intellectually disabled. Then, in 2017 in Moore v. Texas, the Court struck down Texas's use of a series of clinically inappropriate lay stereotypes that denied intellectually disabled defendants Eighth Amendment protection.
See also
Capital punishment debate
Cold case (criminology)
Charles Hudspeth (convict)
Extrajudicial punishment
List of exonerated death row inmates
List of United States death row inmates
List of wrongful convictions in the United States
Miscarriage of justice
Cameron Todd Willingham
References
August Ludwig von Schlözer: Abermaliger JustizMord in der Schweiz In: Stats-Anzeigen. Band 2. Göttingen, 1782. S. 273–277.
Julius Mühlfeld. Justizmorde. Nach amtlichen Quellen bearbeitete Auswahl 2. Auflage, Berlin (1880)
Bernt Ture von zur Mühlen. Napoleons Justizmord am deutschen Buchhändler Johann Philipp Palm. Frankfurt am Main: Braman Verlag (2003)
External links
Death Penalty Information Center – anti-death penalty organisation
Justice Denied magazine includes stories of supposedly innocent people who have been executed.
Database of convicted people said to be innocent includes 150 allegedly wrongfully executed.
Letter by Voltaire to Frederick II, April 1777
Capital punishment
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20Orleans%20East
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New Orleans East
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New Orleans East (also referred to as N.O. East and The East) is the eastern section of New Orleans, Louisiana, the newest section of the city. This collection of diverse suburban neighborhoods represents 65% of the city's total land area, but it is geographically isolated from the rest of the city by the Inner Harbor Navigational Canal (Industrial Canal). It is surrounded by water on all sides, bounded by the Industrial Canal, Gulf Intracoastal Waterway, Lake Pontchartrain, Lake Borgne, and the Rigolets, a long deep-water strait connecting the two lakes. Interstate 10 (I-10) splits the area nearly in half, and Chef Menteur Hwy, Downman Rd, Crowder Blvd, Dwyer Rd, Lake Forest Blvd, Read Blvd, Bullard Ave, Michoud Blvd, Hayne Blvd, Morrison Rd, Bundy Rd, and Almonaster Ave serve as major streets and corridors.
As of the 2020 census, the population of eastern New Orleans is 75,223, accounting for 20% of the city’s total population (Table 1). Housing ranges from low-income multifamily apartment complexes and working-class neighborhoods to middle-class single-family subdivisions and affluent, lake-centered gated communities.
Neighborhoods include Pines Village, Plum Orchard, Little Woods, West Lake Forest, Read Boulevard West, Read Boulevard East, Village de L’Est, Venetian Isles, and Lake Catherine (Fig. 2.). Economic drivers in this part of the city include the NASA Michoud Assembly Facility, New Orleans Lakefront Airport, Folgers Coffee Plant, Faubourg Brewing Co., Crescent Crown Distributing, the National Finance Center, and the New Orleans Regional Business Park. A notable characteristic of New Orleans East is its abundance of green spaces, including Bayou Sauvage Urban National Wildlife Refuge, Audubon Louisiana Nature Center, and Joe W. Brown Park.
History
Until the late 19th century, this area was outside of the city limits of New Orleans, although within Orleans Parish.
Eastern New Orleans' post-colonial history dates back to the early 1800s, with the construction of Fort Pike and Fort Macomb in what is now called the Lake Catherine neighborhood. The two forts, part of tonstructed to serve as a defense for the navigational channels leading into New Orleans. Also built in the Lake Catherine neighborhood was the Rigolets Lighthouse.
Other developments in the 1800s were the construction of the forerunner to Chef Menteur Highway in Village de L’Est and a sugar cane plantation and refinery in Venetian Isles. With this road completed by mid-century, Chef Menteur Highway was, at the time, the only access road that connected the eastern area to the rest of the city.
Much of the area being marshland, completion of the highway required damming, draining and filling remnants of a distributary known as Bayou Metairie. There was little development other than in two areas. The first hugged the long, narrow ridge of higher ground along Gentilly Road/Chef Menteur Highway, which followed the natural levee of an old bayou. Various farms, plantations, and small villages such as Michoud were sited along this ridge. The other older area of development consisted of a linear strip of "camps", clusters of houses raised high on wooden stilts, in the shallows along the edge of Lake Pontchartrain, the largest and longest-lasting of these being at Little Woods.
In the early 20th century some residential development of the area began, at first as an extension of Gentilly. Construction of the Industrial Canal began in 1918 and was completed in 1923, creating the principal geographical barrier that would separate eastern New Orleans from the rest of city. Eastern New Orleans' present southern boundary was realized in 1944 with the completion of a re-routing of the Intracoastal Waterway, involving the excavation of a new segment stretching east from the Industrial Canal to the Rigolets, cut through the raw swampland south of the Gentilly Ridge and north of Bayou Bienvenue.
From the 1930s to the 1960s, Lincoln Beach, on the shore of Lake Pontchartrain, was the city's amusement park for the African-American community.
When Hurricane Betsy was bearing down on the city in 1965, eastern New Orleans was the only section for which an evacuation was called, as there was concern that this section of the city might suffer particularly extreme effects. However other than light flooding near the Morrison Canal, damage from Betsy was much more modest than had been feared. However, some of those who evacuated in advance of Betsy's arrival sought refuge in the Lower 9th Ward, which flooded disastrously.
Rapid growth east of the Industrial Canal commenced in the 1960s, during the administration of Mayor Vic Schiro (1961–1970). Many new subdivisions were developed in the 1960s and 1970s, to cater to those who preferred a more suburban lifestyle but were open to remaining within the city limits of New Orleans. Eastern New Orleans grew in a comparatively well-planned and neatly zoned fashion. Some care was taken to avoid placing major thoroughfares along the rights-of-way of unsightly drainage canals, as had frequently occurred in suburban Jefferson Parish. Instead, major roads (e.g., Mayo, Crowder, Bundy, Read, Bullard, etc.) were located equidistant from parallel canals and were outfitted with landscaped medians (neutral grounds in the local vernacular).
Numerous subdivisions were developed with large lakes at their centers, providing both an assist to neighborhood drainage and a scenic backdrop for the backyards of homes. From the late 1960s onwards, buried utilities were required, lending to new development in eastern New Orleans a pleasingly uncluttered visual appearance quite distinct from the wire-hung stoplight signals, tangled webs of power lines, and forests of leaning utility poles common to suburban New Orleans. Though modern-day eastern New Orleans was never segregated, the area originally grew to prominence as a majority-white "suburb-within-the-city". By 1980, the area had also received significant commercial office and retail investment, epitomized by the regional mall The Plaza at Lake Forest, the largest in Greater New Orleans at the time of its completion in 1974.
However, the 1980s witnessed a sea-change in demographics, as New Orleans' growing African American middle class began moving into eastern New Orleans in sizable numbers. More importantly, in the wake of the 1986 Oil Bust significant poverty was introduced into eastern New Orleans, as many of the sprawling garden apartment complexes built in the 1960s and 1970s along I-10 to house upwardly mobile young singles began to accept large, poor, female-headed households as tenants. With increased poverty came increased crime rates, and both non-violent and violent crime became far more common than had been the case in the 1960s or 1970s. These changes were enough to induce a swift exodus of most of the white population, resulting in an eastern New Orleans that was overwhelmingly African-American by 2005.
Much more development further east was envisioned during the oil boom of the 1970s, including a huge planned community called, in successive iterations "New Orleans East", "Pontchartrain", "Orlandia", and, finally, "New Orleans East" once more. This "new-town-in-town" was to have resembled Reston, Virginia or the Woodlands north of Houston, but only a few small portions were built in several bursts of activity in the twenty years prior to the Oil Bust. Both the Village de L'Est and Oak Island neighborhoods were phases of "New Orleans East". The new town development would have occupied almost all of New Orleans lying east of the present-day route of I-510.
Three identical interchanges along I-10 east of Paris Road were constructed in anticipation of the new town. The Michoud Boulevard exit uses one of these interchanges, but two of the three were never used. The prominent "New Orleans East" cast-concrete sign just west of the Michoud Boulevard exit was fabricated circa 1980 during the final attempt at developing this huge tract. Much of this land later became the Bayou Sauvage National Wildlife Refuge, the largest urban wildlife refuge in the United States. Though the "New Orleans East" new town development was never realized, by the 1970s its name had been adopted by many New Orleanians to refer to all of eastern New Orleans of the Industrial Canal.
A new international airport for New Orleans was also envisioned for the far eastern portion of area on several occasions. In the late 1960s, formal government-sponsored studies were undertaken to evaluate the feasibility of relocating New Orleans International Airport to a new site, contemporaneous with similar efforts that were ultimately successful in Houston (George Bush Intercontinental Airport) and Dallas (Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport). This attempt got as far as recommending a specific runway configuration and site in eastern New Orleans; a man-made island was to be created south of I-10 and north of U.S. Route 90 in a bay of Lake Pontchartrain. However, in the early 1970s it was decided that the current airport should be expanded instead. New Orleans Mayor Sidney Barthelemy, in office from 1986 to 1994, later reintroduced the idea of building a new international airport for the city, with consideration given to other sites in eastern New Orleans, as well as on the Northshore in suburban St. Tammany Parish. Facing strong opposition from environmentalists, the Times-Picayune and many residents of eastern New Orleans, Barthelemy's idea came to nothing.
On August 29, 2005, the majority of eastern New Orleans flooded severely from Hurricane Katrina and associated levee failures (see: Effect of Hurricane Katrina on New Orleans). Recovery initially unfolded slowly. By early 2006, only a handful of businesses had reopened, mostly those sited along the historic Gentilly Ridge (i.e., the Chef Menteur Highway corridor). Utility service was fully restored to the area during the course of 2006. As of January 2007, still less than half of the pre-Katrina residential population had returned, and many were living in FEMA trailers as they gutted and repaired their flood-devastated homes. Some residents returned on weekends to repair their property, while others gave up and abandoned the area.
By November 2006 only 40,000 residents had returned to eastern New Orleans, compared to the 95,000 that had inhabited the area before the levee failures. However, consistent with the ongoing recovery in New Orleans' population from its post-Katrina trough, eastern New Orleans' population likewise continued to increase. By 2010, more than half of eastern New Orleans' pre-Katrina population had returned. The returning population was more affluent: determined to permanently reduce the neighborhood's quantity of multi-family housing, eastern New Orleans homeowners lobbied against many rental developments proposed in the post-Katrina era.
As a consequence considerably less multi-family rental housing is available now in eastern New Orleans than existed pre-Katrina. Essential neighborhood services became scarcer as well after 2005. Only one grocery store reopened, post-Katrina, and the national retailers who had flocked to eastern New Orleans in the 1960s and 1970s, and even into the 1980s and 1990s, were slow to return. Furthermore, neither Methodist nor Lakeland hospitals reopened after Katrina, leaving eastern New Orleans without a general hospital and bereft of ER care for many years. New Orleans East Hospital (NOEH), sited within the rehabilitated former Methodist Hospital, opened in 2014, making it the first hospital to operate in the area since Katrina.
In the years following Hurricane Katrina, the pace of recovery in eastern New Orleans has accelerated, though the area still faces challenges. Many retail shops have opened, with a particular concentration emerging at the intersection of I-10 and Bullard Avenue. This commercial node, largely populated by family-owned businesses, is now enjoying the long-awaited return of national retailers, with Big Lots and Wal-Mart leading the way. Consistent with eastern New Orleans' eve-of-Katrina concentration of African-American entrepreneurship, black-owned franchises, such as the USA Neighborhood Market, have also appeared. To the west of Bullard, along the Read Boulevard corridor, a new CVS Pharmacy has opened across Lake Forest Boulevard from the recently completed Daughters of Charity Health Center and New Orleans East Hospital.
Significant public investment has lately transpired in eastern New Orleans as well, including NOEH, the new regional public library, ongoing improvements to Joe Brown Memorial Park, and the construction of half-a-dozen new public school buildings. Efforts to secure high-quality private investment on the site of the former Plaza regional mall continue, and the city in late 2020 issued a Request For Proposals ("RFP") addressing the shuttered Six Flags/Jazzland amusement park, located prominently at the intersection of I-10 and I-510. The amusement park was closed as a precautionary measure in advance of Hurricane Katrina's landfall, but Six Flags opted not to re-open it, post-Katrina.
On February 7, 2017, an EF3 wedge tornado damaged or destroyed several buildings in eastern New Orleans. There were 33 injuries, six of which were serious.
Neighborhoods
Eastern New Orleans encompasses an enormous area, though most of this part of town remains undeveloped wetlands. Within the developed portion, numerous distinct neighborhoods may be found, including Pines Village, Plum Orchard, West Lake Forest, Read Boulevard West, Little Woods, Read Boulevard East, Village de L’Est, Lake Catherine and Venetian Isles.
Pines Village
Pines Village, the area closest to Chef Menteur Highway and the Industrial Canal was one of the first neighborhoods to be developed in eastern New Orleans. The neighborhood's namesake, Sigmund Pines, purchased and developed it with residences in the 1950s. Developing the neighborhood included leveeing the marshy area and lowering the water table by pumping, raising the level of construction sites by use of hydraulic fill and finally, building a drainage system consisting of a series of lakes and canals.
Smaller neighborhoods
Today, eastern New Orleans also includes many smaller neighborhoods named after lakes, streets, and subdivisions such as Lake Willow, Spring Lake, Kenilworth, Seabrook, Melia, Edgelake, Bonita Park, Donna Villa, Willowbrook, Cerise-Evangeline Oaks and Castle Manor.
Read Boulevard East
Originally named Lake Forest, as development first centered along the easternmost segment of Lake Forest Boulevard, the Read Boulevard East area began growing in the 1970s and continues to develop. By the late 1990s, the neighborhoods of Read Blvd East were no longer majority white, but were particularly favored as the preferred place of residence for New Orleans' upwardly mobile African-American white-collar professional and entrepreneurial classes.
Neighborhoods east of I-510
Little development exists east of I-510, although this vast tract still lies within the city limits of New Orleans. It includes the Bayou Sauvage National Wildlife Refuge, Chef Menteur Pass, Fort Macomb, historic Fort Pike on the Rigolets, and scattered areas of essentially rural character, like Venetian Isles, Irish Bayou and Lake Saint Catherine.
Village de L'Est
Village de L'Est, one of the few densely-developed neighborhoods east of I-510, is known for its Vietnamese community. The Vietnamese community is also known as Versailles, as the earliest migrants to the area, arriving in the years after 1975, settled first in the Versailles Arms apartment complex. The commercial hub for this community extends along Alcee Fortier Boulevard, within Village de L'Est. Sometimes known as "Little Vietnam", the area hosts a number of Vietnamese restaurants, including Dong Phuong Restaurant & Bakery. On the corner of Dwyer Blvd and Willowbrook Dr. is the Mary Queen of Vietnam Church which serves as at hub for Vietnamese people whether christian or not to celebrate community and bring unity within the children and families all around.
Landmarks
Eastern New Orleans institutions and landmarks include the Lakefront Airport, Joe Brown Memorial Park, the Audubon Louisiana Nature Center, Lincoln Beach, and NASA's Michoud Assembly Facility, located within the New Orleans Regional Business Park.
Also present is the Lafon Nursing Facility, one of the oldest nursing homes in the United States.
Infrastructure
The New Orleans Power Station and former Michoud Power Station are located at the foot of the Paris Road Bridge in eastern New Orleans.
Notably, eastern New Orleans is the only extensive suburban or suburban-style region of Greater New Orleans where, since the late 1960s, all installed utilities have been buried below ground. Like the downtown New Orleans/French Quarter central core and the Garden City-inspired Lakefront neighborhoods of Lake Vista, Lakeshore, Lake Terrace and Lake Oaks, eastern New Orleans consequently possesses a uniquely uncluttered visual aspect, in contrast to the omnipresent wooden utility poles and spider's web of power lines found along most of the major thoroughfares of suburban Jefferson and St. Tammany parishes. Greater resilience to power outages is another, not inconsiderable benefit to having buried power lines.
Geology
Because eastern New Orleans, and particularly Michoud, rests on the edge of a fault line, the land and the levees protecting it are sinking. Recent geological studies project the rate of sinking to be around two inches per year.
Education
Primary and secondary schools
Public
The New Orleans Public Schools system, now composed exclusively of charter schools, provides administrative oversight to numerous public charter schools in eastern New Orleans.
Marion Abramson High School was located in eastern New Orleans. It closed in 2005 after Hurricane Katrina.
The Abramson Science and Technology Charter School opened on the grounds of the former Abramson High School in 2007.
In 2010, Sci Academy (New Orleans Charter Science and Math Academy) moved to a group of modular buildings at the Abramson site from another group of modular buildings. As of 2010, most students come from East New Orleans and Gentilly. The Abramson campus property is adjacent to the campus of the Sarah T. Reed Elementary School.
Sarah T. Reed High School is in eastern New Orleans.
Miller-McCoy Academy, an all boys' charter secondary school, was in eastern New Orleans from 2008 to 2015.
Private
St. Mary's Academy, founded by Venerable Mother Henriette DeLille and the Sisters of the Holy Family in 1867.
Public libraries
The New Orleans Public Library operates eastern New Orleans New Orleans Branch. The current branch building, a striking contemporary structure with a price tag of $7.6 million, opened in 2012. The building was designed by Gould Evans Affiliates of Kansas City, Missouri, and built by Gibbs Construction. Gould Evans worked with New Orleans firm Lee Ledbetter & Associates to design this library and four others. It is similar to, though somewhat smaller than the Algiers Regional Library, completed around the same time.
Notable people
Shante Franklin, Curren$y, rapper from eastern New Orleans
Ruby Bridges
Poppy Z. Brite, grew up in eastern New Orleans
Will Clark, Professional Baseball Player
Jacoby Jones, His family house was destroyed by Hurricane Katrina
Aaron Neville
Irma Thomas, Grammy Award Winner - "Soul Queen of New Orleans"
Hong Chau, Oscar-nominated actress
See also
University of New Orleans
Lake Pontchartrain
Hurricane Katrina
Vietnamese in New Orleans
Slidell, Louisiana
References
External links
NOLAEAST.com
Dokka, R. K., Modern-Day Tectonic Subsidence in Coastal Louisiana: Geology, v. 34, p.281-284.
Planning District 9 Community Data Center
NewOrleansEast.com
Greater New Orleans Community Data Center
Lake Bullard
Neighborhoods in New Orleans
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paralakhemundi
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Paralakhemundi
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Paralakhemundi shortly known as Parala is district Headquarter of Gajapati district and one of the oldest Municipality established in 1885, in the Indian state of Odisha. Majority of the people in the town speak Odia. The city and the District share its boundaries with Andhra Pradesh. The adjacent town of Pathpatnam is separated by the River Mahendra Tanaya.In later medieval period it became capital of Paralakhemundi Estate of Eastern Ganga Dynasty kings of Khemundi Branch.
The town is well known for being an ancient cultural center of Odisha and birthplace of noted personalities including poet Gopalakrusna Pattanayaka, statesman Krushna Chandra Gajapati Narayan Deo, lexicographer Gopinatha Nanda Sharma and historian Satyanarayana Rajguru. This town is also known for its century old temples, monasteries, palaces and heritage buildings.
Demographics
India census, Paralakhemundi had a population of 48,990. Males constitute 51% of the population and females 49%. Paralakhemundi has an average literacy rate of 69%, lower than the national average of 74.04%: male literacy is 77%, and female literacy is 61%. In Paralakhemundi, 11% of the population is under 6 years of age.
Paralakhemundi has a population of 87,152 in the year 2023. Majority of the people are Hindu; Christians being the second largest religious community.
History
Paralakhemundi is an ancient estate lying in the western corner of the southern portion of then larger Ganjam district (now constitute Ganjam district, Gajapati district, Srikakulam district and parts of Vizianagaram district), and it is bounded in the west by the district of then larger Vizagapatam district (now constitute Visakhapatnam district, Koraput district, Malkangiri district, Rayagada district, parts of Vizianagaram district) and on the north by the Jeypore state and the eastern ghats which are called Maliyas or tribal agencies. The town of Paralakhemundi is: "a straggling town in plan much like the letter ‘L’ scattered around the foot of the well wooded hill which is the distinctive feature of the place. The horizontal portion of the ‘L’ faces south, and at the corner where the ‘L’ and the vertical portion join, is situated the palace(Gajapati Palace), a most picturesque group of building". This group of buildings was designed and built by Mr. Chisholm.
The Khemundi country, consisting of Paralakhemundi, Badakhemundi and Sanakhemundi, was under a single ruler till 1607. Paralakhemundi came under British influence in 1768.
Paralakhemundi owes much of its present-day Existence to Sri Krushna Chandra Gajapati Narayan Deo. Krushna Chandra Gajapati Narayan Deo, Maharaja of Paralakhemundi of the Gajapati kingdom, was the direct descendant of the historic dynasty of the Eastern Ganga dynasty Gajapati kings that ruled Odisha for more than seven centuries. During the regime of these kings, the boundaries of the dynasty was extended from the Ganges in the North to Udayagiri, Nellore district in the South. Kolahomee, one of the sons of Gajapati Kapilendra Dev, the Gajapati monarch in the later half of the 15th Century came to this part of Paralakhemundi (then in Ganjam district) and founded the Royal family of Paralakhemundi.
Gajapati district has been named after Maharaja Sri Krushna Chandra Gajapati Narayan Dev, the Raja Sahib of Paralakhemundi estate. He was honoured as the 1st Prime Minister of the State of Odisha after it was created on 1 April 1936, remembered for his contribution in the formation of a separate Odisha State and inclusion of Paralakhemundi estate in Odisha. Gajapati district came into being with effect from 2 October 1992. Prior to this it was a part (Sub-Division) of Ganjam district.
Geography and climate
Paralakhemundi lies in the south-east of the east Indian state of Odisha. It is on the banks of Mahendratanaya river. Paralakhemundi borders with a town called Pathapatnam of Andhra Pradesh. The town is located on a hilly terrain.
The climate is subtropical with high humidity. The temperature varies between 18 and 48 degree Celsius. Summer is extremely hot with some thunderstorms and minor cyclones, which occasionally cause power outages. Paralakhemundi receives rainfall from the southwest monsoons and the wettest months are July, August and September.
Education
The town of Paralakhemundi has many educational institutions. Some institutes have been there for over 100 years. These were initiated under the erstwhile rulers of the princely state. Maharaja Boys High School (1857), Maharaja Girls High School (1919) are the ones operational even today. The rulers of yesteryear understood the importance of education and promoted education of the girl child about a hundred years ago. The SKCG Autonomous College, Paralakhemundi, named after the illustrious Sri Krushna Chandra Gajapati, enjoys the reputation of being the second oldest college of the state after the Revenshaw College of cuttack. It has affiliation in almost all major disciplines in the faculties of Arts, Science and commerce. From the session 1996–97, P.G. Courses in Mathematics has been added to the already existing post-graduate teaching facilities in Economics, Chemistry, Oriya, Commerce and Life Sciences. Besides teaching facilities for Honours courses in Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry, Botany, Zoology, Computer Applications, English, Oriya, Sanskrit, Geography, history, Political Science and Economics, the college also offers teaching in subjects like Telugu, Hindi, Logic, Philosophy and Home Science. The Indira Gandhi National Open University has opened a center in this college. The college has a sanctioned strength of 2016 students and 83 faculty positions.The alumni of this college occupied and continue to occupy positions of distinction and pride in public life. The college celebrated its centenary from 10 to 12 January 2001.
The Women's' College, Paralakhemundi was established in the year 1983 and was initially affiliated to Berhampur University for IA (Intermediate in Arts) course. Later it was affiliated to the Council of Higher secondary Education, Odisha, Bhubaneswar for the +2 Arts Course. The college came under G.I.A. fold since 1988. The college has received Permanent recognition from Government in the year 2003–2004.The college was included in u/s @ 2(f) and 12(B) Act of the U.G.C. from 2006 to 2007.
There is a Teacher's Training Institute in the town that trains and graduates teachers. It helps in imparting training on the latest methodologies of teaching to the Teachers of Primary and Upper Primary Schools. It also provides CT Training to prospective students on Teaching and certifies the apprenticeship expertise.
Jagannath Institute for Technology and Management (JITM) was established in the year 1997. The institute was set up with the aim to bring technical education to the rural areas and produce highly skilled technical personnel for various sectors in the industry. The institute has been rechristened as Centurion University of Technology and Management (CUTM) recently. Students from all over Odisha and neighbouring states like Andhra Pradesh, Bihar and Jharkhand are studying in this institute, which provides Agriculture, Fisheries, Engineering and Management degrees.
Sanskrit college is one of the oldest colleges in Paralakhemundi. It is affiliated to Puri Sanskrit University. Students here learn the ancient language of Sanskrit and thus help in keeping the language alive and making it relevant in today's context. Several other private-public partnered colleges have come up recently in the town and in the periphery of the town. MBA Degree College, Law College, Nursing College, Sri Ram College Kasinagar are a few of them.
There are several primary, upper primary and high schools in the town. Some of the prominent schools are MRBH, MRGH, Mahendra Giri High School, Gandhi School, Apanna Paricha School, Goura Chandra School. Some of the prominent private schools are the Saraswati Sishu Mandir, Sri Arabinda Purnanga Sikhya Kendra, Priyadarshini Convent School, Sri Satya Sai School. The town also has a Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalaya and a Kendriya Vidyalaya set-up by the ministry of HRD, Central Union Government.
Civic administration
The Paralakhemundi Municipality is in charge of the civic administration of the town. As the headquarters of the Gajapati district, it houses several district-level headquarters of government and private organizations.
Economy
Paralakhemundi is situated among the Eastern Ghats where there are vast plains and number of small streams and rivers. This has enabled cultivation as the chief source of income here. People cultivate mainly paddy (rice), which is grown twice-a-year in the fields, once during Kharif and once during Rabi seasons. However many farmers also cultivate cash crops like sugarcane, maize, and tobacco. Some even cultivate long term cash crops like mango plantations, cashew, banana, etc. The latest trend is that farmers are getting inclined to grow cotton in their fields, which apparently is more profitable to them. Apart from Cultivation and Industries related to cultivation like Rice Mills, Mango Pulp Factories, Cashew Factories, Rice Flake Industries, Sugar Mill, the town is poorly industrialized. However, some medium scale granite factories have been set-up in the surroundings of the town.The other source of income of the residents is through the Handicrafts that are made by them, which they are learning traditionally from generation to generation. The economy is sustainable but is not flourishing due to lack of industrialization and exposure to bigger markets.
Transport
Paralakhemundi is connected to other parts of Odisha by the State Highway 4 (SH-4) which connects Berhampur at one end and Rayagada on the other. The National Highway 326A passes through the village, which connects Mohana in Odisha with Narasannapeta of Andhra Pradesh.
Parlakhemundi is connected to Naupada railway junction on the main East Coast railway line from Kolkata to Chennai by 90 km long (Gunpur to Naupada) 1676mm broad gauge line, that was converted from 762mm (2 ft 6 in) narrow gauge in 2010–11. The line was finally closed for gauge conversion on 9 June 2004. After conversion to broad gauge the Gunpur-Paralakhemundi-Naupada rail line was opened to public and from 21 August 2011.
Art and culture
Historically Paralakhemundi is known as a place for art and artists. The princely rulers had the penchant of promoting and sponsoring the artists. Odissi musician-composers such as Kabikalahansa Gopalakrusna Pattanayaka (1785–1862) was born in the eighteenth century in Parlakhemundi. He was a contemporary of Kabisurjya Baladeba Ratha. His writings on the Krishna Leela like, ‘Brajaku Chora Asichhi’, ‘Uthilu Ede Begi Kahinkire’, ‘Mo Krushna Chandrama’, ‘Dukhidhana Chandranana’ etc. lyrical poems were depicting the expression of affection.
Paralakhemundi is home to many arts & crafts. Horn-work is the oldest craft of Paralakhemundi. The artisans of this art are called Maharanas. These artisans are said to have migrated from a place called Pitala in Ganjam district under the patronage of the Maharaja of Gajapati, Krishna Chandra Deb. The hornwork items include figurines, birds, animals and scenes from Indian mythology. The Palace Street is known for its horn-work showrooms. The horn-works of Paralakhemundi were one of the important products of cottage industry. The horn-works of Paralakhemundi got a special place among the other craft works of Calcutta, Punjab, Kakinada and Trivandrum. The horn-works were made chiefly out of the horns of cattle which were supplied from the neighboring maliahs of the zamindari. The artists of Paralakhemundi first of all used to prepare birds from the horns. Gradually they prepared combs, elephants, horses, prawns, idols of Lord Jagannatha etc. The craft items are then sent to cities and art emporiums. The Horn-work artisans also have a Cooperative society that looks after the promotion and sales of their art work. These horn works are also popular in the international market.
The other craft that was known in the yester years was the Ivory-work. The artists of Paralakhemundi used to carve thrones, khatuli (cots) and other works out of ivory and bone. Forests in which a large number of elephants lived surrounded Paralakhemundi. Hence, ivory was plentifully available in Paralakhemundi. Sri. Radha Krushna Maharana and his son Sri. Purnachandra Maharana, Surendra Maharana and Bhaskara Maharana were experts in the field of ivory works during the British period.
Paralakhemundi is also known for crafts like the Jaikhadi bag, cane and bamboo work. The Chitrakar Sahi is famous for its clay, stone sculptures and water paintings. The chitrakara or painters could do wonders with their paint work. Some of the paint works include the Sculptures of Idols, Wall Painting, Fabric Painting, Painted Playing Cards, Paper Masks, Embossed Paper Idols and Souvenirs. Due to fading demand and economic considerations, now only a few artists are seen to practice the family tradition.
The town celebrates almost all festivities, all round the year. The Jagannath Ratha Yatra being the most revered one. The Jagannath Rath Yatra of Paralakhemundi is second only to the famous Puri festival. The three idols of Lord Jagannath, Lord Balabhadra and Lord Subhadra are quite huge in size and are adorable. The Yatra or Car Festival, was patronized by the Gajapati kings. In the initial years the car festival would follow the traditions of puri and had three separate cars or rathas. However it became one car until 2012. In that year the concept of three cars was again implemented and since then, the three idols enjoy the festivities for nine days on their own cars.The believers throng the Jagannath Temple everyday and its worth watching the bhajan following the evening rituals.
Dasahara, Gamha Purnima, Holi, Gajalakshmi Puja, Ganesh Puja, Kali Puja, Makar Sankranthi and Thakurani Yatra are major Hindu festivals observed in the town. Christmas and Ramzan are also celebrated in the town. Traditionally the Thakurani yatra is conducted periodically for the local area Goddess (Grama Devi), a ritual that continues for about a week. During the Thakurani Yatra, the residents make caricatures, children participate in fancy dresses to make fun and to spread awareness regarding current issues. During evening, cultural programs like drama, orchestra and Bhuta Keli (dramatised romance of Lord Krishna and his Consort Radha maa) are staged. Gaja Muhaan is one more local traditional festivity. This is celebrated after the harvest season is over. The fresh paddy is converted into rice flakes, which are then made into a conical shape by using jaggery as the binding material. Huge cones of the rice flakes are prepared and are offered to the local resident Goddess. The Rice Flake Cone (Gaja Muhaan) is then taken out for procession around the city with orchestra and band. The believers carry these huge rice flake cones on their heads and dance to the tunes of the band to appease the Goddess. The scene is to be seen to be believed.
Being part of the erstwhile Jamindari, the tradition of learning martial art through rituals is another salient feature of this town. The paikas or the erstwhile fighter community still practice the Indian Martial Art forms like the Cane Game (Badi Khela), Sword Playing Tricks, Knife Playing Tricks, Playing with fire ball and lots more. The paikas perform these arts during the Dushera after the Ayudha Puja (worshiping of the Armour) which enthralls the audience and reminds everyone about the traditions of the past.
The town has an art school where children are trained in Odishi Dance and Odishi Sangeet (Songs). The Bhakti Sangeet group encourages young artists to sing and spreads the culture of harmony and togetherness through the devotional songs.
Sports
Cricket is the major sport of the town. Volleyball, basketball, hockey being the other popular sports in the town. Little boys and girls can still be seen playing silly in the evening. The town has a small stadium named Gajapati Stadium. College ground is also a preferable venue for cricket, football matches. There are several other large play grounds that host some district and state level sport events. Cricket being the major game, it is played almost in every street. There are many cricket clubs and small organizers who organize multi team cricket tournaments mainly during winter. Also, a tennis court and an indoor badminton court adds to the sports facilities of the town.
Heritage and tourism
The small and historic town has many heritage places and places for tourist attraction. The places of attraction are
Gajapati Palace
The Jagannath Temple Complex
The Large Water Reservoirs of Ram Sagar and Sita Sagar
B.N. (Basant Nivas) Palace and the Mahendra Tanaya River
The SKCG College, Maharaja Boys High School (MRBH) and Maharaja Girls High School (MRGH)
The Chitrakaar Street, famous for Chitrakaar family & 500 years Painting and Traditional Arts.
The Palace street, the Horn-Craft
The Gopala Krushna Pathagaar (Library)
The Bhoi Sahi Hill
Tourist attractions
The Gandahati Waterfalls (25 km by NH-326A)
The Buddhist Settlement, Chandragiri (85 km by NH 326A)
Tribal Culture and Forests of Gumma and Gaiba (28–29 km)
Mahendragiri 4,925 ft high peak (52 km by SH4)
Lihuri Gopinath (During Holi Festival) (46 km via Kotturu)
The Alada Church (36 km by SH-4)
Sri Kurmam Temple at Srikakulam (72 km by NH5)
Sri Mukhalingam (33 km)
Sri Radhaswami Temple of Mandasa (47 km by SH-4)
Taptapani (Hot Spring) (110 km by NH-326A)
Sita Temple At Hill Top (26 km by SH-4, GARABANDHA)
Khajuripada Hanuman Temple (48 km via NH-326A)
In popular culture
The Odia film "Sundergarh Ra Salman Khan" starring Babushaan Mohanty was shot in the BN Palace of Paralakhemundi.
Politics
Current MLA from Paralakhemundi is K. Narayan Rao again but this time from Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) from 2019. His competitors were Rajakumari of Gajapati from Biju Janata Dal(BJD) and K. Surya Rao from Indian National Congress (INC).
Current MLA from Paralakhemundi Assembly Constituency is Mr. Kengam Surya Rao Indian National Congress (INC) won the seat in State elections in 2014 trailing K.Narayana Rao (Biju Janata Dal), who won last elections in 2009. Trinath Sahu of INC, who won the seat in State elections in 2004 and also in 2000 and in 1985. He also won this seat as an independent candidate in 1995. Previous MLAs from this seat were Darapu Lachana Naidu who won this seat representing JD in 1990, and Bijoy Kumar Jena who won this seat as independent candidate in both 1980 and in 1977.
Paralakhemundi is part of Berhampur (Lok Sabha constituency).
References
Cities and towns in Gajapati district
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhawanipatna
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Bhawanipatna
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Bhawanipatna is a city and the headquarter of Kalahandi district in the state of Odisha, India. Bhawanipatna has numerous temples dedicated to different deities of the Hindu pantheon. It is named after the presiding deity, Bhawani-Shankar, and Patna, which means "place" in Odia.
Bhawanipatna municipality is the administrative head of the city, which is divided into twenty wards with different sub-areas called pada (pronounced "padaa"). Bhawanipatna has more than forty padaas. Originally, these padaas were inhabited by people of different communities, but over the last few decades, they have become homogeneous.
Geography and climate
Bhawanipatna is located at . It has an average elevation of . It is located in the center of large mountains and plateaus, with the mountainous Eastern Ghats in its eastern frontier.
Climate
Bhawanipatna has a tropical wet and dry climate, and temperatures remain moderate throughout the year, except March–June, which can be extremely hot. The temperature in April–May sometimes rises above . The summer months have dry and hot winds, and the temperature can go up to . The city receives about of rain, mostly in the monsoon season from late June to early October. Winters last from November to January and are mild, although lows can fall to .
Demographics
As of the 2011 India census, Bhawanipatna had a population of 69,045, or 83,756 including its suburbs. The population of children 6 years old or under was 7,407, which was 10.73% of the total population. In Bhawanipatna Municipality, the female sex ratio is 945 against the state average of 979. Moreover, the child sex ratio in Bhawanipatna is around 911, compared to the Odisha state average of 941.
The literacy rate of Bhawanipatna city is 85.00%, higher than the state average of 72.87%. In Bhawanipatna, male literacy is 90.95%, while female literacy rate is 78.72%, according to the 2011 census.
Out of the total population, 23,705 were engaged in work or business activity; of this, 18,666 were males while 5,039 were females. In the census survey, a worker is defined as a person who engages in business, a job, service, cultivation, or other labour activities. Of a total working population of 23,705, 84.55% were engaged in main work while 15.45% of total workers were engaged in marginal work.
Language
The languages spoken by the people of Kalahandi are the Kalahandia and Sambalpuri dialects of Odia, locally known as Kalahandi. Local weekly newspapers such as Arjji and Kalahandi Express publish articles in standard Odia and Kalahandi languages. Other languages include Kui, Bhatri (another dialect of Odia), Parji, and Bhunjia, spoken by approximately 7,000 Bhunjia Adivasis.
Politics
The current MLA from Bhawanipatna Assembly Constituency is Pradipta Kumar Naik of BJP, who won the seat in the State Legislative election of 2019.
Bhawanipatna is part of the Kalahandi constituency, currently held by Basanta Kumar Panda, and before that by Arka Keshari Deo, who was the grandson of Maharaj Pratap Kesari Deo of Kalahandi.
Tourism
There are two Manikeshwari Temples located in the Kalahandi district of Odisha: one in the center of Bhawanipatna and the other in Thuamal Rampur. The main deity at this temple is Goddess Manikeshwari. The main devotees are from the fisherman community. During the Dussehra festival, an animal sacrifice is offered at this temple during Chatar Jatra, a festival where thousands of people gather in the city to get blessings from their beloved goddess. A film is also documented showing the ritual of animal sacrifice before Goddess Manikeshwari.
Phurlijharan is a perennial waterfall about in height. Evergreen forests around the fall provide ample opportunities to group picnickers. Rabandara is another perennial waterfall, about in height. Other waterfalls within the region include Sospadar Waterfall and Gadagada Twin-Waterfall.
Karlapat Wildlife Sanctuary (; ) is located in Kalahandi district and is a popular tourist attraction in Odisha. The sanctuary lies within the Eastern Highlands' moist deciduous forests ecoregion; major plant communities include mixed deciduous forests and scrublands. The sanctuary is home to many wildlife species like tiger, leopard, gaur, sambar, nilgai, barking deer, mouse deer, and a wide variety of birds and reptiles. It also has high mineral deposits like bauxite and manganese.
Jakham has a wooden guest house.
Zilla Sangrahalaya Bhawanipatna (the District Museum) depicts the ancient history of the Kalahandi Region, and has artefacts, manuscripts, paintings, and rare historic items like Asurgarh coins and Gudahandi paintings.
Permunji is a nursery situated at the foot of the great mountain, a place for picnics. Elephants are commonly seen near the nursery crossing roads.
Hello Point is a picnic spot and valley viewpoint at the top of the Eastern Ghats from which half of the Kalahandi district is visible, including Junagarh and Kalampur block. The name comes from the fact that one can receive a signal from all mobile telecom services.
Media and broadcasting
Doordarshan Kendra (DD-6)
Doordarshan Kendra (DD-6) started as Low Power Transmission on 15 February 1987, and was upgraded to High Power Transmission (HPT) on 20 January 1992. This 10 kW-capacity station is one of the three Doordarshan Kendras in the state of Odisha, the others being Sambalpur and Bhubaneshwar. The studio was started on 3 September 2002.
In 2004, the station started broadcasting agriculture-related programmes sponsored by the Ministry of Agriculture and simultaneously began broadcasting agriculture programmes in different HPT centres of the KBK region. It also has produced entertainment and awareness-building programmes, as well as programmes that promote tribal heritage, culture, and drama. From 2005 to 2009, the centre earned ten national awards and five nominee prizes for the programmes it produced.
All India Radio (Akashwani Bhawanipatna 103 FM)
All India Radio (Akashwani Bhawanipatna) started on 30 December 1993 near Naktiguda, on outskirts of the city. It has two 100 kW transmitters in Belamal near Pastikudi. Its transmission frequency is 1206 kHz (248 MTs). It has two studios.
The station has produced original programmes on topics targeted to various audiences, including rural, women and children, youth and senior citizens, light and classical music, and film music. The broadcasting of programmes is done in Odia, Hindi, and English languages, and covers a population of approximately 18,66,000 Lakh from Kalahandi, Nuapada, and nearby districts. Recently, FM services have been started at AIR station at a frequency of 103 MHz.
The station is not only popular in its primary zone (Kalahandi District and Naupada District), but also has audiences from the districts of Bolangir, Sonepur, Phulbani, Bargarh, Nawrangpur, and Rayagara districts of Odisha, and Raigarh district of Chhattisgarh. Moreover, this station serves the districts coming under the capital KBK scheme of the Government of India.
Others
My Channel (Local Media Group) – digital cable TV and WiMax provider
Ortel Cable and Broadband Service – digital cable TV and broadband provider
EM Digital
Festivals
The Hindu festival of Durga Puja (or Dasara) is celebrated all over India, but is very popular in eastern India, including in Odisha, West Bengal, and Assam. Most of the major festivals like Chhatar Jatra, Kkandabasha, and Budharaja Jatra, are celebrated during Dasara. The major goddesses of Kalahandi—including Manikeswari, Lankeswari, Denteswari, Khameswari, and Bhandargharen—are seen as a reflection of the goddess Durga, locally known as Shaki ('Energy') and stemming from tribal traditions.
Nuakhai is typically a local festival prevalent in western Odisha, including Kalahandi. It is inspired by the harvesting of new crops and historically came from tribes. There are many kinds of Nuakhai according to tribal culture, out of which Dhan ('rice') Nuakhai is most popularly celebrated. Now, everybody (irrespective of caste, creed, and religion) celebrates it.
The Chatar Jatra of Goddess Manikeswari of Bhawanipatna is a popular ceremony held in October.
Diel (or Deepawali; also popularly known as Diwali) is celebrated in Kalahandi. It is getting popular due to the immigrant businesses mainly from the Marwadi community.
Kalahandi Utsav "Ghumura" is hosted in Lal Bahadur Shastri stadium.
Markets
There are several market areas in the city. The biggest is Laxmi Bajar (or 'main market') at the core of the city. Most of the garment showrooms, costumes, jewelry, grocery, and fancy shops are found here. Fruits and vegetables are sold in the inner area of the market mainly near Laxmi Mandir.
Hatpada (or 'weekly market') is a bi-weekly market that takes place on Tuesday and Saturday near Gandhi Pramod Udyaan (park). Traders from different areas come to sell their goods including vegetables and grocery items; masala and spices; metal products, tools, and utensils; and animals, milk products, and meat.
Mach Bazaar is located near Ghodaghat bridge, and is where different types of fish and prawns are sold.
Naktiguda Haat is a small Bajar located on NH-26, mainly known for grocery and vegetable items.
Sports
Lal Bahadur Sashtri Stadium is the biggest stadium in Odisha according to the total field area. It is near the Bhawani Talkies, an old cinema hall. The stadium has held various matches including the Ranji Trophy and the Kalahandi Cup. It is maintained by Kalahandi District Athletic Association. Various sports and athletic training are conducted including cricket, football, karate. There are also several tennis courts in the stadium.
Indoor Stadium (Badminton court) is present near the LBS Stadium.
The Reserve Police Stadium is the home ground of the Odisha Police.
The Govt. Autonomous College Field is one of the largest field in Bhawanipatana.
D.I.E.T. Field is one of the biggest grounds available in the city used for club cricket, volleyball, and football games.
Entertainment
Cinema
Bhawani Talkies was the oldest cinema hall in the city, near L.B.S. Stadium with UFO technology. (now closed)
Satyam Cinema is the biggest cinema hall in the city with UFO technology and Dolby Digital sound.
New Star Cineplex is the largest multiplex of southwestern Odisha (KBK-South Odisha) with four screens (#3D technology). It is situated near OMFED plant, SH-16 Raipur road, Bhangabari, Bhawanipatna.
Bhagirathi Mall, Second Mall & Multiplex in Bhawanipatna. Multiplex-4 Screen 3D, shopping mall is situated near Satsang Bihar, NH-26 Junagarh Road, Bhawanipatna.
Parks and gardens
Bhagirathi Park – near Shirdi Sai Mandir on SH-44
Gandhi Pramod Udyaan – near Statue Square
Ecological Park – one of the oldest parks; on the outskirt of the city on NH-26
Education
Technical/Professional institutions
College of Agriculture, Bhawanipatna
Government College of Engineering, Kalahandi Bhawanipatna
Government Polytechnic College Bhawanipatna
College of Teacher Education, Bhawanipatna
University
Kalahandi University, Bhawanipatna
General degree colleges
Binayak Residential college, Bhawanipatna
Government Women's College Bhawanipatna
Jayaprakash Sandhya Mahavidyalaya, Bhawanipatna
Pragati Degree College, Bhawanipatna
Saraswati Degree College, Bhawanipatna
Sastriji Science College, Bhawanipatna
Schools
Kendriya Vidyalaya Bhawanipatna
Hi-Tech Public School Bhwanipatna
Citizens' Model English Medium Academy, Bhawanipatna
B.M. High School
Municipal Govt.High School
Delhi Public Kids & Primary School, Bhawanipatna
Vimala Convent School
Manikeshwari High School
Saraswati Sishu Vidya Mandir
Satya Sai Vidya Mandir
Shastriji model school (English Medium)
Shastriji Siksha Niketan (Odia Medium)
Computer institutions
NICE (National Institute of Computer Education)
Health care
Bhawanipatna has a medical college, several hospitals, and ambulance services, all of which provide good health care services in the city.
Hospitals
The District Headquarter Hospital is the main backbone for the health services in the city and whole district. The hospital has many wards for different kinds of patients, including a radiation therapy and regional diagnostic centre, and a blood bank. Currently, a new 6-storey hospital building is under construction.
The Sardar Rajas Medical College, Hospital and Research Centre (SRMCH) is located away from Bhawanipatna on NH-26, was the only medical college in KBK region. It was established in 2009 with support from WODC and the government of Odisha for conducting undergraduate medical courses. It was a self-financing medical institution with 100 seats, but is now abandoned. The case is currently going on by the medical students against Sylvian Trust at Odisha High Court.
The Maa Manikeswari Multispeciality Hospital (previously known as Life Worth Hospital) was established in 2004 in Bhawanipatna near Ghodaghat Chowk (SH-16). It was previously a branch of the Life Worth Super Specialty Hospital in Raipur. It has all the necessary facilities required during an emergency.
Recently, the state government announced a government medical college in Kalahandi. The state government signed with Vedanta Group to build Kalahandi Medical College & Hospital, a medical college and 500-bed hospital at Bhangabari near Bhawanipatna. Forty acres of land behind Bhawanipatna Ring Road has been handed over to the State Health Department for infrastructure. It is adjacent to SH-16 (Proposed NH). A MoU has been signed by the state government and Vedanta Group and land acquisition is complete.
The Police Hospital is situated in Armed Reserve police campus near College Chowk, Bhawanipatna.
Nursing Homes
Balaji Nursing Home – near Balaji Mandir, Pardeshi Para, Bhawanipatna
Surakhya Nursing Home – near Red Cross Kalyan Mandap, Bhawanipatna
Jagannath Netralaya Eye Hospital – near Balaji Mandir, Pardeshi Para, Bhawanipatna
Transport
Air
Utkela Airstrip (VEUK) is present near the city () which was scheduled to be operational in August2023 with daily flights to the state capital Bhubaneshwar by private air service provider Air Odisha under UDAN scheme by Ministry of Civil Aviation.
Lanjigarh Airstrip () is private airstrip conducting VIP and chartered planes. Other nearby airports are Swami Vivekananda Airport at Raipur, Chhattisgarh ( away), and Biju Patnaik International Airport in Bhubaneswar (427 km away by road and 631 km by rail).
Rail
Bhawanipatna railway station was inaugurated on 12 August 2012. It is situated on the Lanjigarh–Junagarh rail line. Currently there are 3 trains (1 express and 2 passenger) running from Bhawanipatna to Bhubanneshwar, Raipur, and Sambalpur. Kesinga Railway station is connected to many major Indian cities like Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai, and Surat.
Road
Highways connecting Bhawanipatna to various cities include:
NH-26 (Bargarh – Bolangir – Bhawanipatna – Nabarangpur – Koraput – Vizianagram – Natavalsa)
SH-16 (Bhawanipatna – Borda – Khariar – Raipur)
SH-6 (Bhawanipatna – Chatiguda – Ambodala – Muniguda)
SH-44 (Bhawanipatna – Gunupur – Thuamul Rampur – Kashipur – Tikri)
Bhawanipatna Bus Stand is one of the biggest bus stands in Odisha, and is on NH-26. Both private and government buses are available from here.
Bhawanipatna is home to a division of Odisha State Road Transport Corporation (OSRTC), which runs government buses from Bhawanipatna to Bhubaneshwar, Vishakhapatnam, Sambalpur, Berhampur, Cuttack, and Jeypore. Private buses (A/C sleeper coaches) provide transportation facilities to nearby cities in Odisha such as Raipur and Durg. Newly added taxi facility and auto facility (including Biju Gaon Gadi) service throughout Bhawanipatna and nearby villages.
Power and transmission
There is a 132/33 kV grid station near OMFED diary on SH-16. Power to this grid comes directly from the Therubali grid. Power transmission and maintenance are done by Grid Corporation of Odisha.
There is also a sub-station in Naktiguda, Bhawanipatna. It is maintained by Western Electricity Supply Company of Odisha.
Notable people
Rendo Majhi – A freedom fighter in Odisha, who started the Kondha Revolution against the British in 1853.
Sujeet Kumar (politician) – Rajya Sabha Member, policy maker.
Bhubaneswar Behera – Engineer, academic, administrator, and author.
Ram Chandra Patra, IAS (retd.) (1919-2013) – Bureaucrat, social worker, and administrator acknowledged for his simplicity and administration, and for taking initiative in the Indravati project. He was the first IAS from Kalahandi.
Kishan Patnaik – Socialist leader. He was born in 1930 into a lower-middle-class family in Kalahandi. Mr Patnaik worked in the youth wing of Samajwadi Yuvjan Sabha and soon rose to become its national president. He was elected to Lok Sabha from Sambalpur at the age of 32 and was one of handful members who turned the Lok Sabha into a real forum to discuss matters of national importance. He was perhaps the first person to bring the issue of starvation death in Kalahandi to the Indian parliament. Mr. Patnaik never lost sight of this fundamental plight of rural India, and securing the right to livelihood for the people on the margin therefore always remained central to his politics and to his vision of development.
References
External links
Official website of Kalahandi
Map of Kalahandi
Cities and towns in Kalahandi district
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nayagarh
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Nayagarh
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Nayagarh is both a town and the municipality headquarters of the Nayagarh district in the Indian state of Odisha.
Geography
Nayagarh is located at with an average elevation of 178 metres (584 feet).
The Rukhi mountain is in the south and the Balaram mountain is in the north of Nayagarh which mitigated the effects of the 1999 Odisha cyclone on Nayagarh.
The 96 km long New Jagannath Sadak road, also known as Nua Jagannath Sadak, connects Nayagarh to the holy city in the Puri district.
Demographics
As per the 2011 census held in India, Nayagarh town had a population of 17 030, 9 000 of whom were male and 8 030 were female. This indicated a population growth of 11.30% compared to the census data of 2001. The census of 2001 when compared against the census of 1991, had revealed a population growth of 10.46% in Nayagarh District.
The total area of the Nayagarh district covers approximately 3,890 km2 accommodating about 1700 villages in the Nayagarh district.
The average literacy rate of the Nayagarh population was 79.17% in 2011, compared to 70.52% in 2001 (86.63% male and 71.08% female). This revealed an increase from the 2001 census, wherein the figures stood at 82.66% (male) and 57.64& (female) in the said district.
Total literates in Nayagarh District were 681,522, of which male and female were 387,632 and 293,890, respectively. In 2001, the total population of literates in Nayagarh District was 529,840.
With regard to sex ratio in Nayagarh, it stood at 916 females per 1000 males compared to 2001 census figure of 938. The average national female sex ratio in India is 940 per 1000 males as per the latest reports of Census 2011 Directorate.
In census enumeration, data regarding children under 0–6 years age were also collected for all districts including Nayagarh. There were total 101,337 children under the age of 0–6 years of age against 113,180 falling in the same age bracket as per the 2001 census. Of the total 101,337, males and females were 54,759 and 46,578, respectively. Child sex ratio as per census 2011 was 851 compared to 904 of census 2001. In 2011, children under 6 formed 10.53% of Nayagarh District compared to 13.09% of 2001. There was a net change of −2.56% in this compared to the previous census of India.
Nayagarh District population constituted 2.29% of the total population of Odisha as per 2001 census.
History
Notified Area Council was constructed vide Health (LSG) Deptt. Notification No. 4475/LSG/dt.13.05.1953 of Housing & Urban Development Department Act. The NAC is spread over an area of 15.54 km2 with a population of 14,314 as per 2001 census. The municipal area is divided into 13 wards.
This U.L.B as constituted in the year 1953. The government in H & U D Deptt. have been pleased to declare this U.L.B. to that of the statute of Notified Area Council during the year 1953.
The history of the foundation of Nayagarh State in the thirteenth century is an important chapter in the political history of Odisha. Suryamani of Baghela dynasty came to Puri on a pilgrimage from "Rewa" of Madhya Pradesh and established his kingdom at Nayagarh. On the way to Puri, both Suryamani and his brother Chandramani took rest at night at Gunanati. The area was full of tigers and at night a tiger attacked him. Both the brothers fought the tiger and killed it. The local people praised the brave brothers and elected Suryamani as their leader. Suryamani gradually built his fort at Gunanati and married a Mali (a cast known as worshiper of Lord Shiv) girl. After the death of his first wife, he again married a Kshatriya girl. From there, he then attacked Haripur and Ralaba. While sleeping, a tiger attacked him at Ralaba; he again fought and killed it. At that moment, he saw a lady with an empty pot passed by to fetch water. Astonishingly, she returned with a little boy. Immediately, Suryamani obstructed the way of that lady and wanted to know about the mystery. The lady told she was Bouri Thakurani (a local worshiped goddess) and the tiger that the king killed was the boy. She advised Suryamani to kill her and worship her as his deity. From that date, Suryamani worshiped "Bauri Thakurani" at Ralaba and built his fort there and adopted Tiger Head as a state symbol.
Ninth king of this dynasty "Baghel Singh" (1480–1510) came on a hunting to a place in between Rukshi and Balaram mountains and saw a wonderful sight that a rabbit pressed down a dog there. After seeing this valourous act by the prey (rabbit) on the predator, he selected and shifted his capital to this place. As per his name, Nayagarh is also known as "Baghua Nayagarh" (valourous Nayagarh). The place where such an event occurred is now known as "KukurTasara" ('kukur' means 'dog' and 'tasara' means a large piece of stone in Odia, where the pressing of the dog by the rabbit had occurred and hence the name).
12th King of Nayagarh was Raghunath Sing (1565–1595) who was highly powerful. During this time, Muslims had already captured Odisha and the atmosphere of the coastal Odisha was fully indiscipline. The last independent king Mukunda Dev (1565) was defeated in Gohritikira and died. By taking the advantages of the political situations of coastal Odisha, Raghunath Singh attacked Ranapur and captured Odagaon, Sarankul and Baunsiapara area from Ranapur estate and dispossessed Nayagarh-Daspalla border area from the King of Boudh and Sunamuhin area of Odgaon from the King of Ghumusar. He also captured a portion from Banpur. Before death, Ragunath Singh divided his estate between his three sons. Harihar Singh was in possession of Nayagarh and Jadunath Singh got four Khandagrams (large area of land) which was known as Khandapada later. Gadadhar Singh was the son of Harihar Singh. When he was engaged in a fight with Ranpur estate, the king of Ghumusar attacked Nayagarh. Pindik Patsahani of village Sunalati with 150 soldiers fought the great army of Ghumusar and defeated him. But, in subsequent war, he was captured by the enemy and sacrificed his life. Gadadhar Sing's daughter married the great poet Upendra Bhanja of Ghumusar who settled at Malisahi of Nayagarh estate after marriage. When British captured Odisha, Binayak Singh Mandhata was the King of Nayagarh and the great Jadumani Mahapatra was his court poet.
Educational Institutes
Colleges
Nayagarh Autonomous College
The Nayagarh Autonomous College was established in 1961, at the initiative of the then sub-divisional officer (SDO) of Nayagarh, Sri Bhramarabar Jena. Donors included the royal family of the erstwhile princely state of Nayagarh and many local individuals and institutions. The college was also funded by a double rent (Khajana) from the Nayagarh people, with public support. The college is in a sylvan location 0.5 km away from Nayagarh.
College buildings include the Academic Building, Administrative Block, Library (with over 35,000 books), three hostels (segregated by sex), staff quarters and an athletic facility. One of the men's hostels is named after the noted poet Kabi Jadumani, while the other is named after the astrophysicist Pathani Samant. The women's hostel is named after the female freedom fighter Malati Choudhury.
The college was adopted by the University Grants Commission (UGC) in July 1964. Since then, the UGC has supported both the academic activities of the college and the development of infrastructure. The college was declared an Autonomous College by the UGC in 2006. Hirachand was also studying there.
Nayagarh Women's College
The Nayagarh Women's College was founded in 1981 with funding from donations from the people of Nayagarh and from the government of Odisha. Mr S.M. Soleman was the founding Secretary. It was first accommodated in the old building of Prajamandal Office in Nayagarh Town. The college received permanent recognition from the government of Orissa in 1988 and permanent affiliation with Utkal University for University-level courses.
The college offers Honours courses in Economics, Education, English. History, Oriya, Political Science, and Sanskrit, a pre-university Science course (+2 level), and courses in Computer Education. Almost 900 students are enrolled in the college and more than 200 students reside in the hostel on the college campus. The college is funded by the University Grants Commission, the State government, and the Members of Parliament Local Area Development Scheme.
UNIITECH Residential College and Degree College
The UNIITECH residential college was founded in 2009, while the degree college was founded in 2016.
Millennium Academy Of Higher Education
The Millennium Academy of Higher Education was established in the millennium year 2000. This is the only private college offering professional courses in Nayagarh district. It is situated on its own campus at Khedapada, Balugaon, 7 km from Nayagarh town. The college is permanently recognised by the Higher Education Department of the government of Odisha and is affiliated with Utkal University.
Nayagarh Institute of Engineering and Technology (POLYTECHNIC)
The NIET is one of the leading Institute of Nayagarh District , Promoted by "Vidya Alok Charitable Trust" dedicated to empower the state of Odisha in the field of Technical Education . It situated on its campus at Vidyavihar panipoila , 9.2 KM from Nayagarh town .
Brajendra High School
Brajendra High School is the oldest high school in Nayagarh. It is named after Raja Brajendra Kishore Singh Mandhata, Raja Saheb (erstwhile king) of Nayagarh. It was founded as a boy's high school but later became a co-ed school. there are approximately 500-550 students and with near to 15-20 staffs.
D.A.V. Public School
The D.A.V. Public School is one of the newest schools in Nayagarh town, established in 1997. It is one of the most eminent D.A.V. schools in Odisha. These schools are well known for quality education, highly qualified teaching staff, and student achievement at the district and state level.
Maharishi Vidya Mandir
The Maharishi Vidya Mandir (MVM) is an advanced school for vedic science established in 1991. It follows the CBSE curriculum. The first class graduated in 2000.
Odisha Adarsha Vidyalaya
It is a famous English medium CBSE government school of Nayagarh situated in Notar. This school has won
many awards from cluster to national level. Students from class 6 to 12 study here. Students from various school of class 5th and 8th get admitted here to class 6th and 9th by entrance exams. It is well known for quality education and teachers.
N.A.C High School
The N.A.C High School is one of the oldest schools of Nayagarh, with an enrollment of 500 students. It offers classes from VI to X. Before 2005, this school was managed under a Notified Area Council (N.A.C). Since 2006, it has been directly managed by the government of Odisha.
Saraswati Shishu Vidya Mandir
Saraswati Shishu Vidya Mandir is one of the oldest private high schools of Nayagarh town, established in 1994. It is now the leading private school in Nayagarh with over 1200 students. It consistently achieves good results in the High School Certificate or Board exams at the district level.Recently the school has completed its silver jubilee which was attended by Governor Prof Ganeshi Lal and Dr Arun Sahoo . The school has been a popular choice among parents who want their child's education in a Gurukul like environment .
Madhukesh Bidyapitha, Nagamundali
Madhukesh Bidyapitha is a government high school located in Nagamundali village, 10 km from Nayagarh town. It has an important role in the educational system in the local rural areas of Nayagarh district, accommodating students from nearby villages.
Solapata High School
Solapata High School is located at Solapata village, 6 km from Nayagarh town. It was established in 1964. This is one of the oldest schools of Nayagarh.
Bhagirathi High School
Bhagirathi High School is located at Govindapur (Gram Panchayat, Gadadhar Prasad), and was established in 1968. This school has over 2009 students and offers classes from VIII to X.
N.K High School, Kesharpur
N.k High School is located in Kesharpur (Kalikaprasad panchayat), 1st established by the villagers and subsequently recognised by Govt. in 1970. Students of 4-5 villages depend on it for their education. The atmosphere of this school is very education oriented and it has produced many great personalities.
Transportation
Nayagarh Town was put on the railway map of the country on 19 June 2017 when railway minister Suresh Prabhu formally dedicated the new line from Bolagarh Road to Nayagarh Town as part of the ongoing Khurda Road-Balangir project. The railway minister also inaugurated the Nayagarh Town railway station building while flagging off a passenger train that made the first journey to the town.
Temples, Tourist, Attractions and Nearby places of Interest
Temples & Religious Places
Ladukeswar Temple
This Shiv temple is situated at Sarankul, a small town towards Odagaon Block. Maha Shivaratri is the important festival which is being celebrated every year. People from all parts of Odisha (mainly south Odisha) come to this place during the festival. The deity popularly known as "Ladu Baba" bestows blessing upon everyone. The temple is situated around 100 km from Bhubaneswar on the Nayagrah- Aska Road in Sharankul and 13 km away from Nayagarh town. The city is regarded as the golden merge of Hari (Vishnu) and Hara (Shiva). "Bolbam" is a traditional culture here for which people across different parts of Odisha visit the temple from their own towns by walking on barefoot and carrying a stick over their shoulder holding 2 pots of water from their town and finally put in the Ladukeshwar temple on the occasion of Shivaratri. The history of Ladukeshwar temple says that a cowherd used to take a couple of cows to the Bhandar mountain situated on top of Ladukeshwar temple now and one day he noticed that the cow automatically milks over a stone periodically everyday and one day when by mistake the cow put the leg on that stone, blood came out of the stone. To the very surprise, the cowherd told that story to village head and on that night one temple priest saw a dream of god speaking of establishing a temple over there. And the king agreed to it and established the temple. From that day onwards Ladukeshwar temple got established in Sharankul. In front of the temple, one monkey used to come for many days and sit at the exit of temple everyday and never ate anything offered by the public and died after few days, hence one small temple was built just outside the exit in the memory of that loving devoted monkey. The temple is now further restructured with more temples internally with further introduction of "Naba gunjar", Maa laxmi temple, haraparbati temple and floating stone of magical Ramsetu times etc. The history is very old and teaches us the culture in every respect.
Nilamadhab Temple
This temple is situated at Kantilo around 35 km from Nayagarh and 60 km distance from Bhubaneswar. It is believed that lord Jagannath is the secondary form of lord Nilamadhav, who was worshiped by the tribal head Biswabasu.
Odogaon Raghunath Temple
This temple is situated at Odagaon around 27 km distance from Nayagarh town. Lord Rama is worshiped there along with lord Laxman and goddess Sita.
Dakshinakali Temple
This temple is situated in Nayagarh around 1 km distance from Nayagarh town. Goddess Dakshinakli is the prime deity of Nayagarh. It is said She was taken by a great tantrik of the royal family of Nayagarh king once on his way from Khandpara to Nayagarh. While the royal kin was coming through a mango field at night, the deity appeared before him and since he was a great tantrik, he imprisoned the devi (goddess) and asked her to come with him as an aid till he reaches Nayagarh as he was travelling alone. Goddess Dakshinakli came with the tantrik, but upon reaching Nayagarh when he asked Her now She can go, the goddess replied him as you have made me come here now give me shelter and I would not go back and even cursed him to be childless as She was the mother goddess and a son should not have done this even if he has great magical power. Since then the temple for Dakshin Kali was built on and the goddess has been worshipped.
Dhenkena Raghunath Temple
This temple is situated at Dhenkena village under Malishahi police station.
Jaleswar Temple, Dihagaon
This Shiv temple is situated at Dihagaon, a small village 5 km distance from Daspalla Town towards Gania Block. This is the only shiv temple in the Dashapalla area whose "Shiv Ling is a patali shiv ling (came from netherworld, i.e. deep earth, by itself)" and has not been established by human beings. This Shiva Ling was discovered by a tribal couple while they were searching for their habitats.Kartik Poornima is the main festival of Dihagaon Jaleswar Temple followed by Maha Shivaratri, Dola Purnima and Sitala Sasthi.
Tourist, Attractions and Nearby places of Interest
Kotagada Gumpha, Rajsunakhala
Lord Mahaveer on the top of the mountain. Kartika Purnima is a festival run near the Gumpha. It is 4 kilometers away from Rajsunakhala & 9 kilometers from Ranpur.
Gokulananda Tourism Center
Gokulananda Tourism Center is a tourist attraction in Nayagarh district, which is situated on the bank of the river Mahanadi in Sidhamula village. There is a cottage and deer park installed near this picnic spot, and accommodation in a cottage.
Satkosia Gorge
It is the deepest river gorge of Odisha in the river Mahanadi. Its length is about 16 km in between Angul and Dashapalla boundary. Gharial crocodile and many reptiles, aquatic birds and animals are found here.
Satakosia Wildlife Sanctuary
The Satakosia wildlife sanctuary is a tiger reserve. It attracts the nature lovers to experience the Flora and Fauna of Dashapalla amidst deep dense forest with trees, herbs and creepers. Tiger, elephant, deer, spotted deer, bison, hare, jackal, wolf, leopard, peacock, parrot, maina, etc., are common.
Kuanaria Dam
A medium Irrigation Project has been built on the river Kuanaria just 7 km away from Dashapalla town. It is the largest river dam of Nayagarh district and a very good picnic spot with a deer park. Irrigation I.B., Wildlife I.B. and RWSS I.B. are here for short stay of the visitors.
Budhabudhiani Dam
Budhabudhiani Dam 10 km from Odagaon town is a picnic place of Nayagarh District.
Mahaveer Khol
Mahaveer Khol, a small hill at the north of Dashapalla is believed to be the original place of God Mahaveer. Swapna Mahaveer is being worshipped here since 1983. It is a fine religious place as well as a very good spot for picnic and for visit. A 3-day-long Jajna is held here every year during Bisub Sankranti where thousands of people gather.
Bhimara
It is a fine place for rock trekking. Generally, people gather here in the month of Kartik for a visit. It is believed that Bhim the 2nd Pandav was here for some days. So the grand rock bears the footprints of Bhim and named as Bhimara.
Gilli Pathar & Gadda Vitara
Gilli Pathar is a place where a temple of lord Giri Gobardhan (name of loard Krishna who once held the mountain Gobardan)is situated on the top of the Gamein Bhandarswar Hill. The hill is full of huge rocks. Its height is approximately 100 m from the sea level. The temple looks like Gilli (a Pin-point).
Gadda Vitara is a picnic spot and a hill side situated in the village Gamein which is 10 km distance from Nayagarh.It is a historical place. The local people say that the king of Nayagarh had made his Gadda(a place where the King goes for safety living from the enemies at the time of wars) inside the boundaries of four large hills named Barada Pahada, Gamein Bhandarswar Mundia, Binjhagiri Mundia and Kesharpur pahada. The elephants (Nag) protect the Gada on the foot of the hills which is known as Nagamundali (now there is a village named as Nagamundali Village). There was a large plain area inside the four hills boundaries. Right now plantation has been made there by the villagers. It is a good picnic spot to view the hill side, stream and green areas.
To reach at this place, drive on the Nayagarh-Godipada road up to Kalikaprasada, then right turn for 3 km to Gamein Village. Another road is also the same 10 km distance, a 5-km drive on the Nayagarh-Odagaon Road and left turn from Jamujhala for next 5 km to Gamein Village.
Forest and Wild life
Daspalla, Vimara Range
Vimara Range is 35 km from Nayagarh town towards Daspalla. It is divided into three by large stones and was made not just by the rulers but also by the villagers.
Cuisines
Nayagarh is known for the popular sweet dish Chhena poda, which means 'burnt cheese' in Oriya. Best quality chhena poda can be found in Itamati and Machhipada (villages located in Nayagarh). Pithas are enjoyed on traditional holidays, while more savory pithas are common at other times of the year. Local people of Nayagarh and in other regions like Daspalla, Madhyakhanda and Gholahandi prepare Manda pitha, Chakuli pitha, Poda pitha, Arisha pitha and Kakra pitha during different Hindu festivals.
Business, agriculture, and culture
Itamati only 6 km away from Nayagarh town is a Business Centre of Nayagarh. All types of trading of Nayagarh start in Itamati. Rajsunakhala also the 2nd biggest business center in the district. Only 26 kilometers away from the District headquarter Rajsunakhala such a great developed place of daily needs like all the things are available here. Ornaments, Jewelry, Dry Fish, & other things are available in Rajsunakhala. Nayagarh also developed a great business market nowadays with some new Shopping Malls and new shops. Since Nayagarh is present in between Angul, Cuttack, Aska, Berhampur, Koraput and Khurdha, Nayagarh also had a great business field. After completion of Sidhamala Dam Project in Kantilo over Mahanadi River, the distance from Nayagarh to Angul and Cuttack has been shortened, which ultimately increased business in Nayagarh. The National Highway 224 also goes through Nayagarh, which shortened the distance from Bhubaneswar to Bolangir. This also influenced trade in Nayagarh.Dashapalla is also 4th biggest business hub in Nayagarh district due to its location nowadays.Tribal people living in Kandhamal district come here to earn their livelihood. The town is connected with well maintained National Highways and State Highways and railways with nearest airport Biju Patnaik International Airport in Bhubaneswar and Jharsuguda Airport renamed as Veer Surendra Sai Airport in Jharsuguda.
The agricultural lands of the district of Nayagarh are basically fit for cultivation of seasonal paddy, pulses like mung and black gram and sugarcane. There are hills and forests spread in the nearby areas of the town of Nayagarh as well as in the different parts of the district where herbal and forest products are available including natural medicinal plants. People cultivate groundnut, sesame, and other similar grams during the suitable times which are highly nutritious. The forest products also include saal and kendu leaves supporting life of the rural and tribal people.
The culture of Nayagarh is rural and based on the established traditions right from the ancient times. These are mostly related to the religious systems prevailing in the Hindu temples of Lord Shiva, Lord Rama, Lord Krishna, Lord Jagannath and the established deities of Hinduism. Every year, people observe Mahavishuva Sankranti (or Pana Sankranti also known as Haunuman Jayanti after performing the rituals of Danda, a traditional festival of lord Shiv and Goddess Kali when people keep fast and walk on the fire made of wood charcoals on the last day of the festival, with a great fervor. In addition, there are age-old traditions of Dola Yatra, Rama Navami and Ratha Yatra too. Nayagarh has unique contributions of Danda Yatra, Raam Leela, Duari Nata, Pala, Daskathia, and Samkirtan to the State. Even these days, the people take strain unitedly to stage drama on different occasions. In a village named Maniakagoda and even elsewhere in the locality, all cultural celebrations are equally enjoyed by both Hindus and Muslims.
NGOs
Bruksha 'O' Jeevar Bandhu Parisad (BOJBP)
BOJBP, Kesharpur, Dist-Nayagarh, Odisha is a people's voluntary organization founded on 1 January 1978 and registered under the Societies Registration Act 1860 and it has also been registered under the Foreign Contribution Regulation Act 1976 and Registered Under Income Tax -80G. It has been working in Nayagarh District for Forest Protection, Wild Life Conservation and Sustainable Agriculture. An area of 2.5 lakh acres of Forest has been protected in 750 villages through community Forest Management System. Eight women Bio-Farmers groups are organized besides health and sanitation activities like supply of low-cost sanitation latrines, holding of eye camp, dental camp and leprosy camp etc. It also promotes System of Rice Intensification, in 644 acres of land in 56 villages in 5 Blocks of Nayagarh District. It established Seed Bank, Seedling Bank and Research and Information centre on Sustainable Agriculture.
BOJBP is a grassroot organization working for the people feeling the need of the operational area. The organization has started the project "Upscaling SRI in Odisha" since 2008. Including six grassroot-level organizations of different blocks, BOJBP has been promoting System of Rice Intensification (SRI) which is a pole star for the marginal and small farmers to enhance production.
During this reporting period (9 April – 10 March) sub-circle meeting of the farmers, orientation of staff for skill development, training to farmers on SRI and sustainable agriculture, training to farmers on preparation and use of vermicompost and bio-pesticides, circle meeting of farmers, training to farm labourers, training to women on sustainable agriculture, training to key trainers, block- and district-level meeting of SRI farmers to strengthen farmers federation were some of the key activities undertaken. Besides that, 138 soil samples have been tested in this office after getting training on soil testing.
Objectives
Its objectives are diverse. They include:
Improve the socio-economic status of the marginal and small farmers through enhanced crop production by providing them skill and inputs to adopt SRI and SA.
Reduce the number of distress migration by providing them employment opportunities for rural agricultural labours in villages.
Build federation of organic farmers to have a broader impact and who can undertake lobby and advocacy efforts to safeguard the interest of the farming community.
Sambhav
Sambhav is an NGO working for Biodiversity, Organic Farming, and Rural Sanitation. It was established in 1989, 8 March, on Women's Day. The organizer of this NGO is Sabarmathi. She took the barren land of 90 acres in the hills and repaired it for 11 long years like a mother. Now after 22 years, it is a good land, giving too many domestic seeds.
Ananya Foundation
Great Personalities of Nayagarh
Nayagarh has a prominent place in the history of Odia literature, especially in Odia poetry. One of the most popular sweetdish in Odisha: Chhenapoda was made in Nayagarh by Sudarshan Sahoo. Many of the great Odia poets are from Nayagarh. Kabi samrat Upendra Bhanja known for Baidehisha Bilas and others who throughout his poetic career lived in Nayagarh and had the boon of Lord Sriram from the temple of Deuli village in Nayagarh, Utkala Ghanta Jadumani Mahapatra, known for Raghab Bilas and Prabandha Purnachandra, Kabisurya Sadananda Brahma who is the guru (teacher) of gaudiya kabi Abhimanyu Samant Singhar, Banigourab Kabi Biswanath Champati who was a great poet, tantrik and astrologer. Above all, the great Samant Chandra Sekhar (popularly known as Pathani Samanta ) of Khandapara was a great poet whose Sidhant Darpan stands as a witness, a great work of Sanskrit literature written in Odia script on astrological treaties, which stands as a masterpiece of astrological research in world literature. Jagu Rautray was the army general of the king of Nayagarh who defeated Kujanga Sandha a great fighter of Kujang in Odisha. Sankirtan gayaks Anand Nayak (titled niankhunta—burning rod, village-Notar), Harihar Nayak (vil.-Phasipada), Udayanath Prusty (vil. Godipada), etc., are a few to mention. Arjun Barik (vil.- Badadesh Haripur) is also a well-known poet of Nayagarh.
Politics
The current MLA is Arun Kumar Sahoo of Biju Janta Dal (BJD), who won the seat for the third term in State elections in 2014. Previous MLAs from this seat were Arun Kumar Sahoo (2004–2009), Bhagabat Behera who won this seat representing BJD in 2000, representing JD in 1990, representing JNP in 1985 and 1977, Sitakanta Mishra of INC in 1995, and Bansidhar Sahoo of INC(I) in 1980.
Print media of Nayagarh
The print media of Nayagarh District are Nayagarh Darpan, Sambad Parampara, Graharaj, Baghua Barta. Among all Nayagarh Darpan is largely circulated fortnightly News Paper in Nayagarh District.
Lok Sabha constituency
Nayagarh was a part of Bhubaneswar (Lok Sabha constituency). And after delimitation it is now part of Puri loksabha constituency from 2009.
References
External links
Cities and towns in Nayagarh district
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sambalpur
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Sambalpur
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Sambalpur () is the fifth largest city in the Indian State of Odisha. It is located on the banks of river Mahanadi, with a population of 335,761 (as per 2011 census). Prehistoric settlements have been recorded there. It is the home of the Sambalpuri sari.
Overview
The city contains many temples, historic buildings and parks. Educational institutes include Sambalpur University, Veer Surendra Sai Institute of Medical Sciences and Research (VIMSAR), Veer Surendra Sai University of Technology (VSSUT), Gangadhar Meher University, Indian Institute of Management Sambalpur and Odisha State Open University (OSOU). Hirakud Dam, the longest earthen dam in the world and the largest artificial lake of Asia, is at Sambalpur.
After the independence of India, many commercial and government establishments sprung up in and around Sambalpur. It is a major railway junction of Odisha with the headquarters of Sambalpur Railway Division under the East Coast Railway Zone. National Highway 53, National Highway 55 pass through the City and State Highway 10 & 15 originate from the city.
Etymology
Sambalpur derives its name from the Goddess Samalei (), who is regarded as the reigning deity of the region. The region in which Sambalpur city is located was also known as Hirakhanda from ancient times. Historically it has also been known as "Sambalaka". Claudius Ptolemy called it "Sambalak".
History
Artifacts have been discovered that indicate settlement in prehistoric times. Some historians identify it as the city of "Sambalaka" mentioned by the second century CE Roman geographer Ptolemy, who mentioned that the city produces diamonds. In the fourth century CE, the Gupta emperor conquered the territory of "Dakshina Koshala", comprising roughly present day Sambalpur, Bilaspur, and Raipur. In the early sixth century CE Chalukya king Pulakesin II is said to have conquered south Kosala by defeating the then Panduvamsi king Balarjuna Sivagupta. The next dynasty to rule South Kosala was the Sombvamsi dynasty. Somavamshi King Janamajaya-I Mahabhavagupta (Circa 882–922 CE ) consolidated the eastern part of Kosala comprising the modern undivided Sambalpur and Bolangir districts and established matrimonial relationship with the Bhauma-Kara dynasty ruling over the coastal modern Odisha. After Uddyotakeshari (c. 1040–1065 C.E.), the Somavamshi kingdom declined gradually. The dynasty lost its territories to the Nagas in the north-west, and the Gangas in the south. After the decline of Somvamshis the area came under Telugu Chodas for a short period. The last Telugu Choda king of south Kosala was Somesvara III who was defeated by Kalachuri king Jajalladeva-I around 1119 CE. The kalachuris had an intermittent conflict with the Ganga Dynasty of Utkala (present-day coastal Odisha). Ultimately Kalachuris lost the Sambalpur Sonepur region to Gangas during reign of Anangabhima Deva-III
(1211–1238 C.E.). The Ganga kingdom ruled the Sambalpur region for two more centuries, but faced aggression of the Bengal sultanate from the north and Vijayanagara and Bahmani empires of the south. These struggles weakened the Ganga hold on Sambalpur. Ultimately Ramai Deva, a Chauhan Rajput from North India founded Chauhan rule in western Orissa.
Sambalpur came under the Bhonsle of Nagpur when the Maratha conquered Sambalpur in 1800. After the Third Anglo-Maratha War in 1817, the British Government returned Sambalpur to the Chauhan king, Jayant Singh, but his authority over the other princely states was taken out.
In January 1896, Hindi was made the official language of Sambalpur, replacing the Odia language, which after violent protests was reinstated again. During the partition of Bengal in 1905 Sambalpur and the adjacent Odia-speaking tracts were amalgamated with the Odisha Division under Bengal Presidency. Bengal's Odisha division became part of the new province of Bihar and Odisha in 1912, and in April 1936 became the separate province of Odisha, with addition of Undivided Ganjam and Koraput districts from Madras Presidency. After Indian Independence on 15 August 1947, Odisha became an Indian state. The rulers of the princely states of Western Odisha acceded to the Government of India in January 1948 and became part of Odisha state.
From 1825 to 1827, Lieutenant Colonel Gilbert (1785–1853), later Lieutenant General Sir Walter Gilbert, 1st Baronet, G.C.B., was the political agent for the South West Frontier with headquarters at Sambalpur. Several paintings made during his stay at Sambalpur by an unknown artist are currently in the British Library and Victoria and Albert Museum.
Vajrayana Buddhism
Although it is generally accepted that Tantric Buddhism first developed in the country of Uddiyana or Odra Desha under King Indrabhuti, there is an old and well known scholarly dispute as to whether Uddiyana or Odra was in the Swat valley, Odisha or some other place.
Indrabhuti, the oldest known king of Sambalpur, founded Vajrayana, while his sister, who was married to Yuvaraja Jalendra of Lankapuri (Suvarnapur), founded Sahajayana. These new Tantric cults of Buddhism introduced the mantra, mudra and mandala along with six Tantric Abhicharas (practices) such as Marana, Stambhana, Sammohana, Vidvesan, Uchchatana and Vajikarana. The Tantric Buddhist sects made efforts to raise the dignity of the lowest of the low of the society to a higher plane. It revived primitive beliefs and practices a simpler and less formal approach to the personal god, a liberal and respectful attitude towards women and denial of caste system.
From the seventh century A.D. onwards, many popular religious elements of heterogeneous nature were incorporated into Mahayana Buddhism which finally resulted in the origin of Vajrayana, Kalachakrayana and Sahajayana Tantric Buddhism. Tantric Buddhism first developed in Uddiyana, a country which was divided into two kingdoms, Sambhala and Lankapuri. Sambhala has been identified with Sambalpur and Lankapuri with Subarnapura (Sonepur).
Geography and climate
Sambalpur is located at 21°.27' North Latitude and 83°.58' East Longitude. The average elevation is above the mean sea level. Sambalpur falls under the Zone-3 seismic number, which shows the possibility of an earthquake.
Sambalpur lies on the bank of the river Mahanadi. The river flows to the west of the city and separates Burla from Sambalpur and Hirakud. The Hirakud Dam lies upstream of Sambalpur. Budharaja is a small reserve forest located within the city. Sambalpur experiences an extreme type of climate with hot and dry summers followed by humid monsoons and cold winters. The hot season commences from the first week of March and lasts until the second half of June. In May, the temperature rises up to . In December, the temperature comes down to . Sambalpur gets rainfall from the south western monsoon. The most pleasant months in Sambalpur are from October to February, during which time the humidity and heat are at their lowest. During this period, temperatures during the day stay below and drop to about at night. This season is followed by a hot summer, from March to May. The summer gives way to the monsoon season. Since 1982 as per the data available with District Emergency section, Sambalpur, there has not been a single occurrence of cyclone in Sambalpur. There are possibilities of strong winds with the speed of before the onset of monsoon.
The relative humidity is high during the rainy season, generally being over 75%. After the rainy season the humidity gradually decreases and the weather becomes dry towards the winter. The best time to visit Sambalpur is between September and March. The heaviest-ever recorded rainfall in Sambalpur was in 1982, which was the highest ever in Odisha until September 2010. The areas of the Sambalpur town on Mahanadi river sides/low-lying areas are prone to flooding.
Transport
Roads
Sambalpur is connected to the rest of Odisha and India by national highway – NH 53/Economic Corridor 1 (EC1), which is a part of Asian Highway-AH46 (Mumbai-Kolkata Highway). NH 55 connects with Cuttack and Bhubaneswar, State Highway 15 connects with Sonepur, State Highway 10 (SH10) connects with Jharsuguda and Rourkela and the new Biju Expressway connects Rourkela-Sambalpur-Jagdalpur.
Rail
Sambalpur is one of the three railway divisions under East Coast Railway zone of Indian Railways. Sambalpur Junction railway station (SBP) is a major railway station in Odisha and headquarters of Sambalpur railway division. This railway station is the cleanest railway station of East Coast Railway declared by Indian Railway. There are four other railway stations serving Sambalpur: Sambalpur City Railway Station, Sambalpur Road Railway Station, Hirakud, across the Mahanadi and Maneswar Railway Station.
Air
The nearest airport is Veer Surendra Sai Airport, Jharsuguda () and Biju Patnaik International Airport, Bhubaneswar is located at a distance of ().
Other nearby airports are Swami Vivekananda International Airport, Raipur; Birsa Munda Airport, Ranchi
Demographics
Sambalpur city is governed by a Municipality which comes under Sambalpur Municipal Corporation Area. India census, Although Sambalpur city has a population of 183,383, its urban population is 269,575, of whom 138,826 are males and 130,749 are females; this includes Burla and Hirakud. Sambalpur has an average literacy rate of 85.69%, in which male literacy is 90.30 and female literacy is 80.92 percent. The sex ratio is 942 and the child sex ratio is 882. The total children (0–6) in Sambalpur city were 18,555 as per the Census India report of 2011. There were 9,857 boys while 8,698 were girls.
Economy
The economy of Sambalpur is basically dependent on trade. Most of the residents are either salaried or self-employed. Forest products play an important role in the economy in terms of contribution to revenue and domestic product. Kendu leaf, Coromandel ebony or East Indian ebony (Diospyros melanoxylon) also forms part of the local economy, with many bidi manufacturing units functioning in Sambalpur.
Gole Bazaar is the main merchandising area of the city. It is famous for handloom and other textile products. Other merchandising areas are Khetrajpur, Fatak, V.S.S. marg, Budharaja and Farm road. Budharaja is the central hub of the malls and jewellery shops.
Mahanadi Coalfields Limited, a subsidiary of Coal India Limited located at Sambalpur, produced of coal and had a profit before tax during 2010–2011 at Rs 4039.30 crore. Hirakud, in the vicinity of Sambalpur, was conceptualized as an industrial town by the erstwhile Chief Minister of Odisha, Biju Patnaik. On completion of the Hirakud Dam, power intensive industries such as aluminium smelters, cable manufacturing, steel re-rolling mills etc. established their presence in Hirakud. In the 1970s, Hirakud was a major industrial centre of Odisha, perhaps next only to Rourkela. At this point in time however, the main functional unit at Hirakud is the aluminium smelter of Hindalco and its associated units. The smelter set up by Jindal Steel and Power in 1959 at Hirakud and later acquired by Hindalco, was the country's second aluminium smelter operating on grid power sourced from the hydro power station of the Hirakud Dam. It was the first in India to adopt clean coal combustion technology that uses a circulating fluidised bed, which is considered environmentally friendly. Currently the smelter has a capacity of , and provides employment to around 1700 people.
Education
The pre-collegiate medium of instruction in schools is predominantly English and Odia. The medium of instruction in educational institutions after matriculation in colleges is English. Other media of instruction also exist in Sambalpur. Schools and colleges in Sambalpur are either government-run or run by private trusts and individuals. The schools are affiliated with either the Orissa State Board under BSE or CHSE, Indian Certificate of Secondary Education (ICSE) and the Central Board for Secondary Education (CBSE). After completing 10 years of schooling in secondary education, students enroll in higher secondary school, specialising in one of the three streams – Arts, Commerce or Science.
Since the 2000s, there have been a large number of professional institutions established in a variety of fields. The earliest schools established in Sambalpur were the CSB Zilla School (1852) and the Lady Lewis Girls High School (1942). VSS Medical College was established in 1959 and VSSUT in 1956. High School for Blind (1972) and High School for Deaf and Dumb (1972), Burla are Govt. educational institutions imparting education to physically challenged children.
Sambalpur Kala Parishad is the pioneering organisation for the promotion of Sambalpuri dance, and has been responsible for the revolutionary growth of this dance. It imparts education and training on this form of dance.
Educational institutions in the city include Gangadhar Meher University, Government Women's College, Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose College, Lajpat Rai Law College, Silicon Institute of Technology, Sambalpur, Delhi Public School, Kendriya Vidyalaya, St. Joseph's Convent Higher Secondary School (SJC-SBP), Gurunanak Public School, Madnawati Public School (MPS), Indian Public School (IPS), St. John's School, Seven Hills Residential School (SHRS), Sri Aurobindo School (SAIIE&R) and DAV Public School. A new Indian Institute of Management, Sambalpur (IIM) has been set up in the city. The Sambalpur chapter of the Institute of Cost Accountants of India was set up in 2010.
Culture
Sambalpur Lok Mahotsav
A cultural manifestation of the hidden age-old traditional performing art of a vast geographical area is possible through this annual celebration of the festival called Lok Mahotsav. This festival is a reflection of the socio-anthropological evolution of the people of India. Lok Mahotsav shows the integrity and unison of the heritage, culture, music and lifestyle of Western Odisha. Live performances of folk music and dance from all parts of India are shown under one splendid stage.
Sitalsasthi Carnival
This is the marriage ceremony of the god Siva and goddess Parvati. Sitalsasthi is a carnival of folk dance and music along with decorated stands of gods and goddesses. People from all walks of life participate in large numbers in the carnival. Artists from different states of India take part in the carnival making it a colourful extravaganza.
Kalki Avatar and Sambalpur
Kalachakra tantra was first taught by the Buddha to King Indrabhuti, the first dharmaraja of Shambhala. It is widely believed that the next Hindu avatar known as Kalki will be born at Sambalpur or Shambhala, as this place was known in olden times. There are several mentions of the place Shambhala in different Hindu and Buddhist religious texts as the birthplace of Kalki. The Mahabharatra (Vana Parva, 190.93–97) and Srimad-Bhagavatam Bhag.12.2.18 give reference of Shambhala as the birthplace.
Tourism
The world-famous Hirakud Dam, built in 1956 across the Mahanadi River, about from Sambalpur, is a major tourist attraction. It is one of the longest dams in the world, about in length. It also forms the biggest artificial lake in Asia, with a reservoir covering at full capacity with a shoreline of over . It also attracts a large number of migratory birds in winter.
The Leaning Temple of Huma, located about from Sambalpur, built in the 17th century, leans at an angle of approximately 47 degrees to the west. (Pasayat, 1998, 2003, 2004, 2007, 2008). It is one of a kind in India.
Samaleswari Temple is the main temple of the goddess Samaleswari, located on the banks of river the Mahanadi. Sambalpur owes its name to her.
Chiplima (Chipilima Hydro Electric Project (CHEP)) located about from Sambalpur, is known for a natural fall ( in height) harnessed for generating electricity. It is an ideal picnic spot and famous for Ghanteswari Temple, the presiding deity of the place. This temple played an important role for river navigation in the past.
Lost Temples of Hirakud Dam
These are remnants of temples submerged after the dam was completed in 1957. In summer, due to the receding water of the dam, the structures become visible. These hidden treasures have finally caught the attention of historians and steps are being taken to understand the historical significance of these temples which periodically go under water, only to resurface again. Many temples have been destroyed after 58 years of underwater existence. However, some remain intact.
Interest in these lost temples has been rekindled after two stones, etched with writing ('Shila Lekha'), were recovered from what is believed to be the Padmaseni temple of the submerged Padmapur village. The temples located inside the reservoir area were part of the then Padmapur, one of the oldest and most populous villages in the region prior to the dam construction. More than 200 temples were submerged by the dam; nearly 150 temples have either perished or are underwater and about 50 are visible during summer. These lost temples present excellent opportunities for scuba diving enthusiasts to explore under the Hirakud Dam. These temple are visible to visitors on boats only during the summer months of May and June.
Politics
Sambalpur is part of Sambalpur (Lok Sabha constituency). Sitting MP from Sambalpur is Mr Nitesh Gangadev of Bhartiya Janata Party (BJP). The current MLA of Sambalpur (Odisha Vidhan Sabha constituency) is Jayanarayan Mishra of Bhartiya Janata Party (BJP). Previous MLAs from this seat were Dr. Raseswari Panigrahi (BJD), who won this seat in 2014; Durgashankar Pattanaik of INC, in 1995 and 1990; Sraddhakar Supakar of INC in 1985; Ashwini Kumar Guru of INC (I) in 1980; and Late Dr. Jhasaketan Sahu of JNP in 1977. Sriballav Panigrahi of Indian National Congress represented Sambalpur in the Odisha Lesgislative Assembly in 1971 and 1973.
See also
Sambalpuri cinema
Sambalpuri language
Sambalpuri saree
References
External links
Official website
Cities and towns in Sambalpur district
Mahanadi River
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emmaus%20High%20School
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Emmaus High School
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Emmaus High School is a large public high school located in Emmaus, Pennsylvania. The school serves grades 9-12 in Pennsylvania's East Penn School District in the Lehigh Valley region of eastern Pennsylvania.
Emmaus High School is located immediately off Cedar Crest Boulevard, at 500 Macungie Avenue in Emmaus, a borough miles south of Allentown, Pennsylvania.
Student population
As of the 2021–22 school year, Emmaus High School had a student enrollment of 2,836 students and 151.62 classroom teachers on an FTE basis for a student–teacher ratio of 18.7, according to National Center for Education Statistics data. There were 587 students eligible for free lunch and 88 eligible for reduced cost lunch.
Emmaus High School serves students grades nine through 12 from Emmaus, six surrounding townships of Alburtis, Lower Macungie, Macungie, Upper Milford, Vera Cruz, and Wescosville, seven surrounding unincorporated villages of East Texas, Hensingersville, Old Zionsville, Powder Valley, Shimerville, Sigmund, and Zionsville, and the census-designated place of Ancient Oaks, all located in the Lehigh Valley, the third most populated metropolitan region of Pennsylvania.
The school ranks among the top Lehigh Valley public high schools in its percentage of graduating students who pursue post-secondary education. Among its Class of 2007, 79 percent of Emmaus High School graduates entered colleges, universities, or other post-graduate education. The school also maintains a program for academically gifted students, which includes advanced classes and a mentorship program. Noting the academic quality of Emmaus High School, Money magazine named Emmaus one of the nation's "Top 100" places to live in 2007 and again in 2009.
Two middle schools (Eyer Middle School and Lower Macungie Middle School), both located in Macungie, serve grades six through eight and feed into Emmaus High School. Seven elementary schools (Alburtis, Wescosville, Lincoln, Jefferson, Macungie, Shoemaker, and Willow Lane) and one elementary charter school (Seven Generations Charter School) feed into the two middle schools and then Emmaus High School.
History
1880s to 1955
What today is the East Penn School District began in the 1880s as the Emaus School District, using the Pennsylvania Dutch spelling of Emmaus, named for the Biblical village of Emmaus, where, according to the Bible's Gospel of Luke, Jesus was seen by his disciples Luke and Cleopas in what is known as his Road to Emmaus appearance following his crucifixion and resurrection. Upon its founding in the 1880s, Emaus School District began offering high school classes, providing education up to tenth grade in one of the rooms of a four-room school building on East Main Street in Emmaus. The first graduating class on record was the Emaus High School class of 1890 with two graduates. The following year, in 1891, the high school grades were moved to the Central Building on Emmaus's Ridge Street.
Emaus High School obtained its own home when, in 1915, the high school moved into a brand new building on North Street between Fifth and Sixth Streets in Emaus. While the building was designated the Jefferson Building, yearbooks of the era identify the school as Emaus High School. By this time, the high school was made up of tenth-grade (juniors), eleventh-grade (middlers) and twelfth-grade (seniors). The yearbook of the class of 1916 pictures 18 graduates, evenly divided between boys and girls. The Emaus High School class of 1931 had 45 graduates. One of the bygone features of Emaus High School life on North Street was open lunch where students could walk home for lunch or go across the street to a student-oriented restaurant.
The Jefferson Building was enlarged several times. By 1934, it was considered a state-of-the-art high school with 16 classrooms, a library, an auditorium, a gymnasium, a woodshop, and a home economics room. It also developed many of the activities and athletic teams that continue to this day; the 1931 yearbook lists a band, chorus, orchestra (55 student members), 16 different clubs, and teams for football, basketball (boys and girls), and debate. Emaus High School's main football rival at this time was East Greenville High School (now Upper Perkiomen High School), which met Emmaus annually on Thanksgiving Day in what was referred to as the "Turkey Day" game. In the 1930s, the Emaus High School football field was located roughly a mile from the high school at the site of Emmaus's current recreational Fourth Street Field.
The Emaus School District has been operating since at least 1861. By the 1930s and 1940s, the boroughs of Macungie and Alburtis contracted with the Emaus district to send their high school students to Emaus High School. There were no school buses, and out-of-borough students commuted to and from the high school by Reading Railroad passenger train service at the Emaus train station. Located on Jubilee Street, the station was constructed in the late 19th century, decommissioned, and destroyed by fire on March 1, 1993.
Emaus High School becomes Emmaus High School
In 1938, Emmaus abandoned the Pennsylvania Dutch spelling of its name in favor of the town's current spelling, and East Penn School District and the high school followed suit. With Emmaus High School's population growing rapidly, the Jefferson Building could no longer accommodate the growing school's needs. The boroughs of Emmaus, Macungie, and Alburtis and the townships of Lower Macungie, and Upper Milford merged their school districts into what was then called the East Penn Union School District and is now known as East Penn School District. The unified district combined their efforts and resources to vastly expand Emmaus High School, which was constructed at the school's current location at 500 Macungie Avenue in Emmaus. Several times since Emmaus High School has been upgraded and renovated to accommodate its growing student population.
1955 to current
In 1955, the first sections of the new Emmaus High School opened. The new building included an auditorium and gymnasium, which far surpassed those of the old building and included science labs, language labs, and a natatorium. After the high school moved out of the Jefferson Building, that building was briefly used as Emmaus Junior High School until a seventh and eighth-grade wing was added to the new high school building around 1960, making Emmaus High School a six-year school with a single principal but with separate assistant principals for the senior high and junior high grades. In 1965, the Emmaus Junior High School building, with its own faculty and administration, opened on the north side of the high school building to serve grades seven through nine. The Jefferson Building, in turn, was designated as one of several East Penn School District elementary schools.
By the early 1960s, the number of sports teams at Emmaus High School expanded to include baseball, football, and wrestling for boys, cross country, field hockey and softball for girls, and basketball, golf, rifle, swimming, and track and field for both boys and girls. A class play was presented annually; in 1969, Emmaus High School produced its first musical, Bye Bye Birdie.
By 1998, the school's population had grown significantly due to an influx of residents predominantly from New Jersey, New York City, and Philadelphia, and Emmaus High School expanded again, taking over the junior high building, adding additional space and using the whole complex to house grades nine through twelve. The Jefferson Building, the first dedicated home of Emmaus High School, was subsequently decommissioned, demolished in 1999, and replaced by Jefferson Elementary School. In 2005, a second major expansion of Emmaus High School was completed.
In October 2015, Emmaus High School was placed on lockdown amid rumors of potential gun violence.
In November 2018, a torrential rainstorm flooded the school, causing administrators to cancel five days of classes. Financial aid and assistance with clean up were provided by East Penn School District. The main office, auxiliary gym, wrestling room, 40 classrooms, and adjacent areas were impacted by stormwater.
On December 17, 2021, Emmaus High School was placed under a cautionary lockdown due to a potential external threat after various threats had been made to schools across the country. Several threats were made by an Emmaus High School freshman student against the school's assistant principals and another student. After almost two hours in cautionary lockdown, students were dismissed in small groups under police supervision. The suspect, a 14-year-old female Emmaus High School student, was arrested the following day, on December 18, and charged with making terrorist threats.
Academics
Emmaus High School ranks in the top academic tier of Pennsylvania public high schools based on state testing results. In the 2008 Pennsylvania System of State Assessments, Emmaus High School ranked in the top five percent of all public high schools in the state in writing, the top 20 percent in reading, and the top 25 percent in mathematics. In 2007, the mean SAT score for Emmaus High School students was 1580. In 2013, Emmaus High School was named the top academically performing high school in Lehigh County, according to data released by the Pennsylvania Department of Education. As of 2022, 90% of East Penn School District teachers hold a master's degree or higher.
The school's academic team has made several appearances at the national level, appearing three consecutive years (2003, 2004, and 2005) in the Panasonic Academic Challenge at Disney World and placing fifth nationally in the competition in 2003. In 2015 and 2018, the school's academic team qualified for participation in the National Academic Quiz Tournaments in Atlanta. Emmaus High School also holds the record for the most wins of any high school in Pennsylvania's Scholastic Scrimmage contest, an advanced academic quiz game televised on Pennsylvania PBS affiliates.
Athletics
Emmaus High School competes athletically in the Eastern Pennsylvania Conference (EPC) of the Pennsylvania Interscholastic Athletic Association, one of the premier high school athletic divisions in the nation. The school fields teams in all of the association's sports.
Since 1955, Emmaus has won EPC championships at least once in every one of the conference's sports, and several of its graduates have gone on to professional and Olympic-level athletics, including the NFL and NBA. Among the Emmaus High School Class of 2007, 26 Emmaus High School athletes signed letters of intent for full NCAA athletic scholarships.
Emmaus holds the record for the most Pennsylvania state championships in all sports (13 since 2002) among all EPC schools and has the second most EPC conference championships in all sports, behind Parkland High School. In 2017, Adidas signed a four-year deal for exclusive sponsorship of Emmaus' athletic teams. In 2019, the ranking and review site Niche ranked Emmaus High School the 29th best public school in Pennsylvania for athletics. Emmaus holds the record for the most recorded EPC championships in eight conference sports: baseball, boys lacrosse, boys soccer, boys swimming, girls field hockey, girls soccer, girls swimming, and golf.
Emmaus High School's mascot is the "Green Hornet." Entrances to the Emmaus High School campus prominently feature green and gold billboards and flags stating "Home of the Hornets" in the school's colors of green and gold.
Basketball
Aaron Gray, an alumnus of the Emmaus High School basketball program, went on to a seven-year NBA career from 2007 through 2014, playing for the Chicago Bulls, New Orleans Hornets, Sacramento Kings, and Toronto Raptors and subsequently for three seasons as an NBA coach with the Detroit Pistons from 2015 through 2018.
Boys soccer
Emmaus High School boys soccer has played for the EPC championship in each of the past eleven consecutive seasons (2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2020, 2021), winning five district titles during this period.
Boys swimming and diving
In February 2020, Emmaus High School won its 13th consecutive PIAA District 11 boys swimming and diving championship.
Fitness
Emmaus High School's Marine Corps national physical fitness team has repeatedly been among the nation's best. In 2006, its boys and girls team placed second in the Pennsylvania state competition. In 2015, its girls fitness team placed first and its boys fitness team placed second in the national high school physical fitness championships.
Football
The Emmaus football team was co-champion of the Eastern Pennsylvania Conference (EPC) in 1981. In 2008, Emmaus running back C.J. Billera broke school football records for most all-time touchdowns and career scoring. In 2010, for the first time since the 1981 season, Emmaus won Pennsylvania's Class 4A EPC championship in football. During the 2010 season, Emmaus senior tailback Joe Williams broke three school football records: most yards in a single game (282), most touchdowns in a single game (six), and most points in a single game (36). In 2016, the Emmaus football team won the East Penn Conference South division championship. In 2021, class of 2024 quarterback Josiah Williams broke the school's record for most passing yards in a season with 1,893 yards.
In February 2020, East Penn School District approved $1.7 million in spending to construct a new AstroTurf playing surface and end zone lettering on the Emmaus High School football field, located on the school campus. Under a 10-year promotional contract with Lehigh Valley Health Network, the school district is recouping $1.45 million in promotional fees associated with the field upgrades. The field also features a cannon that fires when Emmaus scores a touchdown.
Multiple Emmaus High School football players have gone on to NFL careers, including current NFL player, Arizona Cardinals linebacker Kyzir White.
Girls field hockey
Emmaus High School girls field hockey team has consistently ranked among the best in the nation for decades. Emmaus has won the Pennsylvania state championship in girls field hockey thirteen times in the program's history. As of 2022, Emmaus High School has won the PIAA District 11 girls field hockey championship in 34 consecutive seasons. In 2016, the national sports web site topofthecircle.com ranked Emmaus the best girls field hockey team in the nation for the fourth time in the program's history. The Allentown Morning Call has called the program "an organized, multifaceted machine." In September 2015, Emmaus High School field hockey coach Sue Butz-Stavin set the national high school record for most victories by a girls field hockey coach when she recorded her 840th victory. In the 2021 season, Butz-Stavin recorded her 1000th win.
Ice hockey
Emmaus High School is one of eleven Lehigh Valley-area high schools with an ice hockey team; the team is a member of the Lehigh Valley Scholastic Ice Hockey League.
Rifle
In the 2016-2017 winter sport season, the Emmaus rifle team went undefeated, capturing the regular season championship, defeating top rival East Stroudsburg High School South to win the playoff championship, and going on to place second in Pennsylvania states for the season.
Other sports
Emmaus High School's girls swimming and diving team has proven to be one of the best in the state, winning Pennsylvania state championships in six years (2000, 2004, 2005, 2007, 2008, and 2009). Its boys swimming and diving team consistently has been one of the top teams in the state, dating back to the 1970s, winning Pennsylvania state championships in both 2006 and 2007 and the District 11 AAA championship in nine consecutive seasons from 2007 through 2015.
Emmaus High School has won Pennsylvania state championships in girls soccer (1997), girls softball (2000), and girls cross country (2007, 2008, and 2009). In 2008, Emmaus High School's boys volleyball team won the EPC championship and advanced to the Pennsylvania state tournament. In 2012, Emmaus High School's wrestling team took first place in the United States Military Duels held in South Carolina.
Activities
Computer programming team
In May 2017, the Emmaus High School computer programming team won the American Computer Science League Invitational All-Star contest, a global tournament of the best high school computer programming teams from around the world held in Thousand Oaks, California.
Music and the arts
In December 2007, Emmaus' men's a cappella group, known as Fermata Nowhere, landed a brief stint on NBC's Clash of the Choirs, performing "Jingle Bells". In April 2015, Emmaus High School's chorale group performed at St. Peter's Basilica in Vatican City, Italy.
School newspaper
Emmaus High School's official student newspaper is The Stinger, a reference to the hornet, the school's mascot. The newspaper is produced by a staff of students who report, photograph, and write all of the newspaper's content. The newspaper was founded in 1921 as E-Hive, a name it retained until 1974 when it was changed to The Stinger. In the 2021-22 school year, The Stinger celebrated its 100th anniversary of continuous publication. The Stinger and its staff have won several national and state-level awards since its 1921 founding.
The newspaper's print edition typically includes several sections related to Emmaus High School, including Emmaus High School sports, faculty, coach, and student interviews, editorials, local popular culture, and satire and jokes related to school news and events. In most issues, the final page of The Stinger is dedicated to student-drawn comics, which also usually deal with student-related themes. The Stinger is known to tackle controversial topics, especially Emmaus High School's problems with student fights, truancy, and widespread recreational drug use.
Notable alumni
Roy Afflerbach, former mayor of Allentown, Pennsylvania
Charles Bierbauer, former television journalist, CNN
Howard J. Buss, composer and music publisher
Dane DeHaan, television and film actor (attended)
Keith Dorney, former professional football player, Detroit Lions
Aaron Gray, former professional basketball player, Chicago Bulls, New Orleans Hornets, Sacramento Kings, and Toronto Raptors
Scott Haltzman, psychiatrist and author
Todd Howard, executive producer and video game director, Bethesda Softworks
Keith Jarrett, jazz and classical music pianist and composer
Michael Johns, healthcare executive and former White House presidential speechwriter
K. C. Keeler, head football coach, Sam Houston State University
Clarence K. Lam, Maryland state senator
Joe Milinichik, former professional football player, Detroit Lions, Los Angeles Rams, and San Diego Chargers
Marty Nothstein, former 2000 Summer Olympics gold-medal winner, track cycling
Heather Parry, film producer and former MTV video producer
Nicole Reinhart, former professional cyclist and two-time Pan American Games gold-medal winner
Cindy Werley, former 1996 Summer Olympics women's field hockey player
Kevin White, former professional football player, Chicago Bears, New Orleans Saints, and San Francisco 49ers
Kyzir White, professional football player, Arizona Cardinals
See also
East Penn School District
Notes
External links
Official website
Emmaus High School athletics website
Emmaus High School on Facebook
Emmaus High School on Twitter
Emmaus High School athletics on Twitter
Emmaus High School review at Public School Review
Emmaus High School profile at Niche
Emmaus High School Varsity Football at MaxPreps
The Stinger, Emmaus High School student newspaper
Emmaus High School sports coverage at The Express-Times
1955 establishments in Pennsylvania
Cedar Crest Boulevard
East Penn School District
Educational institutions established in 1955
Public high schools in Pennsylvania
Schools in Lehigh County, Pennsylvania
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edzard%20Ernst
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Edzard Ernst
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Edzard Ernst (born 30 January 1948) is a retired British-German academic physician and researcher specializing in the study of complementary and alternative medicine. He was Professor of Complementary Medicine at the University of Exeter, the world's first such academic position in complementary and alternative medicine.
Ernst served as chairman of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation (PMR) at the University of Vienna, but left this position in 1993 to set up the department of Complementary Medicine at the University of Exeter in England. He became director of complementary medicine of the Peninsula Medical School (PMS) in 2002. Ernst was the first occupant of the Laing chair in Complementary Medicine, retiring in 2011. He was born and trained in Germany, where he began his medical career at a homeopathic hospital in Munich, and since 1999 has been a British citizen.
Ernst is the founder of two medical journals: Focus on Alternative and Complementary Therapies (of which he was editor-in-chief until it was discontinued in 2016) and Perfusion. Ernst's writing appeared in a regular column in The Guardian, where he reviewed news stories about complementary medicine from an evidence-based medicine perspective. Since his research began on alternative modalities, Ernst has been seen as "the scourge of alternative medicine" for publishing critical research that exposes methods that lack documentation of efficacy. In 2015 he was awarded the John Maddox Prize, sponsored jointly by Sense about Science and Nature, for courage in standing up for science.
Early life
Ernst was born in Wiesbaden, Germany, in 1948. As a child, his family doctor was a homeopath, and at the time he saw it as part of medicine. His father and grandfather were both doctors, and his mother was a laboratory assistant. Ernst originally wanted to be a musician, but his mother persuaded him that medicine might be a good "sideline" career for him to pursue.
Training and early career
Ernst qualified as a doctor in Germany in 1978 where he also completed his M.D. and Ph.D. theses. He has received training in acupuncture, autogenic training, herbalism, homoeopathy, massage therapy and spinal manipulation. He learned homeopathy, acupuncture and other modalities whilst at a homeopathic hospital in Munich, when he began his medical career. In 1988, he became Professor in Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation (PMR) at Hannover Medical School and in 1990 Head of the PMR Department at the University of Vienna.
Work in complementary medicine
The world's first professor of complementary medicine, Ernst researches complementary medicine with an emphasis on efficacy and safety. His research mainly surveys systematic reviews and meta-analyses of clinical trials; the institute has not performed a clinical trial for some time due to budget constraints. He has over 700 papers published in scientific journals. He has said that about five percent of alternative medicine is backed by evidence, with the remainder being either insufficiently studied or backed by evidence showing lack of efficacy.
Ernst's department at Exeter defined complementary medicine as "diagnosis, treatment and/or prevention which complements mainstream medicine by contributing to a common whole, by satisfying a demand not met by orthodoxy or by diversifying the conceptual frameworks of medicine."
Ernst asserts that, in Germany and Austria, complementary techniques are mostly practiced by qualified physicians, whereas in the UK they are mainly practiced by others. He also argues that the term "Complementary and Alternative Medicine" ("CAM") is an almost nonsensical umbrella term, and that distinctions between its modalities must be made.
Since his research began on alternative modalities, Ernst has been seen as "the scourge of alternative medicine" for publishing critical research. In a 2008 publication in the British Journal of General Practice, his listed treatments that "demonstrably generate more good than harm" was limited to acupuncture for nausea and osteoarthritis; aromatherapy as a palliative treatment for cancer; hypnosis for labour pain; massage, music therapy, relaxation therapy for anxiety and insomnia; and some plant extracts such as St John's wort for depression; hawthorn for congestive heart failure; guar gum for diabetes.
Ernst presented at the first Global Congress on Scientific Thinking and Action, which took place on 17-20 March 2021. He spoke about the risk and dangers of alternative medicine, pointing to homeopathy and chiropractic as the most problematic areas within alternative medicine at the time.
Smallwood Report
In 2005, a report by economist Christopher Smallwood, personally commissioned by Prince Charles, claimed that CAM was cost-effective and should be available in the National Health Service (NHS). Ernst was initially enlisted as a collaborator on the report, but asked for his name to be removed after a sight of the draft report convinced him that Smallwood had "written the conclusions before looking at the evidence". The report did not address whether CAM treatments were actually effective and Ernst described it as "complete misleading rubbish".
Ernst was, in turn, criticised by The Lancet editor Richard Horton for disclosing contents of the report while it was still in draft form. In a 29 August 2005 letter to The Times Horton wrote: "Professor Ernst seems to have broken every professional code of scientific behaviour by disclosing correspondence referring to a document that is in the process of being reviewed and revised prior to publication. This breach of confidence is to be deplored."
Prince Charles' private secretary, Sir Michael Peat, also filed a complaint regarding breached confidentiality with Exeter University. Although he was "cleared of wrongdoing", Ernst has said that circumstances surrounding the ensuing university investigation led to his retirement.
In the 1 January 2006 edition of the British Journal of General Practice, Ernst gave a detailed criticism of the report.
Trick or Treatment
In 2008, Ernst and Simon Singh published Trick or Treatment? Alternative Medicine on Trial. The authors challenged the Prince of Wales, to whom the book is (ironically) dedicated, and The Prince's Foundation for Integrated Health on alleged misrepresentation of "scientific evidence about therapies such as homeopathy, acupuncture and reflexology". They asserted that Britain spent £500 million each year on unproven or disproven alternative therapies. In a review of Trick or Treatment in the New England Journal of Medicine, Donald Marcus described Ernst as "one of the best qualified people to summarize the evidence on this topic."
In 2008, Ernst sent an open letter urging the Royal Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain to crack down on high street chemists that sell homeopathic remedies without warning that the remedies lack evidence for claimed biological effects. According to him, this disinformation would be a violation of their ethical code:My plea is simply for honesty. Let people buy what they want, but tell them the truth about what they are buying. These treatments are biologically implausible and the clinical tests have shown they don't do anything at all in human beings. The argument that this information is not relevant or important for customers is quite simply ridiculous.
In a 2008 interview with Media Life Magazine, when he and Simon Singh were asked this question—"What do you think the future is for alternative medicine?"—they replied:For us, there is no such thing as alternative medicine. There is either medicine that is effective or not, medicine that is safe or not. So-called alternative therapies need to be assessed and then classified as good medicines or bogus medicines. Hopefully, in the future, the good medicines will be embraced within conventional medicine and the bogus medicines will be abandoned.
In a 2009 article entitled "Should We Maintain an Open Mind about Homeopathy?" published in the American Journal of Medicine, Ernst and Michael Baum—writing to other physicians—offered strong criticism of homeopathy:Homeopathy is among the worst examples of faith-based medicine. ... These axioms [of homeopathy] are not only out of line with scientific facts but also directly opposed to them. If homeopathy is correct, much of physics, chemistry, and pharmacology must be incorrect.... To have an open mind about homeopathy or similarly implausible forms of alternative medicine (e.g., Bach flower remedies, spiritual healing, crystal therapy) is therefore not an option.
More Harm Than Good?
In 2018, Ernst and co-author Kevin Smith, a medical ethicist, published the book More Harm Than Good? The Moral Maze of Complementary and Alternative Medicine.
In a review of the book for Skeptical Inquirer, Harriet Hall called Ernst the "world's foremost expert on the claims and the evidence (or lack thereof) for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (CAM)." Hall said that Ernst and Smith direct their attention to the ethicists and the scientific community for this book with the goal "to inform, not to entertain. It is not a easy or 'fun' read, but it is an important one".
Dougal Jeffries, writing for the British Journal of General Practice, said the book was "replete with both theoretical and real-life examples and is thoroughly referenced, but is a rather turgid read. It clearly demonstrates the extraordinary capacity of intelligent beings, including both practitioners and patients, to hold to irrational beliefs in the face of contrary evidence, but the authors show little sympathy for this very human tendency."
Early retirement from Exeter
Ernst was accused by Prince Charles' private secretary of having breached a confidentiality agreement regarding the 2005 Smallwood report. After being subjected to a "very unpleasant" investigation by the University of Exeter, the university "accepted his innocence but continued, in his view, to treat him as 'persona non grata'. All fundraising for his unit ceased, forcing him to use up its core funding and allow its 15 staff to drift away."
Writing in 2022, after Charles' accession to the throne, Ernst said, "There never was a formal confidentiality agreement with signature etc. But I did feel bound to keep the contents of the Smallwood report confidential. The investigation by my University was not just 'very unpleasant', it was also far too long. It lasted 13 months! I had to take lawyers against my own University! In addition, it was unnecessary, not least because a University should simply establish the facts and, if reasonable, defend its professor from outside attacks. The facts could have been established over a cup of tea with the Vice Chancellor in less than half an hour. When my department had been destroyed in the process, I retired voluntarily and was subsequently re-employed for half a year to help find a successor. In retrospect, I see this move as a smart ploy by the University to keep me sweet and prevent me from going to the press. A successor was never hired; one good candidate was found but he was told that he had to find 100% of the funds to do the job. Nobody of high repute would have found this acceptable, and thus the only good candidate was not even tempted to accept the position."
He retired in 2011, two years ahead of his official retirement. In July 2011, a Reuters article described his "long-running dispute with the Prince about the merits of alternative therapies" and stated that he "accused Britain's heir-to-the-throne Prince Charles and other backers of alternative therapies on Monday of being 'snake-oil salesmen' who promote products with no scientific basis", and that the dispute "had cost him his job – a claim Prince Charles's office denied". According to Ernst, "The snake oil salesman story is an entirely separate issue", which "happened years later." He added, "It is true that Charles's office denied that Charles knew about his 1st private secretary writing to my Vice Chancellor asking him to investigate my alleged breach of confidence." Ernst claims that as Sir Michael Peat wrote his letter in his capacity as the Prince's private secretary, Ernst finds that "exceedingly hard to believe."
Ernst's book, Charles, the Alternative Prince: An Unauthorised Biography, was published in February 2022. It focuses on Charles's interest in alternative medicine, with a critical assessment of his views. In 2009, Ernst's name appeared on a list of supporters of Republic – an organisation which campaigns for the abolition of the British monarchy. However, writing on his website in 2022, Ernst clarified his position: "Even though Charles did a sterling job in trying, I did not become a republican. I do have considerable doubts that Charles will be a good King (his reign might even be the end of the monarchy), and I did help the republican cause on several occasions but I never formally joined any such group (in general, I am not a joiner of parties, clubs or interest groups)."
Other work and recognition
In a May 1995 Annals of Internal Medicine publication, Ernst detailed the Nazi "cleansing" of the University of Vienna medical faculty that allowed the "medical atrocities" of Nazi human experimentation.
In 2001, Ernst sat on the Scientific Committee on Herbal Medicinal Products of the Irish Medicines Board. In 2005, he was a member of the Medicines Commission of the British Medicines Control Agency (now part of the Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency) which determines which substances may be introduced and promoted as medicine. In 2008, he was an external examiner for several university medical schools in several countries. He is a Founding Member and on the Board of the Institute for Science in Medicine, formed in 2009.
In February 2011, Ernst was elected as a Fellow of the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry. He was editor-in-chief of the journal Focus on Alternative and Complementary Therapies which he founded in 1995 and which was discontinued in 2016.
In 2015, Ernst was one of two recipients of the John Maddox Prize, sponsored jointly by Sense about Science and Nature, for courage in standing up for science.
Books
Homeopathy: A Critical Appraisal (with Eckhart G. Hahn). Butterworth-Heinemann 1998. , 240 pages
The Desktop Guide to Complementary and Alternative Medicine: An Evidence-based Approach. Elsevier Health Sciences 2006, , 556 pages
Complementary Therapies for Pain Management. An Evidence-Based Approach. Elsevier Science 2007. , 349 pages
The Oxford Handbook of Complementary Medicine. Oxford University Press 2008. , 448 pages
Trick or Treatment? Alternative Medicine on Trial (with Simon Singh). Transworld Publisher 2008. , 416 pages (The same book published in the US is called Trick or Treatment: The Undeniable Facts about Alternative Medicine).
Healing, Hype, Or Harm?: Scientists Investigate Complementary Or Alternative Medicine. (ed.) Imprint Academic 2008, , 120 pages
A Scientist in Wonderland: A Memoir of Searching for Truth and Finding Trouble. Imprint Academic 2015. , 173 pages
More Harm than Good?: The Moral Maze of Complementary and Alternative Medicine with Kevin Smith. Springer 2018 , 223 pages
SCAM: So-Called Alternative Medicine. (Societas) Imprint Academic 2018, , 225 pages
Don't Believe What You Think: Arguments for and against SCAM. (Societas) Ingram Book Company 2020. , 261 pages
Charles, the Alternative Prince: An Unauthorised Biography. Societas 2022. , 210 pages
References
Further reading
External links
edzardernst.com– Ernst's blog
PMS staff page
Official FACT website at University of Exeter
Summary of the department's most important findings e.g. Homeopathy does not work, St John's Wort does.
Google scholar: List of publications
House of Lords Science and Technology – Sixth Report on Complementary and Alternative Medicine. Ernst testified and his department was visited.
Q&A with Ernst in The International Review of Patient Care
Biographical note on the authors of The Desktop Guide to Complementary and Alternative Medicine. An evidence based approach. Elsevier Science 2006
German rehabilitation physicians
Alternative medicine researchers
English sceptics
German skeptics
The Guardian journalists
Academics of the University of Exeter
Living people
Transcendental Meditation researchers
Critics of alternative medicine
German emigrants to England
Naturalised citizens of the United Kingdom
1948 births
People from Wiesbaden
Physicians from Hesse
John Maddox Prize recipients
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish%20diaspora
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Turkish diaspora
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The Turkish diaspora ( or Türk gurbetçiler) refers to ethnic Turkish people who have migrated from, or are the descendants of migrants from, the Republic of Turkey, Northern Cyprus or other modern nation-states that were once part of the former Ottoman Empire. Therefore, the Turkish diaspora is not only formed by people with roots from mainland Anatolia and Eastern Thrace (i.e. the modern Turkish borders); rather, it is also formed of Turkish communities which have also left traditional areas of Turkish settlements in the Balkans (such as Bulgaria, Greece, North Macedonia, Romania, etc.), the island of Cyprus, the region of Meskhetia in Georgia, and the Arab world (such as Algeria, Iraq, Lebanon).
In particular, most mainland Turkish migration has been to Western and Northern Europe. Meanwhile, almost all the Turkish minorities in former Ottoman lands have a large diaspora in Turkey, many having migrated as muhacirs (refugees); furthermore, the Cretan Turks have migrated throughout the Levant; Cypriot Turks have a significant diaspora in the English-speaking countries (especially the UK and Australia); the Meskhetian Turks have a large diaspora in Central Asia; and Algerian Turks and Tunisian Turks have mostly settled in France. Since Bulgarian Turks and Romanian Turks gained EU citizenship in 2007, their diasporas in Western Europe significantly increased once restrictions on movement came to a halt in 2012.
Diasporas
Europe
As early as 1997 Professor Servet Bayram and Professor Barbara Seels said that there was 10 million Turks living in Western Europe and the Balkans (i.e. excluding Cyprus and Turkey). By 2010, Boris Kharkovsky from the Center for Ethnic and Political Science Studies said that there was up to 15 million Turks living in the European Union. According to Dr Araks Pashayan 10 million "Euro-Turks" alone were living in Germany, France, the Netherlands and Belgium in 2012. Furthermore, there are significant Turkish communities living in Austria, the UK, Switzerland, Italy, Liechtenstein and the Scandinavian countries. Meanwhile, approximately 400,000 Meskhetian Turks live in the European regions of the Post-Soviet states (i.e. Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Russia and Ukraine).
In addition to the modern Turkish diaspora in Europe, there are also traditional Turkish communities in post-Ottoman nation-states. For example, Turkish Cypriots and Turkish settlers living in North Cyprus number around 300,000 to 500,000. In addition, in Southeastern Europe there is over 1 million Turks living in the Balkan countries (i.e. Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Greece, Kosovo, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Romania and Serbia). Since the 20th century, these ethnic Turkish communities have also migrated to Western Europe and have enlarged the Turkish diaspora significantly (e.g. Algerian Turks have mostly settled in France; Bulgarian Turks have migrated mostly to Germany, the Netherlands, and Sweden; Turkish Cypriots have a large population in the UK; Macedonian Turks have migrated mostly to Sweden; Tunisian Turks have migrated mostly to France and Italy; and Western Thrace Turks have mostly migrated to Germany and the Netherlands). More recently, since the "European migrant crisis" (2014–20), Iraqi Turks, Kosovo Turks and Syrian Turks have also settled in areas where there are large Turkish diasporas.
Consequently, within the diaspora, ethnic Turkish people now form the largest minority group in Austria, Denmark, Germany and the Netherlands.
Germany
The Turkish-Germans are the largest ethnic minority group in Germany and also the largest Turkish community in the Turkish diaspora.
The German census counts around three million Turks living in Germany. This does not only count those born in Turkey, but also descendants. The majority of ethnic Turks living in Germany have either arrived from or originate from Turkey; however, there are also significant ethnic Turkish communities which have come from (or descend from) other post-Ottoman nation-states in the Balkans (especially from Bulgaria and Greece), as well as from the island of Cyprus, and Lebanon. More recently, since the European migrant crisis (2014–19), there has also been a significant increase in the number of ethnic Turks from Syria, Iraq and Kosovo who have come to Germany.
France
The Turks living in France form one of the largest Turkish communities in Western Europe. Official data on the total number of French Turks is not available because the French census only records statistics on the country of birth rather than one's ethnic affiliation.
Although the majority of French Turks descend from the Republic of Turkey, there has also been significant Turkish migration from other post-Ottoman countries including ethnic Turkish communities which have come to France from North Africa (especially Algeria and Tunisia), the Balkans (e.g. from Bulgaria, Greece, Kosovo, North Macedonia and Romania), the island of Cyprus, and more recently from Iraq, Lebanon, and Syria.
In 2014 Professor Pierre Vermeren reported in L'Express that the Turkish population was around 800,000. However, an earlier academic publication in 2010 by Dr Jean-Gustave Hentz and Dr Michel Hasselmann said that there was already 1 million Turks living in France. Professor İzzet Er, as well as the French-Armenian politician Garo Yalic (who is an advisor to Valerie Boyer), also said that there was 1,000,000 Turks in France in 2011 and 2012 respectively. More recently, the Turkish-French population has been estimated to be more than one million according to French-published articles in Le Petit Journal (2019) and Marianne (2020).
The Netherlands
The Turkish-Dutch community form the largest ethnic minority group in the Netherlands. The majority of Dutch Turks descend from the Republic of Turkey; however there has also been significant Turkish migration waves from other post-Ottoman countries including ethnic Turkish communities which have come to the Netherlands from the Balkans (e.g. especially from Bulgaria, Greece, and North Macedonia), the island of Cyprus, and more recently during the European migrant crisis from Syria, Iraq and Kosovo. In addition, there has been migration to the Netherlands from the Turkish diaspora; many Turkish-Belgians and Turkish-Germans have arrived in the country as Belgian and German citizens.
The Dutch official census only collects data on country of birth, rather than ethnically; consequently, the total number of ethnic Turkish migrants (regardless of country of birth) nor the third, fourth or fifth generation of the Turkish-Dutch community have been collectively counted. Assistant Professor Suzanne Aalberse, Professor Ad Backus and Professor Pieter Muysken have said that "over the years" the Dutch-Turkish community "must have numbered half a million". However, there are significantly higher estimates. As early as 2003, the political scientist and international relations expert Dr Nathalie Tocci said that there was already "two million Turks in Holland". Rita van Veen also reported in Trouw that there was 2 million Turks in the Netherlands in 2007. More recently, in 2020, a report published in L1mburg Centraal estimated that there are more than 2 million Dutch-Turks. Voetbal International also reported in 2020 that the Dutch football club Fortuna Sittard will be carrying out annual scouting activities to find "Turkish talent" among the approximately 2 million Turkish-Dutch community.
In 2009 The Sophia Echo reported that Bulgarian Turks were now the fastest-growing group of immigrants in the Netherlands.
Austria
The Turkish community, including descendants, form the largest ethnic minority in Austria. In 2011 a report by the Initiative Minderheiten said that there was 360,000 people of Turkish origin living in Austria. This figure has also been echoed by the former Austrian Foreign Minister and Chancellor of Austria Sebastian Kurz. However, the former Austrian MEP, Andreas Mölzer, has claimed that there are 500,000 Turks in the country.
Belgium
In 2012 Professor Raymond Taras said that the Belgian-Turkish community was over 200,000. More recently, in 2019 Dr Altay Manço and Dr Ertugrul Taş said that there was 250,000 Belgian residents of Turkish origin.
The United Kingdom
In 2011 the Home Affairs Committee stated here was 500,000 British Turks made up of 300,000 Turkish Cypriots, 150,000 Turkish nationals (i.e. people from Turkey), and smaller groups of Bulgarian Turks and Romanian Turks. Despite a lack of statistics on the collective number of Turks who have immigrated from their traditional homelands, it is known that Germany, Austria, the Netherlands and France all have larger Turkish diaspora communities than the UK.
Sweden
In 2009 the Swedish Ministry for Foreign Affairs said that there was almost 100,000 people with a Turkish background living in Sweden. More recently, in 2018 the Swedish Consul General, Therese Hyden, said that the population was now around 150,000.
Switzerland
In 2017 there was over 120,000 Turks living in Switzerland. They mostly live in German-speaking regions, especially in the cantons of Zurich, Aargau and Basel. Figures on naturalization and migration from Turkey has been declining, however, the Swiss population with a Turkish background continues to grow.
Denmark
The Turkish community form the largest ethnic minority in Denmark. In 2008, it was estimated that Danes of Turkish origin numbered 70,000.
Italy
In 2020 there were 50,000 Turkish citizens living in Italy; however, this figure does not include naturalized Italian citizens of Turkish origin or their descendants. Between 2008 and 2020 some 5,295 Turkish citizens acquired Italian citizenship.
In addition to the diaspora, some of the population in Moena has identified as Turkish since the 17th century.
Norway
In 2013 there were roughly 16,500 Norwegians of Turkish descent living in Norway.
Finland
In 2010 Professor Zeki Kütük said that there was approximately 10,000 people of Turkish origin living in Finland.
Poland
In 2013 data from the Institute of Public Affairs showed that there was 5,000 Turks living in Poland.
Portugal
In 2021 data from the National Statistical Institute showed that there were 1,363 Turks legally living in Portugal. In addition, between 2002 and 2020, 270 Turks acquired Portuguese citizenship.
Luxembourg
Luxembourg does not formally collect ethnic or racial data of its citizens, however according to the Turkish embassy in Luxembourg, about 1,000 Turkish nationals were living in Luxembourg around the time of the 2017 Turkish referendum. Close to 10,000 Turkish people voted from Luxembourg, the others having come from neighbouring countries, who found the Luxembourg voting location closer to their homes.
Liechtenstein
Liechtenstein does not record data on the ethnicity of its citizens; however, in 2009, the Turkish community was estimated to number approximately 1,000 out of a total population of 35,000. Hence, estimates suggest that the Turks form around 3% of Liechtenstein's total population and that they are the fifth largest ethnic group in the country.
North America
United States
In 1996 Professor John J. Grabowski estimated that there was 500,000 Turks living in the United States. By 2009, Erdal Şafak said that the Turkish American community was approximately 850,000 to 900,000. More recently, in 2012 the former United States Secretary of Commerce, John Bryson, confirmed at the Center for American Progress that the Turkish American community was now over 1,000,000:
There are, however, much higher estimates. Non-governmental Turkish organizations in the USA claim that there are at least 3,000,000 people of Turkish origin living in the United States, including Turkish Americans as well as new Turkish migrant workers, students and illegal migrants. Consequently, since the twenty-first century, the Turkish American population is fast approaching the significant number of Turks in Germany because most students, expats, etc. decide to live permanently in the United States.
Canada
According to the 2016 Canadian census, 63,955 people voluntarily declared their ethnicity as "Turkish". However, in 2018, the Canadian Ambassador Chris Cooter said that there was approximately 100,000 Turkish Canadians living in the country, as well as several thousand Turkish students:
The "Federation of Canadian Turkish Associations" and the "Federation of Chinese Canadians in Markham" have also reported that there was over 100,000 Turkish Canadians living in the country.
South America
Venezuela
According to statistics, there are likely around 27,000 people of Turkish ancestry in Venezuela. This refers to people who are either descendants of immigrants who came from the Ottoman Empire before 1923 or who came from the Republic of Turkey since then. Additionally, Turks who immigrated from countries neighboring Turkey are also counted in this figure. It's likely that most of the Turkish Venezuelans trace their ancestry to immigrants from the Ottoman Empire, who arrived to Venezuela at the same time most of the Arab diaspora in South America had emigrated as well.
Brazil
There are 6,300 people of Turkish ancestry currently living in Brazil. According to Brazilian statistics there are 2,347 Turkish-born people living in Brazil as of 2021.
Oceania
Australia
In 1994 a report by The Age estimated that the Turkish Australian community numbered 150,000. By 2013 Louise Asher, who was a member of the Victorian Legislative Assembly, said that the Turkish Australian community in Melbourne alone had numbered 300,000. More recently, the number of Turkish Australians who originate from Turkey reached 200,000 in 2017; in addition, the Turkish Cypriot-Australian community was estimated to number 120,000 in 2016.
New Zealand
In 2010 the Turkish-New Zealander population was estimated to number between 2,000 to 3,000; in addition, the Turkish Cypriot-New Zealander population was 1,600 in 2016.
Diaspora of Algerian Turks
Initially, the first wave of migration occurred in 1830 when many Turks were forced to leave the region once the French took control over Algeria; approximately 10,000 were shipped off to Turkey whilst many others migrated to other regions of the Ottoman Empire, including Palestine, Syria, Arabia, and Egypt. Furthermore, some Turkish/Kouloughli families also settled in Morocco (such as in Tangier and Tétouan).
In regards to modern migration, there are many Algerian Turks who have emigrated to Europe and, hence, make up part of Algeria's diaspora. For example, there is a noticeable Algerian community of Turkish descent living in England. Many Algerians attend the Suleymaniye Mosque which is owned by the British-Turkish community. There are also thousands of Algerian Turks living in France. Germany, Switzerland, the Netherlands, Belgium, Canada, and Spain are also top receiving countries of Algerian citizens.
Diaspora of Bulgarian Turks
Diaspora of Cretan Turks
Diaspora of Cypriot Turks
Diaspora of Iraqi Turks
Most Iraqi Turkmen migrate to Turkey followed by Germany, Denmark, and Sweden. There are also Iraqi Turkmen communities living in Canada, the United States, Australia, New Zealand, Greece, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom.
There are many established Iraqi Turkmen diaspora communities, such as the Canadian Iraqi Turkmen Culture Association, based in Canada.
Diaspora of Lebanese Turks
Due to the numerous wars in Lebanon since the 1970s onwards, many Lebanese Turks have sought refuge in Turkey and Europe, particularly in Germany. Indeed, many Lebanese Turks were aware of the large German-Turkish population and saw this as an opportunity to find work once settling in Europe. In particular, the largest wave of Lebanese-Turkish migration occurred once the Israel-Lebanon war of 2006 began. During this period more than 20,000 Turks fled Lebanon, particularly from Beirut, and settled in Germany.
Diaspora of Macedonian Turks
Diaspora of Meskhetian Turks
Diaspora of Palestinian Turks
Both during and after the 1947–1949 Palestine war, some members of Palestine's Turkish minority fled the region (particularly the Jezreel Valley region and the Golan Heights) and settled in Lebanon, Syria, and Jordan.
In Jordan, there is approximately 55,000 Palestinian-Turkish refugees in Irbid 5,000 near Amman 5,000 in El-Sahne 3,000 in El-Reyyan 2,500 in El-Bakaa 1,500 in El-Zerkaa and 1,500 in Sahab
Diaspora of Romanian Turks
Diaspora of Syrian Turks
Since the outbreak of the Syrian Civil War, hundreds of thousands of Syrian Turkmen have been internally displaced and/or forced to leave the country, and most of them have sought refuge in neighbouring states and Western Europe. In particular, approximately 300,000 to 500,000 Syrian Turkmen have taken refuge in the Republic of Turkey. Moreover, there are between 125,000 and 150,000 Syrian Turkmen refugees in Lebanon, which means they outnumber the long-established Turkish minority in Lebanon.
In 2020 it was reported that 1 million Syrian Turkmen were living in Turkey and demanding that the Turkish government grant them Turkish citizenship.
Diaspora of Turkish Jews
In 2012, it was estimated that around 280,000 Jews living in Israel were from Turkey or of Turkish descent. In Israel, the Arkadaş Association was founded by Turkish Jews to maintain their relationship with Turkey.
Diaspora of Western Thrace Turks
In 1990, it was estimated that around 300,000 to 400,000 Western Thrace Turks had migrated to Turkey since 1923. Moreover, from the 1950s onwards, Turks of Western Thrace began to immigrate to Western Europe alongside other Greek citizens. Whilst many Western Thrace Turks had intended to return to Greece after working for a number of years, a new Greek law was introduced which effectively forced the minority to remain in their host countries. Article 19 of the 1955 Greek Constitution essentially stripped the Western Thrace Turks living abroad (particularly those in Germany and Turkey) of their Greek citizenship.
According to Article 19 of the Greek Constitution
This law continued to effect Western Thrace Turks studying in Turkey and Germany in the late 1980s. A report published by the Human Rights Watch in 1990 confirmed that:
Despite many being stripped of their Greek citizenship since 1955, Western Thrace Turks continued to migrate to Western Europe the 1960s and 1970s because the Thracian tobacco industry was affected by a severe crisis and many tobacco growers lost their income. Between 1970 and 2010, approximately 40,000 Western Thrace Turks arrived in Western Europe, most of which settled in Germany. In addition, between 2010 and 2018, a further 30,000 Western Thrace Turks left for Western Europe due to the Greek government-debt crisis. Thus, in addition to the thousands who migrated in the 1950s and 1960s, 70,000 Western Thrace Turks have migrated to Western Europe between 1970 and 2018. Around 80% of the Western Thracian Turks in Western Europe are living in Germany. The remainder have emigrated to the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, Austria and Italy; furthermore, outside of Europe, they have built communities in Australia, Canada and the United States.
See also
Turkic history
Turkic peoples
Turkish population
Turks in Europe
Turkish communities and minorities in the former Ottoman Empire
Turks in the Arab world
Turks in Israel
Turks in the United States
Turks in Australia
Turks in Canada
Turks in Russia
Turks in Japan
Turks in New Zealand
Uyghurs
References
Turkish communities outside Turkey
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herpes%20simplex%20virus
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Herpes simplex virus
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Herpes simplex virus 1 and 2 (HSV-1 and HSV-2), also known by their taxonomic names Human alphaherpesvirus 1 and Human alphaherpesvirus 2, are two members of the human Herpesviridae family, a set of viruses that produce viral infections in the majority of humans. Both HSV-1 and HSV-2 are very common and contagious. They can be spread when an infected person begins shedding the virus.
As of 2016, about 67% of the world population under the age of 50 had HSV-1. In the United States, about 47.8% and 11.9% are estimated to have HSV-1 and HSV-2, respectively, though actual prevalence may be much higher. Because it can be transmitted through any intimate contact, it is one of the most common sexually transmitted infections.
Symptoms
Many of those who are infected never develop symptoms. Symptoms, when they occur, may include watery blisters in the skin or mucous membranes of the mouth, lips, nose, genitals, or eyes (herpes simplex keratitis). Lesions heal with a scab characteristic of herpetic disease. Sometimes, the viruses cause mild or atypical symptoms during outbreaks. However, they can also cause more troublesome forms of herpes simplex. As neurotropic and neuroinvasive viruses, HSV-1 and -2 persist in the body by hiding from the immune system in the cell bodies of neurons, particularly in sensory ganglia. After the initial or primary infection, some infected people experience sporadic episodes of viral reactivation or outbreaks. In an outbreak, the virus in a nerve cell becomes active and is transported via the neuron's axon to the skin, where virus replication and shedding occur and may cause new sores.
Transmission
HSV-1 and HSV-2 are transmitted by contact with an infected person who has reactivations of the virus.
HSV 1 and HSV-2 are periodically shed, most often asymptomatically.
In a study of people with first-episode genital HSV-1 infection from 2022, genital shedding of HSV-1 was detected on 12% of days at 2 months and declined significantly to 7% of days at 11 months. Most genital shedding was asymptomatic; genital and oral lesions and oral shedding were rare.
Most sexual transmissions of HSV-2 occur during periods of asymptomatic shedding. Asymptomatic reactivation means that the virus causes atypical, subtle, or hard-to-notice symptoms that are not identified as an active herpes infection, so acquiring the virus is possible even if no active HSV blisters or sores are present. In one study, daily genital swab samples detected HSV-2 at a median of 12–28% of days among those who had an outbreak, and 10% of days among those with asymptomatic infection (no prior outbreaks), with many of these episodes occurring without visible outbreak ("subclinical shedding").
In another study, 73 subjects were randomized to receive valaciclovir 1 g daily or placebo for 60 days each in a two-way crossover design. A daily swab of the genital area was self-collected for HSV-2 detection by polymerase chain reaction, to compare the effect of valaciclovir versus placebo on asymptomatic viral shedding in immunocompetent, HSV-2 seropositive subjects without a history of symptomatic genital herpes infection. The study found that valaciclovir significantly reduced shedding during subclinical days compared to placebo, showing a 71% reduction; 84% of subjects had no shedding while receiving valaciclovir versus 54% of subjects on placebo. About 88% of patients treated with valaciclovir had no recognized signs or symptoms versus 77% for placebo.
For HSV-2, subclinical shedding may account for most of the transmission. Studies on discordant partners (one infected with HSV-2, one not) show that the transmission rate is approximately 5–8.9 per 10,000 sexual contacts, with condom usage greatly reducing the risk of acquisition. Atypical symptoms are often attributed to other causes, such as a yeast infection. HSV-1 is often acquired orally during childhood. It may also be sexually transmitted, including contact with saliva, such as kissing and oral sex. Historically HSV-2 was primarily a sexually transmitted infection, but rates of HSV-1 genital infections have been increasing for the last few decades.
Both viruses may also be transmitted vertically during childbirth. However, the risk of transmission is minimal if the mother has no symptoms nor exposed blisters during delivery. The risk is considerable when the mother is infected with the virus for the first time during late pregnancy, reflecting high viral load. While most viral STDs can not be transmitted through objects as the virus dies quickly outside of the body, HSV can survive for up to 4.5 hours on surfaces and can be transmitted through use of towels, toothbrushes, cups, cutlery, etc.
Herpes simplex viruses can affect areas of skin exposed to contact with an infected person. An example of this is herpetic whitlow, which is a herpes infection on the fingers; it was commonly found on dental surgeon's hands prior to the routine use of gloves when treating patients. Shaking hands with an infected person does not transmit this disease. Genital infection of HSV-2 increases the risk of acquiring HIV.
Virology
HSV has been a model virus for many studies in molecular biology. For instance, one of the first functional promoters in eukaryotes was discovered in HSV (of the thymidine kinase gene) and the virion protein VP16 is one of the most-studied transcriptional activators.
Viral Structure
Animal herpes viruses all share some common properties. The structure of herpes viruses consists of a relatively large, double-stranded, linear DNA genome encased within an icosahedral protein cage called the capsid, which is wrapped in a lipid bilayer called the envelope. The envelope is joined to the capsid by means of a tegument. This complete particle is known as the virion. HSV-1 and HSV-2 each contain at least 74 genes (or open reading frames, ORFs) within their genomes, although speculation over gene crowding allows as many as 84 unique protein coding genes by 94 putative ORFs. These genes encode a variety of proteins involved in forming the capsid, tegument and envelope of the virus, as well as controlling the replication and infectivity of the virus. These genes and their functions are summarized in the table below.
The genomes of HSV-1 and HSV-2 are complex and contain two unique regions called the long unique region (UL) and the short unique region (US). Of the 74 known ORFs, UL contains 56 viral genes, whereas US contains only 12. Transcription of HSV genes is catalyzed by RNA polymerase II of the infected host. Immediate early genes, which encode proteins for example ICP22 that regulate the expression of early and late viral genes, are the first to be expressed following infection. Early gene expression follows, to allow the synthesis of enzymes involved in DNA replication and the production of certain envelope glycoproteins. Expression of late genes occurs last; this group of genes predominantly encode proteins that form the virion particle.
Five proteins from (UL) form the viral capsid - UL6, UL18, UL35, UL38, and the major capsid protein UL19.
Cellular Entry
Entry of HSV into a host cell involves several glycoproteins on the surface of the enveloped virus binding to their transmembrane receptors on the cell surface. Many of these receptors are then pulled inwards by the cell, which is thought to open a ring of three gHgL heterodimers stabilizing a compact conformation of the gB glycoprotein, so that it springs out and punctures the cell membrane. The envelope covering the virus particle then fuses with the cell membrane, creating a pore through which the contents of the viral envelope enters the host cell.
The sequential stages of HSV entry are analogous to those of other viruses. At first, complementary receptors on the virus and the cell surface bring the viral and cell membranes into proximity. Interactions of these molecules then form a stable entry pore through which the viral envelope contents are introduced to the host cell. The virus can also be endocytosed after binding to the receptors, and the fusion could occur at the endosome. In electron micrographs, the outer leaflets of the viral and cellular lipid bilayers have been seen merged; this hemifusion may be on the usual path to entry or it may usually be an arrested state more likely to be captured than a transient entry mechanism.
In the case of a herpes virus, initial interactions occur when two viral envelope glycoprotein called glycoprotein C (gC) and glycoprotein B (gB) bind to a cell surface polysaccharide called heparan sulfate. Next, the major receptor binding protein, glycoprotein D (gD), binds specifically to at least one of three known entry receptors. These cell receptors include herpesvirus entry mediator (HVEM), nectin-1 and 3-O sulfated heparan sulfate. The nectin receptors usually produce cell-cell adhesion, to provide a strong point of attachment for the virus to the host cell. These interactions bring the membrane surfaces into mutual proximity and allow for other glycoproteins embedded in the viral envelope to interact with other cell surface molecules. Once bound to the HVEM, gD changes its conformation and interacts with viral glycoproteins H (gH) and L (gL), which form a complex. The interaction of these membrane proteins may result in a hemifusion state. gB interaction with the gH/gL complex creates an entry pore for the viral capsid. gB interacts with glycosaminoglycans on the surface of the host cell.
Genetic Inoculation
After the viral capsid enters the cellular cytoplasm, it starts to express viral protein ICP27. ICP27 is a regulator protein that causes disruption in host protein synthesis and utilizes it for viral replication. ICP27 binds with a cellular enzyme Serine-Arginine Protein Kinase 1, SRPK1. Formation of this complex causes the SRPK1 shift from the cytoplasm to the nucleus, and the viral genome gets transported to the cell nucleus. Once attached to the nucleus at a nuclear entry pore, the capsid ejects its DNA contents via the capsid portal. The capsid portal is formed by 12 copies of portal protein, UL6, arranged as a ring; the proteins contain a leucine zipper sequence of amino acids, which allow them to adhere to each other. Each icosahedral capsid contains a single portal, located in one vertex.
The DNA exits the capsid in a single linear segment.
Immune Evasion
HSV evades the immune system through interference with MHC class I antigen presentation on the cell surface, by blocking the transporter associated with antigen processing (TAP) induced by the secretion of ICP-47 by HSV. In the host cell, TAP transports digested viral antigen epitope peptides from the cytosol to the endoplasmic reticulum, allowing these epitopes to be combined with MHC class I molecules and presented on the surface of the cell. Viral epitope presentation with MHC class I is a requirement for activation of cytotoxic T-lymphocytes (CTLs), the major effectors of the cell-mediated immune response against virally-infected cells. ICP-47 prevents initiation of a CTL-response against HSV, allowing the virus to survive for a protracted period in the host. HSV usually produces cytopathic effect (CPE) within 24–72 hours post-infection in permissive cell lines which is observed by classical plaque formation. However, HSV-1 clinical isolates have also been reported that did not show any CPE in Vero and A549 cell cultures over several passages with low level of virus protein expression. Probably these HSV-1 isolates are evolving towards a more "cryptic" form to establish chronic infection thereby unravelling yet another strategy to evade the host immune system, besides neuronal latency.
Replication
Following infection of a cell, a cascade of herpes virus proteins, called immediate-early, early, and late, is produced. Research using flow cytometry on another member of the herpes virus family, Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus, indicates the possibility of an additional lytic stage, delayed-late. These stages of lytic infection, particularly late lytic, are distinct from the latency stage. In the case of HSV-1, no protein products are detected during latency, whereas they are detected during the lytic cycle.
The early proteins transcribed are used in the regulation of genetic replication of the virus. On entering the cell, an α-TIF protein joins the viral particle and aids in immediate-early transcription. The virion host shutoff protein (VHS or UL41) is very important to viral replication. This enzyme shuts off protein synthesis in the host, degrades host mRNA, helps in viral replication, and regulates gene expression of viral proteins. The viral genome immediately travels to the nucleus, but the VHS protein remains in the cytoplasm.
The late proteins form the capsid and the receptors on the surface of the virus. Packaging of the viral particles — including the genome, core and the capsid - occurs in the nucleus of the cell. Here, concatemers of the viral genome are separated by cleavage and are placed into formed capsids. HSV-1 undergoes a process of primary and secondary envelopment. The primary envelope is acquired by budding into the inner nuclear membrane of the cell. This then fuses with the outer nuclear membrane. The virus acquires its final envelope by budding into cytoplasmic vesicles.
Latent Infection
HSVs may persist in a quiescent but persistent form known as latent infection, notably in neural ganglia. The HSV genome circular DNA resides in the cell nucleus as an episome. HSV-1 tends to reside in the trigeminal ganglia, while HSV-2 tends to reside in the sacral ganglia, but these are historical tendencies only. During latent infection of a cell, HSVs express latency-associated transcript (LAT) RNA. LAT regulates the host cell genome and interferes with natural cell death mechanisms. By maintaining the host cells, LAT expression preserves a reservoir of the virus, which allows subsequent, usually symptomatic, periodic recurrences or "outbreaks" characteristic of nonlatency. Whether or not recurrences are symptomatic, viral shedding occurs to infect a new host.
A protein found in neurons may bind to herpes virus DNA and regulate latency. Herpes virus DNA contains a gene for a protein called ICP4, which is an important transactivator of genes associated with lytic infection in HSV-1. Elements surrounding the gene for ICP4 bind a protein known as the human neuronal protein neuronal restrictive silencing factor (NRSF) or human repressor element silencing transcription factor (REST). When bound to the viral DNA elements, histone deacetylation occurs atop the ICP4 gene sequence to prevent initiation of transcription from this gene, thereby preventing transcription of other viral genes involved in the lytic cycle. Another HSV protein reverses the inhibition of ICP4 protein synthesis. ICP0 dissociates NRSF from the ICP4 gene and thus prevents silencing of the viral DNA.
Genome
The HSV genome spans about 150,000 bp and consists of two unique segments, named unique long (UL) and unique short (US), as well as terminal inverted repeats found to the two ends of them named repeat long (RL) and repeat short (RS). There are also minor "terminal redundancy" (α) elements found on the further ends of RS. The overall arrangement is RL-UL-RL-α-RS-US-RS-α with each pair of repeats inverting each other. The whole sequence is then encapsuled in a terminal direct repeat. The long and short parts each have their own origins of replication, with OriL located between UL28 and UL30 and OriS located in a pair near the RS. As the L and S segments can be assembled in any direction, they can be inverted relative to each other freely, forming various linear isomers.
Gene expression
HSV genes are expressed in 3 temporal classes: immediate early (IE or α), early (E or ß) and late (γ) genes. However, the progression of viral gene expression is rather gradual than in clearly distinct stages. Immediate early genes are transcribed right after infection and their gene products activate transcription of the early genes. Early gene products help to replicate the viral DNA. Viral DNA replication, in turn, stimulates the expression of the late genes, encoding the structural proteins.
Transcription of the immediate early (IE) genes begins right after virus DNA enters the nucleus. All virus genes are transcribed by host RNA polymerase II. Although host proteins are sufficient for virus transcription, viral proteins are necessary for the transcription of certain genes. For instance, VP16 plays an important role in IE transcription and the virus particle apparently brings it into the host cell, so that it does not need to be produced first. Similarly, the IE proteins RS1 (ICP4), UL54 (ICP27), and ICP0 promote the transcription of the early (E) genes. Like IE genes, early gene promoters contain binding sites for cellular transcription factors. One early protein, ICP8, is necessary for both transcription of late genes and DNA replication.
Later in the life cycle of HSV, expression of immediate early and early genes is shut down. This is mediated by specific virus proteins, e.g. ICP4, which represses itself by binding to elements in its own promoter. As a consequence, the down-regulation of ICP4 levels leads to a reduction of early and late gene expression, as ICP4 is important for both.
Importantly, HSV shuts down host cell RNA, DNA and protein synthesis to direct cellular resources to virus production. First, the virus protein vhs induces the degradation of existing mRNAs early in infection. Other viral genes impede cellular transcription and translation. For instance, ICP27 inhibits RNA splicing, so that virus mRNAs (which are usually not spliced) gain an advantage over host mRNAs. Finally, virus proteins destabilize certain cellular proteins involved in the host cell cycle, so that both cell division and host cell DNA replication disturbed in favor of virus replication.
Evolution
The herpes simplex 1 genomes can be classified into six clades. Four of these occur in East Africa, one in East Asia and one in Europe and North America. This suggests that the virus may have originated in East Africa. The most recent common ancestor of the Eurasian strains appears to have evolved ~60,000 years ago. The East Asian HSV-1 isolates have an unusual pattern that is currently best explained by the two waves of migration responsible for the peopling of Japan.
Herpes simplex 2 genomes can be divided into two groups: one is globally distributed and the other is mostly limited to sub Saharan Africa. The globally distributed genotype has undergone four ancient recombinations with herpes simplex 1. It has also been reported that HSV-1 and HSV-2 can have contemporary and stable recombination events in hosts simultaneously infected with both pathogens. All of the cases are HSV-2 acquiring parts of the HSV-1 genome, sometimes changing parts of its antigen epitope in the process.
The mutation rate has been estimated to be ~1.38×10−7 substitutions/site/year. In clinical setting, mutations in either the thymidine kinase gene or DNA polymerase gene have caused resistance to aciclovir. However, most of the mutations occur in the thymidine kinase gene rather than the DNA polymerase gene.
Another analysis has estimated the mutation rate in the herpes simplex 1 genome to be 1.82×10−8 nucleotide substitution per site per year. This analysis placed the most recent common ancestor of this virus ~710,000 years ago.
Herpes simplex 1 and 2 diverged about .
Treatment
Similar to other herpesviridae, the herpes simplex viruses establish latent lifelong infection, and thus cannot be eradicated from the body with current treatments.
Treatment usually involves general-purpose antiviral drugs that interfere with viral replication, reduce the physical severity of outbreak-associated lesions, and lower the chance of transmission to others. Studies of vulnerable patient populations have indicated that daily use of antivirals such as aciclovir and valaciclovir can reduce reactivation rates. The extensive use of antiherpetic drugs has led to the development of some drug resistance, which in turn may lead to treatment failure. Therefore, new sources of drugs are broadly investigated to address the problem. In January 2020, a comprehensive review article was published that demonstrated the effectiveness of natural products as promising anti-HSV drugs. Pyrithione, a zinc ionophore, has shown antiviral activity against herpes simplex.
Alzheimer's disease
In 1979, it was reported that there is a possible link between HSV-1 and Alzheimer's disease, in people with the epsilon4 allele of the gene APOE. HSV-1 appears to be particularly damaging to the nervous system and increases one's risk of developing Alzheimer's disease. The virus interacts with the components and receptors of lipoproteins, which may lead to the development of Alzheimer's disease. This research identifies HSVs as the pathogen most clearly linked to the establishment of Alzheimer's. According to a study done in 1997, without the presence of the gene allele, HSV-1 does not appear to cause any neurological damage or increase the risk of Alzheimer's. However, a more recent prospective study published in 2008 with a cohort of 591 people showed a statistically significant difference between patients with antibodies indicating recent reactivation of HSV and those without these antibodies in the incidence of Alzheimer's disease, without direct correlation to the APOE-epsilon4 allele.
The trial had a small sample of patients who did not have the antibody at baseline, so the results should be viewed as highly uncertain. In 2011, Manchester University scientists showed that treating HSV1-infected cells with antiviral agents decreased the accumulation of β-amyloid and tau protein and also decreased HSV-1 replication.
A 2018 retrospective study from Taiwan on 33,000 patients found that being infected with herpes simplex virus increased the risk of dementia 2.56 times (95% CI: 2.3-2.8) in patients not receiving anti-herpetic medications (2.6 times for HSV-1 infections and 2.0 times for HSV-2 infections). However, HSV-infected patients who were receiving anti-herpetic medications (e.g., acyclovir, famciclovir, ganciclovir, idoxuridine, penciclovir, tromantadine, valaciclovir, or valganciclovir) showed no elevated risk of dementia compared to patients uninfected with HSV.
Multiplicity reactivation
Multiplicity reactivation (MR) is the process by which viral genomes containing inactivating damage interact within an infected cell to form a viable viral genome. MR was originally discovered with the bacterial virus bacteriophage T4, but was subsequently also found with pathogenic viruses including influenza virus, HIV-1, adenovirus simian virus 40, vaccinia virus, reovirus, poliovirus and herpes simplex virus.
When HSV particles are exposed to doses of a DNA damaging agent that would be lethal in single infections, but are then allowed to undergo multiple infection (i.e. two or more viruses per host cell), MR is observed. Enhanced survival of HSV-1 due to MR occurs upon exposure to different DNA damaging agents, including methyl methanesulfonate, trimethylpsoralen (which causes inter-strand DNA cross-links), and UV light. After treatment of genetically marked HSV with trimethylpsoralen, recombination between the marked viruses increases, suggesting that trimethylpsoralen damage stimulates recombination. MR of HSV appears to partially depend on the host cell recombinational repair machinery since skin fibroblast cells defective in a component of this machinery (i.e. cells from Bloom's syndrome patients) are deficient in MR.
These observations suggest that MR in HSV infections involves genetic recombination between damaged viral genomes resulting in production of viable progeny viruses. HSV-1, upon infecting host cells, induces inflammation and oxidative stress. Thus it appears that the HSV genome may be subjected to oxidative DNA damage during infection, and that MR may enhance viral survival and virulence under these conditions.
Use as an anti-cancer agent
Modified Herpes simplex virus is considered as a potential therapy for cancer and has been extensively clinically tested to assess its oncolytic (cancer killing) ability. Interim overall survival data from Amgen's phase 3 trial of a genetically attenuated herpes virus suggests efficacy against melanoma.
Use in neuronal connection tracing
Herpes simplex virus is also used as a transneuronal tracer defining connections among neurons by virtue of traversing synapses.
Other related outcomes
HSV-2 the most common cause of Mollaret's meningitis. HSV-1 can lead to potentially fatal cases of herpes simplex encephalitis. Herpes simplex viruses have also been studied in the central nervous system disorders such as multiple sclerosis, but research has been conflicting and inconclusive.
Following a diagnosis of genital herpes simplex infection, patients may develop an episode of profound depression. In addition to offering antiviral medication to alleviate symptoms and shorten their duration, physicians must also address the mental health impact of a new diagnosis. Providing information on the very high prevalence of these infections, their effective treatments, and future therapies in development may provide hope to patients who are otherwise demoralized.
Research
There exist commonly used vaccines to some herpesviruses, such as the veterinary vaccine HVT/LT (Turkey herpesvirus vector laryngotracheitis vaccine). However, it prevents atherosclerosis (which histologically mirrors atherosclerosis in humans) in target animals vaccinated.
The only human vaccines available for herpesviruses are for Varicella zoster virus, given to children around their first birthday to prevent chickenpox (varicella), or to adults to prevent an outbreak of shingles (herpes zoster) . There is, however, no human vaccine for herpes simplex viruses. As of 2022, there are active pre-clinical and clinical studies underway on herpes simplex in humans; vaccines are being developed for both treatment and prevention.
References
External links
Herpes simplex: Host viral protein interactions: A database of HSV-1 interacting host proteins
3D macromolecular structures of the Herpes simplex virus archived in the EM Data Bank(EMDB)
Simplexviruses
Unaccepted virus taxa
Sexually transmitted diseases and infections
Articles containing video clips
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transgender%20voice%20therapy
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Transgender voice therapy
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"Voice therapy" or "voice training" refers to any non-surgical technique used to improve or modify the human voice. Because voice is a social cue to a person's sex and gender, transgender people may frequently undertake voice training or therapy as a part of gender transitioning in order to make their voices sound more typical of their gender, and therefore increase their likelihood of being perceived as that gender. Having voice and speech characteristics align with one's gender identity is often important to transgender individuals, whether their goal be feminization, neutralization or masculinization. Voice therapy can be seen as an act of gender- and identity-affirming care, in order to reduce gender dysphoria and gender incongruence, improve the self-reported wellbeing and health of transgender people, and alleviate concerns over an individual being recognized as transgender.
Voice feminization
Voice feminization refers to the perception of voice change from masculine to feminine. It is considered an essential part of care for transfeminine people. Transfeminines trying to feminize their voice represent the largest group seeking speech therapy services, therefore, most studies regarding transgender voice have focused on voice feminization, as opposed to voice masculinization.
Therapy has been shown to be effective in voice feminization, and the modification of certain voice characteristics, such as fundamental frequency, vocal weight and voice resonance, can help in that effect. Fundamental frequency, closely related to pitch, was initially thought to be the characteristic most effective in voice feminization. Raising the fundamental frequency can help towards voice feminization. However, each person might have different perspectives regarding speech and voice, and therefore the salient characteristics, and their relative impact on femininity, can vary from person to person, and many people are not satisfied with only a change in fundamental frequency.
What is considered a feminine or a masculine voice varies depending on age, region, and cultural norms. The changes with the greatest effects towards feminization, based on current evidence, are fundamental frequency, vocal weight and voice resonance. Other characteristics that have been explored include intonation patterns, loudness, speech rate, speech-sound articulation and duration.
Voice masculinization
Voice modifications for transgender men typically involve the lowering of the speaking fundamental frequency. Voice therapy is generally not required for transgender men as the effects of testosterone on the larynx result in a deeper pitch. However, testosterone replacement therapy does not always deepen the voice to the person's desired level, and others choose to not undergo masculinizing hormone therapy at all. Voice masculinization therapy can help to further lower the pitch of transgender men and address voice problems associated with hormone therapy.
In testosterone replacement therapy vocal folds change faster than larynx. Overdevelopment of vocal folds in an undescended, small larynx can result in a condition named "entrapped vocality" with permanent hoarseness, and lack of passing. Larynx length can be controlled via exercise, making lowering the larynx a useful tool for transgender men in obtaining a passing voice. Other areas that transgender men may benefit from training are embouchure and maintaining high CQ (closed quotient, a quotient of how long the vocal folds are touching to how long the cycle of vibration lasts), responsible for "heavy" or "buzzy" voice quality.
A speech-language pathologist (SLP) may be involved in aiding transmaculine people to achieve their desired voice goals, while usually prioritizing the overall health of the voice. Therapy techniques may involve finding a person's most comfortable pitch range, using breath support and relaxation exercises, introducing voice strengthening warm-ups, stabilizing posture and increasing chest resonance.
Another option for transgender men who wish to further lower their speaking pitch is to undergo vocal surgery.
Gender perception in voice
In the case of AI vocal gender identification examples, key features noted to effect gender perception included fundamental frequency and formant frequency as well as further source related measures including cepstral peak prominence (a rough measure of harmonicity in voice with low values indicating a higher likelihood of dysphonia) and rolloff in energy between the first and second harmonics. A 2020 study in the International Journal of General Medicine noted other factors being involved in gender perception, saying: "a minimum F0 value of 180 Hz required for a voice to be perceived as feminine".
Vocal gender presentation can be assigned by speakers even as things like fundamental frequency stay the same, especially where we see formant frequencies changing, which is noted as important for gender presentation alongside fundamental frequency.
Vocal surgeries
While hormone replacement therapy (HRT) and gender reassignment surgery can cause a more feminine outward appearance for transgender women, they typically do nothing to alter the pitch of an adult voice or to make the voice sound more feminine, unless HRT is started immediately after puberty blockers during teenage years. The existing vocal structure can be surgically altered to raise vocal pitch by shortening the vocal folds, decreasing the whole mass of the folds, or by increasing the tension of the folds. Transgender women can undergo surgery to raise their vocal pitch as measured by fundamental frequency (F0), to increase their pitch range and to remove access to lower frequency ranges in their voice. The current pitch-raising vocal surgeries can be split-up into several categories:
Cricothyroid approximation (CTA) (A common legacy procedure)
This surgery tenses and elongates the vocal folds in order to increase vocal pitch. This is done by bringing the cricoid cartilage closer to the thyroid cartilage with sutures or metal plates. The cricoid cartilage is shifted backward and upward and the thyroid cartilage is moved forward and downward. This mimics cricothyroid muscle contraction that tenses and elongates the vocal folds which causes the pitch to increase.
This surgery effectively locks the patient into falsetto, and sometimes fails over time. The patient is also likely to lose use of their cricothyroid muscle after this surgery. As such, fewer doctors are performing it today.
Wendler Glottoplasty (Anterior glottal web formation or anterior commissure advancement, also Laser Reduction Glottoplasty/LRG, and VFSRAC, Vocal Fold Shortening with Retrodisplacement of Anterior Commissure)
This is the most common surgery today. This surgery shortens the vibrating length of the vocal folds to raise vocal pitch. The tissue of the anterior part of the vocal folds is removed, and then this tissue is sutured together to form a nonvibrating anterior web.
Laser Reduction Glottoplasty is a variation that involves using a carbon dioxide laser to vaporize the anterior part of the vocal folds. Then the vocal folds are tensed with sutures, causing the pitch to increase. LRG may also include additional laser tuning at the same time (described further below).
VFSRAC is another variation invented by Dr. Hyung-Tae Kim in Seoul, South Korea, wherein the glottic web is additionally sutured downward in the larynx during surgery to provide further tensioning of the vocal cords and to help preserve the funnel shape of the larynx.
Feminization Laryngoplasty (also known as Open Laryngoplasty or Femlar/FL)
This surgery, instead of simply shortening the vibrating length of the vocal cords in the same manner as a glottoplasty, actually removes a portion of both the anterior true and false vocal folds by also removing the front of the voice box. The larynx is then reconstructed with surgical sutures and hardware using the remaining tissue. This has both an effect on vocal size and pitch.
This procedure has the ability to provide a better reduction of the adam’s apple beyond that of a tracheal shave and to fix tracheal shave complications that impact pitch.
This procedure is also typically combined with a thyrohyoid elevation to raise the larynx in the neck in order to further affect the patient's resonance as well, given doing so reduces the length of the pharynx to more feminine proportions.
This procedure is not currently as widely practiced due to being a newer surgery, and its complexity and greater risks in comparison to the other surgeries listed here, with only a few practitioners in the US, Australia, and Thailand currently performing it.
The pitch increase and general feminizing effect of this surgery is typically higher than glottoplasty, which may or may not be desirable for patients. The period of pitch instability and recovery is also typically longer as this is a more complex surgery.
Some surgeons may refer to their suite of voice feminization procedures as Feminization Laryngoplasty despite not actually performing this particular procedure.
Laser Tuning (including Laser assisted voice adjustment (LAVA) and Vocal Fold Muscle Reduction (VFMR), and sometimes Laser Reduction Glottoplasty)
In these procedures, microlaryngoscopy (a surgical procedure that looks at the vocal folds in great detail) is done in conjunction with a laser, typically a strong carbon dioxide (CO2) or a weaker KTP (Potassium Titanyl Phosphate) laser that vaporizes portions of the vocal folds. When the vocal fold tissue is in the process of healing and scarring, the vocal folds decrease in mass and increase in stiffness. This results in a rise in vocal pitch.
VFMR vaporizes a larger portion of the vocal folds, including the underlying muscle, while LAVA is more superficial to the surface of the vocal cord and less invasive.
LAVA and VFMR are commonly done to augment the result of the other procedures, as many doctors believe the impact of them alone, without another procedure like Femlar or a Glottoplasty, is minimal on a typical male-to-female transgender patient. VFMR however may occasionally be done in isolation.
The term Laser Reduction Glottoplasty (LRG) is also sometimes used to refer to this procedure with or without the additional creation of a glottic web as with a Wendler Glottoplasty, but this varies by context and surgeon.
Additionally, some other procedures are currently being employed in an attempt to provide the patient a more feminine resonance, or timbre, in their voice. These include Thyrohyoid Elevation (commonly performed as part of Feminization Laryngoplasty), which raises the larynx in the neck, and Pharyngeal Narrowing, which removes a strip of tissue from the back of the mouth in order to reduce the size of the pharyngeal resonance cavity.
Usually, transgender women consider vocal surgery when they feel dissatisfied with voice therapy results, or when they want a more authentic sounding feminine voice. However, vocal surgery alone may not produce a voice that sounds completely feminine, and voice therapy may still be needed. Although there has been evidence to show that all these surgeries can be effective in increasing vocal pitch as measured by F0, results have been mixed. However, many patients do report being satisfied with the results. Negative effects from these surgeries have been noted, including reduced voice quality, reduced vocal loudness, negative effects on swallowing and/or breathing, sore throat, infections and scarring. A positive effect of surgery can be protecting the voice from damage due to the strain of constantly elevating pitch while speaking. Because of the risks, vocal surgery is often considered a last resort after vocal therapy has been pursued.
As for transgender men, it is generally presumed that hormone therapy does successfully masculinize the voice and lower vocal pitch. However, this may not be the case for all transgender men. Although it is far less common, surgery to lower vocal pitch does exist and may be considered if traditional hormone therapy did not adequately lower it. Medialization laryngoplasty (or masculinization laryngoplasty) is a procedure where the vocal fold contours are medially augmented with the injection of silastic implants. This mimics the changes that the vocal folds non-transgender men go through during puberty, which causes a lower sounding voice.
Therapeutic techniques
Therapy may take place in an individual or group setting. The most common focus in transgender voice therapy is pitch raising or lowering; however, other gender markers may be more important for an individual to work on. Clients and clinicians should discuss goals of therapy to ensure that they are working together toward the voice that most fits the person's gender identity.
In a review of speech literature, Davies and Goldberg (2006) were unable to find any clear protocols for transgender men's voice therapy. Based on the protocols they found for treating transgender women's voices, they proposed the following therapeutic techniques for both voice feminization and masculinization:
Imitation of non-transgender people observed in daily life.
Progressively complex practice while maintaining good voice quality.
Vocal flexibility exercises to maintain vocal range and voice quality.
Motor training.
Identifying and altering voice qualities when coughing, laughing, and clearing the throat.
Experimentation with a broad range of voice styles.
While there is some evidence for the effectiveness of voice therapy for transgender people, it is still weak. In a 2012 review by Oates (as referenced in Davies, Papp, and Antoni, 2015) of the literature on transgender voice therapy, 83% of studies were found to be at the lowest level of the evidence hierarchy for evidence-based practice, and the remaining 17% were also at low levels. However, research does show that transgender people who have had voice therapy have high satisfaction with the results, and there is a strong consensus among speech-language pathologists (SLPs) as to what are strong markers of speaker gender in voice.
Raising pitch
The most common concern for transgender women is their pitch and speaking fundamental frequency (SFF) (the average frequency produced in a connected speech sample) because they typically perceive a feminine voice as using a higher pitch. Although pitch is not the most essential element of voice change for these individuals, it is necessary to raise the SFF to a gender-appropriate pitch to help with vocal feminization. A speech-language pathologist will work with the individual to raise their pitch and provide therapeutic exercises.
The first step in therapy is determining the habitual speaking fundamental frequency of the individual using an acoustic analyzing program. This is accomplished through several tasks including sustained phonation of the vowels /i/, /a/ and /u/, reading a standardized passage and producing a spontaneous speech sample. Then the therapist and the individual determine what the target pitch should be, based on the gender acceptable range for cis women (i.e. a socially acceptable pitch based on the average woman's vocal pitch range). When therapy begins, they establish a starting frequency to work on, that is slightly above the individual's SFF. The point is to choose a starting pitch that can be produced without strain or excessive vocal effort. As therapy progresses, the target SFF will gradually increase until the goal has been reached. Progression moves from using the target pitch in a sustained vowel to using it in a 2-5 minute conversation.
Semi-occluded vocal tract (SOVT) techniques may be used to facilitate voice production in the higher pitch range. SOVT techniques include phonating into straws, lip or tongue trilling, and producing multiple speech sounds such as nasals /m/, /n/, voiced fricatives (i.e. /z/, /v/), and high vowels such as /u/ and /i/. There are two exercises that are often used: producing a pitch glide that goes from the middle of the pitch range to the upper pitch range; and a messa di voce exercise, where the voice goes from soft to loud to soft again. SOVT techniques have the individual prolong their voice at a higher pitch, which may help make voice production at a higher, non-habitual pitch easier and more efficient.
Pitch can also be altered through voice resonance modification. The length of the vocal tract affects the resonance of the vocal tract, which in turn affects the pitch. Cis men tend to have vocal tracts that are 10-20% larger than those of cis women, and therefore cis men have a lower vocal tract resonance, and a lower pitch, than cis women. Modifying the length of a vocal tract results in a change in resonance and in pitch, as can be shown by saying the sound "sss" and protruding and retracting the lips. Transgender women can use techniques, such as retracting the lips, to shorten the vocal tract and sound more feminine.
Lowering pitch
A lack of training on how to use their new voice may cause some transgender men to have increased muscle tension. Therefore, a speech-language pathologist can give individuals vocal exercises to help find their optimal speaking pitch and maintain overall vocal health. Adler, Hirsch, & Mordaunt (2012), describe the following therapy techniques for transgender men:
Optimal pitch: Rather than straining to achieve a lower speaking pitch, a comfortable pitch range should be sought. This range is generally approximately between 100 and 105 Hz.
Diaphragmatic breathing patterns: In order to maintain their new speaking pitch, transgender men need to establish an appropriate breathing pattern to support their speech output. Establishing a stable speaking posture is also important to optimize pitch and breath support.
Warm-up exercises: A person can do these at home to help to strengthen the voice, maintain optimal pitch and prevent vocal fatigue. Resting the voice after long periods of use is also important.
Relaxation Techniques: The speech-language pathologist may teach tension-releasing techniques for the jaw, tongue, shoulders, neck and overall laryngeal area.
Chest resonance: Head resonance is more commonly used by women, and therefore transgender men must establish a pattern of chest resonance to match their lower speaking pitch. Exercises can help establish this chest resonance and help a person lower their larynx.
Non-verbal communication
Non-verbal communication may have more of an effect on a transgender person's readability than verbal factors such as pitch or resonance. Regardless of what is most effective, congruency between a person's visual and auditory gender presentation contributes greatly to their perceived authenticity. Non-verbal communication includes posture, gesture, movement, and facial expressions. In a discussion of the differences between masculine and feminine non-verbal behaviour, Hirsch and Boonin (2012) describe feminine communication as generally more fluid and continuous. Examples of feminine non-verbal communication behaviours include more smiling, expressive and open facial expression, more side-to-side head movement, and more expressive finger movements than men. Deborah Tannen's book, You Just Don't Understand (1990), is referred to by the authors as a seminal work on the difference in men and women's non-verbal communication.
Within the speech therapy context, non-verbal communication may be targeted through the encouragement of focused observation, offering feedback on the client's self-defined non-verbal goals, offering information about the differences between men and women's non-verbal communication, and/or referring to peer support or expert services.
Psychosocial factors
While some specific psychosocial issues faced by transgender people are often addressed through psychotherapy, there are psychosocial factors that can influence transgender voice therapy. For example, some clients feel that hormone therapy for transitioning changes concentration and emotional stability, which could affect receptiveness to speech therapy. Davies and Goldberg (2006) also note that an altered voice may feel inauthentic, and it may take time for the client to feel as if their new voice is an expression of their true self.
Transgender erasure describes systematic, individual, or organizational discrimination against transgender people. Informational erasure and institutional erasure were identified in a 2009 Canadian study of health care for transgender people as being the most prominent barriers to care. Informational erasure involves a lack of knowledge, or a perceived lack of knowledge, about transgender health care. This may manifest itself in health care providers being more reluctant to treat transgender clients because of an unwillingness to find information about their specific population. Institutional erasure describes policies that do not accommodate transgender identities or bodies. For example, forms, texts, or prescriptions may refer to a person by an unpreferred name or pronoun. Issues of erasure may hinder a transgender person's ability to find speech therapy services, or may affect the person's comfort with speech therapy.
In addition to paying attention to problems of erasure, Adler and Christianson (2012) suggest that a clinician should be sensitive to the following areas when working with a transgender client:
Gender attribution and discrimination
Possible feelings of shame and guilt
Consequences of the coming out process
Spouse, partner, or family attitudes
Employment issues
Incidence of HIV/AIDS
Racial and cultural differences
The authors note that this is not an exhaustive list of possible psychosocial factors and that every client is different. Psychosocial factors such as these may affect a transgender client's progress and prognosis in speech therapy.
Transition in childhood and adolescence
Few studies have considered the potential repercussions of age on therapy. Currently, there is no consensus regarding speech therapy for adolescents. During adolescence, there is an increase of both vocal tract size and vocal fold length, especially for those assigned male at birth, which affects the voice and pitch. Because of these physical changes and hormonal changes, it is difficult to focus on pitch. Previous studies have shown that therapy shaped from adult therapy can be effective.
Transition in aging populations
Few studies have looked into the transition in the elderly. A survey has shown that many elderly members of the LGBT community do not disclose their LGBT status to their clinicians, including members that receive speech therapy; they choose not to disclose this information because they are afraid it would negatively affect their access to services.
Controversy
There are two major areas of controversy for professionals working on the voices of transgender people. The first is regarding vocal surgery, and the second is regarding genderfluid and bigender voice therapy.
Professional opinion is mixed regarding the use of vocal surgery. There is currently a lack of outcome data, particularly longitudinal data, for pitch-elevating surgery, and outcomes have not been well-monitored over time. Because of this, some SLPs do not think that phonosurgery is a viable treatment option. Others believe it is, and still others believe it should be considered only as a "last resort" after the desired pitch change has not been seen in therapy. Critics cite variability in outcome, lack of outcome data, and reported negative effects like compromised voice quality, decreased vocal loudness, adverse impact on swallowing/breathing, sore throat, wound infection, and scarring as reasons to avoid vocal surgery. Proponents argue that surgery may protect a person's voice from damage caused by repetitive strain to elevate pitch in therapy. Ultimately, the decision to undergo surgery is up to the patient, with input from a knowledgeable physician and SLP.
There is also some controversy regarding the use of a genderfluid voice. A person may want to have both a masculine and a feminine voice in their vocal repertoire, possibly to fit with their own genderfluid identity, or to read as a different gender in different contexts. Some clinicians will not train genderfluid voice, arguing that it decreases the opportunity for practice, and it may be difficult or even damaging to the vocal folds for the person to switch from one voice to another. However, Davies, Papp and Antoni (2015) reference the ability of actors to use different accents and dialects, and people to learn different languages as a sign that training a genderfluid voice may be a viable treatment goal.
See also
Chest voice
Falsetto
Speech pathology
Vocal fry
Transgender health care
Language and gender
List of transgender-related topics
References
External links
World Professional Association for Transgender Health
University of California, San Francisco Center of Excellence for Transgender Health
Gender transitioning and medicine
Human voice
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonidas%20C.%20Dyer
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Leonidas C. Dyer
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Leonidas Carstarphen Dyer (June 11, 1871 – December 15, 1957) was an American politician, reformer, civil rights activist, and military officer. A Republican, he served eleven terms in the U.S. Congress as a U.S. Representative from Missouri from 1911 to 1933. In 1898, enrolling in the U.S. Army as a private, Dyer served notably in the Spanish–American War; and was promoted to colonel at the war's end.
Working as an attorney in St. Louis, Dyer started an anti-usury campaign and was elected to Congress as a Republican in 1910. As a progressive reformer, Dyer authored an anti-usury law in 1914 that limited excessive loan rates by bank lenders in the nation's capital, then still governed by Congress.
Horrified by the East St. Louis riots in 1917 and the high rate of reported lynchings in the South, Dyer introduced the Dyer Anti-Lynching Bill in 1918. In 1920, the Republican Party supported such legislation in its platform from the National Convention. In January 1922, Dyer's bill was passed by the House, which approved it by a wide margin due to "insistent countrywide demand". The bill was defeated by filibusters by white conservative, Southern Democrats in the U.S. Senate in December 1922, in 1923, and 1924.
In 1919, Dyer authored the motor-vehicle theft law, which made transporting stolen automobiles across state lines a federal crime. By 1956, the FBI reported that the law had enabled the recovery of cars worth more than $212 million. In terms of Prohibition, Dyer voted against various anti-liquor laws, including the Eighteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. Dyer served in Congress from the 62nd Congress to the 72nd Congress. He was defeated for re-election in 1932.
Early life and education
Dyer was born near Warrenton in Warren County, Missouri, the son of James Coleman Dyer and Martha E. (Camp) Dyer. His father's family had roots in Virginia, where his uncle David Patterson Dyer was born; he was elected as a Republican Congressman from Missouri (1869–71).
Leonidas attended common schools and Central Wesleyan College. He studied law at Washington University in St. Louis, received his LL.B. degree in 1893, and was admitted to the bar.
Service in Spanish–American War
When the Spanish–American War began, Dyer joined the United States Army and served in combat during the Santiago campaign as a private in 1898. He was promoted to colonel during the war, and served as a member of the staff of Herbert S. Hadley, future Governor of Missouri.
St. Louis attorney and reformer
After the war, the young Dyer served as assistant circuit attorney in St. Louis, where he championed an anti-usury reform campaign that eventually gained national attention. Dyer successfully represented a railroad clerk who was being charged 34% monthly (408% annual) interest on a $100 loan after having paid $480 interest in 14 months. None of the interest payment to the money lender was used to pay off the principal. The money lender, in front of Att. Dyer, tore up the railroad worker's loan. Dyer organized a group of wealthy merchants in St. Louis who through investigations were able to keep interest rates low in Missouri.
Congressional career
In 1910, Dyer successfully ran and was elected Congressman to the U.S. House of Representatives. He was repeatedly re-elected, though his time in Congress was briefly interrupted between 1914 and 1915 due to a dispute over 1912 election results, but was reelected in 1914.
Dyer was defeated for re-election from his district in 1932, 1934 and 1936, and decided to retire from politics. Dyer represented the 12th District of Missouri, which had a majority African-American population. They were disappointed by the Republican failure to pass an anti-lynching bill during the 1920s, and attracted to Democratic candidates during the Great Depression, after Franklin D. Roosevelt had started some of his work and welfare programs. Dyer followed Harry Coudrey, also a Republican.
Anti-usury law
Dyer continued his anti-usury campaign in 1914 by authoring a law that prevented banks from charging excessive interest rates on loans in Washington, D.C., which was then governed by Congress. Dyer believed that money lenders went after financially vulnerable people, authorizing loan contracts for unnecessary purposes. Dyer stated that usury was "an ancient moral crime against the poor and helpless." He advocated for each state to pass similar anti-usury laws.
Advocated postal pneumatic tube system
On March 29, 1916, Dyer spoke before a Senate Committee advocating H.R. 10484, to fund a U.S. Postal pneumatic tube service in St. Louis. Under the existing service, U.S. mail was transported by compressed air vacuum tubes in the St. Louis area. Dyer asked the committee to extend the pneumatic tube service from two to five miles, at a cost of $50,000. According to Dyer, the tube extension would promote business and private citizens in East St. Louis by reducing delivery time by 11 hours and 50 minutes. By comparison, the city of Boston had eight miles of U.S. Postal pneumatic tube service.
Anti-lynching bill
St. Louis riots 1917
In May 1917, a riot broke out in St. Louis; white ethnic workers, out on strike, attacked black strikebreakers, brought in to replace them. In July, mob violence broke out in East St. Louis against blacks, also against a background of competition over jobs. Two white police officers were killed early in the confrontation. In retaliation, white mobs killed 35 blacks, mutilated the bodies, and threw them into the Mississippi River. White rioters openly targeted and lynched several blacks. Those who attempted to stop the lynchings were threatened by the white mob with physical violence. As blacks fled into St. Louis, white rioters threatened to kill them upon their return. White Illinois National Guardmen, sent to quell the riot either did nothing to stop the violence or participated in the attacks on the black community instead. One black child was shot and thrown into a burning building, while white prostitutes openly attacked black women. After the riots, of the 134 persons indicted, only nine whites who were put on trial went to prison while 12 indicted blacks who went to trial were imprisoned. Nearly one-third of the total 134 persons indicted were black. The conviction rate, mathematically, was more than doubled for blacks than for whites.
Dyer was distressed by such mob violence, with its disregard for the courts and the rule of law. His district in St. Louis had mostly African-American residents and he wanted to protect his constituents and other citizens. Many black people from his district had migrated to St. Louis from the South, in the exodus known as the Great Migration. They settled in St. Louis along with immigrants from southern and eastern Europe where industrialization had led to a strong economy and an increase in jobs. Dyer also knew of the continuing high rate of lynchings, mostly of blacks by whites in the South. Working with W. E. B. Du Bois and Walter White of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), who had been working on a national anti-lynching campaign, Dyer helped develop and agreed to sponsor anti-lynching legislation.
Dyer Anti-Lynching Bill introduced 1918
Calling for an end to mob violence, on April 1, 1918, Dyer introduced the Dyer Anti-Lynching Bill, which would have made lynching a federal crime. In his speech, he anticipated some members likely objections about the federal government sponsoring "social" legislation, and noted that lynching violated individuals' rights under the 14th Amendment. In addition, he noted that Congress had passed child labor laws and the Prohibition amendment. He said:
If Congress has felt its duty to do these things, why should it not also assume jurisdiction and enact laws to protect the lives of citizens of the United States against lynch law and mob violence? Are the rights of property, or what a citizen shall drink, or the ages and conditions under which children shall work, any more important to the Nation than life itself?
Black leaders in the North had insisted that the Republican Party National platform for the presidential election of 1920 include support for anti-lynching legislation. After the election, the black community complained when months passed without Harding's getting a bill introduced and passed by Congress.
Dyer introduced a revised version of the bill in the House of Representatives in 1921. U.S. President Warren G. Harding, a Republican spoke in favor of Dyer's anti-lynching bill at an appearance in Birmingham, Alabama, and stated he would sign the bill if it was passed by the Senate. With high interest in the bill across the country, described as an "insistent country-wide demand", the bill passed by a large margin (230 to 119) on January 26, 1922. The first such federal legislation to gain House passage in the twentieth century, it would have enabled the federal government to prosecute the crime. Southern authorities seldom did so. In the South, most blacks had been disfranchised from 1890 to 1911 by constitutional changes and discriminatory legislation after southern Democrats regained power in the state legislatures. Unable to vote, blacks were disqualified from serving on juries or holding any political office; they had virtually no political power within the official system. In the few cases that came to trial, all-white juries generally never convicted a white of lynching a black.
Proponents of Dyer's anti-lynching bill believed that lynching and mob violence took away African-American citizens' rights under the Fourteenth Amendment. These rights included a speedy and fair trial by an impartial jury. Other citizen rights included the right to be informed of the nature of the crime accused, the ability to have witnesses in the defense's favor, and to be represented by counsel in court. Many blacks felt betrayed by the Republicans due to the bill's slow process to the Senate. A silent protest march by many blacks took place in front of the Capitol grounds and White House in 1922 while the bill's constitutionality was being contemplated. A protest sign read, "Congress discusses constitutionality while the smoke of burning bodies darkens the heavens."
Senate filibuster 1922
After Dyer's bill reached the Senate and received a favorable report from the Judiciary Committee, some Republican senators, including most prominently William Borah, an otherwise progressive Senator from Idaho, spoke against it. Borah was concerned about issues of state sovereignty and believed that the bill was not constitutional. He was especially concerned about the clause that provided for federal authorities to punish state officials "remiss in the suppression of lynchings."
A prolonged filibuster by Southern white Democrats prevented consideration of the bill and defeated it. After the Democrats had held up voting on all the national business in the Senate for a week in December 1922 by their filibuster, the Republicans realized they could not overcome the tactic and finally conceded defeat on Dyer's bill. Senator Lee S. Overman of North Carolina told The New York Times that the "good negroes of the South did not want the legislation for 'they do not need it'."
Aftermath and legacy
Following the defeat of his first bill in the Senate in 1922, Dyer tried unsuccessfully twice more to get it passed by the Senate. Some of the bill's opponents claimed that the threat of lynching protected white women from sexual advances from black men. The studies by the journalist Ida B. Wells in the late 1890s had shown that black lynch victims were accused of rape or attempted rape only one third of the time. Rather, the murders of blacks were an extreme form of white extrajudicial punishment and community control, often targeting blacks who were economic competitors with whites, who were trying to advance in society, who were in debt to landowners (settlement season for sharecroppers was a time of high rates of lynchings in rural areas), or those who failed to "stay in their place". In 1919, according to the Pittsburgh Gazette Times, many Southerners viewed the practice of lynching as a sporting event.
In 1923, to gain national support for his anti-lynching bill, which was to be heard again that year in the Senate, Dyer toured the western United States to generate public support. His motto for his anti-lynching campaign was "We have just begun to fight." (This was the statement made famous by John Paul Jones.) Dyer attracted mixed black and white audiences in Denver, Portland, Los Angeles, Omaha, and Chicago. He thanked the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) for supporting his bill and praised their continuing to publicize the terrible human toll of lynching in the United States. In Chicago, 4000 people attended his anti-lynching rally. Dyer's campaign received positive coverage by the white mainstream press, which helped strengthen an anti-lynching movement in the West.
The national attention received by Dyer's anti-lynching bill and speaking campaign may have helped reduce lynchings in the South. More significantly, the Great Migration was underway, and black workers by the tens of thousands were leaving the South for Northern and Midwestern industrial cities, for jobs, education, and a chance to escape Jim Crow laws and violence. By 1934, when the Costigan-Wagner anti-lynching bill was introduced, lynchings had dropped to 15 per year. In 1935 and 1938, Senator Borah repeated his constitutional arguments against the bill; he added that he believed such legislation was no longer needed, because the rate of lynchings had fallen so dramatically. By 1940, 1.5 million blacks had left the South in the Great Migration. Another five million left from 1940 to 1970.
The political power of the white Democrats in the South came from their having disfranchised most blacks from 1890 to 1910. The South was essentially a one-party, Democratic region in which only whites voted and held office, well into the 1960s, but Congressional representation was based on the total population. The situation of disfranchisement did not change markedly until passage in the 1960s of federal civil rights legislation that protected and enforced the constitutional rights of voting and citizenship for African Americans and other minorities.
From 1882 to 1968 "...nearly 200 anti-lynching bills were introduced in Congress, and three passed the House. Seven presidents between 1890 and 1952 petitioned Congress to pass a federal law." None was approved by the Senate because of the powerful opposition of the Southern Democratic voting bloc. In June 2005, through passing a bipartisan resolution sponsored by senators Mary Landrieu of Louisiana and George Allen of Virginia, the US Senate officially apologized for not having passed an anti-lynching law "when it was most needed."
Anti-automobile theft law
In 1919, Dyer authored an anti-crime law that made transporting stolen cars across state borders a federal crime, to be prosecuted by federal law enforcement. In 1956, the FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover said that the law had led to the recovery of 227,752 stolen automobiles worth $212,679,296 (equivalent to $ billion in ).
Advocation of Philippine independence
In December 1922, Dyer had traveled to the Philippines, then a U.S. territory, according to the 1898 Treaty of Paris. On December 22, he spoke before the Philippine Senate in Manila, stating that he believed the Philippines would be independent by the next Congress. He stated he favored Philippine independence. He said that the US would always "be proud of the Philippines and what we have accomplished here for the Filipinos and for the American people." The Philippines were granted commonwealth status in 1935 and finally given independence in 1946.
Contraband liquor stock
The New York Curb Exchange (NYCE) on April 10, 1929, had received a letter written by Dyer that demanded he be returned money after he had bought and sold at a loss Canadian whiskey company Hiram Walker stock. Dyer contended he did not know that the company made liquor, a contraband product in the U.S. during Prohibition and was forced to sell at a loss. He believed Hiram Walker and other company liquor stocks had been sold on the NYCE without acknowledgement that these were whiskey companies.
Dyer had voted against the Prohibition Eighteenth Amendment, the Volstead Act, the Volstead Act overriding presidential veto, and the Jones law. These laws authorized federal enforcement and essentially prohibited the sale of liquor in the United States. Saint Louis had a large beer-brewing industry, and before Prohibition, Missouri was the second-largest wine-producing state in the country. Both industries had been started and developed by German immigrants to the state. Prohibition would seriously damage the economies of Dyer's major city and state.
Terms and voting record
Dyer served 11 terms in office for Missouri's 12th District. During his second term in office, on June 19, 1914, he was suspended from taking his seat in the House of Representatives due to contested voting election returns in 1912 in Missouri's 12th District. According to The New York Times, Dyer had nothing to do with the voting fraud. The House voted to unseat Dyer, who was active in legislative work, by a 147-to-98 vote. During the vote to oust Dyer, 22 Representatives voted "present", rather than give a vote for or against. By a 126 to 108 vote to replace Dyer, the House seated a Democrat, Michael J. Gill, who took the oath of office.
Gill served in the House from June 19, 1914, until March 3, 1915. He was defeated by Dyer in the 1914 elections.
Dyer voted 1,556 times out of 2,035 Congressional roll calls. He missed voting 482 times, or 28%, in the Congressional time frame starting on April 5, 1911, and ending on March 1, 1933. The two time periods when Dyer missed voting 80% of the time were April–June 1912, and October–December 1922.
Retirement from public office
Dyer ran unsuccessfully for re-election in 1932, 1934 and 1936, during the Great Depression. Black voters had been disappointed that the Republicans had failed to deliver on their promise to pass an anti-lynching law, part of the national platform in 1920, and by President Hoover's approach to dealing with economic problems. The administration of President Franklin D. Roosevelt attracted many voters to Democratic candidates because he was putting people to work through the Works Progress Administration and providing social aid programs.
After three successive defeats, Dyer retired from politics and returned to private law practice as an attorney.
Death
Dyer died in Saint Louis, Missouri, on December 15, 1957, at the age of 86. Dyer was buried in the Oak Grove Cemetery in Saint Louis.
Citations
General sources
Books
Newspapers
Internet
"Anti-Lynching Legislation Renewed", Historical Essay: The Negroes' Temporary Farewell: Jim Crow and the Exclusion of African Americans from Congress, 1887–1929, Black Americans in Congress, US Congress
1871 births
1957 deaths
Lawyers from St. Louis
Politicians from St. Louis
People from Warren County, Missouri
Central Wesleyan College (Missouri) alumni
Washington University School of Law alumni
American anti-lynching activists
Military personnel from Missouri
American military personnel of the Spanish–American War
United States Army colonels
Anti-racism in the United States
Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives from Missouri
Members of the United States House of Representatives removed by contest
Activists for African-American civil rights
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puma%20%28German%20infantry%20fighting%20vehicle%29
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Puma (German infantry fighting vehicle)
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The Puma is a German infantry fighting vehicle (IFV) ( or short SPz) designed to replace the aging Marder IFVs currently in service with the German Army. Production of the first batch of 350 vehicles began in 2010 and was completed in August 2021. A second batch of 229 Pumas received funding. Mass production began on 6 July 2009. The companies responsible for this project are Krauss-Maffei Wegmann and Rheinmetall Landsysteme, which created a joint venture, Projekt System Management GmbH (PSM). The Puma is one of the world's best-protected IFVs, while still having a high power-to-weight ratio.
History
Development
The Puma (formerly also named Igel (hedgehog) and Panther) started as a follow-up project to the German 1996 "NGP" project (Neue Gepanzerte Plattformen, "New Armored Platforms"). Its aim was to collect ideas for a common base vehicle that could be used for a variety of tasks including that of the APC, IFV, air defense and replacing and assisting the MBT in the frontline combat role. The NGP project was ended in 2001.
The lessons learned were incorporated into the new tactical concept named neuer Schützenpanzer ("new IFV") in 1998. Planning for the Puma as the successor of the Marder began in 2002. That same year, the German Army (Heer) placed an order for the delivery of five pre-production vehicles and their logistics and training services at the end of 2004. On 8 November 2007, a budget of €3 billion to acquire 405 Pumas (excluding the five Pumas that had already been delivered to the German Army for trials) was agreed upon.
On 6 December 2010, the first two serial vehicles were handed over to the German Bundesamt für Wehrtechnik und Beschaffung.
The Puma successfully completed cold tests in Norway in 2012. In August 2013, two Pumas were airlifted to the United Arab Emirates for hot weather tests. Trials included suitability for hot weather operations, firing and driving maneuvers in desert conditions, as well as firepower and mobility evaluations. During the trials, the temperature profiles inside the vehicle were measured, then compared to the ambient temperature.
On 13 April 2015, the Federal Office of Bundeswehr Equipment, Information Technology and In-Service Support (BAAINBw) granted authorization of use of the Puma IFV. This began a program to "train the trainers" on the first seven vehicles and additional ones until the end of the year, when a training center will be set up to put Panzer Grenadiers of mechanized infantry companies through a three-month course to familiarize them with their Pumas. The Puma officially entered service with the German military on 24 June 2015.
Future
Given the advanced age of the current Marder IFVs, and because the world market does not offer any vehicle comparable with the specifications to which the Puma is built, the acquisition of the new vehicles was unanimously voted for by the budget committee of the Bundestag.
350 Pumas were delivered to replace the more than 40-year-old Marders. Full operational readiness was to be achieved by 2024.
The German Army will use €500 million to modernize 40 Pumas by 2023, with more effective weaponry and communications technology capable of rapidly providing a situation image and GPS coordinates to fighter jets. This variant was cleared for operations in March 2021, after successfully completing the army's tactical evaluation in its second attempt. The German contribution to the NATO VJTF in 2023 is intended to include Pumas to this standard.
There are provisions for hard- or soft-kill systems to defeat hostile ATGMs or RPGs, or for future active/reactive armor. There are also mounts and interfaces for the inclusion of ATGMs on the right side of the turret.
The Puma's large weight reserves and the compact cabin make it very attractive for modification. Most vital integrals are situated in the front, floor, and side walls, which may remain unchanged during such a cabin-oriented modification.
On 28 June 2021, BAAINBw awarded the Rheinmetall-KMW joint venture PSM a EUR1.04 billion (US$1.23 billion) contract to upgrade 154 German Army Pumas to the S1 enhanced design status. The upgrade includes equipping the Puma with the Mehrrollenfähiges leichtes Lenkflugkörper-System (Multirole-capable Light Missile System: MELLS, the Bundeswehr's designation for the Spike-LR), integrating a turret-independent secondary weapon system, new digital radios, high-resolution day/night cameras for the driver and mounted squad, color-enabled optronics for the gunner and commander, and connecting the vehicle with the Infanterist der Zukunft - Erweitertes System (Future Soldier - Expanded System, IdZ-ES) and battle management system. The contract is scheduled for completion by 2029; an option to upgrade another 143 Pumas is included, which combined with the 40 already upgraded would bring all but 13 driver training vehicles in the German Army's inventory to S1-standard. That option was approved in December 2022.
In March 2022 the funding for a second batch of 229 Pumas of the latest standard was secured.
Eighteen Pumas took part in exercises in 2022, and all of them were inoperable at the end of the exercises. Major General von Butler, the commander of the 10th Armoured Division, described the situation as a "total failure." Consequently, the German government paused purchases of further Pumas.
The manufacturer described the damage as "minor damage" which "was caused by the crew through improper operation"
In May 2023, another batch of 50 Pumas was ordered.
Design
The Puma, while externally not very different from existing IFVs, incorporates a number of advances and state-of-the-art technologies. The most obvious of these is the incorporated ability to flexibly mount different armour (see below for details). Another feature is the compact, one-piece crew cabin that enables direct crew interaction ("face-to-face"; like replacing the driver or gunner in case of a medical emergency) and minimizes the protected volume. The cabin is air conditioned, NBC-proof with internal nuclear and chemical sensors and has a fire suppressing system using non-toxic agents. The engine compartment has its own fire extinguishing system. The only compromise of the otherwise nearly cuboid cabin is the driver station, located in a protrusion in front of the gunner, in front of the turret.
One measure to achieve the one-piece cabin is the use of an unmanned, double-asymmetrical turret (see photo): while slightly off-center turrets are common in IFVs, the Puma's turret is on the left-hand side of the vehicle, while the main cannon is mounted on the right side of the turret and thus on the middle axis of the hull when the turret is in the forward position.
The outer hull (minus the turret) is very smooth and low to minimize shot traps and the general visual signature. The whole combat-ready vehicle in its base configuration will be air transportable in the Airbus A400M tactical airlifter. Its 3+6 persons crew capability is comparable to other vehicles of comparable weight, like the US American M2 Bradley IFV, the Marder, and the CV9040, but smaller than the 3+8 of the CV9030 and CV9035.
Armament
Cannon
The primary armament is a Rheinmetall 30 mm MK 30-2/ABM (Air Burst Munitions) autocannon, which has a rate of fire of 200 rounds per minute and an effective range of 3,000 m. The smaller 30×173mm cartridge offers major advantages over, for example, the Bofors 40 mm gun mounted on the CV9040 because of a much lower ammunition size and weight. The belt feed system provides a large number of rounds ready to fire, while the 40mm offers only 24 shots per magazine. This is not a problem in a CV9040, but would force the Puma off the battlefield to reload the unmanned turret.
There are currently two ammunition types directly available via the autocannon's dual ammunition feed. One is a sub-calibre, fin-stabilised APFSDS-T (T for tracer), with high penetration capabilities, mainly for use against medium armoured vehicles. The second is a full-calibre, multi-purpose, Kinetic Energy-Timed Fuse (KETF) munition, designed with a fuse setting allowing air burst capability for ejecting a cone of sub-munitions. The ammunition type can be chosen shot-to-shot, as the weapon fires from an open bolt, with no cartridge inserted until the trigger is depressed. The ammunition capacity is 400 rounds; 200 ready to fire and 200 in storage.
Anti-tank guided missile
To combat main battle tanks, helicopters, and infrastructure targets such as bunkers, the German Puma vehicles will be equipped with a turret-mounted EuroSpike Spike LR missile launcher, which carries two missiles. The Spike LR missile has an effective range up to 4,000 m and can be launched in either the "Fire and Forget" or "Fire and Observe" mode.
Machine gun
Keeping the weight within the 35-ton limit also led to a smaller calibre for the secondary armament, a coaxially mounted 5.56 mm HK MG4 machine gun firing at 850 rounds per minute and with an effective range of 1,000 m. The ammunition capacity is 2,000 rounds; 1,000 ready to fire and 1,000 in storage. While this is a smaller weapon than the western standard secondary armament (7.62 mm caliber MG), it offers the advantage that the crew can use the ammunition in their individual firearms. In situations where the lower range and penetration of the 5.56 mm rounds is an issue, the high ammunition load of the main gun enables the vehicle crew to use one or two main gun rounds instead. The gun housing can also host the 7.62 mm MG3. The MG4 is being replaced by the MG5 with the S1 variant.
Grenade launcher
In addition to the usual smoke-grenade launchers with 8 shots, there is a multishot 40 mm launcher at the back of the vehicle for close-in defence. The main back door can be opened halfway and enables two of the passengers to scout and shoot from moderate protection.
Protection
There is a single compartment for the whole crew, including the driver, and the turret is unmanned, which enabled the German Army to reach an impressive protection level, and for the driver, it means that there are safe ways to exit the vehicle if needed.
Passive protection / Armour
The Puma was designed to accommodate additional armor, initially planning to offer three protection classes which are wholly or partly interchangeable. Protection class A is the basic vehicle, at 31.5 metric tons combat-ready weight air transportable in the A400M. Protection class C consists of two large side panels that cover almost the whole flanks of the vehicle and act as skirts to the tracks, a near-complete turret cover and armor plates for most of the vehicle's roof. The side panels are a mix of composite and spaced armor. It adds about 9 metric tons to the gross weight. Originally, there was also a protection class B designed for transport by rail. However, it became obvious that class C lies within the weight and dimension limits for train/ship transportation, thus class B was scrapped.
The Puma is protected by AMAP composite armor, the AMAP-B module is used for protection against kinetic energy threats, while
AMAP-SC offers protection against shaped charges.
A group of four A400M aircraft could fly three class A Pumas into a theatre, with the fourth airplane transporting the class C armor kits and simple lifting equipment. The Pumas could be built-up to armor class C within a short time.
The basic armor can resist direct hits from 14.5 mm Russian rounds, the most powerful HMG cartridge in common use today (and up to twice as powerful as the western de facto standard 12.7 mm .50 BMG cartridge).
The frontal armor offers protection against medium caliber projectiles and shaped charge projectiles. In protection class C, the flanks of the Puma are up-armored to about the same level of protection as is the front, while the roof armor is able to withstand artillery or mortar bomblets.
The whole vehicle is protected against heavy blast mines (up to 10 kg) and projectile charges from below, while still retaining 450 mm ground clearance. Almost all equipment within the cabin, including the seats, has no direct contact to the floor, which adds to crew and technical safety. All cabin roof hatches are of the side-slide type, which make them easier to open manually, even when they are obstructed by debris. The exhaust is mixed with fresh air and vented at the rear left side. Together with a special IR-suppressing paint, this aims at reducing the thermal signature of the IFV.
Active Protection System
The Pumas of the German Army will be equipped with a soft-kill system called Multifunktionales Selbstschutz-System (multifunction self protection system), MUSS, which is capable of defeating ATGMs.
Other protection features
The engine compartment and the crew compartment are equipped with a fire suppression system.
The crew compartment is equipped with a full NBC system.
Another crew safety measure is that the main fuel tanks are placed outside of the vehicle hull itself, mounted heavily armoured within the running gear carriers. While this may pose a higher penetration risk to the tanks, it is unlikely that both tanks will be penetrated at the same time, enabling the vehicle to retreat to a safer position in case of a breach. There is also a collector tank within the vehicle, which acts as a reserve tank in case of a double tank breach.
Sensors and situational awareness
The Puma offers improvements in situational awareness. The fully stabilized 360° periscope (PERI RTWL by Hensoldt) with six different zoom stages offers a direct glass optic link to either the commander or the gunner. Since this is an optical line, it had to be placed in the turret center, one of the reasons why the main cannon is mounted off-center on the turret. Via an additional CCD camera the picture from this line can also be fed into the on-board computer network and displayed on all electronic displays within the vehicle. Besides that, the periscope offers an optronic thermal vision mode and a wide-angle camera with three zoom stages to assist the driver, as well as a laser range finder. The whole array is hunter-killer capable. The commander also has five vision blocks.
The gunner optics, which can be completely protected with a slide hatch, are mounted coaxially to the main gun. The gunner has a thermal vision camera and laser range finder (identical to those on the PERI) and an optronic day sight, rounded off with a glass block. The driver has three of vision blocks, as well as an image intensifier and a display for optronic image feeds. The passenger cabin has a hatch and three vision blocks on the rear right side of the vehicle, one of them in a rotary mount. The rear cabin also has two electronic displays.
All in all, the Puma has an additional five external cameras at its rear in swing-mounts for protection while not in use. Apart from the glass optic periscope view directly accessible directly by the commander and gunner and indirectly via the CCD camera, all optronic picture feeds can be displayed on every electronic display within the vehicle. The provisions for the rear cabin enable the passengers to be more active than previously in assisting the vehicle crew either directly through the vision blocks and hatches, or by observing one or more optronic feeds. The whole crew has access to the onboard intercom.
Mobility
Traditionally, IFVs are expected to interact with main battle tanks (MBTs) on the battlefield. In reality, many IFVs are not mobile enough to keep up with the pace of an MBT. The Puma aims to close this gap with several key technologies. Firstly, its compact, lightweight MTU Diesel engine is unusually strong at 800 kW nominal output. Even at the 43 t maximum weight in protection class C, it has a higher kW/t ratio than the Leopard 2 MBT it is supposed to supplement.
The vehicle prototypes have a five-road wheel decoupled running gear, and use a hydropneumatic "In Arm" Horstmann suspension to improve cross-country performance while reducing crew and material stress by limiting vibrations and noise. The road wheels are asymmetrical, mounted closer to each other at the front. This is to counter the front-heavy balance, inevitable because of the heavy frontal armor as well as the engine and drive train which are also situated at the front. The 500mm-wide steel tracks made by Diehl Defence are of new construction and lighter than previous designs.
The serial production vehicles will have a symmetrical arranged six road wheel running gear as shown on released pictures by the manufacturer.
Operators
Current operator
The Puma has been in service with the German Army since April 2015. 350 vehicles have been delivered as of August 2021. Originally 405 were ordered, but on 11 July 2012 the order was reduced to 350. In March 2022 the German Army secured financing for a second batch of 229 Pumas.: Puma orders were paused in December 2022 due to reliability issues, according to then defense minister Christine Lambrecht. In May 2023, a second order for 50 Puma was confirmed. It is to be delivered from end of 2025, until beginning of 2027.
Failed bids
The Australian Army sought a 'Mounted Close Combat Capability' within its Land 400 Phase 3 procurement program. The Puma IFV was one of the potential contenders. In November 2018, Project System & Management GmbH (PSM), the joint venture between Krauss-Maffei Wegmann and Rheinmetall announced the Puma would not compete in the Land 400 Phase 3 project.
The Department of National Defence was considering the purchase of vehicles meant to accompany the Leopard 2 into combat. The CV90, the Puma and the Véhicule blindé de combat d'infanterie were the most likely candidates for the role. A contract of 108, with an option for up to 30 more was looked at. The project has since been cancelled.
Offered by the German Army to supplement the Leopard 2 and the possibility of manufacturing it under license by FAMAE, but the German offer didn't lead to any discussion for a purchase.
In 2016, the Croatian Army was looking at replacing the 128 M80A IFV that were in its inventory. Several contenders were considered, including the CV90 and the Puma. 108 vehicles were expected (88 IFV, 8 command and control vehicles, 8 armoured ambulances, and 4 driving training vehicles). It was expected to be purchased from 2021.
For budget reasons, the Croatian Army settled on 89 M2A2 Bradley (ODS variant) for $145.3 million. The Croatian Army decided its purchase in 2020, and the contract was signed in January 2022. It includes 62 fully equipped and fully restored (M2A2 ODS), 5 for training, 22 for spare parts, they will be delivered in 2023-26.
Czech Army is looking to buy 210 new infantry fighting vehicles for €2 Bln. between 2019 and 2024. All of them will replace aging BMP-2 in IFV and supporting variants. There will probably be an option to 100 more vehicles. In June 2017 five types of IFV (two versions of CV90, Lynx, ASCOD and Puma) were evaluated during a nine days testing.
Based on unofficial information from the Czech general staff, Puma might be selected based on its "technological superiority". In December 2018, Puma was shortlisted together with the ASCOD, CV90 and Lynx In October 2019 it was announced that the Puma was being withdrawn from the competition. The manufacturer said that the Czech Army requirements would require an expensive redesign to the existing Puma which it was unwilling to undertake.
The Czech army selected the CV9030 MkIV in July 2022 and signed the contract in December 2022.
The Hungarian Defence Forces was looking to buy 200 new infantry fighting vehicles between 2020 and 2026. All of them were to replace the aging BTR-80 APCs. Eventually the Hungarian government decided on the Lynx.
The United States Army sought a new family of vehicles to replace the aging fleet of M113 APCs and M2 Bradleys with the BCT Ground Combat Vehicle Program. With modification, the Puma satisfied the technical requirements of the BCT Ground Combat Vehicle Program and was offered by SAIC and Boeing. The SAIC-Boeing team was not awarded a technology development contract for their Puma-based vehicle in August 2011, and then filed a protest. The protest was denied in December 2011 based on concerns over the vehicle's force protection features, primarily the proposed active protection system and underbody armor, and 20 significant weaknesses which had potential solutions offered that were judged as inadequate. On 2 April 2013, the Congressional Budget Office released a report that advised purchasing current infantry fighting vehicles instead of developing a new vehicle for the GCV program. Buying the Puma would save $14.8 billion, and was called the most capable vehicle. The Army responded by saying no existing vehicle could match requirements to replace the Bradley.
See also
References
External links
Puma Technical Data Sheet and pictures
Manufacturer website
Krauss-Maffei Wegmann´s Puma site (Manufacturer)
Pictures
Tracked infantry fighting vehicles
Armoured fighting vehicles of Germany
Infantry fighting vehicles of the post–Cold War period
Post–Cold War military vehicles of Germany
Rheinmetall
Military vehicles introduced in the 2010s
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish%20nationality%20law
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Polish nationality law
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Polish nationality law is based primarily on the principle of jus sanguinis. Children born to at least one Polish parent acquire Polish citizenship irrespective of place of birth. Besides other things, Polish citizenship entitles the person to a Polish passport.
Polish citizenship and nationality law is set out in the Polish Citizenship Act of 2009, which was published on 14 February 2012, and became law in its entirety on 15 August 2012.
Its provisions cover a range of Polish citizenship issues, including dual citizenship; acquisition by law (including birth, grant, recognition, and restoration); loss; status of minors vis-a-vis parents; and various processes and regulations.
Citizenship by birth
Foundling
A foundling born in Poland acquires Polish citizenship when both parents are unknown, or when their citizenship cannot be established, or if determined to be stateless. Polish citizenship is bestowed upon stateless children over sixteen years of age only with their consent.
Adoption
Polish citizenship may also be acquired through the final adoption of a minor under the age of 16 by a Polish citizen, and is deemed retroactive to birth.
Citizenship by descent
A child born to a Polish parent is automatically a Polish citizen at birth. It is irrelevant where the child is born. Citizenship can generally be claimed only by descendants of Polish citizens.
However, historically, because the newly independent Poland comprised lands from Germany, Russia, and Austria-Hungary, who became a Polish citizen was unclear. Article 2 of the Polish Citizenship Act of 1920 referred back to the residency laws of these former states, and also "international treaties". Those without a right to Polish citizenship were considered to have only "Polish origins" but not citizenship. Thus, not all ethnic Poles could claim Polish citizenship if they had left Poland before the country became an independent state in 1918. Also, there can be no break in Polish citizenship between the emigrant ancestor and the descendant. If the applicant's ancestor lost Polish citizenship, such as by becoming a citizen of another country before 1951, the descendant did not inherit Polish citizenship through that ancestor. Application for "Confirmation of Possession or Loss of Polish Citizenship" can be made through Polish embassies or consulates abroad.
Citizenship by naturalization / other than by birth
Under the 2009 law, a foreigner may be naturalized as a Polish citizen in the following ways:
By granting. This category allows the President of Poland to grant Polish citizenship to any foreigner who asks for it.
By recognition. A foreigner is recognized as Polish, if they ask for it, know the Polish language, are not a security risk, and meet one of the following criteria:
Lived in Poland for the last 3 years as a permanent resident, and have a stable and regular source of income, and own or rent an apartment or house.
Lived in Poland, legally, for the last 10 years, and currently have a permanent resident status, and have a stable and regular source of income, and own or rent an apartment or house.
Lived in Poland for the last 2 years as a permanent resident, and have been married to a Polish citizen for the last 3 years.
Lived in Poland for the last 2 years as a permanent resident, and are stateless.
Lived in Poland for the last 2 years as a refugee.
Lived in Poland for the last 2 years as a repatriate.
By restoration. Applies to people who lost Polish citizenship before 1 January 1999.
Naturalization by marriage
Marriage to a Polish citizen does not constitute a sufficient basis for Polish citizenship. To obtain Polish citizenship, a foreigner must remain married to a Polish citizen for a period of at least 3 years and have stayed in Poland legally and uninterruptedly for at least 2 years under a permanent residence permit, and their knowledge of Polish language must be documented. However, to obtain a permanent residence permit, the foreigner must first obtain a temporary residence permit based on marriage to a Polish citizen.
Naturalization by residence
It is possible to obtain a permit for permanent or temporary residence in Poland, provided that the applicant intends to reside in Poland and not in another country. Polish law does not permit the acquisition of a temporary or permanent residence permit in Poland for an applicant intending on living in a different country.
Naturalization by grant
The President of Poland can grant Polish citizenship on any conditions. The procedure for granting Polish citizenship by the President may take quite a long time, because the provisions of the Administrative Procedure Code do not apply to such cases. This means that even if it is possible to review the case based on the evidence presented by the applicant, it does not have to be considered immediately, as in the case of recognizing a foreigner as a Polish citizen. Individuals applying for citizenship are obliged to substantiate their application and to provide important reasons why they should be granted Polish citizenship.
Polish migrants before 1962
Special rules exist concerning the acquisition and loss of Polish citizenship before 1962:
Between 1918 and 1951, acquisition of another citizenship caused the loss of Polish citizenship. Polish citizenship was also lost through service in another country's military or acceptance of a "public office" in another country. However, under the "military paradox" rule, males who had not completed compulsory military service to Poland, unless somehow excused from the obligation, could not lose Polish citizenship as above. (See Art. 11 of the 1920 Polish Citizenship law.)
In 1951, Poland revoked its citizenship for all inhabitants (including ethnic Poles) of the former Polish territories east of the Curzon line that had been annexed by the Soviet Union in 1945. Those individuals had been naturalized as Soviet citizens and later, after the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, acquired the citizenship of one of the resulting countries: Belarus, Ukraine, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, or Russia. Polish citizenship was also revoked for citizens of Germany who were residing outside Poland, unless they had a Polish spouse who was resident in Poland.
Polish citizens who emigrated to Israel between 1958 and 1984, and who normally became Israeli citizens on arrival (based on the Israeli "Law of Return" for those of Jewish descent), lost Polish citizenship automatically. They and their descendants may be eligible to acquire Polish citizenship by declaration.
Loss of Polish citizenship
Since 1962, Polish law (including the Constitution) has not allowed the government to revoke someone's citizenship. Renunciation of Polish citizenship requires a petition with extensive supporting documentation subject to the approval of the President of Poland. Administrative processing of the petition can take up to several years and the President's decision is final and cannot be appealed in court.
Starting in 1968, the former communist regime initiated an anti-Semitic campaign that forced out of Poland from 15,000 to 20,000 Polish Jews, who were stripped of their Polish citizenship.
Their Polish passports confiscated, replaced with a 'travel document' that did not allow them to return, and their properties expropriated by the state, the mostly Holocaust survivors and their children emigrated to Israel, the United States, Denmark, Sweden, and elsewhere.
The High Court in Warsaw accepted a petition filed by Baruch-Natan Yagil, who was forced to leave Poland in 1968, and ruled that the Polish government erred in revoking the plaintiff's citizenship, and should restore it, and issue him a Polish passport.
During a 2006 visit to Israel, President Lech Kaczyński promised to restore Polish citizenship. No blanket legislation covering the issue exists, but when applying for the confirmation of their Polish citizenship, these Jews and their offspring will usually get a positive result in the first instance or the second one, in an appeal to the ministry of interior.
Jews and Israelis who were invited to Warsaw to mark the 40th anniversary of Poland's purging of the Jews on March 8, 1968, will be given back the Polish citizenship.
Loss criteria
The issue of losing one's citizenship before 1962 is complex, and the different principles of the law governing it are the following:
A person born before the 1951 law entered into force may inherit only the Polish citizenship of their father if their parents were married, or their mother-otherwise.
A person who joined a foreign army (even if never served but was only conscripted on paper), worked in a public job in a foreign country (very wide and volatile definition for that but this includes: teacher, religious leader, postman and even in a territory not defined as a country like British Palestine ) or received any foreign citizenship prior to the entry into force of the law of 1951 – loses their citizenship immediately, and if a married man, also his wife and minor children (younger than 18) lose their citizenship.
Nevertheless, if they were not exempt from Polish army duty then only getting foreign citizenship will not revoke their Polish one. Public work and army register will always cause the loss of citizenship. Therefore, an adult unmarried woman has lost her citizenship on obtaining foreign citizenship before 1951, because they had no military duty in Poland. Married women stayed under the "protection" of their husband's citizenship and kept it as long as the husband didn't lose it.
On the other hand, in the case of men there are two conditions which need to prevail: men who both got foreign citizenship and passed the age of Polish military duty (50 since the law changed on May 29, 1950) had lost their citizenship.
A person who obtained a foreign citizenship (non Polish) due to the changes of the borders after WWII, or had Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian, Lithuanian, Latvian or Estonian citizenship in 1951 had lost their Polish citizenship (see clause 4 of the second law). Nonetheless, if the ex-Pole returned to Poland afterwards due to the different agreements of repatriation that were signed between the USSR and Poland (e.g. in 1945 and 1956), then they regained their Polish citizenship. In fact, every Pole that became a Soviet citizen and did not take advantage of the opportunity to come back to Poland due to these agreements, lost their Polish citizenship.
In order to confirm the citizenship of a person who left before 1951, it will be easier to prove that they left Poland after the first law from 1920 entered into force. Otherwise it will be difficult to prove their Polish citizenship. If the parents stayed in Poland after 1920 it might help.
The law from 1920 allows for citizenship to pass from father to his born-out-of-wedlock child only if the father declared his paternity before the child turned 18 and only in front of Polish authorities. Hence, without an original birth certificate with the father's name it might be difficult to prove.
The law from 1962 allows for citizenship to pass from father to his born-out-of-wedlock child only if the father declared his paternity within one year from birth. Hence, such children of only a Polish father (mother is not Polish) born when this law was in force must show an original birth certificate or a paternity declaration signed before they turned one year old (in Israel, this declaration is usually done in the hospital, when registering as the newborn's father and it is saved in the archives of the Ministry of Interior and a copy of it can be issued on request).
The issue of citizenship of children whose parents had different nationalities was regulated not only in the provisions of the Act on Polish Citizenship, but also in the international agreements ratified by Poland in the field of citizenship. This means that, in such a case, the provisions of the Polish Citizenship Act were not applied. In the 60s and the 70s Poland signed with some countries of the Central and Eastern Europe the conventions on avoidance of multiple nationality from which withdrew in the 90s and 2000s.
Dual citizenship
Polish law does not explicitly allow dual citizenship, but possession of another citizenship is tolerated since there are no penalties for its possession alone. However, penalties exist for exercising foreign citizenship, such as identifying oneself to Polish authorities using a foreign identification document. Serving in a foreign military does not require permission of Polish military authorities, if the person resides in that foreign country and has its citizenship.
Poland treats nationals of other countries whom it considers Polish citizens as if they were solely Polish. Because Polish citizenship is determined by the citizenship of a Polish parent without any explicit limitation for the number of generations elapsed abroad for descendants of Polish emigrants, which may create problems for individuals of Polish descent born abroad who, in spite of having no ties to Poland, are nevertheless subject to all obligations of Polish citizenship, formerly including military service (Poland suspended compulsory military service on December 5, 2008 by the order of the Minister of Defence and compulsory military service was formally abolished when the Polish parliament amended conscription law on January 9, 2009; the law came into effect on February 11). In addition, such individuals are not entitled to consular protection of their home country under Article 36 of the Vienna Convention on Consular Relations. The only exception is when a bilateral consular agreement calls for recognition of the expatriate citizenship, regardless of the allegations of Polish citizenship raised by Poland. Such an agreement was negotiated in the 1972 Consular Convention between the United States and Poland providing that:
"Persons entering the Republic of Poland for temporary visits on the basis of United States passports containing Polish entry visas will, in the period for which temporary visitor status has been accorded (in conformity with the visa's validity), be considered United States citizens by the appropriate Polish authorities for the purpose of ensuring the consular protection provided for in Article 29 of the Convention and the right of departure without further documentation, regardless of whether they may possess the citizenship of the Republic of Poland."
However, since Poland abolished visa requirements for United States citizens in 1991, this provision no longer applies.
The problems resulting for members of the Polish diaspora, Polonia, from being treated by Poland solely as Polish citizens are compounded by the difficulty to renounce Polish citizenship (see above).
Poland has been enforcing with varying stringency its claims to citizenship allegiance from descendants of Polish emigrants and from recent refugees from Polish Communism who became naturalized in other countries. Under a particularly strict enforcement policy, named by the Polish expatriate community the "passport trap", citizens of the United States, Canada, and Australia were prevented from leaving Poland until they obtain a Polish passport. The governments of the United States and Canada have issued travel warnings for Poland, still in effect in February 2007, to those "who are or can be claimed as Polish citizens" that they are required to "enter and exit Poland on a Polish passport" and will not be "allowed to leave Poland until a new Polish passport has been obtained".
Travellers to Poland who have Polish ancestors are advised to obtain in writing a statement from a Polish Consulate as to whether or not they will face any obligations in Poland, such as military service, taxation, or the requirement to obtain a Polish passport.
In December 2007 Poland established a Polish Charter which can grant some rights of Polish citizenship to people of Polish descent who do not have Polish citizenship and who reside in ex-USSR.
Citizenship of the European Union
Because Poland forms part of the European Union, Polish citizens are also citizens of the European Union under European Union law and thus enjoy rights of free movement and have the right to vote in elections for the European Parliament. When in a non-EU country where there is no Polish embassy, Polish citizens have the right to get consular protection from the embassy of any other EU country present in that country. Polish citizens can live and work in any country within the EU as a result of the right of free movement and residence granted in Article 21 of the EU Treaty.
Travel freedom of Polish citizens
Visa requirements for Polish citizens are administrative entry restrictions by the authorities of other states placed on citizens of Poland. In 2019, Polish citizens had visa-free or visa on arrival access to 172 countries and territories, ranking the Polish passport 16th in the world according to the [Henley Visa Requirements Index].
In 2017, the Polish nationality is ranked twentieth in Nationality Index (QNI). This index differs from the Visa Restrictions Index, which focuses on external factors including travel freedom. The QNI considers, in addition, to travel freedom on internal factors such as peace & stability, economic strength, and human development as well.
Notes and references
External links
Polish citizenship – legal texts, Legislationline
Polish nationality law
Poland and the European Union
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20fictional%20aircraft
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List of fictional aircraft
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This is a list of fictional aircraft, including fixed-wing aircraft, rotary wing aircraft, and lighter-than-air craft. The aircraft in this list are generally intended to operate in an atmosphere, though a few have been stated as being capable of exoatmospheric or sub-orbital flight as well.
These aircraft appear in notable works of fiction, including novels, stories, films, TV series, animation, video games, comics, and other works. They are either the subject of the work or an important element.
Fighters
ACG-01 Chimera: A prototype aircraft with exceptional maneuverability and responsiveness, it can be equipped with the RDBM (Remote Detonation Burst Missile) and the EUFB (Experimental Uranium Freefall Bomb). From Project Wingman (2020).
Advanced Dominance Fighter: A family of supermaneuverable air superiority superfighters developed by Gründer Industries in the Ace Combat series of video games.
ADFX-01/02 Morgan: A family of experimental fighters capable of carrying a chemical laser system and airburst missiles, first featured in Zero: The Belkan War (2006).
ADF-01 FALKEN: a superfighter armed with an internal laser system, the ability to jam and disrupt HUDs, and backwards-fire capabilities, first featured in 2 (1997).
ADF-11F Raven: a modular superfighter that can optionally use a UCAV module in place of a manned cockpit, from 7: Skies Unknown (2019). This UCAV can detach and transform to fly on its own as the ADF-11. Unlike preceding ADF aircraft, the ADF-11F lacks forward-swept wings and rearward vertical stabilizers.
Angel Interceptor: a carrier-based fighter jet from the 1967 TV series Captain Scarlet and the Mysterons. The aircraft operates from an airborne aircraft carrier named Cloudbase. The craft is based on the World Air Force Viper, powered by twin turbo-jet compressors feeding a single ramjet. It is armed with a nose cannon and rockets.
ASF-X Shinden II: an experimental multirole fighter jet that features forward-swept wings, a two-tiered engine configuration (akin to that of the English Electric Lightning), and variable-geometry wing tips and vertical stabilizers. It was designed by Macross creator Shōji Kawamori for Ace Combat: Assault Horizon (2011).
AV-14 Attack VTOL: a UNSC airborne attack vehicle, also known as the Hornet, from the Halo video game series.
A/V-32 Pegasus: a fictional jump jet operated by the US Marine Corps in the Jim DeFelice novel Havana Strike.
Cobra Rattler: a VTOL attack plane based on the Fairchild Republic A-10 Thunderbolt II. It made its first appearance in G.I. Joe: A Real American Hero in 1984.
CFA-44 Nosferatu: an advanced carrier-based fighter jet with all-directional multi-purpose missiles (ADMMs), internal jamming pods, and dual railguns, from Ace Combat 6: Fires of Liberation (2007).
CS7 Thunderhawk: a single-engine fighter from Just Cause 3 armed with homing missiles and a machine gun for strafing, which also features partially-folding wings. Used both by the in-universe Medici Military and the opposing rebellion against the military's commander, Sebastiano Di Ravello.
Darkstar: a prototype hypersonic jet powered by a scramjet based on the SR-72, capable of reaching speeds over Mach 10. Test-flown by the title character in Top Gun: Maverick.
Eurofighter Hailstorm: a main support fighter equipped with a laser cannon, used by the European Union Enforcer Corps in EndWar.
F-11X Apollo: a VTOL-equipped single-seater fighter jet equipped with autocannons used by the Allies in Command & Conquer: Red Alert 3 (2008).
F-19 Ghostrider: based on the Have Blue project of the 1970s. The Testors Model Company released a conceptual model airplane in 1986, and Monogram followed with its own version in 1987. Earning massive media attention, the design became the shape of the mysterious "Stealth Fighter" in the public eye until the F-117 Nighthawk was unveiled in 1990. As it turned out, the sleek and low-profile design looked nothing like the highly angular, faceted F-117 it was meant to portray. The aircraft was described as the F-19A Ghostrider in the Tom Clancy novel Red Storm Rising. The book described the aircraft as being nicknamed the "Frisbee" and having no corners, high-bypass turbofans, and appearing to mimic the shape of a cathedral bell when viewed from above.
F-41 Broadsword: a UNSC exoatmospheric multirole strike fighter. It is capable of operating within an atmosphere or in a vacuum; the F-41E variant features energy shielding, as seen in Halo 4. This craft comes from the Halo video game series.
F-22V Velociraptor: a delta wing version of the F-22 Raptor featured in the Jim DeFelice novel Cyclops One.
F-302 Fighter-Interceptor: An exoatmospheric combat craft developed, and initially fielded by, the Stargate franchise's depiction of the United States of America. Developed as a response to the imminent threat posed by the Milky Way galaxy's dominant power, the Goa'uld System Lords, it was described as having made use of various alien-derived technologies that had been procured through the series' eponymous Stargate Program. Among the various alien-based materials and subsystems said to have been incorporated into the aircraft were its inertial dampening systems, a 'Naquadah'-based airframe composite, and even a short-range 'hyperspace-window generator' granting it limited superluminal propulsion.
F/A-37 Talon: a single-seat fighter attack aircraft of the U.S. Navy, which appeared in the 2005 film Stealth. It is capable of Mach 3.5 and supercruise, and has a range of 4,000 miles. It is also accompanied by an AI-operated UAV, which assists in targeting and ISR for the Talon.
F/A-40 Stalker: a stealth fighter used by the Western Coalition from Frontlines: Fuel of War. It is based on the F-22 Raptor.
F/A-181 Black Wasp II: A carrier-based multirole fighter aircraft used by NATO in ARMA 3. It is a combination of the F/A-18E Super Hornet and the F-22 Raptor.
Firehawk: a VTOL multi-role fighter jet that appears in Command & Conquer 3. The craft is a two-seat, forward-swept wing design with rearwards-swept winglets and canards. It can be outfitted with special boosters that enable it to go sub-orbital, allowing it to bypass anti-aircraft fire.
GAF-1 Varcolac: an advanced fighter jet that features extreme maneuverability and a machine gun on the tail for defense against missiles. It was developed by the Golden Axe Plan from Ace Combat: Joint Assault. Its name is Romanian for "werewolf".
Gilbert XF-120: a fictitious X-plane portrayed by an XB-51 in camouflage, from the 1956 film Toward the Unknown.
Manta Fighter: a single-place 1939 twin-prop design, with a delta tail & straight wings near the aft, from the 2004 film Sky Captain and the World of Tomorrow.
Mikoyan CF-121 Redhawk: an April Fools' prank detailing the RCAF purchase of thirty MiG-21s for Squadron 441 in 1960.
MiG-28: a fictional aircraft flown by the antagonists in the 1986 film Top Gun. The real aircraft used to portray the MiG-28 was a Northrop F-5.
MiG-31 Firefox: a fictional aircraft that appeared in Craig Thomas's novels Firefox and Firefox Down, as well as the 1982 film by the same name starring Clint Eastwood. The aircraft was portrayed as a Soviet interceptor with stealth capabilities, and had a thought-controlled weapons system. Its designation is shared with the real MiG-31 Foxhound.
MiG-37 Ferret: a fictional Soviet stealth model aircraft, produced by Testors as a counter to the American F-19. The craft combined a faceted airframe design with cooled exhausts and radar-absorbing skin. Purely conjectural, the design nonetheless turned out to be closer in shape to the actual F-117 Nighthawk.
MiG-242: a fictional Soviet aircraft appearing in the 1968 pilot episode of Joe 90, a British Supermarionation television series co-created by Gerry and Sylvia Anderson
Night Raven SP3: an advanced air superiority fighter used by Cobra in the G.I. Joe comics and animated series in the 1980s. It closely resembles the SR-71 Blackbird.
P-996 LAZER: a fictional fighter jet appearing in Grand Theft Auto V, where it can be found in and around Fort Zancudo. Based primarily on the General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon.
Project Wingman Mark I (PW-Mk.I): an experimental fighter aircraft powered by cordium (an unstable material from the game's universe, used as extremely potent fuel and powerful explosives) Along with being armed with a railgun that fires plasma orbs, It's main weapon is the BML-U (Burst Missile Launcher-Universal). The titular aircraft of Project Wingman (2020).
X-PF: A prototype aircraft of similar configuration, albeit with an opaque canopy.
QFA-44: a UCAV variant of the CFA-44 remotely operated by the "Butterfly Master", from Ace Combat Infinity (2014).
Savoia S.21: a fictional fighter seaplane that appears in the anime film Porco Rosso, directed by Hayao Miyazaki. Its name is shared with the real-life Savoia S.21; however, the two do not look similar.
SP-34R (Icarus Experimental Ballistic Airframe "Spear"): a prototype test platform equipped only with cannons and railguns that lacks a fly-by-wire system. From Project Wingman (2020).
Su-38 Slamhound: a Russian Spetsnaz Guard Brigade support fighter in EndWar.
To-201 Shikra: A multirole/air superiority fighter used by the CSAT in ARMA 3. It is a combination of the Sukhoi Su-57 and the Sukhoi Su-35S.
VF-0 Phoenix: A series of "variable fighters" from the Macross Zero sci-fi anime series, which can transform into mecha.
VF-1 Valkyrie: An evolution of the aforementioned VF-0 that was prominently featured in Super Dimension Fortress Macross (adapted as Robotech in the US). Its design was inspired by the F-14 Tomcat, while its name was taken from the North American XB-70 Valkyrie.
Vic Viper: the protagonist jet fighter in the video game Gradius.
Willis JA-3: a rocket/jet-powered X-plane capable of , from the 1950 film Chain Lightning, piloted by Humphrey Bogart's character.
X-02 Wyvern: An advanced fighter aircraft developed by the fictional nation of Erusea, with 3D thrust vectoring nozzles and variable-geometry tail fins and wings that can switch between a forward- and backward-swept configuration. First featured in Ace Combat 04: Shattered Skies.
A two-seat variant known as the X-02S Strike Wyvern appears in Ace Combat 7: Skies Unknown.
X-49 Night Raven: An advanced experimental fighter aircraft with a closed flying wing design. It is equipped with a laser cannon, and requires its pilot to undergo artificial nerve surgery in order to operate it. First featured in Ace Combat 3: Electrosphere.
XA-20 Razorback: a main support fighter in the United States Joint Strike Force in EndWar. Also appears in H.A.W.X as a reward for completing the game, revealing it to have stealth capabilities.
XFA-24A Apalis: an experimental multirole fighter developed in the 2010s, first featured in Ace Combat X: Skies of Deception (2006).
XFA-27: a multirole fighter aircraft with variable geometry wings, boasting high maneuverability and the ability to fire off four missiles simultaneously (being the first aircraft in an Ace Combat game to do so). First featured in Ace Combat 2 (1997).
XFA-33 Fenrir: a multirole aircraft possessing a massive airframe and equipped with optical camouflage, a microwave radiation gun, VTOL capabilities, thrust-vectoring engines, wingtips, delta wing configuration, canards and V-tail. First featured in Ace Combat X: Skies of Deception (2006)
XP-14F Skystriker: the primary air-superiority fighter used by G.I. Joe in the comics and animated series in the early 1980s, sold as a toy from 1983 to 1986. It closely resembles the real-life U.S. Navy F-14 Tomcat.
Yak-12: a fictional Soviet jet aircraft featured in the film Jet Pilot starring John Wayne. A Lockheed T-33 was used to portray the fictitious plane. The designation does, however, exist in the form of the Yakovlev Yak-12, a utility airplane from the Soviet Union.
YSS-1000 Sabre: a fictional spaceplane being developed by the UNSC. It appears in Halo: Reach.
Bombers and attackers
A-164 Wipeout: a stealthy version of the A-10 Thunderbolt II used by NATO, from ARMA 3.
ADA-01A/01B ADLER: two attacker variants of the ADF-01 FALKEN fighter. As the first aircraft in the ADA series developed by Gründer Industries, it was designed to complement the FALKEN and defend it from surface-to-air attacks. It was also designed to test the experimental "SDBM" weapon. It was planned to appear in Ace Combat 5: The Unsung War, but the idea was scrapped. The B model, which replaces the SDBM from the ADA-01A with the MPBM (Multi-Purpose Burst Missile), appears in Ace Combat Infinity as a playable aircraft.
Banshee: a bomber made by the Brotherhood of Nod from reverse-engineered technology obtained through an extraterrestrial matrix called the Tacitus. It is outfitted with two rapid-fire plasma cannons, and appears in Command & Conquer: Tiberian Sun
B-: an enormous heavy bomber used by the pigs in propaganda cartoon Blitz Wolf to deploy the "Scream Bomb" on Adolf Wolf. It has at least 16 piston engines, and has 5 guns fitted to the bottom of the fuselage and a cannon fitted to the top.
B-: a tiny single-engined bomber used by the pigs to drop an incendiary bomb on Adolf Wolf, which lights his foot on fire. It is fitted with a lever to the right side of the cockpit, which lifts up the wings and deploys bombs.
B-2X Century: a VTOL-equipped heavy bomber equipped with iron bombs, which could also deploy paratroopers. Used by the Allies in Command & Conquer: Red Alert 3 (2008).
B-3: a fictional derivative of the B-2 Spirit featured in the 1996 film Broken Arrow and Command & Conquer: Generals – Zero Hour.
Bm-335 Lindwurm: a large strategic bomber with a prominent radome below the cockpit, used by the Belkan Air Force. From Ace Combat Zero: The Belkan War (2006).
B-39 Peacemaker: a fictional Cold War-era nuclear-powered USAF bomber in the Charles Stross novelette A Colder War.
EB-52 Megafortress: The Megafortress first appears in Dale Brown's novel Flight of the Old Dog and is expanded upon and upgraded in his later books. The design contains a long SST nose, with a stealth shape and twin V-tails. Its eight engines are later replaced by four larger turbofans.
EB-1C Vampire: first appearing in Dale Brown's novel Battle Born, the EB-1C is an advanced variant of the real-life B-1 Lancer. It differs from the real B-1 in that its wings are always swept all the way back, the tail is smaller and lacks the horizontal stabilizer, and it utilizes "Mission Adaptive Skin" that uses micro-hydraulics to affect the shape of its wings in-flight.
P-U "Stinka Bomber": a low-speed, shoddily built bomber used by Adolf Wolf in Blitz Wolf. It is detected by the pigs using their listening detector, and is promptly shot down by their huge, multi-cannon gun, simply named Secret Weapon.
SuperCOIL: a secretly developed radar-invisible B-2 variant, which carries an airborne "COIL" chemical laser powerful enough to shoot down missiles in mid-flight, featured in the thriller novel SuperCOIL by Robert Ari.
Vindicator: A fictitious supersonic bomber based on the Convair B-58 Hustler. In the 1964 film Fail Safe, the attack on Moscow is made by a squadron of Vindicators. While exterior shots of the plane relied on footage of B-58s, interior shots depicted a three-man crew similar to that of a conventional airliner and distinct from the tandem seating on a real B-58. The fictional Vindicator bomber was again represented by the B-58 Hustler in Fail Safe, a 2000 made-for-TV remake starring George Clooney.
Valkyrie: Appears in the 1985 video game Rescue on Fractalus!. A variant of the (also fictional) F-27 Firedrake, the Valkyrie is a bomber and attack aircraft capable of line-of-sight dogfighting using an antimatter bubble torpedo projector and defended by "Dirac Mirror Shields", which can redirect any form of energy attack and some physical attacks. The Valkyrie is a primarily air-breathing/aerodynamic-lift aircraft, but is capable of exoatmospheric flight and operations from space-based carrier ships. It is a single-seat aircraft, but the Valkyrie variant, named after the choosers of the slain from Norse mythology, has been modified for search and rescue and can transport up to 20 recovered personnel in a separate section of the aircraft.
Gunships
AT-99 Scorpion: a VTOL gunship which uses two transverse ducted rotors for lift. It has a crew of one. The aircraft appears in the 2009 film Avatar.
Cordium-powered airships from Project Wingman:
Anura-class air cruiser: The smallest type of airship for civilian and military use. Equipped with standard anti-aircraft armament.
Arcion-class air heavy cruiser: Similar to the Anura, but equipped with railguns and more advanced weaponry.
Littoria-class air battlecruiser: Larger airship used by both civilian and military forces. More advanced variants can be equipped with railguns.
205-class air battleship: The largest known class of airship. Bristling with CIWS turrets, railguns, and SAM batteries. Civilian and military use known.
C-21 Dragon: a VTOL four-post ducted-fan transport and gunship, which appears in the film Avatar.
SA-2 Samson: a ducted-fan transverse rotor utility assault transport from the film Avatar.
XH9 Warbird: a VTOL ducted-fan twin-rotor utility aircraft that is used by the United States Air Force and the Atlas Corporation. It is equipped with machine guns, rockets, and a cloaking device. It appears in Call of Duty: Advanced Warfare.
Orca: a family of VTOL gunships used by the Global Defense Initiative (GDI) from the Command & Conquer video game series.
Vertibird : a VTOL gunship similar to the V-22 Osprey in the Fallout (series) video game series. It was developed before the apocalypse and used by the U.S military on many fronts. In the games, the aircraft is used by several factions, including the Enclave and the Brotherhood of Steel, both remnants of the army in this uchronia
Unmanned aerial vehicles
EDI: Featured in the film Stealth, the Extreme Deep Invader (EDI) was developed as an assistant to the FA-37 Talon. The craft has an artificial intelligence system that allows it to operate without a human pilot. The sensors can identify a human target by fingerprints, voice identification, or facial recognition. It has V/STOL capabilities and pulse detonation scramjet engines fueled by catalyzed A1 methane.
MQ-99: A UCAV developed by Gründer Industries and used by Erusea to intercept enemy aircraft that cross the boundary lines of a "drone interceptor network". MQ-99s will launch if any pilot in the area does not identify themselves as friendly after a certain amount of time, and are also capable of being launched from shipping containers. From Ace Combat 7: Skies Unknown (2019).
MQ-101: A UCAV used by Erusea that resembles the Northrop Grumman X-47B. It is carried by the Arsenal Bird airborne aircraft carrier, which deploys them to defend itself from enemy aircraft. From Ace Combat 7: Skies Unknown (2019).
UCAV Wyvern: A UCAV seen in the game War Thunder that was featured in the 2021 April Fools event. The Wyvern featured anti-air missiles, cruise missiles, and anti-ground missiles. The Wyvern has significantly superior metals and alloys that allowed it to achieve extremely high wing overload rates compared to planes that are regularly seen in the game. The Wyvern was removed from the game on the 5th of April 2021 when the April Fools event concluded.
Wraith: A tactical strike UCAV used by the Nile River Coalition and the 54 Immortals. It features VTOL and stealth capabilities, along with optical camouflage. It also has a flak drone that escorts it and protects it. From Call of Duty: Black Ops III (2015).
Special operations
Aerowing: an aircraft that the story says was built by villain Lex Luthor. It has two fuselages, six engines and undernose guns, and was flown from the mid-Atlantic Ocean to the Amazon rainforest in the DC Comics book Elseworld's Finest #2.
Airwolf: an attack helicopter from the 1984 TV series of the same name. It was capable of supersonic flight and carried retractable weapons. The helicopter used was a modified Bell 222.
Albatross: appears in New Captain Scarlet.
AmphibiCopter: a 21st century submersible two-seater aircraft which appeared in the 2001 film A.I. Artificial Intelligence.
Arkbird: a long-range low-orbiting lifting body spacecraft conceived by the nation of Osea. Its laser cannon was originally meant to neutralize space debris, but was repurposed to shoot down ground targets and ordnance alike. Further tampering with the design gave it the ability to deploy UCAVs and ballistic cannons for self-defense. From Ace Combat 5: The Unsung War (2005).
Batcopter: a modified Bell 47G-3 which made an appearance in the 1966 Batman film.
Batwing: This iconic aircraft was used in the 1989 Batman film starring Michael Keaton.
Blue Thunder: a fictional police helicopter from the film and television series of the same name. The aircraft incorporated an optically tracked rotary gun, a "whisper mode" for quiet flight, surveillance equipment, and an infrared camera. The helicopter used in the film was a modified Aérospatiale Gazelle.
Bubble ship: an aircraft that resembles a dragonfly combined with the canopy of a Bell 47 helicopter. The machine features rotating VTOL engines and a cockpit that swivels along with the upper and lower guns fixed to it. The craft was flown by Tom Cruise's character Jack Harper in the sci-fi film Oblivion.
BV-38 Flying Wing: a bent-winged twin-prop transport, which appeared in the 1981 film Raiders of the Lost Ark.
D79-TC Pelican: An extremely versatile dropship used by the UNSC, mainly for the transportation of personnel, vehicles and equipment. Occasionally used as a support gunship in the Halo video game franchise
Cobra F.A.N.G.: a short range one-man light-attack gyrocopter, equipped with air-to-air heat-seeking rockets. This craft appeared in the comics and the first season of the G.I. Joe animated series, as well in the 1985 computer game.
Condor/Vulture: A main element of the first chapter of Wolfenstein: The New Order and appearing in Wolfenstein: The Old Blood, the Condor is the supposed result of the modification of an Avro Lancaster using American-built parts. It is equipped with four quad autocannon turrets, with one mounted above the protruding cockpit, two mounted at the top and bottom of the tail end, and one turret chin-mounted below the cockpit. The autocannons appear to fire HVAP rounds exclusively, as enemy aircraft can take multiple hits without catching fire, while armored ground units are affected much more by these rounds. Although the official name for this type of aircraft is "Condor", the call sign for troop transport variants is Vulture, with the "Condor" call sign only being used to refer to the troop support variants.
F-117X Remora: an experimental F-117 variant used in the film Executive Decision. It is modified to transport personnel with an in-flight docking probe designed to dock with other aircraft in midair. Originally designed to relieve fatigued bomber crews at altitude, this aircraft was used to transport a special operations unit to a commercial airliner which had been hijacked by terrorists.
Flying Sub FS-1: Introduced in the Voyage to the Bottom of the Sea TV series, this hybrid submersible is capable of flight, as well as conducting underwater operations. The design resembles that of a stingray, with twin tail fins on the back, and has room for a crew of two.
Ornithopter: a flapping-wing craft featured in the novel Dune by Frank Herbert and in the 1984 and the 2021 films of the same name.
Snowspeeder: a military variant of the T-47 airspeeder, adapted for cold climates. The craft appeared in the 1980 film The Empire Strikes Back.
Invisible Plane: from the Wonder Woman comic books and TV series.
Quinjet: a craft featured in the Avengers comic books and films. It is a multirole jet aircraft used by S.H.I.E.L.D, with VTOL capabilities and a tilted cockpit to provide pilots with better visibility during landings.
Spider's Wing: a flying wing aircraft used by the leader of the Spider Gang to terrorize citizens in the Dick Tracy comics.
Tiltrotor craft: a stealth VTOL tiltrotor vehicle used by the antagonists in the sci-fi film Resident Evil: Afterlife. The craft has similarities to the real life V-22 Osprey.
Thunderbird 2: from Thunderbirds. It is a bulbous VTOL cargo carrier that comes equipped with a variety of service modules.
UH-144 Falcon: a tiltrotor troop transport used by the UNSC in the Halo franchise.
XB-0 Hresvelgr: a huge airborne twin-boom "command cruiser" with six jet engines and a wingspan of , from Ace Combat Zero: The Belkan War (2006). It was purportedly able to carry and deploy up to 50 fighter planes.
X-Jet Blackbird: featured in the X-Men films, it is a modified SR-71 Blackbird with forward-swept wings and VTOL capabilities. The craft has room for a dozen personnel.
YF-12A X-Jet Prototype: the predecessor to the X-Jet and the SR-71, the aircraft was designed and flown by Hank McCoy. The prototype incorporates VTOL capabilities and an internal cargo hold for personnel. The plane appeared in the 2011 film X-Men: First Class.
Airborne aircraft carriers
Argo: a flying wing operated by Monarch that deploys and recovers V-22 Ospreys in Godzilla: King of the Monsters.
Arsenal Bird: a large unmanned aircraft carrier designed to hold up to 80 MQ-101 UCAVs, featured in Ace Combat 7: Skies Unknown. It is a flying wing powered by numerous contra-rotating propeller engines and armed with three laser defense systems, air-to-air missile launchers, and a force field referred to as the Active Protection System (APS). Originally built by Osea to protect the International Space Elevator, the two Arsenal Birds in operation were later hijacked by Erusea before the events of the game. It also deploys beyond-visual-range "Helios" airburst missiles.
AAC-03 Banshee III: a massive airborne aircraft carrier that is used as a base of operations. Two Banshees, the other being designated the AAC-04 Banshee IV, were built to allow the Fairy Air Force to coordinate their operations anywhere over the surface of the continent. It appears in both the Yukikaze anime and novel adaptations.
Cloudbase: Captain Scarlet and the Mysterons
Daedalus: a flying aircraft carrier used by the STAG (Special Tactical Anti-Gang) unit in Saints Row: The Third.
Helicarrier: a series of massive carriers in Marvel comics that resemble conventional seaborne aircraft carriers and also serve as capital ships.
Iron Vulture: an airship captained by the air pirate leader Don Karnage in the Disney animated series TaleSpin.
P-1112 Aigaion: An airborne closed flying wing carrier armed with airburst cruise missiles (delegating terminal guidance to UAVs for long-range strikes) similar to the Helios missiles used by the Arsenal Bird. It also serves as a base for the infamous Estovakian elite squadron "Strigon Team". Originally featured in Ace Combat 6: Fires of Liberation (2007).
Pandora: an airship used by Nathan Zachary and his air pirate gang the Fortune Hunters in the Crimson Skies game franchise.
Royal Navy flying aircraft carriers: Appear in Sky Captain and the World of Tomorrow.
Skybase: Appears in New Captain Scarlet.
Valiant: a flying command ship/aircraft carrier used by UNIT in Doctor Who
Civilian
Commercial
Antonov 500: a heavy transport that appears in the film 2012, based on the Antonov An-225.
Carreidas 160: a prototype supersonic business jet with 10 seats, seen in Flight 714 to Sydney, one of The Adventures of Tintin.
Elgin E-474: featured in the 2005 film Flightplan, based on the Airbus A380.
Fireflash: a hypersonic transport featured in Thunderbirds TV series.
Fortress-1 and Fortress-2: a successive pair of massive Helicarrier-like vehicles employed by the fictional Cyberbiotics Corporation in the Disney animated series Gargoyles, commissioned by the firm's founder, the disabled CEO Halcyon Renard.
Hindenburg III: an upgraded dirigible featured in the film Sky Captain and the World of Tomorrow.
Jeremy the Jet Plane: an anthropomorphic jet airliner who lives in the Sodor Airport. He is based on the BAC One-Eleven and is featured in the Thomas & Friends TV series.
Norton N-22: a wide-body passenger aircraft at the center of a safety investigation in Michael Crichton's novel Airframe.
Orion III: a space plane featured in the 1968 sci-fi film 2001: A Space Odyssey, used to shuttle personnel from Earth to the orbiting space station. It wore a Pan Am livery.
Rutland Reindeer: Appeared in No Highway in the Sky, a film based loosely on Neville Shute's No Highway. The aircraft used was a modified Handley Page Halifax.
Skyfleet S570: a prototype airplane that appeared in the 2006 film Casino Royale, which was actually a Boeing 747-200 originally owned by British Airways. It was refitted with two mock-up engines on each inner pylon and external fuel tanks on the outer pylons, somewhat anachronistically resembling a B-52 Stratofortress.
Spectrum Passenger Jet: a twin-turbojet personnel transport, from Captain Scarlet and the Mysterons.
Starflight: a hypersonic transport which was featured in the 1983 TV movie Starflight: The Plane That Couldn't Land.
Rocket plane: a Concorde-like rocket-powered plane used by the Nazi Empire in The Man in the High Castle novel and TV series.
Luxemburg (LZ131): a dirigible based on a Zeppelin design, which appeared in the climatic ending of the 1991 film The Rocketeer.
Personal
Albatross: a 19th-century large propeller-powered airship in the novel Robur the Conqueror, aka Clipper of the Clouds by Jules Verne, and in the film version of Verne's Master of the World.
Conwing L-16: an amphibious seaplane based on the Fairchild C-119 Flying Boxcar, featured in the animated Disney series TaleSpin, an example of which is the Sea Duck flown by bush pilot Baloo.
Drake Bullet: an air racer flown by Clark Gable's character in the 1938 film Test Pilot. A Seversky P-35 was used to fulfill the aircraft's role.
Harold the Helicopter: a cartoon helicopter based on the Sikorsky H-19, featured in the Thomas & Friends TV series.
Möwe, a jet-powered motor glider–like craft used by the titular character in Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind. The craft was brought from fiction to reality by fans of the film under the name OpenSky.
T-16 Skyhopper: Luke Skywalker's canyon flyer on the planet Tatooine, which appeared in Star Wars: A New Hope
The Terror: a 19th-century land, sea and air craft invented by Robur the Conqueror, featured in Jules Verne's The Master of the World.
See also
Aircraft in fiction
Airborne aircraft carrier
List of fictional spacecraft
References
Aircraft
Fictional
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baku%20Slavic%20University
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Baku Slavic University
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Baku Slavic University (BSU) () is a public university located in Baku, Azerbaijan.
At the university, specializing in the study of Slavic and German languages, diplomats, philologists-teachers, translators of Russian, Polish, Czech, English, German, Bulgarian, Greek, Ukrainian, Belarusian, French, Serbian, Croatian, Slovak, Turkish, as well as specialists in international relations, diplomacy, linguistics, culture, geography, history, law, economics of these countries are trained.
Baku Slavic University cooperates with universities and institutions of Eastern and Central European states and has concluded student exchange agreements with universities of Russian Federation, Poland, Ukraine, the Czech Republic, Germany, Greece, Bulgaria, France, Slovakia, Serbia, Belarus, Croatia, Slovenia, United Kingdom, Turkey, Romania, Moldova, North Macedonia, all Central Asia countries (Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan), the Baltic states (Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia).
The Baku Slavic University is a member of the International Personnel Academy, the Association of European Universities (Magna Charta Universitatum), the Association of Universities of the Black Sea Basin, the International Association of Teachers of Russian Language and Literature (MAPRYAL).
History
1946 the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR in the Order No. 1313 dated February 2 and May 15, the decision of the Council of Ministers of the Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic on the basis of a two-year Akhundov Azerbaijan State Institute of Teachers has been established. Associate professor ASLoginov was appointed head of the institute. The first academic year, 108 people were accepted to the institute. There were 28 employees of the institute.
30 July1948 in the profession of a teacher of Russian language and literature in secondary schools of Azerbaijan holds first graduation of the specialists was held.
1952 in the preparation of teachers of Russian language Akhundov Teachers' Institute was transformed into the Pedagogical Institute of the four-year academic term. The largest educational and scientific center of the rusistika later became a center of higher education – the preparation of teachers of Russian language and literature for secondary schools, specialized high schools, was created.
1952 300 people were in the plan. 1952–1953 of the academic year, 40 teachers working at the institute, of which 12 people with a master's degree, associate professor, 3 of them in science class teacher, head teacher, not the degree of 10 people, 15 people were teachers.
1956–1957 in the academic year, the institute was held at five-year education system. The initial phase of its rich history (1952–1959) Akhundov Pedagogical Institute of Russian Language and Literature of the Russian language and literature teachers for secondary schools developed into the largest specialized institution. During this period, the institute developed a teacher of Russian language and literature up to 4000.
14 April 1959 in the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Azerbaijan and the Azerbaijan SSR Council of Ministers "of the Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic on development of higher pedagogical schools," the decision was adopted. According to an official document of the MF and the Azerbaijan Pedagogical Institute of Russian Language and Literature databases on the basis of the Azerbaijan Pedagogical Institute of Foreign Languages named after MF Azerbaijan Pedagogical Institute of Languages was created.
1959 in the composition of APDI Akhundov 15 departments with 188 professors and teachers were operating. During this period, 3700 students studied at the institute. 1966–1967 in the academic year, departments were reorganized, new faculties were created. Faculty of Russian language and literature in two directions – the direction of the Russian language and language functioning in Azerbaijan, was established here in the department of Spanish.
1972 In the first secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Azerbaijan Heydar Aliyev and the government's initiative of 2 November 1972 on the basis of the decision No. 362 dated the Azerbaijan Pedagogical University named after MF Languages of Azerbaijan Pedagogical Institute of Russian Language and Literature Institute of the base of the same name was restored. All the training and education and scientific research institute of the department implemented 18. At that time, the education center, 280 teachers, including 6 doctors, professors and 84 candidates of sciences, senior lecturer working.
1974 in two of the faculty at the institute - # 1 for students graduating from secondary school in the Russian language, Russian language and literature, for students graduating from the Azeri language in # 2, a decision was made on the establishment of Russian language and literature departments. Scientific-research and educational institute meets goals and objectives, purposeful character and Azerbaijan National Academy of Sciences of the Coordination Council of the plan was carried out. During the period of operation of the teaching staff of the institute, the All-Union and international scale scientific-methodical conferences, seminars, and symposium probably took an active part.
Modern history
1994 in accordance with international standards of the new four-year curriculum for undergraduate training has taken place.
President of the Republic of Azerbaijan, Heydar Aliyev, 13 June 2000 in the MF in the decree on the basis of the Azerbaijan Pedagogical Institute of Russian Language and Literature is a unique educational institution in its own direction and the entire eastern region known as the rare specialties training of professional staff in carrying out the high school – was established in Baku Slavic University.
Well-known scholar, doctor of philological sciences, professor, honored scientist Nurlana Aliyev by the decree of the President of the republic, was appointed the rector of BSU. Developed and implemented a broad program of reforms under his leadership, the university's teaching, education, material-technical base of the completely updated, BSU has become one of the most advanced educational institutions.
With the countries of the world community of independent Azerbaijan, as well as constantly expanding relations with Eastern European states of these countries is not only the language and literature, as well as economy, geography, socio-political system and culture that are deeply conditioned the need for the preparation of highly qualified personnel. The purpose of this task with a high level of implementation of the re-organization of the necessity of having high school emerged. In fact, higher status and ability of students to new educational center providing a wide ixtisaslasmasını created.
BSU in a short period of time, highly qualified, professional staff, educational and scientific potential, with modern infrastructure has become a comprehensive educational institution. This is a unique educational and cultural center of Baku Slavic University as the Slavic peoples of the region and promotes the study of moral values. The Russian, Slavic languages and literature is carried out serious research, not only for our republic, but also highly qualified human resources for a number of Eastern countries. Structural changes which have occurred in the university covers all of its areas of activity.
Quarry in the regular education during the last two years BSU has become a center of scientific slavistika and Slavic culture. Today at Baku Slavic University has 26 departments. University professors and teaching staff of 38 doctors, professors, 184 candidates of sciences, senior lecturer and senior lecturer and teacher, includes more than 200.
Faculties
There are 5 faculties and 2 departments.
Faculty of Pedagogy.
Bachelor in Russian literature and language with a focus of choice from:
Elementary teaching.
Primary school educators.
Social work and social pedagogics.
Preschool education and training.
Faculty of Linguistics and foreign language teaching.
Bachelor in Linguistics (Russian/English/French/German language and literature) and Foreign language teaching (Russian/English/French/German). The chair of the faculty includes 7 departments.
Faculty of Translation.
Bachelor in translation for the English, Greek, Russian, Bulgarian, Ukrainian, Polish and Czech languages.
Faculty of International relations and regional studies.
Bachelor in International studies and politics with a focus on East (Russia, Ukraine, Poland) and Central Europe (Czech Republic), Balkan (Bulgaria), Greece and Turkey.
Faculty for Azerbaijan linguistics and journalism.
Departments:
Master's department.
Dean's office for International Students.
Base and opportunities Education
BSU in the "Dictionary Center", "Turkish-Slavic Relations", "Translation Problems", "International Relations" scientific-research laboratories, "The problems of Azerbaijan" was established in scientific and educational center.
Bachelor's and Master's training of highly qualified university faculty and departments to implement, as well as the general and educational leksikoqrafiyasının, psixolinqvistika and bilinqvizmin, Turkic-Slavic literary and moral relations, scientific-research laboratory, who studied azərbaycansunaslıgın actual problems, the Foreign Relations Department, teaching general education and humanitarian programs lyceum, Ukraine, Sunday school, a publishing-printing center, student theater, "Mr. hours" club, Correspondence Department of Education, Master's office, post-graduate and doctoral work.
University "of scientific works of BSU", "the Russian language and literature" scientific methodical journal, scientists and teachers, graduate students and magistrantların məcmuələri scientific articles are published, "Student World" newspaper is published.
2002, since the candidate and doctoral dissertation research at BSU Council on the protection of the specialized functions. BSU for university students in the new textbooks and teaching resources that meet the requirements of science and culture, vocabulary and literature, educational programs and special attention is paid to the development of methodical recommendations.
Development of new educational programs in all specialties, the history of Russian literature, literary theory, practical Russian language, pedagogy, Russian linguistics and other fields of science textbooks for high school students, teaching aids have been prepared for print publication, as well as the dordcildli "Azerbaijan-Russian Dictionary" see the best examples in the book.
Honorary degrees
2000 in the Baku Slavic University, "honorary doctor" s name has been established. The strengthening of friendship and cooperation between the countries and peoples, science, education and culture in the work performed great services for the development of a number of prominent state and public and political figure in the decision of the Scientific Council of BSU was awarded the honorary title. Today, the President of the Russian Federation Vladimir Putin, Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia II Aleksiy, the Ukrainian Rada Speaker VPlyusc, chairman of the Federation Council of Russia Sergei Mironov, the Presidents of Bulgaria Jelyu Zhelev (1990–1997) and Georqi Parvanov, the president of Greece KStefanopulos, Ukrainian President Viktor Yushchenko and the Polish President Lech Kaczynski Honorary Doctors of Baku Slavic University .
International relations
BSU multilateral relations with many foreign countries has established high schools. The University External Relations Russia, France, Ukraine, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Poland, Greece and other countries, the prestigious higher educational institutions, signed contracts and agreements shall be governed by the scientific and public organizations. Named after AS Pushkin State Russian Language Institute of Baku Slavic University (Moscow, Russia), regional Academy of Personnel Management (Ukraine, Kyiv), Slavic University (Ukraine, Kyiv), "Ovidius" University (Greece, constant), University of Shumen (Bulgaria, Shumen ), named after BXmelnitski Cerkask State University (Ukraine, Cerkassk), Moscow State International Relations Institute (Moscow, Russia), Institute of INALKO Eastern languages and cultures (France, Paris) has signed contracts with.
Representatives of foreign states, public and political circles, well-known science, education and culture are closely cooperating with the university staff. During the last two years, a number of public figures, politicians and scientists – the chairman of the Russian Federal Council SMMironov, the speaker of the Russian Duma QNSeleznyov, first vice-mayor of Moscow LSvetsova, Minister of Education of the Russian Federation VFilippov, writer and critic, LYLavrova, French "INALKO" KAliber vice-president of the University of Oriental languages, the President of the Republic of Bulgaria (1990–1997) JJelev, senior dean of the faculty of the University of Shumen EDobreva, a number of foreign countries, representatives of press agencies, and prominent cultural figures have been the guest of the university. University students and magistrantlarının Russia, Ukraine, Bulgaria, Poland and other well-known high schools in foreign countries to be involved in the practice of scientific research, professional education courses, this was the case in traditional educational institutions and teacher-student exchange.
Recently, a number of Baku Slavic University was an important republican scientific-practical conferences.
2002–2003 BSU in the Ministry of Education and the Russian Federation Embassy of the republican scientific-practical conference with the actual problems of teaching Russian language and literature in secondary schools have been removed from the agenda, the ways to solve these problems are investigated and the resolution was adopted.
Educational-Cultural Center of the University of Ukraine, Russia, Educational and Cultural Center ("the Moscow audience"), Turkish Studies Center, Center for Modern Greek language and mədniyyəti, Bulgarian and Polish language and culture center of the active center and mədniyyəti function.
The university is a member of the Caucasus University Association.
Library
The library has been established at the university since its foundation, 1946. Most changes at university affected the structure of the library as well as its operation. The President of the Republic of Azerbaijan, Ilham Aliyev signed a decree for the restoration of Baku Slavic University in 2008. The major part of the funding was spent on the removal of library to the new area.
Student life
BSU has been repaired at a higher level assembly hall, conference hall, library and sports hall used by the students. Students from various amateur associations, scientific organizations, SHK-or, were involved in the sports sections. Athletes, students, especially volleyball, handball and basketball teams are among the winners of the Spartakiadası and Universiadasının. Ozunuidarəsinin model student groups have been created.
Students are involved in university management, are interested in the proposals. In this regard, at the initiative of the rector of the "One-day caliph" particularly important and memorable event. On 13 December every year since 2002 the rector, prorektorlar, deans and department responsibilities mudirlərinin magistrantlar of students and university life, and thus canlandırmıslar new ideas. Student self-government as a result of the day, students and students with the proposal of the Parliament of magistrantların more actively involved in the creation and university students it was decided to self-government bodies.
Translation and Information centers of the university take an active part in the work of the Student Scientific Society and raise money for charity projects.
Sport in Baku Slavic University
The students of the Baku Slavic University are engaged in the sport sections on football, basketball, volleyball, handball, tennis, badminton, field athletics, chess and others. They actively participate in the Republic and the International competitions demonstrating excellent results. The students of the university have been honoured with cups, trophies and medals in recognition of their sport skills.
BSU students’ teams on football, basketball and volleyball took active part and have won cups and medals in Commonwealth Games among the pedagogical Universities of the CIS countries held in Moscow, Kyiv and Minsk.
Museum
The university museum was established in 2000. The museum is equipped with modern technical facilities. Besides, the handworks of students such as paintings, waving artworks and other works are presented in museum. There is also a board of martyrs who died for their homeland.
Notable alumni
Eldar Gasimov – Azerbaijani Singer, winner of Eurovision Song Contest 2011. Human of year in Azerbaijan (2011)
Telman Jafarov – PhD, vice-rector on educational issues of Baku Slavic University
Vali Khidirov – linguist, specialist on Caucasian studies
Kheyrulla Aghayev- researcher, writer. Editor-in-Chief of "Oil Rocks" newspaper
Amina Yusifgizi – actress, People's Artist of Azerbaijan (1998)
References
External links
Baku Slavic University
Universities and colleges established in 1946
1946 establishments in Azerbaijan
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Transnistria
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History of Transnistria
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This is the history of Transnistria, officially the Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic (PMR), an unrecognised breakaway state that is internationally recognised as part of Moldova. Transnistria controls most of the narrow strip of land between the Dniester river and the Moldovan–Ukrainian border, as well as some land on the other side of the river's bank.
Before 1792
Antiquity
In ancient history, the area was inhabited by Thracian and Scythian tribes. Pliny the Elder names the Tyragetae, a Getae tribe living on an island of the Dniester (ancient name "Tyras"), the Axiacae living along the Tiligul River (ancient "Axiaces") and the Crobyzi, a Thracian tribe living beyond the Dniester.
At the mouth of the river, the Ancient Greeks of Miletus founded around 600 BC a colony named Tyras, which was located outside present-day Transnistria. It fell under the dominion of native kings whose names appear on its coins, and it was destroyed by the Dacians about 50 BC.
In 56 AD Tyras had been restored by the Romans and henceforth formed part of the province of Lower Moesia, which also included Dobruja (part of Romania) and northeastern Bulgaria. Romans settled colonists in Tyras and maintained some legionaries in the area (even in Olbia) until the 4th century.
Historian Theodore Mommsen wrote that "Moldavia and the south half of Bessarabia as well as the whole of Wallachia were incorporated in the Roman Empire".
All these facts confirm the creation of defensive earth dykes (called Trajan Walls) from the Prut river to the Tyras area, in order to defend these new territories of the Roman Empire. Furthermore, Mommsen wrote, "Bessarabia is intersected by a double barrier-line which, running from the Pruth to the Dniester, ends at Tyra and appears to proceeds from the Romans".
In the Late Roman period, the extent of control and military occupation over territory north of the Danube in actual Bessarabia remains controversial. One Roman fort (Pietroasa de Jos), well beyond the Danubian Limes and near actual Moldavia, would seem to have been occupied in the 4th century AD, as were bridge-head forts (Sucidava, Barboşi, and the unlocated Constantiniana Daphne) along the left bank of the river. In this Roman fort, built by Constantine I, researchers have found even a thermae building in the 1980s.
In the 4th century the Goths conquered Tyras and Olbia on the coast, but the final destruction of those merchant cities happened with the Attila invasions one century later. The area of Transnistria was under the rule of the Goths, who, in the 4th century, were divided into the "Tervingi" and "Greuthungi" tribes, (traditionally identified with the Visigoths and Ostrogoths), the border between them being on the Dniester river.
Wallachian and Slavic settlement
Transnistria was an early crossroads of people and cultures, including the South Slavs, who reached it in the 6th century. Some East Slavic tribes (Ulichs and Tivertsy) may have lived in it, but they were pushed further north by Turkic nomads such as Pechenegs and the Cumans. In the 10th century, the "Volohove" (Vlachs, i.e. Romanians) are mentioned in the area in the Primary Chronicle. Indeed, some academics believe that on the coast between the Dniester and Danube rivers there was a romance speaking community until 1050 AD, that was destroyed by the Pechenegs
From Kievan Rus' to the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
Transnistria was inhabited mainly by the Cumans and wars against them may have brought the territory under the control of the Kievan Rus' at times around the 11th century. It became a formal part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the 15th century. While most of today's Moldova came into the Ottoman orbit at this time, much of Transnistria remained a part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth until the Second Partition of Poland in 1793 as part of Bratslav Voivodeship, save for short periods of Cossack Hetmanate in 1648-1672 as Bratslav Regiment and Ottoman Empire in 1672-1684 as Podolia Eyalet.
On the coast the Byzantines built a fortress in the area of the destroyed Tyras and named it Asprocastron ("White Castle" – a meaning kept in several languages, like in actual Ukrainian Bilhorod). In the 14th century the city was controlled and renovated by the Republic of Genoa, that established there a call and a counter trade until the Ottoman conquest. A small part of the population of this city escaped the Turkish invasion founding up north a small village that later become the actual city of Tyraspol, now capital of Transnistria.
Meanwhile, the Crimean Khanate conquered the southern portion of Transnistria south of the Iagorlîc/Jagorlyk river, which was included in 1504 in the region of Yedisan and was under the control of the Ottoman Empire until 1792. The northern part (North of the Iagorlîc river) remained under the control of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, as part of the historical region of Podolia (part of the Polish Kingdom until 1793). The border between the two states was set on a brook known in Moldavian chronicles as Iahurlîc and in Polish source as Jahorlik or Jahorłyk (today Iagorlîc, in Transnistria).
Moldavia started from its nucleus in Bukovina and soon reached Prut and by the end of the 14th century the Dnister, which was set as their easternmost border.
While there were some Moldavian military incursions beyond the Dniester in the 15th century, the earliest written evidence of Moldavian settlement beyond the Dnister dates from the 16th century: a 1541 letter written by Suleiman the Magnificent to Polish Sigismund II Augustus says that some of his Moldavian subjects plundered Tighina and Akkerman and then retreated and settled in the Polish territory.
Modern Era
While the territory beyond the Dniester was never politically part of Moldavia, some areas of today's Transnistria were owned by Moldavian boyars, being given by the Moldavian rulers. The earliest surviving deeds referring to lands beyond the Dnister date from the 16th century. Moldavian chronicle Grigore Ureche mentions that in 1584, some Moldavian villages from beyond the Dnister in the Polish territory were attacked and plundered by Cossacks. Many Moldovans were members of Cossacks units, two of them, Ioan Potcoavă and Dănilă Apostol, were hetmans of Ukraine.
Along with a nomadic Nogai Tatar population, the area was populated by Romanians, Ukrainians, Poles, and Russians. In 1927, Columbia University Professor Charles Upson Clark, wrote that the lower Dniester was "an almost purely Romanian stream" since 1792.
Russian Empire
In 1792, the southern part of Transnistria was ceded by Ottoman Empire to the Russian Empire whereas northern part (north of the Iagorlîc River) was annexed in 1793 in Second Partition of Poland. At that time, the population was sparse and the Russian Empire encouraged large migrations into the region, including people of Ukrainian, Romanian, Polish, Russian and German ethnicity.
Russia began attempting to lure Romanian settlers (mostly from Moldavia, but also from Transylvania, Bukovina and Muntenia) to settle in its territory in 1775, after it gained the largely uninhabited territory between the Dnieper and the Bug. But the colonization was to be in a larger scale after 1792/3, to Transnistria and beyond, when the Russian government declared that the region of steppes without population between the Dniester and the Southern Bug was to become a new principality named "New Moldavia", under Russian suzerainty.
Indeed, the colonization had reached in the previous century the Kyiv area (then known as New Serbia) and in 1712 even the Don river, with the Dimitrie Cantemir leadership.
Plots of tax-exempt land were distributed amongst Moldavian peasants, while 56 Moldavian boyars (belonging to famous families like Rosetti, Cantacuzino, Catargiu and Sturdza) received large estates which they helped colonize. Dozens of new villages were founded during this colonization stage, which lasted until 1812, when Russia annexed Bessarabia and Transnistria ceased to be a borderland.
In the 1890s there were the following fully Moldovan villages in the Bug river area: Iasca, Gradinita, Sevartaica, Belcauca (in the direction of Ovideopol), Malaiesti, Floarea, Tei, Cosarca, Buturul, Perperita, Goiana, Siclia, Corotna, Cioburceni, Speia, Caragaciu, Taslic, Dorotcaia, Voznisevsca (on the Bug), Moldovca si Cantacuzinovca. Indeed, in 1893 according to official data there were 532,416 Romanians in Kherson and Podolia, 11,813 – in Ecaterinoslav, and 4,015 in Tauridia (Crimea). But the real data were estimated up to more than one million.
1917–1924
During World War I, representatives of the Romanian speakers beyond the Dniester (who numbered 173,982 in the 1897 census) participated in the Bessarabian national movement in 1917/1918, asking for the incorporation of their territory in Greater Romania. Nevertheless, Romania ignored their request, as it would have required a large-scale military intervention.
At the end of World War I in 1918, the Directory of Ukraine proclaimed the sovereignty of the Ukrainian People's Republic over the left bank of the Dniester. After the Russian Civil War in 1922, the Ukrainian SSR was created.
Soviet Era
Moldavian Autonomous Republic in Soviet Ukraine
The geopolitical concept of an autonomous Communist Transnistrian region was born in 1924, when Bessarabian military leader Grigore Kotovski proposed the founding under the auspices of Moscow of the Moldavian Autonomous Oblast that months later became the Moldavian ASSR of Ukrainian SSR.
In 1927 there was a massive uprising of peasants and factory workers in Tiraspol and other cities (Mohyliv-Podilskyi, Kamianets-Podilskyi) of southern Ukrainian SSR against Soviet authorities. Troops from Moscow were sent to the region and suppressed the unrest, causing around 4,000 deaths, according to US correspondents sent to report about the insurrection, which was at the time completely denied by the Kremlin official press.
During the 1920s and 1930s, thousands of Romanian Transnistrians fled to Romania, the government of which set up a special Fund for their housing and education. A 1935 estimate puts the number of refugees to 20,000.
MASSR had a mixed Ukrainian (46%) and Moldovan (32%) population, which was estimated at 545,500. Its area was 8,677 km2 and included 11 raions on the left bank of Dniester.
Under Stalinist rule, populations who were not Ukrainian, Russian, or Romanian were pressured to Russify, and their numbers would decline further. After a brief initial period of liberalization and freedom, groups such as the Poles in the Soviet Union were subject to harassment, dispersal and mass terror. This trend increased in the late 1930s, as a result of the 1937-8 Polish Operation of the NKVD as well as the ceasing of educational instruction in the Moldavian ASSR for all non-Romanians populations in their native languages which was replaced by Ukrainian and Russian.
According to the 1926 Soviet census, the Republic had a population of 572,339, of which:
While the creation of ethnic-based autonomous polities was a general policy of the Soviets at that time, with the creation of the Moldavian ASSR, the Soviet Union also hoped to bolster its claim to Bessarabia. Soviet authorities declared the "temporarily occupied city of Kishinev" as de jure capital of the ASSR.
At that time, the population of Moldavian ASSR was 48% Ukrainian, 30% Romanian/Moldavian, 9% Russian, and 8.5% Jewish. In 1940, 6 of the 14 districts of MASSR were included in the new created Moldavian SSR, together with a part of Bessarabia.
According to the Soviet census of 1926, in the districts of Camenca, Rîbniţa, Dubăsari, Grigoriopol, Tiraspol and Slobozia, a territory roughly similar with today's Transnistria, there were 44,11% Moldavians (Romanians), 27,18% Ukrainians, 13,69% Russians, 8,21% Jews, 3,01% Germans etc.
World War II
The Moldavian SSR, which was set up by a decision of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR on 2 August 1940, was formed from a part of Bessarabia taken from Romania on June 28, following the Molotov–Ribbentrop pact, where the majority of the population were Romanian speakers, and a strip of land on the left bank of the Dniester in the Ukrainian SSR, which was transferred to it in 1940 (the strip being roughly equivalent to the territory of today's Transnistria).
In 1941, after Axis forces invaded Bessarabia in the course of the Second World War, they advanced over the Dniester river. Romania controlled the entire region between Dniester and Southern Bug rivers, including the city of Odessa, as Transnistria.
The territory — called Governatorate of Transnistria — with an area of 44,000 km2 and a population of 1.2 million inhabitants was divided into 13 counties: Ananiev, Balta, Berzovca, Dubasari, Golta, Jugastru, Movilau, Oceacov, Odessa, Ovidiopol, Ribnita, Tiraspol and Tulcin. There were in this enlarged Transnistria nearly 200,000 Romanian-speaking residents.
The Romanian administration of "Transnistria" attempted to stabilise the situation in the area under Romanian control. It was implemented a process of Romanianization. To this end, it opened all churches, previously closed down by the Soviets. In 1942–1943, 2,200 primary schools were organized in the region, including 1,677 Ukrainian, 311 Romanian, 150 Russian, 70 German and 6 Bulgarian. 117 middle and high schools were opened, including 65 middle schools, 29 technical high schools, and 23 academic high schools. Theaters were opened in Odessa and Tiraspol, as well as several museums, libraries, and cinemas throughout the region. On 7 December 1941, the "University of Odessa" was reopened with 6 faculties – medicine, polytechnical, law, sciences, languages and agricultural engineering.
The Romanians/Moldavians in Ukraine east of the Bug river were calculated by a German census to be nearly 800,000 (probably an excessive number), and were made plans to move them to Transnistria in 1942/43: but nothing was done.
Probably there were only about 100,000 Romanians/Moldavians in the German-occupied Ukraine – called Reichskommissariat Ukraine – and nearly all of them "disappeared" (because killed, escaped to Romania or deported to Siberia/Caucasus by Joseph Stalin), when the Soviets reconquered the area in early 1944.
Furthermore, by March 1943 a total of 185,000 Jews had been murdered under the Romanian and German occupation. This figure includes Romanian and Ukrainian Jews deported from Romania and Bessarabia, but also local Jews who were hunted down by the Einsatzgruppen killing squads.
The Soviet Union regained the area in spring 1944, when the Soviet Army advanced into the territory driving out the Axis forces. Many thousands of Romanians/Vlachs of Transnistria were killed in those months or deported to gulags in the following years
Moldavian SSR
The Moldavian SSR became the subject of a systematic policy of Russification. Cyrillic was made the official script for Moldavian. It had an official status in the republic, together with Russian, which was the language of "interethnic communication".
Most industry that was built in the Moldavian SSR was concentrated in Transnistria, while the rest of Moldavia had a predominantly agricultural economy. In 1990, Transnistria accounted for 40% of Moldavia's GDP and 90% of its electricity production.
The 14th Soviet army had been based there since 1956 and was kept there after the fall of the Soviet Union to safeguard what is probably the biggest weapons stockpile and ammunition depot in Europe, which was set up in Soviet times for possible operations on the Southeastern Theater in the event of World War III. Russia was negotiating with the Republic of Moldova, Transnistria and Ukraine for transit rights to be able to evacuate the military materiel back to Russia. In 1994, the 14th Army headquarters were moved from Moldovan capital Chișinău to Tiraspol.
Dissolution of the Soviet Union
Mikhail Gorbachev's policy of perestroika in the Soviet Union allowed the political liberalisation at the regional level in 1980s. The incomplete democratisation was preliminary for the exclusivist nationalism to become the most dynamic political force. Some national minorities opposed these changes in the Moldavian political class of the republic, since during Soviet times, local politics had often been dominated by non-Romanians, particularly by those of Russian origin. The language laws — introducing the Latin alphabet for written Moldavian and requiring proficiency in the Moldavian language (essentially—some would say exactly—the Romanian language) for public servants— presented a particularly volatile issue as a great proportion of the non-Romanian population of the Moldavian SSR did not speak Moldavian. The problem of official languages in the Republic of Moldova has become a Gordian knot, being exaggerated and, perhaps, intentionally politicized. This displeasure with the new policies was manifested in a more visible way in Transnistria, where urban centers such as Tiraspol, had a Slavic majority. The scenes of protests against the central government of the republic were more acute here.
According to the census in 1989, the population in Transnistria was 39.9% Moldavian, 28.3% Ukrainian, 25.4% Russian, 1.9% Bulgarian.
War of Transnistria
On 2 September 1990, the Pridnestrovian Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic was unilaterally proclaimed as a Soviet Republic separate from Moldova by the "Second Congress of the Peoples' Representatives of Pridnestrovie". However, on 22 December, the Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev signed a decree "regarding the measures that would bring the situation back to normal in the Moldavian SSR". The decision stated that the proclamation of the Pridnestrovian Moldavian SSR was null and void. On 25 August 1991, the Supreme Council of the PMSSR adopted the declaration of independence of the republic. On 27 August 1991, the Moldovan Parliament adopted the Declaration of Independence of the Republic of Moldova, whose territory included Transnistria. The Moldovan Parliament asked the Government of the Soviet Union "to begin negotiations with the Moldovan Government in order to put an end to the illegal occupation of the Republic of Moldova and withdraw Soviet troops from Moldovan territory".
Moldovan forces entered Dubăsari in order to separate Transnistria into two halves, but were stopped by the city's inhabitants, who had blocked the bridge over the Dniester, at Lunga. In an attempt to break through the roadblock, Moldovan forces then opened fire. In the course of the confrontation, three Dubăsari locals, Oleg Geletiuk, Vladimir Gotkas and Valerie Mitsuls, were killed by the Moldovan forces and sixteen people wounded.
A second Moldovan attempt to cross the Lunga bridge took place on 13 December 1991. As a result of the fighting, 27 PMR troops were taken prisoner and four Moldovan troops (Ghenadie Iablocikin, Gheorghe Cașu, Valentin Mereniuk and Mihai Arnăut) were killed, without Moldova being able to cross the bridge. After this second failed attempt, there was a lull in military activity until 2 March 1992.
After Moldova became a member of the United Nations on 2 March 1992, Moldovan President Mircea Snegur (president from 1990 to 1996) authorized concerted military action against PMR forces which had been attacking police outposts loyal to the Moldovan government on the left bank of the river Dniester (Nistru), and on a smaller section of the right bank around the southern city of Tighina (Bender/Bendery). The PMR forces, aided by contingents of Russian Cossacks and the Russian 14th Army, consolidated their control over most of the disputed area.
Forces of the 14th Army (which had owed allegiance to the Soviet Union, Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) and the Russian Federation in turn) stationed in Transnistria, had fought with and on behalf of the PMR side. PMR units were able to arm themselves with weapons taken from the stores of the former 14th Army. The Russian 14th Army's role in the area was crucial to the outcome of the war. The Moldovan army was in a position of inferiority which prevented it from regaining control of Transnistria. A cease-fire agreement was signed on 21 July 1992.
The deadlock
Aftermath of the war
Despite the ceasefire agreement, Russia had continued to provide military, political and economic support to the PMR, thus enabling it not only to survive but to strengthen itself and acquire a certain amount of autonomy from Moldova. General Aleksandr Lebed, the commander of the Russian Operational Group (the former Russian 14th Army) since June 1992, who acted as a Transnistrian politician, said many times that his army was able to reach Bucharest in two hours. In the security zone controlled by the Russian military forces, the Transnistrian government continued to deploy its troops and to manufacture and sell weapons in breach of the agreement of 21 July 1992. In February 2003, the USA and the European Union imposed visa restrictions against the Transnistrian leadership.
Although only 2,600 troops of the Russian 14th Army remain in the operational group, their presence has been used by Russia as an instrument of influence over the region.
The agreement to withdraw all Russian forces was signed in 1994, but while the number of troops decreased, an immense stockpile of ammunition and equipment remained. The arsenal of the former 14th Army consists of 49,476 firearms, 805 artillery guns, 4,000 cars, and 655 units of various military equipment, which is enough to arm four rifle divisions.
The OSCE is trying to facilitate a negotiated settlement and has had an observer mission in place for several years. The Russian army was still stationed in Moldovan territory in breach of the undertakings to withdraw them completely given by Russia at the OSCE summits in 1999 and 2001.
1997 Moscow memorandum on the "common state"
On 8 May 1997 – with the mediation of the Russian Federation, Ukraine and the OSCE Mission in Moldova – the Moldovan President Petru Lucinschi and the Transniestrian President Igor Smirnov, signed, in Moscow, the "Memorandum on the principles of normalizations of the relations between the Republic of Moldova and Transdniestria" also known as the 1997 Moscow memorandum or the Primakov memorandum.
In compliance with the final clause of the memorandum, the relations between the Republic of Moldova and Transdniestria shall be developed within the framework of a common state, within the borders of Soviet Moldova. The Russian Federation and Ukraine stated their readiness to become guarantors of the Transdnestrian status observance, as well as of the Memorandum's provisions. Chişinău and Tiraspol have decided to sustain the establishment of legal and state relations: the mutual decision coordination, inclusively regarding prerogatives, delimitation and delegation, the safeguard of mutual security, and Transnistrian participation in the process of accomplishment of the foreign policy of the Republic of Moldova. At the same time, Transdniestria gained the right, subject to mutual agreement, to independently establish and maintain international connections in such fields as economy, science, technologies and culture. The Memorandum provisions had widely diverging legal and political interpretations in Chişinău and Tiraspol.
The Kozak Memorandum
In July 2002, OSCE, Russian, and Ukrainian mediators approved a document setting forth a blueprint for reuniting Moldova under a federal system. However, the fundamental disagreements over the division of powers remained, which rendered the settlement elusive.
In mid-November 2003, Russia unexpectedly provided a much more detailed memorandum proposing a united asymmetric federal Moldavian state with an attached key proposal to locate a Russian military base on Moldavian soil for the next 20 years. First published in Russian on the website of Transnistria's Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the text was promoted by a Russian politician Dmitry Kozak, known to be a close ally of President Vladimir Putin and one of the key figures in his presidential team. The memorandum presented an end to the previous Moscow policy, which assumed that the region would have equal status in federation with the rest of the country.
It was proposed that the competences of government of the federal Moldova would be divided into three categories: those of the federation, those of individual subjects and those of joint competences. The plan presented several issues risking to cause blockage in policy-making. A lower house, elected by proportional representation, would pass legislation by simple majority. All laws would also need the assent of the senate, however, whose representation would be highly disproportionate with respect to population figures: 13 senators elected by the federal lower house, nine by Transnistria and four by Gagauzia. According to the 1989 census, Transnistria had 14% and Gagauzia 3.5% of Moldova's total population. By this plan, Transnistria would be an outright blocking minority.
Large demonstrations against the Kozak memorandum took place in Chişinău in the days following the publication of the Russian proposal. Moldova's leadership declined to sign memorandum without the coordination with the European organizations. A visit by President Putin to Moldova was cancelled. Later in 2005, President Vladimir Voronin made a statement rejecting the 2003 Kozak memorandum because of contradiction with the Moldovan constitution which defines Moldova as a neutral state and could not allow any foreign troops on its soil, while the country cannot join military alliances. Moldova and the Kozak memorandum was a key issue at the OSCE ministerial meeting in Maastricht in December 2003, and disagreement between Russia on the one hand, and the EU and the US on the other on Moldova, was one of the principal reasons why a final joint declaration was not adopted after the meeting.
2004 crisis
In the summer of 2004, a crisis erupted over the issue of Romanian-language schools in Transnistria. It led to a breakdown in negotiations and economic retaliations by both sides. The issue was resolved by compromise: The PMR government gave the schools autonomy and the schools formalized their registration with the PMR Ministry of Education.
Ukraine-sponsored talks
In May 2005, the Ukrainian government of Viktor Yushchenko proposed a seven-point plan by which the separation of Transnistria and Moldova would be settled through a negotiated settlement and free elections. Under the plan, Transnistria would remain an autonomous region of Moldova. The United States, the EU and the PMR itself expressed some level of agreement with the project.
In July, Ukraine opened five new customs posts on the PMR-Ukraine border. The posts, staffed by both Moldovan and Ukrainian officials, are intended to reduce the hitherto high incidence of smuggling between the breakaway state and its neighbors.
5+2 negotiation format
Beginning in 2005, multilateral talks were held on the subject of Transnistria. The 5+2 in the name refer to Moldova, Transnistria, Ukraine, Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe and Russia, plus the European Union and the United States as external observers.
The talks proved to be a failure. They restarted in February 2011, in Vienna.
In April 2011 Russia agreed theoretically to create an autonomous region of Transnistria inside the Republic of Moldova, but there were many other problems to be solved in the talks.
Russian invasion of Ukraine
After the annexation of the Crimea by Russia in March 2014, the head of the Transnistrian parliament asked to join Russia.
On April 26, 2022, authorities from the Transnistria region said two transmitting antennas broadcasting Russian radio programs at Grigoriopol transmitter broadcasting facility near the town of Maiac in the Grigoriopol District near the Ukrainian border had been blown up and the previous evening, the premises of the Transnistrian state security service had been attacked. Observers feared targeted provocations to give Russia an excuse to intervene in Moldova. The Russian army has a military base and a large ammunition dump in the region. Russia has about 1,500 soldiers stationed in breakaway Transnistria. They are supposed to serve there as peacekeepers.
Notes
See also
War of Transnistria
Disputed status of Transnistria
Transnistrian border customs issues
Crime in Transnistria
International recognition of Transnistria
Republic of Moldova
References
see Chapter 4
Dallin, Alexander. Odessa, 1941–1944: A Case Study of Soviet Territory Under Foreign Rule. Iasi-Oxford-Portland: Center for Romanian Studies. Oxford, 1998
Ion Nistor, Vechimea aşezărilor româneşti dincolo de Nistru, București: Monitorul şi Imprimeriile Statului, Imprimeria Naţională, 1939
John Mackinlay and Peter Cross (editors), Regional Peacekeepers: The Paradox of Russian Peacekeeping, United Nations University Press, 2003,
Charles King, The Moldovans: Romania, Russia, and the Politics of Culture, Hoover Institution Press, 2000
Dareg Zabarah Nation- and Statehood in Moldova: Ideological and political dynamics since the 1980s, Harrasowitz Verlag (Balkanologische Veröffentlichungen No: 53), 2011
Casu, Igor. Dusmanul de clasa. Represiuni politice, violenta si rezistenta in R(A)SS Moldoveneasca, 1924-1956. Chisinau: CARTIER, 2014, , chapters 1-3 (on Great Terror available in Romanian and Russian at Igor Casu | State University of Moldova - Academia.edu).
External links
Pridnestrovie.net history section (Official Transnistrian site)
History of creation and development of the Parliament of the Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic (PMR)
Video of Transnistria
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Lanrezac
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Charles Lanrezac
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Charles Lanrezac (31 July 1852 – 18 January 1925) was a French general, formerly a distinguished staff college lecturer, who commanded the French Fifth Army at the outbreak of the First World War.
His army, originally intended to strike the Germans on their western flank, faced the brunt of the German march, stronger and further west than anticipated, through Belgium at the Battle of Charleroi. He was frustrated by the reluctance of his superior, General Joseph Joffre, who was initially preoccupied by French attacks into Lorraine and the Ardennes, to appreciate the danger of the German march through Belgium. Forced to retreat, at Joffre's insistence he made a successful counterattack at the Battle of Guise, but his apparent reluctance to counterattack led him to be relieved of command prior to the Battle of the Marne.
He is particularly remembered in British writing as his army fought on the right of the small British Expeditionary Force, with whose commander-in-chief, Sir John French, he had a poor relationship.
Early life
Lanrezac was a Marquis, but did not use his title. He was of swarthy appearance (he had a “a dark creole face” in Barbara Tuchman's description) and was a native of Guadeloupe.
Lanrezac attended the military school at Saint-Cyr in 1869 but when the Franco-Prussian War started in 1870, he was sent to fight as a lieutenant. He fought with the Armée de la Loire at Coulmiers and in the campaign around Orléans. In January 1871 he was transferred to the Armée de l'Est and following the failure of its campaign, he was interned in Switzerland. By 1876 he had been promoted to captain. He graduated from the École Militaire in 1879. During the following years Lanrezac served in various staff functions in the 113th Infantry Regiment and on a brigade staff in Tunisia. Lanrezac was promoted to colonel in 1902 and given command of the 119th Infantry Regiment. He became a brigadier-general in June 1906, commanding the 43rd Infantry Brigade stationed in Vannes. He served under Joffre with 6th Infantry Division and became Joffre's protégé. After this brigade command he was made a professor at the École Militaire. He was a brilliant lecturer, but caustic and ill-tempered. He became known as “the lion of the French Army”. Lanrezac was an opponent of Foch’s theories of offensive a l’outrance, writing that “if every subordinate commander has the right to ram home an attack on the first opponent he sees, the commander in chief is incapable of exercising any form of direction”.
He was made a Général de Division in 1911 and Joffre, who thought him “a veritable lion”, included him on the shortlist of three for Deputy Chief of the General Staff that year. In 1912 he was appointed to command of the 11th Army Corps in Nantes. Henry Wilson claimed – in an after dinner speech when he observed XX Corps manoeuvres in September 1913 – that Lanrezac had told him that he only knew the English phrases “Beautiful woman”, “kiss me quick” and “beefsteak and potatoes”, but that these were enough to travel the world.
World War I
Concerns about left flank
In April 1914 Lanrezac succeeded Joseph Gallieni as a member of the French Supreme War Council and was designated as the commander of the Fifth Army in the event of war. He had the same doubts as Gallieni about Joffre's plans. Fifth Army, holding the extreme left of the French line, had to meet the enveloping right-wing of the German Army as it marched through Belgium, whilst co-operating with the allied British Expeditionary Force on his left flank. When given details of his portion of Plan XVII in May 1914, he was deeply concerned that the Germans would come in strength west of the Meuse. A letter which he wrote to the Governor of Maubeuge on 23 June suggests he thought the Germans would not come west of the River Sambre (i.e. that they would make a wider turning movement through Belgium than Joffre was assuming, but less so than they would actually attempt in the event). Historian Sewell Tyng later wrote that Lanrezac had “the gift of Cassandra”.
Lanrezac warned on 31 July (just before mobilisation) that the Germans might come further west through Belgium, although he still thought Sedan their likely objective. His report of July 1914 warned that he had too few troops to advance into Belgium as planned, and cited a German wargame of 1911 which called for three German armies to march through Belgium. Lanrezac later claimed that Joffre paid no attention to his report, but the report did not in fact reach Joffre until 1 August, and Joffre later wrote that it would have been “premature” to discuss things with Lanrezac while the strategic situation was still unfolding. A fellow officer described the letter, which was to become a key source in the recrimination after the war, as being like a professor's critique of a B− thesis.
Advance into Belgium
Fifth Army contained I, II, III, X and XI Corps, the 4th Cavalry Division and two reserve divisions. Between 8 August—when Lanrezac sent his chief of staff General Hely d’Oissel to warn them—and 10 August, GQG scoffed at reports of strong German forces being spotted at Huy in Belgium, arguing that the Germans did not have enough troops for this to be likely and that the reconnaissance was unreliable.
Lanrezac was already sufficiently concerned (11 August) about the German movement into Belgium to obtain permission to deploy one of his corps at Givet on the Meuse. Liège fell on 12 August, on which day senior British generals were still arguing, in London, as to how far forward the BEF should be deployed. That same day Joffre ordered Lanrezac to move his left corps—Franchet d’Esperey’s I Corps—up to Dinant.
Lanrezac visited his superior, General Joseph Joffre on 14 August, and begged him not to have Third and Fourth Armies attack into “that death trap of the Ardennes” and to be allowed to deploy his own army facing north rather than northeast, so as to face a German march westwards through Belgium. Joffre was pleased at the good progress which the French were making into Alsace-Lorraine, and unwilling to listen. Lanrezac later wrote that he had “left with death in my soul.”
At 7pm on 15 August, after German cavalry had been spotted at Dinant on the Meuse, Lanrezac at last obtained permission to redeploy from opposite the Ardennes. On that day Joffre issued his Instruction Particuliere No 10, stating that the main German effort would come through Belgium. Lanrezac was ordered to deploy into the angle of the Rivers Sambre and the Meuse, requiring him to make a march of 120 kilometres in 5 days. He was also required to hand over command of Eydoux's XI Corps—men from Brittany—to Fourth Army in the Ardennes.
Meeting with Sir John French
The British liaison officer Edward Spears later wrote that Lanrezac's reputation as an academic lecturer made him “the star turn” of the French Army. The British commander Sir John French, at his meeting with Joffre on 16 August, was advised to hurry up and join in Lanrezac's offensive, as he would not wait for him to catch up. On 16 August, in exchange for the loss of XI Corps, Joffre transferred XVIII Corps to Lanrezac. Lanrezac received three reserve divisions, containing men from Bordeaux, Gascony and the Basque Country, and two extra divisions of French settlers from Algeria.
Spears described Lanrezac as “a big flabby man” with a habit of hitching his spectacles behind his ear, whilst Sir John, who disliked him, later described him as “a Staff College pedant” with no practical ability at command in war. Sir John had an infamous meeting with Lanrezac at Rethel (17 August), at which he attempted to speak in French, despite not being able to do so well. When he asked whether the Germans spotted at Huy were crossing the river, his attempt to pronounce the name "Huy" caused Lanrezac to exclaim in exasperation that the Germans had probably gone there to fish. Not only did they form a mutual dislike, but Sir John also believed Lanrezac was about to advance further, whereas in fact Lanrezac wanted to fall back from his strong position behind the angle of the Rivers Sambre and Meuse, but was forbidden to do so by Joffre. Concerned at having to guard against a German Meuse crossing south of Sedan, at Mezieres, or (most likely) at Namur north of Givet, Lanrezac urged that he be allowed to retreat to Maubeuge to avoid being flanked.
At the Rethel meeting on 17 August Lanrezac also thought that Sir John French, whose BEF only consisted of four infantry divisions rather than the planned six, intended to use the British cavalry on foot (it is thought likely that he had misunderstood Sir John's intention to keep his cavalry in reserve). Whereas Sir John wanted Sordet's French cavalry to cover the assembly of the BEF, Lanrezac wanted them to gather tactical intelligence and was told by Joffre's deputy chief of staff Berthelot on 17 August that this took priority. Nonetheless Joffre ordered Sordet to move up to Namur and Louvain to try to prevent the Belgians falling back on Antwerp. GQG were unfairly angered at Sordet's “dilatoriness”, even though his horses were too tired to do more than walk. Lanrezac demanded to Joffre on morning of 18th that he have use of Sordet's corps.
Although Joffre was aware (18 August) that as many as fifteen German corps were moving through Belgium (in fact it was sixteen, and twenty-eight if the German Fourth and Fifth Armies in the centre are also included), he believed that only a few of these would come west of the Meuse, where he believed they could be held by the British and Belgians. French Third and Fourth Armies, on Lanrezac's right, were preparing to attack into the Ardennes in accordance with Plan XVII, and Joffre wanted Lanrezac's Fifth Army to attack the bulk of the German right wing on its west flank as—it was assumed—it attacked the left flank of French Fourth Army. Lanrezac, forbidden to retreat by Joffre, reported that he would be ready to attack by 20 August. Lanrezac began to move north on 19 August, leaving a gap between his army and Fourth Army on his right.
Joffre believed (20 August) that Liège was still holding out (in fact the last of the Liège forts had fallen on 16 August and by 20 August Brussels had fallen and the Belgians were falling back on Antwerp), and hoped that Lanrezac would be able to link up with Namur, which was expected to hold out for even longer. On 20 August Gallwitz persuaded von Bulow (commander, German Second Army) to attack Lanrezac to pin down his army and prevent him marching to the relief of Namur.
Battle of Charleroi
Joffre's Instruction 13 mentioned that the Germans had thirteen or more corps in Belgium, of which eight were north of the Meuse. If these turned south then Lanrezac was to leave his position to the British and Belgians and attack into the Ardennes, as Joffre wrongly believed that a strong German thrust through Belgium would have left the German centre (in the Ardennes) weak.
Lanrezac declined to attack as Joffre wished on 21 August as the BEF were not yet in position on his left. With the French Third and Fourth Armies now attacking into the Ardennes, Lanrezac also declined to send reinforcements to Namur, which he had been warned would not hold out. On 22 August Lanrezac attempted to drive the Germans across the Sambre and failed. Later that day the German Second Army attacked the French Fifth Army and forced bridgeheads across the Meuse. Within a fortnight, Joffre had sacked one of the French corps commanders—General Sauret of III Corps, who had disappeared during the battle, leaving the corps artillery commander to take charge—and three of the four division commanders involved. Lanrezac had 193 battalions and 692 guns.
The French III and X corps counterattacked but were beaten further back. Lanrezac's countermanding orders never reached X Corps. Lanrezac's Fifth Army was now attacked on its right by the German Third Army; although these attacks were held, Lanrezac asked Joffre for permission to retreat. Lanrezac asked for the BEF to attack the German Second Army in flank, although, contradicting himself, he also reported that the BEF was still in echelon behind his own left flank, which if true would have made it impossible for the BEF to do as he asked. Sir John, who had cancelled his own planned advance on news that Lanrezac had asked to fall back, agreed to hold his position.
23 August was the third day of the Battle of Charleroi. A more aggressive commander than von Bülow might have been able to drive in III and X Corps in the French centre, but despite repeated pleas from 10am onward, Lanrezac refused Franchet d’Esperey's I Corps permission to counterattack from the French right. He also vetoed an attack by XVIII Corps on his left to relieve pressure on the British. The Fifth Army was attacked again, this time also on the flanks, by Bülow’s German Second Army to the north and Hausen’s German Third Army to the east. Hausen, attacking at Onhaye, south of Dinant, was thrown back by Mangin’s brigade, but was prevented from driving southwest to cut off the French retreat only by several entreaties by von Bülow to attack westwards to draw off French strength from von Bülow's front. Learning that de Langle's Fourth Army was falling back on his right flank, Lanrezac fell back, worried of another Sedan. With his left and centre driven from the Sambre and the Germans threatening a Meuse crossing on right, in Holger Herwig's view, Lanrezac's retreat from Charleroi may well have saved Fifth Army from annihilation.
Lanrezac was impressed by the performance of the French 75mm guns, and devoted time to finding appropriate places to deploy them.
Retreat from Charleroi
Lanrezac's retreat after the Battle of Charleroi (21–3 August) arguably saved the French army from decisive defeat as it prevented the much sought envelopment of the Schlieffen plan.
In the small hours of 24 August, just after the Battle of Mons, the BEF was forced to retreat on news that Lanrezac was falling back, which disgusted Sir John French, and that the French Third and Fourth Armies were also falling back after being defeated at Virton and Neufchâteau.
Churchill later wrote:"The French Fifth Army had no sooner completed with severe exertions its deployment on the Sambre, and the British Army by forced marches had no sooner reached the neighbourhood of Mons, when the overwhelming force of the German turning movement through Belgium fell upon them ... [Sir John French] accepted [Joffre's wish to attack, even on the left] with implicit faith. Lanrezac, sure that Joffre was utterly adrift from facts, watched with insolent distrust the impending disaster. But even he never imagined the weight and sweep of the German enveloping wing. The two armies of the left only escaped disaster by the timely retreat which Lanrezac and Sir John French each executed independently and on his own initiative ... Lanrezac's grasp of the situation and stern decision to retreat while the time remained has earned the gratitude of France. It was a pity he forgot to tell his British Allies about it."
Sordet, whose cavalry were holding the gap between the two forces, had telegraphed to Lanrezac at 8pm on the 23rd that Sir John was pulling back to the line Bavai-Maubeuge (in fact this was a slight misunderstanding, as he was just making inquiries about the possibility doing so), and asked if he should “keep to [his] mission on its left”. Edward Spears argued that this may have been the source for the “legend” that Lanrezac pulled back because the BEF was doing so. He wrote that in fact Lanrezac pulled back before receiving the message and answering it at 11.30pm. Tuchman disagreed, citing Lanrezac's later writing that he had “received confirmation” of Sordet's message. She also scoffed at Spears’ claim that “no evidence” had been found, observing that Adolphe Messimy testified at the postwar Briey hearings that there were 25 to 30 million relevant documents for the period in the archives.
On the morning of 26 August, while the BEF II Corps was engaged at the Battle of Le Cateau, Sir John French had a hostile meeting with Joffre and Lanrezac at Saint-Quentin. Lanrezac was only reluctantly persuaded by his chief of staff to attend, and before Joffre's arrival he was observed loudly criticising both GQG and the BEF, making a poor impression on the junior officer who witnessed it. Lanrezac had his pince nez hanging from his ear “like a pair of cherries” and gave the impression of being bored whilst Joffre was speaking. However, he assured Joffre that Fifth Army would be ready to counterattack as soon as he was out into open country where he could use his artillery. French complained of Lanrezac's behaviour, to which Lanrezac shrugged and gave a vague and academic reply. Joffre stayed for lunch (Lanrezac declined to do so), at which the atmosphere improved, as Joffre confessed that he too was dissatisfied with Lanrezac.
Battle of Guise
At the meeting with Joffre and Sir John French on 26 August, Lanrezac had expressed a willingness to counterattack, but only after he had first retreated to a better position. Colonel Victor Huguet, the liaison officer, reported (10:15pm on 26 August) that the British had been "defeated" at Le Cateau and would need French protection to recover cohesion, and Joffre decided to order an attack by Fifth Army to relieve the British. Joffre later claimed that he had suffered two sleepless nights as he contemplated sacking Lanrezac before the battle of Guise.
At 6:30am on 27 August Joffre sent Lanrezac an urgent message reminding him of his promise to counterattack. This angered Lanrezac, who spent the day—both on the telephone to GQG and in conversation with Lt-Col Alexandre of GQG, who had visited him at his HQ at Marle twice—arguing against the order, and he again demanded to be permitted to fall back when he learned that the BEF intended to retreat again on 28 August. After a tense discussion Lanrezac agreed to attack from Guise rather than first retreat further to Laon, and as soon as his forces were on open ground where they could use their artillery—which Lanrezac had told Joffre was the key factor—and to take no account of what the British on his left were doing. At 8:10pm on 27 August Joffre ordered him to relieve the British by attacking west rather than northwest. Lanrezac objected strenuously, reluctant to undertake a 90-degree turn in the face of enemy forces. Lanrezac sent Lt-Col Alexandre back with the words “before trying to teach me my business, sir, go back and tell your little strategists to learn their own.”
Joffre visited Lanrezac at 8:30am on 28 August, and ordered Lanrezac to attack to the west, against the forces engaging the BEF. He later recorded that he had been struck by Lanrezac's tired appearance, and that he had a “yellow complexion, bloodshot eyes,” and that a “heated” discussion ensued. Lanrezac criticised Joffre's plan, without mentioning that he had already reordered his corps as Joffre had ordered. Spears recorded that Joffre, painfully aware that he could not allow the BEF to be crushed on French soil, exploded with rage. At last Lanrezac agreed to obey, at which point Joffre had his aide Major Gamelin draw up a written order and signed it in Lanrezac's presence. President Poincaré recorded rumours that Joffre had threatened to have Lanrezac shot. Joffre later wrote of the difference in aggression between Lanrezac and de Langle de Cary, whose Fourth Army, originally intended to be the spearhead of the attack into the Ardennes, was a strong force and had made several counterattacks.
French refused Haig (commanding British I Corps) permission to join in an attack by Lanrezac (28 August), who wrote "c’est une félonie" and later wrote of French's “bad humour and cowardice.” The BEF also did not join in Lanrezac's attack on the German Second Army at Guise (29 August). Joffre spent the morning at Lanrezac's headquarters to supervise his conduct of the battle (29 August), willing to give Lanrezac a final chance but if necessary to sack him there and then. In the event he was impressed by Lanrezac's cool demeanour and handling of the battle, before departing for an afternoon meeting with Sir John French. Joffre later wrote that Lanrezac had shown “the greatest quickness and comprehension” in ordering the westward attack towards Saint-Quentin to be broken off, so as to concentrate on the successful attack by Franchet d’Esperey's I Corps in the north at Guise.
As a result of the battle of Guise, von Kluck's German First Army broke off its attacks on Maunoury’s Sixth French Army and swung southeast, inside of Paris. However, Lanrezac’s victory had left him in an exposed forward position, and he had a telephone conversation with General Belin at GQG, warning him that he had been directly ordered to hold his position and attack if possible, and that his army was in danger of being cut off and encircled. Permission to retreat finally reached him at 7am the next morning. Although Terraine sees Guise as a French tactical victory, Herwig is critical of Lanrezac for holding back Franchet d’Esperey’s I Corps for much of the day, and for failing to exploit the gap between German Second and Third Armies. However, he is more critical of von Bülow (commander of German Second Army and effectively Army Group commander over von Kluck’s First Army in the west and Hausen’s Third Army to his east) for failing, for the second time, to encircle and destroy Lanrezac’s Army.
On 31 August, German cavalry, hampered by lack of fresh horseshoes and nails, almost penetrated behind French Fifth Army, almost capturing the British politician J.E.B. Seely then serving as a liaison officer, and came close to capturing the Aisne bridges, which would have cut off its retreat. On 1 September Fifth Army retreated across the Aisne in some confusion, with Lanrezac at one stage being heard to exclaim “Nous sommes foutus! Nous sommes foutus!” (roughly: "We're shafted!").
Dismissal
Lanrezac's harsh criticism of his superiors in the Staff Corps overshadowed his impressive ability to avoid envelopment by the Germans, and he was replaced by Louis Franchet d'Espérey just before the opening of the First Battle of the Marne. Joffre later recorded that ever since the Battle of Guise, Lanrezac's normal tendency to criticise and argue about his orders had been exacerbated by fatigue, to the detriment of Fifth Army staff's morale. Lanrezac's staff were bickering among themselves. As he could not be counted upon for the planned counterstroke, it was necessary to relieve him on the afternoon of 3 September. The eyewitness accounts of Lanrezac (who claimed that he protested that events had proved him right about most of the issues under dispute, but that Joffre refused to meet his gaze, so that it was clear that he had exhausted Joffre's confidence), Joffre (who claimed that Lanrezac immediately agreed and cheered up when relieved of command, in his own office) and Spears (who recalled seeing them having a lengthy and strained conversation in the playground of the school where Fifth Army HQ was currently based) differ somewhat.
Joffre and Spears both claimed in their memoirs that, whatever his intellectual accomplishments, Lanrezac had been overwhelmed by the strain of command, Spears adding that he had done little to prepare the Charleroi position for defence and had never once in the entire campaign willingly engaged the enemy. Much of Lanrezac's poor reputation in English comes from Spears' memoirs (Liaison 1914) published in 1930. Coming after criticism of the British in the memoirs of Huguet and Foch, the book was a great success, Harold Nicolson writing that he had especially enjoyed the "satirical" portrait of the "conceit(ed) ... arrogant and obese" Lanrezac. However, General Macdonogh, who had been Head of BEF Intelligence in 1914, thought Spears had been unfair to Lanrezac, whilst Lanrezac's son disputed the accuracy of his account of the Rethel meeting, writing that Lanrezac's most scathing comments about the British had been directed at his own staff afterwards. Sir John French had in fact been complimentary about Lanrezac in his diary after the meeting, although his feelings appear to have soured thereafter.
Lanrezac stayed in retirement for the rest of the war, refusing an offer of re-employment in 1917. In 1921, he published a book on the campaign—"Le Plan de campagne français et le premier mois de la guerre, 2 août-3 septembre 1914."
In recognition of his initially unappreciated prudence in the opening month of the war that helped save France, he was made an officer of the Légion d'honneur in July 1917, awarded the Grand Cross of the Order of the Crown by Belgium in 1923, and awarded the Grand Cross of the Légion d'honneur in 1924.
Following his death in January 1925, he was, at his request, buried without military honours.
The city of Paris honored Lanrezac by naming a street after him near the Place de l'Étoile. The Rue du Général Lanrezac, one block from the Arc de Triomphe, is a side street connecting Avenue Carnot with Avenue MacMahon. Other streets bearing Lanrezac's name are to be found in Marseilles, Nantes, Neuilly-sur-Seine and Saint-Malo.
References
Notes
Sources
Evans, M. M. (2004). Battles of World War I. Select Editions. .
Tuchman, Barbara W. (1962). The Guns of August. Ballantine Books - New York. .
External links
FirstWorldWar.com Who's Who: Charles Lanrezac
1852 births
1925 deaths
People from Pointe-à-Pitre
French generals
French military personnel of the Franco-Prussian War
French military personnel of World War I
Grand Crosses of the Order of the Crown (Belgium)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Urusei%20Yatsura%20characters
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List of Urusei Yatsura characters
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The Urusei Yatsura manga series features a large ensemble cast of characters created by Rumiko Takahashi. It tells the story of Japanese teenager Ataru Moroboshi, and the alien Lum, who believes she is Ataru's wife after he accidentally proposes to her. The series contains many other characters, whose unusual characteristics and eccentric personalities drive most of the stories. In addition to extraterrestrials, it includes many appearances from figures in Japanese mythology and history.
Main characters
Ataru Moroboshi
is the main protagonist of the series. A 17-year-old lazy student at Tomobiki High School, Class 2–4, Ataru suffers from an incredible amount of bad luck, having been born on Friday the 13th, during a major earthquake, and Butsumetsu, the unluckiest day of the Buddhist calendar. Thanks to this lack of good fortune, his triumph in the game of tag that saves Earth from an Oni invasion turns into a defeat for him. His victory statement, intended to confirm his girlfriend Shinobu's promise to marry him if he won, is misinterpreted by Lum to be a marriage proposal. Much to his chagrin, she accepts.
Lum's arrival strains Ataru's relationship with Shinobu. But Ataru has always been very lecherous. His main goal in life is to live in the center of a harem composed of exotic and beautiful women, including Lum and most of her alien friends. Usually, he just walks up to a woman he has never met before and asks for her name, phone number, and address. If Lum, who now views him as her husband, should witness these usually futile flirting efforts, she regularly zaps him with massive quantities of electricity, but they do nothing to slow him down. Ataru may come across as academically unaccomplished and unwilling to make an effort, but he is actually quite intelligent, able to manipulate situations to his advantage. Though he often tries to escape from Lum and openly flirts with other women, he begins to truly love Lum, while steadfastily refusing to admit it.
Lum
is the female protagonist of the series. She is a beautiful Oni (translated in English as "ogre") alien who is capable of flying and generating electrical shocks and even lightning (resembling the thunder god Raijin). She is usually seen wearing her signature outfit of a tiger-striped bikini and knee-high go-go boots. As an alien she has access to many bizarre gadgets whose use she does not always understand completely, often leading to comic results. After misinterpreting Ataru's words as a marriage proposal, Lum quickly agrees to marry the human. When Ataru unwittingly racks up an insurmountable amount of debt to an alien taxi driver who starts plundering oil from all over Earth, Lum agrees to pay off the debt in exchange for being allowed to live at the Moroboshi house. Although she is extremely popular with men, Lum's only dream in life is to be with Ataru, whom she calls her "Darling". If her and Ataru get into a fight, Lum may retreat to her spaceship that she keeps above the Moroboshi home. While generally good-natured, sweet, faithful, and innocent, Lum also has a very hot temper that is usually directed at Ataru when he leches on other women. She has a unique way of speaking, similar to that of young Japanese girls who are trying to be overly cute.
Humans
Shinobu Miyake
is Ataru's childhood friend and classmate. At the beginning of the series she is also Ataru's girlfriend, but Lum's arrival strains the relationship. Shinobu claims that if Ataru wins the game of tag, she would marry him, which encourages Ataru to win, but his victory cry leads to a misunderstanding where Lum agrees to marry him. Shinobu is a neat, sweet and petite young lady. Despite these feminine characteristics, she often displays super-human strength, able to easily throw the school desks or any other large/heavy object as needed; however, this strength tends to only show itself in anger involving either Lum or Ataru. When Shutaro Mendo arrives at their school, Shinobu, like all the other girls in class, develops a crush on him at first sight. This causes her to question her feelings for Ataru, and turns the love triangle of her, Ataru and Lum, into a four-way entanglement. As the series progresses, however, Shinobu gives up on both Ataru and Shutaro and ends up meeting Inaba, whom she eventually goes steady with. She is voiced by Saeko Shimazu (first series) and Maaya Uchida (second series) in Japanese, and Katherine Burten (Those Obnoxious Aliens), Danielle Sullivan (first series) and Cat Thomas (second series) in English.
Shutaro Mendo
is heir to the Mendo conglomerate with staggering wealth and its own private army. Upon his transfer to Tomobiki High, he and Ataru immediately become enemies. Although very handsome, charming and intelligent, on occasions Mendo succumbs to lechery and resembles Ataru, just more respectful and sophisticated in his approach. The two are much more alike than either would like to admit. Shutaro takes his role as heir to the vast Mendo fortune extremely seriously. A descendant of a samurai family, Shutaro often carries a katana with him, which at any moment could be flying at Ataru's face. He has a team of men in sunglasses who act as his personal retainers. Mendo is fond of octopuses and keeps a large number of them as loyal pets. He has a sibling rivalry with his younger sister, Ryoko.
Mendo is narcissistic, overly dramatic, claustrophobic and afraid of the dark. But due to his vanity, his phobias incredibly disappear when a girl can see him. Ataru often plays on Mendo's fears by putting a large bell over him, forming a dark enclosed area where a girl can not see him. However, this has resulted in him breaking these bells out of sheer terror. The girls at school have formed a fan club for Mendo and they will do anything to protect him. Though Shinobu is the closest thing he has to a girlfriend, Mendo has feelings for Lum, tolerating Ataru's presence in order to be close to her. He is voiced by Akira Kamiya (first series) and Mamoru Miyano (second series) in Japanese, and by Robert Rogan, Russell Wait (Animax), Brian Hudson, Vinnie Penna in various English dubs, and Jack Stansbury (second series).
Cherry
is a wandering Buddhist monk who often appears out of nowhere predicting doom for Ataru. In the anime, his arrival is followed immediately by a large explosion (which can be merely comedic or causing actual damage to the area). His real name is , which literally means "cherry" in Japanese. But because the kanji can be read to mean "deranged monk," a phrase that is quite accurate in describing him, he prefers to be called by the English word as he thinks that the monastic life is very similar to a cherry "sweet outside and all core inside".
Cherry has amazing spiritual powers, but does not always seem to be in complete control of them. His ugly face and very short stature are frequently used for comedic effect, or even as a defense against attackers. Cherry has made a vow of asceticism, living in a tent in an empty lot not far from Ataru's house. However, his vow apparently does not apply to food, as he is exceedingly gluttonous, and often offers his services in exchange for a free meal (or simply blatantly eating other's food despite not planning to help with anything). Cherry is voiced by Ichiro Nagai (first series) and Wataru Takagi (second series) in Japanese, and by Eric Paisley (Those Obnoxious Aliens) and John Swasey (second series) in English.
Sakura
is a Shinto priestess or miko, who also makes a living as the school nurse at Tomobiki High. She first appears as a sickly young woman who offers to exorcise Ataru's evil spirits. During the process the spirits who inhabit her transfer themselves to the unlucky young man, rendering her perfectly healthy. Soon afterward, she takes the job as Tomobiki High's school nurse. Her mother is Cherry's younger twin sister, but unlike them, Sakura is tall, slender and physically attractive. This causes her an incredible number of problems; from the lecherous boys of the school, to even hordes of demons, her beauty draws a lot of unwanted attention. She is engaged to who studied sorcery in the West, although he is not particularly good at it. Like her uncle, Sakura possesses an unbelievably enormous appetite, which sometimes see them get into fights over food. Sakura is extremely powerful and can summon foul and baleful creatures from Japanese folklore, by virtue of her mystical training. Voiced by Machiko Washio (first series) and Miyuki Sawashiro (second series) in Japanese, and by Karen McIntyre (films) and Brianna Roberts (second series) in English.
Ryunosuke Fujinami
, nicknamed , is a female student at Tomobiki High who has been raised as a boy by her eccentric father. Wanting a male heir to take over the family's beach cafe, Ryunosuke's father gave her a masculine name and raised her as a boy her whole life. Although Ryunosuke is interested in living like a girl, her father does everything he can to prevent this and denies her the chance to even try on female clothing. As such she wears the male student uniform at school, and is often treated as male. Ryunosuke is kind, but has been raised to fight and is constantly antagonized by her father into destructive fights, one of which results in the family cafe being destroyed. The two move to Tomobiki and move into the high school, which Ryunosuke attends while her father runs the school shop.
Members of both sexes are attracted to Ryunosuke; for example, she receives more Valentine's Day cards than even Mendo, due to getting them from boys and girls alike. She is quite sensitive about being called a boy, and will do almost anything to convince the unknowing person that she is in fact a girl; often when this happens, her father will suddenly show up just to interfere and keep them believing that she is a boy. Ryunosuke's greatest desire is to behave appropriately for her gender, but she had no female role models growing up and therefore does not really know what that entails. Exacerbating this is the fact that Ryunosuke's father has often lied to her to suit his own desires, and she never had any reason not to believe him. But since associating with people other than her father, she is learning that many things he said were lies, and now knows better than to believe him. About the only thing he can consistently trick her with is information about her mother, of which he never really reveals anything, using it as yet another way to trick or just make fun of Ryunosuke. Late in the series, Ryunosuke encounters the ghosts of her father's friend and his son, Nagisa, whom it had been decided would marry Ryunosuke. Events happen and Nagisa gets brought back to life. However, he has the same, though reversed, quirk in his upbringing as Ryunosuke: he was raised as a girl, and as such acts like and dresses as a girl. Despite this, he is even stronger than Ryunosuke, which she doesn't really like. As things happen, he ends up moving in with Ryunosuke and her father. Animerica cited the gender-bending Ryunosuke as a prototype for Ukyo Kuonji in Takahashi's later series Ranma ½. Ryunosuke is voiced by Mayumi Tanaka (first series) and Ayahi Takagaki (second series) in Japanese, and by Morgan Jarrett in English.
Hot Springs Emblem
is the homeroom teacher of Ataru's class at Tomobiki High. A middle-aged man, his only interest is to teach, but he fails due to the constant interruptions during class. His nickname literally translates to "onsen mark", a reference to the Japanese symbol that represents hot springs which is printed all over his clothing (in the anime, the symbol is only on his tie and the back of his jacket). Early in the series, he claims to have a wife and children. In the anime, he lives the life of a loser, residing in a flophouse apartment, with an unrequited love for Sakura. He is voiced by Michihiro Ikemizu (first series) and Kenta Miyake (second series) in Japanese, and by Bradley Evans (public TV and movies 3–6), Sean Barret (BBC 3), and T. Roy Barnes (movie 2) in English.
Aliens
Benten
is a member of the Fukujin alien clan and a childhood friend of Lum, Oyuki, and Ran, whom she attended elementary school with. Benten is a "space biker chick" who wears a plate-mail bikini, rides around the sky on an airbike, and carries a high-tech bazooka. Her clan and Lum's Oni clan hold an annual battle on their home planet during its spring equinox. Aside from being a good hand-to-hand fighter and having the aforementioned bazooka, she appears to have no special powers. As children, Benten and Lum often instigated trouble that usually resulted in Ran getting hurt. Her character is named after Benzaiten, the Shinto goddess of knowledge, art, and beauty.
Oyuki
is the queen of Neptune, a frozen, snowy planet populated entirely by women, as most of the men go off to find work. She is a childhood friend of Lum, Benten, and Ran, whom she attended elementary school with. Of the four of them she is the only one who was never in trouble, due to her cool level-headedness, she would decline to take part. Oyuki is clearly patterned after the yuki-onna (literally "snow woman") of Japanese folklore, having the power to control and create ice, snow, and extreme cold. She uses fourth-dimensional passages to travel or send items through. Typically dressed in a long, elegant kimono, she is soft-spoken, regal in demeanor and very slow to show anger. Ran seems able to feel Oyuki's anger, real or imagined, though she is never believed by others when she shows fear about it. She is voiced by Noriko Ohara (first series) and Saori Hayami (second series) in Japanese, and by Jamie Phelps in English.
Ran
is an alien of unspecified race and planet. During childhood, Ran became best friends with Lum, Benten, and Oyuki, whom she attended elementary school with. As a child, Ran was often hurt or got into trouble because of the antics of the more carefree and irresponsible Lum. The two were also both in love with Rei, who became Lum's fiancé. For these reasons, Ran comes to Earth in order to get revenge against Lum. By enrolling in Tomobiki High and pretending to be human, Ran plans to steal Ataru from Lum, just so she can kiss him and drain his youth away. However, after finally managing to do so, it fails due to a youth potion that Ataru accidentally takes. Form then on, Ran changes tactics to getting revenge 'directly' on Lum, usually dragging in everyone nearby as well; these bouts of revenge are usually triggered by her calm and friendly reminiscing of the past leading her to remember something unpleasant.
Rei
is a very handsome oni and Lum's ex-fiancé, who woos almost any girl that sees his face, often causing despair to other males when their girlfriend/wife go after him. When he gets excited, Rei transforms into an "ushi-oni", a huge creature resembling a cross between a tiger and a bull. He has an insatiable appetite, seemingly caring about nothing but food. Unable to speak Japanese, Rei can only speak 1-5 words at a time, usually needing notes to do so. When younger, Ran and Lum were both in love with Rei for his looks; he became engaged to Lum, breaking Ran's heart and driving her to hate and seek revenge against her childhood friend. Lum eventually broke up with Rei, no longer able to tolerate his low, simple intelligence and insatiable appetite; however, he followed her to Earth to regain her love. He is extremely jealous of Ataru and transforms when enraged. Rei is voiced by Tesshō Genda (first series) and Katsuyuki Konishi (second series) in Japanese, and by Jeremy Griffin in the English dub of the movies. In the English dub Lum the Invader Girl that aired in the UK, Rei's name was Anglicized to "Raymond".
Ten
is Lum's young Oni alien cousin who starts living with her on Earth. He has a single horn on his head, can breathe fire, flies very slowly, and wears a tiger-striped diaper. Ten and Ataru utterly loathe each other and often fight, with Ten spewing fire at him, destroying their surroundings, and often hitting someone else instead. They tend to display some similarities in their personalities, including girl-chasing. In some ways they are similar to brothers. Ten has a crush on Sakura, but unlike Ataru he is more successful in getting close to her by using his age-based cuteness and presumed innocence. He is often called by the male characters. In Japanese, adding "jari-" is similar to "twerp" or "brat". Ten's parents are never around as they work a lot; is an airbike-riding firefighter who hates anyone who plays with fire, thus the usually fire-spewing pyromaniac Ten is on his best behavior when she does check-in on him. Ten appears much earlier in the anime than in the manga. In the anime he comes to Earth in a spaceship inside a "peach" to live with Lum when his Oni powers first manifest. Ten is voiced by Kazuko Sugiyama (first series) and Aoi Yūki (second series) in Japanese, and by Mindy L. Lyons (Those Obnoxious Aliens), Shannon Settlemyre (movie 1, 3–6) and Paula Parker (movie 2) in English.
Kurama
is the humanoid princess of the Karasutengu ("crow goblin") alien race. With their race dying out and no humanoid men on their planet, Kurama was placed in a cryogenic sleep while her talking crow attendants search other planets for a suitable mate who is to awaken her with a kiss. Unfortunately for her, one chooses Ataru for the job. Although she has no desire to sleep with him, Kurama can not help but want Ataru when she sees he is already claimed by Lum and Shinobu, and goes to great lengths to turn the perverted letch into a man worthy of fathering her children. However, she everntually finds the task impossible and tries to avoid Ataru. Kurama's father was Yoshitsune Minamoto, a legendary figure of Japanese history, whom she considers to be her ideal man. It was also later found that the current mating traditions of her race were set in place by an ancient ancestor who had his children the same way, and merely wanted that memory to last forever. However, this reason had been untold to the immediately following generation and as such all to follow, leading to Kurama's eventual discovery and great annoyance at it having caused her so much troubles. Kurama attacks with a large leaf, usually by simply blowing people away with wind, but it also has various other functions. She is voiced by Rihoko Yoshida (first series) and Nana Mizuki (second series) in Japanese, and by Daisy Talley (movie 1), Stacey Jefferson (BBC 3) and Chaney Moore (Sentai Filmworks) in English.
Recurring characters
Ryoko Mendo
is the younger sister of Shutaro. Ryoko is a spoiled girl whose only amusement seems to be the creation and execution of elaborate plans intended to drive her older brother mad. Sometimes, just for fun, she flirts with Ataru, whom her brother has banned from setting foot inside the massive Mendo mansion (not that it ever stops him). Her schemes frequently drag Lum and her friends along and result in massive physical damage to all involved, especially Shutaro, except herself. She is attended to by masked kuroko who perform her every wish. Ryoko says she is in love with Shutaro's rival Tobimaro Mizunokoji, but we're not sure if she's serious, since she has said the same thing about Ataru and her brother's personal guard. She excels at playing the innocent bystander, even as she sets up all the carnage that surrounds her. Ryoko is voiced by Mami Koyama (first series) and Marina Inoue (second series) in Japanese, and by Michele Seidman (TV and movie 3 dub) and Toni Barry (BBC 3) in English.
Tobimaro Mizunokoji
is the son of the Mizunokoji sporting goods empire, and Shutaro's rival. Nicknamed by Shutaro, the two have been rivals since childhood due to the Mendo family being of samurai lineage and the Mizunokoji family an aristrocatic lineage. After Tobimaro lost a baseball-related altercation as children, he has trained in the mountains for revenge, coming down once a year to challenge Shutaro; to-date, all eleven matches have been draws. Despite his immense wealth, he does not take advantage of it the way his rival does, choosing instead to dress in a ragged samurai robe and carries his bats on his back. Also unlike his rival, Tobimaro's personal retainers are all women in sunglasses. He has also shown the odd ability to eat nearly anything that enters his mouth and fully regurgitate it, most notably baseballs. Tobimaro takes a warrior's approach to the game of baseball, believing it to be about life and death, and no place for women. There is however a woman in his life: Shutaro's sister Ryoko, who scares him to death because of her love of torture. After he learns of his own sister, Asuka, and her quickly developed terror of males, Tobimaro refuses to accept her mistaken love for him, despite the frequent pain and extreme bodily damage that results. Though he carries himself with an air of nobility, his clumsiness ruins the effect. His eyes have star-shaped pupils, something Takahashi did as a spoof of a 1970s sports manga; she later made it a defining characteristic of the entire Mizunokoji family (except Tobimaro's father, who is the adopted son-in-law of the Mizunokoji family). In Japanese, Tobimaro is voiced by Kazuhiko Inoue and Bin Shimada in the first series, and by Yuki Kaji in the second series. In English, he is voiced by Scott Whiteside (public TV and movie 4) and David Jarvis (BBC 3).
Asuka Mizunokoji
is Tobimaro's sister. The very beautiful and petite girl was isolated, according to the Mizonokoji family's tradition, from any and all males from the moment of her birth until the age of 16, at which time an omiai will be held for her to get married. As such, even her brother was unaware of her existence until then. Thanks to her daily training and the genetics she inherited from her mother, she is insanely strong (once tearing a completely armored tank apart and fashioning it into a makeshift suit of armor on herself with her bare hands), as well as very athletic (being able to run 100 metres within 12 seconds, while wearing her 200 kilogram suit of armour). Nevertheless, she is extremely timid and deathly afraid of males (as a result of her isolation), in part because the first one she ever met was Ataru Moroboshi. Now whenever she sees one, she pushes him away, screams "Eek! A maaan!" , and runs in terror at high speed from all males, not heeding any obstacles unfortunate to be in her path (such as buildings). Due to her being raised not even knowing the existence of or what a "male" is, Asuka is very confused about gender roles and family ties. Due to an early explanation on the subject, which was not received clearly, she feels romantic urges toward her elder brother, Tobimaro, and often sneaks into his bed at night. In addition, she believes Shuutaro Mendo is also her “big brother” because she once overheard Ryoko Mendo refer to him that way. Asuka is engaged to Shuutaro in an Omiai, by arrangement of their parents, as a means of ending the age-old Mendo-Mizunokoji family rivalry. Unfortunately, as a simple "light hug" from her causes multiple broken bones and internal injuries, it seems unlikely that this relationship will ever be consummated, as Shuutaro is rather terrified of being crushed. She is voiced by Sumi Shimamoto (first series) and M.A.O (second series) in Japanese.
Kotatsu Kitty
is the very large spirit of a cat from the Edo period who died after his owners threw him out into the cold. After being brought to the Moroboshi house by Ten, he discovers a love of kotatsu. He then makes numerous further appearances, usually seen drinking tea or eating taiyaki at a kotatsu, often with the principal. After Kotatsu Kitty's introductory chapter, Takahashi's editor at the time liked the character so much that he asked her to have him reappear. The artist said he was fun and easy to draw. Kotatsu Kitty is voiced by Tomohiro Nishimura in Japanese.
Principal
The unnamed of Tomobiki High is a balding man who wears glasses. He is always very calm, rarely reacting to the strange things that happen at the school. He often organizes strange competitions and outings for the students that are intended to increase school spirit, but they never turn out as he plans. The principle is often seen with Kotatsu Kitty. The principal is voiced by Tomomichi Nishimura in Japanese.
Kosuke Shirai
is Ataru's freckled classmate and best friend. He is often involved with Ataru's usual mischief. Though he seems to be in love with Lum and Sakura like all of the male students, he has a girlfriend of his own. The only animation that Kosuke appears in is The Obstacle Course Swim Meet OVA. In the other animated adaptations, his roles are given to Lum's Stormtroopers, usually Perm. He gets his name from Takahashi's then-editor at Shogakukan. Kosuke is voiced by Kappei Yamaguchi in Japanese.
Ryunosuke's father
is an overbearing and domineering man who forces his daughter, Ryunosuke Fujinami, to act like a male. The Fujinami family has run a small beach cafe for three generations, and he desires a male heir to one day take over the business from him. However, his late wife left him only a daughter, so he gave her the masculine name Ryunosuke and raises her as a boy. Although Ryunosuke is interested in living like a girl, her father does everything he can to prevent this and denies her the chance to even try on female clothing. Having raised Ryunosuke to fight, the two constantly get into fist fights, one of which results in the family cafe being destroyed. The two move to Tomobiki and move into the high school, where Ryunosuke enrolls and her father runs the school shop in order to save up money and rebuild the cafe. Mr. Fujinami also lies to his daughter about anything to suit his needs or desires, and has done so since she was a child. Growing up, Ryunosuke had no reason to doubt him and always believed it; but now that she is older and is actually associating with people other than her father, she is learning that many things he said were lies, and knows better than to believe him. The thing Mr. Fujinami lies about most is his wife, only willing to say general things like "she was beautiful", but never giving any real information; this is a difficult thing for Ryunosuke to try to counter, since she sincerely wants to know about her mother, leading her to often fall for some trick at the hands of her father. However, it is possible that he has forgotten what she looks like altogether. Ryunosuke's father is always wearing a shirt with printed on it, while the name of the family cafe is "We ❤ the Ocean". He is voiced by Masahiro Anzai (first series) and Shigeru Chiba (second series) in Japanese and Langley McArol in English.
Ataru's parents
is a typical salaryman. Wearing a yukata around the house, he desires a nice and quiet homelife. In the anime his home is frequently destroyed, causing him to lament over the mortgage. He's most often portrayed reading the newspaper, something he appears to have endless copies of as he pulls another one out after someone takes his away or destroys it. Quiet, timid, and possessing very little dignity, he tries his best to hide his face behind the newspaper during bad situations, often wishing he'd be treated better since he's the sole provider for the family. Like his wife, he tends to treat their "daughter-in-law" better than their son as they prefer having a daughter (especially compared to their lecherous fool of a son). He is voiced by Kenichi Ogata (first series) and Toshio Furukawa (second series) in Japanese, by Marc Matney (public TV), Alan Marsh (BBC3), Jerry Winsett (movies 1 and 3–6), and Larry Robinson (movie 2) in English.
is a typical housewife. In early chapters, she often says when Ataru causes problems. Mrs. Moroboshi is frequently so embarrassed by Ataru's antics that she is afraid to show her face in public (for good reason, because Ataru is a constant source of juicy gossip for her neighbours), and especially dreads going to his school for parent-teacher conferences. She sometimes dreams that a handsome young man (like Rei) will take her away from her miserable life. At numerous times she has shown to have been part of the source of Ataru's personality, acting selfishly, shifting blame, and yelling (though more often in frustration). Despite this, she also shows her caring nature, such as increasing her husband's lunch money while they were nearly out of money. She is voiced by Natsumi Sakuma (first series) and Keiko Toda (second series) in Japanese, by Dorothy Rankin (public TV), Stacey Jefferson (BBC3), Belinda Keller (movies 1 and 3–6), and Jackie Tantillo (movie 2) in English.
Lum's parents
is a huge, pudgy oni, and tends to be loud and scary. However, he is just as afraid of his wife as Ataru is of Lum, as evidenced by the time that she threw her husband out of the house when he got mad at her for trying to put him on a diet. is a pretty woman who can only speak in the oni language, which appears in the manga as Mahjong tiles, and in the subtitled anime as Greek lettering. In the anime, she can produce electric shocks, like Lum. Both parents can also fly, but they never show any other obvious powers. Lum's father is voiced by Ritsuo Sawa (first series) and Rikiya Koyama (second series) in Japanese, and David Krause (Those Obnoxious Aliens) and Anthony Lawson (movies) in English. Lum's mother is voiced by Reiko Yamada (first series) and Fumi Hirano (second series) in Japanese, and Kristen Foster in English.
Lum's Stormtroopers
are four boys from the same class as Ataru who are in love with Lum and have sworn to protect her from Ataru. They are best friends but often end up fighting amongst themselves when the situation involves Lum. In the original manga, the four characters are unnamed and appear less after Mendo makes his debut.
Megane
is the leader of the Stormtroopers, whose nickname means "eyeglasses". His real name is ("Alvin Seville" in most foreign dubs), revealed in the final episode of the anime. An otaku in every sense, he loves Lum immensely, and has sworn to serve her. Megane has a strong personality and generally directs the schemes of the Stormtroopers to gain Lum's attention (though mostly for himself). He closely monitors the actions of the others to prevent them from looking at other girls, and to ensure their complete loyalty to Lum. Though usually antagonistic towards Ataru, he often hangs out with him in his spare time. He is often given to loud, rambling philosophical musings and outbursts, and seems to have an affinity for fascism and communism. He is voiced by Chiba Shigeru in Japanese, by Marc Garber (Those Obnoxious Aliens), Colin Hackman, and Craig Wollman (movies) in English.
Perm
is one of the Stormtroopers, whose nickname is derived from his hairstyle. He is tall and skinny (though his nameless manga counterpart has quite a fatter form) and his real name is Kosuke. The anime's version of the character is the counterpart to the manga's Kosuke Shirai. Perm displays the most character development, including being the only one of the Stormtroopers to have a visible girlfriend. He is voiced by Akira Murayama in Japanese, by Adrian Monte, and Jonathan Guggenheim (Those Obnoxious Aliens) in English.
Chibi
, real name , is a Stormtrooper often seen with Kakugari. His nickname is derived from his height; "chibi" means "small" or "short". He is a timid crybaby, speaks with a cracked voice, and is often beaten up by the rest of the gang. He also has buck teeth (though his nameless manga counterpart does not have this). He is voiced by Issei Futamata in Japanese, and Steven Paul in English.
Kakugari
, real name , is a Stormtrooper with a large build. His nickname is derived from his hairstyle; "kakugari" means "crew cut". He is the least used of the Stormtroopers, often seen with Chibi. He is also the one who beats up Chibi the most. He is voiced by Shinji Nomura in Japanese, and Langley McArol in English.
References
Urusei Yatsura manga
Entire series
Takahashi, Rumiko. Urusei Yatsura. 17 vols. San Francisco: Viz Media, 2019–2023.
Individual volumes
Other sources
External links
Urusei Yatsura characters at Tomobiki-cho
Urusei Yatsura manga at Viz Media
Urusei Yatsura anime at Studio Pierrot
Urusei Yatsura
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistan%20Institute%20of%20Development%20Economics
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Pakistan Institute of Development Economics
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The Pakistan Institute of Development Economics (also known as PIDE) () is a post-graduate research institute and a public policy think tank located in the vicinity of Islamabad, Pakistan.
History
Founded in 1957 by the Government of Pakistan, it is located in the university area of Quaid-e-Azam University but it has its own board of overseers. In 1964, it gained its influence on government and gained autonomous status the same year. Since its establishment, the PIDE has been an influential voice in the formation of Pakistan's public policy concerning diverse issues. The institute has long been a place of scholarship of high-profile, prominent individuals who previously held positions in government, including Benazir Bhutto, Mahbub-ul-Haq, Robert Mundell (a Nobel Laureate who serves on our Advisory Committee) and Shahid Allam— all PIDE fellows.
Since the 1990s, its research has been devoted to theoretical and empirical research in development economics in general and on Pakistan-related economic issues in particular. In addition, the PIDE also grants post-graduate and doctoral degrees in various disciplines of social sciences since 2006.
Department of Economics and Econometrics
In the early 2000s, the then director, A. R. Kemal started PhD programme in economics. The programme offers a wide range of optional areas within the subject, particular areas of economics, from both a theoretical and an empirical perspective. The Department of Economics consists of senior faculty members.
The teaching curriculum focuses on developing the role and application of economic approaches for environmental issues, essential features of the market mechanism to control environmental degradation for sustainable economic development, the nature and treatment of environmental effects in economic reasoning and decision-making, and the application of environmental policy instruments based on economic analysis. The course work is based on contemporary environmental management approaches (e.g. ecological modernization, ecological economics, and industrial ecology) with substantial (physical) economy dimensions.
Keeping in view the current lack of awareness and knowledge of Environmental issues, the MS Environmental Economics Programme is designed to:
Impart a sound understanding of the nexus between the economy and the environment;
Teach major concepts and theories to explain and describe the economic behaviour of human beings and its impact on the environment.
Outline and contrast the major economic schools of thought on the environment, and highlight the weaknesses of each market system (especially with regard to environmental aspects) and discuss the associated role of the government in the economy.
Supply high quality personnel to the federal and provincial governments, to educational institutions, to research institutions and to the private sector.
The Department also offers the MSc degree in Econometrics and Statistics. These include basic econometric theory, applied econometrics, probability theory, statistical methods, sampling, time series analysis, financial econometrics, and micro econometrics. This programme is for students having a bachelor's degree in Statistics or Mathematics. The programme also prepares students for admission to the PhD programme.
Department of Business Studies
Department of Business Studies currently offer MBA, M.Phil. in Business Economics, Economics and Finance and MS in Management Sciences Programs approved by HEC. Hafsa Hina is head of department.
Department of Population Sciences
The Department offers the Master in Population Sciences (MPS) degree programme. The students are encouraged to have an in-depth understanding of the complexities of population processes, including fertility, family planning, morbidity, mortality, migration, urbanisation, demographic dividend, family formation, and the relationships between such processes and broader social and economic contexts and trends. This multidisciplinary programme, while maintaining its core of basic demographic features, includes new areas such as reproductive health, HIV/AIDS, and current aspects of traditional population topics such as aging, adolescence, gender, and the environment. The relationships and differentials between many aspects of population, such as health, education, fertility, mortality, economics of household structure, economic development, and population growth, poverty, status of women, and development, are the main focus.
Organisational structure
Institutional offices
The Vice-Chancellor of the Pakistan Institute of Development Economics is the executive head of the Institute and heads the Syndicate, while the Deputy Chairman of the Planning Commission is the Chancellor. The overseeing body of the Institute is the Senate of PIDE; its membership is gained through both nomination and election. The President of Pakistan is the Patron of PIDE.
In view of PIDE's current status as a degree-awarding academic institution, the many administrative and cadre changes necessary for the purpose can be foreseen. As such, other governing bodies are being formed to cope with the future needs of PIDE's various component units.
Apart from the teaching Departments, the main Divisions at PIDE consist of Research, Publications, Training, Library, and Computer services. Besides the Human Resource Development Division, headed by the Registrar, the staff generally consists of Chief of Research, Senior Research Economist, Research Economist, Staff Economist, and Visiting Fellow. Equivalent posts exist in other fields. Additionally, each professional Division is headed by the respective Chief of the Division.
In light of PIDE's recently expanded educational role, the teaching faculties at the Institute are among its main focal developments.
Directors, joint directors and vice-chancellors
Source:
Gustav Ranis (1959–60)
Emile Despres (1960–64)
Irving Brecher (1961–62)
Henry Bruton (1962–63)
Mark Leiserson (1963–64)
Nurul Islam (1964–71)
Taufique M. Khan (1965–70)
S. M. Naseem (1972) (acting director)
M. L. Qureshi (1972–79)
Sultan Hashmi (1977–79)
Durr-e-Nayab Director Research & Joint Director (1990 - Date)
Syed Nawab Haider Naqvi (1979–93; 1993–95)
Sarfraz Khan Qureshi (1993; 1995–99
M Ghaffar Chaudhry (1964 -2002; 1993 - 2002)
A. R. Kemal (1999–2006)
Nadeem Ul Haque (2006–7) (Vice Chancellor)
Naushin Mahmood (2007) (acting vice chancellor)
Rashid Amjad (2007–2013)
Asad Zaman (2013– 2019)
Dr. Nadeem Ul Haque (2019–Present)
International advisory board
At the beginning, three well-known economists, Max F. Millikan, Gunner Myrdal (Nobel Laureate), and E. A. G. Robinson formed the Institute's International Advisory Board. Following registration with the Government of Pakistan as an autonomous organisation and the transfer of management to Pakistanis, the International Advisory Board extended its membership to seven Internationally well known economists, namely, Hollis B. Chenery, Ansley J. Coale, Just Faaland, Harry G. Johnson, Gustav Ranis, and Paul P. Streeten. Currently, there are ten well-known economists from all over the world who are members of the International Advisory Board. They are Gamani Corea, Just Faaland, Albert O. Hirschman, Lawrence R. Klein (Nobel Laureate), Janos Kornai, E. Malinvaud, Robert A. Mundell (Nobel Laureate), Gustav Ranis, Paul P. Streeten, and Winfried von Urff.
Finances
PIDE is mainly funded by the Government of Pakistan, and partly through earnings from its endowment and the studies carried out for various international organisations. The Institute has always enjoyed generous patronage and support. H.R.H. The Aga Khan III had provided the seed money for the Institute's founding in the late 1950s. The Ford Foundation has also been contributing funds. In 1979, USAID provided a substantial endowment grant. The United Bank Limited, Industrial Development Bank of Pakistan, Pak-Kuwait Investment Company Limited, Pak-Libya Holding Company Limited, and Investment Corporation of Pakistan have provided additional financial resources.
Research divisions
PIDE has been restructured around two main research themes and six sub-themes. It has now two Departments underlining research themes for the year 2006-2007 and six Divisions for sub-themes. The Institute has been restructured as follows:
Institutions, Growth, and Macroeconomics Department, which includes the following three Divisions:
one point one Development Strategies and Governance;
one point two Human Capital, Innovation, and Growth; and
one point three Macroeconomics, Banking and Finance.
Markets and Society Department, which includes the following three Divisions:
Two point one Industrial Organisation, Markets, and Regulation;
Two point two Agricultural Production, Markets, and Institutions; and
Two point three Population and Social Dynamics.
Collaborative research
A number of studies have been completed at PIDE in collaboration with various international organisations, including the World Bank, Committee for International Cooperation on Research in Demography (CICRED), Asian Development Bank (ADB), International Labour Organisation (ILO), the United Nations Fund for Population Activities (UNFPA), United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), World Bank Institute (WBI), Asian Development Bank Institute (ADBI), World Economic Forum, United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), Economic and Social Commission for Asia and Pacific (ESCAP), United Nations Institute for Training and Research (UNITAR), ILO/ARTEP, Asian and Pacific Development Centre (APDC), International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), Erasmus University (Rotterdam), Institute of Social Studies (The Hague), Friedrich Ebert Stiftung (FES), Germany, Food and Agriculture Organisation of the UN (FAO), University of Tübingen, Germany, International Centre for Economic Growth, USA, International Development Research Centre (IDRC) Canada, etc.
The studies conducted under these arrangements include topics such as the Structure of Protection and Allocative Efficiency in Pakistan, Population, Labour Force and Migration, Employment Projections, Population of Pakistan, Wheat Market in Pakistan, Human Resource Development, Capital Flows and Economic Adjustment in the Developing Countries, Sustainable Development in Pakistan (with a focus on the conservation and pollution issues), Household Food Security in Pakistan, the Ration Shop System, Food Outlook and Security in Pakistan, anthropological studies in the areas of Women's Activities and Social Status, Natural Resource Management, Traditional Wisdom and Change, Ethnic Antagonism, Informal Sector in the Rural and Urban Areas, and Land Transport and Communication Linkages in the SAARC Region.
Two recent studies completed in collaboration with the United Nations Funds for Population Activities and UNICEF are the “Census Data Analysis” and “National Nutrition Survey 2001-02”. Currently, the second round of the poverty assessment project (PRHS-2) is under way, in collaboration with the World Bank. “Interim Evaluation of the Rural Support Programme in Pakistan” is being undertaken in nine districts of Pakistan in collaboration with the World Bank, Pakistan Poverty Alleviation Fund, National Rural Support Programme, and Punjab Rural Support Programme. PIDE, in collaboration with the International Development Research Centre (IDRC), Canada, has also worked on a project on “Community-based Monitoring System”.
SANEI
SANEI is a regional initiative to foster networking and collaboration among economic research institutes in South Asia. Initiated in June 1998, SANEI seeks to establish strong research inter-linkages among various economic research institutes in the region with a view to encouraging a better-informed policy-making process. As such, special emphasis is given to capacity building and formation of a South Asia-wide professional network of researchers engaged in policy-oriented studies.
SANEI organises annual research competitions within the South Asian region. Collaborative research has received strong support. This implies that in addition to stand-alone research, SANEI funds projects which are jointly carried out by at least two research institutes based in two different countries in South Asia. Studies carried out under the auspices of SANEI are published. SANEI also holds annual conferences as part of its effort to promote an exchange of ideas on economic research in the region, as well as to disseminate its research findings.
The activities of the participating institutes are integrated and coordinated by the respective regional/country network. Until recently, SANEI was housed in the Indian Council for Research on International Economic Relations, New Delhi, India. The headquarters of the organisation moved to Pakistan a couple of years ago. The Pakistan Institute of Development Economics (PIDE) is the current Coordinator for the South Asia Network.
A Research Advisory Panel (RAP), comprising renowned economists from South Asia, evaluates research proposals submitted by the network of institutions. The Panel reviews the progress of the projects and provides expert guidance, with the objective to improve the quality of research.
A constitution, “SANEI, Pakistan”, has been adopted and the body has been registered as a Society, with T. N. Srinivasan as its Chairman and Nadeem Ul Haque as its Secretary (Coordinator). Funds for research at SANEI are provided by the Global Development Network.
Publications and research information
Through its publications and research information services, PIDE disseminates its research results country/worldwide. The Publications Division is responsible for all publishing undertaken by PIDE in the form of journals, books, newsletters, research reports, and monographs as well as miscellaneous publications for the academic programmes, the programmes of the PSDE, PIDE Seminar Series, and the training courses.
A number of joint publishing and production projects have also been completed in collaboration with other research organisations, notably the Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, Islamabad, the Indian Council for Research on International Economic Relations, New Delhi, the East-West Centre, Honolulu, the International Centre for Economic Growth, San Francisco, the Centre for Development Planning, Erasmus University, Rotterdam, National Institute of Banking and Finance, Pakistan, the State Bank of Pakistan, the United Nations Population Fund, International Labour Organisation, and the United Nations Development Programme.
The Pakistan Development Review
Started at The Institute of Development Economics as Economic Digest in 1956, The Pakistan Development Review (PDR) has been published by the Institute regularly since 1961, with only a short pause during 1971-72. For several decades now, it has been a refereed international journal of Economics and related social sciences. Redesigned and re-planned twice in the last two decade, the contents have tended to emphasise theoretical-cum-empirical contributions; the underlying commitment has been to strengthen the interest in the general areas of Economics and other social science fields. The journal is issued quarterly and, with a fair mix of topics, regularly contains original (theoretical and empirical) contributions to Economics, in general, and on Pakistan's socio-economic problems, in particular. Nearly every issue carries contributions by scholars from Pakistan and overseas. Currently, the following editors work regularly on the PDR: Rashid Amjad (Editor), Aurangzeb A. Hashmi (Literary Editor), and Mir Annice Mahmood (Book Review Editor).
The Review's Editorial Board consists of thirty-five outstanding scholars in the field of Economics and various social science fields. They actively participate in refereeing the papers submitted to the Review for publication; they also render valuable advice on other related matters.
Most national and international indexing and abstracting services in the social sciences provide useful information about our publications. The contents of the PDR are abstracted/indexed regularly by several works of reference including International Bibliography of the Social Sciences, EconLit, e-JEL, JEL on CD, World Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology Abstracts, Agricultural Engineering Abstracts, Asian-Pacific Economic Literature, Ekistic Index of Periodicals, Wheat, Barley and Triticale Abstracts, Tropical Oilseeds, Rice Abstracts, Population Index, International Labour Documentation, Bibliography of Asian Studies, Geo Abstracts, CABi, IORR Virtual Library, and Current Issues.
Occasionally, the PDR publishes special issues. For example, the Summer 1979 issue was devoted to a symposium on ‘Shadow Pricing’, while the Summer, Autumn, and Winter issues of 1980 were devoted to a symposium on ‘The State of Development Economics: Models and Realities’. More recent issues have carried current debates on social sciences research and the profession, while the Spring 2006 issue offers substantial focus on ‘Pakistan's Growth Strategy’. The journal's large subscriber list includes universities, libraries, and individual addresses in all parts of the world. Electronic access has been made possible by placing nearly all of the information about publications on the PIDE website.
Research reports and monographs
These series of publications by the PIDE go a long way back. More than 200 research reports and 20 monographs (including those written before the separation of East and West Pakistan) have been published. The first monograph was researched and written by John C. H. Fei and Gustav Ranis, titled A Study of Planning Methodology with special reference to Pakistan's Second Five Year Plan. A complete list of the Research Reports and Monographs is available on the PIDE website.
PIDE working papers
This series, based on the seminars presented at PIDE, has
become vibrant and replaced the older Research Report series. Some
recent titles are:
Dynamic Effects of Agriculture Trade in the Context of Domestic and Global Liberalisation: A CGE Analysis for Pakistan by Rizwana Siddiqui (2007).
Measures of Monetary Policy Stance: The Case of Pakistan by Sajawal Khan and Abdul Qayyum (2007).
Public Provision of Education and Government Spending in Pakistan by Muhammad Akram and Faheem Jehangir Khan(2007).
Household Budget Analysis for Pakistan under Varying the Parameter Approach by Eatzaz Ahmad and Muhammad Arshad (2007).
Pension and Social Security Schemes in Pakistan: Some Policy Options by Naushin Mahmood and Zafar Mueen Nasir(2008).
Public Social Services, and Capability Development: A Cross-district Analysis of Pakistan by Rizwana Siddiqui (2008).
Monetary Policy Transparency in Pakistan: An Independent Analysis by Wasim Shahid Malik and Musleh-ud Din (2008).
Bilateral J-Curves between Pakistan and Her Trading Partners by Zehra Aftab and Sajawal Khan (2008).
On Measuring the Complexity of Urban Living by Lubna Hasan (2008).
Books
PIDE is also a publisher of influential books. The first title, Investment of Oil Revenues, by M. L. Qureshi, was published in 1974, when the topic was just beginning to gain attention. A recent book, Gender and Empowerment: Evidence from Pakistan, by Rehana Siddiqui, et al. (2006), addresses current concerns. In the ‘Lectures’ series, two recent titles are: Beyond Planning and Mercantilism: An Evaluation of Pakistan's Growth Strategy by Nadeem Ul Haque (2006) and Brain Drain or Human Capital Flight by Nadeem Ul Haque (2005). Some of the well-known books published by PIDE earlier are:
The Population of Pakistan by M. Afzal, et al. (1974)
An Analysis of Real Wages in the Government Sector, 1971–76 by Syed Nawab Haider Naqvi (1977)
An Agenda for Islamic Economic Reform by Syed Nawab Haider Naqvi (1980, reprinted in 1989)
The PIDE Macro-econometric Model of Pakistan's Economy(Vol 1) by Syed Nawab Haider Naqvi, A. H. Khan, Nasir M. Khilji and Ather M. Ahmed (1983)
Pakistan's Economy through the Seventies by Syed Nawab Haider Naqvi and Khwaja Sarmad (1984)
Land Reforms in Pakistan: A Historical Perspective by Syed Nawab Haider Naqvi, Mahmood Hasan Khan, and M. Ghaffar Chaudhry (1987)
Agricultural Growth and Employment by John W. Mellor (1988)
Population and Development by Ansley J. Coale (1990)
Pakistan's Economic Situation and Future Prospects by Ejaz Ahmed Naik (1993)
Poverty and Rural Credit: The Case of Pakistan by Sohail J.Malik (1999)
Public Sector Efficiency: Perspectives on Civil Service Reform by Nadeem Ul Haque and Musleh-ud Din (2006)
Cities—Engines of Growth by Nadeem Ul Haque and Durr-e-Nayab (2007)
Energy Issues in Pakistan by Mir Annice Mahmood (2008)
PIDE Research in Print 1957–2007 by Zafar Javed Naqvi(2008)
PIDE—from a Think Tank to a University: A Brief History by S.M. Naseem (2008)
PIDE's Contribution to Development Thinking: The Earlier Phase by A. R. Khan (2008)
Other publications
Apart from the regular series of publications, PIDE also publishes occasionally Project Reports, Statistical Papers, essays, and lectures. PIDE Tidings ceased awhile ago. A bimonthly newsletter, PIDE Focus, now puts everyone in touch with PIDE's activities. PIDE Policy Viewpoint is also a new series drawing and inviting sufficient attention and contributions. Details about publications can be viewed at the PIDE website.
Fostering information exchange
PIDE conducts a variety of programmes and activities designed to support dialogue and information exchange among researchers, practitioners, and policy makers. It includes the Annual General Meeting and Conference of the Pakistan Society of Development Economists (PSDE), lectures, conferences, workshops, and seminars.
Annual general meeting and conference of the PSDE
Pakistan Society of Development Economists (PSDE), established in 1982 under the Societies Registration Act of 1860, provides an institutional framework for the dissemination of the fruits of research among scholars, public officials, and policy-makers dealing with economic matters. The Society's current membership of more than four hundred includes Nobel Laureates, academics, administrators, and other members working in all the different continents of the world.
The Society holds its annual meetings regularly. The Annual General Meeting and Conference of the Society is an occasion for stock-taking of the work done at PIDE and elsewhere on various socioeconomic problems of Pakistan, the region, and the world, as well as for suggesting new initiatives for further research. These meetings provide for the much-needed communication amongst the economics professionals, policy-makers, and various schools of interested observers of the ongoing debate concerning development-related issues. Twenty one such meetings have been held thus far, with over 600 papers presented in areas such as agriculture, industry, international trade and exchange rates, fiscal and monetary economics, project appraisals, demography, human resource development, resource mobilisation, debt, governance, gender, poverty, structural adjustment, and Islamic economics. The papers presented in the meetings are subsequently published in the Papers and Proceedings issue of The Pakistan Development Review.
The highlights of the PSDE meetings are the Distinguished Lectures. Three of these are Memorial Lectures dedicated to the memory of the Quaid-i-Azam, Mohammad Ali Jinnah, the founder of Pakistan, Mohammad Iqbal, poet-philosopher, and Mahbub ul Haq, economist. The Distinguished Speaker list in different years has had on it such names as Lawrence R. Klein (Nobel Laureate), Sir Hans W. Singer, E. Malinvaud, Paul P. Streeten, Ansley J. Coale, David P. Laidler, Robert
Lecture series
A lecture series, entitled “Lectures in Development Economics”, was instituted many years ago. Twenty-three lectures in this series have been delivered so far; eminent economists, demographers, and other social scientists have been on the speakers’ list. Many of these lectures have already been published by PIDE. Another seminar series on public policy issues was initiated in June 2002, which analysed the current policy issues. The new PIDE Lectures Series attracts major new contributions to various fields.
Conferences and workshops
A new series of conferences and workshops has been launched at PIDE for discussion and exchange of information. The main objective of the round-table conferences based on the new themes introduced at PIDE is to provide a forum for discussion to identify research issues in the area that the Institute and other researchers may follow. The objective of the workshops is to share findings of the studies on current issues in Pakistan. The proceedings of these conferences and workshops are available at PIDE's website.
PIDE Viewpoint—Seminar Series
The Pakistan Institute of Development Economics initiated in 2006 a weekly seminar series to stimulate intellectual thought for development discourse. A similar PIDE Viewpoint—Seminar Series has been in place since early 2008. The seminars are open to policymakers, researchers, planners, practitioners, educators, individuals from the public and private organisations, and students. The series covers a variety of subjects and issues in the field of economics and other social sciences.
Training and Project Evaluation Division
The Training and Project Evaluation Division conducts specialised in-service training courses in Economic Planning and Management for development practitioners working in government or semi-government departments and in autonomous development organisations. The objective is to develop the operational skills of the participants so that they can successfully plan and assess all aspects of development projects. It covers all sectors of the economy such as agriculture, industry, livestock, water, power, transport, education, and health.
Participants learn modern techniques to carry out financial, economic, and social evaluations of projects, as well as the methods for planning and implementing projects. The specified courses include Project Planning, Appraisal, Implementation, and Evaluation Techniques, Effective Communications Skills, Gender Mainstreaming, Macroeconomic Planning and Management, and Result-based Monitoring and Evaluation. Learning theory is combined with practical exercises, including monitoring of ongoing field activities. Training also involves lively group discussions and presentations of projects by the participants.
The Division has added policy analysis courses in its programme since 1998. As PIDE is one of the institutes designated by the Government of Pakistan for promotion-related capacity building of civil servants of various occupational groups (BPS-17 and above), the number of courses to be administered at this campus has been increasing. The Division has broad links and information-sharing channels with other national and international training institutes. Besides training, the Division also contributes to research and development activities of PIDE through its projects and programmes.
References
External links
Official website
Political and economic think tanks based in Pakistan
Universities and colleges established in 1957
Public universities and colleges in Pakistan
Ministry of Planning and Development
Universities and colleges in Islamabad
Islamabad Capital Territory
1957 establishments in Pakistan
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBT%20themes%20in%20comics
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LGBT themes in comics
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In comics, LGBT themes are a relatively new concept, as lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) themes and characters were historically omitted from the content of comic books and their comic strip predecessors due to anti-gay censorship. LGBT existence was included only via innuendo, subtext and inference. However the practice of hiding LGBT characters in the early part of the twentieth century evolved into open inclusion in the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries, and comics explored the challenges of coming-out, societal discrimination, and personal and romantic relationships between gay characters.
With any mention of homosexuality in mainstream United States comics forbidden by the Comics Code Authority (CCA) between 1954 and 1989, mainstream comics contained only subtle hints or subtext regarding an LGBT character's sexual orientation or gender identity. Starting in the early 1970s, however, LGBT themes were tackled in underground comix, independently published one-off comic books and series produced by gay creators that featured autobiographical storylines tackling political issues of interest to LGBT readers. The first openly gay characters in American comic strips appeared in prominent strips in the late 1970s and gained popularity through the 1980s. Since the 1990s, equal and open LGBT themes have become more common in mainstream US comics, including in a number of titles in which a gay character is the star. Today comic strips educating readers about LGBT-related issues are syndicated in LGBT-targeted print media and online in web comics.
The popularity of comic books in Europe and Japan have seen distinct approaches to LGBT themes. A lack of censorship and greater acceptance of comics as a medium for adult entertainment in Europe has led European comics to be more inclusive from an earlier date, leading to less controversy about the representation of LGBT characters in their pages. Notable comics creators have produced work from France, Belgium, Spain, Germany and Britain. Japanese manga tradition has included genres of girls' comics that feature homosexual relationships since the 1970s, in the form of yaoi and yuri. These works are often extremely romantic and idealized, and include archetypal characters that often do not identify as gay or lesbian. Since the Japanese "gay boom" of the 1990s, a body of manga by queer creators aimed at LGBT customers has been established, including both bara manga for gay men and yuri aimed at lesbians, which often have more realistic and autobiographical themes. Pornographic manga also often includes sexualised depictions of lesbians and intersex people.
Portrayal of LGBT themes in comics is recognized by several notable awards, including the Gaylactic Spectrum Awards and GLAAD Media Awards for outstanding comic book and comic strip. The Lambda Literary Foundation, recognizing notable literature for LGBT themes with their "Lammys" awards since 1988, created a new category in 2014 for graphic works. Prism Comics, an organization formed in 2003 for promoting LGBTQ themes in comic books, has provided the "Queer Press Grant" for comic book creators since 2005.
Comic strips
Early comic strips also avoided overt treatment of gay issues, though examples of homosexual subtext have been identified. The 1938–1939 edition of Milton Caniff's Terry and the Pirates features a primary villain, Sanjak, who has been interpreted by some as a lesbian with designs on the hero's girlfriend.
The first widely distributed comic strip to tackle LGBT themes and include a gay character was Garry Trudeau's Doonesbury. The strip introduced the character Andy Lippincott in 1976, and his diagnosis with HIV in 1989 and AIDS related death in 1990 was the first representation of this issue in comic strips. This storyline led to a Pulitzer Prize nomination for Trudeau, but three newspapers of the 900 carrying the strip refused to publish it as being in bad taste. Two years later, the long-standing character Mark Slackmeyer was revealed to be gay, continuing a reputation for controversial content. Slackmeyer, a liberal, continues to feature in the strip, with focus on his relationship with his politically conservative partner, Chase, including their marriage in 1999 and separation in 2007.
The 11 July 1984 installment of Bloom County had the strip's main characters staying at Bob & Ernie's Castro Street Hotel, run by a gay S&M couple.
When Lynn Johnston's For Better or For Worse explored the coming out of a teenaged character in 1993, it provoked a vigorous reaction from conservative groups. Homophobic readers threatened to cancel newspaper subscriptions, and Johnston received hate mail and death threats towards herself and her family. Over 100 newspapers ran replacement strips or canceled the comic. One result of the storyline was that Johnston was made a jury-selected "nominated finalist" for the Pulitzer Prize for Editorial Cartooning in 1994. The Pulitzer board said the strip "sensitively depicted a youth's disclosure of his homosexuality and its effect on his family and friends." Subsequent appearances of the character have not focused on his sexuality, and the creator has said that this will continue.
In most widely circulated strips, LGBT characters remained as supporting figures into the 21st century, with some, including Candorville and The Boondocks, featuring occasional appearances by gay characters. The conservative strip Mallard Fillmore occasionally approached gay issues from a critical perspective; these storylines have been described as "insulting" to LGBT people. Many openly gay and lesbian comic creators self-publish their work online as webcomics, giving them greater editorial freedom, and some of the strips are printed in collections. One example is Greg Fox's Kyle's Bed & Breakfast, a series focusing on a group of gay friends who live together and face realistic problems associated with their sexualities, including relationship troubles and being closeted.
Since the late 1980s specifically gay publications have also included comic strips, in which LGBT themes are ubiquitous. Local LGBT newspapers sometimes carry their own strips, like Ron Williams's Quarter Scenes in the New Orleans paper Impact. Strips including Wendel by Howard Cruse, It's a Gay Life by Gerard Donelan, and Leonard and Larry by Tim Barela, have been syndicated in national gay magazines like the Advocate.
One of the best known and longest-running LGBT comic strips, Dykes to Watch Out For, was written by Alison Bechdel – dubbed the "elder stateswomen of LGBT comics" – from 1983 to 2008. Dykes to Watch Out For is known for its social and political commentary and depictions of characters from all walks of life. Bechdel's 2006 graphic memoir Fun Home: A Family Tragicomic was lauded by many media outlets as among the best books of the year.
Other noted LGBT-themed comic strips have included Doc and Raider, The Chosen Family, Chelsea Boys and The Mostly Unfabulous Social Life of Ethan Green. Ethan Green has also been adapted into a live-action feature film.
Early homoerotic magazines
Touko Laaksonen, better known as Tom of Finland, has been described as "the first gay cartoonist". He began producing erotic comics in the 1940s, distributing them via a clandestine mail-order business. Laaksonen's drawings were published in the beefcake magazine Physique Pictorial starting in the 1950s. Due to obscenity laws, Laaksonen's full, sexually explicit comics could not be published at the time, and were instead distributed privately. Other artists who regularly contributed to early homoerotic periodicals during this time include George Quaintance, and Dom Orejudos (under the pen name Etienne).
Underground and alternative comics
LGBT themes were found first in underground or alternative comics, often published by small independent presses or self-published. Such comics frequently advocated political positions and included depictions of sex, usually not intended solely to cause arousal but included as part of the exploration of themes including gender and sexuality.
“Captain Pissgums and His Pervert Pirates” by S. Clay Wilson in Zap Comix #3 (1968) featured explicit sexual homosexual acts and was instrumental in making other underground cartoonists approach taboo subjects. However, gay characters rarely featured in underground comics from 1968 to 1975, and when they did they were usually lisping caricatures and comic transvestites. An installment of "Harold Hedd" by Rand Holmes in 1971 stands out for attacking the homophobia of David Reuben's sex manual Everything You Always Wanted to Know About Sex* (*But Were Afraid to Ask), featuring explicit mutual gay sex acts, and promoting gay liberation.
Eventually comics appeared aimed at a gay audience: the first documented example of a widely circulated underground gay comic was Gay Heart Throbs, which produced several issues in the mid-1970s, but struggled to find an audience.
Notable publications included Gay Comix, which was created in 1980 by Howard Cruse, featured the work of LGBT artists, and had close ties with the gay liberation movement. Much of the early content was autobiographical, but more diverse themes were explored in later editions. Autobiographical themes included falling in love, coming out, repression, and sex. Gay Comix also served as a source for information about non-mainstream LGBT-themed comics and events. Artists producing work for Gay Comix included Mary Wings, creator of the first one-off lesbian book Come Out Comix (1972) and Dyke Shorts (1976), and Roberta Gregory, who created Dynamite Damsels (1976) the first lesbian underground serial comic book and the character Bitchy Bitch. Wimmen's Comix also tackled issues of homosexuality on a regular basis, and the first issue was also the venue for the first comic strip featuring an out lesbian, called "Sandy Comes Out", by Trina Robbins. Excerpts from Gay Comix are included in the 1989 anthology Gay Comics, one of the earliest histories of the subject.
Meatmen: An Anthology of Gay Male Comics and its sequels collect works by a range of artists and cartoonists. The work of "every gay cartoonist of note" at the time appeared in the series, including works by Howard Cruse, Jeffrey A. Krell, Brad Parker, John Blackburn, Jon Macy, and Tom of Finland. The contents of Meatmen are generally male-oriented, and more explicitly sexual than the intentionally gender-balanced Gay Comics. Tom of Finland was a prolific fetish artist, specializing in images of men with exaggerated primary and secondary sex traits, such as extreme muscularity and improbably large penises. His drawings frequently feature two or more men either immediately preceding or during explicit sexual activity. Howard Cruse has been described as "the most important gay cartoonist" of this period, and his work explores both pop and gay culture. In addition to being featured in Meatmen and Gay Comics, his LGBT-themed work has been syndicated in publications such as Heavy Metal, RAW, and Village Voice.
Creators have used the comics medium to educate readers about LGBT-related issues including safe sex, examples being Strip AIDS; and to influence real-world politics, as with the British comics book AARGH (Artists Against Rampant Government Homophobia), produced by British, American, and Canadian artists in response to a law that made "promoting homosexuality" illegal by the British government. The comic book format and humour has been described as giving such works a more positive message than typical education material. Comic strip style educational material about AIDS dates back to a chart in the French magazine Liberation from 1986, which used simple figures to explain unsafe practices. Fiction comics produced specifically to foster AIDS prevention include the widely distributed French-language La Sida (1995), created by the Institut Alfred Fourrier as part of its "Prevention Sourire" series. La Sida was aimed at a young audience and used humour to de-dramatise the subject, with HIV status indicated as a metaphorical "little green monster". Sexile, a graphic novel by Latin American writer Jaime Cortez, is based on transgender HIV activist and educator Adela Vazquez. Published through AIDS Project Los Angeles, the novel is narrated in English and Spanish while commenting on themes of gender identity, sexual experiences and HIV/AIDS awareness. Vazquez's life is highlighted in the graphic novel, particularly her transition from the political uprising in Cuba to the vibrant LGBT community in San Francisco during the HIV/AIDS epidemic. Sexile, a work commenting on HIV/AIDS prevention, was collaborated with Gay Men's Health Crisis.
Such educational comics have been criticised for ignoring the special relevance the subject has to the LGBT community, with homosexuality marginalized in favour of depicting HIV as a threat to conventional heterosexual relationships. This has been blamed on the continuing perception that comics are for young people, and as such should be "universalised" rather than targeting specific groups, and hence are heteronormative, failing to provide characters that LGBT-identifying young people can identify with. Other educational comic books such as the Swiss Jo (1991) also exclude explicit reference to homosexuality (as well as drug-taking and prostitution), in spite of their target audience being older.
In 2010 Northwest Press began publishing LBGTQ themed works, focusing primarily on graphic novels and anthologies of artists' shorter works.
No Straight Lines, a 2012 anthology published by Fantagraphics Books edited by Justin Hall, presented an overview of comics by and about lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender people since the 1960s.
Mainstream American comic books
Mainstream comics have historically excluded gay characters, with superhero comics in particular and the publishing houses Marvel and DC, the two largest publishers in the genre, and were criticized for their lack of inclusivity. Transgender characters have likewise been under-represented, although the common storyline of a superhero having their sex changed by magical or technological means has been regarded as an oblique reference to transgender and transsexual issues. British comics author Neil Gaiman has said that he included transgender characters in his works, such as Sandman, in response to the lack of realistic representation of such people in comics. Queer theory analyses have noted that LGBT characters in mainstream comic books are often shown as assimilated into heterosexual society, whereas in alternative comics the diversity and uniqueness of LGBT culture is at the forefront. Mainstream comics have also been labelled as "heteronormative", in comparison to "integrationist" alternative comics.
Censorship and criticism
For much of the 20th century, creators were strongly discouraged from depicting gay relationships in comic books, which were regarded as a medium for children. Until 1989 the Comics Code Authority (CCA), which imposed de facto censorship on comics sold through newsstands in the United States, forbade any suggestion of homosexuality, and LGBT characters were excluded from comics bearing the CCA seal. The CCA itself came into being in response to Fredric Wertham's Seduction of the Innocent, in which comic book creators were accused of attempting to negatively influence children with images of violence and sexuality, including subliminal homosexuality. Wertham claimed that Wonder Woman's strength and independence made her a lesbian, and stated that "The Batman type of story may stimulate children to homosexual fantasies." Storytellers subsequently had to drop subtle hints while not stating directly a character's orientation. Overt gay and lesbian themes were first found later in underground and alternative titles which did not carry the CCA's seal of approval.
In recent years the number of LGBT characters in mainstream superhero comics has increased greatly. At first gay characters appeared in supporting roles, but their roles have become increasingly prominent. The trend has prompted both praise from the LGBT community and organizations like the Gay & Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation (GLAAD), and criticism from conservative groups. Critics have made accusations that comics are attempting to subvert readers into a "gay lifestyle", trying to "lure young American boys into the kinky web of homosexuality and AIDS".
DC Comics
The Encyclopedia of Gay Histories and Cultures (2000) notes that gay subtext can be found in DC Comics publications as early as the Golden Age of Comic Books, with readers inferring homosexuality between superheroes and their same-sex sidekicks and on the women-only Paradise Island. The introduction to Sandman Mystery Theatre: The Tarantula discusses this in the case of the replacement of Dian Belmont with Sandy, the Golden Boy in The Sandman serial in Adventure Comics. Batman's relationship with Robin has famously come under scrutiny, in spite of the majority of creators associated with the character denying that the character is gay. Psychologist Fredric Wertham, who in Seduction of the Innocent asserted that "Batman stories are psychologically homosexual," claimed to find a "subtle atmosphere of homoeroticism which pervades the adventures of the mature 'Batman' and his young friend 'Robin.'" It has also been claimed that Batman is interesting to gay audiences because "he was one of the first fictional characters to be attacked on the grounds of his presumed homosexuality," and "the 1960s TV series remains a touchstone of camp." Frank Miller has described the Joker as a "homophobic nightmare," and views the character as sublimating his sexual urges into crime fighting. Burt Ward has also remarked upon this interpretation in his autobiography, noting that the relationship between the two could be interpreted as a sexual one.
In the first appearance of the Nightmaster, a fat man who seems to be a closet homosexual gay basher repeatedly calls Jim Rook a "cutie pie", compliments his hair, and grabs his girlfriend, saying (to Rook) "And what? You gonna hit me with your purse?" after which his friends start hitting Rook with a chair. The first obviously gay character featured by DC was Extraño, an effeminate Peruvian man whose name means "strange" in Spanish, created by Steve Englehart and Joe Staton, and appeared in Millennium and New Guardians in 1987. New Guardians was not successful, but during its short run it also featured one team member, Jet, contracting AIDS. The series was controversial, as several characters on the team were infected with HIV through the scratch of a character called the Hemo-Goblin. Many angry letters were printed in response to this misinformation about HIV transmission, along with some gay readers complaining that Extraño was too stereotypical. An official aftermath to Millennium, The Spectre (vol. 2) #11, depicted a "mostly male and mostly gay" AIDS rally. Several characters, including the Enchantress (describing them as "filthy disgusting men") and a police helicopter pilot named Ed (screaming about "fags") are influenced into attempting to crush the rally by a seven-headed spirit. Thanks to the actions of the Spectre, Doctor Fate, Deadman, Madame Xanadu (later herself revealed to be bisexual), and Ben Turner, the men are saved.
In 1988's Wonder Woman Annual #1, Kevin Mayer, brother of Diana's late publicist Myndi Mayer, shows up at her will reading, saying she was the only member of the family who didn't hate him for being gay. Later in the same series, an Amazon historian mentions widespread homosexual activity, as well as asexuality, amongst the population of Wonder Woman's homeland, Themyscira. Mitch Sekofsky, mechanic for Task Force X, is a gay dad. Simon La Grieve, the organization's head psychiatrist, refers to this as his "choice of sexuality" and wonders how Sekofsky's son is adjusting. Priest Kramer counsels Mitch and tells him that his homosexuality is a natural part of himself that does not conflict with Christian scripture. The early 1990s saw a few more LGBT minor characters portrayed in DC titles. John Constantine dealt with gay bashers in Hellblazer #6 and 7 and Swamp Thing #74 (1988). In the latter issue, Constantine, having jumped from a train at the end of Hellblazer #6, is found by gay bashers in a weakened state and severely beaten until rescued by Swamp Thing. While Constantine is not gay (he is bisexual), one of his gay friends was beaten to death in Hellblazer #7 by a fundamentalist Christian cult. In an earlier issue, a group of skinheads follow a man they presume to be gay into a toilet with the intention of killing him, but he turns out to be the demon Nergal, who tears them apart. Both this run and The Sandman story arcs Preludes and Nocturnes and The Kindly Ones arc featured elderly gay men. Transsexual themes were explored in The Sandman: A Game of You (1991) and in a 1992 storyline in Legion of Super-Heroes with transsexual character Shvaughn Erin. In 1993, writing duties for the Doom Patrol comic series were taken over by the transgender writer Rachel Pollack who used the series to explored many LGBT themes as well as introduced the character of Coagula, a transgender lesbian, to the team.
Notable storylines featuring LGBT themes include the coming out of Kyle Rayner's assistant Terry Berg and an arc about his "gay bashing" in Green Lantern. These stories earned the writer two GLAAD awards and a Gaylactic Spectrum Award (and a further nomination). Green Lantern also has a lesbian couple, Lee and Li, as supporting characters. An example of a gay character in a starring role is the violent vigilante superhero Midnighter, who appears in comic books published by Wildstorm, an imprint of DC Comics. The Batman-like Midnighter was revealed to be in a relationship with the Superman-like Apollo during their time as members of the superhero team The Authority.
The comic book Manhunter (which focused on a female lawyer hunting down super villains who dodged trial) was notable for featuring the gay supporting character of Damon Matthews, a well-adjusted gay lawyer who later starts dating superhero Obsidian, and also Manhunter's son and successor, Ramsey Spencer, who is also openly gay and dates the metahuman hero and his partner named Justin.
In 2006 DC drew widespread media attention by announcing a new, lesbian incarnation of the well-known character Batwoman. The number of minor DC characters being identified as LGBT continues to increase, and includes the bisexual superheroes Sarah Rainmaker and Icemaiden, and the reformed gay villain Pied Piper. Policewoman Renee Montoya, introduced in Batman: The Animated Series without any stated sexual preference, was eventually introduced in the comic books as a lesbian and made considerably more butch. She was a main character in Gotham Central and 52.
In 2011, DC launched its The New 52 program, which introduced a number of new titles. In addition to a new Batwoman series, DC released Voodoo, which featured an African American bisexual woman as the title character. Additionally, The New 52 also introduced Bunker, the first openly gay superhero ever to be featured in the Teen Titans ongoing series. Another of the changes brought about with the DC reboot was the reinvention of a classic character as an out gay man, with DC depicting its longtime Green Lantern Alan Scott as a gay man in stories set on the parallel world of Earth-2. In 2020, as part of its Infinite Frontier relaunch, DC established the mainstream continuity's elderly Alan Scott as canonically gay as well, by having him come out to his adult children. This incarnation of Alan Scott has been depicted on-and-off since 1940.
Anti-villains Catwoman and Catman were reinvented as bisexual characters, as well as anti-villainesses Poison Ivy and Harley Quinn, who form a non-monogamous couple. Supervillain Prometheus is now a gay man who dated Midnighter. Demon Knights brought back Shining Knight, who previously appeared in Grant Morrison's Seven Soldiers of Victory as a girl crossdressing as a male knight. In the new series however, The Shining Knight says that (s)he is “not just a man or a woman[, but] both.” This makes them the possible first intersex hero.
In 2016, DC launched DC Rebirth, in which some characters were established as being LGBT. Flagship superhero Wonder Woman was shown to be canonically bisexual; among her same-sex romantic interests is her companion Amazon Kasia. Her mother Queen Hippolyta and General Philippus are also shown as having a love relationship, and Hippolyta previously dated Amazon sorceress Derinoe as shown in the New 52 era. Aqualad (Jackson Hyde) of Teen Titans was reintroduced as a gay teenager, while The Ray was reintroduced as a gay man in Justice League of America, dating his JLA colleague Xenos. Mother Panic, from Young Animal imprint, is a bisexual female vigilante of Gotham City. In 2021, coinciding with Infinite Frontier, several high-profile male characters came out as LGBT in canon: original Green Lantern Alan Scott came out to his children as gay; Robin (Tim Drake) began dating a man after acknowledging he has feelings for both men and women; and the junior Superman, Jonathan Kent, came out as bisexual.
Marvel Comics
Marvel Comics' incorporation of LGBT themes has been unfavorably compared with that of DC; its use of gay characters has been described as "less prolific but more deliberate". Marvel reportedly had a "No Gays in the Marvel Universe" policy during Jim Shooter's 1980s tenure, and Marvel's policy from the 1990s had stated that all series emphasizing solo gay characters must carry an "Adults Only" label, in response to conservative protests. However, these policies did not stop creators from slipping in gay characters and themes; J.M. DeMatteis introduced Arnie Roth, a childhood friend of Steve Rogers, who comes to Cap seeking help in rescuing his "roommate" Michael. Later, Arnie himself is captured by Baron Zemo and forced to dress in flamboyant clothes and stage make-up and give a speech about how his love for Michael is false and unnatural. Cap rescues Arnie and reassures him that his love for Michael is as genuine as Cap's own love for his girlfriend. The story appears to have gone under the radar purely because DeMatteis did not use the word "gay". Subsequent official character biographies have confirmed Arnie Roth as gay. As of 2006, these policies are no longer enforced and LGBT characters appear regularly in Marvel comics. Although same-sex couples are depicted occasionally kissing, intimate or sexual scenes have not been shown, even in Marvel's "Adult only" imprint. The use of mutants and the discrimination they face in the X-Men comics has been seen as a metaphor for the real-world discrimination directed at minority groups including LGBT people.
Alpha Flights Northstar, a member of the original Alpha Flight superhero team, was the first major gay character created by Marvel Comics. Creator John Byrne said that Northstar was planned to be gay from his inception in 1979. The character was finally revealed to be gay in 1992's Alpha Flight issue 106, the only comic book issue to have been inducted into the Gaylactic Hall of Fame. Storylines involving Northstar in Alpha Flight and his limited series have generally ignored his sexuality: Criticism has been levelled at the fact that in 30 years Northstar has never been shown kissing another man, though he finally kissed his boyfriend Kyle in the first issue of the 2011 relaunch of the series. Northstar eventually became a member of the X-Men. During his time in this team he became a mentor to gay teenage mutant Anole, who later became a Young X-Men member along with another gay teen, Graymalkin. During Marjorie Liu's run on Astonishing X-Men, she depicted Northstar's wedding to his longtime partner Kyle Jinadu in issue #51 (August 2012), the first same-sex wedding in mainstream comics.
Ultimate X-Men depicts an alternate version of Northstar who is in a same-sex relationship with that dimension's Colossus. Previously Colossus developed an unrequited passion for his friend Wolverine.
Other LGBT members of Marvel's mutant teams are the Uncanny X-Men Benjamin Deeds, New Mutants Karma, X-Statix'''s Phat, Vivisector, and Bloke (until their deaths) and the villains Mystique and Destiny. In X-Factor (Vol 3) #45 (August 2009), written by Peter David, depowered mutant Rictor and his longtime friend Shatterstar (with whom he'd had an ambiguous relationship) were shown in an on-panel kiss. After the issue was published, Peter David confirmed Rictor and Shatterstar's bisexuality in his blog and expressed his desire to develop the relationship between them further. Shortly after, one of Shatterstar's creators, Rob Liefeld, expressed his disapproval of Peter David's decision and has stated that should he get the chance, he will undo Rictor and Shatterstar's bisexuality. Despite his complaints, however, both Peter David and Marvel editor-in-chief Joe Quesada have defended the development, and the story will most likely go on as planned. David went on to win the 2011 GLADD Media Award for Outstanding Comic Book for his work.
In 1997, writer Ivan Velez, Jr., who had previously written for the adult underground Gay Comix, reintroduced Jennifer Kale with a closely cropped "butch" haircut in the pages of Ghost Rider, portrayed her as related to both Johnny Blaze and Daniel Ketch, and said that an issue of Howard the Duck had shown Jennifer and Doctor Strange as those who initially brought Howard to Earth-616 (no such issue of Howard the Duck exists, and Jennifer and Doctor Strange did not meet until Man-Thing (vol. 2) #4 (May 1980)), after Howard's series had concluded). In issue #92 (January 1998), he depicted Ketch having a vision of life without Ghost Rider in which Jennifer had been in a relationship with a woman, Marie, for three years. Jennifer's first boyfriend, Jaxon, was shown in Fear #13 (April 1973) and #18 (November 1973) and Man-Thing (vol. 2) #4 (May 1980), by which point they had broken up over Jennifer's sorcery. She was shown sharing a bed with a chubby boyfriend named Bernard Drabble in The Legion of Night (October 1991), which was written by her creator, Steve Gerber (later writer of the GLAAD Award-nominated Hard Time), who thought making her related to both Ghost Riders was bad writing, saying that Marvel should change its name to DC for "Deliverance Comics" for being so inbred (he did not read the issues in question, nor was he told of Jennifer's newfound lesbianism). In Witches, Brian Patrick Walsh presents her with the attitude that having slept with women makes her a "bad girl" as a direct character foil to Topaz as a "good girl" (which does not match earlier portrayals of Topaz), and Satana as "the ugly." In Marvel Zombies 4, Topaz teasingly calls Jennifer "girlfriend" to be ironic. Her entry in the Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe now states that she is bisexual.
In 2002, Marvel revived Rawhide Kid in their Marvel MAX imprint, introducing the first openly gay comic book character to star in his own magazine. The first edition of the Rawhide Kid's gay saga was called Slap Leather. The character's sexuality is conveyed indirectly, through euphemisms and puns, and the comic's style is campy. Conservative groups protested the gay take on the character, which they claimed would corrupt children, and the covers carried an "Adults only" label.
The Young Avengers series, which debuted in 2005, featured two gay teenager major characters, Hulkling and Wiccan, from its inception. The characters' sexuality was criticised by some readers and defended by the writers in an extended series of letters on the title's letters page. The Young Avengers earned Marvel its first GLAAD Award Best Comic Book Award in 2005. The 2013 Young Avengers by Kieron Gillen won a second GLAAD Award, awarded both to Gillen and artist Jamie McKelvie. In that series Gillen revealed nearly the entire team as some form of LGBT, including Prodigy (David Alleyne), Miss America, Loki, and Noh-Varr. Speed (Tommy Shepherd), the reincarnated twin of Wiccan, was revealed to be bisexual in 2020, and is currently in a relationship with Prodigy.
Xavin is a non-binary/genderqueer Skrull (a race of shape-shifters) from the award-winning series, Runaways. Xavin was created by author Brian K. Vaughan and artist Adrian Alphona, and debuted in Runaways vol. 2 #7. Xavin had first appeared to the Runaways in their masculine form, but changed into their feminine form for the sake of Karolina Dean, a lesbian hero whom they were to marry. In the series, Xavin often switches between their two forms.
One 2010 comic includes a development which suggests that Hercules had an off-panel sexual encounter with gay male superhero Northstar at an earlier point in time. X-Treme X-Men vol. 2 #7 (2013) depicts an alternate version of Hercules who is in a same-sex relationship with that dimension's Wolverine, the British Governor General of the Dominion of Canada, who is known as Howlett.
In April 2015 Marvel Comics announced that its X-Men character Iceman, Bobby Drake was gay. In the "All-New X-Men" comic book storyline, the mind-reading mutant Jean Grey asks Bobby why he calls women "hot," when she knows he is gay. In 2017, Iceman received his first ongoing solo series, which focused on the adult Bobby Drake coming to terms with life as an out gay man, his Omega-level superpowers, his legacy as a hero and fighting some of the biggest villains in the Marvel Universe. The book had been cancelled, with its last issue being in early 2018, but Marvel has since announced a new Iceman ongoing series beginning in September 2018.
Mark Waid, writer of Black Widow #9, discussed that "[Both Natasha and Bucky] have had a crush on Steve Rogers at some point in the past" hinting that Bucky Barnes may be bisexual.
Archie Comics
In September 2010 Archie Comics introduced an openly gay character, Kevin Keller in Veronica #202, though it was only published in the U.S. and Canada. In the story, Veronica quickly falls for the new-boy-in-town, with a sweet smile and chiseled good looks, Kevin. Kevin beats Jughead in a burger-eating contest, and he tells Jughead that he's not interested in Veronica because he's gay. Unbeknownst to Kevin, Jughead has a score to settle with Veronica. So, when Jughead requests for Kevin not tell Veronica about his sexuality, Kevin willingly agrees. The bulk of the story is about Veronica's cluelessness.
As widely considered traditional, predictable, and wholesome publishers to the nth degree for generations, Archie Comics' open recognition of homosexuality through the addition of Kevin Keller came as a surprise to many readers. However, as Lyle Masaki of AfterElton.com recognizes, "There is a long-standing misconception that sexuality has to be a part of a gay character, but being gay doesn't have anything to do with sex." Kevin went on to star in his own mini-series, and now is the star of his own digest-size series, and guest starred in the Life with Archie: The Married Life series, with the issue depicting his wedding becoming one of the fastest selling Archie comics in decades.
Other publishers
The 1990s saw the creation of a number of independent publishing houses with output that competed with the giants of mainstream comics publishing, Marvel and DC. The companies included Malibu Comics, Image Comics (such as Hisao and Guilliame from Morning Glories) IDW Publishing, and later, Dark Horse Comics. These companies gave greater artistic freedom to their writers and artists and chose not to ascribe to the Comics Code, allowing exploration of more mature themes. As a result, comics from these companies included a greater relative number of LGBT characters and storylines than their more traditional competitors. LGBT superhero characters include Spectral and Turbo Charge (from Malibu comics), and Gen13's Sarah Rainmaker (created by Wildstorm for Image Comics before being taken over by DC). Colleen Doran's A Distant Soil, dating back to the black-and-white independent movement of the 1980s, and published by Image since 1996, featured openly gay characters as the romantic leads that gained the series a Gaylactic Spectrum Award nomination.
Dark Horse's Buffy the Vampire Slayer-related comics feature the lesbian characters of Willow, Tara and Kennedy and the closeted character Andrew from the television series. The Buffy Season Eight comics attracted media attention when the title character has a one-night stand with another girl who had fallen in love with her. The encounter was repeated, but both the character and the creators denied that this made Buffy gay, with Joss Whedon saying: "We're not going to make her gay, nor are we going to take the next 50 issues explaining that she's not. She's young and experimenting, and did I mention open-minded?"
Mainstream European comics
Comics from continental Europe have been described as having a greater range of "themes, narratives and forms of visual impact" than English-language comics, but have been superseded in popularity by American comics since the mid-1980s, with only French comics matching the popularity of Japanese and American comics. The lack of a "comics code" equivalent to the US system has made the incorporation of LGBT themes less controversial. This is exemplified by the Kelly Green graphic novels (1982–93), created by Stan Drake and Leonard Starr. Drake and Starr are American cartoonists who chose to publish in France, where they would not be limited by US censorship and "could write and draw anything they wanted"; this included episodes in which the vigilante title character dresses as a boy to lure a gay villain into an ambush, and a stereotypically gay secondary character who ran a strip-club.
At the beginning of the 20th century, French and Belgian comic strips ("Bande Dessinée") had become regarded as a medium for children – this restricted their inclusion of adult and sexual themes, and lasted until at least the 1960s. However, early Franco-Belgian comics for children such as The Adventures of Tintin, Asterix, and The Adventures of Alix have also had sexual and LGBT subtext inferred by readers. Readers of Tintin books have speculated about his sexuality, leading to Marcel Wilmet, spokesperson of Studios Hergé, saying that Tintin is macho and not homosexual; Tintin has many male friends, but they are not boyfriends. The Adventures of Alix comics by Jacques Martin are amongst the most prominent historical comics, and the text concerns the restoration of a moral order, but with a "homosexual subtext that may have been invisible to the original readers", which includes the portrayal of a close relationship between Alix and his companion Enak and the full frontal depiction of teenage male bodies. Martin has disputed any gay readings of the central friendship in the books, but an article in Le Palace still called the "heroes homosexuel de notre enfance".
Strips in the 1960s strove to break taboos, but were still censored by a law passed in 1949 that assumed comics were for children, which prevented the inclusion of explicit sexual themes, as in Barbarella album (1964), which had to be redrawn to remove nudity.The Yellow Kid, first serialized in 1895, is considered the "first newspaper comic strip," though "the mechanics of comic strips were in use well before the Kid debut in illustrated magazines." The late 1960s saw greater acceptance of comic strips as a mature artform, and their use as social commentary and satire was established in mainstream newspapers by the 1970s, although some anthologies continued to be banned as "pornographic".
The works of French comic book creator Fabrice Neaud have been described as the "most ambitious autobiographical comics project yet published". These include his 1994 series Ego Comme X and the ongoing Journal, of which Neaud has self-published one volume every other year since 1996. The works chronicle day to day experiences and place them in a framework that examines representation and self-identity of sexual-minorities and the creative process. Volumes one and three focus on the author's homosexuality and status as a struggling gay artist in French small-town life: One story arc covered Neaud's unrequited love for a male friend. Neaud's works have been pointed to as examples that legitimised comics as serious literature, and elevated the regard for autobiographical works within comics. The retrospective and subjective nature of the works leads to significant emotional events being afforded greater coverage, with the result that issues of sexuality and interactions between the author and other men are highlighted, reflecting the importance of sexuality to identity. This has led critic (and character) Dominque Goblet to dismiss the works as trivial; such criticisms have been attributed to bias against autobiography or comics, or inability to identify with a gay character.
Frank Margerin's most famous strips follow the lives of working class heterosexual men centered around the character of "suburban rocker" Lucien, and occasionally feature LGBT themes that show the characters' assumptions of stereotypes. In Votez Rocky, the characters dress as the Village People and when a stereotypically gay character tries to chat-up Lucien in Le Retour (1993), he remains oblivious to the attempt. These occurrences have been noted to be about reaffirming their masculinity by comparison with non-masculine gay stereotypes, rather than depictions of homophobia. The relationship between social class and sexual orientation is also explored when a character is arrested by vice police in a park along with a number of gay couples and is humiliated by the police officers homophobic insults. In Comme s'il en Pleuvait (2001), the same character finds that the assumption that he is gay, due to a close male friendship, is to his benefit when in fashionable literary groups, where he is seen as more interesting and trendy.
Spanish comics have been described as less conventional and more diverse than American comics. Anarcoma, by creator , is a "bizarre noir thriller" starring a gay transvestite detective. Anarcoma has been "widely celebrated" as one of the foremost subversive and countercultural comics that challenges preconceptions of sexuality and gender. Luque is openly gay and also writes the underground comic El Vibora. However, Gema Pérez-Sánchez says that the subversive impact of underground comics is less than one might expect, in comparison to mainstream and government-subsidised comics, as the readers of underground comics are unlikely to be shocked. The "veiled" queer content that appears in the Socialist government-sanctioned Madriz has a greater impact.
In Germany, the openly gay cartoonist Ralf König has created several popular comics taking an ironic but affectionate view on both gay and straight relationships. In 1979 he began creating comic strips that appeared in the Munich underground magazine Zomix and the gay periodical Rosa Flieder. In 1981, his first comics Sarius, Das sensationelle Comic-Book and SchwulComix (GayComix) were published by Verlag Rosa Winkel in Berlin. In 1987 he wrote his first comic with a continuous story (Kondom des Grauens). These comics have a large gay fan base, and despite initial skepticism from broader comics audiences due to the work's consistent "gay culture" setting, have also gained great popularity among heterosexual readers. Several of König's comics have been adapted into films; his work has sold more than 5 million copies and been translated into 14 languages.
British comics were for significant parts of the 20th century regarded as being aimed at children, hence avoiding adult themes. One exception is 2000 AD, a more mature and violent comic book. 2000 AD introduced its first openly gay hero in 1992 in the story Swimming in Blood, in the form of the camp vampire exorcist Devlin Waugh. Waugh was created by writer John Smith and artist Sean Phillips and his character's homosexuality is frequently referenced in the strip; in his first story he attempts to seduce one of the men he is rescuing. The character was deliberately created in opposition to such characters as Judge Dredd and Johnny Alpha, gruff, macho men. Waugh, by contrast, was camp, flippant and flamboyant. In the annual poll of readers' opinions, Waugh became the first and last character ever to knock Judge Dredd off the top spot as Favourite Strip. However, the character was not used for seven years after his initial introduction, due to production problems. In the British small press Martin Eden launched Spandex, which claimed to be "the world's first all-gay superhero team".
Mainstream Japanese comics
Comics are an established art form in Japan, which has the biggest comic book industry in the world. Comics are respected and aimed at both child and adult audiences. Sex and violence are common, and their presence in fictional manga is regarded as a "safety valve".
Yaoi and yuri
Yaoi and yuri (also known as "boys' love" and "girls' love", respectively) are Japanese genres incorporating homosexual romance themes across various media. The genres emerged in the 1970s in a branch of manga aimed at girls. Yaoi and yuri have spread beyond Japan: both translated and original yaoi and yuri are now available in many countries and languages. The characters in yaoi and yuri manga do not tend to self-identify as homosexual or bisexual. Famous works include Hiizuredokoro no Tenshi (The Angel that Came from the Sun), an 11-volume series beginning in 1980 that reinterprets the life of the introducer of Buddhism to Japan; and Kaze to Ki no Uta (Poem of the Wind and the Trees), a 17-volume series beginning in 1976 that chronicles the relationship between two schoolboys in France.
As with much manga and anime, science fiction and fantasy tropes and environments are common: Ai no Kusabi, a 1980s yaoi light novel series described as a "magnum opus" of the Boys Love genre, involves a science fictional caste system. Simoun has been described as "a wonderful sci fi series" which does not have to rely on its yuri content to appeal to the audience. The various terminologies for both male/male pairings and female/female pairings are sometimes used to denote the level of sexual explicitness or romanticism in a work. Although yuri originated in female-targeted works, today it is featured in male-targeted ones as well.
Yaoi has been criticised for stereotypical and homophobic portrayals of its characters, and for failing to address gay issues. Homophobia, when it is presented as an issue at all, is often used as a plot device to "heighten the drama", or to show the purity of the leads' love. Rachel Thorn has suggested that as yaoi is a romance narrative, strong political themes may be a "turn off" to the readers. Critics state that the genre challenges heteronormativity via the "queer" bishōnen ("beautiful boys"), and Andrew Grossman has written that the Japanese are more comfortable with writing about LGBT themes in a manga setting, in which gender is often blurred, even in "straight" manga.
Bara and "gay comics"
There also exists "gay manga" (called Bara (rose)) specifically targeted at gay men, with gay characters. Yaoi writers and fans distinguish these "gay manga" from yaoi, sometimes calling it "bara". Prior to the early 2000s, the primary venue for publication of gay men's manga was gay men's general-interest magazines, which have included manga since the inception of Barazoku in 1971. The typical manga story in these magazines is an 8–24 page one-shot, although some magazines, notably G-men, also carry some serialized stories. McLelland, surveying gay men's magazines from the mid to late 1990s, indicates that most manga stories were simply pornographic, with little attention to character or plot, and that even the longer, serialized stories were generally "thinly developed". McLelland characterizes Barazoku as containing "some well-crafted stories which might be better described as erotic rather than pornographic", while the manga in G-men were "more relentlessly sexual", with less attention to characterization and mood.
The 1990s saw increased media focus on LGBT people in Japan, and a large increase in the production of such works written by gay men. Gengoroh Tagame has been called the most influential creator of gay manga in Japan to date. Most of his work first appeared in gay magazines and usually feature sexual abuse. Much of Gengoroh Tagame's early work was published in the magazine G-men, which was founded in 1994 to cater to gay men who preferred "macho fantasy", as opposed to the sleeker, yaoi-inspired styles popular in the 1980s. Like most gay men's general-interest magazines, G-men included manga as well as prose stories and editorial and photographic material. G-men encouraged steady readership by presenting a better-defined fantasy image, and with serialized, continuing manga stories which encouraged purchase of every issue. Tagame's depiction of men as muscular and hairy has been cited as a catalyst for a shift in fashion amongst gay men in 1995, away from the clean-shaven and slender stereotypes of Yaoi and towards a tendency for masculinity and chubbiness. Tagame's work has been criticised by notable gay manga writer Susumu Hirosegawa for its lack of complex storylines. Susumu Hirosegawa's early works were yaoi, but later Hirosegawa moved into gay manga. Hirosegawa's works sometimes contain no sex at all, with greater focus on plot, but when sex is present it is often in the form of sadomasochism or rape, in which the victim learns to enjoy the experience. Bara manga's popularity has continued to increase, with four major publishers of bara manga anthologies in today's Japan.
Other genres
Pornographic manga and anime for men, frequently called hentai in the West, often contains depictions of lesbianism for the titillation of male readers, examples being Demon Beast Invasion (1994) and Twin Angels (1995). Futanari are common character types in hentai; they are transgender or intersex figures, often female, with penises.
Mainstream, non-pornographic manga also frequently contains explorations of gender and sex roles, although usually for purposes of exoticism or comedy rather than in a realistic manner. Some supporting characters cross-dress, such as Nuriko from Fushigi Yuugi, and some series are centred around the idea of changing sex, such as Ranma ½, whose protagonist changes sex, but not gender, when splashed with cold water. IS, a manga about two intersexual characters, won the 2007 Kodansha Manga Award in the girls' manga division. Class S is a genre of girl's fiction that tells stories about crushes between a female upperclassman and an underclassman. Maria-sama ga Miteru, a contemporary series which includes a manga adaptation, has been described as a revival of the Class S genre.
Fandom and awards
As the visibility of LGBT comic book creators and characters has increased, comic book fandom has taken notice. Panels discussing LGBT topics occur regularly at comic book and LGBT conventions such as Comicon and Gaylaxicon, and conventions also feature stands dedicated to LGBT comics. Ted Abenheim, event chair of Prism Comics said in 2008, “We're in our sixth year of exhibiting at Comic-Con, presenting a larger booth and more panels and events than ever before.” A number of websites dedicated to LGBT comic book fandom and featuring content from staff writers exist, such as Prismcomics.org, Pinkkrytonite.com and Gayleague.com.
The first GLAAD Award for Best Comic Book was awarded in 1992 (to DC's The Flash). Since then, a number of GLAAD awards have been awarded to mainstream titles, including for DC's Green Lantern and The Authority titles, and Marvel's Young Avengers. According to Paul Lopez, LGBT fans and creators have "debated whether the awards for mainstream comics were more about media hype than the actual content of the comic's stories."
The Gaylactic Spectrum Awards are given to works of science fiction, fantasy or horror, and their "Other Works" category allows nomination of comic book series or individual issues. Comic book winners include issues of DC's Green Lantern, The Authority and Gotham Central, and nominations have been given to titles from Marvel (X-Force, X-Statix), Dark Horse (Buffy Season 8'') and Image Comics.
The Lambda Literary Foundation, recognizing notable literature for LGBT themes with their "Lammys" awards since 1988, created a new category in 2014 for graphic works.
Prism Comics, an organization formed in 2003 for promoting LGBTQ themes in comic books, has provided the "Queer Press Grant" for comic book creators since 2005.
See also
LGBT characters in comics
LGBT themes in speculative fiction
LGBT themes in anime and manga
LGBT-related comic strips
LGBT-related comics
List of graphic art works with LGBT characters
List of LGBT-related webcomics
Notes
References
Sources
.
External links
Homosexuals in Comics, Lonely Gods
Homosexuality in Comics – Part I, Part II, Part III and Part IV, Comic Book Resources, July 16–19, 2007
Homosexuality in Comics, ComicsVerse
Gay League
Pink Kryptonite
Prism comics
Queer Comics Database
Depictions of people in comics
LGBT themes in fiction
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20York%20State%20Route%2026
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New York State Route 26
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New York State Route 26 (NY 26) is a north–south state highway that runs for through Central New York in the United States. Its southern terminus is located at the Pennsylvania state line south of the town of Vestal in Broome County, where it becomes Pennsylvania Route 267 (PA 267). Its northern terminus is located at a junction with NY 12 in the village of Alexandria Bay in Jefferson County. NY 26 serves three cities along its routing; one directly (Rome) and two via other roadways (Binghamton via Interstate 86 (I-86) and NY 17, and Watertown via NY 3). NY 26 also intersects several other primary routes including I-81 in Barker, an overlap with U.S. Route 20 (US 20) in Madison, NY 12 in Lowville, and an overlap with US 11 in the Jefferson County town of Philadelphia.
NY 26, as a single route, was established in the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York; however, portions of the route had been signed state routes since the 1920s. Since 1930, the route has been realigned several times in the North Country, resulting in a modern routing significantly different from its initial alignment. For a brief period during the 1970s, NY 26 ended in Carthage. The truncation directly led to the elimination of one of NY 26's two spur routes, and the second was absorbed by other routes shortly afterward.
Route description
Most of NY 26 is maintained by the New York State Department of Transportation (NYSDOT); however, two locally maintained sections exist in Madison and Oneida counties. In Madison County, the route is county-maintained from NY 46 to U.S. Route 20 (US 20), where it overlaps with the unsigned County Route 79 (CR 79). In the Oneida County city of Rome, NY 26 is city-maintained from the north end of its overlap with NY 46 to the northern boundary of the city's inner district.
Broome County
NY 26 begins at the Pennsylvania state line in Vestal, where it connects to PA 267. The road heads northward through Vestal as a two-lane highway, passing Wildcat Hill and Pierson Hill as it runs along the base of a valley surrounding Choconut Creek. It serves mostly rural areas for its first before entering a larger valley encompassing the Susquehanna River. Here, the route widens to four lanes as it enters the densely populated town center of Vestal and connects to NY 434 by way of a partial cloverleaf interchange. NY 26 continues northward, meeting NY 17 (Future I-86) at a full cloverleaf interchange, which links NY 26 to the city of Binghamton. Past NY 17, it continues over a bridge crossing the Susquehanna River and enters the village of Endicott on the north bank. Here, NY 26 merges into NY 17C at an interchange just east of the village center.
The two routes overlap for several blocks through Endicott, following the two-lane Main Street westward through the village's central business district. At Nanticoke Avenue, NY 26 turns to the north, following the street through the community's northern residential neighborhoods. Outside of Endicott, the homes give way to significantly less developed areas as the highway runs through the Nanticoke Creek valley. After , the route reaches the small hamlet of Union Center, where NY 38B leaves to the northwest toward its parent route, NY 38. Past Union Center, NY 26 slowly turns to the northeast as it traverses the town of Maine, following Nanticoke Creek as it runs through the town center. The waterway splits into two branches just past the hamlet of Maine, and NY 26 stays with the creek's east branch as the route crosses rural parts of the towns of Nanticoke and Lisle.
In Lisle, Nanticoke Creek's east branch leads NY 26 into the Tioughnioga River valley, where the route connects to Interstate 81 (I-81) by way of a partial diamond interchange just outside the village of Whitney Point in the adjacent town of Triangle. The highway continues into the community, becoming concurrent with US 11 for a single block to East Main Street. Here, NY 26 splits from US 11 but joins NY 79 in order to cross the Tioughnioga River. The overlap ends at a junction on the east bank, where NY 79 heads south along the river, and NY 206 begins and heads eastward. NY 26, meanwhile, follows the nearby Otselic River and its surrounding gully as it runs northeastward toward the Cortland County line. Along the way, the highway runs along the east side of Whitney Point Reservoir and serves Dorchester Park, a recreation area overlooking the spillway.
Cortland and Chenango counties
A rural stretch brings NY 26 to the riverside hamlet of Willet, where it intersects with NY 41. The junction marks the start of a concurrency that runs into the nearby town of Cincinnatus. NY 26 and Route 41 intersect with NY 221 just to the west of Willet before splitting southwest of the hamlet of Cincinnatus. The next intersection along the road serves as the west end of NY 23, which heads eastward into Chenango County. From here, NY 26 runs generally northeastward to the hamlet of Taylor, where it turns to the east at a crossroad just north of the community's center. The track of the route becomes more northeastward as it crosses into Chenango County.
In Chenango County, NY 26 serves only a handful of isolated hamlets scattered across the undeveloped Otselic River valley. About from Taylor, the route reaches the hamlet of South Otselic, home to the National Register of Historic Places-listed South Otselic Historic District and the Holden B. Mathewson House. Another 7 miles brings the route to the hamlet of Otselic, where NY 26 intersects the east–west NY 80 on the opposite side of the river from the community. NY 80 turns northward at this point, overlapping NY 26 as the two roads bends northwestward along the riverbank into Madison County.
Madison and Oneida counties
The overlap extends for into Madison County to the hamlet of Georgetown, where NY 80 forks to the northwest into a narrow creek valley. NY 26, meanwhile, runs northeast from Georgetown through the Otselic River valley, which begins to narrow as the river approaches its source in the northern part of the town. While the river tapers off, NY 26 climbs slightly in elevation to wind its way northeastward around a series of mountains and hills. The road descends into a narrow creek valley at West Eaton, and the highway proceeds east along Eaton Brook to the hamlet of Eaton on the Chenango River. The stream ends here, leaving the route to traverse another set of mountains to reach a low-lying, marshy area near Bouckville. Here, NY 26 crosses NY 46 ahead of a junction with US 20. NY 26 turns east at the junction, following US 20 through Bouckville toward the village of Madison.
US 20 and NY 26 pick up NY 12B at a junction east of Bouckville, and all three routes run east–west through Madison as Main Street. The brief stretch of homes and businesses along Main Street quickly fades outside the village limits, and NY 12B and NY 26 leave US 20 soon afterward. While US 20 continues to the east, NY 12B and NY 26 proceed northeast into Oneida County and the village of Oriskany Falls on the county's southern edge. The routes head along Madison Street to the community's central business district, where NY 26 doubles back to the southwest on Main Street. It continues on this track to the western fringe of the village, where it returns to a northwesterly track and heads for less developed parts of the town of Augusta. The route goes across rolling farmland for several miles before entering the town of Vernon and its hamlet of Vernon Center, where NY 31 terminates at a traffic circle in the center of the community.
About north of Vernon Center, NY 26 intersects NY 5 at a rural junction east of the village of Vernon. From here, NY 26 traverses more open farmland, crossing over the New York State Thruway in Westmoreland before entering the outer district of the city of Rome. The route passes the Oneida and Mohawk correctional facilities just ahead of a junction with NY 365, a four-lane divided highway. NY 26 turns east here, overlapping with NY 365 for just under to a directional T interchange with NY 49 and NY 69. While NY 365 continues northeastward around the perimeter of downtown Rome, NY 26 exits the highway and immediately begins an overlap with both NY 49 and NY 69. The three routes head north on the four-lane East Erie Boulevard, passing a handful of industrial warehouses before crossing over CSX Transportation's Mohawk Subdivision rail line and the Erie Canal on their way into downtown.
The highway runs through a commercial strip for several blocks to an intersection with Black River Boulevard and NY 46. While NY 46 southbound joins NY 49 and NY 69 to the northwest, NY 26 turns northeast to overlap with NY 46 northbound along the four-lane Black River Boulevard, passing along the southeastern edge of the Fort Stanwix National Monument. The overlap continues for several commercial and residential blocks to East Bloomfield Street, at which point NY 26 turns northward to follow the two-lane East Bloomfield and Turin streets across the mostly residential northern part of the city. The homes become more sporadic as the highway leaves Rome for the town of Lee, home to several hamlets along the west side of Delta Lake. North of the reservoir, the route crosses gradually less developed and more open areas as it crosses into Lewis County.
Lewis and Jefferson counties
Just across the county line in the town of Lewis, NY 26 enters the hamlet of West Leyden, built up around the route's junction with the west end of NY 294. From West Leyden, the highway heads generally northeastward across another prolonged stretch of farmland, briefly entering the Constableville village limits and passing over the Sugar River on its way to an intersection with NY 12D. The straight path to the northeast continues as part of NY 12D while NY 26 turns northwestward onto NY 12D's right of way, following the eastern edge of Tug Hill into the town of Turin. In Turin, NY 26 passes through several hamlets then enters the village of Turin. It then enters the town of Martinsburg and passes through more small hamlets, before entering the town of Lowville, where the route connects to NY 12 in the southernmost part of the village of Lowville. NY 12 merges with NY 26 here, and the two routes follow South State Street into the community's central business district. Here, NY 12 and NY 26 meet NY 812 at a four-way junction with Dayan Street and Shady Avenue.
While NY 12 turns west to follow Dayan Street, NY 26 continues northwest on North State Street, overlapping with NY 812 for several blocks before the latter route splits off to the northeast on Bostwick Street. The business and homes of Lowville lead to much less developed areas at the northern village line, and NY 26 traverses little more than open, rolling fields for the next . Just north of the Lowville town line in Denmark, the highway meets NY 410, a short connector serving the village of Castorland. Another stretch of mostly undeveloped fields brings the route across the Deer River and into Jefferson County, the last county on NY 26's route. The highway immediately enters the village of West Carthage, where it briefly becomes concurrent with NY 126 through the sparsely populated western part of the community.
Past West Carthage, the route loosely follows the Black River across rolling farmland in the town of Champion to reach the hamlet of Great Bend, located across the Black River from the grounds of Fort Drum. Here, NY 26 meets NY 3 before crossing the river and entering Fort Drum. The route runs northwestward across the military reservation to the town of Le Ray, home to an intersection with US 11 just outside the Evans Mills village limits. NY 26 joins US 11 here for the second time, following the Indian River northeast across generally rural areas to reach the village of Philadelphia. The conjoined routes cross the river before splitting in the center of the community. At this point, NY 26 returns to a northwesterly alignment as it traverses rolling farmland for to access the village of Theresa. Named Mill Street, the route crosses the Indian River again before changing names to Commercial Street and gradually curving to the southwest.
NY 26 soon enters Theresa's central business district, where it turns northwest onto Main Street. Commercial Street continues southwest as CR 46, once part of NY 37D. NY 26 runs northwest through the remainder of Theresa before veering southwest across another undeveloped stretch to a junction with NY 37 and NY 411. The route turns north at this point, becoming concurrent with NY 37 for through a rural section of the town of Theresa. At the north end of the overlap, NY 26 splits to the northwest toward the town of Alexandria, where it meets CR 192 at a junction that was once the western terminus of NY 26B, one of two spur routes of NY 26 that no longer exist. From CR 192, NY 26 continues northwest across rolling farmland to the village of Alexandria Bay, where the route ends at a junction with NY 12 several blocks south of the Saint Lawrence River.
History
Origins
In 1908, the New York State Legislature created a statewide system of unsigned legislative routes. One route created at this time was Route 27, which began in Forestport and followed what is now NY 12, NY 12D, and NY 26 north through Boonville and Lowville to West Carthage. At this point, Route 27 proceeded northeast to Carthage on modern NY 126 and west to Watertown on current NY 3. It continued generally northward from Watertown to a terminus in Alexandria Bay. In 1910, the legislature established Route 30-a, a connector between Route 27 in Carthage and Route 30 (now US 11) in Antwerp via current NY 3 and the U.S. Military Highway through Fort Drum. On March 1, 1921, Route 30-a was redesignated as Route 49 while Route 27 was extended northeast to Ogdensburg along what is now NY 26, CR 192, and NY 37.
When the first set of posted routes in New York were assigned in 1924, the segment of legislative Route 27 between Alexandria Bay and Ogdensburg became part of NY 3 while the portion of Route 27 from Foresport to Lowville was included in NY 12. By 1926, the Lowville–Carthage section of legislative Route 27 and all of Route 49 was designated as part of NY 48, which continued west from Antwerp to NY 3 in Alexandria on what is now CR 193, CR 194 and NY 26. Also created by 1926 was NY 46, which began in Oriskany Falls and went north to Rome on modern NY 26. Past Rome, NY 46 followed its current alignment to Boonville. The portion of what is now NY 26 south of US 20 was unnumbered prior to 1930.
Designation and realignments
Modern NY 26 was established as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York. It began at the Pennsylvania state line south of Endicott and went north to Carthage over its modern alignment. From Oriskany Falls to Rome, it replaced NY 46, which was moved onto a new alignment to the west that passed through the city of Oneida. NY 26 continued north to Turin via a previously unnumbered road and overlapped with NY 12 from there to Lowville. Past Lowville, NY 26 progressed northward through Carthage, Antwerp and Theresa to Alexandria Bay, replacing all of NY 48 and part of NY 3, which was realigned to follow its modern alignment east of Watertown as part of the renumbering. Also assigned as part of the renumbering was NY 411, a connector highway between NY 26 near Theresa and US 11 in Philadelphia.
NY 26 was realigned in the mid-1950s, to bypass Fort Drum to the west. The route now overlapped NY 3 northwest and west from Carthage to Black River, where it turned northwest to follow a surface road known as the Watertown Bypass to Calcium. NY 26 joined US 11 at a junction north of Calcium and followed it northwest to Antwerp, where it joined its previous alignment. The state of New York assumed ownership and maintenance of the bypass in 1960, at which time it was designated as NY 181. The easternmost section of the highway was realigned to bypass Black River to the west. It separated from NY 3 west of Black River and followed the Black River north to Pearl Street, where it met its old routing. NY 181, which NY 26 overlapped between Calcium and Black River, was renumbered to NY 342 around this time.
The Southern Tier Expressway (NY 17) was open from Vestal to Johnson City, but was not slated to become part of NY 17 until the segment of the expressway from Johnson City to I-81 was completed. As a result, NY 17 exited the expressway at Vestal, overlapped NY 26 south to Vestal Parkway (modern NY 434), and then followed it into downtown Binghamton. The Johnson City–I-81 piece of the expressway was completed and opened to traffic by 1973. At this time the overlap was eliminated, and NY 17 was realigned to follow the expressway while NY 17's former routing from Vestal to Binghamton became an extension of NY 434 on July 1, 1974. Like the NY 17 realignment, the NY 434 extension had been planned years before.
Truncation and re-extension
Following the 1950s realignment, NY 26 overlapped with other routes for in Jefferson County, 65 percent of the route's alignment through the county. In 1975, officials from NYSDOT Region 7 proposed a pair of designation changes to eliminate most of the overlaps. NY 26 would be truncated to end at NY 3 and NY 26A in Carthage, and its former routing from Antwerp to Alexandria Bay would be redesignated as NY 283. Both suggestions were implemented by 1977. The changes were rendered moot on August 1, 1979, as ownership and maintenance of the portions of NY 283 from US 11 in Antwerp to NY 411 in Theresa and from LaFargeville Road in Theresa to NY 37 west of the village was transferred from the state of New York to Jefferson County as part of a highway maintenance swap between the two levels of government.
In return, the state acquired the county-maintained LaFargeville Road from NY 37 to NY 283 and a series of county roads (Broad and Martin streets and Great Bend and Fort Drum roads) connecting West Carthage to Evans Mills. NY 26 was subsequently rerouted to follow the new West Carthage–Evans Mills state highway to US 11 near Evans Mills. It overlapped with US 11 from there to Philadelphia before continuing to Theresa on former NY 411. The route exited Theresa on LaFargeville Road, and NY 26 used a short overlap with NY 37 to rejoin its pre-1970s alignment at Wilson Road. At this point, the route continued to Alexandria Bay as it had prior to the 1970s truncation. The former routing of NY 26 between Fort Drum and Theresa via Antwerp (and thus the former alignment of NY 283 between Antwerp and Theresa) became CR 194 while the former part of NY 26 and NY 283 west of Theresa became CR 193.
Reconstruction
From 2005 to 2006, NY 26 was reconstructed from NY 17C north to the Nanticoke Creek in the village of Endicott and town of Union. This included changing from four lanes to a three lane roadway, with the center lane being a bi-directional left turn lane. Also structural repairs were completed on the railroad bridge over NY 26. The $9 million project was completed in December 2006 by the Vacri Construction Corporation of Binghamton.
Around the Fort Drum area, several projects were completed on NY 26. The first project completed in 2017, reconfigured the intersection with Oneida and Ontario avenues to improve safety and reduce congestion. The second project, completed on August 24, 2018, added a new bridge that connected the airfield area of the base to the main cantonment area. This $7.6 million project, allowed on-base traffic to cross NY 26 without having to leave the base, which in turn reduced congestion on NY 26. Then on May 13, 2019, work began on the third $2.9 million project to reconstruct the intersection with US-11 near Fort Drum in Jefferson County. The project provided additional turning lanes and added a slip ramp onto NY 26 for northbound traffic on US 11. The third project was completed on December 10, 2019.
Future
There are efforts within NYSDOT to renumber NY 365, which overlaps NY 26, and NY 49 (from Utica to Thruway Exit 33 in the Town of Verona) to NY Route 790, with the eventual plan of renumbering it again as an extension of I-790. The cost for the conversion to Interstate standards is estimated to be between $150 million and $200 million.
U.S. Representative Michael Arcuri introduced legislation in July 2010 that would redesignate the portion of NY 49 from the North–South Arterial in Utica to NY 825 in Rome as part of I-790. The conversion is expected to cost between $1.5 and $2 million, which would be used to install new signage along the expressway. By adding the Utica–Rome Expressway to the Interstate Highway System, the area would receive approximately $10 million in additional federal highway funding over the next five years. According to Arcuri, the proposed redesignation is part of a larger, long-term goal of creating an Interstate Highway-standard freeway that would begin at Thruway exit 33 in Verona and pass through Rome before ending at Thruway exit 31. The portion of NY 49 east of NY 825 already meets Interstate Highway standards.
Major intersections
Suffixed routes
NY 26A was an alternate route of NY 26 between Lowville, Lewis County, and Carthage, Jefferson County. While NY 26 followed a direct routing between the two villages, NY 26A veered to the east to serve Croghan. The route was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York and renumbered to NY 126 and NY 812 in the late 1970s.
NY 26B was a spur route in Alexandria that connected NY 26 to NY 37 in the hamlet of Redwood in Jefferson County. The route was assigned and renumbered to NY 287 in the mid-1970s when NY 26 was cut back to Carthage.
See also
List of county routes in Jefferson County, New York
List of county routes in Madison County, New York
References
External links
026
Transportation in Broome County, New York
Transportation in Cortland County, New York
Transportation in Chenango County, New York
Transportation in Madison County, New York
Transportation in Lewis County, New York
Transportation in Oneida County, New York
Transportation in Jefferson County, New York
Transportation in Rome, New York
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental%20chronometry
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Mental chronometry
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Mental chronometry is the scientific study of processing speed or reaction time on cognitive tasks to infer the content, duration, and temporal sequencing of mental operations. Reaction time (RT; sometimes incorrectly referred to as "response time") is measured by the elapsed time between stimulus onset and an individual's response on elementary cognitive tasks (ECTs), which are relatively simple perceptual-motor tasks typically administered in a laboratory setting. Mental chronometry is one of the core methodological paradigms of human experimental, cognitive, and differential psychology, but is also commonly analyzed in psychophysiology, cognitive neuroscience, and behavioral neuroscience to help elucidate the biological mechanisms underlying perception, attention, and decision-making in humans and other species.
Mental chronometry uses measurements of elapsed time between sensory stimulus onsets and subsequent behavioral responses to study the time course of information processing in the nervous system. Distributional characteristics of response times such as means and variance are considered useful indices of processing speed and efficiency, indicating how fast an individual can execute task-relevant mental operations. Behavioral responses are typically button presses, but eye movements, vocal responses, and other observable behaviors are often used. Reaction time is thought to be constrained by the speed of signal transmission in white matter as well as the processing efficiency of neocortical gray matter.
The use of mental chronometry in psychological research is far ranging, encompassing nomothetic models of information processing in the human auditory and visual systems, as well as differential psychology topics such as the role of individual differences in RT in human cognitive ability, aging, and a variety of clinical and psychiatric outcomes. The experimental approach to mental chronometry includes topics such as the empirical study of vocal and manual latencies, visual and auditory attention, temporal judgment and integration, language and reading, movement time and motor response, perceptual and decision time, memory, and subjective time perception. Conclusions about information processing drawn from RT are often made with consideration of task experimental design, limitations in measurement technology, and mathematical modeling.
History and early observations
The conception of human reaction to an external stimulus being mediated by a biological interface (such as a nerve) is nearly as old as the philosophical discipline of science itself. Enlightenment thinkers like René Descartes proposed that the reflexive response to pain, for example, is carried by some sort of fiber—what we would recognize as part of the nervous system today—up to the brain, where it is then processed as the subjective experience of pain. However, this biological stimulus-response reflex was thought by Descartes and others as occurring instantaneously, and therefore not subject to objective measurement.
The first documentation of human reaction time as a scientific variable would come several centuries later, from practical concerns that arose in the field of astronomy. In 1820, German astronomer Friedrich Bessel applied himself to the problem of accuracy in recording stellar transits, which was typically done by using the ticking of a metronome to estimate the time at which a star passed the hairline of a telescope. Bessel noticed timing discrepancies under this method between records of multiple astronomers, and sought to improve accuracy by taking these individual differences in timing into account. This led various astronomers to seek out ways to minimize these differences between individuals, which came to be known as the "personal equation" of astronomical timing. This phenomenon was explored in detail by English statistician Karl Pearson, who designed one of the first apparatuses to measure it.
Purely psychological inquiries into the nature of reaction time came about in the mid-1850s. Psychology as a quantitative, experimental science has historically been considered as principally divided into two disciplines: Experimental and differential psychology. The scientific study of mental chronometry, one of the earliest developments in scientific psychology, has taken on a microcosm of this division as early as the mid-1800s, when scientists such as Hermann von Helmholtz and Wilhelm Wundt designed reaction time tasks to attempt to measure the speed of neural transmission. Wundt, for example, conducted experiments to test whether emotional provocations affected pulse and breathing rate using a kymograph.
Sir Francis Galton is typically credited as the founder of differential psychology, which seeks to determine and explain the mental differences between individuals. He was the first to use rigorous RT tests with the express intention of determining averages and ranges of individual differences in mental and behavioral traits in humans. Galton hypothesized that differences in intelligence would be reflected in variation of sensory discrimination and speed of response to stimuli, and he built various machines to test different measures of this, including RT to visual and auditory stimuli. His tests involved a selection of over 10,000 men, women and children from the London public.
Welford (1980) notes that the historical study of human reaction times were broadly concerned with five distinct classes of research problems, some of which evolved into paradigms that are still in use today. These domains are broadly described as sensory factors, response characteristics, preparation, choice, and conscious accompaniments.
Sensory factors
Early researchers noted that varying the sensory qualities of the stimulus affected response times, wherein increasing the perceptual salience of stimuli tends to decrease reaction times. This variation can be brought about by a number of manipulations, several of which are discussed below. In general, the variation in reaction times produced by manipulating sensory factors is likely more a result of differences in peripheral mechanisms than of central processes.
Strength of stimulus
One of the earliest attempts to mathematically model the effects of the sensory qualities of stimuli on reaction time duration came from the observation that increasing the intensity of a stimulus tended to produce shorter response times. For example, Henri Piéron (1920) proposed formulae to model this relationship of the general form:
,
where represents stimulus intensity, represents a reducible time value, represents an irreducible time value, and represents a variable exponent that differs across senses and conditions. This formulation reflects the observation that reaction time will decrease as stimulus intensity increases down to the constant , which represents a theoretical lower limit below which human physiology cannot meaningfully operate.
The effects of stimulus intensity on reducing RTs was found to be relative rather than absolute in the early 1930s. One of the first observations of this phenomenon comes from the research of Carl Hovland, who demonstrated with a series of candles placed at different focal distances that the effects of stimulus intensity on RT depended on previous level of adaptation.
In addition to stimulus intensity, varying stimulus strength (that is, "amount" of stimulus available to the sensory apparatus per unit time) can also be achieved by increasing both the area and duration of the presented stimulus in an RT task. This effect was documented in early research for response times to sense of taste by varying the area over taste buds for detection of a taste stimulus, and for the size of visual stimuli as amount of area in the visual field. Similarly, increasing the duration of a stimulus available in a reaction time task was found to produce slightly faster reaction times to visual and auditory stimuli, though these effects tend to be small and are largely consequent of the sensitivity to sensory receptors.
Sensory modality
The sensory modality over which a stimulus is administered in a reaction time task is highly dependent on the afferent conduction times, state change properties, and range of sensory discrimination inherent to our different senses. For example, early researchers found that an auditory signal is able to reach central processing mechanisms within 8–10 ms, while visual stimulus tends to take around 20–40 ms. Animal senses also differ considerably in their ability to rapidly change state, with some systems able to change almost instantaneously and others much slower. For example, the vestibular system, which controls the perception of one's position in space, updates much more slowly than does the auditory system. The range of sensory discrimination of a given sense also varies considerably both within and across sensory modality. For example, Kiesow (1903) found in a reaction time task of taste that human subjects are more sensitive to the presence of salt on the tongue than of sugar, reflected in a faster RT by more than 100 ms to salt than to sugar.
Response characteristics
Early studies of the effects of response characteristics on reaction times were chiefly concerned with the physiological factors that influence the speed of response. For example, Travis (1929) found in a key-pressing RT task that 75% of participants tended to incorporate the down-phase of the common tremor rate of an extended finger, which is about 8–12 tremors per second, in depressing a key in response to a stimulus. This tendency suggested that response times distributions have an inherent periodicity, and that a given RT is influenced by the point during the tremor cycle at which a response is solicited. This finding was further supported by subsequent work in the mid-1900s showing that responses were less variable when stimuli were presented near the top or bottom points of the tremor cycle.
Anticipatory muscle tension is another physiological factor that early researchers found as a predictor of response times, wherein muscle tension is interpreted as an index of cortical arousal level. That is, if physiological arousal state is high upon stimulus onset, greater preexisting muscular tension facilitates faster responses; if arousal is low, weaker muscle tension predicts slower response. However, too much arousal (and therefore muscle tension) was also found to negatively affect performance on RT tasks as a consequence of an impaired signal-to-noise ratio.
As with many sensory manipulations, such physiological response characteristics as predictors of RT operate largely outside of central processing, which differentiates these effects from those of preparation, discussed below.
Preparation
Another observation first made by early chronometric research was that a "warning" sign preceding the appearance of a stimulus typically resulted in shorter reaction times. This short warning period, referred to as "expectancy" in this foundational work, is measured in simple RT tasks as the length of the intervals between the warning and the presentation of the stimulus to be reacted to. The importance of the length and variability of expectancy in mental chronometry research was first observed in the early 1900s, and remains an important consideration in modern research. It is reflected today in modern research in the use of a variable foreperiod that precedes stimulus presentation.
This relationship can be summarized in simple terms by the equation:
where and are constants related to the task and denotes the probability of a stimulus appearing at any given time.
In simple RT tasks, constant foreperiods of about 300 ms over a series of trials tends to produce the fastest responses for a given individual, and responses lengthen as the foreperiod becomes longer, an effect that has been demonstrated up to foreperiods of many hundreds of seconds. Foreperiods of variable interval, if presented in equal frequency but in random order, tend to produce slower RTs when the intervals are shorter than the mean of the series, and can be faster or slower when greater than the mean. Whether held constant or variable, foreperiods of less than 300 ms may produce delayed RTs because processing of the warning may not have had time to complete before the stimulus arrives. This type of delay has significant implications for the question of serially-organized central processing, a complex topic that has received much empirical attention in the century following this foundational work.
Choice
The number of possible options was recognized early as a significant determinant of response time, with reaction times lengthening as a function of both the number of possible signals and possible responses.
The first scientist to recognize the importance of response options on RT was Franciscus Donders (1869). Donders found that simple RT is shorter than recognition RT, and that choice RT is longer than both. Donders also devised a subtraction method to analyze the time it took for mental operations to take place. By subtracting simple RT from choice RT, for example, it is possible to calculate how much time is needed to make the connection. This method provides a way to investigate the cognitive processes underlying simple perceptual-motor tasks, and formed the basis of subsequent developments.
Although Donders' work paved the way for future research in mental chronometry tests, it was not without its drawbacks. His insertion method, often referred to as "pure insertion", was based on the assumption that inserting a particular complicating requirement into an RT paradigm would not affect the other components of the test. This assumption—that the incremental effect on RT was strictly additive—was not able to hold up to later experimental tests, which showed that the insertions were able to interact with other portions of the RT paradigm. Despite this, Donders' theories are still of interest and his ideas are still used in certain areas of psychology, which now have the statistical tools to use them more accurately.
Conscious accompaniments
The interest in the content of consciousness that typified early studies of Wundt and other structuralist psychologists largely fell out of favor with the advent of behaviorism in the 1920s. Nevertheless, the study of conscious accompaniments in the context of reaction time was an important historical development in the late 1800s and early 1900s. For example, Wundt and his associate Oswald Külpe often studied reaction time by asking participants to describe the conscious process that occurred during performance on such tasks.
Measurement and mathematical descriptions
Chronometric measurements from standard reaction time paradigms are raw values of time elapsed between stimulus onset and motor response. These times are typically measured in milliseconds (ms), and are considered to be ratio scale measurements with equal intervals and a true zero.
Response time on chronometric tasks are typically concerned with five categories of measurement: Central tendency of response time across a number of individual trials for a given person or task condition, usually captured by the arithmetic mean but occasionally by the median and less commonly the mode; intraindividual variability, the variation in individual responses within or across conditions of a task; skew, a measure of the asymmetry of reaction time distributions across trials; slope, the difference between mean RTs across tasks of different type or complexity; and accuracy or error rate, the proportion of correct responses for a given person or task condition.
Human response times on simple reaction time tasks are usually on the order of 200 ms. The processes that occur during this brief time enable the brain to perceive the surrounding environment, identify an object of interest, decide an action in response to the object, and issue a motor command to execute the movement. These processes span the domains of perception and movement, and involve perceptual decision making and motor planning. Many researchers consider the lower limit of a valid response time trial to be somewhere between 100 and 200 ms, which can be considered the bare minimum of time needed for physiological processes such as stimulus perception and for motor responses. Responses faster than this often result from an "anticipatory response", wherein the person's motor response has already been programmed and is in progress before the onset of the stimulus, and likely do not reflect the process of interest.
Distribution of response times
Reaction times trials of any given individual are always distributed non-symmetrically and skewed to the right, therefore rarely following a normal (Gaussian) distribution. The typical observed pattern is that mean RT will always be a larger value than median RT, and median RT will be a greater value than the maximum height of the distribution (mode). One of the most obvious reasons for this standard pattern is that while it is possible for any number of factors to extend the response time of a given trial, it is not physiologically possible to shorten RT on a given trial past the limits of human perception (typically considered to be somewhere between 100-200 ms), nor is it logically possible for the duration of a trial to be negative.
One reason for variability that extends the right tail of an individual's RT distribution is momentary attentional lapses. To improve the reliability of individual response times, researchers typically require a subject to perform multiple trials, from which a measure of the 'typical' or baseline response time can be calculated. Taking the mean of the raw response time is rarely an effective method of characterizing the typical response time, and alternative approaches (such as modeling the entire response time distribution) are often more appropriate.
A number of different approaches have been developed to analyze RT measurements, particularly in how to effectively deal with issues that arise from trimming outliers, data transformations, measurement reliability speed-accuracy tradeoffs, mixture models, convolution models, stochastic orders related comparisons, and the mathematical modeling of stochastic variation in timed responses.
Hick's law
Building on Donders' early observations of the effects of number of response options on RT duration, W. E. Hick (1952) devised an RT experiment which presented a series of nine tests in which there are n equally possible choices. The experiment measured the subject's RT based on the number of possible choices during any given trial. Hick showed that the individual's RT increased by a constant amount as a function of available choices, or the "uncertainty" involved in which reaction stimulus would appear next. Uncertainty is measured in "bits", which are defined as the quantity of information that reduces uncertainty by half in information theory. In Hick's experiment, the RT is found to be a function of the binary logarithm of the number of available choices (n). This phenomenon is called "Hick's law" and is said to be a measure of the "rate of gain of information". The law is usually expressed by the formula:
,
where and are constants representing the intercept and slope of the function, and is the number of alternatives. The Jensen Box is a more recent application of Hick's law. Hick's law has interesting modern applications in marketing, where restaurant menus and web interfaces (among other things) take advantage of its principles in striving to achieve speed and ease of use for the consumer.
Drift-diffusion model
The drift-diffusion model (DDM) is a well-defined mathematical formulation to explain observed variance in response times and accuracy across trials in a (typically two-choice) reaction time task. This model and its variants account for these distributional features by partitioning a reaction time trial into a non-decision residual stage and a stochastic "diffusion" stage, where the actual response decision is generated. The distribution of reaction times across trials is determined by the rate at which evidence accumulates in neurons with an underlying "random walk" component. The drift rate (v) is the average rate at which this evidence accumulates in the presence of this random noise. The decision threshold (a) represents the width of the decision boundary, or the amount of evidence needed before a response is made. The trial terminates when the accumulating evidence reaches either the correct or the incorrect boundary.
Standard reaction time paradigms
Modern chronometric research typically uses variations on one or more of the following broad categories of reaction time task paradigms, which need not be mutually exclusive in all cases.
Simple RT paradigms
Simple reaction time is the motion required for an observer to respond to the presence of a stimulus. For example, a subject might be asked to press a button as soon as a light or sound appears. Mean RT for college-age individuals is about 160 milliseconds to detect an auditory stimulus, and approximately 190 milliseconds to detect visual stimulus.
The mean RTs for sprinters at the Beijing Olympics were 166 ms for males and 169 ms for females, but in one out of 1,000 starts they can achieve 109 ms and 121 ms, respectively. This study also concluded that longer female RTs can be an artifact of the measurement method used, suggesting that the starting block sensor system might overlook a female false-start due to insufficient pressure on the pads. The authors suggested compensating for this threshold would improve false-start detection accuracy with female runners.
The IAAF has a controversial rule that if an athlete moves in less than 100 ms, it counts as a false start, and he or she may be (since 2009, even must be) disqualified – even despite an IAAF-commissioned study in 2009 that indicated top sprinters are able to sometimes react in 80–85 ms.
Recognition or go/no-go paradigms
Recognition or go/no-go RT tasks require that the subject press a button when one stimulus type appears and withhold a response when another stimulus type appears. For example, the subject may have to press the button when a green light appears and not respond when a blue light appears.
Discrimination paradigms
Discrimination RT involves comparing pairs of simultaneously presented visual displays and then pressing one of two buttons according to which display appears brighter, longer, heavier, or greater in magnitude on some dimension of interest. Discrimination RT paradigms fall into three basic categories, involving stimuli that are administered simultaneously, sequentially, or continuously.
In a classic example of a simultaneous discrimination RT paradigm, conceived by social psychologist Leon Festinger, two vertical lines of differing lengths are shown side-by-side to participants simultaneously. Participants are asked to identify as quickly as possible whether the line on the right is longer or shorter than the line on the left. One of these lines would retain a constant length across trials, while the other took on a range of 15 different values, each one presented an equal number of times across the session.
An example of the second type of discrimination paradigm, which administers stimuli successfully or serially, is a classic 1963 study in which participants are given two sequentially lifted weights and asked to judge whether the second was heavier or lighter than the first.
The third broad type of discrimination RT task, wherein stimuli are administered continuously, is exemplified by a 1955 experiment in which participants are asked to sort packs of shuffled playing cards into two piles depending on whether the card had a large or small number of dots on its back. Reaction time in such a task is often measured by the total amount of time it takes to complete the task.
Choice RT paradigms
Choice reaction time (CRT) tasks require distinct responses for each possible class of stimulus. In a choice reaction time task which calls for a single response to several different signals, four distinct processes are thought to occur in sequence: First, the sensory qualities of the stimuli are received by the sensory organs and transmitted to the brain; second, the signal is identified, processed, and reasoned by the individual; third, the choice decision is made; and fourth, the motor response corresponding to that choice is initiated and carried out by an action.
CRT tasks can be highly variable. They can involve stimuli of any sensory modality, most typically of visual or auditory nature, and require responses that are typically indicated by pressing a key or button. For example, the subject might be asked to press one button if a red light appears and a different button if a yellow light appears. The Jensen box is an example of an instrument designed to measure choice RT with visual stimuli and keypress response. Response criteria can also be in the form of vocalizations, such as the original version of the Stroop task, where participants are instructed to read the names of words printed in colored ink from lists. Modern versions of the Stoop task, which use single stimulus pairs for each trial, are also examples of a multi-choice CRT paradigm with vocal responding.
Models of choice reaction time are closely aligned with Hick's Law, which posits that average reaction times lengthen as a function of more available choices. Hick's law can be reformulated as:
,
where denotes mean RT across trials, is a constant, and represents the sum of possibilities including "no signal". This accounts for the fact that in a choice task, the subject must not only make a choice but also first detect whether a signal has occurred at all (equivalent to in the original formulation).
Application in biological psychology/cognitive neuroscience
With the advent of the functional neuroimaging techniques of PET and fMRI, psychologists started to modify their mental chronometry paradigms for functional imaging. Although psycho(physio)logists have been using electroencephalographic measurements for decades, the images obtained with PET have attracted great interest from other branches of neuroscience, popularizing mental chronometry among a wider range of scientists in recent years. The way that mental chronometry is utilized is by performing RT based tasks which show through neuroimaging the parts of the brain which are involved in the cognitive process.
With the invention of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), techniques were used to measure activity through electrical event-related potentials in a study when subjects were asked to identify if a digit that was presented was above or below five. According to Sternberg's additive theory, each of the stages involved in performing this task includes: encoding, comparing against the stored representation for five, selecting a response, and then checking for error in the response. The fMRI image presents the specific locations where these stages are occurring in the brain while performing this simple mental chronometry task.
In the 1980s, neuroimaging experiments allowed researchers to detect the activity in localized brain areas by injecting radionuclides and using positron emission tomography (PET) to detect them. Also, fMRI was used which have detected the precise brain areas that are active during mental chronometry tasks. Many studies have shown that there is a small number of brain areas which are widely spread out which are involved in performing these cognitive tasks.
Current medical reviews indicate that signaling through the dopamine pathways originating in the ventral tegmental area is strongly positively correlated with improved (shortened) RT; e.g., dopaminergic pharmaceuticals like amphetamine have been shown to expedite responses during interval timing, while dopamine antagonists (specifically, for D2-type receptors) produce the opposite effect. Similarly, age-related loss of dopamine from the striatum, as measured by SPECT imaging of the dopamine transporter, strongly correlates with slowed RT.
Reaction time as a function of experimental conditions
The assumption that mental operations can be measured by the time required to perform them is considered foundational to modern cognitive psychology. To understand how different brain systems acquire, process and respond to stimuli through the time course of information processing by the nervous system, experimental psychologists often use response times as a dependent variable under different experimental conditions. This approach to the study of mental chronometry is typically aimed at testing theory-driven hypotheses intended to explain observed relationships between measured RT and some experimentally manipulated variable of interest, which often make precisely formulated mathematical predictions.
The distinction between this experimental approach and the use of chronometric tools to investigate individual differences is more conceptual than practical, and many modern researchers integrate tools, theories and models from both areas to investigate psychological phenomena. Nevertheless, it is a useful organizing principle to distinguish the two areas in terms of their research questions and the purposes for which a number of chronometric tasks were devised. The experimental approach to mental chronometry has been used to investigate a variety of cognitive systems and functions that are common to all humans, including memory, language processing and production, attention, and aspects of visual and auditory perception. The following is a brief overview of several well-known experimental tasks in mental chronometry.
Sternberg's memory-scanning task
Saul Sternberg (1966) devised an experiment wherein subjects were told to remember a set of unique digits in short-term memory. Subjects were then given a probe stimulus in the form of a digit from 0–9. The subject then answered as quickly as possible whether the probe was in the previous set of digits or not. The size of the initial set of digits determined the RT of the subject. The idea is that as the size of the set of digits increases the number of processes that need to be completed before a decision can be made increases as well. So if the subject has four items in short-term memory (STM), then after encoding the information from the probe stimulus the subject needs to compare the probe to each of the four items in memory and then make a decision. If there were only two items in the initial set of digits, then only two processes would be needed. The data from this study found that for each additional item added to the set of digits, about 38 milliseconds were added to the response time of the subject. This supported the idea that a subject did a serial exhaustive search through memory rather than a serial self-terminating search. Sternberg (1969) developed a much-improved method for dividing RT into successive or serial stages, called the additive factor method.
Shepard and Metzler's mental rotation task
Shepard and Metzler (1971) presented a pair of three-dimensional shapes that were identical or mirror-image versions of one another. RT to determine whether they were identical or not was a linear function of the angular difference between their orientation, whether in the picture plane or in depth. They concluded that the observers performed a constant-rate mental rotation to align the two objects so they could be compared. Cooper and Shepard (1973) presented a letter or digit that was either normal or mirror-reversed, and presented either upright or at angles of rotation in units of 60 degrees. The subject had to identify whether the stimulus was normal or mirror-reversed. Response time increased roughly linearly as the orientation of the letter deviated from upright (0 degrees) to inverted (180 degrees), and then decreases again until it reaches 360 degrees. The authors concluded that the subjects mentally rotate the image the shortest distance to upright, and then judge whether it is normal or mirror-reversed.
Sentence-picture verification
Mental chronometry has been used in identifying some of the processes associated with understanding a sentence. This type of research typically revolves around the differences in processing four types of sentences: true affirmative (TA), false affirmative (FA), false negative (FN), and true negative (TN). A picture can be presented with an associated sentence that falls into one of these four categories. The subject then decides if the sentence matches the picture or does not. The type of sentence determines how many processes need to be performed before a decision can be made. According to the data from Clark and Chase (1972) and Just and Carpenter (1971), the TA sentences are the simplest and take the least time, than FA, FN, and TN sentences.
Models of memory
Hierarchical network models of memory were largely discarded due to some findings related to mental chronometry. The Teachable Language Comprehender (TLC) model proposed by Collins and Quillian (1969) had a hierarchical structure indicating that recall speed in memory should be based on the number of levels in memory traversed in order to find the necessary information. But the experimental results did not agree. For example, a subject will reliably answer that a robin is a bird more quickly than he will answer that an ostrich is a bird despite these questions accessing the same two levels in memory. This led to the development of spreading activation models of memory (e.g., Collins & Loftus, 1975), wherein links in memory are not organized hierarchically but by importance instead.
Posner's letter matching studies
In the late 1960s, Michael Posner developed a series of letter-matching studies to measure the mental processing time of several tasks associated with recognition of a pair of letters. The simplest task was the physical match task, in which subjects were shown a pair of letters and had to identify whether the two letters were physically identical or not. The next task was the name match task where subjects had to identify whether two letters had the same name. The task involving the most cognitive processes was the rule match task in which subjects had to determine whether the two letters presented both were vowels or not vowels.
The physical match task was the most simple; subjects had to encode the letters, compare them to each other, and make a decision. When doing the name match task subjects were forced to add a cognitive step before making a decision: they had to search memory for the names of the letters, and then compare those before deciding. In the rule based task they had to also categorize the letters as either vowels or consonants before making their choice. The time taken to perform the rule match task was longer than the name match task which was longer than the physical match task. Using the subtraction method experimenters were able to determine the approximate amount of time that it took for subjects to perform each of the cognitive processes associated with each of these tasks.
Reaction time as a function of individual differences
Differential psychologists frequently investigate the causes and consequences of information processing modeled by chronometric studies from experimental psychology. While traditional experimental studies of RT are conducted within-subjects with RT as a dependent measure affected by experimental manipulations, a differential psychologist studying RT will typically hold conditions constant to ascertain between-subjects variability in RT and its relationships with other psychological variables.
Cognitive ability
Researchers spanning more than a century have generally reported medium-sized correlations between RT and measures of intelligence: There is thus a tendency for individuals with higher IQ to be faster on RT tests. Although its mechanistic underpinnings are still debated, the relationship between RT and cognitive ability today is as well-established an empirical fact as any phenomenon in psychology. A 2008 literature review on the mean correlation between various measures of reaction time and intelligence was found to be −0.24 (SD = 0.07).
Empirical research into the nature of the relationship between reaction time and measures of intelligence has a long history of study that dates back to the early 1900s, with some early researchers reporting a near-perfect correlation in a sample of five students. The first review of these incipient studies, in 1933, analyzed over two dozen studies and found a smaller but reliable association between measures of intelligence and the production of faster responses on a variety of RT tasks.
Up through the beginning of the 21st century, psychologists studying reaction time and intelligence continued to find such associations, but were largely unable to agree about the true size of the association between reaction time and psychometric intelligence in the general population. This is likely due to the fact that the majority of samples studied had been selected from universities and had unusually high mental ability scores relative to the general population. In 2001, psychologist Ian J. Deary published the first large-scale study of intelligence and reaction time in a representative population sample across a range of ages, finding a correlation between psychometric intelligence and simple reaction time of –0.31 and four-choice reaction time of –0.49.
Mechanistic properties of the RT-cognitive ability relationship
Researchers have yet to develop consensus for a unified neurophysiological theory that fully explains the basis of the relationship between RT and cognitive ability. It may reflect more efficient information processing, better attentional control, or the integrity of neuronal processes. Such a theory would need to explain several unique features of the relationship, several of which are discussed below.
The serial components of a reaction time trial are not equally dependent on general intelligence or psychometric g. For example, researchers have found that the perceptual processing of multiple stimuli, which necessarily precedes the decision to respond and the response itself, can be processed in parallel, while the decision component must be processed serially. Moreover, variation in general intelligence is chiefly represented in this decision component of RT, while sensory processing and movement time appear to be mostly reflective of non-g individual differences.
The correlation between cognitive ability and RT increases as a function of task complexity. The difference in the correlation between intelligence and RT in simple and multi-choice RT paradigms exemplifies the much-replicated finding that this association is largely mediated by the number of choices available in the task. Much of the theoretical interest in RT was driven by Hick's Law, relating the slope of RT increases to the complexity of decision required (measured in units of uncertainty popularized by Claude Shannon as the basis of information theory). This promised to link intelligence directly to the resolution of information even in very basic information tasks. There is some support for a link between the slope of the RT curve and intelligence, as long as reaction time is tightly controlled. The notion of "bits" of information affecting the size of this relationship has been popularized by Arthur Jensen and the Jensen box tool, and the "choice reaction apparatus" associated with his name became a common standard tool in RT-IQ research.
Mean response time and variability in RT trials both contribute independent variance in their association with g. Standard deviations of RTs have been found to be as strongly or more strongly correlated with measures of general intelligence (g) than mean RTs, with greater variance or "spread-outedness" in an individual's distribution of RTs more strongly associated with lower g, while higher-g individuals tend to have less variable responses.
When multiple measures of RT are studied in a population, factor analysis indicates the existence of a general factor of reaction time, sometimes labeled as G, which is both related to and distinct from psychometric g. This big-G of RT has been found to explain over 50% of the variance in RTs when meta-analyzed over four studies, which included nine separate RT paradigms. The biological and neurophysiological underpinnings of this general factor have yet to be firmly established, though research is ongoing.
The slowest of an individual's RT trials tend to be more strongly associated with cognitive ability than the individual's fastest responses, a phenomenon known as the "worst performance rule".
Biological and neurophysiological manifestations of the RT-g relationship
Twin and adoption studies have shown that performance on chronometric tasks is heritable. Mean RT across these studies reveal a heritability of around 0.44, meaning that 44% of the variance in mean RT is associated with genetic differences, while standard deviation of RTs show a heritability of around 0.20. Additionally, mean RTs and measures of IQ have been found to be genetically correlated in the range of 0.90, suggesting that the lower observed phenotypic correlation between IQ and mean RT includes as-yet unknown environmental forces.
In 2016, a genome-wide association study (GWAS) of cognitive function found 36 genome-wide significant genetic variants associated with reaction time in a sample of around 95,000 individuals. These variants were found to span two regions on chromosome 2 and chromosome 12, which appear to be in or near genes involved in spermatogenesis and signaling activities by cytokine and growth factor receptors, respectively. This study additionally found significant genetic correlations between RT, memory, and verbal-numerical reasoning.
Neurophysiological research using event-related potentials (ERPs) have used P3 latency as a correlate of the "decision" stage of a reaction time task. These studies have generally found that the magnitude of the association between g and P3 latency increases with more demanding task conditions. Measures of P3 latency have also been found to be consistent with the worst performance rule, wherein the correlation between P3 latency quantile mean and cognitive assessment scores becomes more strongly negative with increasing quantile. Other ERP studies have found consilience with the interpretation of the g-RT relationship residing chiefly in the "decision" component of a task, wherein most of the g-related brain activity occurs following stimulation evaluation but before motor response, while components involved in sensory processing change little across differences in g.
Diffusion modeling of RT and cognitive ability
Although a unified theory of reaction time and intelligence has yet to achieve consensus among psychologists, diffusion modeling provides one promising theoretical model. Diffusion modeling partitions RT into residual "non-decision" and stochastic "diffusion" stages, the latter of which represents the generation of a decision in a two-choice task. This model successfully integrates the roles of mean reaction time, response time variability, and accuracy in modeling the rate of diffusion as a variable representing the accumulated weight of evidence that generates a decision in an RT task. Under the diffusion model, this evidence accumulates by undertaking a continuous random walk between two boundaries that represent each response choice in the task. Applications of this model have shown that the basis of the g-RT relationship is specifically the relationship of g with the rate of the diffusion process, rather than with the non-decision residual time. Diffusion modeling can also successfully explain the worst performance rule by assuming that the same measure of ability (diffusion rate) mediates performance on both simple and complex cognitive tasks, which has been theoretically and empirically supported.
Cognitive development
There is extensive recent research using mental chronometry for the study of cognitive development. Specifically, various measures of speed of processing were used to examine changes in the speed of information processing as a function of age. Kail (1991) showed that speed of processing increases exponentially from early childhood to early adulthood. Studies of RTs in young children of various ages are consistent with common observations of children engaged in activities not typically associated with chronometry. This includes speed of counting, reaching for things, repeating words, and other developing vocal and motor skills that develop quickly in growing children. Once reaching early maturity, there is then a long period of stability until speed of processing begins declining from middle age to senility (Salthouse, 2000). In fact, cognitive slowing is considered a good index of broader changes in the functioning of the brain and intelligence. Demetriou and colleagues, using various methods of measuring speed of processing, showed that it is closely associated with changes in working memory and thought (Demetriou, Mouyi, & Spanoudis, 2009). These relations are extensively discussed in the neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development.
During senescence, RT deteriorates (as does fluid intelligence), and this deterioration is systematically associated with changes in many other cognitive processes, such as executive functions, working memory, and inferential processes. In the theory of Andreas Demetriou, one of the neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development, change in speed of processing with age, as indicated by decreasing RT, is one of the pivotal factors of cognitive development.
Health and mortality
Performance on simple and choice reaction time tasks is associated with a variety of health-related outcomes, including general, objective health composites as well as specific measures like cardiorespiratory integrity. The association between IQ and earlier all-cause mortality has been found to be chiefly mediated by a measure of reaction time. These studies generally find that faster and more accurate responses to reaction time tasks are associated with better health outcomes and longer lifespan.
Big-Five personality traits
Although a comprehensive study of personality traits and reaction time has yet to be conducted, several researchers have reported associations between RT and the Big Five personality factors of Extraversion and Neuroticism. While many of these studies suffer from low sample sizes (generally fewer than 200 individuals), their results are summarized here in brief along with the authors' proposed biologically-plausible mechanisms.
A 2014 study measured choice RT in a sample of 63 high and 63 low Extraversion participants, and found that higher levels of Extraversion were associated with faster responses. Although the authors note this is likely a function of specific task demands rather than underlying individual differences, other authors have proposed the RT-Extraversion relationship as representing individual differences in motor response, which may be mediated by dopamine. However, these studies are difficult to interpret in light of their small samples and have yet to be replicated.
In a similar vein, other researchers have found a small (r < 0.20) association between RT and Neuroticism, wherein more neurotic individuals tended to be slower at RT tasks. The authors interpret this as reflecting a higher arousal threshold in response to stimuli of varying intensity, speculating that higher Neuroticism individuals may have relatively "weak" nervous systems. In a somewhat larger study of 242 college undergraduates, Neuroticism was found to be more substantially correlated (r ≈ 0.25) with response variability, with higher Neuroticism associated with greater RT standard deviations. The authors speculate that Neuroticism may confer greater variance in reaction time through the interference of "mental noise."
See also
CDR computerized assessment system
Implicit-association test
Inspection time
Jensen box
Movement in learning
Psychomotor agitation
Psychomotor learning
Psychomotor retardation
Timed antagonistic response alethiometer
References
Further reading
External links
Reaction Time Test – Measuring Mental Chronometry on the Web
Historical Introduction to Cognitive Psychology
Timing the Brain: Mental Chronometry as a Tool in Neuroscience
Cognition
Time in life
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4778319
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unmanned%20underwater%20vehicle
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Unmanned underwater vehicle
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Unmanned underwater vehicles (UUV), sometimes known as underwater drones, are submersible vehicles that can operate underwater without a human occupant. These vehicles may be divided into two categories: remotely operated underwater vehicles (ROUVs) and autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs). ROUVs are remotely controlled by a human operator. AUVs are automated and operate independently of direct human input.
Classifications
Remotely operated underwater vehicle
Remotely Operated Underwater Vehicles (ROUVs) is a subclass of UUVs with the primary purpose of replacing humans for underwater tasks due to the difficult underwater conditions. ROUVs are designed to perform educational or industrial missions. They are manually controlled by an operator to perform tasks that include surveillance and patrolling. The structure of ROUVs disqualify it from being able to operate autonomously. In addition to a camera, actuators, and sensors, ROUVs often include a “gripper” or something to grasp objects with. This may throw off the weight distribution of the vehicle, requiring manual assistance at all times. Sometimes ROUVs require additional assistance due to the importance of the task being performed. The US Navy developed a Submarine Rescue Diving Recompression System (SRDRS) that can save up to 16 people up to 2000 feet underwater at a time. Such a large vehicle with the primary role of saving lives requires an operator(s) to be present during its mission.
Autonomous underwater vehicle
Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUVs) are defined as underwater vehicles that can operate without a human operator. Sizes can range from just a few kilograms up to thousands of kilograms. The first AUV was created in 1957 with the purpose of performing research in the Arctic Waters for the Applied Ph Laboratory at the University of Washington. By the early 2000s, 10 different AUV had been developed such as screw driven AUVs, underwater gliders, and Bionic AUVs. The earliest models used screw propeller thrusters while more recent models utilized automatic buoyancy control. The earliest model, SPURV, weighed 484 kg, went as deep as 3650 meters, and could travel for up to 5.5 hours. One of the most recent models, Deepglider, weighs 62 kg, can go as deep as 6000 meters, and can travel up to 8500 km.
History
1950s
Starting in 1957, the first unmanned underwater vehicle (UUV) was classified as an autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV), and was created in the United States to research the Arctic waters. The Special Purpose Underwater Research Vehicle (SPURV), was used by the University of Washington to collect oceanographic data until 1979 during which the development of SPURV II began to provide better movement performance and better sensing capabilities.
1970s
Scientists from the Autonomous and Control Processes Institute took interest in the developments of the AUV “SCAT” which led to the introduction of the UUVs “L1” and “L2” in 1974. “L1” and “L2” are AUV models used for the further development of technology and oceanographic mapping respectively.
1980s
Further development of the Remotely operated Vehicle (ROV) brought forth the creation of the Autonomous and Remote controlled submarine (ARCS) in 1983 by the ISE ltd. company in partnership with the “International Submarine Engineering”. ARCS was also classified as a Remotely controlled underwater vehicle (ROUV) because of its 32-bit Motorola processor which allowed for the remote control it featured. This UUV further served as a testing platform, improving on the battery life, navigational, and communicational systems having its first dive in 1987.
1990s
When the Russian Institute of Marine Technology Problems introduced the Solar Autonomous underwater vehicle (SAUV), it was the start of longer term exploration missions without the need of retrieving the UUV for maintenance. The introduction of solar panels on UUVs began with the SAUV in 1987 and was kept during the making of SAUV II. Solar panels enabled lengthier missions, with the ability to use features such as gps and high payloads more frequently due to its ease of charge.
Advancements in battery life enabled for the creation of “gliders” in 1995 which would allow for the long term dives in which the UUVs would remain submerged for weeks or even months at a time.
2000s
UUVs begin to be taken into consideration for more than testing tools for other underwater missions due to the increase number of user internationally. There was also an increase in funding for the UUV technology development. The rise in users internationally led to the increase demand for UUV technology outside of government agencies and the commercial sale of UUVs started, expanding the research based use of the UUV to a more industrial/commercial based use.
2016 incident
On December 16, 2016, a Chinese warship in South China Sea seized an underwater drone that was in the process of being retrieved by the U.S. Navy survey ship USNS Bowditch. A day later, the Chinese Defense Ministry said it will return the drone to the United States. The Pentagon confirmed that and says the drone, used for gathering weather and temperature data, is not armed. The drone was returned several days later.
2020s
In early 2023, following successful military use of uncrewed surface vehicles (USV) by Ukraine in the Black Sea in October and November 2022, the Ukrainian Navy began to employ an uncrewed underwater vehicle (UUV), a maritime drone, called the Toloka TLK-150. A small robotic submarine, the TLK-150 is long, with twin thrusters mounted on wing-like stabilizers. Although "smaller than previous Ukrainian maritime drones [and with a] much shorter range and slower speed, [it] should make up for that by being more stealthy and more survivable.
TLK-150 is developed by Brave1, which has designs for two larger UUVs. The TLK-400 is longer at and "has a much larger diameter body inferring greater range and payload. The TLK-1000 would be much larger again, up to 12 meters (40 feet) in length and with four thrusters."
Design
Gliders
External fins perpendicular to the frame of the UUV which allowed for a linear movement of the UUV and deeper, controlled dives. These gliders use buoyancy derived propulsion which increases the duration of dives and their range through up and down movement in the ocean.
Manta ray
In September 2021, researchers at a Chinese university developed a manta ray shaped UUV with the purpose of collecting information around the Paracel Islands. Some UUVs are designed to mimic the silhouettes of animals to facilitate movement and prevent detection. The manta ray design allows the UUV to camouflage with the marine life and contributes to the ease at which the craft swims through water.
Oxygen/hydrogen air-independent propulsion
UUVs are oxygen dependent vehicles which require to resurface. With the development of a propulsion unit that does not require oxygen or hydrogen, the ability for the UUV to stay continuously underwater increases drastically.
Lithium and water power source
The newest source of power for UUVs could be the free energy reaction of Lithium/water as it produces 8530 Wh/kg. 5% of this energy would surpass the already established sources of energy densities found in today's UUVs. The power source would essentially consume the water around the UUV and manipulated it to produce energy through chemical reactions which would power the UUV.
Applications
Military
The US Navy began using UUVs in the 1990s to detect and disable underwater mines. UUVs were used by the US Navy during the Iraq War in the 2010s to remove mines around Umm Qasr, a port in southern Iraq.
The Chinese military uses UUVs for mostly data collection and reconnaissance purposes.
On December 20, 2020, a fisherman in Indonesia spotted a glider-shaped UUV near Selayar Island in South Sulawesi. Individuals from the Indonesian military have categorized the vehicle to be a Chinese Sea Wing (Haiyi), created for the purposes of collecting data including water temperature, salinity, turbidity, and oxygen levels that can help chart optimal submarine routes.
The navies of multiple countries, including the US, UK, France, Russia, and China are currently creating unmanned vehicles to be used in oceanic warfare to discover and terminate underwater mines. For instance, the REMUS is a three-foot long robot used to clear mines in one square mile within 16 hours. This is much more efficient, as a team of human divers would need upwards of 21 days to perform the same task.
A survey conducted by RAND Corporation for the US military analyzed the missions which unmanned underwater vehicles could perform, which included intelligence, reconnaissance, mine countermeasures, and submarine warfare. The review listed these from most to least important.
In November 2022, the Eurasian Times reported that China's Harbin Engineering University has developed trans-medium 'flying submarine' drones capable of both underwater and air travel, noting the potential military applications of the vehicles.
Implementations
These examples of applications took place during the 2018 Advanced Naval Technology exercises, in August at the Naval Undersea Warfare Center Division Newport. The first example of unmanned underwater vehicles was displayed by Northrop Grumman with their air drop sonobuoy's from a fire scout aircraft. Throughout the demonstration the company used the: e Iver3-580 (Northrop Grumman AUV) to display their vehicles ability to sweep for mines, while also displaying their real-time target automated recognition system. Another company, Huntington Ingalls Industries, presented their version of an unmanned underwater vehicle named Proteus. The Proteus is a dual-mode undersea vehicle developed by Huntington and Battelle, the company during the presentation displayed their unmanned underwater vehicle capabilities by conducting a full-kill demonstration on sea bed warfare. During the demonstration the vehicle utilized a synthetic aperture sonar which was attached to both the port and starboard of the craft, which allowed the unmanned underwater vehicle to identify the targets placed underwater and to ultimately eliminate them. Ross Lindman (director of operations at the company's technical solution's fleet support group) stated that "The big significance of this is that we ran the full kill chain". "We ran a shortened version of an actual mission. We didn’t say, ‘Well we’re doing this part and you have to imagine this or that.’ We ran the whole thing to illustrate a capability that can be used in the near term." The final demonstration for unmanned underwater vehicles was displayed by General Dynamics, the company showcased their cross-domain multi-platform UUV through a theater simulating warfare planning tool. Through the utilization of this simulation, they showed a Littoral combat ship along with two unmanned underwater vehicles. The goal of this exercise was to demonstrate the communication speed between the operator and the UUV. James Langevin, D-R.I., ranking member on the House Armed Services Committee’s subcommittee on emerging threats, stated in regard to this exercise "What this is all driving to is for the warfare commander to be able to make the decisions that are based on what he thinks is high-confidence input quicker than his adversary can," he said. "That’s the goal — we want to be able to … let them make warfare-related decisions quicker than anybody else out there." These exercises were conducted to showcase the applications of unmanned underwater vehicles within the military community, along with the innovations each company created to better suite these specific mission types.
Film uses
UUVs were also used to film a recent National Geographic documentary called "The Dark Secrets" of the Lusitania, the British ocean liner that the Germans sank during World War 1. To capture footage of the wreckage, the camera crew used a combination of submarines, remotely operated underwater vehicles (ROUVs) and underwater suits called Newtsuits.
Argo, a UUV developed by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute (WHOI), helped find the wreckage of the Titanic and was equipped with a set of television cameras to capture views of the ship. The vehicle had the capability to capture wide-angle film and zoom in for close views of the wreckage. Footage captured by Argo was included in the 1986 National Geographic documentary Secrets of the Titanic that details an expedition led by Dr. Robber Ballard and lets viewers take a closer look at the wreckage of the ship.
Deep-sea exploration and research
Unmanned underwater vehicles can be used for deep-sea exploration and research. For example, remotely operated vehicles have been used to collect samples from the sea-floor to measure its microplastics-contents, to explore the deep-sea fauna and structures and discovering new underwater species.
UUVs are commonly used in oceanic research, for purposes such as current and temperature measurement, ocean floor mapping, and Hydrothermal vent detection. Unmanned underwater vehicles utilize seafloor mapping, bathymetry, digital cameras, magnetic sensors, and ultrasonic imaging.
The Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution employs a vehicle called the Sentry, which is designed to map the ocean floor at depths of six thousand meters. The vehicle is shaped to minimize water resistance during dives, and utilized acoustic communications systems to report the vehicles status while operating. Unmanned underwater vehicles are capable of recording conditions and terrain below sea ice, as the risk of sending an unmanned vehicle into unstable ice formations is much lower than that of a manned vessel. Glider type unmanned vehicles are often used to measure ocean temperatures and current strengths at various depths. Their simplicity and reduced operating costs allow more UUVs to be deployed with greater frequency, increasing the accuracy and detail of ocean weather reporting. Many UUVs designed with the purpose of collecting seafloor samples or images are of the towed type, being pulled by a ship's cable along either the seafloor or above. Towed vehicles may be selected for tasks which require large amounts of power and data transmission, such as sample testing and high definition imaging, as their tow cable serve as the method of communication between controller and craft. In 2021, scientists demonstrated a bioinspired self-powered soft robot for deep-sea operation that can withstand the pressure at the deepest part of the ocean at the Mariana Trench. The robot features artificial muscles and wings out of pliable materials and electronics distributed within its silicone body and could be used for exploration and environmental monitoring.
Science Direct claims the use of Unmanned Underwater Vehicles has risen consistently since they were introduced in the 1960s, and find their most frequent use in scientific research and data collection. Oceanservice describes Remote Operated Vehicles (ROVs) and Autonomous underwater vehicle (AUVs) as two variations of UUVs, each able to accomplish the same tasks, provided the craft is properly designed.
Ecosystem rehabilitation
Companies like Duro AUS offer UUVs that can remotely collect and transmit water data for local governments. Duro helps the New York City government collect data around Randall's Island Park Alliance to monitor water quality and wetland health in the East and Harlem Rivers. Another project that Duro is undertaking is in conjunction with the Bronx River Alliance to help rejuvenate the river's wildlife. Using this data, state and local governments have made key decisions regarding the policies under the New York Ocean Action Plan for adjacent oceans, rivers, and estuaries.
Concerns
A major concern with unmanned underwater vehicles is communication. Communication between the pilot and unmanned vehicle is crucial, however there are multiple factors that hinder the connection between the two. One of the major problems involves the distortion of transmissions underwater, because water can distort underwater transmissions and delay them which can be a very major problem in a time sensitive mission. Communications are usually disturbed due to the fact that unmanned underwater vehicles utilize acoustic waves rather than the more conventional electromagnetic waves. Acoustic wave transmissions are typically delayed between 1–2 seconds, as they move more slowly than other types of waves. Other environmental conditions can also hinder communications such as reflection, refraction, and the absorbing of signal. These underwater phenomena overall scatter and degrade the signal, making UUV communication systems fairly delayed when compared to other communication sources. Another system that utilizes acoustic waves is found in the navigation of these unmanned vehicles. A popular navigation system aboard these unmanned underwater vehicles is acoustic positioning, which is also faced with the same problems as acoustic communication because they use the same system. The Royal Netherlands Navy has published an article detailing their concerns surrounding unmanned marine vehicles. The Royal Netherlands Navy is strongly concerned with the ability of UUV's to evade detection and complete tasks not possible in manned vessels. The adaptability and utility of Unmanned Underwater vehicles means it will be difficult to predict and counter their future actions.
Over the last few years, projects like TWINBOT are developing new ways of communication among several GIRONA500 AUVs.
See also
Radio-controlled submarine, operated via radio control
Remotely operated underwater vehicle, operated via cable
References
External links
Russia Says It's Working on a Drone That Can Imitate Any Submarine - The Surrogat - Saint
TWINBOT project
GIRONA500
Articles containing video clips
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4778524
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feni%20Girls%27%20Cadet%20College
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Feni Girls' Cadet College
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Feni Girls' Cadet College is a military high school for girls, located in Feni Sadar Upazila, Bangladesh. Cadet colleges are autonomous residential institutions that impart an all round education to the young learners at the secondary and higher secondary level. The colleges are under the auspices of the Ministry of Defence and function under the direct supervision of the Adjutant General of the Bangladesh Army.
History
Mymensingh Girls' Cadet College was established in 1984 as the first Girls' Cadet College in Bangladesh alongside the nine existing cadet colleges for boys. Thereafter, the desire to increase the number of places for girls' to promote more equal access to such an education combined with the introduction of commissioning female officers into the Defense Services in 2002 added more impetus to the issue. Finally, the government decided to establish two girls' cadet colleges at Feni and Joypurhat.A portion of an abandoned British Airfield (constructed in 1942 during World War II) was chosen as the site for Feni Girls' Cadet College. The MES (Military Engineer Services) started work on the project on 29 June 2004. The student (called cadet) selection procedure started in December 2005 and a nationwide competitive examination held.
Initially, only a skeleton staff of military and civilian backgrounds were transferred from other cadet colleges while the recruitment process was undertaken. The college received the first batch of newly recruited employees in April 2006. The college opened for teaching on 15 April 2006 with 100 students (cadets), fifty of each from classes VIII and VII. On 7 June 2006 the then Prime Minister Begum Khaleda Zia formally opened the college. Ministers, Chief of three Services, Senior Military and Civil Officers, Elites, college staff and Cadets were present. The college started running with basic buildings and services as work continued on enlarging the campus.
Motto
Noble Education Decent Life
Location
The college is located at the Old Airport Area just beside Feni town. The Feni-Chagolnaiya highway passes through the college dividing the campus in half. The main highway of Bangladesh, Dhaka-Chittagong Inter-district Highway passes through Feni. Buses usually take 3–4 hours to travel on 165 km highway from Dhaka and about 2.5 hours from Chittagong. Feni is also accessible by train.
Houses
Administration
Central administration
Cadet Colleges function under the Ministry of Defence. The Defence Secretary is the chairman of the Cadet College Governing Council while the Adjutant General, Bangladesh Army is the chairman of the Cadet College Governing Body. The Cadet College Section at the Adjutant General's Branch at Army Headquarters directly controls all the Cadet Colleges.
College administration
The principal of the college may be either a serving military officer of the army rank of Lieutenant Colonel, or navy or air force equivalent, or a senior officer from the Cadet College Service (promoted from the faculty members as per regulation). The vice principal is responsible for academic affairs.
A military officer of the rank of major is posted as the adjutant who is the principal's assistant and is responsible for administrative matters. Senior faculty members appointed as a House Master look after the administration of the Cadet Hostel/ Boarding House. All faculty members are attached to a Houses and are called House Tutors. The accounts officer looks after the matters relating to accounts and budget.
Cadet administration
To build leadership skills and maintain effective cadet administration a set of cadet leaders called Prefects are appointed from the cadets of the most senior class. The cadet administration works under the supervision of the college administration. The appointments are:
College Prefect
House Prefects
College Games Prefect
College Cultural Prefect
College Dining Hall Prefect
Assistant House Prefects
House Games Prefects
House Cultural Prefects
Junior Prefects (from class XI, to assist the Prefects named above)
Infrastructure
The college is spread over an area of approximately . The buildings are
Academic Block: (Jahangir Bhaban named after Bir Sreshtho Captain Mohiuddin Jahangir) is a modern three storey building which is the centre of teaching activity. The building houses the classrooms, art gallery, computer lab, science labs, language lab, archive, various academic departments, the Vice Principal's Office and the Staff Lounge (Lyceum).
House: The three boarding houses (Khadiza, Ayesha and Fatema House) are large buildings, capable of accommodating 100 cadets in each. The housing complex is secured with a boundary wall and 24-hour guard.
Cadet Mess: (Bir Sreshtho Matiur Dining Hall named after Bir Sreshtho Flight Lieutenant Matiur Rahman).
Mosque:
Auditorium: (Mostofa Auditrium, named after Bir Srestho Sepoy Mostafa Kamal) has a modern stage and audio visual facilities. The two storied building can comfortably seat 650 persons.
College Hospital: (Bir Sreshtha Nur Muhammad Hospital named after Bir Sreshtho Lance Naik Nur Mohammad Sheikh)
College Library:(Bir Sreshtho Rouf Library named after Bir Sreshtho Lance Naik Munshi Abdur Rouf)
Administrative Building: The central office building has two storeys. The Principal's Office, Adjutant's Office, Admin Office, Accounts Office and others are located here. The national and college flags fly in front of this building.
Cadet Canteen: Cadets can purchase essential commodities and dry foods from the cadets' canteen. Cadets are issued monthly coupons as payment. Cadets are not permitted to carry cash.
Sports fields, basketball courts and a parade ground.
Residential accommodation The residential area is located on southern side of Feni-Chagolnaiya Road. The college provides accommodation to all employees. There is also a two storeyed block to provide accommodation for unmarried male staff members.
Generator Room and Electric Power Station
Pump House
Vehicle Shed
Dhobi and Tailor Shop
Dairy Farm
General store and Ration Store
Academic system
Cadets join in the seventh grade on a six-year course of study. The Higher Secondary Certificate(HSC) is leaving/ matriculation examination all pupils are working towards. Every intake consists of around fifty cadets divided into two groups (called forms) under the supervision of a Form Master. The Form Master is assisted by a Form Prefect selected from the cadets of that form.
The college holds regular internal examinations to assess progress and to prepare them for the Board Examinations.
The parents/guardians are regularly informed of a girls' academic performance and attitude. Additional classes are arranged for struggling students. However, a student showing consistent poor performance will be withdrawn from the college.
The Secondary School Certificate (SSC) and the Higher Secondary Certificate (HSC) examinations are held under the control of the Secondary and Higher Secondary Education Board, Comilla. All the examination dates are published in the Academic Calendar at the beginning of the academic year. A calendar year is usually divided into three terms. The medium of instruction is English. Special emphasis is given in Communicative English, Religious Studies, General Knowledge and Current Affairs.
The first class of cadets presented for the SSC examinations in 2009 all achieved a GPA 5 (top grade) while 48/50 cadets achieved the designation Golden GPA (top grade with distinction).
Faculty and staff
The Vice Principal is in charge of the Academic Section and the faculty. The faculty comprises two academic departments- Science and Humanities:
Humanities: English, Bangla, Islamic Studies, Civics, Economics, Geography, History, Arts and Crafts and Home Economics.
Science: Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Statistics and Computer Sciences.
In addition, the senior most faculty member of each subject heads the department and supervises the curriculum of the respective subjects. Physical training, drill and musical band lessons are supervised by their respective instructors from the army (noncommissioned officers, usually corporal or sergeant).
College events
Being a boarding school, the cadets stay on campus 24 hours a day. The college can accommodate 300 cadets in total.
The academic year of the college is marked by many different events and Inter-House Competitions. The events encourage confidence and sportsmanship within the cadets. All the various competitions- Academic, Co-Curricular and Extra-Curricular- award house points which go towards the overall Championship Trophy of the year, which is greatly cherished and honoured. This is hotly contested. The notable events of the college are:
College Stage Competition (CSC)
Qirat Competition
Extempore Speech Competition(Bengali and English)
Story Telling Competition
Debate (Bengali and English)
Solo Acting Competition (Bengali and English)
Parliamentary Debate (English)
Music Competition
Dance Competition
Current Affairs Display Competition
Recitation (Bangla and English)
General Knowledge and Quiz Competition
Spelling Competition (Bangla and English)
Painting Competition
Hobbies clubs/societies
Quranic Society
Physics Club
Chemistry Club
Biology Club
Geography and Environment Club
Arts and Crafts Club
Current Affairs Club
Bengali Literary and Cultural Society
English Literary and Cultural Society
Music and Dance Club
First Aid Club
Computer Club
Sewing and Cooking Club
Photography Club
Games and physical activities
Every academic day (Saturday through Thursday) begins with either Physical Training or Drill (military parade) period of 30 mins. Cadets also take part in various games and sports in the afternoon (Saturday through Wednesday) for 50 mins. The college has facilities for handball, volleyball, badminton, cricket and athletics. Annual inter-house competitions are organised in following games and sports:
Handball (senior and junior group)
Badminton (senior and junior group)
Basket Ball (senior and junior group)
Athletics (senior, intermediate and junior group)
PT Display (combined)
The schedule of the competitions is circulated through the Calendar of Events at the beginning of the year. The Annual Athletic Competition is the final competition of the year and is held after the end of year examinations. It ends with a grand prize-giving ceremony to which the parents/guardians are invited.
Other competitions
Inter-house Academic Competition (based on the academic performance of the cadets)
Inter-house Novices' Drill Competition
Principal's Inspection Parade
Health and Hygiene Competition
Principal's House Inspection
Inter-house Drill Competition
Inter-house Indoor Games Competition
Discipline Competition
Educational visits, excursions and picnic
Educational visits and excursions are arranged regularly.
Commemoration of national days and special occasions
National Days are observed. Victory Day (16 December) and Independence Day (26 March) start with Flag Raising Ceremony early in the morning. International Mother Language Day (21 February) starts with an early morning procession. Special cultural programs and discussions are organised highlighting the significance of the day. Special Days like Shob i Barat, Eid I Miladun Nabi are observed with special prayer and milad mahfil. College Raising Day is also observed with due enthusiasm.
Parents visiting day and communication with family
The students are permitted to receive visitors once a month on scheduled Fridays during the term. The visit dates are communicated to the parents at the beginning of the year. Cadets can also make phone call to their parents as per a schedule. Letter writing home is compulsory every Friday.
Recreation
Every House has a recreation room with a TV, newspapers, magazines and musical instruments. The House indoor games room has provision for table tennis, carrom, chess and scrabble. Cadets can also pass their time reading books in the House library. On selected Thursdays movie showings are arranged.
Wall Magazine and periodicals
The bilingual Bengali and English 'Wall Magazine' is published regularly as part of inter-house competition. Yearly Bengali and English periodicals named UTTARAN and INTREPID are also published where the cadets can express their mind on varied subjects.
Cultural activities
Cadets are encouraged to participate in cultural activities.
Every class presents a cultural night where the officers and faculty members are invited along with family. Houses also present a cultural programme at the end of each term. Music and dance lessons are organised for interested cadets. The creative potential of a novice cadet is discovered through a Talent Show programme. Special occasions (Bengali New Year, Rabindra, Nazrul anniversary etc.) are celebrated through cultural shows and discussion.
Inter Cadet College and national competitions
Feni Girls' Cadet College participated in the Inter-Cadet College Literary and Music Meet (ICCLMM)- 2006 at Pabna Cadet College within a month of its opening and took part in all the events. Cadet Afsana and Cadet Muslima became 2nd and 3rd in modern song and patriotic song respectively.
The college joined ICCLMM-2007 at Comilla Cadet College and displayed a glorious performance in music events and reasonable performance in literature. The college achieved the Runner-Up Trophy in Music losing out to Mymensingh Girls' Cadet College by 0.5 point and came 7th overall. Cadet Muslima sang a superb performance to become champion in the Country song and 2nd in Nazrul Song categories. Cadet Shamima achieved 2nd in Tagore Song. Cadet Rahat Ara and Cadet Nasiba came 3rd in the Extempore Speech Competition in Bengali and English respectively.
At ICCLMM-2008 held at Sylhet Cadet College the college band was 2nd. Cadet Muslima achieved 3rd in Folk Song while Cadet Rahat Ara became 2nd in Classical Song.
The college became Runner Up in first-ever Inter-Girls' Cadet College Sports Meet (IGCCSM) held in 2009 at Joypurhat Girls' Cadet College (JGCC).
Cadet Colleges have a prestigious history in national competitions such as theNational TV Debate Competition (in Bengali), the newly introduced National Parliamentary Debate(in English)on Bangladesh Television and other quiz competitions at national level. Fenians are also working hard and preparing to match the pedigree of their sister cadet colleges
Mess
The College Mess is a large spacious dining hall, which can accommodate 300 cadets at a time and has sufficient facilities required for cooking and service of food, stocking of dry and fresh provisions. The mess functions under the supervision of a member of the teaching staff (faculty member). Cadets are also involved in the management of the mess. A committee is presided over by the Vice Principal and includes both the Officer-In-Charge Cadet Mess and cadet representatives. They make every effort to provide a balanced diet with extra food if required in special cases. All incoming food supplies are checked and certified by the Medical Officer before being received. The cadets eat five meals a day in the Mess.
Cadets are not allowed to eat using their hand. The use of forks and spoons is mandatory. On occasion, a formal dinner is arranged (e.g. farewell of an officer or faculty member, end of term dinner or in honour of a special guest visiting the college) where the officers and faculty members are invited to along with their spouses.
The routine meals of the cadets are:
Breakfast with tea( after morning Physical Training or Parade, at around 7 am)
Snacks and Milk (at around 10 am, after 4th period)
Lunch ( after morning lessons, at around 1.15 pm)
Afternoon tea with snacks (before or after the Magrib prayers depending on the season)
Dinner ( at around 8 pm, between evening and night preparation classes)
Medical facilities
A reasonably well-equipped 18-bed hospital functions on campus. It is looked after by the College Medical Officer, a serving Major/Captain from Army Medical Corps assisted by other medical staff. Minor ailments are treated here but for specialized or serious injury or illness the patients are referred to Feni Sadar Hospital/CMH Comilla. To guard against epidemics, vaccinations and inoculations are carried out as and when required. The cadets are weighed, measured and medically checked up and a proper health record is maintained of all cadets.
The hospital also has an isolation ward for the segregation of patients with infectious diseases.
In case a cadet needs an operation, all out efforts are made to inform the parents or guardians. However, if there is no time to inform them, such students are operated upon without any delay. The parents/guardians of cadets are required to submit a written permission for emergency, lifesaving surgery. In case of an emergency the authority rests with the principal.
References
Military high schools
Educational institutions established in 2006
Girls' schools in Bangladesh
Cadet colleges in Bangladesh
Educational Institutions affiliated with Bangladesh Army
2006 establishments in Bangladesh
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4778800
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunfire%20locator
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Gunfire locator
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A gunfire locator or gunshot detection system is a system that detects and conveys the location of gunfire or other weapon fire using acoustic, vibration, optical, or potentially other types of sensors, as well as a combination of such sensors. These systems are used by law enforcement, security, military, government offices, schools and businesses to identify the source and, in some cases, the direction of gunfire and/or the type of weapon fired. Most systems possess three main components:
An array of microphones or sensors (accelerometers, infrared detectors, etc) either co-located or geographically dispersed
A processing unit
A user-interface that displays gunfire alerts
In general categories, there are environmental packaged systems for primarily outdoor use (both military and civilian/urban) which are high cost and then also lower cost consumer/industrial packaged systems for primarily indoor use. Systems used in urban settings integrate a geographic information system so the display includes a map and address location of each incident. Some indoor gunfire detection systems utilize detailed floor plans with detector location overlay to show shooter locations on an app or web based interface.
History
Determination of the origin of gunfire by sound was conceived before World War I where it was first used operationally (see: Artillery sound ranging).
In 1990, a unique algorithm was used as a starting point : Metravib defence, working with Délégation Générale pour l’Armement (DGA) – the French defence procurement agency – studied the acoustic signature of submarines. The DGA & Section Technique de l’Armée de Terre (STAT), the French Army’s engineering section
subsequently commissioned Metravib D. to find a solution for shot detection, a way to assist soldiers and peacekeepers who come under fire from snipers without knowing precisely where the shots were coming from.
In the early 1990s, the areas of East Palo Alto and eastern Menlo Park, California, were besieged with crime. During 1992 there were 42 homicides in East Palo Alto, which resulted in East Palo Alto becoming the murder capital of the United States. The Menlo Park police department was often called upon to investigate when residents reported gunshots; however there was no way to determine their source from scattered 911 calls.
In late 1992, John C. Lahr, a PhD seismologist at the nearby United States Geological Survey, approached the Menlo Park police department to ask if they would be interested in applying seismological techniques to locate gunshots. Others had also approached the Menlo Park police department suggesting ways to help the police by means of gunshot location systems. The police chief arranged a meeting with local inventors and entrepreneurs who had expressed an interest in the problem. At that time there were no solutions to tracking gunshots, only a desire to do so. One key attendee was Robert Showen, a Stanford Research Institute employee and expert in acoustics.
Lahr decided to go ahead with his plans to demonstrate the feasibility of locating the gunshots, relying on his background in the earthquake location techniques and monitoring in Alaska. A network consisting of one wired and four radio-telemetered microphones was established, with his home in eastern Menlo Park becoming the command center. Lahr modified the software typically used for locating earthquakes and recorded the data at a higher sample rate than is used for regional seismology. After gunshots were heard, Lahr would determine their location while his wife monitored the police radio for independent confirmation of their source.
Using this system, Lahr was able to demonstrate to the police and others that this technique was highly effective, as the system was able to locate gunshots occurring within the array to within a few tens of meters. Although additional techniques from the seismic world were known that could better automate the system and increase its reliability, those improvements were outside the scope of this feasibility study.
Gunfire characteristics
There are three primary attributes that characterize gunfire and hence enable the detection and location of gunfire and similar weapon discharges:
An optical flash that occurs when an explosive charge is ignited to propel a projectile from the chamber of the weapon
A typical muzzle blast generates an impulse sound wave with a sound pressure level (SPL) that ranges from 120 dB to 160 dB
A shock wave that occurs as a projectile moves through the air at supersonic speed. Note, this does not apply to subsonic ammunition, whose bullet projectiles do not exceed 1120 feet per second (i.e. the speed of sound in air).
Optical flashes can be detected using optical and/or infrared sensing techniques; however there must be a line of sight from the sensor to the weapon, otherwise the flash will not be seen. Indirect flashes that bounce off nearby structures such as walls, trees, and rocks assist in exposing concealed or limited line-of-sight detections between the weapon and the sensor. Because only optical flashes are detected, such systems are typically capable of determining only the bearing of a discharge relative to sensor unless multiple systems triangulate the shot range. Multiple gunshots, fired from multiple locations at nearly the same time, are easily discriminated as separate gunshots because the sensors generally utilize a focal plane array consisting of many sensitive pixels. Each pixel in the entire focal plane (e.g. 640×480 pixels) is constantly evaluated.
The projectile generally must travel within 50 to 100 meters of a sensor in order for the sensor to hear the shockwave. The combination of a muzzle blast and a shockwave provides additional information that can be used along with the physics of acoustics and sound propagation to determine the range of a discharge to the sensor, especially if the round or type of projectile is known. Assault rifles are more commonly used in battle scenarios where it is important for potential targets to be immediately alerted to the position of enemy fire. A system that can hear minute differences in the arrival time of the muzzle blast and also hear a projectile's shockwave "snap" can calculate the origin of the discharge. Multiple gunshots, fired from multiple locations at nearly the same time, such as those found in an ambush, can provide ambiguous signals resulting in location ambiguities.
Gunfire acoustics must be distinguished reliably from noises that can sound similar, such as firework explosions and cars backfiring.
Urban areas typically exhibit diurnal noise patterns where background noise is higher during the daytime and lower at night, where the noise floor directly correlates to urban activity (e.g., automobile traffic, airplane traffic, construction, and so on). During the day, when the noise floor is higher, a typical handgun muzzle blast may propagate as much as a mile. During the night, when the noise floor is lower, a typical handgun muzzle blast may propagate as much as 2 miles. Therefore, a co-located array of microphones or a distributed array of acoustic sensors that hear a muzzle blast at different times can contribute to calculating the location of the origin of the discharge provided that each microphone/sensor can specify to within a millisecond when it detected the impulse. Using this information, it is possible to discriminate between gunfire and normal community noises by placing acoustic sensors at wide distances so that only extremely loud sounds (i.e., gunfire) can reach several sensors.
Infrared detection systems have a similar advantage at night because the sensor does not have to contend with any solar contributions to the background signal. At night, the signature of the gunshot will not be partially hidden within the background of solar infrared contributions. Most flash suppressors are designed to minimize the visible signature of the gunfire. Flash suppressors break up the expanding gases into focused cones, thereby minimizing the blossoming effect of the exploding gasses. These focused cones contain more of the signature in a smaller volume. The added signal strength helps to increase detection range.
Because both the optical flash and muzzle blast are muffled by flash suppressors and muzzle blast suppressors (also known as "silencers"), the efficacy of gunshot detection systems may be reduced for suppressed weapons. The FBI estimates that 1% or fewer of crimes that involve gunfire are committed with suppressed guns.
Design
Sensing method
Gunshot location systems generally require one or more sensing modalities to detect either the fact that a weapon has been fired or to detect the projectile fired by the weapon. To date, sound, vibration and visual or infrared light have successfully been used as sensing technologies. Both applications can be implemented to detect gunfire under static and dynamic conditions. Most police-related systems can be permanently mounted, mapped and correlated as the sensors remain in place for long periods. Military and SWAT actions, on the other hand, operate in more dynamic environments requiring a fast setup time or a capability to operate while the sensors are on move.
Acoustic
Acoustic systems "listen" for either the bullet bow shockwave (the sound either of the projectile or bullet as it passes through the air), the sound of the muzzle blast of the weapon when it fires the projectile, or a combination of both.
Due to their ability to sense at great distances, to sense in a non line-of-sight manner, and the relatively low bandwidth required for transmitting sensor telemetry data, systems deployed for law enforcement, public safety and homeland security in the United States have primarily been based on acoustic techniques.
Acoustic-only based systems typically generate their alerts a few seconds slower than optical sensing systems because they rely on the propagation of sound waves. Therefore, the sound reaching a sensor 1 mile from its origin will take almost 5 seconds. A few seconds to accommodate pickup from distant sensors and to discern the number of rounds fired, often an indicator of incident severity, are both tolerable and a drastic improvement for typical police dispatching scenarios when compared against the several minutes that elapse from when an actual discharge occurs to the cumulative time of several minutes that pass when a person decides to place a 9-1-1 call and that information is captured, processed, and dispatched to patrol officers.
Because such systems have arrays of highly sensitive microphones that are continuously active, there have been concerns over privacy with this broad ability to record conversations without the knowledge of those being recorded (this is "collateral eavesdropping", because capturing conversations is only an inadvertent capability of the system's design, and law enforcement agencies have stated that the recording happens only after shots have been detected.)
Optical
Optical or electro-optical systems detect either the physical phenomenon of the muzzle flash of a bullet being fired or the heat caused by the friction of the bullet as it moves through the air. Such systems require a line of sight to the area where the weapon is being fired or the projectile while it is in motion. Although a general line of sight to the shot event is required, detections are sometimes available as the infrared flash event bounces off surrounding structures. Just like acoustic-based systems, electro-optical systems can generally be degraded by specialized suppression devices that minimize their sound or optical signatures.
Optical and electro-optical systems have seen success in military environments where immediacy of response is critical and because they generally do not need careful location registration as is generally the case for more permanently installed "civil" crime fighting systems. Just as acoustic systems require more than one microphone to locate gunshots, most electro-optical systems require more than one sensor when covering 360 degrees. Acoustic and optical sensors can be co-located and their data can be fused thereby enabling the gunshot location processing to have a more exact discharge time that can be used to calculate the distance of the discharge to the sensors with the greatest possible precision. Optical systems are (essentially) not limited to the number of individual shots being fired or the number of different shooters shooting simultaneously, allowing optical-based sensing to easily declare and locate shooters conducting ambushes that employ multiple shooters, shooting from multiple locations during the same time period.
The combination of both approaches (acoustic and infrared) assists in overcoming each system's own limitations while improving the overall capability to eliminate false declarations of gunshots and/or ambiguous declaration locations. Even when these combined systems are employed, shots fired from far enough away will not be detected because the amount of gunshot signal (both acoustic and Infrared) eventually fades into the background signals. For acoustic systems that require the supersonic shock wave for location determination, the bullet must still be traveling at supersonic speed when it passes the sensor, and it must pass the sensor within the lateral span of the shock wave. For infrared sensing of the flash upon a weapon's discharge, the bullet path is not determined. Combining these two approaches improves the capability under various conditions anticipated in a combat scenario.
Both optical and acoustic sensors have been used from vehicles while on the move in urban and rural environments. These sensors have been tested on airborne and waterborne platforms as well.
Electro-optical detection systems currently tested (2011) can process the incoming shot signatures at very fast speeds, providing an excellent method not only to discriminate between weapon firings and other non-gunshot events but also to identify categories, characteristics, and sometimes specific weapon types automatically.
Discriminating gunfire
Many techniques can be used to discriminate gunfire (also referred to as "classifying gunfire") from similar noises such as cars backfiring, fireworks, or the sound of a helicopter passing overhead. Analysis of the spectral content of the sound, its envelope, and other heuristics are also commonly used methods to classify whether loud, sudden sounds are gunfire. Identifying the source of the sounds can be subjective, and companies such as ShotSpotter revise their records based upon information they receive from police agencies, so that a sound originally classified by the automated system as the beat of helicopter rotors has been reported first as three, then four, and finally as the sound of five separate gunshots. As a result, this technology has been rejected in court cases as non-scientific for the purpose of legal evidence. It is meant to be an investigative tool rather than a source of primary legal evidence.
Another method of classifying gunfire uses "temporal pattern recognition," as referred by its developer, that employs artificial neural networks that are trained and then listen for a sound signature in acoustic events. Like other acoustic sensing systems, they are fundamentally based on the physics of acoustics, but they analyze the physical acoustic data using a neural network. Information in the network is coded in terms of variation in the sequence of all-or-none (spike) events, or temporal patterns, transmitted between artificial "neurons". Identifying the nonlinear input/output properties of neurons involved in forming memories for new patterns and developing mathematical models of those nonlinear properties enable the identification of specific types of sounds. These neural networks can then be trained as "recognizers" of a target sound, like a gunshot, even in the presence of high noise.
Regardless of the methods used to isolate gunfire from other impulsive sounds or infrared sensing, standard triangulation methods can be used to locate the source of the gunshot once it has been recognized as a gunshot.
Optical discriminating had previously consisted of methods, among them spatial, spectral, and creative temporal filters, to eliminate solar glint as a false alarm. Earlier sensors could not operate at speeds fast enough to allow for the incorporation of matched temporal filters that now eliminate solar glint as a false alarm contributor.
Architectures
Different system architectures have different capabilities and are used for specific applications. In general there are 2 architectures: stand-alone systems with local microphone arrays, and distributed sensor arrays ("wide-area acoustic surveillance"). The former are generally used for immediate detection and alerting to a nearby shooter in the vicinity of the system; such uses are typically used to help protect soldiers, military vehicles and craft, and also to protect small open-space areas (e.g., parking lot, park). The latter are used for protecting large areas such as cities, municipalities, critical infrastructure, transportation hubs, and military operating bases.
Most stand-alone systems have been designed for military use where the goal is immediately alerting human targets so they may take evasive and/or neutralization action. Such systems generally consist of a small array of microphones separated by a precise small distance. Each microphone hears the sounds of gunfire at minute differences in time, allowing the system to calculate the range and bearing of the origin of the gunfire relative to the system. Military systems generally rely on both the muzzle blast and projectile shockwave "snap" sounds to validate their classification of gunfire and to calculate the range to the origin.
Distributed sensor arrays have a distinct advantage over stand-alone systems in that they can successfully classify gunfire with and without hearing a projectile "snap" sound, even amid heavy background noise and echoes. Such systems are the accepted norm for urban public safety as they allow law enforcement agencies to hear gunfire discharges across a broad urban landscape of many square miles. In addition to urban cityscapes, the distributed-array approach is intended for area protection applications, such as critical infrastructure, transportation hubs, and campuses.
Using common data-networking methods, alerts of the discharges can be conveyed to dispatch centers, commanders, and field-based personnel, allowing them to make an immediate assessment of severity and initiate appropriate and decisive force response. Some systems have the capability of capturing and conveying audio clips of the discharges with the alert information that provides additional invaluable information regarding the situation and its severity. Similarly for the protection of critical infrastructure, where the information is clearly and unambiguously conveyed in real-time to regional crisis command and control centers, enabling security personnel to cut through often inaccurate and delayed reports so they may react immediately to thwart attacks and minimize subsequent activity.
Applications
Gunshot location systems are used by public safety agencies as well as military/defense agencies. They have been used primarily in dispatch centers for rapid reaction to gunfire incidents. In military/defense, they are variously known as counter-sniper systems, weapons detection and location systems, or other similar terms. Uses include alerting potential human targets to take evasive action, to direct force response to neutralize threats, including automated weapon cuing.
In addition to using gunshot location systems to convey incident alerts, they also can relay their alert data to video surveillance systems in real-time, enabling them to automatically slew cameras to the scene of an incident. Real-time incident location data makes the video surveillance smart; once cameras have slewed to the scene, the information can be viewed to assess the situation and further plan necessary response; the combined audio and video information can be tagged and stored for subsequent use as forensic evidence.
Infrared-based detection systems can detect not only ordnance blast signatures but also large caliber weapons such as mortars, artillery, Rocket-Propelled munitions, machine guns as well as small arms. These systems can also detect bomb impact explosions, thereby locating the impacts of indirect fire weapons like artillery and mortars. The detector can be used as an automated shot correction sensor for close arms support.
Public safety
In public safety and law enforcement, gunshot location systems are often used in high-crime areas for rapid alerts and awareness into the communications and dispatch center where the alerts are used to direct first responders to the scene of the gunfire, thus increasing arrest rates, improving officer safety, securing witnesses and evidence, and enhancing investigations, as well as in the long run deterring gun crimes, shootings and especially "celebratory gunfire" (the practice of shooting weapons in the air for fun). Gunshot location systems based upon wide-area acoustic surveillance coupled with persistent incident data storage transcends dispatch-only uses because reporting of urban gunfire (via calls to 9-1-1) can be as low as 25%, which means that law enforcement agencies and their crime analysts have incomplete data regarding true activity levels and patterns. With a wide-area acoustic-surveillance-based approach combined with a persistent repository of gunfire activity (i.e., a database), agencies have closer to 100% activity data that can be analyzed for patterns and trends to drive directed patrols and intelligence-led policing. Additional benefits include aiding investigators to find more forensic evidence to solve crimes and provide to prosecutors to strengthen court cases resulting in a higher conviction rate. With the accuracy of a gunshot location system and the ability to geo-reference to a specific street address, versus a dearth of information that typically is the case when citizens report gunfire incidents to 9-1-1, agencies can also infer shooters by comparing with known criminal locations, including those on parole and probation; investigators can also at times infer intended victims and hence predict and prevent reprisals.
Gunshot location systems have been used domestically in urban areas since the mid-1990s by a growing list of cities and municipalities that are embracing gunshot location systems as a mission-essential tool in their arsenal for fighting violent crime. Federal and homeland security agencies too have embraced gunshot location systems and their benefits; notably the FBI successfully used a ShotSpotter gunshot location system during the 2003–2004 Ohio highway sniper attacks, in conjunction with the Franklin County Sheriff.
The technology was tested in Redwood Village, a neighborhood of Redwood City, CA, in April 1996. Through 2007, the manufacturer touted the device as having benefits, but local officials were split as to its effectiveness. It is effective in reducing random gunfire. Surveys conducted for the DOJ showed it was most effective as a "perception" of action.
A ShotSpotter system installed in Washington, DC, has been successfully relied upon to locate gunfire in the area of coverage. The Washington, DC Police Department reported in 2008 that it had helped locate 62 victims of violent crime and aided in 9 arrests. In addition to assaults, the system detected a large amount of "random" gunfire, all totaling 50 gunshots a week in 2007. Based on the system's success, the police department decided to expand the program to cover nearly a quarter of the city.
As of 2016, detection systems were deployed to a number of cities, including Baltimore, Maryland Bellwood, Illinois; Birmingham, Alabama; Boston; Canton, Ohio; Cambridge, Massachusetts; Chicago; Hartford;<ref>"Gunshot Detection System Will Soon Cover All Of Hartford", Hartford Courant, March 28, 2016</ref> Kansas City; Los Angeles; Milwaukee; Minneapolis; New Bedford, Massachusetts; Oakland; Omaha; San Francisco; Springfield, Massachusetts; Washington, D.C.; Wilmington, North Carolina; New York City; Integration with cameras that point in the direction of gunfire when detected is also implemented. As of 2014, utility sites in the USA use 110 systems. San Antonio, Texas discontinued its $500,000 ShotSpotter service, after finding it had only resulted in four arrests.
In August 2017, the United States Secret Service began testing the use of gunshot detection technology to protect the White House and the United States Naval Observatory.
Military and defense
Determination of the origin of gunfire by sound was conceived before World War I where it was first used operationally. Early sound-based systems were used primarily for large weapons. Weapons detection and location systems and counter-sniper systems have been deployed by the US Department of Defense as well as by the militaries of other countries.
Acoustic threat-detection systems include the Unattended Transient Acoustic MASINT Sensor (UTAMS), Serenity Payload and FireFly, which were developed by the Army Research Laboratory.
Wildlife poaching
In South Africa's Kruger National Park, gunfire locators are being used to prevent rhino poaching.
Open Gunshot Detectors
Soter gunshot locator project is a community effort that uses open source hardware, cloud technology, machine learning, and 3D printing to build inexpensive gunshot detectors capable of locating and classifying gunfire in urban, public, and school spaces within seconds.
Fish Bombing
Stop Fish Bombing USA, a project under the fiscal sponsorship of Earth Island Institute, has adapted ShotSpotter technology with hydrophones to combat fish bombing on coral reefs in Sabah, Malaysia.
See also
Gun control
Boomerang (countermeasure) – gunfire locator by BBN and DARPA
Counter-sniper tactics
Counter-insurgency
Gun violence
Notes
External links
"From acoustic detection to data fusion"
"Creating a ‘Fire Alarm’ for Terror Attacks", Wall Street Journal'', November 23, 2015.
Location of Acoustic Sources Using Seismological Techniques and Software, USGS Open-File Report 93-221
Earthquake Technology Fights Crime, USGS Fact Sheet-096-96
Weapon operation
Weapons countermeasures
Sensors
Counter-sniper tactics
Security technology
Gun violence
Gun politics
Firearms
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4778882
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic%20University%20of%20Technology
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Islamic University of Technology
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Islamic University of Technology (), commonly known as IUT, is an International Engineering University located in Gazipur, Bangladesh. IUT offers undergraduate and graduate programs in Engineering and Technical Education.
IUT is a subsidiary organ of Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC). The university receives endowment from OIC member states and offers scholarships to some students in the form of tuition waiver and free accommodation.
The campus was designed by Turkish architect Mehmet Doruk Pamir, an MIT graduate.
Accreditation/Affiliation
IUT is affiliated with / accredited by following organizations-
International Association of Universities (IAU)
Federation of the Universities of the Islamic World (FUMI)
Institution of Engineers, Bangladesh (IEB)
University Grants Commission of Bangladesh (UGC)
Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business (AACSB)
History
Islamic University of Technology, established in 1978, was first known as Islamic Center for Technical, Vocational Training and Research (ICTVTR). It was proposed in the 9th Islamic Conference of Foreign Ministers (ICFM) held in Dakar, Senegal on 24–28 April 1978. The establishment of IUT in Dhaka, Bangladesh was then approved by the foreign ministers. All the members of the Organisation of the Islamic Conference (OIC) agreed to co-operate for the implementation of the project.
The implementation of the infrastructure commenced with the holding of the first meeting of the Board of Governors in June 1979. Foundation stone of ICTVTR was laid by president Ziaur Rahman of Bangladesh on 27 March 1981 in the presence of Yasir Arafat, the then-chairman of the PLO, and Habib Chatty, the then-Secretary General of OIC. The construction of the campus was completed in 1987 at a cost of US$11 Million[US$25 Million (2019)] . ICTVTR was formally inaugurated by Hossain Mohammad Ershad, president of Bangladesh on 14 July 1988.
The 22nd ICFM held in Casablanca, Morocco on 10–11 December 1994 renamed the ICTVTR as Islamic Institute of Technology (IIT). IIT was formally inaugurated by Begum Khaleda Zia, prime minister of Bangladesh on 21 September 1995. The 28th ICFM held in Bamako, Republic of Mali on 25–29 June 2001 commended the efforts of IIT and decided to rename the IIT as Islamic University of Technology (IUT). IUT was formally inaugurated by Begum Khaleda Zia, prime minister of Bangladesh on 29 November 2001.
Over the past three decades IUT has expanded with the construction of new academic buildings, halls of residence, and student facilities.
The university started offering regular courses from December 1986 and completed 35 academic years in 2022.
Administration and governance
Administrative structure
Joint General Assembly The Islamic Commission for Economic, Cultural and Social Affairs consisting of all member states of the OIC acts as the Joint General Assembly of the subsidiary organs including IUT. This assembly acts as the General Assembly of the university. It determines the general policy and provides general guidance. It examines the activities of the university and submits recommendations to the ICFM. Internal rules and regulations which govern the internal activities are shaped through the decisions of this assembly. It elects the members of the governing body and examines the whole budget for a year. The Finance Control Organ of the university audits the financial possessions of the university and submits it to this assembly.
Governing Board It is composed of nine members including a member from the host country who are selected by the Joint General Assembly. Members are selected as per geographical distribution and importance of the countries and people. The secretary general of OIC or his representative and the vice-chancellor of the university become members of this board by their status. They are included as ex-officio members. This board focuses on the precision activities and programs of IUT and sends recommendations to the Joint General Assembly. This is the body that consults about the promoting measures of IUT with General Secretariat and it approves the final curricula of training and research programs. One of its prime jobs is to grant degrees, diplomas and certificates according to academic regulations.
Executive Committee This is an organ of the Governing Board and is empowered to deal, between meetings of the board, with any matter that may be referred to it by the vice-chancellor or that may be delegated by the board. All interim actions of this committee are reported to the Governing Board. The executive committee of the board consists of the secretary of Ministry of Labour and Employment of Bangladesh as the chairman, heads of the diplomatic missions of the member states of OIC in Bangladesh (to be nominated by the Governing Board) and the Vice-Chancellor of IUT as a general member.
Academic Council Subject to other provisions this council advises the Governing Board on all academic matters. It makes the proper conduct of teaching, training and examinations and distributes the awards of fellowship, scholarship, medals and prizes.
Some statutory committees are formed to ensure management of programmes and activities in the relevant and related fields. These committees include the Administrative Advisory Committee, Departmental Committee, Disciplinary Committee, Finance Committee, Planning and Development Committee, Research Committee, Selection Committee, Students' Welfare Committee, Syllabus Committee.
List of vice-chancellors
Rafiquddin Ahmad (Director, May 1979 - April 1987)
Abdul Matin Patwari (Director General, May 1987 - April 1999)
M Anwar Hossain (May 1999 - Jan 2003)
Muhammad Fazli Ilahi (January 2003 – March 2008)
M. Imtiaz Hossain (April 2008- March 2016)
Munaz Ahmed Noor (April 2016 – February 2018)
Omar Jah, Acting Vice-Chancellor ( February 2018 – August 2020)
M. Rafiqul Islam (September 2020 – present)
Academics
Academic year at the university begins in January. Each academic year is composed of two semesters - Winter and Summer. An undergraduate degree takes four years of full-time study to complete and a master's degree takes two years to complete. The medium of instruction is English. Generally, at the end of every year, academic commencement takes place for the graduating students.
Faculties and departments
Undergraduate and graduate programmes are offered by six departments under two faculties. The faculties are Faculty of Engineering and Faculty of Science & Technical Education.
Faculty of Engineering
Department of Computer Science & Engineering (CSE)
Department of Electrical & Electronic Engineering (EEE)
Department of Mechanical & Production Engineering (MPE)
Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering (CEE)
Faculty of Science & Technical Education
Department of Business and Technology Management (BTM)
Department of Technical and Vocational Education (TVE)
Institute
Institute of Energy and Environment (IEE)
Rankings
In the 2023 edition of QS World University Rankings, the university ranked 401-450 among the Asian universities and 92nd in South Asia.
Enrollment
IUT was established to support students from the OIC member states. Students from South Asia, Middle East and Africa joins the university every year. Admissions are highly competitive with thousands competing for limited coveted seats. Students are admitted once per academic year. The admission process starts in March and wraps up by June.
Undergraduate programmes
Every year 720 students are accepted to various undergraduate programmes. Prospective international students from over fifty OIC member states are selected by the nominating authority of the respective member state.
Students from the host country Bangladesh are selected based on placement test conducted by the university. Thousands of initial applicants are screened to select about 8,000 applicants for the placement test based on their secondary and higher-secondary level results (grades in Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry and English). Out of the 8,000 students appearing for the placement test, top 10% are accepted for admission.
Graduate programmes
Around 160 students are accepted in various graduate programmes on an annual basis. Postgraduate degrees offered by various departments are Master of Science in Engineering, Master of Engineering and PhD (Doctor of Philosophy). Graduate students are selected by Post Graduate Committee (PGC) of respective departments. Similar to undergraduate admission, international students are selected by the nominating authority of the respective OIC member state. Students from the host country are required to appear for interview/placement test.
Engineering and technology programmes
Graduate programmes
Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)
Computer Science and Engineering (CSE)
Computer Science and Applications (CSA)
Electrical and Electronic Engineering (EEE)
Mechanical Engineering (ME)
Civil Engineering (CE)
Master of Science in Engineering (MScEng) / Master of Engineering (MEng)
Computer Science and Engineering (CSE)
Computer Science and Application (CSA)
Electrical and Electronic Engineering (EEE)
Mechanical Engineering (ME)
Civil Engineering (CE)
Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) / Master of Science (MScTE) in Technical Education
Computer Science and Engineering (CSE)
Electrical and Electronic Engineering (EEE)
Mechanical Engineering (ME)
Undergraduate programmes
Bachelor of Science in Engineering (BScEng )
Electrical and Electronic Engineering (EEE)
Computer Science and Engineering (CSE)
Software Engineering (SWE)
Mechanical Engineering (ME)
Industrial and Production Engineering (IPE)
Civil Engineering (CE)
Bachelor of Business Administration (BBA)
Business & Technology Management (BTM)
Bachelor of Science in Technical Education (BScTE)
Computer Science and Engineering (CSE)
Electrical and Electronic Engineering (EEE)
Mechanical Engineering (ME)
Campus
Academic buildings
IUT has three academic buildings and a network of laboratories/workshop buildings.
First Academic Building
Second Academic Building
Third Academic Building
Administrative building
The administrative building is used for the offices of the Vice-Chancellor, Pro Vice-Chancellor, Registrar, Comptroller and other administrative staff.
Library
The library is located on the first floor of the Library/Cafeteria building overlooking the lake on the eastern and western sides. It is divided into two sections- General and Research/Reference. The library books on engineering, technical and vocational subjects. The library subscribes to numerous online and printed technical journals to support research work. An automated library circulation system allows users to borrow books using the bar-code system. The library catalog is available online.
Auditorium
IUT has an air-conditioned multi-purpose auditorium. The auditorium can accommodate about 600 people. The degree/diploma awarding convocation ceremony, seminars, cultural functions and examinations are held in the auditorium. The auditorium has a stage, green room, special guest room, film-projection facilities along with a conference room and balconies along the adjacent lake.
Student life
Student housing
IUT has three Halls of Residence for on campus accommodation.
North Hall of Residence
South Hall of Residence
Female Hall of Residence
The north hall and the south hall are for male students, while female hall is for female students. The rooms in the halls are fully furnished. Each room can accommodate up to four students. Two common facilities buildings serve the halls- one serving the north and the south hall, while the other serving the female hall.
The administrative head of a hall of residence is a Provost, typically a senior faculty member. The provost is supported by Assistant Provosts and support staff.
Cafeterias
IUT has three self-service cafeterias (Central, North and Female) where residential students can take their meals. The cafeterias serve breakfast, lunch, evening snacks and dinner. Non-residential students can purchase meals from the cafeteria using their smart card. The cafeterias are managed by the Cafeteria Committee, composed of faculty members, students and administrative staff.
Mosque
There is a mosque right at the heart of the campus. The mosque is two storied and with an adjacent minaret. The mosque is open to the public during the Friday Jumma prayer.
Athletics
The university attaches great importance to co-curricular activities and encourages the students to participate in various games and sports. The Games and Sports Committee consisting of the student members and few staff members, looks after the indoor and outdoor games. It also organizes the annual athletic competition.
Sports infrastructure
Student center
The university has two student centers with TV room, newspapers room, indoor games room, facilities for board games, chess and Table Tennis tables.
Gymnasium
The university gymnasium is a spacious area with an indoor basketball court and sporting equipment.
Fitness center
The university has a fitness center. This center is equipped with various fitness training equipment including parallel bars, uneven bars, and weight exercise equipment.
Outdoor facilities
Outdoor sporting facilities include football grounds, volleyball grounds, basketball courts, lawn tennis court, cricket practice pitch and badminton courts.
Student organizations
Student societies
IUTDS – IUT Debating Society
Established in 2002, with the motto 'Debating for Knowledge Dissemination', IUT Debating Society (IUTDS) is one of the most successful debating club in Bangladesh. Throughout its journey, IUTDS has had glorious achievements both in Bangladesh, by becoming national champions, and internationally, by ranking highly at the World Universities Debating Championship (WUDC). Along with these tangible achievements, IUTDS has also established a tradition and culture of free speech and exchange of ideas among its members.
IUTCS – IUT Computer Society
IUT Computer Society (IUTCS) was formed in 2008 by the students of the Department of Computer Science and Information Technology (later renamed to the Department of Computer Science and Engineering). The activities of the society include Programming Classes, Programming Contests, Application Development Classes, Co-curricular Aid and Projects. In addition workshops on current mainstream applications/ technologies as well as seminars with notable personalities and professionals in the ICT sector are a regular part of the calendar events of the IUT Computer Society.
IUT CBS – IUT Career and Business Society
The Career and Business Society prepares the students for their professional lives by engaging in various career oriented activities like Career Fair and networking events. It creates a platform for the students to develop communication skills and prepare them for professional world through grooming sessions and seminars.
IUTPS – IUT Photographic Society
Islamic University of Technology Photographic Society (IUTPS) is an on-campus organization aimed to bring together the students who share interest in photography and creativity. Founded in 2010, IUTPS is now a prestigious name among the photography club in the university level. IUTPS arrange classes, organize regular photo walks, and intra photography competition.
IUT CADS - IUT CAD Society
IUT CAD Society was formed in 2019 with a motto "Design to Dictate" to grow interest in CAD among the students. The society holds weekly tutorial lessons on AutoCAD and Soildworks for the students. IUTCADS also arranges inter university CAD competition.
IUT Model OIC
IUT Model OIC was established in 2017 with a vision of providing youth a platform where they can learn more about the OIC and the Muslim world. The club is part of the project of OIC Youth Forum. The motto of IUT MODEL OIC club is "Learners today, Leaders tomorrow". The club helps to improve diplomatic and leadership skills as well as public speaking and critical thinking abilities of the students through various activities.
IUT ISC - IUT International Student Community
IUT ISC is the oldest student body in the university. The ISC supports international students attending IUT. They organize various cultural programs.
IUT SIKS - IUT Society of Islamic Knowledge Seekers
The motto of IUT Society of Islamic Knowledge Seekers is "Seeking the true knowledge of Islam". IUTSIKS was established in 2008. Initially it was called IUT Islamic Study Society. In 2016, it was renamed to IUTSIKS.
International organization chapters
IEEE IUT Student Branch
Founded in 1963 in the US, The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) is world's largest technical professional organization with over 420,000 members in 160 countries. IEEE IUT Student Branch is a chapter of the Bangladesh Section of IEEE. The branch was founded in 1999 by the students of EEE department.
IMechE IUT Student Chapter
Founded in 1847 in the UK, Institution of Mechanical Engineers (IMechE) has over 120,000 members in 140 countries. The IMechE IUT Student Chapter was founded by the students of MPE department.
ASME IUT Student Section
Founded in 1880 as an Engineering society focused on Mechanical Engineering in North America, American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) is now a multidisciplinary global organization with over 110,000 members in more than 150 countries. The ASME IUT Student Section was initiated by the students of MPE department in 2021.
ACI IUT Student Chapter
Founded in 1904 in USA, the American Concrete Institute (ACI) is a leading authority and resource worldwide for individuals and organizations involved in concrete design, construction, and materials. ACI has over 100 chapters, 200 student chapters, and 30,000 members spanning over 120 countries.
The initiative to start the ACI IUT Student Chapter was taken by students and faculty member of CEE department in April 2020. The Student Chapter started its journey on 4 May 2020.
Alumni association
IUT Alumni Association (IUTAA) was formed in 2004 by IUT alumni to establish a common platform for social, cultural and professional exchanges among the alumni. IUTAA is run by a thirteen member executive committee led by the President of the association. The executive committee is elected by the registered graduates through a voting process. The association maintains an office in IUT campus.
Technology festivals
Every year four technology festivals and one business festival are organized by five departments of the university. Each departmental festival is organized by the students of the respective department with support from the faculty members. Students from various universities and colleges participate in the competitions of the fests. Competitions are primarily based on engineering, technology, general knowledge and business. The university is open to the public during these festivals.
See also
List of Islamic educational institutions
Committee on Scientific and Technological Cooperation, COMSTECH
List of universities in Bangladesh
Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology
References
Further reading
External links
Official website of OIC
Organisation of Islamic Cooperation subsidiary organs
Technological institutes of Bangladesh
Engineering universities and colleges in Bangladesh
Public universities of Bangladesh
1981 establishments in Bangladesh
Organisations based in Gazipur
Universities and colleges in Gazipur District
International universities
Islamic universities and colleges in Bangladesh
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucky%20Star%20%28manga%29
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Lucky Star (manga)
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is a Japanese four-panel comic strip manga series by Kagami Yoshimizu. It has been serialized in Kadokawa Shoten's Comptiq magazine since December 2003. Cameo strips were published in other magazines such as Shōnen Ace and others. It has no ongoing plot and typically focuses on the daily lives of the characters.
An audio drama CD based on the series was released in August 2005, and the series spawned four video games released between 2005 and 2009. A 24-episode anime adaptation produced by Kyoto Animation aired between April 8 and September 16, 2007. The anime was licensed in North America by Kadokawa Pictures and distributed by Bandai Entertainment; six DVDs have been released between May 2008 and March 2009. An original video animation (OVA) episode was released on September 26, 2008 accompanied by a drama CD. Bandai Entertainment released the OVA in an English-sub only version on August 4, 2009. The anime is currently licensed by Crunchyroll, formerly known as Funimation. Viz Media acquired the rights to publish the manga digitally in 2014.
A spin-off manga, Miyakawa-ke no Kūfuku, began serialization in January 2008 in Kadokawa Shoten's Comp H's magazine. An anime adaptation by Ordet and Encourage Films began airing on Ustream in April 2013.
Synopsis
Lucky Stars story mainly portrays the lives of four girls attending a Japanese high school. The setting is mainly based on the city of Kuki in Saitama Prefecture. The main character is Konata Izumi, a lazy girl who constantly shirks her schoolwork and instead uses most of her time to watch anime, play video games, and read manga. Although she is lazy, she has also proven to be very intelligent and athletic.
The serialization began with the four main characters in their first year of high school: Konata Izumi, Kagami Hiiragi, Tsukasa Hiiragi, and Miyuki Takara. As the story progresses, they move on to their second and third years. However, the anime starts the story with them beginning their second year, and the other high school girls that are seen in the opening are only introduced halfway through the series. The storyline usually includes numerous references to popular past and present manga, anime, and tokusatsu series.
The spin-off manga, Miyakawa-ke no Kūfuku, focuses on the daily lives of two sisters, Hinata and Hikage Miyakawa, who live an impoverished life due to Hinata's wasteful habits.
Media
Manga
The four-panel comic strip manga version of Lucky Star started serialization in Kadokawa Shoten's magazine Comptiq's January 2004 issue sold on December 10, 2003. The first tankōbon volume of the manga was published on January 8, 2005, and as of October 26, 2013, ten volumes have been released. Besides Comptiq, the manga was also featured in other Kadokawa magazines including Shōnen Ace, Newtype, Comp Ace, Dragon Magazine, Mobile Newtype and Kadokawa Hotline for various lengths of time. The manga went on a lengthy hiatus beginning in 2014, later returning to regular serialization in Kadokawa's Mitaina! magazine on November 10, 2022. The manga was licensed by Bandai Entertainment for release in English in North America, and the first volume was released in June 2009. Following Bandai Entertainment's closure, the manga has been licensed by Viz Media.
A spin-off manga titled Lucky Star Pocket Travelers (らき☆すた ポケットとらべら〜ず, Raki☆Suta Poketto Toraberāzu), which has the four main characters waking up one morning to discover they have shrunken to doll size, was serialized in Comp Ace between the January and August 2008 issues. A single volume of Pocket Travelers was released on October 10, 2008.
Another spin-off manga, based on the Lucky Star Moe Drill video games and titled , began serialization in the January 2008 issue of Kadokawa Shoten's Comp H's magazine. The magazine transferred to Comp Ace with the June 2009 issue, and has also been featured in Comptiq. The first volume of Miyakawa-ke no Kūfuku was released on June 26, 2012.
An official parody manga titled by manga artist Eretto was serialized in Comp Ace between the July 2008 and December 2009 issues. A single volume of Boo Boo Kagaboo was released on March 18, 2010.
Another spin-off manga, based on the Miyakawa-ke no Kūfuku manga and titled by manga artist Tsubomi Hanabana and cuisine supervisor Etsuko Ichise was serialized in Comp Ace between the November 2013 and May 2014 issues. A single volume of Miyakawa-ke ga Mampuku!? was released on July 10, 2014.
In November 2022, shortly after returning from its 8 year hiatus, a new spin-off tentatively titled was announced. It is to be set 15 years after the original series.
Anime
The Lucky Star anime, produced by Kyoto Animation, aired between April 8, 2007, and September 16, 2007, containing twenty-four episodes. After the first four episodes, series director Yutaka Yamamoto was fired from his position and was subsequently replaced by Yasuhiro Takemoto. The reason given was that: "Our company has determined that the director of Lucky Star—Yutaka Yamamoto—has not reached the standard of director yet, therefore we have changed the director."
Near the end of every episode, there is an additional segment called co-hosted by Akira Kogami and her assistant Minoru Shiraishi. The humor of this segment takes on a decidedly darker, mean-spirited, more cynical and mature tone than the main show, disguised as an infomercial that skims over characters who appear in the anime, but mainly deals with the progressively abusive and violent work-relationship between Akira and Minoru. Akira is a typical "cute excitable girl" character while going through her script, but instantly changes to a bored, perpetually annoyed character the moment her segment is officially done and sometimes before then too. The anime also features small cameos of voice actors besides Shiraishi that also have worked with Kyoto Animation which include Yuko Goto, Minori Chihara, Tomokazu Sugita, Daisuke Ono, and Aya Hirano, all of whom voice themselves.
Kadokawa Pictures USA and Bandai Entertainment announced that they licensed the Lucky Star anime with a teaser trailer as a special feature on the volume 4 DVD of The Melancholy of Haruhi Suzumiya. The first four English DVD volumes were released by Bandai Entertainment in 2008 on May 6, July 1, September 2, and November 18. The fifth and sixth volumes were released in 2009 on January 6 and March 17. However, the sixth volume's limited edition release has been canceled due to low sales of the other volumes' limited editions. Bandai released a six-disc DVD box set on April 6, 2010 as a complete collection under their Anime Legends line. As much as possible, the English cast was paired with the same characters as those of the Japanese voice actors from past shows, in order to translate the anime references clearly. For example, Wendee Lee voiced the lead roles for both Haruhi Suzumiya and Lucky Star, in reference to their original voice actor, Aya Hirano. At AmeCon 2010, European anime distributor Beez Entertainment announced that they have the distributions rights to both TV series and OVA, and will be released in two half season sets. Following the 2012 closure of Bandai Entertainment, Funimation Entertainment (now known as Crunchyroll) announced at Otakon 2014 that they have licensed the anime television series, which they released on Blu-ray and DVD on July 12, 2016.
A pre-announcement was made in Kadokawa Shoten's Comptiq magazine that an original video animation project would be produced for Lucky Star. The June 2008 issue of Comptiq reported that the OVA was due out in summer 2008. However, it was delayed and instead was released on September 26, 2008. The OVA features six separate stories revolving around the cast, some of which border on the bizarre; one of which is an MMORPG environment being played by Konata, Kagami, Tsukasa, and Nanako Kuroi, and another in which Kagami has a 'suggestive' dream about Konata. The Lucky Channel segment is performed in live-action rather than being animated. The ending theme to the OVA, , is sung by Uchōten, which is composed of the singers Hiromi Konno and Minoru Shiraishi. The song was originally the opening theme to Fist of the North Star. The North American release of the OVA was later licensed by Bandai Entertainment, and was released in a subbed-only DVD on August 4, 2009. As with the TV series, the OVA has also been re-licensed to Funimation.
An anime adaptation of Miyakawa-ke no Kūfuku, produced by Ordet and Encourage Films, streamed on Ustream from April 29 to July 1, 2013. The opening theme is "Kachigumi" by Konata Izumi (Hirano) and Kagami Hiiragi (Emiri Katō), and the ending theme is "Makegumi" by Hinata and Hikage Miyakawa (Maina Shimagata and Koto Kawasaki). by Hiromi Konno was used as an insert song in episode one.
Books
There have been five light novels based on the series published by Kadokawa Shoten under their Kadokawa Sneaker Bunko label. The three novels are written by Tōka Takei and feature illustrations by Lucky Stars original author Kagami Yoshimizu. The first light novel, , was published on September 1, 2007. The second light novel, , was published on March 1, 2008, and the third, , was published on October 1, 2008. The fourth light novel is written by Touko Machida and feature illustrations by Yukiko Horiguchi, , was published on April 1, 2009. The fifth light novel is written by Heisei Izu and Kei Tanaka, and feature illustrations by Kagami Yoshimizu, , was published on February 1, 2012. A spin-off light novel, based on the Miyakawa-ke no Kūfuku anime, is written by Touko Machida and features illustrations by Harapeko and Tsubomi Hanabana; it was published on February 1, 2014. An original novel written by Osamu Kudō was also offered as a pre-order bonus for Shin Lucky Star Moe Drill: Tabidachi: DX Pack.
In 2010, a theoretical chemistry book was published by Chukei Publishing titled , written by Takashi Matsubara and feature illustrations by Kagami Yoshimizu. In 2013, an organic chemistry book was published by Chukei Publishing titled , written by Takashi Matsubara and feature illustrations by Kagami Yoshimizu, with characters such as Konata, Tsukasa and other girls. In 2013, an inorganic chemistry book was published by Kadokawa Chukei Publishing titled ; it was written by Masashi Inutsuka and features illustrations by Kagami Yoshimizu and Sayoi.
Video games
A video game, titled , was released on December 1, 2005 on the Nintendo DS. A limited edition game with many extras was sold called the "DX Pack" along with the regular version. A sequel, with the title of was released on May 24, 2007. The first game tests the player on various subjects and memorizations. The player's main objective is beating other characters in quizzes. There is also a "Drama Mode" where the game plays a mini-adventure game as the player makes their way to Akihabara, with math quizzes and mini games (about five in all). In an August 2007 survey by Dengeki G's Magazine, Shin Lucky Star Moe Drill: Tabidachi was voted the 17th most interesting bishōjo game by readers, tying with Ever 17: The Out of Infinity.
There are two different types of one-person games: "Hitasura Drill" and "Drama Mode". The player can also link the game with another person. When this occurs, the player can use the character that is built up in Drama Mode as a selectable character. Additionally, if the player wants to use a special battle skill against his or her opponent while in link mode, the player must shout out the name of the skill into the microphone. In Drama Mode, the player partners with one of the characters, and tries to increase her parameters and have her learn new battle skills. There are five different types of "drills". One of the quizzes called "Ondoku" requires the player to shout out the answer into the microphone. Several mascot characters of large anime and dōjin shops (like Broccoli's Di Gi Charat, Animate's Anime Tencho and Toranoana's Miko) make cameo appearances.
Kadokawa Shoten produced a visual novel game for the PlayStation 2 entitled which was released in Japan on January 24, 2008. A portable version was released on December 23, 2010 for the PlayStation Portable (PSP). Kadokawa Shoten also produced an SLG game for the PSP titled , released in Japan on December 24, 2009.
Audio CDs
The Lucky Star drama CD, aptly entitled Drama CD Lucky Star, was released on August 24, 2005 by Frontier Works. The video game soundtrack entitled Lucky Star vocal mini album was released on December 22, 2005. The anime opening theme single Motteke! Sailor Fuku was released on May 23, 2007. An album containing the first twelve ending themes entitled Lucky Star Ending Theme Collection was released on July 11, 2007 by Lantis. A maxi single with the name containing two songs sung by Hiromi Konno as Akira Kogami, and Minoru Shiraishi as himself in the anime version was released on July 25, 2007. A remix single of Motteke! Sailor Fuku was released on August 8, 2007 by Lantis. Two more albums were released on August 29, 2007: Misoji Misaki by Hiromi Konno as Akira Kogami, and Cosplay It! Oh My Honey, by Aya Hirano as Konata, and Nozomi Sasaki as Patricia. An album called Shiraishi Minoru no Otoko no Rarabai contains the ending themes sung by Minoru Shiraishi from episode thirteen onwards and was released on October 10, 2007.
Four character song CDs were released on September 5, 2007 sung by the voice actresses Aya Hirano as Konata, Emiri Katō as Kagami, Kaori Fukuhara as Tsukasa, and Aya Endo as Miyuki. Four more character CDs followed on September 26, 2007 sung by the voice actresses Shizuka Hasegawa as Yutaka, Minori Chihara as Minami, Kaori Shimizu as Hiyori, and Nozomi Sasaki as Patricia. Another two character CDs followed on October 24, 2007: one as a duet between the voice actresses Kaoru Mizuhara as Misao Kusakabe, and Mai Aizawa as Ayano Minegishi, and the other as a trio between Aya Hirano, Shizuka Hasegawa, and Minori Chihara as Konata, Yutaka, and Minami respectively. Another two character CDs, both duets, followed on November 21, 2007: the first between Hirokazu Hiramatsu as Sōjirō Izumi, and Sumi Shimamoto as Kanata Izumi, and the other with Saori Nishihara as Yui Narumi, and Konomi Maeda as Nanako Kuroi. A thirteenth character CD, again sung by Kaoru Mizuhara as Misao Kusakabe, was released on March 26, 2008.
An album entitled Lucky Star BGM & Radio Bangumi "Lucky Channel" no Digest o Shūroku Shita Special CD 1 was released with the first anime DVD on June 22, 2007. The album contained background music tracks featured in the anime, by Haruhi Suzumiya composer Satoru Kōsaki, along with original audio dramas featuring Hiromi Konno as Akira Kogami, and Minoru Shiraishi, as himself. Another similar album with more background music tracks and audio dramas was released with the second anime DVD on July 27. The third volume in this series was released with the third anime DVD on August 24. The fourth volume followed with the fourth DVD on September 28, the fifth volume was released on October 26 while the sixth and seventh volumes were released on November 27 and December 21, 2007 respectively.
Live concert and musical
A live concert was held on March 29, 2009 at the Budokan called spanning 4 hours, 40 minutes. The concert featured the various cast members from the anime, and was hosted by Hiromi Konno (the voice of Akira Kogami) and Minoru Shiraishi. A DVD of the concert was released on December 25, 2009 and included a 24-page booklet with 2 DVDs.
A musical was held between September 20–30, 2012 at the Tokyo Dome City Attractions "Theatre G-Rosso" called .
Cast
- Ran Sakai
- Mana Ogawa
- Yurino Sakurai
- Wakana Hagiwara
- Ayumi Mizukoshi
- Makoto Koichi
- Yurika Sannomiya
- Mayu Yoshioka
- Ryō Koarai
- Katsuyuki Miyake
- Motoko Nakane
- Mao Higuchi
- Chika Kumagai
- Ryōsuke Tsuruta
- Kensuke Fukuyama
- Shin Ginoza
- Shō Takano
- Mizuho Nagashima
- Masanori Mori
Reception
Before Lucky Star was made into an anime, Kagami Yoshimizu, the author of the original manga, was interviewed by Newtype USA in the June 2005 issue where he stated, "I don't really think my production process is anything special." However, he has the opinion that "...my personality is very well suited to doing four-panel comic strips, and I really enjoy creating this one." As if to predict the future, Yoshimizu also was quoted to say, "...but one day, I wouldn't mind seeing these characters moving around on screen." In the same interview, Newtype USA reported that the first volume of the manga sold out so quickly that Kadokawa Shoten had to do a rush reprint. As of April 2008, the first five volumes of the Lucky Star manga have collectively sold over 1.8 million copies.
Lucky Star became an immediate hit in Japan, receiving a broad following in the anime fandom. Explaining this phenomenon, the analyst John Oppliger of AnimeNation, for example, suggested that a major factor in the series' success is its similarity to an earlier work by Kyoto Animation—The Melancholy of Haruhi Suzumiya (the show itself makes numerous references to the same series). However, he also admitted that Lucky Star is quite different from its "predecessor" and that the second major factor is its "unique" composition that "panders to the tastes of otaku, but does so with good humor and sly wit", thus, making it "the ultimate in fan service", a "witty, self-indulgent, guilty pleasure".
The Special First Edition version of the first DVD volume was released on June 22, 2007 and contained the first two episodes to the anime. The first DVD sold quickly in Japan, and it has been reported that "Amazon Japan has already sold out its entire supply of the DVD." Furthermore, "the majority of the stores [in Akihabara] with special displays for Lucky Star have run out." Anime News Network has noted that the anime is "extremely otaku-centric".
The popularity of Lucky Star also brought many of its fans to the real life settings of the anime, beginning in April 2007. The August issue of the Newtype magazine ran a feature on the various locales which the anime is based on, including Konata's home in Satte, Saitama, Kagami and Tsukasa's home in Washimiya, Saitama, and the school in Kasukabe, Saitama. The magazine also included directions on how to reach these places from the otaku hotspot Akihabara, which resulted in massive "pilgrimages" to these areas.
The most widely reported consequence of this is in the Washinomiya Shrine of Washimiya, where the Hiiragi sisters work as miko in the anime. Various Japanese news media reported that the shrine became a place teeming with photographers trying to replicate scenes from the anime, cosplayers wandering around, and ema prayer plaques ridden with anime drawings and strange prayers like "Konata is my wife". The ema were mentioned in episode 21 of the anime.
The locals were initially divided on the situation, with some suggesting that it is good for the shrine to have so many worshippers, and some being concerned about the town's security. Despite the negative reaction by some of the locals, the Washinomiya Shrine hosted a Lucky Star event in December 2007, featuring special guests including the author Kagami Yoshimizu, and the voice actors Hiromi Konno, Emiri Katō, Kaori Fukuhara, and Minoru Shiraishi. The event attracted 3500 fans. Subsequently, the Hiiragi family have been registered as official residents of Washimiya because of the anime's wild popularity. Other fictional characters who share this honor in Saitama are Astro Boy of Niza and Crayon Shin-chan'''s family of Kasukabe. As of July 30, 2008, sales of Lucky Star food and goods brought the town of Washimiya (about ) in income, described by The Wall Street Journal'' as a source of relief to the local economy reeling from Japan's economic slump in the 1990s.
Notes and references
Footnotes
General
Specific
External links
Lucky Star at Funimation
Lucky Star anime series official website
Lucky Star OVA official website
Lucky Star PS2 visual novel official website
Lucky Star PSP SLG official website
Lucky Star musical official website
2004 manga
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Funimation
Japanese high school television series
Japanese television series with live action and animation
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forward%20exchange%20rate
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Forward exchange rate
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The forward exchange rate (also referred to as forward rate or forward price) is the exchange rate at which a bank agrees to exchange one currency for another at a future date when it enters into a forward contract with an investor. Multinational corporations, banks, and other financial institutions enter into forward contracts to take advantage of the forward rate for hedging purposes. The forward exchange rate is determined by a parity relationship among the spot exchange rate and differences in interest rates between two countries, which reflects an economic equilibrium in the foreign exchange market under which arbitrage opportunities are eliminated. When in equilibrium, and when interest rates vary across two countries, the parity condition implies that the forward rate includes a premium or discount reflecting the interest rate differential. Forward exchange rates have important theoretical implications for forecasting future spot exchange rates. Financial economists have put forth a hypothesis that the forward rate accurately predicts the future spot rate, for which empirical evidence is mixed.
Introduction
The forward exchange rate is the rate at which a commercial bank is willing to commit to exchange one currency for another at some specified future date. The forward exchange rate is a type of forward price. It is the exchange rate negotiated today between a bank and a client upon entering into a forward contract agreeing to buy or sell some amount of foreign currency in the future. Multinational corporations and financial institutions often use the forward market to hedge future payables or receivables denominated in a foreign currency against foreign exchange risk by using a forward contract to lock in a forward exchange rate. Hedging with forward contracts is typically used for larger transactions, while futures contracts are used for smaller transactions. This is due to the customization afforded to banks by forward contracts traded over-the-counter, versus the standardization of futures contracts which are traded on an exchange. Banks typically quote forward rates for major currencies in maturities of one, three, six, nine, or twelve months, however in some cases quotations for greater maturities are available up to five or ten years.
Relation to covered interest rate parity
Covered interest rate parity is a no-arbitrage condition in foreign exchange markets which depends on the availability of the forward market. It can be rearranged to give the forward exchange rate as a function of the other variables. The forward exchange rate depends on three known variables: the spot exchange rate, the domestic interest rate, and the foreign interest rate. This effectively means that the forward rate is the price of a forward contract, which derives its value from the pricing of spot contracts and the addition of information on available interest rates.
The following equation represents covered interest rate parity, a condition under which investors eliminate exposure to foreign exchange risk (unanticipated changes in exchange rates) with the use of a forward contract – the exchange rate risk is effectively covered. Under this condition, a domestic investor would earn equal returns from investing in domestic assets or converting currency at the spot exchange rate, investing in foreign currency assets in a country with a different interest rate, and exchanging the foreign currency for domestic currency at the negotiated forward exchange rate. Investors will be indifferent to the interest rates on deposits in these countries due to the equilibrium resulting from the forward exchange rate. The condition allows for no arbitrage opportunities because the return on domestic deposits, 1+id, is equal to the return on foreign deposits, [F/S](1+if). If these two returns weren't equalized by the use of a forward contract, there would be a potential arbitrage opportunity in which, for example, an investor could borrow currency in the country with the lower interest rate, convert to the foreign currency at today's spot exchange rate, and invest in the foreign country with the higher interest rate.
where
F is the forward exchange rate
S is the current spot exchange rate
id is the interest rate in domestic currency (base currency)
if is the interest rate in foreign currency (quoted currency)
This equation can be arranged such that it solves for the forward rate:
Forward premium or discount
The equilibrium that results from the relationship between forward and spot exchange rates within the context of covered interest rate parity is responsible for eliminating or correcting for market inefficiencies that would create potential for arbitrage profits. As such, arbitrage opportunities are fleeting. In order for this equilibrium to hold under differences in interest rates between two countries, the forward exchange rate must generally differ from the spot exchange rate, such that a no-arbitrage condition is sustained. Therefore, the forward rate is said to contain a premium or discount, reflecting the interest rate differential between two countries. The following equations demonstrate how the forward premium or discount is calculated.
The forward exchange rate differs by a premium or discount of the spot exchange rate:
where
P is the premium (if positive) or discount (if negative)
The equation can be rearranged as follows to solve for the forward premium/discount:
In practice, forward premiums and discounts are quoted as annualized percentage deviations from the spot exchange rate, in which case it is necessary to account for the number of days to delivery as in the following example.
where
N represents the maturity of a given forward exchange rate quote
d represents the number of days to delivery
For example, to calculate the 6-month forward premium or discount for the euro versus the dollar deliverable in 30 days, given a spot rate quote of $1.2238/€ and a 6-month forward rate quote of $1.2260/€:
The resulting 0.021572 is positive, so one would say that the euro is trading at a 0.021572 or 2.16% premium against the dollar for delivery in 30 days. Conversely, if one were to work this example in euro terms rather than dollar terms, the perspective would be reversed and one would say that the dollar is trading at a discount against the Euro.
Forecasting future spot exchange rates
Unbiasedness hypothesis
The unbiasedness hypothesis states that given conditions of rational expectations and risk neutrality, the forward exchange rate is an unbiased predictor of the future spot exchange rate. Without introducing a foreign exchange risk premium (due to the assumption of risk neutrality), the following equation illustrates the unbiasedness hypothesis.
where
is the forward exchange rate at time t
is the expected future spot exchange rate at time t + k
k is the number of periods into the future from time t
The empirical rejection of the unbiasedness hypothesis is a well-recognized puzzle among finance researchers. Empirical evidence for cointegration between the forward rate and the future spot rate is mixed. Researchers have published papers demonstrating empirical failure of the hypothesis by conducting regression analyses of the realized changes in spot exchange rates on forward premiums and finding negative slope coefficients. These researchers offer numerous rationales for such failure. One rationale centers around the relaxation of risk neutrality, while still assuming rational expectations, such that a foreign exchange risk premium may exist that can account for differences between the forward rate and the future spot rate.
The following equation represents the forward rate as being equal to a future spot rate and a risk premium (not to be confused with a forward premium):
The current spot rate can be introduced so that the equation solves for the forward-spot differential (the difference between the forward rate and the current spot rate):
Eugene Fama concluded that large positive correlations of the difference between the forward exchange rate and the current spot exchange rate signal variations over time in the premium component of the forward-spot differential or in the forecast of the expected change in the spot exchange rate. Fama suggested that slope coefficients in the regressions of the difference between the forward rate and the future spot rate , and the expected change in the spot rate , on the forward-spot differential which are different from zero imply variations over time in both components of the forward-spot differential: the premium and the expected change in the spot rate. Fama's findings were sought to be empirically validated by a significant body of research, ultimately finding that large variance in expected changes in the spot rate could only be accounted for by risk aversion coefficients that were deemed "unacceptably high." Other researchers have found that the unbiasedness hypothesis has been rejected in both cases where there is evidence of risk premia varying over time and cases where risk premia are constant.
Other rationales for the failure of the forward rate unbiasedness hypothesis include considering the conditional bias to be an exogenous variable explained by a policy aimed at smoothing interest rates and stabilizing exchange rates, or considering that an economy allowing for discrete changes could facilitate excess returns in the forward market. Some researchers have contested empirical failures of the hypothesis and have sought to explain conflicting evidence as resulting from contaminated data and even inappropriate selections of the time length of forward contracts. Economists demonstrated that the forward rate could serve as a useful proxy for future spot exchange rates between currencies with liquidity premia that average out to zero during the onset of floating exchange rate regimes in the 1970s. Research examining the introduction of endogenous breaks to test the structural stability of cointegrated spot and forward exchange rate time series have found some evidence to support forward rate unbiasedness in both the short and long term.
Forward exchange contract
A forward exchange contract is identified as an agreement that is made between two parties with an intention of exchanging two different currencies at a specific time in the future. In this situation, a business makes an agreement to buy a given quantity of foreign currency in the future with a prearranged fixed exchange rate (Walmsley, 2000). The move enables the parties that are involved in the transaction to better their future and budget for their financial projects. Effective budgeting is facilitated by effective understanding about the future transactions’ specific exchange rate and transaction period. Forward exchange rates are created to protect parties engaging in a business from unexpected adverse financial conditions due to fluctuations on the currency exchange market. Commonly, a forward exchange rate is usually made for twelve months into the future where the major world currencies are used (Ltd, (2017). Here, the currencies that are commonly used include the Swiss Franc, the Euro, US dollar, Japanese yen, and the British pound. Forward exchange contracts are entered into mainly for speculation or hedging purposes.
The use of forward contracts is mainly applied by any business that is either selling or buying a foreign currency that may be interested in managing the risks that are associated with the currency fluctuations. Through the use of the method, such a business can ease the effect of those variations of the cash flows and the stated incomes of the business entity. The risk can be avoided by making an arrangement with a business entity to sell or buy the foreign currency at a specific future date at an approved rate (Walmsley, 2000). Here, both parties are required to match the date that the currency is anticipated to be received. These arrangements are made through the bank where each contract is associated with a specific transaction or sometimes use a number of contracts to cover a pool of transactions (Parameswaran, 2011).
Based on the SSAP 20 in the UK GAAP, the foreign currency translation that provides the option of translating a transaction at the prevailing rate at the date the transaction happened then a matching forward contract rate should be created. In a situation where the forward rate is used, then no losses of exchange gains should be recognized in the books of accounts when both parties are recording the sale and eventual settlement (Parameswaran, 2011).
In this situation recording the transaction between Pamela and Tommy
Date
Here, assuming that Pamela applies the forward rate of translation the accounting entries will be as follows
DR (£) CR (£)
Debtors 3,968,254
Sales 3,968,254
To record the sale of 5 million euros at the forward rate of $1.26 = $1 U.S dollar.
After the end of the first month on the balance sheet date, no transaction with the debtor is recorded since the forward rate has been used. At the end of the agreed period, the journals that will be recorded to recognise receiving of the sales money will be as follows
As at the date of settlement
DR (£) CR (£)
Cash 3,968,254
Debtors 3,968,254
To record the receipt of 5 million euros at the forward rate of $1.26 = $1 U.S. dollar.
In this transaction, there is no difference that arises as the sale of goods in a foreign currency and forward contract are effectively treated as one transaction. Here the rate of $1.26 = $1 U.S dollar is used throughout the recording of both transactions.
Accounting Treatment under the FRS 102
The FRS accounting procedure takes a different route of execution in treating the sale and the forward contract as two separate transactions
According to section 30 of foreign currency translation, foreign exchange transaction should be recorded at the spot rate. The transactions are also recorded at the date of the transaction while the monetary items should be treated by translating them through the use of a closing rate at the balance sheet date. In this case, there is no use of a forward rate since any exchanges that arise at the balance sheet data on the settlements are recognised as either a profit or a loss (Ltd, 2017).
However, the forward currency contracts are then recorded as other financial instruments as per the classification of FRS 102 and therefore accounted for in accordance with section 12 of other financial instruments (Parameswaran, 2011). Additionally, section 12 requires that the derivative contract to be recognised at the fair value, this is the section where the initial value should be recognised in the journal entries. Any changes that should appear in the fair value, it should be recognised as either a loss or a profit. Lastly, in a situation where the foreign currency contracts are part of a qualifying hedging arrangement, then they should be accounted as per the hedge accounting rules (Parameswaran, 2011).
Using the provided information the accounting journal entries should be as follows;
As at the date of the transaction
DR (£) CR (£)
Debtors 3,937,007
Sales 3,937,007
To record the sale of 5 million euros at the spot rate of $1.27 = $1 U.S. dollar.
Here, there are no accounting entries for the forward foreign currency contract since its fair value is zero.
DR (£) CR(£)
Debtors 4,000,000
Sales 4,000,000
To record the sale of 5 million euros at the spot rate of $1.25 = $1 U.S. dollar.
DR (£) CR (£)
Debtors 60,993
Exchange gain 60,993
To retranslate the seller of 5 million euros at the year end sport rate of $1.27 = $1 U.S. dollar.
DR (£) CR (£)
Profit on derivative 31,746
Derivative gain 31,746
To value the derivative at the year-end fair value which is the difference between the forward rate and the agreed forward rate at the balance sheet for the contract maturing after 6 months
According to Parameswaran, (2011), recognising the impact of the exchange rates on the value of the value of the debtor, the derivative cancels each other out. In this case, the difference that is seen between the debtor and the gain on the derivative on the other party is attributed to the spot rate being used for the debtor and the forward rate for the derivative (Ltd, 2017).
References
Ltd, P. K. F. I. (2017). Wiley IFRS 2017 Interpretation and Application of IFRS Standards. Somerset John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated 2017
Parameswaran, S. K. (2011). Fundamentals of financial instruments: An introduction to stocks, bonds, foreign exchange, and derivatives. Hoboken, N.J: Wiley.
Walmsley, J. (2000). The foreign exchange and money markets guide. New York: Wiley
See also
Foreign exchange derivative
External links
Forward Exchange Rate Calculator
References
Financial economics
Foreign exchange market
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disappearance%20of%20Natalee%20Holloway
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Disappearance of Natalee Holloway
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Natalee Ann Holloway (October 21, 1986 – disappeared May 30, 2005; declared dead January 12, 2012) was an 18-year-old American whose disappearance made international news after she vanished on May 30, 2005, in Aruba. Holloway lived in Mountain Brook, Alabama, and graduated from Mountain Brook High School on May 24, 2005, days before the trip. Her disappearance resulted in a media sensation in the United States. The prime suspect, Joran van der Sloot, has made conflicting statements over the years about his involvement, including a confession to killing her. Her remains have not been found.
Holloway was scheduled to fly home from the Caribbean island on May 30, 2005, but she failed to appear for her flight. Her classmates last saw her outside of Carlos'n Charlie's, a restaurant and nightclub in Oranjestad. She was in a car with local residents Joran van der Sloot and brothers Deepak and Satish Kalpoe. When the three men were questioned, they said that they dropped off Holloway at her hotel and denied knowing what had become of her. Upon further investigation by authorities, Van der Sloot was arrested twice on suspicion of involvement in her disappearance, and the Kalpoes were each arrested three times. Due to lack of evidence, the three suspects were released each time without being charged with a crime. Holloway's parents criticized the Aruban police for the lack of progress in the investigation and interrogation of the three men who were last seen with their daughter. The family also called for a boycott of Aruba, which gained governor of Alabama Bob Riley's support but failed to gain widespread backing.
With the assistance of hundreds of volunteers, Aruban investigators conducted an extensive search operation. American special agents from the FBI, 50 Dutch soldiers, and three specially equipped Dutch Air Force F-16 aircraft participated in the search. In addition to the ground search, divers searched the ocean for Holloway's body. Holloway was never found. On December 18, 2007, Aruban prosecutors announced that the case would be closed without charging anyone with a crime. The Aruban prosecutor's office reopened the case on February 1, 2008, after receiving video footage of Van der Sloot, under the influence of marijuana, saying that Holloway died on the morning of her disappearance, and that a friend had disposed of her body. Van der Sloot later denied that what he had said was true, and in an interview said that he had sold Holloway into sexual slavery. He later retracted his comments. In January 2012, Van der Sloot was convicted of the May 30, 2010, murder of 21-year-old Stephany Flores Ramírez in Lima, Peru. At the request of Holloway's father, Alabama judge Alan King declared Holloway legally dead on January 12, 2012.
On June 8, 2023, Van der Sloot, who was still the main suspect in Holloway's disappearance, was extradited to the United States to face trial for extortion and wire fraud, with both charges being linked to Holloway's disappearance, and on October 18, 2023, he pleaded guilty to extortion charges as well as confessing to killing her by blunt force trauma after she rejected his sexual advances.
Background
Holloway was the first of two children born to Dave and Elizabeth "Beth" Holloway (1960–) in Memphis, Tennessee. Her parents divorced in 1993, and she and her younger brother Matthew were raised by their mother. In 2000, Beth married George "Jug" Twitty, a prominent Alabama businessman, and the family moved to Mountain Brook, Alabama. Holloway graduated with honors in May 2005 from Mountain Brook High School, located in a wealthy suburb of Birmingham. She was a member of the National Honor Society and the school dance squad and participated in other extracurricular activities. Holloway was scheduled to attend the University of Alabama on a full scholarship, where she planned to pursue a pre-med track. At the time of his daughter's disappearance, Dave Holloway was an insurance agent for State Farm in Meridian, Mississippi, while Beth Twitty was employed by the Mountain Brook School System.
Disappearance in Aruba
On Thursday, May 26, 2005, Holloway and 124 fellow graduates of Mountain Brook High School arrived in Aruba for a five-day, unofficial graduation trip. The teenagers were accompanied by seven chaperones. According to teacher and chaperone Bob Plummer, the chaperones met with the students each day to make sure everything was fine. Jodi Bearman, who organized the trip, stated, "the chaperones were not supposed to keep up with their every move." Police Commissioner Gerold Dompig, who headed the investigation from mid-2005 until 2006, stated that the Mountain Brook students engaged in "wild partying, a lot of drinking, lots of room switching every night. We know the Holiday Inn told them they weren't welcome next year. Natalee, we know, she drank all day every day. We have statements she started every morning with cocktails—so much drinking that Natalee didn't show up for breakfast two mornings." Two of Holloway's classmates, Liz Cain and Claire Fierman, agreed that the drinking on the trip was "kind of excessive".
Holloway was last seen by her classmates around 1:30 a.m. on Monday, May 30, as she was leaving the Oranjestad bar and nightclub Carlos'n Charlie's. She left in a car with 17-year-old Joran van der Sloot — a Dutch honors student who was living in Aruba and attending the International School of Aruba — and his two Surinamese friends, brothers 21-year-old Deepak Kalpoe (the owner of the car) and 18-year-old Satish Kalpoe. Holloway was scheduled to fly home later that day, but she did not appear for her return flight. Her packed luggage and her passport were found in her Holiday Inn room. Aruban authorities initiated searches for Holloway throughout the island and surrounding waters but did not find her.
Investigation
Early investigation
Immediately following Holloway's missed flight, her mother and stepfather flew with friends to Aruba by private jet. Within four hours of landing on the island, the Twittys presented the Aruban police with the name and address of Van der Sloot, who was the person with whom Holloway left the nightclub. Beth stated that Van der Sloot's full name was given to her by the night manager at the Holiday Inn, who supposedly recognized him on a videotape. The Twittys and their friends went to the Van der Sloot home with two Aruban policemen to look for Holloway. Van der Sloot initially denied knowing Holloway's name, but he then told a story corroborated by Deepak Kalpoe, who was present in the house: Van der Sloot related that they drove Holloway to the California Lighthouse area of Arashi Beach because she wanted to see sharks; they later dropped Holloway off at her hotel at around 2:00 a.m. According to Van der Sloot, Holloway fell down as she exited the car but refused his help. He stated that as he and Kalpoe were driving away, Holloway was approached by a dark man in a black shirt similar to those worn by security guards.
The search and rescue efforts for Holloway began immediately. Hundreds of volunteers from Aruba and the United States joined in the effort. During the first days of the search, the Aruban government gave thousands of civil servants the day off to participate in the rescue effort. Fifty Dutch marines conducted an extensive search of the shoreline. Aruban banks raised $20,000 and provided other support to aid volunteer search teams. Beth Twitty was provided with housing, initially at the Holiday Inn where she coincidentally stayed in the same room her daughter had occupied. She subsequently stayed at the presidential suite of the nearby Wyndham Hotel.
Reports indicated that Holloway did not appear on any nighttime surveillance camera footage of the hotel lobby; however, Twitty has made varying statements as to whether the cameras were operational that night. According to an April 19, 2006, statement made by Twitty, the video cameras at the Holiday Inn were not functioning the night Holloway vanished. Twitty has made other statements indicating that they were working and has stated so in her book. Police Commissioner Jan van der the initial head of the investigation until his 2005 said that Holloway did not have to go through the lobby to return to her room.
The search for physical evidence was extensive and subject to occasional false leads; for example, a possible blood sample taken from Deepak Kalpoe's car was tested but determined not to be blood.
American law enforcement cooperated substantially with Aruban authorities from the early days of the investigation. U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice stated to reporters that the United States was in constant contact with Aruban authorities. Another State Department official indicated, "Substantial resources are being applied to this as they [Aruba officials] continue to ask for more."
2005 arrests of multiple suspects
On June 5, Aruban police detained Nick John and Abraham Jones, former security guards from the nearby Allegro Hotel (which was then closed for renovation) on suspicion of murder and kidnapping. Authorities have never officially disclosed the reason for their arrests, but, according to news accounts, statements made by Van der Sloot and the Kalpoe brothers may have been a factor in their arrests. Reports also indicated that the two former guards were known for cruising hotels to pick up women, and at least one of them had a prior incident with law enforcement. John and Jones were released on June 13 without being charged.
On June 9, Van der Sloot and the Kalpoe brothers were arrested on suspicion of the kidnapping and murder of Holloway. Aruban law allows for investigators to make an arrest based on serious suspicion. In order to continue holding the suspect in custody, an increasing evidential burden must be met at periodic reviews. According to Dompig, the focus of the investigation centered on these three suspects from the "get-go". Dompig stated that close observation of the three men began three days after Holloway was reported missing, and the investigation included surveillance, telephone wiretaps, and even monitoring of their e-mail. Dompig indicated that pressure from Holloway's family caused the police to prematurely stop their surveillance and detain the three suspects.
As the investigation continued, David spokesman for the Aruban Minister of falsely indicated on June 11 that Holloway was dead and that authorities knew the location of her body. Cruz later retracted the statement, saying he was a victim of a "misinformation campaign". That evening, Dompig alleged to the Associated Press that one of the detained young men admitted "something bad happened" to Holloway after the suspects took her to the beach and that the suspect was leading police to the scene. The next morning, prosecution spokeswoman Vivian van der Biezen refused to confirm or deny the allegation, simply stating that the investigation was at a "very crucial, very important moment".
On June 17, a sixth person later identified as disc jockey Steve Gregory Croes was also arrested. Van der Straaten told the media that "Croes was detained based on information from one of the other three detainees." On June 22, Aruban police detained Van der Sloot's father, Paulus van der Sloot, for questioning; he was arrested that same day. Both Paulus and Croes were ordered to be released on June 26.
During this period, the suspects who had been detained changed their stories. All three indicated that Van der Sloot and Holloway were dropped off at the Marriott Hotel beach near the fishermen's huts. Van der Sloot stated that he did not harm Holloway but left her on the beach. According to Satish Kalpoe's attorney, David Kock, Van der Sloot called Deepak Kalpoe to tell the latter that he was walking home and sent him a text message forty minutes later. At some time during the interrogation, Van der Sloot detailed a third account that he was dropped off at home and Holloway was driven off by the Kalpoe brothers. Dompig discounted the story, stating:
This latest story [came about] when [Van der Sloot] saw [that] the other guys, the Kalpoes, were kind of finger-pointing in his direction, and he wanted to screw them also, by saying he was dropped off. But that story doesn't check out at all. He just wanted to screw Deepak. They had great arguments about this in front of the judge. Because their stories didn't match. This girl, she was from Alabama, she's not going to stay in the car with two black kids. We believe the second story, that they were dropped off by the Marriott.
Following hearings before a judge, the Kalpoe brothers were released on Monday, July 4, but Van der Sloot was detained for an additional 60 days.
Continued search, rearrests and releases
On July 4, the Royal Netherlands Air Force deployed three F-16 aircraft equipped with infrared sensors to aid in the search, but the results came up empty. In March 2006 it was reported that satellite photos were being compared with photographs taken more recently (presumably from the F-16s) in an attempt to find unexpected shifts of ground that might be Holloway's grave.
After a local gardener came forward with information, a small pond near the Aruba Racquet Club close to the Marriott Hotel beach was partly drained between July 27 and 30, 2005. According to Jug Twitty, the gardener claimed to have seen Van der Sloot attempting to hide his face as he drove into the Racquet Club with the Kalpoe brothers on the very early morning of May 30 between 2:30 a.m. and 3:00 a.m. Nancy Grace described the gardener as "the man whose testimony cracks the case wide open". Another person, "the jogger", claimed to have seen men burying a blonde-haired woman in a landfill during the afternoon of May 30. The police had searched the landfill in the days following Holloway's disappearance. After the jogger's statements, the landfill was searched three more times; the FBI used cadaver dogs to assist in the recovery operation. The searches were fruitless.
Holloway's family initially offered $175,000 and donors offered $50,000 for her safe return. Two months after her disappearance, the reward was increased from $200,000 to $1,000,000, with a $100,000 reward for information leading to the location of her remains. In August 2005, the reward for information leading to Natalee's corpse was increased from $100,000 to $250,000.
The FBI announced that Aruban authorities had provided its agency with documents, suspect interviews, and other evidence. Investigators found a piece of duct tape with strands of blond hair attached to it; the samples were tested at a Dutch lab. A group from the Aruban police and prosecutor's office then traveled to the FBI central laboratory at Quantico, Virginia, to consult with American investigators. The hair samples were then tested a second time. The FBI announced that the hair samples did not belong to Holloway.
The Kalpoe brothers were rearrested on August 26 along with another new suspect, 21-year-old Freddy Arambatzis. Arambatzis' lawyer said that his client was suspected of taking photographs of an underage girl and having inappropriate physical contact with the same girl. This incident allegedly occurred before the Holloway disappearance. Arambatzis' friends Van der Sloot and the Kalpoe brothers were supposedly involved in the incident. Van der Sloot's mother, Anita van der Sloot, stated, "It's a desperate attempt to get the boys to talk. But there is nothing to talk about." While no public explanation was then made for the Kalpoe rearrests, Dompig later said that it was an unsuccessful attempt to pressure the brothers into confessing.
On September 3, the four detained suspects were released by a judge despite the attempts of the prosecution to keep them in custody. The suspects were released on the condition that they remain available to police. On September 14, all restrictions on them were removed by the Combined Appeals Court of the Netherlands Antilles and Aruba.
In the months following his release, Van der Sloot gave several interviews that explained his version of events. The most notable interview was broadcast on Fox News over three nights in March 2006. During the interview, Van der Sloot indicated that Holloway wanted to have sex with him, but he did not because he did not have a condom. He stated that Holloway wanted them to stay on the beach, but that he had to go to school in the morning. According to Van der Sloot, he was picked up by Satish Kalpoe at about 3:00 a.m. and left Holloway sitting on the beach. In August 2005, David Kock, Kalpoe's attorney, stated that his client had gone to sleep, and had not returned to drive Van der Sloot home. Van der Sloot stated that he was somewhat ashamed to have left a young woman alone on the beach, albeit by her own request, and related that he was not truthful at first because he was convinced that Holloway would soon turn up.
In January 2006, the FBI and Aruban authorities interviewed—or in some cases, re-interviewed—several of Holloway's classmates in Alabama. On January 17, Aruban police searched for Holloway's body in sand dunes on the northwest coast of Aruba, as well as areas close by the Marriott beach. Additional searches took place in March and April 2006, without result.
Shortly before leaving the case, Dompig gave an interview to CBS in which he stated that he believed Holloway was not murdered but probably died from alcohol and/or drug poisoning, and that someone later hid her body. Dompig also stated that Aruba had spent about $3 million on the investigation, which was about 40% of the police operational budget. Dompig indicated that there was evidence that pointed to possession (though not necessarily use) of illicit drugs by Holloway. Members of Holloway's family have denied that she used drugs.
On April 11, 2006, Dave Holloway published a book—co-authored with R. Stephanie Good and Larry Garrison—called Aruba: The Tragic Untold Story of Natalee Holloway and Corruption in Paradise, that recounted the search for his daughter.
2006 arrests of new suspects; Dutch investigation takeover
On April 15, 2006, Geoffrey van Cromvoirt was arrested by Aruban authorities on suspicion of criminal offenses related to dealing in narcotics which, according to the prosecutor, might have been related to the disappearance of Holloway. At his first court appearance, his detention was extended by eight days. Van Cromvoirt was released, however, on April 25. In addition, another individual with initials "A.B." was arrested on April 22, but was released the same day.
On May 17, another suspect, Guido Wever (the son of a former Aruban politician) was detained in the Netherlands on suspicion of assisting in the abducting, battering, and killing of Holloway. Wever was questioned for six days in Utrecht. Aruban prosecutors initially sought his transfer to the island, but he was instead released by agreement between the prosecutor and Wever's attorney.
At Aruba's request, the Netherlands took over the investigation. Following receipt of extensive case documentation in Rotterdam, a team of the Dutch National Police started work on the case in September. On April 16, 2007, a combined Aruban–Dutch team began pursuing the investigation in Aruba.
Book, search, and inspection
A book by Van der Sloot and reporter Zvezdana Vukojevic, De zaak Natalee Holloway (The Case of Natalee Holloway) was published in Dutch in April 2007. In the book, Van der Sloot gives his perspective of the night Holloway disappeared and the media frenzy that followed. He admits to and apologizes for his initial lies, but maintains his innocence.
On April 27, a new search involving approximately 20 investigators was launched at the Van der Sloot family residence in Aruba. Dutch authorities searched the yard and surrounding area, using shovels and thin metal rods to penetrate the dirt. Prosecution spokeswoman Van der Biezen stated, "The investigation has never stopped and the Dutch authorities are completely reviewing the case for new indications." A statement from the prosecutor's office related, "The team has indications that justify a more thorough search." Investigators did not comment on what prompted the new search, except that it was not related to Van der Sloot's book. According to Paulus van der Sloot, "nothing suspicious" was found, and all that was seized were diary entries of him and his wife, and his personal computer—which was subsequently returned. According to Jossy Mansur, managing editor of Aruba's Diario newspaper, investigators were following up on statements made during early suspect interrogations regarding communications between the Kalpoe brothers and Van der Sloot. He also said investigators could be seen examining a laptop at the house.
On May 12, the Kalpoe family residence was searched by the authorities. The two brothers were detained for about an hour upon objecting to the entry by police and Dutch investigators, but were released when the authorities left. According to Kock, the brothers objected to the search because officials did not show them an order justifying the intrusion. A statement from Van der Biezen did not mention what, if anything, officials were searching for, but indicated nothing was removed from the home. A subsequent statement from Het Openbaar Ministerie van Aruba (the Aruban prosecutor's office) indicated that the purpose of the visit was to "get a better image of the place or circumstances where an offense may have been committed and to understand the chain of events leading to the offense."
2007 rearrests and re-releases
Citing what was described as newly discovered evidence, Aruban investigators rearrested Van der Sloot and the Kalpoe brothers on November 21, 2007, on suspicion of involvement in "manslaughter and causing serious bodily harm that resulted in the death of Holloway." Van der Sloot was detained by Dutch authorities in the Netherlands, while the Kalpoe brothers were detained in Aruba. Van der Sloot was returned to Aruba, where he was incarcerated.
Soon after, Dave Holloway announced a new search for his daughter that probed the sea beyond the original depths in which earlier searches had taken place. That search involved a vessel called the Persistence and was abandoned due to lack of funds at the end of February 2008, when nothing of significance was found.
On November 30, a judge ordered the release of the Kalpoe brothers. Despite attempts by the prosecution to extend their detention, the brothers were released on the following day. The prosecution appealed their release, which was denied on December 5, with the court writing, "Notwithstanding expensive and lengthy investigations on her disappearance and on people who could be involved, the file against the suspect does not contain direct indications that Natalee passed away due to a violent crime." Van der Sloot was released without charge on December 7 due to lack of evidence implicating him as well as a lack of evidence that Holloway died as the result of a violent crime. The prosecution indicated it would not appeal.
On December 18, prosecutor Hans Mos officially declared the case closed, and that no charges would be filed due to lack of evidence. The prosecution indicated a continuing interest in Van der Sloot and the Kalpoe brothers (though they legally ceased to be suspects), and alleged that one of the three, in a chat room message, had stated that Holloway was dead. This was hotly contested by Deepak Kalpoe's attorney, who stated that the prosecution, in translating from Papiamento to Dutch, had misconstrued a reference to a teacher who had drowned as one to Holloway. Attorney Ronald Wix also stated, "Unless [Mos] finds a body in the bathroom of one of these kids, there's no way in hell they can arrest them anymore."
Dutch television programme
On January 31, 2008, Dutch crime reporter Peter R. de Vries claimed that he had solved the Holloway case. De Vries stated that he would tell all on a special television program on Dutch television on February 3. On February 1, the Dutch media reported that Van der Sloot made a confession regarding Holloway's disappearance. Later that day, Van der Sloot stated that he was telling the individual what he wanted to hear, and denied any involvement in her disappearance. That same day, the Aruba prosecutor's office announced the reopening of the case.
The broadcast, aired on February 3, 2008, included excerpts from footage recorded from hidden cameras and microphones in the vehicle of Patrick van der Eem, a Dutch businessman and ex-convict who gained Van der Sloot's confidence. Van der Sloot was seen smoking marijuana and stating that he was with Holloway when she began convulsively shaking, then became unresponsive. Van der Sloot stated that he attempted to revive her, without success. He said that he called a friend, who told Van der Sloot to go home and who disposed of the body. An individual reputed to be this friend, identified in the broadcast as Daury, has denied Van der Sloot's account, indicating that he was then in Rotterdam at school.
The Aruban prosecutor's office attempted to obtain an arrest warrant for Van der Sloot based on the tapes; however, a judge denied the request. The prosecutor appealed the denial, but the appeal failed on February 14. The appeals court held that the statements on the tape were inconsistent with evidence in the case and were insufficient to hold Van der Sloot. On February 8, Van der Sloot met with Aruban investigators in the Netherlands and denied that what he said on the tape was true, stating that he was under the influence of marijuana at the time. Van der Sloot indicated that he still maintains that he left Holloway behind on the beach.
In March 2008, news reports indicated that Van der Eem was secretly taped after giving an interview for Aruban television. Van der Eem, under the impression that cameras had been turned off, disclosed that he had been a friend of Van der Sloot for years (contradicting his statement on De Vries' show that he had met Van der Sloot in 2007), that he expected to become a millionaire through his involvement in the Holloway case, and that he knew the person who supposedly disposed of Holloway's body—and that Van der Sloot had asked him for two thousand euros to buy the man's silence. According to Dutch news service ANP, Van der Eem, who had already signed a book deal, "was furious" after learning of the taping and "threatened" the interviewer, who sought legal advice. Van der Eem's book Overboord (Overboard), co-written with E.E. Byars, was released (in Dutch) on June 25. Van der Eem was arrested on December 13 in the Netherlands for allegedly hitting his girlfriend with a crowbar and engaging in risky driving behavior while fleeing police.
The De Vries broadcast was discussed in a seminar by Dutch legal psychologist Willem Albert Wagenaar, who indicated that the statements did not constitute a confession. Wagenaar criticized De Vries for broadcasting the material, stating that the broadcast made it harder to obtain a conviction, and had De Vries turned over the material to the authorities without broadcasting it, they would have held "all the trumps" in questioning Van der Sloot. Wagenaar opined that not only was the case not solved, it was not even clear that a crime had been committed. Professor Crisje Brants, in the same seminar, also criticized De Vries' methods.
On November 24, Fox News aired an interview with Van der Sloot in which he alleged that he sold Holloway into sexual slavery, receiving money both when Holloway was taken, and later on to keep quiet. Van der Sloot also alleged that his father paid off two police officers who had learned that Holloway was taken to Venezuela. Van der Sloot later retracted the statements made in the interview. Fox News also aired part of an audio recording provided by Van der Sloot, which he alleged is a phone conversation between him and his father, in which the father displays knowledge of his son's purported involvement in human trafficking. According to Mos, this voice heard on the recording is not that of Paulus van der Sloot—the Dutch newspaper De Telegraaf reported that the "father's" voice is almost certainly that of Joran van der Sloot himself, trying to speak in a lower tone. Paulus died of a heart attack on February 10, 2010.
On March 20, 2009, Dave Holloway transported a search dog to Aruba to search a small reservoir in the northern part of the island. The reservoir was previously identified by a supposed witness as a possible location of Natalee's remains. Aruban authorities indicated that they had no new information in the case, but that Holloway had been given permission to conduct the search.
On February 23, 2010, it was reported that Van der Sloot had stated in an interview (first offered to RTL Group in 2009) that he had disposed of Holloway's body in a marsh on Aruba. New chief prosecutor Peter Blanken indicated that authorities had investigated the latest story, and had dismissed it. Blanken stated that the "locations, names, and times he gave just did not make sense."
In March 2010, underwater searches were conducted by Aruban authorities after an American couple reported that they were snorkeling when they photographed what they thought might be human skeletal remains, possibly those of Holloway. Aruban authorities sent divers to investigate, but no remains were ever recovered.
Van der Sloot's extortion of Holloway family
On March 29, 2010, Van der Sloot contacted John Q. Kelly, Beth Twitty's legal representative, with an offer to reveal the location of Holloway's body and the circumstances surrounding her death, if he were given advance of US$25,000 against a total of $250,000. After Kelly notified the FBI, they arranged to proceed with the transaction. On May 10, Van der Sloot had a $15,000 wire transferred to his account in the Netherlands, following the receipt of $10,000 in cash that was videotaped by undercover investigators in Aruba. Authorities stated that the information that he provided in return was false because the house in which he said Holloway's body was located had not yet been built at the time of her disappearance. On June 3, Van der Sloot was charged in the U.S. District Court of Northern Alabama with extortion and wire fraud. U.S. Attorney Joyce White Vance obtained an arrest warrant and transmitted it to Interpol. On June 30, Van der Sloot was indicted on the charges.
At the request of the U.S. Justice Department, authorities conducted a June 4 raid and confiscated items from two homes in the Netherlands. One of the homes belonged to reporter Jaap Amesz, who had previously interviewed Van der Sloot and claimed knowledge of his criminal activities. Aruban investigators used information gathered from the extortion case to launch a new search at a beach, but no new evidence was found. Dave Holloway returned to Aruba on June 14 to pursue possible new clues.
Van der Sloot's murder of Stephany Flores Ramirez in Peru
On May30, five years to the day after Holloway's Stephany Flores Ramírez, a 21-year-old business student, was reported missing in Lima, Peru. She was found dead three days later in a hotel room registered in Van der Sloot's name. On June3, Van der Sloot was arrested in Chile on a murder charge and extradited to Peru the next day. On June7, Peruvian authorities said that Van der Sloot confessed to killing Flores after he lost his temper because she accessed his laptop without permission and found information linking him to Holloway. Police chief César Guardia related that Van der Sloot told Peruvian police that he knew where Holloway's body was and offered to help Aruban authorities find it. However, Guardia stated that the interrogation was limited to their case in Peru, and that questions about Holloway's disappearance were avoided. On June 11, Van der Sloot was charged in Lima Superior Court with first-degree murder and robbery. On June 15, Aruban and Peruvian authorities announced an agreement to cooperate and allow investigators from Aruba to interview Van der Sloot at Miguel Castro Castro prison in Peru. In a September 2010 interview from the prison, Van der Sloot reportedly admitted to the extortion plot, stating: "I wanted to get back at Natalee's family—her parents have been making my life tough for five years." On January 11, 2012, Van der Sloot pleaded guilty to murdering Flores and was sentenced to 28 years in prison.
Declaration of death
In June 2011 (six years after Natalee's disappearance), Dave Holloway filed a petition with the Alabama courts to have his daughter declared legally dead. The papers were served on his ex-wife Beth Twitty, who announced her intention to oppose the petition. A hearing was held on September 23, 2011, at which time Probate Judge Alan King ruled that Dave Holloway had met the requirements for a legal presumption of death. On January 12, 2012, a second hearing was held, after which Judge King signed the order declaring Natalee Holloway to be dead.
Unrelated bone discovery, contested Oxygen documentary
On November 12, 2010, tourists found a jawbone on an Aruban beach near the Phoenix Hotel and Bubali Swamp. Preliminary examination by a forensic expert determined that the bone was from a young woman. A part of the bone was sent to The Hague for testing by the Netherlands Forensic Institute. On November 23, 2010, Aruba Solicitor-General Taco Stein announced that based on dental records, the jawbone was not of Holloway, and it was not even possible to determine whether it had come from a man or woman.
In 2016, Dave Holloway hired a private investigator, T.J. Ward, to once more go through all evidence and information related to the disappearance of his daughter. This led to an informant, Gabriel, who claimed to have been a roommate of one of Van der Sloot's closest friends, American John Ludwick, in 2005. Gabriel claimed that Ludwick was told what became of Natalee. In an interview with the Oxygen television channel, Gabriel gave a detailed description of what happened on the night of Natalee's disappearance. Oxygen created a new documentary series on Natalee's disappearance that aired on August 19, 2017. Using Gabriel's information, the investigator had found what appeared to be human bones. On October 3, 2017, DNA testing concluded that one piece of bone was human but did not belong to Natalee.
On the show, Ludwick claimed to have helped Van der Sloot dig up, smash and cremate Holloway's bones in 2010. In February 2018, Elizabeth Holloway sued the producers, alleging this and other claims are fictional and harmfully lurid, and that she was misled into providing a DNA sample for comparison without being made aware of plans for a show. In March 2018, Ludwick was stabbed to death by a woman he tried to kidnap.
2023 extradition of Joran van der Sloot to the United States
On June 8, 2023, Joran van der Sloot was officially extradited from Peru, where he was serving his 28-year sentence for the 2010 murder of Stephany Flores Ramírez, to the United States, landing at Shuttlesworth Airport in Birmingham, Alabama just before 2:30 p.m. After arriving in Birmingham, he was taken into U.S. custody and transported to the Hoover City Jail. On June 9, he was arraigned in the federal court in Birmingham on one count of extortion and one count of wire fraud against Beth Holloway, Natalee Holloway's mother. He pleaded not guilty to each charge.
On October 18, 2023, Van der Sloot confessed in a proffer letter to killing Holloway. He wrote that he kicked and bludgeoned her with a cinder block after she refused his sexual advances, and disposed of her body in the ocean.
Investigation criticism
The Twittys and their supporters criticized a perceived lack of progress by Aruban police. The Twittys' own actions in Aruba were also criticized, and the Twittys were accused of actively stifling any evidence that might impugn Holloway's character by asking her fellow students to remain silent about the case and using their access to the media to push their own version of events. The Twittys denied this.
In televised interviews and in a book, Beth Twitty alleged that Van der Sloot and the Kalpoe brothers knew more about Holloway's disappearance than they have told authorities and that at least one of them sexually assaulted or raped her daughter. On July 5, 2005, following the initial release of the Kalpoes, Twitty alleged, "Two suspects were released yesterday who were involved in a violent crime against my daughter," and referred to the Kalpoes as "criminals". A demonstration involving about two hundred Arubans took place that evening outside the Oranjestad courthouse. The protesters were angry over Twitty's remarks, with signs reading, "Innocent until proven guilty" and, "Respect our Dutch laws or go home." Satish Kalpoe's attorney threatened legal action and described Twitty's allegations as "prejudicial, inflammatory, libelous, and totally outrageous." On July 8, 2005, Twitty read a statement that said her remarks were fuelled by "despair and frustration" and that she "apologize to the Aruban people and to the Aruban authorities if I or my family offended you in any way."
In 2007, Twitty released her own book Loving Natalee: A Mother's Testament of Hope and Faith. That same year Twitty appeared on Nancy Grace and said that,
Following the airing of the De Vries programme on Dutch television, Twitty adhered to the position that the tapes represented the way events transpired and told the New York Post that she believed her daughter might still be alive if Van der Sloot had called for help. She contended that Van der Sloot had dumped Holloway's body, possibly alive, into the Caribbean sea. Twitty also alleged that the person Van der Sloot supposedly called that evening was his father, Paulus, who, according to Twitty, "orchestrated what to do next". Holloway's parents alleged that Van der Sloot was receiving "special legal favors". After the court decision not to rearrest Van der Sloot was affirmed, Twitty stated, "I think that what I do take comfort in, his life is a living hell," later adding, "I'd be good with a Midnight Express prison anywhere for Joran."
In response to her daughter's disappearance, Twitty founded the International Safe Travels Foundation, a non-profit organization designed "to inform and educate the public to help them travel more safely as they travel internationally." In May 2010, she announced that the Natalee Holloway Resource Center would open at the National Museum of Crime & Punishment. Located in Washington, D.C., the center opened on June 8 to aid families of missing people.
Holloway's family initially discouraged a travel boycott of Aruba, but this changed by September 2005. Twitty urged that people not travel to Aruba and other Dutch territories because of what she stated were tourist safety issues. In a November 8, 2005, news conference, Governor Bob Riley and the Holloways urged Alabamians and others to boycott Aruba. Riley also wrote to other United States governors seeking their support—the governors of Georgia and Arkansas eventually joined in the call for a boycott. Philadelphia's city council voted to ask the Pennsylvania Governor Ed Rendell to call for a boycott. Rendell did not do so, and no federal support was given.
The boycott was supported by some of Alabama's Congressional delegation, including both senators and Representative Spencer Bachus (R-AL), who represents Mountain Brook. Senator Richard Shelby (R-AL) voiced his support for the boycott in a letter to the American Society of Travel Agents. Shelby stated, "For the safety, security and well-being of our citizens, I do not believe that we can trust that we will be protected while in Aruba." Prime Minister Oduber stated that Aruban investigators have done their best to solve the case, and responded to the call for boycott, "This is a preposterous and irresponsible act. We are not guerillas. We are not terrorists. We don't pose a threat to the United States, nor to Alabama."
Members of the Aruba Hotel and Tourism Association, the Aruba Tourism Authority, the Aruba Hospitality and Security Foundation, the Aruban Chamber of Commerce and government figures, including Public Relations Representative Ruben Trapenberg, formed an "Aruba Strategic Communications Task Force" to respond collectively to what they perceived to be unfounded and/or negative portrayals of the island. The group issued press releases and sent representatives to appear in news media. They joined the Aruban government in opposing the calls for a boycott of the island.
Skeeters tape and Dr. Phil; lawsuits
On September 15, 2005, the television show showed parts of a hidden camera interview with Deepak Kalpoe in which he seemingly affirmed a suggestion that Holloway had sex with all three men. The taping had been instigated by Jamie Skeeters, a private investigator. When the tape was broadcast, news reports indicated an expectation of a rearrest, which Dompig termed a "strong possibility" if the tapes were legitimate.
Aruban police subsequently provided a fuller version of the relevant part of the tape in which Kalpoe's response differed from the version, apparently due to editing that may have altered the meaning of what was said. An unofficial Aruban-affiliated spokesperson and commentator on the case said that the uncut videotape showed that Kalpoe had shaken his head and said, "No, she didn't", thereby denying that Holloway had sex with him and the other two men. According to an MSNBC report, the crucial words are inaudible, and presenter Rita Cosby questioned if it could be substantiated that Kalpoe had ever made the statements attributed to him in the version of the recording.
In December 2006, the Kalpoes filed a slander and libel suit against Skeeters (who died in January 2007) and in Los Angeles, California. Holloway's parents responded by filing a wrongful death lawsuit against the Kalpoes in the same venue. The wrongful death suit was dismissed for lack of personal jurisdiction on June 1, 2007; the libel and slander case was initially set for trial on October 12, 2011 but was later set for April 2015. An earlier suit had been filed in New York City by Holloway's parents against Joran and Paulus van der Sloot and served on them on a visit to New York. The case had been dismissed in August 2006 as filed in an inconvenient forum.
On November 10, 2005, Paulus van der Sloot won an unjust detention action against the Aruban government, clearing him as a suspect and allowing him to retain his government contract. The elder Van der Sloot then brought a second action, seeking monetary damages for himself and his family because of his false arrest. The action was initially successful, but the award of damages was reversed on appeal.
Amigoe article
The Amigoe newspaper reported on interviews with Julia Renfro and Dompig in which they said that Aruban authorities had been systematically obstructed in their investigation by U.S. officials. They also said that within a day of Holloway's being reported missing, a medjet, unauthorized by Aruban authorities, had arrived on Aruba and had remained for several days for the purpose of covertly taking Holloway off the island without notifying local authorities. Renfro, an American-born editor of an English-language daily, Aruba Today, who at the time of Holloway's disappearance had become close friends with Twitty, also said she and Twitty received a phone call from an unknown woman on June 2, 2005, asking for money in return for information about Holloway's location, and asserting that Holloway was unwilling to return to her mother. According to Renfro, she and another American went to a drug house where Holloway supposedly was, bringing money, but found that Jug Twitty had already been to the area, spreading "a lot of uproar and panic in the direct vicinity", and nothing could be accomplished. The Twittys disputed Renfro's accounts, with Beth Twitty describing Renfro as "a witch".
Film adaptations
On April 19, 2009, LMN aired Natalee Holloway, a television film based on Twitty's book Loving Natalee. Starring Tracy Pollan as Beth Twitty, Grant Show as Jug Twitty, Amy Gumenick as Holloway, and Jacques Strydom as Van der Sloot, the film retells events leading up to the night of Holloway's disappearance in 2005 and the ensuing investigation in the aftermath. It was shot in South Africa.
The movie stages re-creations of various scenarios based on the testimony of key players and suspects, including Van der Sloot. The broadcast of the film attracted 3.2 million viewers, garnering the highest television ratings in the network's eleven year history. Although it set ratings records for Lifetime, the movie received mixed reviews from critics. Alec Harvey of The Birmingham News called the movie "sloppy and uneven, a forgettable look at the tragedy that consumed the nation's attention for months." However, Jake Meaney of PopMatters found the film surprisingly "calm and levelheaded", and praised Pollan's portrayal of Holloway's mother.
A follow-up film, Justice for Natalee Holloway, aired in mid-2011 on LMN. This film picks up in 2010, on the five-year anniversary of Holloway's disappearance.
TV adaptations
In an episode of Vanished with Beth Holloway, Beth recounted the story of Natalee's disappearance, which is reenacted for the show.
Media coverage
U.S. television networks devoted substantial air time to the search for Holloway, the investigation of her disappearance, and rumors surrounding the case. Greta Van Susteren, host of Fox News' On the Record, and Nancy Grace, on her eponymous Headline News program, were among the most prominent television personalities to devote time to the incident. Van Susteren's almost continuous coverage of the story garnered On the Record its best ratings to date, while Grace's show became the cornerstone of the new "Headline Prime" block on Headline News, which ran two episodes (a live show and a repeat) every night during primetime. As the case wore on, much of the attention was given to Beth Twitty and her statements. Aruban government spokesman Ruben Trapenberg stated, "The case is under a microscope, and the world is watching."
The saturation of coverage triggered a backlash among some critics who argued that such extensive media attention validated the "missing white woman syndrome" theory, which argues that missing person cases involving white women and girls receive disproportionately more attention in the media compared with cases involving white males or people of color. CNN ran a segment criticizing the amount of coverage their competitors gave to the story despite what they characterized as a lack of new items to report, with CNN news anchor Anderson Cooper calling the coverage "downright ridiculous".
Early in the case, political commentator and columnist Arianna Huffington wrote, "If you were to get your news only from television, you'd think the top issue facing our country right now is an 18-year-old girl named Natalee who went missing in Aruba. Every time one of these stories comes up, like, say, Michael Jackson, when it's finally over I think, what a relief, now we can get back to real news. But we never do." In March 2008, El Diario commented, "But if doubts persist about cases involving missing Latinos, there are reasons why. These cases rarely receive the attention and resources we see given to other missing persons. The English language media, for example, appear to be focused on the stories of missing white women, such as with the disappearance of Natalee Holloway in Aruba. Cases of missing Latino and African-American women often remain faceless, if and when they are even covered."
CBS senior journalist Danna Walker stated, "There is criticism that it is only a story because she is a pretty blonde—and white—and it is criticism that journalists are taking to heart and looking elsewhere for other stories. But it is a big story because it is an American girl who went off on an adventure and didn't come back. It is a huge mystery; it is something people can identify with." Good Morning America anchor Chris Cuomo was unapologetic of his program's extensive coverage of the Holloway case, stating: "I don't believe it's my role to judge what people want to watch … If they say, 'I want to know what happened to this girl' … I want to help them find out."
Holloway's family, however, took the opposite approach and criticized the lessening of coverage of her disappearance due to a shift in news priority when Hurricane Katrina struck on August 23, 2005. The saturation coverage of Holloway's disappearance would ultimately be eclipsed by the hurricane. Beth Twitty and Dave Holloway alleged that Aruba took advantage of the extensive coverage of Hurricane Katrina to release the suspects; however, the deadline for judicial review of Van der Sloot's detention was set long before Katrina.
Dave Holloway lamented in his book:
See also
List of people who disappeared
References
External links
Holloway
2005 crimes in the Netherlands
2005 in Aruba
2005 in women's history
Aruba–United States relations
History of women in the Netherlands
History of women in the United States
May 2005 crimes in the United States
May 2005 events in North America
Missing person cases in North America
Netherlands–United States relations
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob%20Hannah
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Bob Hannah
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Robert William Hannah (born September 26, 1956) is an American former professional motocross racer. He competed in the AMA Motocross Championships from 1975 to 1989, most notably as a member of the Yamaha factory racing team. He was one of the most successful motocross racers in AMA history, with 70 AMA National race victories and seven motocross National Championships.
Hannah was a brash and outspoken personality whose wild riding style, seemingly on the verge of losing control and often with his feet off the foot pegs, earned him the nickname, "Hurricane Hannah". His physical fitness, fierce determination on the race track and a hatred of losing, reshaped American motocross by boosting the speed and competition to higher levels. He was at the forefront of a surge in American motocross competition in the late 1970s and early 1980s that saw American riders overtake and surpass the previously dominant European motocross riders. Hannah was inducted into the AMA Motorcycle Hall of Fame in 1999 and the Motorsports Hall of Fame of America in 2000.
Early motocross career
Hannah was born in Lancaster, California on the edge of the Mojave Desert. He grew up riding in the rugged Southern California deserts with his father but, because his father thought motocross was too dangerous, he didn't begin to compete in motocross racing until he was 18 years old and living on his own. A few weeks after his high school graduation, Hannah borrowed a friend’s 250cc CZ motorcycle on a challenge and won his first and only amateur motocross race on July 7, 1974, at Indian Dunes near Valencia, California, after which race officials told him he would have to move up to the expert class. In his next race, Hannah finished fourth. It would take several months before he won another event.
Mick McKee, whom Hannah credited for starting his professional career, took the young rider as a student and put him through a system of daily muscle and stamina-building workouts along with weekend trips to area motocross tracks to analyze, evaluate and improve Hannah’s evolving technique. McKee also introduced Hannah to Steve Hurd, a local motorcycle dealer, who sold him a new Husqvarna motocross bike and became a sponsor and parts supplier. Hannah worked as a welder, saving his money for six months before he could afford to purchase the Husqvarna.
Hannah’s hard work and training soon began to pay dividends over the spring and summer of 1975. At one point, he won 18 straight races in ten days by competing in two classes at each event. It wasn't long before Hannah caught the attention of Suzuki who brought a $700-a-month offer to test and race small displacement works-bikes. Remarkably, just 13 months removed from his amateur debut, Hannah entered his first AMA National event in San Antonio, Texas, at the 125cc Cycle-Rama on August 25, 1975, finishing in sixth place. However, at his next AMA National in New Orleans, Louisiana, he got a severe case of heat prostration and ended up in the hospital.
Team Yamaha and motocross dominance
In late 1975, Yamaha, having lost veterans to other teams, offered Hannah a contract. Hannah took the unsigned $1,000-a-month offer to Suzuki hoping that they would match it. Suzuki declined and Yamaha, in December 1975, announced that the virtually unknown Hannah would be joining the team for the 1976 season.
Hannah began his rookie year by dominating the 500cc Florida Winter-AMA series, which was one of the most prestigious American motocross series of the era. In winning all five events, he became the first rider to sweep the series, inspiring Cycle News editor and contributor Jim Gianatsis to popularize the nickname “the Hurricane” for Hannah.
He had an equally impressive start to the 1976 AMA 125cc motocross season by winning the first race at Hangtown against Honda's defending National Champion, Marty Smith. He won five of the eight 125cc Nationals that year en route to his first national championship. Hannah participated in his first Trans-AMA series winning the final event of the series in Phoenix, Arizona. He was also a member of the American team at both the Motocross des Nations and Trophée des Nations. However, Team USA fared poorly with Hannah himself remarking later that “I don't remember a single damn thing about those two races.”
In 1976, Hannah had sporadically raced both 250cc and 500cc displacement classes, even winning his first 250cc National at Appalachian Highlands Motorsports Park. But, in 1977, Hannah was determined to fully compete in them all. For the Florida Winter-AMA series, Hannah rode a production Yamaha YZ250 to win eight consecutive motos in taking the 250cc title. He won the AMA Supercross Championship in impressive fashion, taking six of the 10 rounds. As defending 125cc national champion, he won three of the six rounds. However, mechanical issues lead to a disastrous 24th place at the opening round at Hangtown. This put him in a points hole that he couldn't overcome, and he finished third for series. In the 500cc class, Hannah went into the last round just six points behind Marty Smith for the championship, but his motorcycle’s throttle cable malfunctioned while leading the first moto and left him unable to finish, ending his chances for the championship.
Hannah never really had a chance at the 250cc National title. The AMA - fearing a Hannah sweep of every championship - stopped holding single class Nationals, combining them on the same day causing Yamaha to defer Hannah to the 125cc class when the two conflicted. The move by the AMA combined with the enormity of competing in so many races contributed to Hannah being a non-factor in the 250cc series, finishing overall in seventh place. However, Hannah became the first AMA competitor to win races in the 125cc, 250cc and 500cc classes in just one season.
Hannah capped off the year by giving Roger De Coster his strongest American challenge to date in the 1977 Trans-AMA series. Hannah won more motos than any other competitor in the series including De Coster however, he didn't score points in two rounds due to mechanical failures, allowing De Coster to win his fourth consecutive Trans-AMA title. At the time, De Coster said of Hannah, "Hannah's good, but he also thinks he's good, which is something that he shouldn't do. At least not until he has more experience to go along with it." Hannah finished second in the series barely holding off rival Marty Smith for the runner-up spot.
For the 1978 season, the AMA adopted a new rule that required all professional riders declare their class for the year putting an end to multiple class racing. Hannah chose to race in the 250cc class for which he would mostly compete for the remainder of his professional career. After underperforming in the first three rounds of the Supercross series, Hannah reeled off six consecutive victories and ran away with the championship. He continued to dominate his competition by winning eight consecutive 250cc outdoor Nationals, at that time a record. Hannah’s point lead became so insurmountable, he claimed the National title even while sitting out the last two rounds to heal an injured wrist.
At the end of the season, Hannah won the Trans-AMA Series over five-time world champion Roger De Coster, becoming the first American competitor to win the series in the nine-year history of the event. Hannah's victory at the Trans-AMA marked the end of the series as a confrontation between the best European and American motocross racers. The Trans-AMA Series was conceived as a series of match races held across the United States, between the Europeans who dominated the sport and the young Americans who sought to emulate them however, by the mid-1970s American riders steadily improved their skill, and European riders found it increasingly difficult to earn enough money to make the trip to America worthwhile. Only three European riders came over to compete in the 1978 Trans-AMA Series due to the stiffening competition from American riders.
At the 1978 Motocross des Nations in Gaildorf, West Germany, Hannah had the rare opportunity to compete against reigning 500cc World Champion Heikki Mikkola, who was then near the peak of his racing career. Hannah let Mikkola know that he (Hannah) was going to win the race. Mikkola replied, “Let's see if you ride as good as you talk.” In the first race, Hannah grabbed an early lead however, Mikkola overtook him and pulled away for the win. Mikkola repeated the performance in the second race, passing Hannah en route to his second victory of the day.
Water-skiing accident and troubles with Yamaha
The 1979 campaign was a continuation of the prior year. Hannah won his third consecutive AMA Supercross series title and successfully defended his outdoor National title by earning victories in six of the 10 events. He was the best motocross rider in the United States and arguably in the world. But at the height of his career, Hannah broke his leg in 12 places in a water-skiing accident in August that left him sidelined for a little more than a year. Doctors initially told Hannah he would never be able to race again. He was forced to sit out the entire 1980 Supercross and outdoor series while recuperating. During his recovery, he developed an interest in flying airplanes, and earned his pilot license.
Hannah returned to motocross in September 1980 at Silver Sands Cycle Park in Anderson, South Carolina where he placed third and first in the two motos of a 250cc pro event, battling a young up-and-coming David Bailey. Hannah also raced in the Trans-USA series (formerly Trans-AMA) and finished a respectable third place despite admitting that he had poor timing with the motorcycle and was out of shape from the layoff.
The year 1981 would not be the comeback for which Hannah would have hoped. Although he took his third Winter-AMA series title, he was only able to win one Supercross event and finished the series fifth overall. For the Nationals, Hannah and Kent Howerton became embroiled in a fierce race for the championship, battling round after round, often purposely ramming the other in one of the most competitive and hard-fought series in AMA history. Hannah took three rounds and made it close, but Howerton was the eventual winner of the series. For the Trans-USA series, Hannah was again unable to find winning form and finishing tied for fourth. The July 1981 issue of Motocross Action magazine included the coverline, “Hannah: Over the Hill?”. In explaining his mixed results that year, Hannah later blamed the motorcycle saying that it was 35 pounds too heavy and not as good as his YZ250 from two years earlier.
If 1981 was a difficult year for Hannah, 1982 may have been the lowest point his career. For the Supercross series, he finished ninth winning only one round. Yamaha team manager Kenny Clark moved Broc Glover to the 250cc class in the Nationals and Hannah to the 125cc class. Hannah had not raced 125’s in four years. Again, voicing displeasure over his motorcycle, Hannah struggled the entire season and did not win a single National for the first time and finished seventh for the series. Hannah called the move to the 125cc class a “stupid mistake.” It would be Hannah's last year racing for the Yamaha factory team. Hannah blamed the motorcycles, and Yamaha blamed Hannah for not winning. By mutual agreement, the year remaining on his contract was dissolved.
Move to Honda
In November 1982, Honda announced it had signed Hannah to a three year contract. Hannah was back on 250cc machines and wasted no time making a statement that he was still on his game. He started the season by winning the CMC Golden State series over David Bailey, Broc Glover and Ricky Johnson. His success continued on the AMA circuits. Both Supercross and National titles were his for the taking as he won five of the first 11 stadium events and six of eight 250cc Nationals and was leading both series going into a Supercross event in Orlando, Florida. Prior to the event, Hannah was asked to check the track before it opened to competitors. In negotiating a jump, he fell and injured both his left wrist and leg. The injury to his wrist proved to be significant and Hannah was forced to abandon competing in the remaining Supercross events during which he was surpassed by both David Bailey and Mark Barnett for the Supercross title. Hannah determinedly raced the remaining National events but was unable to effectively compete with his injured wrist and ended up third for the title. As later events would demonstrate, 1983 was Hannah’s last best chance to bring home a championship.
Injuries would continue to plague Hannah for the 1984 season. During the year, he suffered a broken pelvis, along with two broken wrists, a broken ankle and two broken ribs. His competitors started referring to him as “Brittle Bob” as he accumulated more injuries and missed more events. Hannah finished the season in tenth place for both Supercross and Nationals, his worst showing as a full-time competitor. At this time, he even contemplated retirement.
While Hannah continued to be among, if not the fastest competitor in motocross, injury and age were catching up. Just a few events into the 1985 Supercross series, Hannah was telling the press that it was going to be his last season for that circuit. He finished 11th overall although he did become the first three-time winner of the Daytona Supercross, the last of his 27 stadium wins. However, Hannah still had the speed, ability, and desire to compete with the younger riders in the outdoor Nationals. In the title hunt for much of the year, Hannah won his 37th and final AMA National at the age of 28 at the 250cc event held in Millville, Minnesota, and finished fourth overall for the season.
Return to Suzuki and retirement
Hannah left his factory ride with Honda and signed with Suzuki to be a development rider and part-time racer in 1986. Over the next several years, he raced infrequently at AMA and Grand Prix events to the delight of his fans. And there were still the occasional magical moments. After years of bad luck and frustration at Unadilla Valley Sports Center, Hannah won the 1986 U.S. Grand Prix Championship when Johnny O’Mara ran out of gas on the last lap of the second moto allowing Hannah, then in second place, to slip by him for the victory.
In 1987, Hannah was selected to Team USA at the Motocross Des Nations, held for the first time in the U.S. It was a controversial pick for team manager Roger DeCoster. DeCoster had passed over two-time 125cc National Champion Micky Dymond in favor of Hannah who was well past his prime and had not competitively raced a 125cc displacement bike since 1982. But the track at Unadilla favored Hannah and he was motivated to prove wrong those critical of his selection. On race day, the weather was awful with rain turning the track into mud and ruts. At one point in the first moto, Hannah could not get up a slippery hill and had to turn around and go to the bottom and start over. In nearly last place early in the race, Hannah conjured up one of his come-from-behind charges, his feet off the pegs to maintain balance in the ruts. He managed fourth-place among 125cc bikes. In the second moto, he scored a top ten start and rode to a first place in the 125 class. Along with Jeff Ward in the 500cc class and Ricky Johnson on the 250cc, Hannah and Team USA captured the title in one of the most memorable Motocross Des Nations.
Hannah final race was at the 1989 U.S. Grand Prix. He finished ninth overall having once again battled back in both motos from the rear of the pack. Ready for retirement, Hannah later said “When I rode my last lap at Unadilla I was talking to myself. I said, I have one more lap to go and I never have to ride one of these again.”
In his fifteen-year professional motocross career, Hannah had become the all-time win leader in AMA history, having won 64 Supercross and National titles along with six Trans-AMA events during his career. His 70 AMA win record would stand until Jeremy McGrath broke Hannah's overall win record in 1999.
Later career
After leaving motocross, Hannah took up the sport of airplane racing in the unlimited class flying airplanes such as the P-51 Mustang. When inducted into the AMA Motorcycle Hall of Fame in 1999, Hannah was living near Boise, Idaho, running a sport aviation sales company and winery. In 2000, he was inducted into the Motorsports Hall of Fame of America.
Career highlights
1976 500cc Florida Winter-AMA Champion
1976 125cc National Champion
1977 250cc Florida Winter-AMA Champion
1977 250cc Supercross Champion
1978 250cc Supercross Champion
1978 250cc National Champion
1978 500cc Trans-AMA Champion
1979 250cc Supercross Champion
1979 250cc National Champion
1981 250cc Florida Winter-AMA Champion
1983 250cc CMC Golden State Champion
1986 250cc Florida Winter-AMA Champion
1986 250cc U.S. Grand Prix Champion
1987 Motocross des Nations "Team USA" World Champions
1988 250cc Florida Winter-AMA Champion
Notes
References
1956 births
Living people
Sportspeople from Lancaster, California
American motocross riders
AMA Motocross Championship National Champions
American air racers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information%20Research%20Department
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Information Research Department
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The Information Research Department (IRD) was a secret Cold War propaganda department of the British Foreign Office, created to publish anti-communist propaganda, including black propaganda, provide support and information to anti-communist politicians, academics, and writers, and to use weaponised information, but also disinformation and "fake news", to attack not only its original targets but also certain socialists and anti-colonial movements. Soon after its creation, the IRD broke away from focusing solely on Soviet matters and began to publish pro-colonial propaganda intended to suppress pro-independence revolutions in Asia, Africa, Ireland, and the Middle East. The IRD was heavily involved in the publishing of books, newspapers, leaflets and journals, and even created publishing houses to act as propaganda fronts, such as Ampersand Limited. Operating for 29 years, the IRD is known as the longest-running covert government propaganda department in British history, the largest branch of the Foreign Office, and the first major anglophone propaganda offensive against the USSR since the end of World War II. By the 1970s, the IRD was performing military intelligence tasks for the British Military in Northern Ireland during The Troubles.
The IRD promoted works by many presumably anti-communist authors including George Orwell, Arthur Koestler, Bertrand Russell, and Robert Conquest.
Internationally, the IRD took part in many historic events, including Britain's entry into the European Economic Community, the Korean War, the Suez Crisis, the Malayan Emergency, The Troubles, the Mau Mau Uprising, Cyprus Emergency, and the Sino-Indian War. Other IRD activities included forging letters and posters, conducting smear attacks against British trade unionists, and attacking opponents of the British military by planting fake news stories in the British press. Some of the fabricated stories the IRD created included accusations that Irish republicans were killing dogs by setting them on fire and falsely accusing EOKA members of raping schoolgirls.
Although the existence of the IRD was successfully kept hidden from the British public until the 1970s, the Soviet Union had always been aware of its existence, for Guy Burgess had been posted to the IRD for a period of two months in 1948. Burgess was later sacked by the IRD's founder Christopher Mayhew, who accused him of being "dirty, drunk and idle". The IRD closed its operations in 1977 after its existence was discovered by British journalists after an investigation into a heavy amount of anti-Soviet propaganda being published by academics belonging to St Antony's College, Oxford. An exposé by David Leigh published in The Guardian, entitled "Death of the Department that Never Was", became the first public acknowledgement of the IRD's existence.
Origins
Since 1946, many senior officials of both the Foreign Office and the Labour Party had proposed the creation of an anti-communist propaganda organ. Christopher Warner raised a formal proposal in April 1946, but Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs Ernest Bevin was reluctant to upset the pro-Soviet members of the Labour Party. Later in the summer, Bevin rejected another proposal by Ivone Kirkpatrick to set up an anti-communist propaganda unit. In 1947, Christopher Mayhew lobbied for the proposals, linking anti-communism with the concept of "Third Force", which was meant to be a progressive camp between the Soviet Union and the United States. This framing, together with anti-British Soviet propaganda attacks during the same years, led Bevin to change his position and to start discussing the details for the creation of a propaganda unit. After sending a confidential paper to the foreign secretary, Ernest Bevin, in 1947, Mayhew was summoned by Attlee to Chequers to discuss it further.
On 8 January 1948, the Cabinet of the United Kingdom adopted the Future Foreign Publicity, memorandum drafted by Christopher Mayhew and signed by Ernest Bevin. The memorandum embraced anti-communism and took upon the British Labour Government to lead anti-communist progressivism internationally, stating:
To achieve these goals, the memorandum called for the establishment of a Foreign Office department "to collect information" about Communism and to "provide material for our anti-Communist publicity through our Missions and Information Services abroad". The department would collaborate with ministers, British delegates, the Labour Party, trade union representatives, the Central Office of Information, and the BBC Overseas Service. The new department was finally established as the Information Research Department. Mayhew ran the department with Sir Ivone Kirkpatrick until 1950. The original offices were in Carlton House Terrace, before moving to Riverwalk House, Millbank, London.
Staff and collaborators
The IRD was once one of the largest and well-funded of the UK Foreign Office, with an estimated 400-600 employees at its height. Although the IRD was founded under Clement Attlee's post-WWII Labour Party government (1945-1951) the department has been headed by numerous different politicians of both the Labour Party and Conservative Party, including Ralph Murray, John Rennie, and Ray Whitney. Although the vast majority of IRD staff were British subjects, the department also hired emigres from the Soviet Union, such as the rocket scientist Grigori Tokaty. Other staffers of note include Robert Conquest, whose secretary Celia Kirwan collected Orwell's list. Tracy Philipps was also based at the IRD, working to recruit emigres from Eastern Europe. Many IRD agents were former members of Britain's WWII propaganda department, the Political Warfare Executive (PWE), including former Daily Mirror journalist Leslie Sheridan. This high level of PWE veterans within the IRD, coupled with the similarities between how these two propaganda departments operated, has led some historians to describe the department as a "peacetime PWE".
Outside of full-time agents, many historians, writers, and academics were either paid directly to publish anti-communist propaganda by the IRD or whose works were bought and distributed by the department using British embassies to both translate and distribute their works across the globe. Some of these authors include George Orwell, Bertrand Russell, Arthur Koestler, Czesław Miłosz, Brian Crozier, Richard Crossman, Will Lawther, A. J. P. Taylor, Baron Wyatt of Weeford, Leonard Schapiro, Denis Healey, Douglas Hyde, Margarete Buber, Victor Kravchenko, W.N. Ewer, Victor Feather, and hundreds (possibly thousands) of others. Some authors such as Bertrand Russell were fully aware of the funding for their books, while others such as the philosopher Bryan Magee were outraged when they found out.
Bertrand Russell
As part of its remit "to collect and summarize reliable information about Soviet and communist misdoings, to disseminate it to friendly journalists, politicians, and trade unionists, and to support, financially and otherwise, anti-communist publications", it subsidised the publication of books by 'Background Books', including three by Bertrand Russell: Why Communism Must Fail, What Is Freedom?, and What Is Democracy? The IRD bulk-ordered thousands of copies of Russell's books, including his work Why Communism Must Fall, and worked with the United States government to distribute them using embassies as cover. Working closely with the British Council, the IRD worked to build Russell's reputation as an anti-communist writer, and to use his works to project power overseas.
Arthur Koestler
Koestler enjoyed strong personal relationships with IRD agents from 1949 onwards and was supportive of the department's anti-communist goals. Koestler's relationship with the British government was so strong that he had become a de facto advisor to British propagandists, urging them to create a popular series of anti-communist left-wing literature to rival the success of the Left Book Club. In return for his services to British propaganda, the IRD assisted Koestler by purchasing thousands of copies of his book Darkness at Noon and distributing them throughout Germany.
Propaganda
The IRD created, sponsored, and distributed a wide range of propaganda publications both fiction and non-fiction, in the form of books, magazines, pamphlets, newspaper articles, radio broadcasts, and cartoons. Books which the IRD believed could be used for British propaganda purposes were translated into dozens of languages and then distributed using British embassies. Most IRD material targeted the Soviet Union, but much IRD work also attacked socialist and anti-colonial revolutionaries in Cyprus, Malaya (now Malaysia), Singapore, Ireland, Korea, Egypt, and Indonesia. In Britain, the department used its propaganda to spread smear stories targeting trade union leaders and human rights activists, but was also used by the Labour Party to conduct internal purges against socialist members.
British introductions to IRD were made discreetly, with journalists being told as little as possible about the department. Propaganda material was sent to their homes under plain cover as correspondence marked "personal" carried no departmental identification or reference. They were told documents were "prepared" in the FCO primarily for members of the diplomatic service, but that it was allowed to give them on a personal basis to a few people outside the service who might find them of interest. As such, they were not statements of official policy and should not be attributed to HMG, nor should the titles themselves be quoted in discussion or in print. The papers should not be shown to anyone else and they were to be destroyed when no longer needed.
Animal Farm - George Orwell
George Orwell's Animal Farm was republished, distributed, translated, and promoted for many years by IRD agents. Of all the propaganda works ever supported by the IRD, Animal Farm was given more attention and support by IRD agents than any publication in the department's history and arguably given more support from the British and American governments than any other propaganda book in the entire history of the Cold War. The IRD gained the translation rights to Animal Farm in Chinese, Danish, Dutch, French, German, Finnish, Hebrew, Italian, Japanese, Indonesian, Latvian, Norwegian, Polish, Portuguese, Spanish, and Swedish. The Chinese version of Animal Farm was created in a joint operation between British and American government propagandists, which also included a pictorial version.
To further promote Animal Farm, the IRD commissioned cartoon strips to be planted in newspapers across the globe. The foreign rights to distribute these cartoons were acquired by the IRD for Cyprus, Tanganyika, Kenya, Uganda, Northern and Southern Rhodesia, Nyasaland, Sierra Leone, Gold Coast, Nigeria, Trinidad, Jamaica, Fiji, British Guiana and British Honduras.
Encounter magazine
In a joint operation with the CIA, Encounter magazine was established. Published in the United Kingdom, it was a largely Anglo-American intellectual and cultural journal, originally associated with the anti-Stalinist left, intended to counter the idea of cold war neutralism. The magazine was rarely critical of American foreign policy, but beyond this editors had considerable publishing freedom. It was edited by Stephen Spender from 1953 to 1966. Spender resigned after it emerged that the Congress for Cultural Freedom, which published the magazine, was being covertly funded by the CIA.
Activities
Italy
In 1948, fearing a victory of the Italian Communist Party in the general election, the IRD instructed the Embassy of the United Kingdom in Rome to disseminate anti-communist propaganda. Ambassador Victor Mallet chaired a small ad hoc committee to circulate IRD propaganda material to anti-communist journalists and Italian Socialist Party and Christian Democracy politicians.
Indonesia
Following the abortive Indonesian Communist coup attempt of 1965 and the subsequent mass killings, the IRD's South East Asia Monitoring Unit in Singapore assisted the Indonesian Army's destruction of the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI) by circulating anti-PKI propaganda through several radio channels including the British Broadcasting Corporation, Radio Malaysia, Radio Australia, and the Voice of America, and through newspapers like The Straits Times. The same anti-PKI message was repeated by an anti-Sukarno radio station called Radio Free Indonesia and the IRD's own newsletter. Recurrent themes emphasised by the IRD included the alleged brutality of PKI members in murdering the Indonesian generals and their families, Chinese intervention in the Communist attempt to overthrow the government, and the PKI subverting Indonesian on behalf of foreign powers. The IRD's propaganda efforts were aided by the United States, Australian and Malaysian governments which had an interest in supporting the Army's anti-communist mass murder and opposing President Sukarno. The IRD's information efforts helped corroborate the Indonesia Army's propaganda efforts against the PKI. In addition, the Harold Wilson Labour Government and its Australian counterpart gave the Indonesian Army leadership an assurance that British and Commonwealth forces would not step up the Indonesia-Malaysia Confrontation.
British trade unions
In 1969 Home Secretary James Callaghan requested actions that would hinder the careers of two "politically motivated" trade unionists, Jack Jones of the Transport and General Workers Union and Hugh Scanlon of the Amalgamated Engineering Union. This issue was raised in the cabinet and further discussed with Secretary of State for Employment Barbara Castle. A plan for detrimental leaks to the media was placed in the IRD files, and the head of the IRD prepared a briefing paper. However, information about how this was effected has not been released under the thirty-year rule under a section of the Public Records Act permitting national security exemptions.
U.S. citizen
In 2022 declassified documents showed that the IRD attacked the U.S. Black Power movement with covert disinformation in the 1960s. Civil rights leader Stokeley Carmichael, who had fled to Africa, was targeted; he was claimed to be a foreigner in Africa who was contemptuous of Africans, rather than a Communist stooge. The IRD created a fake west African organisation called The Black Power – Africa's Heritage Group, which criticised Carmichael as an "unbidden prophet from America" who had abandoned the U.S. Black Power cause, with no place in Africa, who was "weaving a bloody trail of chaos in the name of Pan-Africanism", controlled by Kwame Nkrumah, the independence leader and former president of Ghana deposed by a coup in 1966.
Reuters
In 1969 Reuters agreed to open a reporting service in the Middle East as part of an IRD plan to influence the international media. To protect the reputation of Reuters, which may have been damaged if the funding from the British government became known, the BBC paid Reuters "enhanced subscriptions" for access to its news service and was in turn compensated by the British government for the extra expense. The BBC paid Reuters £350,000 over four years.
Chile
The IRD conducted a propaganda programme to prevent Salvador Allende from being elected president of Chile in the 1964 election. Allende’s nationalisation policy threatened British and US interests since Chile’s copper mines were largely owned by US companies. In the lead up to the election, the IRD was told by a British Cabinet Office unit called the "Counter-subversion Committee’s Working Group on Latin America" that "it will be important to prevent significant gains by the extreme left". The IRD supported Allende’s opponent Eduardo Frei Montalva in the lead up to the election by distributing material to its reliable contacts that was critical of Allende, and favourable to Frei.
The distribution of propaganda material by the IRD diminished after Allende was elected president in 1970, but increased again after the 1973 coup. The material was passed "to the Chilean Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Government information organisations" and the dictatorship’s "military intelligence" services. The IRD helped Pinochet’s government to develop a counter-insurgency strategy in order to stabilise it against domestic opposition. The counter insurgency techniques provided to Chile by the IRD were developed by Britain during its colonial interventions in Southeast Asia. The Chilean authorities were told not to reveal that the information came from the British government.
Controversies
The ethical objection raised by IRD's critics was that the public did not know the source of the information and could therefore not make allowances for the possible bias. It differed thus from straightforward propaganda from the British point of view. This was countered by saying that the information was given to those who were already sympathetic to democracy and the West, and who had arrived at these positions independently.
Unattributed use by authors
Some writers who worked for the IRD have since been found to have used IRD material and presented it to the academic community as though it were their own work. Robert Conquest's book The Great Terror: Stalin's Purge of the Thirties "drew heavily from IRD files", and multiple volumes of Soviet history which Conquest edited had also contained IRD material.
Orwell's List
The IRD became the subject of heavy controversy in the UK after it was revealed that George Orwell had given the department a list of 38 people he suspected of being secret Communists or "fellow travellers".
The existence of Orwell's List, also known as Foreign Office File "FO/111/189", was made public in 1996. However, the exact names included on the list were not made public until 2003. The list came into possession of the IRD in 1949, after being collected by IRD agent Celia Kirwan. Kirwan was a close friend of Orwell, she was also Arthur Koestler's sister-in-law and the secretary for fellow IRD agent Robert Conquest. Guy Burgess was based in the next office to her own. The list itself was divided into three columns headed "Name" "Job" and "Remarks", and referred to those listed as "FTs" meaning Fellow Travelers, and labeled people he believed of being suspected of being secret Marxists as "cryptos". Some of the names listed by Orwell included filmmaker Charlie Chaplin, writer J. B. Priestley, actor Michael Redgrave, historian E. H. Carr, New Statesman editor Kingsley Martin, New York Timess Moscow correspondent Walter Duranty, historian Isaac Deutscher, Labour Party MP Tom Driberg and the novelist Naomi Mitchison, as well as lesser-known writers and journalists. Only one of the people named by Orwell, Peter Smollett, was ever revealed to have been a real Soviet agent. Peter Smollett, who Orwell claimed "...gives strong impression of being some kind of Russian agent. Very slimy person." Smollett had been the head of the Soviet section in the British Ministry of Information, while in fact being a Soviet agent who had been recruited by Kim Philby.
Reactions to Orwell's list have been mixed, with some people crediting Orwell's actions to mental illness, others labelling him a "snitch" and theorising that Orwell's suspicion of numerous African, homosexual, and Jewish people within his list signified bigotry, and others minimising the significance the list. Academic Norman MacKenzie, who knew Orwell personally and considered him a friend, lived long enough to discover that Orwell had reported him to the British secret service on suspicion of being a secret Communist. MacKenzie responded to learning that Orwell had reported him, and credited Orwell's actions to his degrading mental state caused by tuberculosis. Alexander Cockburn was far less sympathetic, labelling Orwell a "snitch" and a bigot for the information included in Orwell's notebook, another list of suspected Communists that came into the possession of the IRD. This notebook created by Orwell which contained 135 names, was also found to have been held by the Foreign Office. Within this document, Orwell describes African-American Civil Rights leader Paul Robeson as a "very anti-white...U.S Negro".
On the other hand, Christopher Hitchens wrote in 1996 that the list only names people already publicly known as left-leaning. Citing Kirwan's account of the event, Hitchens noted that Orwell "was only giving [Kirwan] the names of various people who were already very well known to anybody who studied Communism. It wasn't as if he was revealing the names of spies." Hitchens further noted, "Nothing that Orwell discussed with his old flame was ever used for a show trial or a bullying "hearing" or a blacklist or a witch-hunt. He wasn't interested in unearthing heresy or in getting people fired or in putting them under the discipline of a loyalty oath. He just wanted to keep a clear accounting in the battle of ideas."
Fabricated rape and pedophilia allegations
During the Cyprus Emergency, IRD agents used newspaper journalists to spread fabricated stories that guerrillas belonging to the National Organisation of Cypriot Fighters (EOKA), had raped schoolgirls. These propaganda stories were manufactured as a part of 'Operation TEA-PARTY', a black propaganda operation in which IRD agents created pamphlets accusing EOKA guerrillas of forcing schoolgirls to have sex with them, and alleging that the youngest of these schoolgirls was 12 years old. Among other fabricated stories, IRD agents attempted to convince American journalists that EOKA had links to Communism in an attempt to gain American support, citing "secret documents" and "classified intelligence reports" which said journalists were never allowed to view.
Discovery and closure
The department was said to be closed down by then Foreign Secretary, David Owen, in 1977. Its existence was not made public until 1978.
See also
Office of Policy Coordination (OPC)
References
Citations
Sources
Facsimile of page (PDF)
Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ao%20Tawhiti
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Ao Tawhiti
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Ao Tawhiti or Ao Tawhiti Unlimited Discovery (abbreviated "ATUD") is a state area school in Christchurch, New Zealand. It was established by the merging of two separate Christchurch inner city schools; the primary school Discovery 1 (unofficially Discovery or D1) and the secondary school Unlimited Paenga Tawhiti (better known as Unlimited or UPT for short).
The school is one of eleven schools running under the "Designated Special Character" criteria of the Education Act 1989.
Students are given the flexibility to pick from a variety of interchangeable classes and subjects to design their own customised learning programme, including working on individual projects as an alternative to total classroom learning. They also have the option to learn subjects which are not traditionally taught in New Zealand secondary schools, such as philosophy, video game design, DJing and music production.
History
Ao Tawhiti was formed in 2014, by the merger of two schools which were each established by the Learning Discovery Trust. Originally they existed as two separate entities, known as Discovery 1 (primary) and Unlimited Paenga Tawhiti (secondary).
Early origins
Under the direction and leadership of John Clough, the Alpha Learning Programme explored innovative and progressive learning theory in education for two years from 1993 onwards. In late 1998 (following the creation of a trial 'Learning Lab' at Elmwood School) an application to construct a new school based on this education theory was lodged before the then Minister of Education Wyatt Creech. The Ministry acknowledged the special character and granted it a special character designation.
Discovery and Unlimited
Discovery 1 was established in 2001, followed by Unlimited in 2003. Both had been formed by Christchurch-based Learning Discovery Trust.
Unlimited 2003–2011
Unlimited started with just 40 students (dubbed the "foundation forty") as well as 7 staff. It opened in January 2003 at its site on Cashel Street. Unlimited was originally based on the first floor of the Southern Star House building (which housed shops on the ground floor) and later occupied the second floor as well.
Ao Tawhiti claim that in 2003 a New Zealand business magazine named 'Unlimited' allegedly challenged the Unlimited school in relation to their name. The school claims it responded by renaming Unlimited to Unlimited Paenga Tawhiti, although few details about the case are given.
In 2004, the construction of the Hallensteins Building (known as "Northern Tower" by those at the school) was established across from Unlimited's original premises on the corner of Cashel Street and High Street. It was built to help facilitate the growing number of students, which was upwards of 200 at the time. Students and staff moved into the building in 2005. Unlimited also expanded into the basement of The Crossing building that year, next door to the Southern Star Building.
Unlimited's presence in the city centre was a core aspect of the school's student culture and philosophy to learning. The Hallensteins Building was important in the development of this culture.
Unlimited reached a maximum MOE roll of 400 students by 2008.
Discovery 2001–2011
Discovery was first based above a restaurant named 'The Loaded Hog' on Manchester Street. It began its first term with thirty students and eight staff. The following year the school increased by fifty new students.
During the later years of the schools operation, Discovery 1 was based on the upper levels of The Crossing on the corner of Colombo Street and Cashel Street. It was accessible through the bus exchange and an adjacent multi-level car park. Although located on the same streets, students had no academic contact and were largely separated from Unlimited students due to the location of Discovery within the building, and limited accessibility. Despite this, the schools were often seen as sister schools as it was common for Discovery 1 students to move on to Unlimited, or have older siblings attending Unlimited. They would also share space if buildings were under maintenance or development so many staff and students were familiar to one another.
February 2011 Christchurch earthquake
Some students, staff and visitors were present in the Unlimited buildings during the 6.3 magnitude earthquake on 22 February 2011. A number of people, particularly students, were not present that day or had left the school the hour before the quake, due to many staff attending a paid union meeting in the Christchurch Town Hall.
Discovery 1 was operating normally that day and had a regular attendance. At the time of the earthquake the school was on its lunch break and had a number of staff out, as well as a small group students on an unsupervised trust licence trip. The smaller number of staff in the building left the top floor absent of staff which lead to the students on that level waiting under tables for a number of minutes. The school grouped in the schools third floor assembly area. As they were there, a parent attempting to enter the school alerted several police officers on Colombo Street to the presence of the school and together entered the building to evacuate the school. The school then followed a predetermined plan to evacuate to Christchurch Botanic Gardens where parents would collect children. The small group of students on the unsupervised trust licence trip followed the same plan, eventually reuniting with the rest of the school.
The Hallensteins Building (dubbed the "Northern Tower") had already suffered minor damage in the 2010 Canterbury earthquake but was safe to use through to February 2011. After the 2011 Christchurch earthquake, the building was said to be structurally safe, but was demolished in 2012 allegedly at the will of the owners.
The Southern Star Building was severely damaged, losing some of its front facade, as well as having a partially collapsed ceiling on the second floor. The building was demolished by 2013.
Unlimited also occupied a basement area below The Crossing food court building which housed music rooms, a dance floor, and a woodwork area. In 2012 as part of the UC Quakebox project, an Unlimited staff member who was present on the day of the earthquake recounted entering the basement to check if any students were trapped after power had been lost, to find the area was flooding from burst pipes and the floor had become unstable. The basement area was closed following the events, and buildings which were connected to this section of The Crossing were de-constructed and rebuilt upon in the following years.
Before demolition work began on the Unlimited buildings, John Mather (then the school director) announced that the school Board of Trustees had decided the school would not return to the site. Mather announced the school would consider rebuilding in the city in the future. Mather would retire from the role before rebuild plans were established.
Post-earthquake
Staff at Unlimited were presented with a Christchurch Earthquake Award in 2012 (one of 140 awarded to individuals and organisations nominated by the public) for the evacuation of hundreds of students from the city location, which was surrounded by damaged buildings and rubble, including the damaged façade of the Southern Star building itself.
Because the schools were situated in the central business district (in what became the "red zone", an area made inaccessible to the public during demolition works) and due to the importance of the city environment to the style of learning and the student community, students at Unlimited and Discovery were significantly displaced. Unlimited and Discovery 1 were relocated to the Halswell Residential College campus in Aidanfield. Unlimited remained there throughout 2011 and 2012, while Discovery 1 continued to operate from the site.
In April 2011, singer-songwriter Imogen Heap visited Christchurch to play a benefit show for the school. It was her only performance in the country that year, and all proceeds went towards the future costs of rebuilding the school.
In January 2013, Unlimited relocated to the premises of the former Christchurch Teachers' College in Parkstone Avenue, Ilam, which is now part of the University of Canterbury. They were located at the Wairarapa Block of the Dovedale Campus. The move was first announced in 2011 by John Mather (then director) who cited the lack of suitable spaces at the Halswell site. Mather retired from the role shortly after, where the school was then co-directed by deputy director Tanja Grzeta and Alastair Wells (formerly a senior lecturer at Auckland University).
Ao Tawhiti merger
On 26 March 2013, Minister of Education Hekia Parata wrote to Unlimited and Discovery 1 with confirmation of a proposed merger between the schools. The decision was made as an outcome of the Ministry of Education's "Shaping Education" consultation. In November 2013, Steven Mustor was appointed the director of the merged school. He had previously worked as a learning advisor at Unlimited for seven years leading up to the 2011 earthquake.
By January 2014, both schools would be merged into a single school for years 1 to 13 students. The school was temporarily named Unlimited Discovery Merged School. An elected board governed the school within three months after the process was completed.
In early March 2014 it was announced that the Board of Trustees had settled on a new name for the school, Ao Tawhiti, with the motto "Unlimited discovery". On 15 April 2014, the Ministry of Education confirmed the name of the school as "Ao Tawhiti Unlimited Discovery". From 2015 onwards, the school was split into two campuses bearing the names of each former school respectively, and continued to operate from the Dovedale campus following the merger, until 12 April 2019.
Rebuild (2017–2019)
Plans for the school to the return to the Christchurch CBD by 2017 were delayed, in part due to difficulties in securing land. The school had hoped to rebuild on High Street on the site of the former Holiday Inn building, then owned by Carter Group, but negotiations fell through. A spokesperson for the school board described the setback as "devastating".
On 24 August 2016, Nikki Kaye, then Associate Minister of Education announced that the revised site for Ao Tawhiti Unlimited Discovery was to be 177 St Asaph Street. Building work began in late 2017, and cost approximately thirty-million New Zealand dollars. In early 2019, Ao Tawhiti had received strong interest as it neared the completion of its new building; applicants were placed in a ballot system due to high demand for places. The school planned to start with 570 students and increase to 670 by 2021.
Students and staff farewelled the Dovedale campus days before the first term of the year ended on 12 April 2019, marking the last day at the temporary site. The Dovedale campus provided the school with on site facilities it didn't have prior. This saw a large rise in the participation of sports within the school. The school fielded teams in sports neither Unlimited or Discovery had prior. Lunchtime summer volleyball in the schools quad became a yearly regular, with students and staff participating. "Juniors vs Seniors" and "Students vs Staff" football games became annual events with much of the school participating or watching. Ao Tawhiti reopened at the St Asaph street address on 29 April 2019, following the public school holiday, although students did not return until several days after.
Building design
The Ao Tawhiti building was designed by Stephenson & Turner Architects, and developed with Lewis Bradford, Aurecon, Tokin & Taylor, Beca and Aecom, Masterguard, and project managed by The Building Intelligence Group. It spans over 2200-square-metres and four-storeys with 5800-square-metres of space, designed to have a number of flexible spaces with interchangeable uses to serve up to 670 students. The ground floor is configured for technology and drama, with science and music facilities configurations on the first and second floors respectively. The technology and drama spaces are visible from street level, with the drama space doubling as a breakout space to the adjacent Mollett Street. The top floor houses a gymnasium and commercial grade kitchen. Each floor above ground level has a large north facing balcony. The building features a central atrium that provides space for assembly and performances.
Distinctive elements
Students can follow their own pathways of learning. The school uses the term "self directed learning" to distinguish between learning taking place in a class and learning driven or directed by the student outside of a classroom setting. Often called inquiry learning, this means that students can opt to work outside of classes and courses on their own passions and interests, drawing on resources and experts as needed. In practice the amount of time given over to this individual, and often independent, style of learning varies according to the interests and maturity of each student.
Teachers at the school are known as Learning Advisors. They are responsible for running classes as well as running individual homebases, where they support each student. Each year, students are allowed to select their preferred homebase, which is distinguished largely by the learning advisor who runs it.
One of the school's guiding principles is "everyone's a teacher, everyone's a learner", which removes some arbitrary hierarchy and contributes to the model of mutual respect between staff and students.
The school year at Ao Tawhiti is divided into four terms. Students take courses in subjects for the duration of a term, or can enroll for longer periods up to a full academic year.
Students are vertically grouped in homebases (similar to form classes). Years 7–13 homebases have up to 16 students in them and Years 1–6 homebases have up to 21 students.
Teacher facilitated courses are offered for Year 1 – 6 children in all of the main subject domains. In addition, children are encouraged to carry out their own inquiries and to lead or opt into workshops or projects that are either initiated by themselves, other children, parents or teachers. From year 7 to year 13 a number of structured courses are offered and facilitated by teachers, and many of the courses contribute to achievement on the New Zealand Qualifications Framework such as NCEA. Classes are open to students of any age and students can work at whichever level of the curriculum that best serves their needs. Each student has an allocated weekly one-to-one time with their Learning Advisor. Mentoring is offered on some days in the morning and again in the afternoon. This time allows students to meet with subject teachers to get support on course based learning, independent based learning, and other curriculum opportunities not currently available in classes.
The school is resourced with high-end information and communications technology (ICT), all students have the opportunity to gain qualifications in the New Zealand National Certificate of Educational Achievement (NCEA). There are a range of secondary school subjects on offer including English, Mathematics, Science, Social Sciences, Computing, Drama, Dance, and Physical and Outdoor education. In addition to these subjects, Ao Tawhiti offers a range of courses that are not normally provided at secondary schools. These include DJ performance and music production, Holistic programmes, Philosophy, Psychology and Game design.
Courses provided by outside providers are also offered, for example Ao Tawhiti offers students the ability to participate in courses taught by Yoobee School of Design, ARA and The University of Canterbury. The school also runs a programme in cooperation with the Canterbury Ballet School.
Controversy
2007 Stewart Fountain protests
On 13 August 2007, thirteen students from Unlimited were arrested for trespassing, after staging multiple protests on the 'Stewart Fountain', a public water feature dedicated to Sir Robertson Stewart situated near the school. The students criticised the council for moving in to demolish the fountain after Stewart had died earlier that day.
Police reportedly decided to forcibly remove protesters, who attempted to stay the night staging a "noisy" protest and refusing to leave. Throughout the day, as many as thirty students at any one time had occupied the area.
Of the thirteen who were arrested, nine were released for being under seventeen and were dealt with by Youth Aid.
Vince Dobbs, who was the Unlimited director at the time, said the protest during school hours was safe and sensible, and that the students who were arrested during the later protests were "outside of school hours, and there as individuals."
Notable students
Lucy Gray (born 2006), climate change activist
Rangimarie Te'evale-Hunt. (Born 2006), Te Reo Māori in elevators
Corey Baker (choreographer), classical and contemporary choreographer and named 2022 UK New Zealander of the Year
References
External links
Education Review Office (ERO) reports
Provider details at NZQA
Educational institutions established in 2003
Secondary schools in Christchurch
Christchurch Central City
2003 establishments in New Zealand
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data%20integration
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Data integration
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Data integration involves combining data residing in different sources and providing users with a unified view of them. This process becomes significant in a variety of situations, which include both commercial (such as when two similar companies need to merge their databases) and scientific (combining research results from different bioinformatics repositories, for example) domains. Data integration appears with increasing frequency as the volume (that is, big data) and the need to share existing data explodes. It has become the focus of extensive theoretical work, and numerous open problems remain unsolved. Data integration encourages collaboration between internal as well as external users. The data being integrated must be received from a heterogeneous database system and transformed to a single coherent data store that provides synchronous data across a network of files for clients. A common use of data integration is in data mining when analyzing and extracting information from existing databases that can be useful for Business information.
History
Issues with combining heterogeneous data sources are often referred to as information silos, under a single query interface have existed for some time. In the early 1980s, computer scientists began designing systems for interoperability of heterogeneous databases. The first data integration system driven by structured metadata was designed at the University of Minnesota in 1991, for the Integrated Public Use Microdata Series (IPUMS). IPUMS used a data warehousing approach, which extracts, transforms, and loads data from heterogeneous sources into a unique view schema so data from different sources become compatible. By making thousands of population databases interoperable, IPUMS demonstrated the feasibility of large-scale data integration. The data warehouse approach offers a tightly coupled architecture because the data are already physically reconciled in a single queryable repository, so it usually takes little time to resolve queries.
The data warehouse approach is less feasible for data sets that are frequently updated, requiring the extract, transform, load (ETL) process to be continuously re-executed for synchronization. Difficulties also arise in constructing data warehouses when one has only a query interface to summary data sources and no access to the full data. This problem frequently emerges when integrating several commercial query services like travel or classified advertisement web applications.
the trend in data integration favored the loose coupling of data and providing a unified query-interface to access real time data over a mediated schema (see Figure 2), which allows information to be retrieved directly from original databases. This is consistent with the SOA approach popular in that era. This approach relies on mappings between the mediated schema and the schema of original sources, and translating a query into decomposed queries to match the schema of the original databases. Such mappings can be specified in two ways: as a mapping from entities in the mediated schema to entities in the original sources (the "Global-as-View" (GAV) approach), or as a mapping from entities in the original sources to the mediated schema (the "Local-as-View" (LAV) approach). The latter approach requires more sophisticated inferences to resolve a query on the mediated schema, but makes it easier to add new data sources to a (stable) mediated schema.
some of the work in data integration research concerns the semantic integration problem. This problem addresses not the structuring of the architecture of the integration, but how to resolve semantic conflicts between heterogeneous data sources. For example, if two companies merge their databases, certain concepts and definitions in their respective schemas like "earnings" inevitably have different meanings. In one database it may mean profits in dollars (a floating-point number), while in the other it might represent the number of sales (an integer). A common strategy for the resolution of such problems involves the use of ontologies which explicitly define schema terms and thus help to resolve semantic conflicts. This approach represents ontology-based data integration. On the other hand, the problem of combining research results from different bioinformatics repositories requires bench-marking of the similarities, computed from different data sources, on a single criterion such as positive predictive value. This enables the data sources to be directly comparable and can be integrated even when the natures of experiments are distinct.
it was determined that current data modeling methods were imparting data isolation into every data architecture in the form of islands of disparate data and information silos. This data isolation is an unintended artifact of the data modeling methodology that results in the development of disparate data models. Disparate data models, when instantiated as databases, form disparate databases. Enhanced data model methodologies have been developed to eliminate the data isolation artifact and to promote the development of integrated data models. One enhanced data modeling method recasts data models by augmenting them with structural metadata in the form of standardized data entities. As a result of recasting multiple data models, the set of recast data models will now share one or more commonality relationships that relate the structural metadata now common to these data models. Commonality relationships are a peer-to-peer type of entity relationships that relate the standardized data entities of multiple data models. Multiple data models that contain the same standard data entity may participate in the same commonality relationship. When integrated data models are instantiated as databases and are properly populated from a common set of master data, then these databases are integrated.
Since 2011, data hub approaches have been of greater interest than fully structured (typically relational) Enterprise Data Warehouses. Since 2013, data lake approaches have risen to the level of Data Hubs. (See all three search terms popularity on Google Trends.) These approaches combine unstructured or varied data into one location, but do not necessarily require an (often complex) master relational schema to structure and define all data in the Hub.
Data integration plays a big role in business regarding data collection used for studying the market. Converting the raw data retrieved from consumers into coherent data is something businesses try to do when considering what steps they should take next. Organizations are more frequently using data mining for collecting information and patterns from their databases, and this process helps them develop new business strategies to increase business performance and perform economic analyses more efficiently. Compiling the large amount of data they collect to be stored in their system is a form of data integration adapted for Business intelligence to improve their chances of success.
Example
Consider a web application where a user can query a variety of information about cities (such as crime statistics, weather, hotels, demographics, etc.). Traditionally, the information must be stored in a single database with a single schema. But any single enterprise would find information of this breadth somewhat difficult and expensive to collect. Even if the resources exist to gather the data, it would likely duplicate data in existing crime databases, weather websites, and census data.
A data-integration solution may address this problem by considering these external resources as materialized views over a virtual mediated schema, resulting in "virtual data integration". This means application-developers construct a virtual schema—the mediated schema—to best model the kinds of answers their users want. Next, they design "wrappers" or adapters for each data source, such as the crime database and weather website. These adapters simply transform the local query results (those returned by the respective websites or databases) into an easily processed form for the data integration solution (see figure 2). When an application-user queries the mediated schema, the data-integration solution transforms this query into appropriate queries over the respective data sources. Finally, the virtual database combines the results of these queries into the answer to the user's query.
This solution offers the convenience of adding new sources by simply constructing an adapter or an application software blade for them. It contrasts with ETL systems or with a single database solution, which require manual integration of entire new data set into the system. The virtual ETL solutions leverage virtual mediated schema to implement data harmonization; whereby the data are copied from the designated "master" source to the defined targets, field by field. Advanced data virtualization is also built on the concept of object-oriented modeling in order to construct virtual mediated schema or virtual metadata repository, using hub and spoke architecture.
Each data source is disparate and as such is not designed to support reliable joins between data sources. Therefore, data virtualization as well as data federation depends upon accidental data commonality to support combining data and information from disparate data sets. Because of the lack of data value commonality across data sources, the return set may be inaccurate, incomplete, and impossible to validate.
One solution is to recast disparate databases to integrate these databases without the need for ETL. The recast databases support commonality constraints where referential integrity may be enforced between databases. The recast databases provide designed data access paths with data value commonality across databases.
Theory
The theory of data integration forms a subset of database theory and formalizes the underlying concepts of the problem in first-order logic. Applying the theories gives indications as to the feasibility and difficulty of data integration. While its definitions may appear abstract, they have sufficient generality to accommodate all manner of integration systems, including those that include nested relational / XML databases and those that treat databases as programs. Connections to particular databases systems such as Oracle or DB2 are provided by implementation-level technologies such as JDBC and are not studied at the theoretical level.
Definitions
Data integration systems are formally defined as a tuple where is the global (or mediated) schema, is the heterogeneous set of source schemas, and is the mapping that maps queries between the source and the global schemas. Both and are expressed in languages over alphabets composed of symbols for each of their respective relations. The mapping consists of assertions between queries over and queries over . When users pose queries over the data integration system, they pose queries over and the mapping then asserts connections between the elements in the global schema and the source schemas.
A database over a schema is defined as a set of sets, one for each relation (in a relational database). The database corresponding to the source schema would comprise the set of sets of tuples for each of the heterogeneous data sources and is called the source database. Note that this single source database may actually represent a collection of disconnected databases. The database corresponding to the virtual mediated schema is called the global database. The global database must satisfy the mapping with respect to the source database. The legality of this mapping depends on the nature of the correspondence between and . Two popular ways to model this correspondence exist: Global as View or GAV and Local as View or LAV.
GAV systems model the global database as a set of views over . In this case associates to each element of a query over . Query processing becomes a straightforward operation due to the well-defined associations between and . The burden of complexity falls on implementing mediator code instructing the data integration system exactly how to retrieve elements from the source databases. If any new sources join the system, considerable effort may be necessary to update the mediator, thus the GAV approach appears preferable when the sources seem unlikely to change.
In a GAV approach to the example data integration system above, the system designer would first develop mediators for each of the city information sources and then design the global schema around these mediators. For example, consider if one of the sources served a weather website. The designer would likely then add a corresponding element for weather to the global schema. Then the bulk of effort concentrates on writing the proper mediator code that will transform predicates on weather into a query over the weather website. This effort can become complex if some other source also relates to weather, because the designer may need to write code to properly combine the results from the two sources.
On the other hand, in LAV, the source database is modeled as a set of views over . In this case associates to each element of a query over . Here the exact associations between and are no longer well-defined. As is illustrated in the next section, the burden of determining how to retrieve elements from the sources is placed on the query processor. The benefit of an LAV modeling is that new sources can be added with far less work than in a GAV system, thus the LAV approach should be favored in cases where the mediated schema is less stable or likely to change.
In an LAV approach to the example data integration system above, the system designer designs the global schema first and then simply inputs the schemas of the respective city information sources. Consider again if one of the sources serves a weather website. The designer would add corresponding elements for weather to the global schema only if none existed already. Then programmers write an adapter or wrapper for the website and add a schema description of the website's results to the source schemas. The complexity of adding the new source moves from the designer to the query processor.
Query processing
The theory of query processing in data integration systems is commonly expressed using conjunctive queries and Datalog, a purely declarative logic programming language. One can loosely think of a conjunctive query as a logical function applied to the relations of a database such as " where ". If a tuple or set of tuples is substituted into the rule and satisfies it (makes it true), then we consider that tuple as part of the set of answers in the query. While formal languages like Datalog express these queries concisely and without ambiguity, common SQL queries count as conjunctive queries as well.
In terms of data integration, "query containment" represents an important property of conjunctive queries. A query contains another query (denoted ) if the results of applying are a subset of the results of applying for any database. The two queries are said to be equivalent if the resulting sets are equal for any database. This is important because in both GAV and LAV systems, a user poses conjunctive queries over a virtual schema represented by a set of views, or "materialized" conjunctive queries. Integration seeks to rewrite the queries represented by the views to make their results equivalent or maximally contained by our user's query. This corresponds to the problem of answering queries using views (AQUV).
In GAV systems, a system designer writes mediator code to define the query-rewriting. Each element in the user's query corresponds to a substitution rule just as each element in the global schema corresponds to a query over the source. Query processing simply expands the subgoals of the user's query according to the rule specified in the mediator and thus the resulting query is likely to be equivalent. While the designer does the majority of the work beforehand, some GAV systems such as Tsimmis involve simplifying the mediator description process.
In LAV systems, queries undergo a more radical process of rewriting because no mediator exists to align the user's query with a simple expansion strategy. The integration system must execute a search over the space of possible queries in order to find the best rewrite. The resulting rewrite may not be an equivalent query but maximally contained, and the resulting tuples may be incomplete. the GQR algorithm is the leading query rewriting algorithm for LAV data integration systems.
In general, the complexity of query rewriting is NP-complete. If the space of rewrites is relatively small, this does not pose a problem — even for integration systems with hundreds of sources.
Medicine and Life Sciences
Large-scale questions in science, such as real world evidence, global warming, invasive species spread, and resource depletion, are increasingly requiring the collection of disparate data sets for meta-analysis. This type of data integration is especially challenging for ecological and environmental data because metadata standards are not agreed upon and there are many different data types produced in these fields. National Science Foundation initiatives such as Datanet are intended to make data integration easier for scientists by providing cyberinfrastructure and setting standards. The five funded Datanet initiatives are DataONE, led by William Michener at the University of New Mexico; The Data Conservancy, led by Sayeed Choudhury of Johns Hopkins University; SEAD: Sustainable Environment through Actionable Data, led by Margaret Hedstrom of the University of Michigan; the DataNet Federation Consortium, led by Reagan Moore of the University of North Carolina; and Terra Populus, led by Steven Ruggles of the University of Minnesota. The Research Data Alliance, has more recently explored creating global data integration frameworks. The OpenPHACTS project, funded through the European Union Innovative Medicines Initiative, built a drug discovery platform by linking datasets from providers such as European Bioinformatics Institute, Royal Society of Chemistry, UniProt, WikiPathways and DrugBank.
See also
Business semantics management
Change data capture
Core data integration
Customer data integration
Cyberinfrastructure
Data blending
Data curation
Data fusion
Data mapping
Data wrangling
Database model
Dataspaces
Edge data integration
Enterprise application integration
Enterprise architecture framework
Enterprise information integration (EII)
Enterprise integration
Geodi: Geoscientific Data Integration
Information integration
Information silo
Integration Competency Center
Integration Consortium
ISO 15926: Integration of life-cycle data for process plants including oil and gas production facilities
JXTA
Master data management
Object-relational mapping
Open Text
Semantic integration
Schema matching
Three schema approach
UDEF
Web data integration
Web service
References
External links
Cyberinfrastructure
Data management
Database models
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art%20of%20memory
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Art of memory
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The art of memory () is any of a number of loosely associated mnemonic principles and techniques used to organize memory impressions, improve recall, and assist in the combination and 'invention' of ideas. An alternative term is "Ars Memorativa" which is also translated as "art of memory" although its more literal meaning is "Memorative Art". It is also referred to as mnemotechnics. It is an 'art' in the Aristotelian sense, which is to say a method or set of prescriptions that adds order and discipline to the pragmatic, natural activities of human beings. It has existed as a recognized group of principles and techniques since at least as early as the middle of the first millennium BCE, and was usually associated with training in rhetoric or logic, but variants of the art were employed in other contexts, particularly the religious and the magical.
Techniques commonly employed in the art include the association of emotionally striking memory images within visualized locations, the chaining or association of groups of images, the association of images with schematic graphics or notae ("signs, markings, figures" in Latin), and the association of text with images. Any or all of these techniques were often used in combination with the contemplation or study of architecture, books, sculpture and painting, which were seen by practitioners of the art of memory as externalizations of internal memory images and/or organization.
Because of the variety of principles and techniques, and their various applications, some researchers refer to "the arts of memory", rather than to a single art.
Origins and history
It has been suggested that the art of memory originated among the Pythagoreans or perhaps even earlier among the ancient Egyptians, but no conclusive evidence has been presented to support these claims.
The primary classical sources for the art of memory which deal with the subject at length include the Rhetorica ad Herennium (Bk III), Cicero's De oratore (Bk II 350–360), and Quintilian's Institutio Oratoria (Bk XI). Additionally, the art is mentioned in fragments from earlier Greek works including the Dialexis, dated to approximately 400 BCE. Aristotle wrote extensively on the subject of memory, and mentions the technique of the placement of images to lend order to memory. Passages in his works On The Soul and On Memory and Reminiscence proved to be influential in the later revival of the art among medieval Scholastics.
The most common account of the creation of the art of memory centers around the story of Simonides of Ceos, a famous Greek poet, who was invited to chant a lyric poem in honor of his host, a nobleman of Thessaly. While praising his host, Simonides also mentioned the twin gods Castor and Pollux. When the recital was complete, the nobleman selfishly told Simonides that he would only pay him half of the agreed upon payment for the panegyric, and that he would have to get the balance of the payment from the two gods he had mentioned. A short time later, Simonides was told that two men were waiting for him outside. He left to meet the visitors but could find no one. Then, while he was outside the banquet hall, it collapsed, crushing everyone within. The bodies were so disfigured that they could not be identified for proper burial. But, Simonides was able to remember where each of the guests had been sitting at the table, and so was able to identify them for burial. This experience suggested to Simonides the principles which were to become central to the later development of the art he reputedly invented.
He inferred that persons desiring to train this faculty (of memory) must select places and form mental images of the things they wish to remember and store those images in the places, so that the order of the places will preserve the order of the things, and the images of the things will denote the things themselves, and we shall employ the places and the images respectively as a wax writing-tablet and the letters written upon it.
The early Christian monks adapted techniques common in the art of memory as an art of composition and meditation, which was in keeping with the rhetorical and dialectical context in which it was originally taught. It became the basic method for reading and meditating upon the Bible after making the text secure within one's memory. Within this tradition, the art of memory was passed along to the later Middle Ages and the Renaissance (or Early Modern period). When Cicero and Quintilian were revived after the 13th century, humanist scholars understood the language of these ancient writers within the context of the medieval traditions they knew best, which were profoundly altered by monastic practices of meditative reading and composition.
Saint Thomas Aquinas was an important influence in promoting the art when, in following Cicero's categorization, he defined it as a part of Prudence and recommended its use to meditate on the virtues and to improve one's piety. In scholasticism artificial memory came to be used as a method for recollecting the whole universe and the roads to Heaven and Hell. The Dominicans were particularly important in promoting its uses, see for example Cosmos Rossellius.
The Jesuit missionary Matteo Ricci - who from 1582 until his death in 1610, worked to introduce Christianity to China - described the system of places and images in his work, A Treatise On Mnemonics. However, he advanced it only as an aid to passing examinations (a kind of rote memorization) rather than as a means of new composition, though it had traditionally been taught, both in dialectics and in rhetoric, as a tool for such composition or 'invention'. Ricci was apparently trying to gain favour with the Chinese imperial service, which required a notoriously difficult entry examination.
Perhaps following the example of Metrodorus of Scepsis, vaguely described in Quintilian's Institutio oratoria, Giordano Bruno, a defrocked Dominican, used a variation of the art in which the trained memory was based in some fashion upon the zodiac. Apparently, his elaborate method was also based in part on the combinatoric concentric circles of Ramon Llull, in part upon schematic diagrams in keeping with medieval Ars Notoria traditions, in part upon groups of words and images associated with late antique Hermeticism, and in part upon the classical architectural mnemonic. According to one influential interpretation, his memory system was intended to fill the mind of the practitioner with images representing all knowledge of the world, and was to be used, in a magical sense, as an avenue to reach the intelligible world beyond appearances, and thus enable one to powerfully influence events in the real world. Such enthusiastic claims for the encyclopedic reach of the art of memory are a feature of the early Renaissance, but the art also gave rise to better-known developments in logic and scientific method during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.
However, this transition was not without its difficulties, and during this period the belief in the effectiveness of the older methods of memory training (to say nothing of the esteem in which its practitioners were held) steadily became occluded. In 1442, a huge controversy over the method broke out in England when the Puritans attacked the art as impious because it was thought to excite absurd and obscene thoughts; this was a sensational, but ultimately not a fatal skirmish. Erasmus of Rotterdam and other humanists, Protestant and Catholic, had also chastised practitioners of the art of memory for making extravagant claims for its efficacy, although they themselves believed firmly in a well-disposed, orderly memory as an essential tool of productive thought.
One explanation for the steady decline in the importance of the art of memory from the 16th to the 20th century is offered by the late Ioan P. Culianu, who argued that it was suppressed during the Reformation and Counter-Reformation when Protestants and reactionary Catholics alike worked to eradicate pagan influence and the lush visual imagery of the Renaissance.
Whatever the causes, in keeping with general developments, the art of memory eventually came to be defined primarily as a part of Dialectics, and was assimilated in the 17th century by Francis Bacon and René Descartes into the curriculum of Logic, where it survives to this day as a necessary foundation for the teaching of Argument. Simplified variants of the art of memory were also taught through the 19th century as useful to public orators, including preachers and after-dinner speakers.
Principles
Visual sense and spatial memory
Perhaps the most important principle of the art is the dominance of the visual sense in combination with the orientation of 'seen' objects within space. This principle is reflected in the early Dialexis fragment on memory, and is found throughout later texts on the art. Mary Carruthers, in a review of Hugh of St. Victor's Didascalion, emphasizes the importance of the visual sense as follows:
Even what we hear must be attached to a visual image. To help recall something we have heard rather than seen, we should attach to their words the appearance, facial expression, and gestures of the person speaking as well as the appearance of the room. The speaker should therefore create strong visual images, through expression and gesture, which will fix the impression of his words. All the rhetorical textbooks contain detailed advice on declamatory gesture and expression; this underscores the insistence of Aristotle, Avicenna, and other philosophers, on the primacy and security for memory of the visual over all other sensory modes, auditory, tactile, and the rest.
This passage emphasizes the association of the visual sense with spatial orientation. The image of the speaker is placed in a room. The importance of the visual sense in the art of memory would seem to lead naturally to the importance of a spatial context, given that our sight and depth-perception naturally position images seen within space.
Order
The positioning of images in visual space leads naturally to an order, furthermore, an order to which we are naturally accustomed as biological organisms, deriving as it does from the sense perceptions we use to orient ourselves in the world. This fact perhaps sheds light on the relationship between the artificial and the natural memory, which were clearly distinguished in antiquity.
It is possible for one with a well-trained memory to compose clearly in an organized fashion on several different subjects. Once one has the all-important starting-place of the ordering scheme and the contents firmly in their places within it, it is quite possible to move back and forth from one distinct composition to another without losing one's place or becoming confused.
Again discussing Hugh of St. Victor's works on memory, Carruthers clearly notes the critical importance of order in memory:
One must have a rigid, easily retained order, with a definite beginning. Into this order one places the components of what one wishes to memorize and recall. As a money-changer ("nummularium") separates and classifies his coins by type in his money bag ("sacculum," "marsupium"), so the contents of wisdom's storehouse ("thesaurus," "archa"), which is the memory, must be classified according to a definite, orderly scheme.
Limited sets
Many works discussing the art of memory emphasize the importance of brevitas and divisio, or the breaking up of a long series into more manageable sets. This is reflected in advice on forming images or groups of images which can be taken in at a single glance, as well as in discussions of memorizing lengthy passages, "A long text must always be broken up into short segments, numbered, then memorized a few pieces at a time." This is known in modern terminology as chunking.
Association
Association was considered to be of critical importance for the practice of the art. However, it was clearly recognized that associations in memory are idiosyncratic, hence, what works for one will not automatically work for all. For this reason, the associative values given for images in memory texts are usually intended as examples and are not intended to be "universally normative". Yates offers a passage from Aristotle that briefly outlines the principle of association. In it, he mentions the importance of a starting point to initiate a chain of recollection, and the way in which it serves as a stimulating cause.
For this reason some use places for the purposes of recollecting. The reason for this is that men pass rapidly from one step to the next; for instance from milk to white, from white to air, from air to damp; after which one recollects autumn, supposing that one is trying to recollect the season.
Affect
The importance of affect or emotion in the art of memory is frequently discussed. The role of emotion in the art can be divided into two major groupings: the first is the role of emotion in the process of seating or fixing images in the memory, the second is the way in which the recollection of a memory image can evoke an emotional response.
One of the earliest sources discussing the art, the Ad Herennium emphasizes the importance of using emotionally striking imagery to ensure that the images will be retained in memory:
We ought, then, to set up images of a kind that can adhere longest in memory. And we shall do so if we establish similitudes as striking as possible; if we set up images that are not many or vague but active; if we assign to them exceptional beauty or singular ugliness; if we ornament some of them, as with crowns or purple cloaks, so that the similitude may be more distinct to us; or if we somehow disfigure them, as by introducing one stained with blood or soiled with mud and smeared with red paint, so that its form is more striking, or by assigning certain comic effects to our images, for that, too, will ensure our remembering them more readily.
On the other hand, the image associated with an emotion will call up the emotion when recollected. Carruthers discusses this in the context of the way in which the trained medieval memory was thought to be intimately related with the development of prudence or moral judgement.
Since each phantasm is a combination not only of the neutral form of the perception, but of our response to it (intentio) concerning whether it is helpful or hurtful, the phantasm by its very nature evokes emotion. This is how the phantasm and the memory which stores it helps to cause or bring into being moral excellence and ethical judgement.
In modern terminology, the concept that contains salient, bizarre, shocking, or simply unusual information will be more easily remembered. This can be referred to as the Von Restorff effect.
Repetition
The well-known role of repetition in the common process of memorization of course plays a role in the more complex techniques of the art of memory. The earliest of the references to the art of memory, the Dialexis, mentioned above, makes this clear: "repeat again what you hear; for by often hearing and saying the same things, what you have learned comes complete into your memory." Similar advice is a commonplace in later works on the art of memory.
Techniques
The art of memory employed a number of techniques which can be grouped as follows for purposes of discussion, however they were usually used in some combination:
Architectural mnemonic
The architectural mnemonic was a key group of techniques employed in the art of memory. It is based on the use of places (Latin loci), which were memorized by practitioners as the framework or ordering structure that would 'contain' the images or signs 'placed' within it to record experience or knowledge. To use this method one might walk through a building several times, viewing distinct places within it, in the same order each time. After the necessary repetitions of this process, one should be able to remember and visualize each of the places reliably and in order. If one wished to remember, for example, a speech, one could break up the content of the speech into images or signs used to memorize its parts, which would then be 'placed' in the locations previously memorized. The components of the speech could then be recalled in order by imagining that one is walking through the building again, visiting each of the loci in order, viewing the images there, and thereby recalling the elements of the speech in order. A reference to these techniques survives to this day in the common English phrases "in the first place", "in the second place", and so forth. These techniques, or variants, are sometimes referred to as "the method of loci", which is discussed in a separate section below.
The primary source for the architectural mnemonic is the anonymous Rhetorica ad Herennium, a Latin work on rhetoric from the first century BCE. It is unlikely that the technique originated with the author of the Ad Herennium. The technique is also mentioned by Cicero and Quintilian. According to the account in the Ad Herennium (Book III) backgrounds or 'places' are like wax tablets, and the images that are 'placed' on or within them are like writing. Real physical locations were apparently commonly used as the basis of memory places, as the author of the Ad Herennium suggests
it will be more advantageous to obtain backgrounds in a deserted than in a populous region, because the crowding and passing to and fro of people confuse and weaken the impress of the images, while solitude keeps their outlines sharp.
However, real physical locations were not the only source of places. The author goes on to suggest
if we are not content with our ready-made supply of backgrounds, we may in our imagination create a region for ourselves and obtain a most serviceable distribution of appropriate backgrounds.
Places or backgrounds hence require, and reciprocally impose, order (often deriving from the spatial characteristics of the physical location memorized, in cases where an actual physical structure provided the basis for the 'places'). This order itself organizes the images, preventing confusion during recall. The anonymous author also advises that places should be well lit, with orderly intervals, and distinct from one another. He recommends a virtual 'viewing distance' sufficient to allow the viewer to encompass the space and the images it contains with a single glance.
Turning to images, the anonymous author asserts that they are of two kinds: those establishing a likeness based upon subject, and those establishing a likeness based upon a word. This was the basis for the subsequent distinction, commonly found in works on the art of memory, between 'memory for words' and 'memory for things'. He provides the following famous example of a likeness based upon subject:
Often we encompass the record of an entire matter by one notation, a single image. For example, the prosecutor has said that the defendant killed a man by poison, has charged that the motive for the crime was an inheritance, and declared that there are many witnesses and accessories to this act. If in order to facilitate our defense we wish to remember this first point, we shall in our first background form an image of the whole matter. We shall picture the man in question as lying ill in bed, if we know his person. If we do not know him, we shall yet take some one to be our invalid, but not a man of the lowest class, so that he may come to mind at once. And we shall place the defendant at the bedside, holding in his right hand a cup, and in his left hand tablets, and on the fourth finger a ram's testicles (Latin testiculi suggests testes or witnesses). In this way we can record the man who was poisoned, the inheritance, and the witnesses.
In order to memorize likenesses based on words he provides an example of a verse and describes how images may be placed, each of which corresponds to words in the verse. He notes however that the technique will not work without combination with rote memorization of the verse, so that the images call to mind the previously memorized words.
The architectural mnemonic was also related to the broader concept of learning and thinking. Aristotle considered the technique in relation to topica, or conceptual areas or issues. In his Topics he suggested
For just as in a person with a trained memory, a memory of things themselves is immediately caused by the mere mention of their places, so these habits too will make a man readier in reasoning, because he has his premisses classified before his mind's eye, each under its number.
Graphical mnemonic
The architectural mnemonic is often characterized as the art of memory itself. However primary sources show that from very early in the development of the art, non-physical or abstract locations and/or spatial graphics were employed as memory 'places'. Perhaps the most famous example of such an abstract system of 'places' is the memory system of Metrodorus of Scepsis, who was said by Quintilian to have organized his memory using a system of backgrounds in which he "found three hundred and sixty places in the twelve signs of the zodiac through which the sun moves". Some researchers (L.A. Post and Yates) believe it likely that Metorodorus organized his memory using places based in some way upon the signs of the zodiac. In any case Quintilian makes it clear that non-alphabetic signs can be employed as memory images, and even goes on to mention how 'shorthand' signs (notae) can be used to signify things that would otherwise be impossible to capture in the form of a definite image (he gives "conjunctions" as an example).
This makes it clear that though the architectural mnemonic with its buildings, niches and three-dimensional images was a major theme of the art as practiced in classical times, it often employed signs or notae and sometimes even non-physical imagined spaces. During the period of migration of barbarian tribes and the transformation of the Roman empire the architectural mnemonic fell into disuse. However the use of tables, charts and signs appears to have continued and developed independently. Mary Carruthers has made it clear that a trained memory occupied a central place in late antique and medieval pedagogy, and has documented some of the ways in which the development of medieval memorial arts was intimately intertwined with the emergence of the book as we understand it today. Examples of the development of the potential inherent in the graphical mnemonic include the lists and combinatory wheels of the Majorcan Ramon Llull. The Art of Signs (Latin Ars Notoria) is also very likely a development of the graphical mnemonic. Yates mentions Apollonius of Tyana and his reputation for memory, as well as the association between trained memory, astrology and divination. She goes on to suggest
It may have been out of this atmosphere that there was formed a tradition which, going underground for centuries and suffering transformations in the process, appeared in the Middle Ages as the Ars Notoria, a magical art of memory attributed to Apollonius or sometimes to Solomon. The practitioner of the Ars Notoria gazed at figures or diagrams curiously marked and called 'notae' whilst reciting magical prayers. He hoped to gain in this way knowledge, or memory, of all the arts and sciences, a different 'nota' being provided for each discipline. The Ars Notoria is perhaps a descendant of the classical art of memory, or of that difficult branch of it which used the shorthand notae. It was regarded as a particularly black kind of magic and was severely condemned by Thomas Aquinas.
Textual mnemonic
Carruthers's studies of memory suggest that the images and pictures employed in the medieval arts of memory were not representational in the sense we today understand that term. Rather, images were understood to function "textually", as a type of 'writing', and not as something different from it in kind.
If such an assessment is correct, it suggests that the use of text to recollect memories was, for medieval practitioners, merely a variant of techniques employing notae, images and other non-textual devices. Carruthers quotes Pope Gregory I, in support of the idea that 'reading' pictures was considered to be a variation of reading itself.
It is one thing to worship a picture, it is another by means of pictures to learn thoroughly the story that should be venerated. For what writing makes present to those reading, the same picturing makes present to the uneducated, to those perceiving visually, because in it the ignorant see what they ought to follow, in it they read who do not know letters. Wherefore, and especially for the common people, picturing is the equivalent of reading.
Her work makes clear that for medieval readers the act of reading itself had an oral phase in which the text was read aloud or sub-vocalized (silent reading was a less common variant, and appears to have been the exception rather than the rule), then meditated upon and 'digested' hence making it one's own. She asserts that both 'textual' activities (picturing and reading) have as their goal the internalization of knowledge and experience in memory.
The use of manuscript illuminations to reinforce the memory of a particular textual passage, the use of visual alphabets such as those in which birds or tools represent letters, the use of illuminated capital letters at the openings of passages, and even the structure of the modern book (itself deriving from scholastic developments) with its index, table of contents and chapters reflect the fact that reading was a memorial practice, and the use of text was simply another technique in the arsenal of practitioners of the arts of memory.
Method of loci
The 'method of loci' (plural of Latin locus for place or location) is a general designation for mnemonic techniques that rely upon memorized spatial relationships to establish, order and recollect memorial content. The term is most often found in specialized works on psychology, neurobiology and memory, though it was used in the same general way at least as early as the first half of the nineteenth century in works on Rhetoric, Logic and Philosophy.
O'Keefe and Nadel refer to "'the method of loci', an imaginal technique known to the ancient Greeks and Romans and described by Yates (1966) in her book The Art of Memory as well as by Luria (1969). In this technique the subject memorizes the layout of some building, or the arrangement of shops on a street, or a video game, or any geographical entity which is composed of a number of discrete loci. When desiring to remember a set of items the subject 'walks' through these loci and commits an item to each one by forming an image between the item and any distinguishing feature of that locus. Retrieval of items is achieved by 'walking' through the loci, allowing the latter to activate the desired items. The efficacy of this technique has been well established (Ross and Lawrence 1968, Crovitz 1969, 1971, Briggs, Hawkins and Crovitz 1970, Lea 1975), as is the minimal interference seen with its use."
The designation is not used with strict consistency. In some cases it refers broadly to what is otherwise known as the art of memory, the origins of which are related, according to tradition, in the story of Simonides of Ceos: and the collapsing banquet hall discussed above. For example, after relating the story of how Simonides relied on remembered seating arrangements to call to mind the faces of recently deceased guests, Steven M. Kosslyn remarks "[t]his insight led to the development of a technique the Greeks called the method of loci, which is a systematic way of improving one's memory by using imagery." Skoyles and Sagan indicate that "an ancient technique of memorization called Method of Loci, by which memories are referenced directly onto spatial maps" originated with the story of Simonides. Referring to mnemonic methods, Verlee Williams mentions, "One such strategy is the 'loci' method, which was developed by Simonides, a Greek poet of the fifth and sixth centuries BC" Loftus cites the foundation story of Simonides (more or less taken from Frances Yates) and describes some of the most basic aspects of the use of space in the art of memory. She states, "This particular mnemonic technique has come to be called the "method of loci". While place or position certainly figured prominently in ancient mnemonic techniques, no designation equivalent to "method of loci" was used exclusively to refer to mnemonic schemes relying upon space for organization.
In other cases the designation is generally consistent, but more specific: "The Method of Loci is a Mnemonic Device involving the creation of a Visual Map of one's house."
This term can be misleading: the ancient principles and techniques of the art of memory, hastily glossed in some of the works just cited, depended equally upon images and places. The designator "method of loci" does not convey the equal weight placed on both elements. Training in the art or arts of memory as a whole, as attested in classical antiquity, was far more inclusive and comprehensive in the treatment of this subject.
See also
Haraguchi's mnemonic system
Interference theory
Linkword
Mnemosyne in Greek mythologie a Titanness and 'mother' of the nine Muses; also the river of memory in the Hades
Mnemonist
Mnemonic link system, major system, peg system, dominic system, and goroawase system
Memory sport
Piphilology
Serial position effect
Spacing effect
The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two
Zeigarnik effect
Practitioners & exponents
Institutional:
Lodge Mother Kilwinning
Individual:
St. Thomas Aquinas
Giulio Camillo
Thomas Bradwardine
Giordano Bruno
Robert Fludd
Giovanni Fontana
William Fowler
Hugh of St. Victor
Johannes Romberch
William Schaw
World Memory Championships participants, an annual mental sports event since 1990.
Notes
References
(limited preview on Google Books)
External links
TED talk: Joshua Foer on feats of memory anyone can do
Mnemonics
Dialectic
Rhetoric
Exceptional memory
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thiruvilaiyadal
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Thiruvilaiyadal
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Thiruvilaiyadal () is a 1965 Indian Tamil-language Hindu mythological film written, directed and co-produced by A. P. Nagarajan. The film stars Sivaji Ganesan, Savitri, and K. B. Sundarambal, with T. S. Balaiah, R. Muthuraman, Nagesh, T. R. Mahalingam, K. Sarangapani, Devika, Manorama, and Nagarajan in supporting roles. K. V. Mahadevan composed the film's soundtrack and score, and Kannadasan and Sankaradas Swamigal wrote the song lyrics.
Thiruvilaiyadal was inspired by the Thiruvilaiyadal Puranam: a collection of sixty-four Shaivite devotional, epic stories, written in the 16th century by Paranjothi Munivar, which record the actions (and antics) of Shiva on Earth in a number of disguises to test his devotees. Thiruvilaiyadal depicts four of the stories. The first is about the poets Dharumi and Nakkeerar; the second concerns Dhatchayini. The third recounts how Shiva's future wife, Parvati, is born as a fisherwoman; Shiva, in the guise of a fisherman, finds and marries her. The fourth story is about the singers Banabhathirar and Hemanatha Bhagavathar.
Thiruvilaiyadal was released on 31 July 1965 to critical praise for its screenplay, dialogue, direction, music and the performances of Ganesan, Nagesh and Balaiah. The film was a commercial success, running for over twenty-five weeks in several theatres and becoming a silver jubilee film. It was also responsible for a resurgence in devotional and mythological cinema, since it was released when Tamil cinema was primarily producing social films. Thiruvilaiyadal received the Certificate of Merit for the Second-Best Feature Film in Tamil at the 13th National Film Awards and the Filmfare Award for Best Film – Tamil. A digitally-restored version was released in September 2012, and was also a commercial success.
Plot
The Hindu god Shiva gives a sacred mango fruit, brought by the sage Narada, to his elder son Vinayaka as a prize for outsmarting his younger brother Muruga in a competition. Angry with his father, Muruga (dressed as a hermit) goes to Palani. He meets Avvaiyar, one of his devotees, along the way. Despite her attempts to convince Muruga to return to Mount Kailash, he remains adamant about his decision to leave his family. His mother, the goddess Parvati, arrives there and tells the stories of four of Shiva's divine games to calm Muruga.
The first story is set in Madurai, the capital city of the Pandya Kingdom. Shenbagapandian, the king, wants to find the answer to a question posed by his wife (whether the fragrance of a woman's hair is natural or artificial), and announces a reward of 1,000 gold coins to anyone who can come up with the answer. Dharumi, a poor poet, desperately wants the reward, and starts to break down in the Meenakshi Amman Temple. Shiva, hearing him weeping, takes the form of a poet and gives Dharumi a poem containing the answer. Overjoyed, Dharumi takes the poem to Shenbagapandian's court and recites it; however, the court's head poet Nakkeerar claims that the poem's meaning is incorrect. On hearing this, Shiva argues with Nakkeerar about the poem's accuracy and burns him to ashes when he refuses to relent. Later, Shiva revives Nakkeerar and says that he only wanted to test his knowledge. Realising it was Shiva's will that Dharumi should get the reward, Nakkeerar requests Shenbagapandian to give it to Dharumi.
The second story focuses on Shiva marrying Sati against the will of her father, Daksha. Daksha performs a Mahayajna without inviting his son-in-law. Sati asks Shiva's permission to go to the ceremony, but Shiva refuses to let her go because he feels that no good will come from it. Sati disobeys him and goes, only to be insulted by Daksha. She curses her father and returns to Shiva, who is angry with her. Sati says that they are one; without her, there is no Shiva. He disagrees, and burns her to ashes. He then performs his Tandava, which is noticed by the Devas, who pacify him. Shiva restores Sati to life and Sati is reborn as Parvati and accepts their oneness.
In the third story, Parvati is banished by Shiva when she is momentarily distracted while listening to his explanation of the Vedas. Parvati, now born as Kayarkanni, is the daughter of a fisherman. When she is playing with her friends, Shiva approaches in the guise of a fisherman and tries to flirt with her. The fishermen are troubled by a giant shark who disrupts their way of life, and Shiva says that he alone can defeat the shark. After a long battle, Shiva subdues the shark (who is the bull deity Nandi in disguise) and marries Parvati.
The last story is about Banabathirar, a devotional singer. Hemanatha Bhagavathar, a talented singer, tries to conquer the Pandya Kingdom when he challenges its musicians. The king's minister advises the king to seek Banabathirar's help against Bhagavathar. When the other musicians spurn the competition, the king orders Banabathirar to compete against Bhagavathar. Knowing that he cannot win, the troubled Banabathirar prays to Shiva—who appears outside Bhagavathar's house in the form of a firewood vendor the night before the competition, and shatters his arrogance by singing "Paattum Naane". Shiva introduces himself to Bhagavathar as Banabathirar's student. Sheepish at hearing this, Bhagavathar leaves the kingdom immediately and leaves a letter for Shiva to give to Banabathirar. Shiva gives the letter to Banabathirar, and reveals his true identity; Banabathirar thanks him for his help.
After listening to the stories, Muruga realises that this too was one of Shiva's divine games to test his patience; he then reconciles with his family. The film ends with Avvaiyar singing "Vaasi Vaasi" and "Ondraanavan Uruvil", in praise of Shiva and Parvati.
Cast
Sivaji Ganesan as Shiva
Savitri as Parvati, Sati, Kayarkanni, Kamakshi and Kaliamman
K. B. Sundarambal as Avvaiyar
T. S. Balaiah as Hemanatha Bhagavathar
R. Muthuraman as Shenbagapandian
Nagesh as Dharumi
O. A. K. Thevar as Daksha
A. Karunanidhi as Sovai
T. R. Mahalingam as Banabathirar
A. P. Nagarajan as Nakkeerar
K. Sarangapani as Kayarkanni's father
E. R. Sahadevan as Pandya King Varagunapandiyan
Devika as Shenbagapandian's wife
Manorama as Ponni
G. Sakunthala as Banabathirar's wife
Baby Susarita as Murugan
Production
Development
In 1965, after the critical and commercial success of Navarathri (1964), its director A. P. Nagarajan and producer A. M. Shahul Hameed came together to make a film entitled Siva-Leela, later retitled Thiruvilaiyadal. It was inspired by the Thiruvilaiyadal Puranam, a collection of sixty-four 16th-century Shaivite devotional epic stories by Paranjothi Munivar which describe the actions (and antics) of Shiva on Earth in a number of disguises to test his devotees.
Four of the Thiruvilaiyadal Puranam stories are depicted in the film, including the story where the Tamil poet Nakkeerar confronts Shiva over an error in his poem, exaggerating his sensitivity to right and wrong. Nagarajan had previously used this story as a play within a film in K. Somu's Naan Petra Selvam (1956). In addition to directing, Nagarajan co-produced Thiruvilaiyadal under the banner of Sri Vijayalakshmi Pictures, and wrote the screenplay. M. N. Rajan and T. R. Natarajan edited Thiruvilaiyadal; K. S. Prasad and Ganga were the film's cinematographer and art director respectively.
Sivaji Ganesan was cast as Shiva, and Savitri as the goddess Parvati. R. Rangasamy did the make-up for Ganesan, and Savitri was given green make-up to portray her character. K. B. Sundarambal was chosen to play Avvaiyar, reprising her role in the 1953 film of the same name. Nagesh was cast as Dharumi, and had a call sheet of one-and-a-half days to finish his portion. Besides directing, producing and writing, Nagarajan appeared as Nakkeerar. M. Balamuralikrishna initially wanted to portray Hemanatha Bhagavathar but Nagarajan refused, believing T. S. Balaiah would be able to emote the character better. Balamuralikrishna agreed, and remained on the film as a singer.
Filming
Thiruvilaiyadal was shot on a custom-built set at Vasu Studios in Madras (now Chennai). It was filmed in Eastmancolor, thereby making it Nagarajan's first picture to be shot in colour. Before he began filming, Nagesh learned that Ganesan's arrival was delayed because his make-up had not been completed; he asked Nagarajan whether they could film any solo sequences, which included a scene where Dharumi laments his misfortune in the Meenakshi Amman Temple. While filming, Nagesh spontaneously came up with the line "Varamaattan. Varamaattan. Avan nichchaiyam varamaattan. Enakku nalla theriyum. Varamaattan" (He won't come. He won't come. He will definitely not come. I know he won't come). According to the actor, two incidents inspired him. One involved two assistant directors discussing whether Ganesan would be ready before or after lunch; one said he would be ready, and the other said he would not. The other was when Nagesh overheard a passerby talking to himself about how the world had fallen on bad times. He also took inspiration from Mylapore Krishnasamy Iyer.
Dubbing of the scenes with Nagesh and Ganesan was completed soon after the footage was shot. After watching the scenes twice, Ganesan asked Nagarajan not to remove even a single frame of Nagesh's portions from the final cut, because he believed that those scenes along with the ones involving Balaiah would be the highlights of the film. The conversations between Shiva and Dharumi were improvised by Ganesan and Nagesh, not scripted by Nagarajan. Thiruvilaiyadal was the first Tamil film since Jagathalapratapan (1944) in which the lead actor plays five roles in one scene. Ganesan does so during the song "Paattum Naane", where he sings and plays four instruments: the veena, mridangam, flute and jathi. Asked by his biographer, T. S. Narayanawami, about the Tandava he performed in the film, Ganesan replied that he simply learned the movements necessary for the dance and followed the choreographer's instructions. Thiruvilaiyadal was the last film produced by Hameed, who died on 20 May 1965, a few days after filming ended. Neither he nor Nagarajan were credited in the film as producers.
Themes
The film's title is explained in an introductory voiceover. Greeting the audience, it quotes Shiva's literary epic of the same name. According to the narrator (Nagarajan), Shiva does what he does to test the patience of his disciples; the god plays games, which evoke more devotion in the hearts of his worshippers. Therefore, the film's title refers to the games played by Shiva. According to Hari Narayan of The Hindu, Thiruvilaiyadal celebrates the deeds of a god (in this case, Shiva) by depicting miracles performed by him. R. Bharathwaj wrote for The Times of India that the story of the competition between Hemanatha Bhagavathar and Banabathirar is comparable to a contest between Carnatic music composer Shyama Shastri and Kesavvaya, a singer from Bobbili. Sastri had sought divine intervention from the goddess Kamakshi to defeat Kesavayya, mirroring Banabathirar's plea for Shiva's help. Mana Baskaran of Hindu Tamil Thisai notes that the film, despite being a mythological, also depicts contemporary social issues.
Music
K. V. Mahadevan composed the film's soundtrack and score, Kannadasan wrote the song lyrics except for the first portions of "Pazham Neeyappa", which were written by Sankaradas Swamigal. Nagarajan initially wanted Sirkazhi Govindarajan to sing "Oru Naal Podhuma", but he refused and M. Balamuralikrishna sang the song. Each line in the song is from a different raga, including Darbar, Todi, Maand, and Mohanam. "Pazham Neeyappa" is based on three ragas: Darbari Kanada, Shanmukhapriya and Kambhoji. "Isai Thamizh", "Paattum Naane" and "Illadhathondrillai" are based on the Abheri, Gourimanohari and Simhendramadhyamam ragas, respectively. Vikku Vinayakram and Cheena Kutty were the ghatam and mridangam players, respectively, for "Paattum Naane". Subbiah Asari made the Macha Veena seen in "Paattum Naane", and the crew of Thiruvilaiyadal purchased it from him for .
Songs from the album, including "Pazham Neeyappa", "Oru Naal Podhuma", "Isai Thamizh", "Paarthal Pasumaram" and "Paattum Naane", became popular with the Tamil diaspora. Film historian Randor Guy, in his 1997 book Starlight, Starbright: The Early Tamil Cinema, said "Pazham Neeyappa" (performed by Sundarambal) was the "favourite of millions". Singer Charulatha Mani wrote for The Hindu that Sundarambal produced a "pure and pristine depiction" of the Neelambari raga in "Vaasi Vaasi", and praised Balamuralikrishna's rendition of "Oru Naal Podhuma".
Release
Thiruvilaiyadal was released on 31 July 1965, and distributed by Sivaji Films. During a screening at a Madras cinema, several women went into a religious frenzy during a scene with Avvaiyar and Murugan. The film was temporarily suspended so the women could be attended to. According to artist Jeeva, the management of the Raja Theatre built a replica of Mount Kailash to promote Thiruvilaiyadal. A commercial success, the film ran for twenty-five weeks at the Ganesan-owned Shanti Theatre. It also ran for twenty-five weeks at the Crown and Bhuvaneshwari Theatres in Madras and other theatres across South India, becoming a silver jubilee film. It added to Ganesan's string of successful films. At the 13th National Film Awards, Thiruvilaiyadal received the Certificate of Merit for the Second-Best Feature Film in Tamil. It also received the Filmfare Award for Best Film – Tamil.
Reception
Thiruvilayadal was praised by critics. The Tamil magazine Kalki, in a review dated 22 August 1965, considered the film a victory for Tamil cinema. Shanmugam Pillai and Meenakshi Ammal of Ananda Vikatan jointly reviewed the film on the same day. Shanmugam Pillai praised the tandava and said Nagarajan deserved to be appreciated for taking such a long epic and making it into a film. Although Meenakshi Ammal felt it was unnecessary to have a Tamil poet (Dharumi) do comedy, Shanmugam Pillai applauded Nagesh for showing his comic skills even in a mythological. Meenakshi Ammal noted that at a time where social films were dominating Tamil cinema, a mythological like Thiruvilaiyadal was a welcome change and deserved another viewing.
On 7 August 1965, The Indian Express appreciated Nagarajan for treating the four episodes adapted from the Thiruvilayadal Puranam with "due reverence and respect" and chaste Tamil dialogue (a "delight to the ears"). However, the reviewer derided Nagarajan's "unimaginative" handling of the fisherman episode and Ganesan's "awkward" gestures, which turned what would have been a "sublime, divine love story" into a typical "boy-meets-girl affair". They also criticised technical aspects such as "jumpy" shots, the colour scheme, Shiva's fight with the shark and the facial make-up. The reviewer criticised Ganesan for overacting while opining that Savitri had nothing to do, but commended the performances of Sundarambal, Mahalingam, Balaiah, Nagesh, Sarangapani, Muthuraman and Nagarajan.
On 4 September 1965, T. M. Ramachandran wrote for Sport and Pastime, "Both for the devout Hindu and the average movie fan, the picture provides such elements that sustain their interest from beginning to end." He noted that although there were anachronisms such as telephone and telegraph wires visible, "these defects pale into insignificance before the gloss and satisfying impact of the film as a whole on the minds of cinegoers." Ramachandran lauded Ganesan's performance, his tandava, the performances of Savitri, Nagarajan and the other supporting actors, Sundarambal's singing, K. S. Prasad's cinematography and Ganga's art direction.
Re-release
In mid-2012, legal issues arose when attempts were made to digitally re-release the film. G. Vijaya of Vijaya Pictures filed a lawsuit against Gemini Colour Laboratory and Sri Vijayalakshmi Pictures for attempting to re-release the film without her company's permission. In December 1975, Sri Vijayalakshmi Pictures transferred the film rights to Movie Film Circuit; MFC transferred them to Vijaya Pictures on 18 May 1976. Vijaya Pictures approached Gemini to digitise the film for re-release, but Sri Vijayalakshmi Pictures asked laboratory officials not to release the film without their consent. Sri Vijayalakshmi Pictures disputed Vijaya's claim by running an advertisement in a Tamil newspaper on 18 May 2012 saying that it owned the film's rights, and anyone who wanted to exhibit it in a digital format should only do so with their permission. The judge who presided over the case ordered that the status quo be maintained by both parties.
Encouraged by the success of the re-release of Karnan (1964), C. N. Paramasivam (Nagarajan's son and the head of Sri Vijayalakshmi Pictures) found film negatives of Thiruvilayadal in a Gemini Films storage facility. Paramasivam restored the film and re-released it in CinemaScope in September 2012. The digitised version premiered at the Woodlands Theater in Royapettah, Chennai. It received public acclaim and became a commercial success. Producer Ramkumar (Ganesan's son) said about the digitised version, "It was like watching a new film".
Legacy and influence
Thiruvilaiyadal has attained cult status in Tamil cinema. Along with Karnan, it was responsible for a resurgence in devotional and mythological cinema, since it was released at a time when Tamil cinema primarily made social films. Film critic Baradwaj Rangan called Thiruvilaiyadal "the best" Tamil film epic released during the 1960s. Nagarajan and Ganesan collaborated on several more films in the genre, including Saraswathi Sabatham (1966), Thiruvarutchelvar (1967), Kandhan Karunai (1967) and Thirumal Perumai (1968). The film was a milestone of Nagesh's career, and the character of Dharumi is cited as one of his finest roles.
In July 2007, when S. R. Ashok Kumar of The Hindu asked eight notable directors to list ten films they liked the most, C. V. Sridhar and Ameer chose Thiruvilaiyadal. Ameer found the film "imaginative", depicting mythology in "an interesting way", and called it "one of the best films in the annals of Tamil cinema." After Nagesh's death in 2009, Thiruvilaiyadal ranked fifth on the Sify list of "10 Best Films of late Nagesh"; according to its entry, the actor "was at his comic best in this film". Thiruvilaiyadal is included with other Sivaji Ganesan films in 8th Ulaga Adhisayam Sivaji, a compilation DVD with Ganesan's "iconic performances in the form of scenes, songs and stunts" which was released in May 2012.
The film has been parodied and referenced in cinema, television and theatre. Notable films alluding to Thiruvilaiyadal include Poove Unakkaga (1996), Mahaprabhu (1996), Kaathala Kaathala (1998), Vanna Thamizh Pattu (2000), Middle Class Madhavan (2001), Kamarasu (2002), Kanthaswamy (2009) and Oru Kal Oru Kannadi (2012). In his review of Oru Kanniyum Moonu Kalavaanikalum (2014), Baradwaj Rangan noted that the use of touchscreen human facial icons on mobile apps was a "Thiruvilaiyadal-like framing device". The Star Vijay comedy series Lollu Sabha parodied the film twice: in an episode of the same name, and in a contemporary version titled Naveena Thiruvilayaadal.
After T. M. Soundararajan's death in May 2013, M. Ramesh of Business Line wrote: "The unforgettable sequences from ... [Thiruvilaiyadal] ... have forever divided the world of Tamil music lovers in two: those who believe that the [Oru Naal Podhuma] of the swollen-headed Hemanatha Bhagavathar could not be bested, and those who believe that Lord Shiva's Paattum Naane Bhavamum Naane won the debate hands down". The character of Dharumi was parodied in Iruttula Thedatheenga, a play staged in November 2013. In a January 2015 interview with The Times of India, playwright Y. G. Mahendran said: "Most character artists today lack variety [...] Show me one actor in India currently who can do a [Veerapandiya] Kattabomman, a VOC, a Vietnam Veedu, a Galatta Kalyanam and a ." After Manorama's death in October 2015, Thiruvilaiyadal was ranked eighth on The New Indian Express list of top movies featuring the actress.
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
1960s Tamil-language films
1965 films
Films about reincarnation
Films about royalty
Films about shapeshifting
Films directed by A. P. Nagarajan
Films scored by K. V. Mahadevan
Films with screenplays by A. P. Nagarajan
Hindu mythological films
Indian dance films
Indian epic films
Indian nonlinear narrative films
Religious epic films
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